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= Architecture of Norway =
The architecture of Norway has evolved in response to changing economic conditions , technological advances , demographic fluctuations and cultural shifts . While outside architectural influences are apparent in much of Norwegian architecture , they have often been adapted to meet Norwegian climatic conditions , including : harsh winters , high winds and , in coastal areas , salt spray .
Norway 's architectural trends are also seen to parallel political and societal changes in Norway over the centuries . Prior to the Viking Age , wooden structures developed into a sophisticated craft evident in the elegant and effective construction of the Viking longships . Following that , the ascent of Christianity introduced Romanesque architecture in cathedrals and churches , with characteristically slightly pointed arches , barrel vaults , cruciform piers supporting vaults , and groin vaults ; in large part as a result of religious influence from England .
During the Middle Ages , the geography dictated a dispersed economy and population . As a result , the traditional Norwegian farm culture remained strong , and Norway differed from most European countries in never adopting feudalism . This , combined with the ready availability of wood as a building material , ensured that relatively few examples of the Baroque , Renaissance , and Rococo architecture styles so often built by the ruling classes elsewhere in Europe , were constructed in Norway .
Instead , these factors resulted in distinctive traditions in Norwegian vernacular architecture , which have been preserved in existing farms in the many Norwegian open @-@ air museums that showcase buildings from the Middle Ages through to the 19th century ; prominent examples include the Norsk Folkemuseum in Oslo and Maihaugen in Lillehammer , as well as extant buildings still in service on farms such as those in the Heidal valley .
In the 20th century , Norwegian architecture has been characterized by its connection with Norwegian social policy on the one hand , and innovation on the other . Norwegian architects have been recognized for their work , both within Norway — where architecture has been considered an expression of social policy — and outside Norway , in several innovative projects .
= = History = =
Construction in Norway has always been characterized by the need to shelter people , animals , and property from harsh weather , including predictably cold winters and frost , heavy precipitation in certain areas , wind and storms ; and to make the most of scarce building resources . Until modern times , transportation infrastructure was also primitive , and builders largely had to rely on locally available materials .
= = = Pre @-@ historic times = = =
The earliest traces of human habitation in Norway are dated to about 9000 BC , in mountainous regions near Store Myrvatn in contemporary Rogaland , where excavations have found portable dwellings most likely kept by nomadic reindeer hunters . Traces of such tents have also been found other places along the western coast ; at Fosenstraumen near Radøy in Hordaland archeological evidence indicates that tents in use at about 6500 BC were of similar design to those still in use by the Sami nomads
Over time , such tents became semi @-@ permanent through the introduction of a simple foundation . Traces of these can be found at the Vega archipelago , an area that is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
The first permanent dwellings were probably built between 3000 and 2000 BC , with the introduction of agriculture to Norway . Available evidence indicates that wood was the most used building material for these structures . Iron Age dwellings typically combined shelter for animals and humans in long houses in order to preserve heat . Remains of structures from the Stone Age through the Bronze Age and the Iron Age have been excavated at Forsand in Ryfylke , near Stavanger and several other locations . Most prehistoric long houses had pairs of roof @-@ bearing posts dividing the interior into three naves , and walls of palisades , wattle and daub or turf . Similar buildings have been excavated all over Northwestern Europe .
= = = Viking and medieval eras = = =
Two distinctive timber building traditions found their confluence in Norwegian architecture . One was the practice of log building with horizontal logs notched at the corners , a technique thought to have been imported from the peoples to the east of Scandinavia . The other was the stave building tradition ( typically found in stave churches ) , possibly based on improvements on the prehistoric long houses that had roof @-@ bearing posts dug into the ground . Although there is scant archaeological evidence of actual buildings from the earliest permanent structures , finds of Viking ships ( e.g. , the Oseberg ship ) suggest significant mastery of woodworking and engineering . In the Lofoten archipelago in Northern Norway , a Viking chieftain 's holding has been reconstructed at the Lofotr Viking Museum .
Not counting the 28 remaining stave churches , at least 250 wooden houses predating the Black Death in 1350 are preserved more or less intact in Norway . Most of these are log houses , some with added stave @-@ built galleries or porches .
As the political power in Norway was consolidated and had to contend with external threats , larger structures were built in accordance with military technology at the time . Fortresses , bridges , and ultimately churches and manors were built with stone and masonry . These structures followed the European styles of their time .
= = = = Stave churches = = = =
Possibly more than 1000 stave churches were built in Norway during the Middle Ages , most of them during the 12th and 13th centuries . Until the beginning of the 19th century , as many as 150 stave churches still existed . Many were destroyed as part of a religious movement that favored simple , puritan lines , and today only 28 remain , though a large number were documented and recorded by measured drawings before they were demolished .
The stave churches owe their longevity to architectural innovations that protected these large , complex wooden structures against water rot , precipitation , wind , and extreme temperatures . Most important was the introduction of massive sills underneath the staves ( posts ) to prevent them from rotting . Over the two centuries of stave church construction , this building type evolved to an advanced art and science . After the Reformation , however , no new stave churches were built . New churches were mainly of stone or horizontal log buildings with notched corners . Most old stave churches disappeared because of redundancy , neglect or deterioration , or because they were too small to accommodate larger congregations , and too impractical according to later standards .
= = = = Romanesque architecture = = = =
The first stone churches in Norway were Romanesque , built under the influence of Anglo @-@ Saxon missionaries , particularly bishop Nicholas Breakspear . Later churches were influenced by Continental architecture . Examples include the churches at Ringsaker , Kviteseid , and elsewhere . Many of these churches have either been lost or rebuilt in the Gothic style , but numerous examples still exist , notably the Trondenes Churchat Trondenesin Troms .
= = = = Gothic architecture = = = =
Several churches that were originally built as Romanesque structures were modified or extended during the Gothic period . Among these are the cathedral of Hamar , now in ruins , the Stavanger Cathedral , and the renowned Nidaros Cathedral , one of the most important pilgrim destinations in medieval Europe .
= = = Under Danish rule = = =
In the late Middle Ages , the Norwegian state was severely weakened . In 1389 Norway entered into a personal union with Denmark and Sweden in the Kalmar Union . As the kings resided in Denmark , Norway was gradually reduced to a provincial status , and after the Reformation most of its separate institutions were abolished . The Danish government in Copenhagen regarded Norway as a backward province to be exploited , but not worthy of investment in monumental architecture . Hence , ambitious Renaissance architecture is unusual in Norway compared to other European countries .
Fortresses , such as Akershus in Oslo , Vardøhus in Vardø , Tønsberghus in Tønsberg , the Kongsgården in Trondheim and Bergenhus with the Rosenkrantz Tower in Bergen were built in stone in accordance with standards for defensive fortifications of their time . Many of these were modernized and rebuilt through the years .
The Hanseatic League also built unique commercial buildings at Bryggen in Bergen , starting in the 16th century . They were log buildings combining native and German traditions .
= = = = Renaissance architecture = = = =
After the Black Death , monumental construction in Norway came to a standstill , except for vernacular building , only to be resumed in the 16th and 17th centuries under Danish administration . There are few examples of Renaissance architecture in Norway , the most prominent being the Rosenkrantz Tower in Bergen , Barony Rosendal in Hardanger , and the contemporary Austråt manor near Trondheim , and parts of Akershus Fortress .
Christian IV undertook a number of projects in Norway that were largely based on Renaissance architecture He established mining operations in Kongsberg and Røros , now a World Heritage Site . After a devastating fire in 1624 , the town of Oslo was moved to a new location and rebuilt as a fortified city with an orthogonal layout surrounded by ramparts , and renamed Christiania . King Christian also founded the trading city of Kristiansand , naming it after himself .
= = = = Baroque architecture = = = =
As Norway became a strategic part of the Danish @-@ Norwegian kingdom , Danish kings built fortifications along borders and the seacoast . Over time , many of the fortifications at border areas and ports were modernized in line with Baroque military practice .
Although most residences were built according to local vernacular traditions , some manors ( such as Austråt and Rosendal ) exhibit the influence of Baroque architecture . Only the city of Christiania ( Oslo ) had a building code that prohibited wooden houses , and a number of large town houses modeled after Continental building types were constructed . Some large churches were constructed with brick walls , notably in Bergen , Christiania , Røros and Kongsberg .
Probably the most famous Baroque structure in Norway is Stiftsgården , the Royal residence in Trondheim , a residential building that is one of the largest wooden structure in Northern Europe .
= = = = Rococo architecture = = = =
Rococo provided a brief but significant interlude in Norway , appearing primarily in the decorative arts , and mainly in interiors , furniture and luxury articles such as table silver , glass and stoneware . In some country districts folk artists produced the distinctly Norwegian craft of decorative painting , rosemaling , and related wood carving style . In polite architecture , a few wooden town houses and manors show rococo influence , notably in Trondheim and Bergen , Damsgård Manor in Bergen being the most significant .
In towns and central country districts during the 18th century , log walls were increasingly covered by weatherboards , a fashion made possible by sawmill technology . These buildings were better insulated and better protected against the harsh climate . But the main reason for the rapid adoption of this custom was the more fashionable appearance of boarded walls , which were more suitable than bare log walls as a background to details and ornaments borrowed from classical architecture .
= = = 19th century = = =
The Napoleonic Wars led to the separation of Norway and Denmark . Norway was restored in 1814 as an autonomous kingdom in a personal union with Sweden . The two states had separate institutions , except for the king and the foreign service . Regained statehood required new public buildings , mainly in the capital of Christiania . During the following century , the country experienced an impressive growth in wealth and population , resulting in a need for new infrastructure and buildings .
= = = = Neo @-@ classicism = = = =
At the dawn of the 19th century , less than a handful of academically trained architects were active in Norway , most of them military officers having studied civil engineering . The market for architects was limited in a sparsely inhabited country with no capital city , no court and no important government institutions . Architecture was of interest mainly to a limited group of wealthy merchants and landowners . However , toward the close of the previous century , this group saw a remarkable increase in prosperity . Large fortunes were made by a few , who then sought to surround themselves with buildings and gardens appropriate to their social position . Well connected internationally , these people were acquainted with the latest trends in architecture . Neoclassical structures were much in demand .
Architect Carl Frederik Stanley ( 1769 – 1805 ) , educated in Copenhagen , spent some years in Norway around the turn of the 19th century . He did minor works for wealthy patrons in and around Oslo , but his major achievement was the renovation of the only seat of higher education in Christiania , the Oslo Katedralskole , completed in 1800 . He added a classical portico to the front of an older structure , and a semi @-@ circular auditorium that was sequestered by Parliament in 1814 as a temporary place to assemble , now preserved at Norsk Folkemuseum as a national monument .
Christian Collett ( 1771 – 1833 ) , a graduate of the Mining Academy at Kongsberg , designed the splendid Ulefoss manor , built between 1802 and 1807 by sawmill owner Niels Aall . This is one of the few brick houses in Norway , boasting a palladian layout , a central cupola , and a classical colonnade . Collett designed several other manors and town houses .
The same period saw the erection of a large number of splendid neo @-@ classisist houses in and around all towns along the coast , notably in Halden , Oslo , Drammen , Arendal , Bergen and Trondheim , mainly wooden buildings dressed up as stone architecture . By far the largest private house in Norway is the Jarlsberg manor , renovated 1812 @-@ 1814 by the Danish architect Løser for count Herman Wedel @-@ Jarlsberg .
Christiania , promoted to the status of a capital city in 1814 , had practically no buildings suitable for the many new government institutions . An ambitious building program was initiated , but realised very slowly because of a strained economy . The first major undertaking was the Royal Palace , designed by Hans Linstow and built between 1824 and 1848 . Linstow also planned Karl Johans gate , the avenue connecting the Palace and the city , with a monumental square halfway to be surrounded by buildings for the University , the Parliament ( Storting ) and other institutions . But only the University buildings were realised according to this plan . Christian Heinrich Grosch , one of the first fully educated architects in Norway , designed the original building for the Oslo Stock Exchange ( 1826 – 1828 ) , the local branch of the Bank of Norway ( 1828 ) , Christiania Theatre ( 1836 – 1837 ) , and the first campus for the University of Oslo ( 1841 – 1856 ) . For the University buildings , he sought the assistance of the renowned German architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel .
The German architectural influence persisted in Norway , and many wooden buildings followed the principles of Neoclassicism .
= = = = Romanticism and historicism = = = =
Norwegian romantic nationalism also had an influence on Norwegian architecture from around 1840 . Following the German lead , many classicist architects designed red @-@ brick buildings in a revival of medieval styles . Romanesque and Gothic examples were considered eminently suitable for churches , public institutions and factories . Linstow was the first Norwegian architect to be inspired by the Middle Ages in his proposal of 1837 for a square to be surrounded by public building , bisected by an avenue between Christiania and the new Royal Palace . On the north side , planned buildings for the University were to be " composed in some Medieval or Florentine style " , with exposed brick @-@ work . His classicist colleague Grosch was the first to convert to historicism and realize a number of red @-@ brick buildings , after his 1838 visit to Berlin , where he met the famous architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel . The first major historicist work by Grosch was the neo @-@ romanesque Bazaars and the adjacent firestation near the Oslo Cathedral , begun in 1840 and extended in several stages until 1859 . Other architects followed , notably Heinrich Ernst Schirmer with the Botsfengselet ( penitentiary ) ( 1844 – 1851 ) , the Gaustad Hospital ( 1844 – 1855 ) and the Railway Station ( 1854 ) ( with von Hanno ) . Also in Oslo , the German architect Alexis de Chateauneuf ( 1799 @-@ 1853 ) designed Trefoldighetskirken , the first neo @-@ gothic church , completed by von Hanno in 1858 .
Most urban apartment buildings and villas continued to be built in the classical tradition , with plastered brick walls . The repertoire of historic styles was expanded in Homansbyen , Oslo 's first residential development of detached villas , planned by Georg Andreas Bull . He designed most of the early villas built from 1858 until 1862 in a variety of styles , ranging from medieval to classicist and exotic .
From around 1840 , architects started to design wooden buildings in a new style , the so @-@ called Swiss chalet style . The style and its name originated in Germany , where Swiss popular culture was much admired by the romanticists . Elements such as projecting roofs , verandas and emphasis on gables were inspired from Alpine vernacular buildings . But the style may more correctly be termed historicism in wood , a term introduced by Jens Christian Eldal . A number of residential , institutional , and commercial buildings were built in this style , characterized by ornate , projecting details . Railway stations and churches , designed by trained architects , were distributed all in rural districts and helped to make this style popular and to keep it alive in the vernacular tradition long after it went out of fashion among architects .
The Swiss chalet style evolved into a Scandinavian variation , known in Norway as the " dragon style ” , which combined motifs from Viking and medieval art with vernacular elements from the more recent past . The most renowned practitioner of this style was the architect Holm Hansen Munthe , who designed a number of tourist resorts , exhibition pavilions and churches in the 1880s and 1890s . These caught the eye of the German emperor Wilhelm II , who visited Norway annually . He commissioned Munthe to design his " Matrosenstation " near Potsdam and a hunting lodge with at " stave church " in Rominten in East Prussia . These last buildings were destroyed during World War II .
Architects abandoned both the " Swiss " and the " dragon " styles shortly after 1900 , but elements of the " Swiss style " survived in vernacular buildings for some decades . In the recent past , producers of pre @-@ fabricated family homes have increasingly reintroduced motifs from the " Swiss " style in their repertoire .
= = = Vernacular Architecture = = =
Until the 20th century , most Norwegians lived and worked in buildings that were designed and built according to vernacular building traditions , what in Norwegian is known as byggeskikk . These practices varied somewhat by region and climatic conditions and evolved over time , but were largely based on use of wood and other locally available resources .
Since the Middle Ages , most dwellings were log houses with notched corners , carefully crafted to ensure protection against the elements . Centrally placed open @-@ hearth fires with smoke vents in the roofs gave way to stone stoves and chimneys in early modern times . Specialized buildings became commonplace , organized around farmyards or gårdstun . The introduction of exterior boarding ( weatherboarding ) in the 18th century improved housing standards considerably and gave rise to larger houses .
Building practices along the coast also included boathouses , fishing cottages , piers , etc . Here , houses for livestock and people were typically built up from the actual shoreline . A typical medium @-@ sized farm in the inland of Norway would include a dwelling house ( våningshus ) , hay barn ( låve ) , livestock barn ( fjøs ) , one or more food storage houses ( stabbur ) , a stable , and occasionally separate houses for poultry , pigs , etc . Houses that had separate heat sources , e.g. , washing houses ( eldhus ) and smithies were usually kept separate from the other houses to prevent fires . Outhouses were typically separate , small structures . If the farm housed craftsmen , there would also be separate houses for carpentry , wheel making , shoemaking , etc .
In Eastern inland Norway and Trøndelag , the houses around a tun were typically organized in a square ( firkanttun ) ; in Gudbrandsdal , there was a distinction between inntun ( inner tun ) and uttun ( outer tun ) . The configuration of houses also depended on whether the farm was situated on a hill or in flatter terrain .
Depending upon the size and economic well @-@ being of the farm , there might also be a feast hall ( oppstue ) , a house for the retired farmers ( føderådstue ) , farm hands ' dormitory ( drengstue ) , carriage house ( vognskjul ) , and even distillery ( brenneskur ) . Smaller , poorer farms might combine barns and dwelling houses , have simpler storage areas , and use the facilities of other farms for activities they could not afford to build houses for .
Building traditions varied by region and type of structure . Food storage houses - stabbur - were usually built on stilts in ways that made it difficult for mice and rats , but not cats , to get in . Exterior cladding varied by region , often to take into account local climate conditions . Roofs were often covered with birch bark and sod .
Many places in Norway farms also maintained mountain farms ( seter / støl ) , where cows , goats , and sheep would put out to pasture during the summer months . These would typically include a small dwelling house and a dairy for making and storing cheese , sour cream , etc .
Modern Norwegian farms often maintain many building traditions but no longer need the many and varied buildings of the past . However , many of the traditions have been carried on in more recently built vacation cabins in the mountains and along the coast .
= = = 20th @-@ century architecture = = =
The German influence brought into Norway by neo @-@ classicism abated when Norway gained full independence in 1905 . A new generation of Norwegian architects educated in Sweden took the lead in developing a distinctly national architecture , endeavouring to break the German historicist tradition . However , German modernism and town planning continued to influence early 20th @-@ century architecture . As the Norwegian Institute of Technology was founded in 1910 and began to teach architecture in Trondheim , there also emerged a distinctly Norwegian collegium of architects that has contributed to a Norwegian regional architecture , discussed by the art historian Sigfried Giedeon .
= = = = Art nouveau architecture = = = =
The Jugendstil , a variant of Art Nouveau , had a certain influence on much of the new construction in Norway around the turn of the 20th century . The city of Ålesund , after burning to the ground in 1904 , was rebuilt almost entirely in this style and continues to be a prominent example , along with Riga and Brussels . Trondheim also has numerous art nouveau buildings . In the capital Oslo , few art nouveau buildings were erected , due to a local economic crisis and a stagnant building trade during the first decade of the century . However , some public buildings were constructed in this style , such as the Historical Museum and the Government office building . In Bergen , the main theatre Den Nationale Scene is a monumental example .
= = = = Mass residential architecture = = = =
Changing demographics and a growing social awareness led to increased political and architectural interest in providing cost @-@ effective , sanitary , and comfortable residential space to the growing urban population in general and the working class in particular . This was known as boligsaken ( " the housing cause " ) in Norwegian popular culture and continues to play a role to this day .
Architecture became a tool for and manifestation of social policy , with architects and politicians determining just what features were adequate for the intended residents of housing projects . As late as in 1922 , there were many who felt that working @-@ class families had no need for their own bath ; apartments and small houses only included a small kitchen and one or two rooms .
Before World War II , a number of cooperative investment projects known as " egne hjem " ( roughly " our own homes " ) resulted in a handful of developments , but after the war these gave way to cooperative organizations that were formed to finance and build large @-@ scale residential complexes . The largest-- Oslo Bolig og Sparelag , known as OBOS — built its first complex Etterstad in Oslo , but there were similar initiatives throughout the country . These co @-@ ops set standards for housing , hired architects to design solutions , and contracted to have them built . Entire sections , known as drabantbyer - or " satellite cities " - were built in the outskirts of major cities . The first of these - Lambertseter - introduced an entirely new phenomenon in the eastern areas of Oslo such as in Groruddalen , but similar areas also emerged in Bergen , Trondheim , and other cities . The apex of this trend was reached in 1966 with the massive buildings in Ammerudlia .
This era — which had spent most of its force by the mid @-@ 1970s — led to an increased awareness of the physical and emotional needs of city dwellers . Some of the issues under debate were .
Kitchen - traditional Norwegian homes combined the family room and kitchen , but in early apartment buildings , small , so @-@ called " laboratory kitchens " were popular . Over time , eat @-@ in @-@ kitchens took their place .
Natural light--large apartment buildings were oriented to provide sunlight to the residents , ideally orienting the kitchen toward the east to get the morning light and the living room to the west for evening light .
Privacy--providing separate sleeping quarters for parents and children , and among children led to larger apartments over time . Similarly , most buildings had a limited number of apartments adjoining each staircase .
Alienation - monolithic , homogenous apartment complexes reinforced what some characterized as " social democracy 's hell . "
The perceived shortcomings of the mass housing movement led to efforts to create cost @-@ effective housing solutions that were more varied , more integrated with natural surroundings , and above all more customized to families ' needs . In 1973 , the Parliament of Norway recommended a shift toward small residential houses rather than large apartment buildings . The Norwegian State Housing Bank ( Husbanken ) provided citizens with the ability to fund construction of their homes , and an entire construction industry formed to build these needs .
As a result of the pioneering efforts by Olav Selvaag and others , archaic and otherwise unnecessary restrictions were relaxed , improving opportunities for more Norwegians to build housing to suit their individual needs and preferences . Norwegians often undertake home improvement projects on their own , and many have built most of their own homes .
= = = = Functionalism = = = =
In the late 1920s , Modernism ( or the International style ) was taken up by Scandinavian architects . In Scandinavia this architectural trend was called Functionalism ( or colloquially in Sweden and Norway " funkis " ) . Modernism found many adherents among young architects , especially in Norway . Its definite breakthrough was the Stockholm Exhibition in 1930 , after which the majority of architects all over Scandinavia converted to the modern movement . Nowhere else did Modernism become so firmly established as the mainstream trend in architecture . It maintained its dominant position until about 1940 .
A number of landmark structures , particularly in Oslo , were built in the functionalist style , the first one being the Skansen restaurant ( 1925 – 1927 ) by Lars Backer , demolished in 1970 . Backer also designed the restaurant at Ekeberg , opened in 1929 . The art gallery Kunstnernes Hus by Gudolf Blakstad and Herman Munthe @-@ Kaas ( 1930 ) still shows influence from the preceding classicist trend of the 1920s . Hvalstrand bath ( 1934 ) is one of several public seaside bath facilities in Norway , by André Peters . A year before , Ingierstrand Bad was designed by Ole Lind Schistad ( 1891 @-@ 1979 ) and Eivind Moestue ( 1893 -1977 ) . Other great names of Norwegian functionalist architecture are Ove Bang , Fridtjof Reppen , Nicolai Beer ( 1885 @-@ 1950 ) and Per Grieg ( 1897 @-@ 1962 ) .
= = = = Reconstruction architecture = = = =
Following the scorched earth tactics of retreating Wehrmacht troops , large areas in Northern Norway needed to be rebuilt . In 1945 , there was an overwhelming need for housing . An architectural competition produced several designs for simple , cost @-@ effective , and rapidly assembled housing . The resulting houses were Spartan and broke with building standards , but met an immediate need for shelter .
The Museum of Reconstruction in Hammerfest is dedicated to the reconstruction .
= = = = Government @-@ sponsored architecture = = = =
As Norway gained full independence in 1905 , the national government determined to establish institutions consistent with the newly formed state 's ambitions as a modern society . The first prime minister made it a priority to modernize the Royal Palace in Oslo , building among other things , some of the country 's first water toilets , providing hot and cold water , and granting the Royal Family 's wish of providing a common apartment for the king , queen , and their son .
In the early years , such public works were limited to structures needed for the national government 's own administrative needs , but an increasing number of large @-@ scale projects were conceived , designed , and completed since 1905 to meet various needs , such as :
Public health and welfare , including :
Hospital complexes and polyclinical facilities , e.g. , Rikshospitalet , Haukeland University Hospital , Gaustad Hospital , etc .
Orphanages , later vacated in favor of other solutions that in turn required their own architecture .
Sanatoria , also vacated as the public health problem of tuberculosis was solved
Temporary and provisional housing for the indigent , asylum seekers , and homeless .
Sports and recreation facilities . Social policy in Norway both at the national and local level has emphasized the connection between athletics at the mass and elite levels , and athletic centers have typically been built both to accommodate spectators , participants , and training . As an example , the Holmenkollen ski jump has been rebuilt several times , the Bislett Stadion was rebuilt in 2004 @-@ 2005 , and virtually every municipality has built year @-@ round facilities .
Centers for cultural expression . Some of the most ambitious and controversial structures have been those dedicated to performing arts , art museums , and any combination of such activities . Since many of these have been built in cities with an architectural legacy , their designs have sought — more or less successfully — to complement the urban landscape by giving it a modern element . Examples include the Henie @-@ Onstad Art Centre ( by Jon Eikvar and Sven Erik Engebretsen ) , Chateau Neuf by Lund & Slaatto , the " barn " at Hedmarkmuseet by Sverre Fehn , and the Grieg Hall ( by Knud Munk ) .
Churches . The Norwegian State Church , holding the legacy of nearly one thousand years of Norwegian church architecture , commissioned new churches that covered a wide range of architectural styles , including entirely new designs ( e.g. the Arctic Cathedral by Jan Inge Hovig ) to new casts of traditional designs ( e.g. , Veldre church , by Roar Jacobsen and Ulf Zettersten . )
Transportation infrastructure , including bridges , tunnels , and most notably transit centers for rail , sea , and air transportation . Oslo airport ( by the Aviaplan consortium at Gardermoen ) was Norway 's largest construction project ever .
The architectural designs of these projects have reflected not only the style currents of their time , but the societal debate over the purpose they were intended to serve . Nationalistic ambitions early on gave way to austere designs based on functionalism , and then to designs that emphasized human and ecological needs . To a great extent , Norwegian architects have found the opportunity to develop their signature styles through these projects , and thereby also a Norwegian architectural dialect .
Many of the projects have been controversial , and the resulting creative tension has probably served to advance the state of architectural arts in Norway . National and local governments and governmental institutions will continue to be among the largest customers of architects in coming years .
= = Contemporary themes = =
A number of trends influence contemporary architecture in Norway , among them :
Growing public and private affluence . Buildings have a wider range of purpose , and are expected to meet increasingly complex demands . For example , the new opera building ( designed by Snøhetta ) in Oslo reflects an ambition not just to build a vibrant cultural center , but also to create a new architectural icon in the Oslofjord .
Aesthetics as a factor of well @-@ being . From the early austere principle that form should strictly follow function , there is a growing sensibility that aesthetics affect the physical and emotional health of those who use a building or structure . Norwegian laws concerning occupational health have for several decades emphasized access to daylight and fresh air , and it may also be that harsh climatic conditions create an added imperative for uplifting aesthetics .
Environmental concerns . In addition to concerns about air and water pollution , Norwegian architectural design has also emphasized integration with the natural landscape . More recently , architects have also worked with engineers to make the most out of scarce resources , e.g. , energy , water , etc .
Demographic diversity . Norwegian demographics have undergone significant changes the last few decades , resulting in new religious buildings
Norwegian building traditions . While it may be too much to speak of a renaissance in traditional Norwegian architecture , more and more urban planning is affected by the need to preserve or restore these traditions . Examples include plans to renew the center of Oppdal and recent work at the Oslo neighborhood of Grünerløkka .
A number of architectural prizes are awarded in Norway , including Houens fonds diplom , Treprisen , Statens byggeskikkpris , Sundts premie , Betongelementprisen , Betongtavlen , Glassprisen , Murverksprisen , Stenprisen , and Stålkonstruksjonsprisen .
= = = Books = = =
Gunnarsjaa , Arne ( 2006 ) . Norges arkitekturhistorie ( in Norwegian Bokmål ) . Oslo : Abstrakt . ISBN 978 @-@ 82 @-@ 7935 @-@ 127 @-@ 6 .
Grønvold , Ulf ( 2005 ) . Hundre års nasjonsbygging - arkitektur og samfunn , 1905 @-@ 2005 ( in Norwegian ) . Oslo : Pax forlag . ISBN 82 @-@ 530 @-@ 2758 @-@ 3 .
Brekke , Nils Georg ; Per Jonas Nordhagen ; Siri Skjold Lexau ( 2003 ) . Norsk arkitekturhistorie - frå steinalder og bronsealder til 21 @.@ hundreåret ( in Norwegian Nynorsk ) . Oslo : Det Norske Samlaget . ISBN 82 @-@ 521 @-@ 5748 @-@ 3 .
( Norwegian ) Brochmann , Odd ( 1979 ) . Bygget i Norge . En arkitekturhistorisk beretning ( in Norwegian Bokmål ) . Oslo : Gyldendal . ISBN 82 @-@ 05 @-@ 12328 @-@ 4 .
Bjørn Myhre , Bjarne Stoklund , Per Gjærder : Vestnordisk byggeskikk gjennom 2000 år . Tradisjon og forandring fra romertiden til 19 @.@ århundre . AmS skrifter nummer 7 , Stavanger
Eilert Sundt : Om bygningsskikken på landet i Norge . 1862 .
Christian Norberg @-@ Schulz : Modern Norwegian Architecture . 1986 . Oslo . Scandinavian University Press . ISBN 82 @-@ 00 @-@ 07696 @-@ 2
Christian Norberg @-@ Schulz : Stedskunst . 1995 . Oslo . Gyldendal . ISBN 82 @-@ 05 @-@ 23502 @-@ 3
Ole Daniel Bruun : Arkitektur i Oslo . 1999 . Oslo . Kunnskapsforlaget . ISBN 978 @-@ 82 @-@ 573 @-@ 0948 @-@ 0
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= Toronto Raptors =
The Toronto Raptors are a Canadian professional basketball team based in Toronto , Ontario . The Raptors compete in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , as a member of the league 's Eastern Conference Atlantic Division . The team was established in 1995 , along with the Vancouver Grizzlies , as part of the NBA 's expansion into Canada . When the Grizzlies relocated to Memphis , Tennessee to become the Memphis Grizzlies in 2001 , the Raptors became the only Canadian @-@ based team in the NBA . They originally played their home games at the SkyDome ( since renamed Rogers Centre in 2005 ) , before moving eastward along Bremner Boulevard to the Air Canada Centre in 1999 .
Like most expansion teams , the Raptors struggled in their early years , but after the acquisition of Vince Carter through a draft day trade in 1998 , the team set league @-@ attendance records and made the NBA playoffs in 2000 , 2001 , and 2002 . Carter was instrumental in leading the team to a then @-@ franchise high 47 wins and their first playoff series win in 2001 , where they advanced to the Eastern Conference semifinals . During the 2002 – 03 and 2003 – 04 seasons , they failed to make significant progress and he was traded in 2004 to the New Jersey Nets .
After Carter left , Chris Bosh emerged as the team leader . In 2006 – 07 , Bryan Colangelo 's first full season as President and General Manager , a combination of Bosh , 2006 first overall NBA draft pick Andrea Bargnani and a revamp of the roster helped the Raptors qualify for their first playoff berth in five years , capturing the Atlantic Division title with 47 wins . In the 2007 – 08 season , they advanced to the playoffs again , but failed to make the playoffs in each of the next five seasons . In a bid to persuade Bosh to stay , Colangelo overhauled the team roster for the 2009 – 10 season , but Bosh signed with the Miami Heat in July 2010 , ushering in yet another era of rebuilding for the Raptors .
After Masai Ujiri was brought in as the new General Manager in 2013 , he traded Bargnani to the New York Knicks . With a backcourt led by Kyle Lowry and DeMar DeRozan , the Raptors returned to the playoffs , won their second Atlantic Division title , and won a then @-@ franchise record 48 games in the 2013 – 14 season . However , they failed for a fourth consecutive time to advance beyond the first round of the playoffs . In the 2014 – 15 season , they won a then @-@ franchise record 49 games , but failed for a second consecutive year to advance past the first round of the playoffs , getting swept by the Washington Wizards , 4 – 0 . In the 2015 – 16 season , they won a franchise record 56 games , finishing in second place in the conference for the first time in franchise history . In the playoffs , they won their first playoff series since 2001 by defeating both the Indiana Pacers and Miami Heat , advancing to the Conference Finals for the first time against the Cleveland Cavaliers , only for the Raptors to lose to the eventual NBA champions in six games .
= = Franchise history = =
= = = Creation = = =
The Toronto Raptors were established on November 4 , 1993 , when the NBA , as part of its expansion into Canada , awarded its 28th franchise to a group headed by Toronto businessman John Bitove for a then @-@ record expansion fee of $ 125 million US . Bitove and Allan Slaight of Slaight Communications each owned 44 % , with the Bank of Nova Scotia ( 10 % ) , David Peterson ( 1 % ) , and Phil Granovsky ( 1 % ) being minority partners . Wagering on NBA games in Ontario nearly cost Toronto the expansion franchise , due to strict league rules at the time that prohibited gambling . However , an agreement was reached whereby the provincial lottery corporation agreed to stop offering wagering on all NBA games in exchange for a donation by the Raptors of $ 5 million in its first three years and $ 1 million annually afterwards to its charitable foundation to compensate the provincial lottery corporation for its loss of revenue . The Raptors , along with the Vancouver Grizzlies , played their first game in 1995 , and were the first NBA teams based in Canada since the 1946 – 47 Toronto Huskies , though the Buffalo Braves had played a total of 16 regular season games at Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto from 1971 to 1975 .
Initial sentiment was in favour of reviving the Huskies nickname , but team management realized it would be nearly impossible to design a logo that did not substantially resemble that of the Minnesota Timberwolves . As a result , a nationwide contest was held to help name the team and develop their colours and logo . Over 2 @,@ 000 entries were narrowed down to ten prospects : Beavers , Bobcats , Dragons , Grizzlies , Hogs , Raptors , Scorpions , T @-@ Rex , Tarantulas , and Terriers . The final selection — Toronto Raptors — was unveiled on Canadian national television on May 15 , 1994 : the choice was influenced by the popularity of the 1993 film adaption of the 1990 science fiction novel Jurassic Park by Michael Crichton . The name " Raptor " is a common informal name for the velociraptor , a swift medium @-@ sized dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur . On May 24 , 1994 , the team 's logo and first General Manager , Isiah Thomas were revealed at a press conference . As part of the deal , Thomas received an option to purchase part of the team , reportedly for under market value . He would purchase 4 @.@ 5 % in May 1995 and a further 4 @.@ 5 % in December 1995 , half each from Bitove and Slaight , decreasing their share to 39 @.@ 5 % . The team 's colours of bright red , purple , black , and silver were also revealed ; " Naismith " silver was chosen as an ode to Canadian James Naismith , the inventor of basketball . The team originally competed in the Central Division , and before the inaugural season began , sales of Raptors merchandise ranked seventh in the league , marking a successful return of professional basketball to Canada .
As General Manager , Isiah Thomas quickly staffed the management positions with his own personnel , naming long @-@ time Detroit Pistons assistant Brendan Malone as the Raptors ' head coach . The team 's roster was then filled as a result of an expansion draft in 1995 . Following a coin flip , Toronto was given first choice and selected Chicago Bulls point guard and three @-@ point specialist B. J. Armstrong . Armstrong refused to report for training and Thomas promptly traded him to the Golden State Warriors for power forwards Carlos Rogers and Victor Alexander . Thomas then selected a wide range of players in the expansion draft , including veterans Jerome Kersey , Willie Anderson and his former Pistons teammate John Salley .
Subsequent to the expansion draft , the Raptors landed the seventh pick in the NBA draft lottery , behind their fellow 1995 expansion club , the Vancouver Grizzlies . Thomas selected Damon Stoudamire , a point guard out of Arizona , around whom the franchise would seek to construct its near future . Yet , the selection of Stoudamire was met with boos from fans at the 1995 NBA draft at SkyDome in Toronto , many of whom wanted Ed O 'Bannon of UCLA , an NCAA Final Four Most Valuable Player .
= = = 1995 – 99 : Struggles of a new franchise = = =
In the team 's first official NBA game , Alvin Robertson scored the first NBA points in Raptors history , while Stoudamire recorded 10 points and 10 assists in a 94 – 79 victory over the New Jersey Nets . The Raptors concluded their inaugural season with a 21 – 61 win – loss record , although they were one of the few teams to defeat the Chicago Bulls , who set a then all @-@ time NBA best 72 – 10 win – loss regular season record . With averages of 19 @.@ 0 points and 9 @.@ 3 assists per game , Stoudamire also won the 1995 – 96 Rookie of the Year Award .
In November of the 1996 – 97 season , Bitove sold his ownership interest in the team to Slaight for $ 65 million after Slaight had activated a shotgun clause in their partnership agreement , giving Slaight 79 % control of the team , and remaining minority partner of the Bank of Nova Scotia ( 10 % ) , Thomas ( 9 % ) Peterson ( 1 % ) and Granovsky ( 1 % ) . Slaight subsequently acquired the 1 % which had been owned by both Peterson and Granovsky , who had died a year earlier . The team improved on its win record by nine games . They selected centre Marcus Camby with the second overall pick in the 1996 NBA draft . By the end of the season , Camby earned a berth on the NBA 's All @-@ Rookie Team while Stoudamire continued to play well , averaging 20 @.@ 2 points and 8 @.@ 8 assists per game . As in the previous season , the Raptors were one of only 11 teams to topple the eventual 1997 Champions , the Chicago Bulls . The Raptors also defeated the Houston Rockets , Utah Jazz and Miami Heat , all of whom were eventual Conference finalists . However , the Raptors struggled against teams who were not of championship calibre , including three losses to the 15 – 67 Boston Celtics .
In the 1997 – 98 season , the team suffered numerous injuries and slid into a 17 @-@ game losing streak . After Thomas ' attempts to execute a letter of intent with Slaight to purchase the team failed , he resigned his position with the team in November and sold his 9 % stake in the team to Slaight . This left Slaight with 90 % and the Bank of Nova Scotia with 10 % . Thomas was replaced by Glen Grunwald as GM . With Thomas gone , Stoudamire immediately sought a trade . On February 13 , 1998 , he was shipped to the Portland Trail Blazers along with Walt Williams and Carlos Rogers for Kenny Anderson , Alvin Williams , Gary Trent , two first @-@ round draft choices , a second @-@ round draft choice and cash . Anderson refused to report to Toronto and was traded to the Celtics with Žan Tabak and Popeye Jones for Chauncey Billups , Dee Brown , Roy Rogers and John Thomas . When the trading deadline was over , the Raptors became the youngest team in the league with an average age of 24 @.@ 6 . They had five rookies on their roster , including the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Tracy McGrady , who at the time was the youngest player in the NBA . The inexperienced Raptors struggled throughout the season and their regular season record regressed to 16 – 66 .
On February 12 , 1998 , Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd . , the owners of the Toronto Maple Leafs , purchased 100 % of the Raptors and the arena the team was building , Air Canada Centre , from Slaight and the Bank of Nova Scotia . MLSE paid a reported $ 467 million , made up of $ 179 million for the team and $ 288 million for the arena . During the 1998 NBA draft , in what became a defining move for the franchise , Grunwald traded the team 's 4th overall pick Antawn Jamison to the Golden State Warriors for Vince Carter , who was selected 5th overall . To bring further credibility to the Raptors , Grunwald traded Marcus Camby to the New York Knicks for Charles Oakley , a veteran with playoff experience . Kevin Willis , another veteran acquired from the trade , solidified the centre position , while the coaching staff temporarily rotated Brown , Williams and Doug Christie to play point guard . Both Christie and Williams became talented players in their own right ; Christie developed into one of the elite defenders in the NBA , while Williams improved his play on the offensive end . New coach Butch Carter was also credited with much of the team 's turnaround during the lockout shortened 1998 – 99 season . Although the team did not make the playoffs , many were optimistic with the impressive performances of Rookie of the Year Carter and a much improved McGrady .
= = = 1999 – 2002 : The Vince Carter era = = =
During the 1999 NBA draft , believing that the Raptors still lacked a strong frontcourt presence , Grunwald traded first @-@ round draft pick Jonathan Bender for power forward Antonio Davis of the Indiana Pacers . Davis quickly entered the Raptors starting lineup and he would develop into an All @-@ Star in the coming years . Conversely , Bender would only play 9 seasons and would be out of the league by age 29 . In the backcourt , Carter , Christie and Dell Curry played at the shooting guard position and Alvin Williams and Muggsy Bogues at point guard . The rotation of Davis , Oakley and Willis in the frontcourt and Carter 's and McGrady 's improvement helped the team make its first ever playoff appearance , fulfilling a promise Carter had made to fans in the previous season . Lacking significant post @-@ season experience , Toronto was defeated 3 – 0 by the New York Knicks in the first round . Nonetheless , team improvements and the rise of Carter — who emphatically won the 2000 NBA Slam Dunk Contest — attracted many fans around Toronto , many of whom were previously not basketball fans . The season was also the first full year played at the Air Canada Centre , after having played four years at the cavernous SkyDome , which was better suited to baseball and Canadian football . Overall , the Raptors concluded the season with a 45 – 37 record .
Still , playoff failures and Butch Carter 's media altercations surrounding Camby led Grunwald to replace Carter prior to the 2000 – 01 season with Lenny Wilkens , a Hall of Fame coach and player with more than 30 years of coaching experience . The team roster was also largely revamped , including the signing of veteran playmaker Mark Jackson on a four @-@ year contract . When Alvin Williams later emerged as a clutch performer , Jackson was traded to allow Williams more playing time . In the 2000 off @-@ season , free agent McGrady opted to leave the Raptors in a sign @-@ and @-@ trade deal worth $ 67 @.@ 5 million over six years , while giving a conditional draft pick as part of the agreement to the Orlando Magic , for a first @-@ round draft pick .
As predicted by analysts , the team easily secured a berth in the 2001 NBA playoffs with a franchise high 47 wins . The Raptors won their first ever playoff series as they defeated New York 3 – 2 , advancing to the Eastern Conference Semifinals for the first time in franchise history . Wilkens was praised for having Williams defend shooting guard Allan Houston and Carter defend small forward Latrell Sprewell , the two major Knicks offensive threats . The series with Philadelphia 76ers was a landmark for the Raptors in terms of performance and entertainment value . The Sixers relied on Allen Iverson and Dikembe Mutombo for their respective offensive and defensive abilities , along with steady help from Aaron McKie . Toronto was the more balanced team with Carter , Alvin Williams and Davis providing much of the offensive game and Chris Childs and Jerome Williams on defence . The series came down to the last few seconds of Game 7 , when Carter 's potential series @-@ winning shot rolled off the rim . Carter was later widely criticized for attending his graduation ceremony at the University of North Carolina on the morning of Game 7 , as he scored only 20 points on 6 @-@ for @-@ 18 shooting , after a 39 @-@ point performance in Game 6 . Despite the loss , the season is generally considered a watermark for the franchise , given the Raptors ' franchise high of 47 wins and advancing beyond the first round of the playoffs .
The relocation of the Vancouver Grizzlies to Memphis , Tennessee in 2001 , as the Memphis Grizzlies , left Toronto as the NBA 's only Canadian team . In the summer of 2001 , long @-@ term contracts were given to Alvin Williams , Jerome Williams and Davis , while former NBA MVP centre Hakeem Olajuwon was signed to provide Carter with good support . The Raptors appeared to be on their way to another competitive season , with a 29 – 21 record going into the All @-@ Star break and with Carter the top vote @-@ getter for the All @-@ Star game for the third consecutive year . Carter then suffered a bout of patellar tendinitis ( also known as " jumper 's knee " ) forcing him to miss the All @-@ Star game and the rest of the season , and without their franchise player , Toronto lost 13 consecutive games . However , they were able to win 12 of their last 14 games , clinching a playoff spot on the last day of the regular season . The comeback featured some of the Raptors ' best defence of the season , along with inspired performances by Davis and Keon Clark .
Despite Toronto 's improved defensive performances , Carter 's offence was sorely missed in the first @-@ round series against the second @-@ seeded Detroit Pistons . In the first game , Detroit overwhelmed Toronto 83 – 65 , largely due to Ben Wallace 's strong performance of 19 points , 20 rebounds , 3 blocks and 3 steals . Detroit also won Game 2 , but Toronto won the next two games at home to force a deciding and tightly contested Game 5 in Detroit . With 10 @.@ 7 seconds left in the game , and the Raptors down 85 – 82 with possession of the ball , Childs raced down the court and shot a three @-@ pointer that missed badly , apparently trying to draw a foul on the play , instead of passing to a wide @-@ open Curry . In a post @-@ game locker room interview , Childs repeatedly insisted that the Raptors had been down four points , not three . The Raptors ' late @-@ season surge was thus marred by a disappointing playoff exit ; the Olajuwon experiment was also a bust , with the 39 @-@ year @-@ old averaging career lows in minutes , points and rebounds . Furthermore , Childs , Clark , and Curry left the team , ensuring a new @-@ look team for the next season .
= = = 2002 – 06 : Another period of struggle = = =
The 2002 – 03 season began with the same optimism that the Raptors exhibited in three consecutive playoff seasons , although it faded early . Carter , while voted as a starter in the 2003 All @-@ Star Game , suffered a knee injury , while Davis expressed disinterest in Toronto , and Wilkens ' laissez @-@ faire attitude created a team that lacked the motivation and spirit of the previous years ' teams . The team was ravaged with injuries , losing an NBA record number of player games due to injury . Furthermore , the Raptors recorded the dubious honour of being the only team in NBA history to not dress 12 players for a single game in a season . Wilkens was criticized heavily by the Toronto media for his inability to clamp down on his players when necessary , especially given this was the year that Wilkens overtook Bill Fitch for the most losses by an NBA coach , with his loss total getting dangerously close to his win total . The Raptors ended the season with a 24 – 58 record and Wilkens was fired . This turned out to be a blessing in disguise , when the Raptors were given the 4th overall pick in the 2003 NBA draft and brought another star to Toronto in Chris Bosh .
Canadian country singer Shania Twain helped launch the new red Raptors alternate road uniform at the start of the 2003 – 04 season , and the jerseys made their debut in a 90 – 87 season @-@ opening victory on October 29 , 2003 against the defending Conference Champion New Jersey Nets . Davis and Jerome Williams were traded early in the season for Jalen Rose and Donyell Marshall . After 50 games , Toronto was 25 – 25 and in a position to make the playoffs , but injuries to key players sent the Raptors plummeting down the standings . Rose , Carter , and Alvin Williams all suffered injuries as the Raptors struggled to a record of 8 – 24 in their remaining games . The notable individual season performances were Carter 's 22 @.@ 5 ppg , Marshall 's 10 @.@ 7 rpg and rookie Bosh , a 6 – 10 forward @-@ centre who averaged 11 @.@ 5 ppg and 7 @.@ 4 rpg and was named to the NBA All @-@ Rookie Team . Williams ' knee injury turned out to be career @-@ ending .
For the 2004 – 05 season , the team moved into the Atlantic Division and the Raptors decided to revamp the team . Raptors President and CEO of Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment Richard Peddie fired Grunwald on April 1 , 2004 , after the team ended the season three games short of the eighth and final playoff spot in the previous season . Head coach Kevin O 'Neill and his four assistant coaches were also dismissed immediately after Grunwald 's termination . Toronto interim manager Jack McCloskey said : " While the blame for that certainly does not rest on O 'Neill and his staff alone , we need a change . " Rob Babcock was named General Manager on June 7 , 2004 , alongside the appointments of Wayne Embry as senior advisor and Alex English as director of player development . Sam Mitchell , a former NBA forward and assistant coach of the Milwaukee Bucks was hired as new head coach of the Raptors .
Babcock 's first move as GM was drafting centre Rafael Araújo — selected eighth overall — in the 2004 NBA draft , in a move that was criticized by fans and analysts , considering highly touted swingman Andre Iguodala was drafted with the next pick . Babcock signed point guard Rafer Alston to a five @-@ year deal . After Vince Carter 's annual charity game , Babcock implicitly revealed to the media that Carter 's agent had asked for a trade confirming Carter was discontent . The Toronto Sun reported that Carter felt he was being misled by the Raptors ' hierarchy during the General Manager search and had concluded that as long as the managerial structure at Maple Leaf Sports and Entertainment Ltd. remained intact , the Raptors would never be an elite team . Carter was finally traded mid @-@ season , ending his six @-@ year tenure . Toronto received Alonzo Mourning , forwards Eric Williams and Aaron Williams and two mid @-@ to @-@ late future first round picks from the New Jersey Nets . Mourning chose not to report to Toronto , forcing Babcock to buy out the remainder of his contract at a reported $ 10 million , leaving him free to sign with the Miami Heat . Eric and Aaron Williams were supposed to add defensive toughness and rebounding , but were generally under @-@ utilized for the entire season . Analysts had predicted Babcock got the bad end of the deal , and the trade eventually cost him his job .
Carter 's departure heralded a new era for Toronto . Bosh stepped up to the role of franchise player and performed well in his sophomore campaign , ranking tenth in the league in defensive rebounds . In contrast to Bosh 's emergence , Araújo struggled to keep a spot in the line @-@ up , and became unpopular with fans and local media . Although the ACC was often well @-@ attended due to the Raptors ' 22 – 19 home record , their inability to win on the road ( 11 – 30 ) and poor defensive record made Mitchell 's first year as head coach unimpressive . Additionally , Mitchell had problems dealing with Alston , who openly expressed his unhappiness with Mitchell in a post @-@ game interview . Later in the season , Alston was suspended two games for " conduct detrimental to the team " for reportedly walking out of a scrimmage during practice . Notwithstanding the unrest , in their first season competing in the Atlantic Division , Toronto maintained the same regular season record of 33 – 49 as the previous season .
The Raptors continued to rebuild during the 2005 NBA draft , selecting Charlie Villanueva , Joey Graham , Roko Ukić and Uroš Slokar , with Villanueva 's selection being very controversial amongst basketball pundits and Raptors fans alike . The Raptors started their training camp by trading Alston to the Houston Rockets for Mike James , and signing free agent José Calderón as a back @-@ up for James . Despite the infusion of new players , Toronto 's overall 2005 – 06 season was a disappointment ; they set a franchise record by losing their first nine games and 15 out of their first 16 games . With losses mounting and media scrutiny intensifying , the Raptors hired ex @-@ Purdue coach Gene Keady as an assistant off the bench to help develop the young Raptors team , as well as establish a defensive persona for the team . On January 15 , 2006 , the Raptors set a franchise points record in a 129 – 103 win over the Knicks when Villanueva hit a three @-@ pointer late in the game , but less than a week later , the Raptors gave up an 18 @-@ point lead against the Los Angeles Lakers , and allowed Lakers star Kobe Bryant to score 81 points , the second highest single @-@ game total in NBA history . With media scrutiny intensifying once more and the Raptors entrenched at the bottom of the league in defensive field goal percentage , Toronto fired Babcock .
The 2005 – 06 season was not a total disaster . Villanueva 's play impressed both fans and former critics as he came in second in NBA Rookie of the Year and recorded 48 points in an overtime loss to Milwaukee Bucks , the most points scored by any rookie in franchise history and the most by a rookie in the NBA since 1997 . Bosh was also named a reserve forward for the Eastern All @-@ Star Team in the 2006 game , becoming the third Raptor after Vince Carter and Antonio Davis to appear in an All @-@ Star Game . On February 27 , 2006 , the team named Bryan Colangelo , the 2004 – 05 NBA Executive of the Year , the President and General Manager of the Raptors . Known for his success in transforming a lottery Phoenix team into a 62 @-@ win offensive juggernaut , his hiring gave hope to many fans . Still , Toronto ended the season weakly when Bosh suffered a season @-@ ending thumb injury . The Raptors lost ten in a row after Bosh 's injury and finished the season with the fifth worst record ( 27 – 55 ) in the NBA .
= = = 2006 – 10 : The rise of Chris Bosh = = =
The 2006 – 07 season represented a watershed year for the Raptors franchise . The roster was overhauled , including the selection of 2006 NBA draft number one pick Andrea Bargnani , the acquisition of point guard T. J. Ford in exchange for Villanueva , and the signing of shooting guard Anthony Parker and small forward Jorge Garbajosa . Bosh was given a three @-@ year contract extension , while Maurizio Gherardini of Benetton Treviso was hired as the club 's vice @-@ president and assistant general manager .
The first half of the season produced mixed results as Toronto struggled towards the .500 mark . After the All @-@ Star break , Bargnani continued to work on his defence and shooting ( averaging 14 @.@ 3 points per game ( ppg ) and 3 @.@ 9 rebounds per game ( rpg ) in 12 games for the month of February 2007 ) , and he was selected as the Eastern Conference Rookie of the Month for the second straight time on March 1 , 2007 . Bargnani became the third Raptor ever to win the award twice , joining Vince Carter and Damon Stoudamire . Toronto ended the regular season with a 47 – 35 record , securing the third seed in the Eastern Conference for the 2007 NBA Playoffs along with the Atlantic Division title , as well as homecourt advantage for the first time in franchise history . Bosh was voted to start in the 2007 NBA All @-@ Star Game . The Raptors were also praised for their improved defence , ball @-@ sharing and tremendous team chemistry . Colangelo , Gherardini and Mitchell were credited with Toronto 's turnaround this season , which was one of the best in NBA history in terms of league standing and defensive ranking . Mitchell was subsequently named the 2006 – 07 NBA Coach of the Year , the first coach in Raptors history to receive the honour , while Colangelo was named 2006 – 07 Executive of the Year . On April 24 , 2007 , the Raptors won their first playoff game in five seasons , with an 89 – 83 victory over the New Jersey Nets , but lost the series 4 – 2 . The series was notable for pitting ex @-@ Raptor Vince Carter against his former team . The Nets took home court advantage in Game 1 , holding off a late Raptors rally in the fourth quarter . The Raptors pulled away in another tight game to even the series at one game apiece . When the series shifted to New Jersey , the Nets took charge of the series , winning games 3 and 4 in routs . New Jersey had a chance to win the series in game 5 in Toronto , but the Raptors took a 20 @-@ point lead after one quarter . Still , New Jersey managed to chip away , and had a chance to win the game , but Boštjan Nachbar 's three @-@ pointer missed at the buzzer . Needing to win in New Jersey to force a game 7 , Toronto held a one @-@ point lead with under a minute to play in game 6 , but Richard Jefferson hit a layup with eight seconds left to play . Toronto attempted to try for the game @-@ winning shot , but Jefferson intercepted a pass to seal the series for the Nets .
Several changes to the roster were made before the 2007 – 08 campaign as Toronto sought to reproduce the same form as the previous campaign . Most notably , the Raptors acquired Carlos Delfino in a trade with Detroit for two second round draft picks , and signed Jamario Moon and three @-@ point specialist Jason Kapono as free agents . On the other hand , veteran swingman Morris Peterson joined the New Orleans Hornets . Despite being defending division champions , the Raptors were widely tipped as outside contenders for the division and conference titles . However , Toronto quickly fell behind Boston in the division , as Bargnani 's inability to play well consistently , along with injuries to Garbajosa ( 75 games ) , Bosh ( 15 games ) and Ford ( 31 games ) , derailed the possibility of a smooth campaign as the Raptors finished 41 @-@ 41 , six fewer wins than the previous season , but still good enough for a playoff spot as the 6th seed . They were pitted against Dwight Howard and the resurgent Orlando Magic . In Game 1 , Dwight Howard gave the Magic their first playoff win since 2003 as they practically led the entire game . Howard would put up a 29 – 20 in Game 2 , as Hedo Türkoğlu scored the final four go @-@ ahead points to give the Magic a 2 – 0 lead . The Raptors would respond with a strong Game 3 victory keyed by great point guard play from Ford and José Calderon . However , Jameer Nelson , Rashard Lewis and Keith Bogans keyed strong three point shooting in Game 4 and overcame Bosh 's 39 points and 15 rebounds to bring the Magic out of Toronto with a 3 – 1 lead . Howard would finish off the series in Game 5 as impressively as he started – 21 points , 21 rebounds , 3 blocks . Whereas the preceding season was considered a success , the 2007 – 08 campaign was considered a disappointment . Weaknesses in Toronto 's game — rebounding , defence , and a lack of a swingman — were brought into sharp focus during the playoffs , and changes were expected to be made to the roster .
As it turned out , a blockbuster trade was agreed in principle before the 2008 – 09 campaign : six @-@ time All @-@ Star Jermaine O 'Neal was acquired from the Indiana Pacers in exchange for Ford ( who had become expendable with the emergence of Calderón ) , Rasho Nesterović , Maceo Baston , and Roy Hibbert , the 17th pick in the 2008 NBA draft , giving the Raptors a potential boost in the frontcourt . Meanwhile , Bargnani , who had spent the summer working on his interior game , was projected to come off the bench . The Raptors also introduced a black alternate road jersey for the season similar to the earlier purple design that was dropped a few seasons ago . It had a maple leaf featured on the back neck of the jersey , symbolizing the Raptors as " Canada 's team " . Despite the introduction of O 'Neal , who brought home the rebounds and the blocks , and a much improved Bargnani , the Raptors were too inconsistent . Following an 8 – 9 start to the season , Mitchell was fired and replaced by long @-@ time assistant Jay Triano . Triano tweaked with the starting line @-@ up to no avail as the Raptors fell to 21 – 34 prior to the All @-@ Star break . O 'Neal and Moon were then traded to Miami for Shawn Marion and Marcus Banks , but with the losses mounting , the Raptors soon fell out of the playoffs picture , and were eliminated from contention with seven games of the regular season remaining . The Raptors eventually finished with a 33 – 49 record and headed into the next season with a potential overhaul of the core : Marion could become a free agent ; Bosh could become one after 2009 – 10 ; Parker would soon turn 35 ; and Bargnani had his breakthrough season . On May 12 , 2009 , Triano was given a three @-@ year term for the position of head coach .
The inevitable roster shakeup for the 2009 – 10 season began when Kapono was traded to the Philadelphia 76ers for the aggressive veteran forward Reggie Evans . Toronto then drafted DeMar DeRozan with the ninth pick , enabling them to fill a spot on the wings . This was followed by the signing of free agent Hedo Türkoğlu , which in turn led to a sign @-@ and @-@ trade agreement involving four teams , with Toronto landing wing players Devean George ( later traded for Marco Belinelli ) and Antoine Wright , while releasing Marion , Kris Humphries and Nathan Jawai . Around the same time , Parker headed for the Cleveland Cavaliers , while Indiana point guard Jarrett Jack was added and Nesterovič brought back to provide cover for the big men . Finally , Delfino and Ukić were moved to the Milwaukee Bucks for Amir Johnson and Sonny Weems . It became increasingly clear that Colangelo , in securing a credible nucleus for the future , was doing this to persuade Bosh to stay beyond 2010 . While the Raptors were off to a sluggish start , they picked up the pace around the All @-@ Star break , reaching a season @-@ high seven games above .500 and standing fifth in the Eastern Conference . Bosh was recording career @-@ highs in ppg and rpg . However , a season @-@ ending injury to Bosh after the break coincided with Toronto 's descent down the standings from the fifth seed to the eighth , and they ultimately relinquished their spot to Chicago a few games before the regular season ended .
= = = 2010 – 13 : Rebuilding = = =
Before the 2010 – 11 season began , there was much anticipation around the league over the fates of an elite pack of free agents , featuring the likes of Bosh , Dwyane Wade , LeBron James , and Amar 'e Stoudemire . Bosh and James eventually chose to converge in Miami with Wade , and the sign @-@ and @-@ trade transaction that ensued resulted in the Raptors receiving two first @-@ round draft picks and a trade exception from Miami . Prior to this , Toronto had drafted Ed Davis , also a left @-@ handed power forward like Bosh . After Bosh left , Colangelo sought to trade Calderón , Evans and the disenchanted Türkoğlu for Tyson Chandler , Leandro Barbosa , and Boris Diaw , but the trade involving Chandler collapsed at the last minute , as Chandler was traded to the Dallas Mavericks instead . Belinelli was then traded to New Orleans Hornets for Julian Wright , and 13 games into the season , Jack , David Andersen , and Marcus Banks to New Orleans for Peja Stojaković and Jerryd Bayless . Bosh 's first return to Toronto was received to a chorus of boos , but not as nearly as harsh as what former Raptors Tracy McGrady and Vince Carter received upon their respective returns . Without Bosh , Toronto as a team regressed and were only able to secure 22 wins in the regular season .
Dwane Casey , an assistant coach with the Mavericks , was hired as the new head coach of Toronto before the 2011 – 12 season . The Raptors used their number five pick to select Jonas Valančiūnas , a centre from Lithuania in the 2011 NBA draft . The season was shortened by 16 regular season games due to the 2011 NBA lockout , and the Raptors finished the season with a 23 – 43 record . During the 2012 off @-@ season , Colangelo tried to lure Canadian free agent and two @-@ time MVP Steve Nash , who had become a free agent after playing for the Phoenix Suns , to play for the Raptors . When Nash joined the Los Angeles Lakers instead , the Raptors acquired point guard Kyle Lowry from the Houston Rockets for a future first round pick . Lowry , combined with Valančiūnas and the 8th pick in the 2012 draft Terrence Ross , represented the next phase of the re @-@ building process . On January 30 , 2013 , the Raptors acquired Memphis Grizzlies star Rudy Gay and centre Hamed Haddadi as well as Pistons player Austin Daye in a three @-@ way deal that sent Calderón to the Detroit Pistons and Davis , along with Pistons veteran Tayshaun Prince and a 2nd round pick to the Grizzlies . Haddadi was later traded , along with a second round pick , to Phoenix in exchange for guard Sebastian Telfair . The 2012 – 13 season was the first season since 2009 – 10 that the Raptors finished the season with a winning home record ( 21 – 20 ) , despite their overall losing record ( 34 – 48 ) .
= = = 2013 – present : DeRozan and Lowry era = = =
During the 2013 off @-@ season , new General Manager Masai Ujiri traded Bargnani to the New York Knicks for Marcus Camby , Steve Novak , Quentin Richardson , a future first round draft pick , and two future second round picks ; Camby and Richardson were both waived shortly after the trade . The Raptors also added Tyler Hansbrough , D. J. Augustin , Dwight Buycks , and Austin Daye via free agency . On December 9 , 2013 , the Raptors traded Rudy Gay , Quincy Acy , and Aaron Gray to the Sacramento Kings for John Salmons , Greivis Vásquez , Patrick Patterson , and Chuck Hayes , and waived Augustin . During the 2013 – 14 season , the Raptors were 6 – 12 before the Rudy Gay trade ; after the trade , they went on a 10 – 3 run as they maintained their lead in the division , and rose above the .500 mark for the first time in almost three years .
The Raptors entered the All @-@ Star break with a 28 – 24 record , and DeRozan was also selected to play in the All @-@ Star game , being only the fourth ever Raptor to do so . On March 28 , 2014 , the Raptors clinched a playoff berth for the first time since 2008 after beating the Boston Celtics 105 – 103 . On April 11 , 2014 , the Raptors lost to the New York Knicks 108 – 100 , but since division rival Brooklyn lost to the Atlanta Hawks the same night , the Raptors became Atlantic Division champions for the first time since 2007 . They finished the regular season with a franchise @-@ high 48 wins ( .585 ) , going 42 – 22 ( .656 ) after the Rudy Gay trade , the third @-@ best record in the Eastern Conference . The Raptors faced the Brooklyn Nets in the first round of the playoffs for the first time since 2007 , when the Nets where located in New Jersey . Toronto nearly advanced to the next round , but Paul Pierce blocked a potential game @-@ winner by Lowry in Game 7 .
During the 2014 – 15 season , the Raptors were off to their best start in franchise history : a then @-@ Eastern Conference leading 24 – 8 record by the end of 2014 . On March 27 , 2015 , the Raptors clinched the Atlantic division title with a 94 – 83 win over the Los Angeles Lakers . This was the second consecutive year that the Raptors clinched the Atlantic Division title . On April 11 , 2015 , the Raptors beat the Miami Heat , Toronto 's first road win over the Heat since November 19 , 2008 , ending a ten @-@ game slide on Miami 's home floor . The win was Toronto 's 48th of the season and 22nd on the road , both tying franchise records . Four days later , the Toronto Raptors broke their franchise record with their 49th win of the season . After the 2014 – 15 season , Louis Williams won the NBA Sixth Man of the Year Award , becoming the first ever Raptor to do so . The Raptors faced the Washington Wizards in the first round of the 2015 playoffs , and lost four straight games as the Wizards swept the Raptors .
On June 25 , 2015 , the Raptors selected Delon Wright with their first round pick in the 2015 NBA draft , along with Norman Powell in the second round . On June 29 , the Raptors announced their new NBA D @-@ League team , the Mississauga @-@ based Raptors 905 , which began play in the 2015 – 2016 season . The Raptors added DeMarre Carroll , Cory Joseph , Bismack Biyombo , and Luis Scola via free agency .
The Raptors opened a new practice facility , the BioSteel Centre in Exhibition Place , on February 10 , 2016 . The Raptors hosted the 2016 NBA All @-@ Star Game on February 14 , 2016 and its associated weekend for the first time in its history . With a 105 – 97 win at home against the Atlanta Hawks on March 30 , 2016 , the Raptors attained their first ever 50 @-@ win season . The following day the Raptors clinched the Atlantic Division title for the third consecutive season as a result of a Boston Celtics loss against the Portland Trail Blazers . The 56 – 26 record became the best Raptors regular season ever , fourth overall in the league and second only to the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Eastern Conference . Entering the 2016 playoffs as the East 's second seed , the Raptors were pushed to seven games by the Indiana Pacers , but managed to win their first playoff series in 15 years . Another seven @-@ game series against the Miami Heat ensued , which Toronto also won . The Raptors , who were one of the four teams that never reached the NBA Conference Finals in their histories , appeared in the third round for the first time in their twenty @-@ first season , facing the Cleveland Cavaliers , in which they ultimately lost the series 4 – 2 . The Cavaliers would then advance to the NBA Finals and became champions .
= = Logos and uniforms = =
= = = Logos = = =
On December 19 , 2014 , the Toronto Raptors unveiled a new primary logo , which the team described as " a circular shield with a ball torn by the unmistakable attack of a Raptor " .
= = = Uniforms = = =
Occasionally , the Raptors would wear the Toronto Huskies throwback jersey during retro nights , given that the Huskies are the unofficial predecessor of the Raptors and the Raptors are among the newest NBA teams .
= = = = 2015 redesign = = = =
On August 3 , 2015 , the Toronto Raptors unveiled four new uniforms . The uniforms were released in partnership with 2K Sports ' NBA 2K16 video game . The team said in a press release the new uniform designs were intended to pay tribute to the city of Toronto and to Canada as a whole , noting that the Raptors were the sole Canadian club in the NBA . The main colours would remain centred on Canada 's national colours of red and white , whereas black and silver will continue to be used for trim on the home white and red road uniform . The uniforms themselves underwent changes . Most notably , the chevrons on the side panels now point up , which the team said aligns with its current slogan of " We The North " . Since being introduced as a uniform accent in 1999 , the chevrons had pointed downward , the team said . In addition , at the waist @-@ level hem of the jersey is an upside @-@ down tag with the team 's " We The North " slogan . The team said the slogan on the tag will be visible to players when they tuck in their jersey . Additionally , the shorts now feature a maple leaf logo on the front of the waistband , and the letter " T " is now on the sides of the shorts , with the Raptors ' basketball claw logo below it . This is a reference to the city of Toronto 's " T @-@ Dot " nickname .
= = Arenas = =
BioSteel Centre ( Practice facility : 2016 – present )
= = Personnel = =
= = = Current roster = = =
= = = Retained draft rights = = =
The Raptors hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA . A drafted player , either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him , is allowed to sign with any non @-@ NBA team . In this case , the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non @-@ NBA team ends . This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams .
= = = Management = = =
General managers
1995 – March 1998 : Isiah Thomas
March 1998 – April 2004 : Glen Grunwald
April 2004 – June 2004 ( Interim ) : Jack McCloskey
June 2004 – January 2006 : Rob Babcock
January 2006 – February 2006 ( Interim ) : Wayne Embry
February 2006 – May 2013 : Bryan Colangelo
May 2013 – present : Masai Ujiri
Owners
1995 – 1998 : John Bitove , Allan Slaight , Isiah Thomas
1998 – present : Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment
Head coaches
Notes :
a A running total of the number of coaches of the Raptors and thus any coach who has two or more separate terms as head coach is only counted once
b Spent entire coaching career with the Raptors while in the NBA
c Elected into the Basketball Hall of Fame as a coach
= = = Basketball Hall of Famers = = =
Notes :
1 In total , Wilkens was inducted into the Hall of Fame three times – as player , as coach and as a member of the 1992 Olympic team .
= = = FIBA Hall of Famers = = =
= = Awards and records = =
Since their inception in 1995 , the Raptors have made the playoffs eight times ( 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , 2007 , 2008 , 2014 , 2015 and 2016 ) , advancing past the first round twice ( 2001 and 2016 ) . The Raptors have won the Atlantic Division four times ( 2007 , 2014 , 2015 and 2016 ) , and the franchise record number of wins in the regular season is 56 ( 2016 ) . Five Raptors have been selected to play in the All @-@ Star game : Vince Carter , Antonio Davis , Chris Bosh , DeMar DeRozan and Kyle Lowry .
= = Broadcasters = =
Raptors games are primarily broadcast on television by TSN and Sportsnet . Through MLSE , the Raptors also operate the Canadian version of NBA TV ( formerly known as Raptors NBA TV ) , which airs reruns of Raptors telecasts along with other news and analysis programs focusing on the team and the rest of the NBA .
= = Fanbase and marketing = =
The Raptors have enjoyed a consistent fanbase throughout their history . The Toronto Raptors set NBA attendance records in their 2000 , 2001 , 2002 seasons when they made the playoffs . Attendance dipped slightly between 2003 and 2006 . This improved during the 2006 – 07 regular season to an average of 18 @,@ 258 fans ( 13th in the league ) , 92 @.@ 2 % of capacity at the ACC . Following the success of the 2006 – 07 season , Toronto became one of the league leaders in season ticket sales for the 2007 – 08 season . Their television ratings , however , are considerably lower than other more established Toronto sports teams and most other sporting events shown on Canadian television .
Another successful run starting in 2013 – 14 led to a spike in the Raptors ' support . For the 2014 – 15 season , the team sold out the 12 @,@ 500 season tickets , the first time it occurred since 2011 . Public watchings of the Raptors games , particularly during the playoffs , started being held at Maple Leaf Square , which the fans nicknamed " Jurassic Park " . MLSE decided to endorse this practice by setting up concession stands and branded sponsorships at the square , along with increased security . At times , footage from the square is broadcast to the Raptors locker room . The victorious Game 7 against the Indiana Pacers on the 2016 playoffs was the most watched Raptors broadcast ever , as well as the biggest television audience in Canada that day , averaging 1 @.@ 53 million viewers with a peak of 2 @.@ 63 million .
The value of the Raptors franchise has risen over the years . In 1998 , the franchise was bought for US $ 125 million . With the continued popularity of the Raptors , the value of the franchise doubled from US $ 148 million in 2000 to $ 297 million in 2004 . The value of the franchise grew again from $ 315 million in 2006 to $ 373 million in 2007 , and $ 400 million in 2008 . By 2016 , Forbes estimated the Raptors were worth $ 920 million .
On game day , the fans are usually entertained by the Raptor mascot , the Raptors Dance Pak , and the 4 Korners Raptors Soundcrew during pre @-@ game , time @-@ outs , and intervals . During the 2013 – 14 season , a new " Drake Zone " was created in the lower bowl . Limited edition shirts were given away to fans sitting in the Drake Zone . Giveaways are sometimes bundled with tickets to encourage attendance . Further , whenever Toronto scores more than 100 points in a home game and wins , fans can redeem their ticket for a cheese or pepperoni pizza slice at standalone Pizza Pizza locations throughout Ontario for the business day after the game that was played . This is part of a promotion made by the Raptors ' official pizza sponsor .
= = = " We The North " re @-@ branding = = =
In the lead @-@ up to the team 's 20th anniversary season in 2015 , and its hosting of the 2016 All @-@ Star Game , the Raptors began the process of re @-@ branding itself . On September 30 , 2013 , Toronto @-@ based rapper Drake was announced as the new " global ambassador " for the Toronto Raptors , thereby joining the executive committee of his hometown 's NBA team . In April 2014 , the Raptors unveiled a new imaging campaign developed by the agency Sid Lee , " We The North " , built around a manifesto that was meant to embrace the team 's trait of being an " outsider " from the " north side " , and the accompanying feelings of players and fans .
The " We The North " campaign was originally to be launched during the 2015 – 16 season ; however , the launch was hastened so it would be ready in time for the 2014 playoffs , taking into account the poor performance of Canada 's other pro sports teams at the time . An introductory commercial was quickly filmed , which featured the manifesto as narration , scenes of local basketball players in various outdoor locations around the city , and ended with a scene displaying a black , waving flag with the motto written on it . The campaign was immediately embraced by fans during the playoffs and following season ; the launch commercial was viewed over 500 @,@ 000 times in the two days following its release , " We The North " -branded shirts and flags became a common sight at games , while Ryerson University sports marketing professor Cheri Bradish compared the campaign to Molson 's former " I Am Canadian " alcohol advertising campaign in how it resonated with the country .
On December 19 , 2014 , the Raptors soft @-@ launched a new logo also designed by Sid Lee , which features a basketball with claw marks . The new logo was officially implemented during the 2015 – 2016 season . The logo 's introduction was marred by a disorganized launch , which saw a black and white version initially shown before the eventual unveiling of colored versions later in the day , mixed reviews for the design itself , with some ( especially on the black and white version ) comparing it to that of the Brooklyn Nets , and despite teasing merchandise with the new logo , not releasing any until at least mid @-@ 2015 . There were also alleged tensions between MLSE staff and Drake surrounding the new design — in particular , the performer had pushed for the team to change its primary colour from red to gold ( a colour seen in one of the official variants of the logo unveiled that day ) . In a response on Twitter , Drake distanced himself from the " execution " of the new logo .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = New Jersey / Brooklyn Nets = = =
The New Jersey / Brooklyn Nets and the Raptors have been minor rivals since the trade of Vince Carter to the Nets during the 2004 – 05 season . The rivalry began to heat up as the two teams faced each other in the opening round of the 2007 NBA Playoffs , with the Nets winning the series 4 – 2 after a go @-@ ahead shot by Richard Jefferson with 8 seconds left in Game 6 ensuring 98 – 97 defeat for the Raptors . The rivalry was rekindled during the 2013 – 14 season when the Nets and Raptors battled for the Atlantic Division . The Raptors won the division final but then they found themselves facing the Nets in the opening round of the 2014 NBA Playoffs . Prior to Game 1 of the series , Raptors GM Masai Ujiri spoke at a Raptors rally outside Air Canada Centre 's Maple Leaf Square . During the rally , Ujiri yelled " Fuck Brooklyn ! " which found its way quickly onto social media platforms within minutes . Masai was fined $ 25 @,@ 000 by the NBA for the quote and later apologized for the excessive language . The hard fought series lasted seven games , and was decided in the final seconds when Paul Pierce blocked Kyle Lowry 's shot giving the Nets the 104 – 103 victory .
= = = New York Knicks = = =
The New York Knicks and the Raptors had a playoff rivalry in 2000 and 2001 . The Raptors made their first @-@ ever playoff appearance during the 1999 – 2000 season , in which they were swept by the Knicks in the first round 3 – 0 . The following season , the Raptors redeemed themselves , defeating the Knicks in the first round 3 – 2 ; this effectively ended the Knicks ' run as perennial NBA championship contenders , which began in the early 1990s .
= = Community service = =
The Raptors Foundation was the charitable arm of the Raptors , dedicated to assisting Ontario 's registered charities that support programs and sports initiatives for at @-@ risk children and youth . The Foundation strove to lift spirits and change lives for young people by supporting local and provincial organizations that provide recreational , educational and other youth @-@ oriented activities . Through its community ties and with the help of its corporate partners , donors , Raptors players and volunteers , the Foundation has successfully raised more than $ 14 million between 1995 and 2007 , and reached out to thousands of other charities . The Raptors Foundation was one of three parts of the Raptors ' community service program . The other projects are Raptors Community Relations and Raptors Basketball Development , both of which focus on providing basketball development programs . The Toronto Raptors lead the NBA for amount of money donated to the community . In 2009 , the Raptors Foundation merged with the other charitable arms of MLSE 's other sports franchises to form the Team Up Foundation .
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= Caesar ( cocktail ) =
A Caesar or Bloody Caesar is a cocktail created and primarily consumed in Canada . It typically contains vodka , Clamato ( a proprietary blend of tomato juice and clam broth ) , hot sauce and Worcestershire sauce , and is served with ice in a large , celery salt @-@ rimmed glass , typically garnished with a stalk of celery and wedge of lime . What distinguishes it from a Bloody Mary is the inclusion of clam broth . The cocktail may also be contrasted with the Michelada , which has similar flavouring ingredients but uses beer instead of vodka .
It was invented in Calgary , Alberta in 1969 by restaurateur Walter Chell to celebrate the opening of a new Italian restaurant in the city . It quickly became a popular mixed drink within Canada where over 350 million Caesars are consumed annually and it has inspired numerous variants . However , the drink remains virtually unknown elsewhere .
= = Origin = =
The Caesar was invented in 1969 by restaurant manager Walter Chell of the Calgary Inn ( today the Westin Hotel ) in Calgary , Alberta , Canada . He devised the cocktail after being tasked to create a signature drink for the Calgary Inn 's new Italian restaurant . He mixed vodka with clam and tomato juice , Worcestershire sauce , and other spices , creating a drink similar to a Bloody Mary but with a uniquely spicy flavour .
Chell said his inspiration came from Italy . He recalled that in Venice , they served Spaghetti alle vongole , spaghetti with tomato sauce and clams . He reasoned that the mixture of clams and tomato sauce would make a good drink , and mashed clams to form a " nectar " that he mixed with other ingredients .
According to Chell 's granddaughter , his Italian ancestry led him to call the drink a " Caesar " . The longer name of " Bloody Caesar " is said to differentiate the drink from the Bloody Mary , but Chell said it was a regular patron at the bar who served as the inspiration . During the three months he spent working to perfect the drink , he had customers sample it and offer feedback . One regular customer , an Englishman , who often ordered the drink said one day " Walter , that 's a damn good bloody Caesar " .
= = Popularity = =
Chell said the drink was an immediate hit with the restaurant 's patrons , claiming it " took off like a rocket " . Within five years of its introduction , the Caesar had become Calgary 's most popular mixed drink . It spread throughout Western Canada , then to the east . Coinciding with its 40th anniversary , a petition was launched in 2009 in the hopes of having the Caesar named the nation 's official mixed drink . In Calgary , Mayor Dave Bronconnier celebrated the drink 's anniversary by declaring May 13 , 2009 as Caesar Day in the city .
The Mott 's company was independently developing Clamato , a mixture of clam and tomato juices , at the same time the Caesar was invented . Sales of Clamato were initially slow : Mott 's sold only 500 cases of Clamato in 1970 , but sales consistently increased after the company 's distributors discovered Chell 's drink . By 1994 , 70 % of Mott 's Clamato sales in Canada were made to mix Caesars , while half of all Clamato sales were made in Western Canada . Motts claims that the Caesar is the most popular mixed drink in Canada , estimating that over 350 million Caesars are consumed every year .
Outside Canada , the Caesar is virtually unknown . In the United States , it is typically only available at bars along the Canadian border . Elsewhere , bartenders will frequently offer a Bloody Mary in its place . In Europe , the drink can be found wherever there are higher concentrations of Canadians . The drink 's anonymity outside Canada has come in spite of concerted marketing efforts . Producers of clam @-@ tomato juices have speculated that their beverages have been hampered by what they describe as the " clam barrier " . They have found that consumers in the United States fear that there is too much clam in the beverages .
The Caesar is popular as a hangover " cure " , though its effectiveness has been questioned . A study by the University of Toronto released in 1985 showed that drinking a Caesar when taking aspirin could help protect a person 's stomach from the damage aspirin causes .
= = Preparation and variants = =
Basic preparation of a Caesar follows the " one , two , three , four " rule . The recipe calls for 1 – 1 ½ oz of vodka , two dashes of hot sauce , three dashes of salt and pepper , four dashes of Worcestershire sauce and topped with 4 – 6 oz of Clamato and served with ice . The ingredients are poured into a glass rimmed with celery salt or a mixture of salt and pepper and garnished with a celery stalk and lime . The Caesar is an unusual drink in that it can be mixed in bulk and stored for a period of time before drinking .
Though it was not one of Chell 's original ingredients , Tabasco sauce is a frequent addition , as is horseradish . Vodka is occasionally replaced with gin , tequila or rum , though the Clamato may not be substituted . A variant that replaces vodka with beer is commonly called a " Red Eye " , and one without alcohol is a " Virgin Caesar " . The Toronto Institute of Bartending operates a " Caesar School " in various locations across Canada that teaches bartenders how to mix several variants of the drink .
Mott 's holds an annual " Best Caesar in Town " competition as part of the Prince Edward Island International Shellfish Festival . Contests held across Canada to celebrate the cocktail 's 40th anniversary in 2009 encouraged variants that featured the glass rimmed with Tim Hortons coffee grinds , Caesars with maple syrup and Caesars with bacon @-@ infused vodka .
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= Joey Barton =
Joseph Anthony " Joey " Barton ( / ˈdʒoʊiː ˈbɑːrtən / ; born 2 September 1982 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Scottish Premiership club Rangers . He has made 240 appearances in the Premier League , including 130 for Manchester City .
Barton was born and raised in Huyton , Merseyside . He began his football career with Manchester City in 2002 after working his way through their youth system . His appearances in the senior side gradually increased over the following five years and he made more than 150 for the club . He earned his first cap for the England national team in February 2007 , despite his criticism of some of the team 's players . He then joined Newcastle United for a fee of £ 5 @.@ 8 million in July 2007 . After four years with the club , he joined Queens Park Rangers in August 2011 , from where he was loaned to Marseille in 2012 . He returned from his loan spell the following season , and helped QPR to promotion to the Premier League via the Championship play @-@ offs . However , QPR were relegated again , and Barton was released at the end of the season . He signed a one @-@ year deal to play for Burnley in 2015 , helping them win promotion to the Premier League , but left to join Rangers in May 2016 .
Barton 's career and life have been marked by numerous controversial incidents and disciplinary problems and he has been convicted twice on charges of violence . On 20 May 2008 he was sentenced to six months ' imprisonment for common assault and affray during an incident in Liverpool City Centre . Barton served 77 days of this prison term , being released on 28 July 2008 . On 1 July 2008 he was also given a four @-@ month suspended sentence after admitting assault occasioning actual bodily harm on former teammate Ousmane Dabo during a training @-@ ground dispute on 1 May 2007 . This incident effectively ended his Manchester City career . Barton has been charged with violent conduct three times by The Football Association : for the assault on Dabo , for punching Morten Gamst Pedersen in the stomach and for attacking three players on the final day of the 2011 – 12 season .
= = Early life = =
Born in Huyton , Merseyside , Barton is the oldest of four brothers . His parents separated when he was 14 years old and consequently he lived with his father at his grandmother 's house on a different estate . He has said that his grandmother 's influence helped him to avoid getting caught up in a recreational drug culture and attributes his work ethic to his father . His father , also named Joseph , worked as a roofer and played football semi @-@ professionally for Northwich Victoria . Barton enjoyed physical education at his school , St Thomas Becket , which he represented in various sports and was a talented Rugby League prospect . He left school with ten GCSEs .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Barton pursued his dreams of becoming a professional footballer by joining Everton 's youth system , but played for Liverpool when he was 14 . He underwent trials at Nottingham Forest , but was rejected when it was decided he was too small to become a footballer . Barton said his rejection by clubs only made him more determined to succeed as a footballer and prove his detractors wrong . He made his first appearance for the club 's under @-@ 17s team in 1999 and played regularly at Academy level for three years . His first reserve team appearance came at the end of the 2000 – 01 season , in his final year as a trainee . Uncertain about Barton 's future prospects , the club planned to release him , but reconsidered and gave him his first professional contract in the close season . Over the next two years , he successfully made the transition from the under @-@ 19s to regular reserve football . He was promoted to the first @-@ team squad in the 2002 – 03 season .
= = = Manchester City = = =
Barton would have made his debut for the City first @-@ team in November 2002 against Middlesbrough , had he not lost his shirt after leaving it on the substitutes bench at half @-@ time . He eventually made his first @-@ team debut for the club against Bolton Wanderers on 5 April 2003 . His first senior goal came two weeks later in a 2 – 0 win over Tottenham Hotspur on Good Friday . He ended the 2002 – 03 season with a run of seven consecutive starts .
After impressing in his first season at City , Barton was offered a new one @-@ year contract at the club by manager Kevin Keegan , which he signed in April 2003 . He featured in the first @-@ team more regularly during the 2003 – 04 season and , following a second Premiership goal , was rewarded with a call @-@ up to the England U21 squad for their 2004 European Championship qualifiers against Macedonia and Portugal .
An FA Cup match against Tottenham saw Barton receive the first red card of his career in unusual circumstances : at half @-@ time , with his club 3 – 0 down , he argued with the referee and was sent off although the match was not in progress . In the second half , despite playing with 10 men , Barton 's team @-@ mates achieved an unlikely 4 – 3 victory . Barton left the City of Manchester Stadium in anger on 17 April , after not being named in the team to play Southampton . However he featured regularly in the 2003 – 04 season , which he completed with 39 appearances and one goal . His displays impressed City 's supporters , and at the end of the 2003 – 04 season he was awarded with the club 's Young Player of the Year award .
Barton sparked a ten @-@ man brawl in a friendly match against Doncaster Rovers on 25 July 2004 after " hacking " at an opposition player . Although he signed a new contract on 22 September 2004 , which would keep him at City until 2007 , the club considered sacking Barton in December 2004 after an incident at their Christmas party . He stubbed out a lit cigar in youth player Jamie Tandy 's eye , after he had caught Tandy attempting to set fire to his shirt . Barton subsequently apologised for his actions and was fined six weeks ' wages ( £ 60 @,@ 000 ) .
In May 2005 Barton broke a 35 @-@ year @-@ old pedestrian 's leg while driving his car through Liverpool city centre at 2 am . In the summer of 2005 , Barton was sent home from a pre @-@ season tournament in Thailand after assaulting a 15 @-@ year @-@ old Everton supporter who had provoked Barton by verbally abusing him and kicking his shin . Barton had to be restrained from attacking the boy further by teammate Richard Dunne . Barton underwent anger management therapy at the order of City manager Stuart Pearce and paid £ 120 @,@ 000 in club fines . In the autumn of 2005 , Barton began a seven @-@ day programme of behavioural management at the Sporting Chance clinic , a charity set up to help troubled sportsmen and women .
Barton handed in a written transfer request in January 2006 , which the club rejected . The following day , they also rejected a verbal offer for Barton from Middlesbrough , with Stuart Pearce asserting that a deal could still be made to keep him at the club . During the following week , Barton admitted that he was " a little bit impetuous " in making such a request and agreed to begin negotiations on a new contract at City . He was rewarded with a new four @-@ year deal , which he signed on 25 July , ending speculation about his future .
Barton 's behaviour appeared to improve after his participation at the Sporting Chance clinic . However , on 30 September 2006 , television cameras captured Barton exposing his backside to Everton fans , following City 's injury @-@ time equaliser in a game at Goodison Park . Barton had received abuse from Everton supporters throughout the match and the gesture has since been described as " light @-@ hearted " and " inoffensive " by people involved in football . Merseyside Police looked into the incident , but announced in October that no further action would be taken , although Barton was fined £ 2 @,@ 000 for bringing the game into disrepute and warned about his future conduct by The Football Association .
In December 2006 , Barton received the second red card of his career , for a late two @-@ footed tackle on Bolton Wanderers player Abdoulaye Faye .
Barton 's agent Willie McKay revealed in January 2007 that if any team offered at least £ 5 @.@ 5 million for Barton , it would trigger a release clause in his contract that would mean City would have to allow Barton to talk to the interested club . This reportedly prompted Everton manager David Moyes to make an inquiry to City about Barton 's availability . However , the next day Barton said " People are trying to unsettle me but I 'm happy to stay here " .
Barton was arrested on suspicion of assault and criminal damage after an alleged argument with a taxi driver in Liverpool while going to his hotel after a match on 13 March 2007 . He was cleared of this charge in May 2008 .
Barton displayed his outspokenness once again on 22 April 2007 when he publicly criticised City 's performances during the 2006 – 07 season , and described some of the players the club had signed as " substandard " . Following his comments , City 's manager Stuart Pearce banned him from speaking to the media .
Barton was fined £ 100 @,@ 000 and suspended by City until the end of the 2006 – 07 season on 1 May 2007 , following an incident during training when he assaulted his team mate Ousmane Dabo . Dabo said that he had been hit several times , was left unconscious and had to go to hospital after suffering injuries to his head , including a suspected detached retina . Dabo requested that the police press charges against Barton , and as a result , Barton was arrested and questioned by Greater Manchester Police . This altercation effectively ended Barton 's time at City , although he later cited a " relationship breakdown " with Stuart Pearce as the main reason he left the club . Barton was bailed until August and was later charged with assault , to which he initially pleaded not guilty . He later changed this to a guilty plea and on 1 July 2008 was sentenced to a four @-@ month suspended prison sentence plus 200 hours of community service and ordered to pay £ 3 @,@ 000 compensation and Dabo 's court costs . Barton was also charged with violent conduct by the FA . Barton pleaded guilty and on 1 September 2008 was banned for six games with a further six game ban suspended for two years and fined £ 25 @,@ 000 .
= = = Newcastle United = = =
Following offers from Newcastle United and West Ham United , Barton joined Newcastle on 14 June 2007 for a fee of £ 5 @.@ 8 million . The contract negotiations had become protracted after Manchester City refused to pay Barton a fee of £ 300 @,@ 000 to which he was reported to be entitled if he left the club without submitting a request for transfer . Newcastle United consequently raised their initial offer of £ 5 @.@ 5 million to £ 5 @.@ 8 , in effect compensating Manchester City for the £ 300 @,@ 000 discrepancy . He said that his desire to win trophies helped him to make the decision , along with his admiration for manager Sam Allardyce . Barton made his Newcastle debut in a friendly against Hartlepool United on 17 July 2007 . Four days later , he was ruled out for six to seven weeks after fracturing the fifth metatarsal bone in his left foot during a friendly match with Carlisle United . He was ruled out for a further month in October 2007 . He eventually made his Premier League debut for Newcastle on 22 October 2007 , coming on as a second @-@ half substitute in a 3 – 1 win over Tottenham . During his first Tyne – Wear derby for Newcastle against Sunderland , Barton appeared to raise his foot dangerously in a challenge with Sunderland 's Dickson Etuhu , leading to the News of the World running with the headline " Ban Him " . However the FA were unable to charge Barton for the incident because match official Martin Atkinson had seen the act take place in the match , and had taken no action . FIFA regulations dictate that a retrospective charge for violent conduct can be made only if the match official did not notice the incident . Barton later apologised for the tackle . Early in December , he called for Newcastle fans to give the team more time after their abuse of manager Sam Allardyce , calling them " vicious " . He later played this down , saying his comments had been misrepresented .
On 27 December 2007 , Barton was arrested on suspicion of assault in the Church Street area of Liverpool city centre following an incident which took place at 5 : 30 am . He was remanded in custody on 28 December since the offence was committed whilst he was on bail for two prior offences ; the presiding magistrate noted " I also have to consider the safety of the public – you lashed out indiscriminately " . CCTV showed Barton punching a man twenty times , causing him to lose consciousness , and attacking a teenager , breaking some of his teeth . On 20 May 2008 , he was sentenced to six months in jail after pleading guilty for his part in the December 2007 assault . Barton 's cousin , Nadine Wilson and his brother Andrew Barton also pleaded guilty to their part in the assaults and received suspended sentences . Barton admitted to being an alcoholic and claimed he wanted to achieve " total abstinence " in order to improve his behaviour . He served 77 days of his prison term , being released on 28 July 2008 .
Barton 's subsequent conviction , a four @-@ month suspended sentence for the earlier assault on Ousmane Dabo at Manchester City was handed out while serving this sentence . He returned to playing action on 30 August 2008 , six days before his FA hearing , as a second @-@ half substitute during Newcastle 's 3 – 0 defeat to Arsenal . He came on to a chorus of boos from the Arsenal supporters . Shortly into this return game , Barton was involved in an incident with Samir Nasri , putting in a strong tackle , for which the referee did not give a foul . The tackle , though hard , was legal . Minutes later , Nasri deliberately clipped Barton while tracking back , for which he was booked . At the end of the game , Newcastle manager Kevin Keegan was involved in an altercation with Nasri and Arsenal captain William Gallas , in regards to the incident .
It was a brief stint back in the playing squad , with Barton banned for six games , with a further suspended six @-@ game ban , for his assault on Dabo . After serving his ban , he played 75 minutes in a reserve game and said he wanted to transform his image to become a role model , before he returned to action in the Tyne – Wear derby on 25 October . He was booed by Sunderland fans and had missiles thrown at him as he warmed up , as Newcastle lost 2 – 1 . Without him , Newcastle had not recorded a league victory since the second game of the season , but Barton scored a penalty in his second game back to lift the club out of the relegation zone . The suspended six @-@ game ban was nearly brought into action when Barton appeared to flick Aston Villa striker Gabriel Agbonlahor in the club 's next game , but the FA decided not to punish Barton . However , further allegations that Barton had made a racist remark to Agbonlahor were cause enough for the FA to reconsider this decision . The remarks remain unfounded and ' professional lip @-@ readers ' claimed he said nothing racist . In Newcastle 's 2 – 2 draw with Wigan on 15 November 2008 , Barton was injured after a tackle from Lee Cattermole . It was later confirmed that Barton would be out for two months with a medial ligament injury . Returning to the first team at the end of January , he played only twice before again breaking his metatarsal , during a 2 – 1 defeat to his old club Manchester City .
In his first appearance in over three months on 3 May 2009 , Barton was sent off late in a 3 – 0 loss to Liverpool at Anfield for a sliding challenge on Xabi Alonso . The red card ruled Barton out of Newcastle 's remaining three games of the season , with the club in danger of relegation from the Premier League . Newcastle manager Alan Shearer raised doubts about Barton 's future at the club , saying " I think it would be wrong to discuss his future now , but I 'm not very happy . " On 5 May , Newcastle United announced the suspension of Barton indefinitely , and Barton was told to stay away from the club . As a result , Barton 's future at Newcastle United was put in doubt . The club suspension was widely reportedly to have resulted not directly from the red card , but from a dressing room confrontation with Shearer and assistant manager Iain Dowie following the game . Shearer said he made a mistake putting Barton back into the team , and that his tackle was " a coward 's tackle " , to which Barton replied that he was " the best player at the club " , and Shearer had to play him . Shearer said that Barton was not that he was " shit " . Barton replied that Shearer was " a shit manager with shit tactics " . When Dowie intervened , Barton called him " a prick " . Barton was reportedly transfer listed , with former manager Sam Allardyce reported to have been interested in taking Barton to Blackburn Rovers . Barton 's counsellor has said that Barton " would love to work with Alan Shearer again " and " feels very much that he owes the club and the fans . "
Barton stayed on with Newcastle United after they were relegated to the Championship , playing six out of Newcastle 's opening eight league games , but suffered an injury to his foot in a 3 – 1 win against Plymouth Argyle on 19 September . He returned in April for Newcastle , playing all nine of Newcastle 's remaining league fixtures and scoring his only goal of the campaign from a free kick in a win over Peterborough United . Due to the form of Danny Guthrie and Kevin Nolan , Barton had to play left wing when he returned .
Barton started his new club season 2010 – 11 as a first team regular , playing against Manchester United on the opening day . On Barton 's and Newcastle 's second game , he scored against Aston Villa in a 6 – 0 victory for Newcastle . Immediately , after the game Barton removed a moustache which he had pledged to not shave until Newcastle United had won a game in the new season . On 10 November , in a 2 – 1 defeat to Blackburn , Barton again acted violently , punching Morten Gamst Pedersen in the chest . He was not punished during the game as the officials did not see the incident , but after reviewing the evidence , the FA again charged Barton with violent conduct . Barton apologised , accepted the charge , and was banned for three matches . Barton courted controversy once again during Newcastle 's 3 – 1 win over Liverpool on 11 December 2010 , when he appeared to direct homophobic remarks and a lewd gesture at Fernando Torres . Barton scored two penalties against Arsenal on 5 February 2011 as Newcastle came from a 4 – 0 deficit to draw 4 – 4 . He was involved in an altercation with Abou Diaby which led to a straight red card for Diaby . Diaby took offence to Barton 's strong challenge and retaliated by grabbing Barton by the neck and shoving him to the ground .
On 25 May 2011 , Barton 's agent Willie McKay confirmed that his client would not be signing a new contract at St James ' Park after contract talks broke down between the club and player . Barton was officially transfer listed by Newcastle on 1 August 2011 , and it was also stated that he could leave for free with his current contract yet to expire . Barton was set to leave Newcastle following his teammate Kevin Nolan , who had earlier joined West Ham United , but Barton insisted on not moving . Joey Barton also criticised the Newcastle board after it was decided he could leave the club on a free transfer . With Newcastle continuing to decline the offer of a new contract , after he refused an earlier offer , on 24 August 2011 , Barton was given permission to talk to QPR . Thanking the Newcastle fans , he left on 26 August 2011 .
A week before his signing with QPR , Barton was involved in an altercation with Gervinho of Arsenal , which resulted in Gervinho being sent off on his debut . Then , Alex Song stamped on Barton , for which Song received a three @-@ match ban . Barton later revealed he was on a verge of joining Arsenal but his incident with Gervinho ended his hopes of a move to the Emirates and instead , he joined Queens Park Rangers .
= = = Queens Park Rangers = = =
On 26 August 2011 , Barton moved to Queens Park Rangers , signing a four @-@ year deal on a free transfer . He was handed the captain 's armband by manager Neil Warnock on his debut with the club , which was a 0 – 0 draw with former club Newcastle . On 17 September , he scored his first goal for QPR during a 3 – 0 win against Wolverhampton Wanderers . Following his goal , Barton was involved in a physical confrontation with Wolves player Karl Henry . Henry and Barton had a previous physical confrontation in August 2010 when Barton was still at Newcastle . Barton accused Henry of " trying to hurt people " . Henry responded by calling Barton 's behaviour " embarrassing " .
On 2 January 2012 , Barton scored the opening goal in QPR 's game against Norwich City , his second for the club . However , he was given a straight red card after head @-@ butting Norwich midfielder Bradley Johnson , Barton 's first dismissal since May 2009 . With QPR down to ten men they went on to lose the game 2 – 1 . When Warnock was replaced as manager by Mark Hughes in January 2012 , Hughes confirmed that Barton would remain captain . Barton 's performance in QPR 's 3 – 2 home victory against Liverpool saw him booed by the QPR fans , who promptly cheered when he was substituted just after the hour mark . Barton admitted that his performance was " awful " and the " worst I 've ever played in my career " but also criticised the QPR fans for not sticking with the team in their battle against relegation . After being dropped for the club 's next game , an away defeat to Sunderland , he returned to the line @-@ up for the home game against Arsenal . Barton led QPR to a 2 – 1 victory and he was cheered by the supporters and praised by Hughes , who described his performance as " top @-@ class " . Barton 's third goal for the club came in a 3 – 0 victory at home to Swansea on 11 April 2011 .
On 13 May , on the final day of the season , with QPR requiring at least a draw in their match away at Manchester City or for Bolton Wanderers to not win in order to guarantee Premier League safety , Barton was sent off in the 55th minute for violent misconduct after elbowing Carlos Tevez in the face . Immediately after being shown a red card , he kicked Sergio Agüero in the back of the knee and attempted to head @-@ butt Vincent Kompany . Barton had to be dragged from the pitch by former team @-@ mate Micah Richards as he rowed with Manchester City players and staff and attempted to square @-@ off with striker Mario Balotelli . QPR went on to concede two late goals and lose the match 3 – 2 , but avoided relegation due to Bolton 's draw at Stoke City . Barton commented after the game saying that he was trying to " take [ one ] of their players with me . " The FA responded by issuing two charges of violent conduct against him , for the kick and the attempted head @-@ butt , the initial foul already carrying with it a charge of violent conduct . Barton accepted the charge for kicking Agüero but denied the charge for attempting to head @-@ butt Kompany . QPR also began an internal investigation into his behaviour , amid speculation that he will be stripped of the captaincy and fined and possibly shown the door by the club either by being sold , released on a free transfer or having his contract terminated for gross misconduct .
On 23 May , Barton attended an FA hearing . Punishing him for all three accounts of violent conduct , Barton was handed a twelve @-@ match ban and fined £ 75 @,@ 000 . On 25 June , QPR announced the results of their internal investigation . Barton was stripped of the captaincy and fined six weeks ' wages , believed to be around £ 500 @,@ 000 . Barton was also removed from the club 's pre @-@ season tour of Asia and in a statement , the club said that they had " also reached agreement with Barton that if he seriously breaches the club 's disciplinary procedures again , the club reserves the right to terminate his contract " . Barton responded by saying that " My behaviour was wrong and I accept the punishment that has been imposed upon me as a result . "
On 31 July 2012 , Barton played 45 minutes of a friendly match for League Two side Fleetwood Town in the club 's 4 – 0 win over Kilmarnock . He had been training with Fleetwood after being left out of Queens Park Rangers ' tour of Malaysia . Fleetwood attempted to sign Barton on a six @-@ month loan , but the deal was turned down by QPR .
Ahead of the 2012 @-@ 13 Premier League season , Barton was not given a squad number by QPR . Towards the end of the season , however , chairman Tony Fernandes identified the loss of Barton as a factor in the club 's poor performance and relegation from the Premier League , saying " We missed Joey . We needed a workhorse midfielder and we tried to get Scott Parker . We missed a real leader . "
= = = = Marseille ( loan ) = = = =
Barton completed a season long loan move to Marseille on 31 August 2012 . In September , the LFP confirmed that Barton 's twelve @-@ match ban would be upheld in French football , restricting Barton to UEFA Europa League football for the first four months of the season . On 20 September , Barton made his debut for the club in an away trip to Fenerbahçe in a UEFA Europa League tie , a match that ended 2 – 2 . Barton scored his first goal for Marseille on 8 November in the 2 – 2 draw with Borussia Mönchengladbach in Germany , netting directly from a corner kick in the 54th minute .
Barton told ESPN that he would not return to Queens Park Rangers after the loan spell , and he also said that he only joined the club for money because his partner was expecting a child . Following the comments , on 25 November 2012 , he made his league debut in a 1 – 0 home win against Lille . In his third league appearance on 2 December , Barton provided the assists for both Souleymane Diawara 's and André Ayew 's goals as Marseille defeated Brest 2 – 1 to remain two points behind leaders Lyon .
On 6 May 2013 , Barton was given a two @-@ match suspended ban for describing Thiago Silva of Paris Saint @-@ Germain as looking like an " overweight ladyboy " on Twitter . Laurent Davenas , the President of the French Football Federation 's National Council of Ethics said that Barton was punished only for making " inappropriate " remarks , and escaped a more severe punishment because his lawyers proved his lack of homophobic intent by showing the committee Barton 's appearance in the BBC Three documentary on homophobia in football .
= = = = Return to Queens Park Rangers = = = =
Barton returned to QPR for the 2013 – 14 Football League Championship season . During a match at Burnley in October , a plastic bottle thrown from the stands hit Barton on the head . He was sent off in QPR 's 1 – 0 home defeat to Leicester City on 21 December 2013 , receiving two yellow cards in quick succession for fouling and then throwing the ball in dissent at Gary Taylor @-@ Fletcher . On 21 February 2015 , Barton received the ninth red card of his career in the 32nd minute of a game against Hull City after swinging at Tom Huddlestone 's groin following a foul by Darnell Furlong . Chris Ramsey suggested that Barton , who would miss the club 's next three home matches as a result , would return to anger management therapy following the incident . In May 2015 , Queens Park Rangers announced the release of Barton in the summer of 2015 .
On 10 August 2015 , following his release from Queens Park Rangers , West Ham United were reportedly confident of signing Barton . Two days later , their co @-@ chairman David Gold confirmed that the deal was off after reported protests from some fans unhappy at the prospect of Barton turning out for the Hammers .
= = = Burnley = = =
On 27 August 2015 , Barton joined Championship side Burnley on a one @-@ year deal . On 17 April 2016 , he was named in the Championship PFA Team of the Year .
= = = Rangers = = =
On 24 May 2016 , Barton joined Scottish Premiership team Rangers on a two @-@ year deal . He made his first appearance for the club as a substitute in Rangers 2 @-@ 0 victory over Annan Athletic in the League Cup on 19 July .
= = International career = =
Barton represented the England under @-@ 21 team and was part of the squad for their 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualifiers against Macedonia and Portugal , scoring once against Portugal .
Following impressive form at club level , Barton received his first call @-@ up to the full England squad on 2 February 2007 for a friendly match against Spain , despite his recent criticism of certain members of the England squad for releasing autobiographies after an unimpressive 2006 FIFA World Cup . He had suggested such players had " cashed in " on the national team 's lack of success .
Barton later received support over his comments and Steven Gerrard , one of the players whom Barton had criticised , praised him for his honesty . However , Frank Lampard , who had also released an autobiography following the tournament , publicly stated his disapproval . Barton made his international debut on 7 February 2007 , replacing Lampard in the 78th minute of the 0 – 1 defeat to Spain at Old Trafford .
= = Style of play = =
Early in his career , Barton mainly played a defensive role , with a game based on tackling and tracking back to shield the defence . As his career has progressed , he has begun to incorporate a more attacking approach to his play , which has resulted in a greater number of goals and assists and his six goals from midfield made him Manchester City 's leading scorer in the 2006 – 07 season , ahead of strikers Georgios Samaras , Bernardo Corradi , Émile Mpenza and Darius Vassell .
Barton has been described as having a good work ethic and the ability to carry the ball and retain possession for the team . He has been praised for having a good passing range . This aspect of his game has shown improvement since the 2005 – 06 season , when he began to favour simpler passes over more ambitious ones , and his relatively high pass completion rate can be attributed to this change . Barton 's passes have often proved to be crucial ; in the past he has led the way in his team 's assists .
Barton has been described as the dirtiest player in the Premier League , a style reflected in the high number of fouls he has committed during his career . He received 39 bookings and three red cards during his time at Manchester City . This physical approach was occasionally criticised by Kevin Keegan as excessive . Opta statistics rated Barton as the tenth best tackler in the Premier League for the 2004 – 05 season .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family = = =
Barton 's brother Michael Barton was sentenced to life imprisonment ( with a tariff of 17 years ) for his involvement in the racially motivated murder of Anthony Walker in 2005 . Joey made a public appeal to his brother to come forward and help with the police investigation following the attack , and also made a series of calls to Michael , enquiring about his involvement in the incident .
On 28 December 2011 , Barton became a father . His partner Georgia McNeil gave birth to a son , named Cassius . On 6 June 2014 , McNeil gave birth to the couple 's second child , a daughter named Pietà .
= = = Interests = = =
He is a good friend of the boxer Ricky Hatton and has supported him in some of his fights , and has trained with him . He is also a friend of former Oasis band member Noel Gallagher . Barton co @-@ owns a race horse called ' Crying Lightning ' ( named after the Arctic Monkeys song ) with fellow footballer Claudio Pizarro . In January 2011 , the horse competed at the Nad Al Sheba Racecourse in Dubai . He is also notable for his love of Manchester band The Smiths , citing Morrissey as an idol of his .
= = = Charity = = =
Barton is a patron of the Tamsin Gulvin Fund , a charity set up to support people who have addiction problems and no financial support . Tony Adams , who had been impressed with Barton 's attitude during his involvement in the Sporting Chance clinic , appointed him to this role . He is a part of the ' Get Hooked on Fishing ' campaign , designed to keep children out of trouble by encouraging them to take up fishing . He has also taken part in a celebrity cricket match for charity to help fund a new children 's rehabilitation unit at a hospital in Manchester . In 2011 he began writing a regular column in The Big Issue , a street newspaper sold by the homeless and vulnerably housed .
= = = Views = = =
Barton is a prominent user of Twitter , with over two million followers as for April 2013 . Commenting on figures from Friedrich Nietzsche and George Orwell to Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Morrissey , his eclectic tweets have resulted in him being described by the BBC as " a philosophical sportsman to rival Eric Cantona in his heyday " . Others in the media have criticised this description with Paul Hayward , chief sports writer for The Daily Telegraph writing that Barton " manages to be patronised [ by the media ] and held up as some kind of exemplar all at once ... he is skilled at tricking us into watching him veer between the extremes of thinker and thug . Either this is a repudiation of societal hypocrisy or , more likely , indicative of a sociopathic tendency . " Ellie Mae O 'Hagan of The Guardian commented that " the problem , I think , is not the belief that Barton is a reformed character , but the notion that one cannot possibly be a philosopher and violent at the same time : that quoting philosophy should automatically be taken as a sign of reformation ... In my mind , this all boils down to class snobbery . It is automatically assumed that Barton has violent tendencies because he 's a working @-@ class man who has chosen to play football for a living . So when he shows signs of intelligence , it 's treated as a sign of reform : intellect is the preserve of the gentlemanly middle @-@ classes . "
On 29 May 2014 , Barton appeared on the BBC 's Question Time discussion programme where , referring to the UK Independence Party ( UKIP ) , he said " If I 'm somewhere and there was four really ugly girls , I 'm thinking she 's not the worst – that 's all UKIP are , " . Barton 's comments were criticised as sexist by an audience member and he later apologised on air . The Independent newspaper deemed that despite the comments , Barton had produced a " strong performance " on the programme .
In a television programme broadcast on BBC Three on 30 January 2012 , Barton stated his beliefs in support of gay rights , in discussion with presenter Amal Fashanu , niece of Justin Fashanu , England 's only openly gay footballer . He described lack of any openly gay players in English professional football as " a subject that 's quite close to my heart " , as his uncle is gay . He stated his belief that there would be an openly gay player " within the next 10 years " and expressed his fear that " certain managers ... will discriminate against people " but that he feels " more fool them , and their lack of social awareness and intelligence " and wants his generation 's legacy to " help not only change the game for the better , and change the teams that they played in , but also change the culture and change the society and the football clubs that they played at .
In an article written in The Independent in February 2015 , Barton stated that : " If I were Prime Minister I would privatise religion . All public money would be withdrawn from religion . Taxpayers money will cease to sponsor religion in any and every form . " He said that the Church of England should be disestablished . In April of that year , he was appointed an honorary associate of the National Secular Society .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 20 July 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played 7 February 2007 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Newcastle United
Football League Championship : 2009 – 10
Queens Park Rangers
Football League Championship play @-@ offs : 2013 – 14
Burnley
Football League Championship : 2015 – 16
= = = Individual = = =
Football League Championship PFA Team of the Year : 2015 – 16
Burnley Player of the Year : 2015 – 16
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= Little Things ( One Direction song ) =
" Little Things " is a song by English @-@ Irish boy band One Direction from their second studio album , Take Me Home ( 2012 ) . It was released by Syco Music on 3 December 2012 , as the record 's second single . The song was written by Fiona Bevan and Ed Sheeran , and produced by Jake Gosling . Bevan brought the song to Sheeran 's attention while he was in studio with the group in 2012 , resulting in the band recording it . " Little Things " is a mid @-@ tempo pop and folk ballad about the insistence that flaws are what make a person unique .
The track received mixed to negative reviews from contemporary music critics , many of whom felt that the song is not tailored to them . The song became the group 's second number @-@ one hit in the United Kingdom , while reaching the top ten in Australia , Ireland , and New Zealand . In addition , it attained top forty positions in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Canada , Denmark , Sweden , Switzerland , and the United States . The single has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies .
Directed by Vaughan Arnell , the accompanying music video was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white and consists of a simplistic concept — One Direction recording the song . Upon release , it received positive reviews from reviewers , who noted that it was a perfect accompaniment for the song . The band performed the track on both the UK and US versions of The X Factor and during their 3 major conert tours : Take Me Home Tour ( 2013 ) , Where We Are Tour ( 2014 ) and On the Road Again Tour ( 2015 ) .
= = Background and conception = =
" Little Things " was written by British singer @-@ songwriters Ed Sheeran and Fiona Bevan , and produced by Jake Gosling . In February 2012 , One Direction expressed interest in working with Sheeran for their second studio album . In June 2012 , Sheeran disclosed that One Direction would be recording two of his songs . In October 2012 , Sheeran acknowledged Bevan 's songwriting credit in an interview with British radio network Capital FM : " The great thing about it is I wrote that song with a girl called Fiona Bevan when I was 17 and we lost the song . I 've kept in touch with Fiona , we 've done gigs and stuff and about two months ago she sent me the tune and was like , ' Oh , do you remember this ? ' I was like , ' Yeah , I do remember that ' , and I was in the studio with the One Direction boys at the time and I was playing it and they were like , ' We really like that ' . It 's got one of my favourite lines that I 've ever written in a song . " On 15 October 2012 , Louis Tomlinson confirmed via social networking website Twitter that " Little Things " would serve as the second single of their second studio album Take Me Home .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Little Things " is a mid @-@ tempo pop and folk ballad which runs for 3 : 39 ( 3 minutes , 39 seconds ) . Written in the key of G major , the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 110 beats per minute . One Direction 's vocal range in the song span from the note of A3 to D5 . Instrumentation includes guitar strings , piano lines and vocals . The song utilises an acoustic guitar riff and a rotation of lead vocals . The song 's lyrics revolve around the insistence that flaws are what make a person unique . In a September 2012 interview with MTV News , Sheeran quipped that the song " is about the best things about someone , kind of like the things you wouldn 't expect . " He described " Little Things " as an " appreciation song , " and concluded : " Seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Ed just wrote a lot of love songs " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Little Things " received mixed to negative reviews from music critics . Grady Smith for Entertainment Weekly described its lyricism as " terribly misguided " for One Direction 's target audience . Melinda Newman of HitFix , polarised by its lyrical content , wrote that women want men to pretend their flaws do not exist and not see them . Both Kate Wills of The Independent and Rolling Stone writer Jon Dolan criticised the lyrical content as jarring . Although Bill Lamb of About.com shared Smith 's sentiment , he favoured Gosling 's " beautiful " production of the song and the group 's " top notch " vocal performance . Al Fox of BBC Music , who noted a " pursuit for credibility " , felt that One Direction were " handing in their identity " with " Little Things " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times dismissed Sheeran 's songwriting as " unusually lumpy in the hands of such a polished group " . In contrast , Alexis Petridis for The Guardian described the track as " noticeably more sophisticated lyrically and emotionally than anything else on the album . " The Boston Globe editor Sarah Rodman selected the " essential " song as the album 's " best " attribute , and Matt Collar from AllMusic considered the ballad " an air of maturity to One Direction 's admittedly squeaky @-@ fresh sound . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy felt that " Little Things " can be interpreted as " minor signs of growth " for the boy band .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Little Things " made its Irish Singles Chart debut at number two in the week ending 15 November 2012 , marking One Direction 's fifth top @-@ ten hit in Ireland . The track debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart on 18 November 2012 , becoming One Direction 's second number @-@ one hit in the United Kingdom . Their second studio album Take Me Home and the single both debuted simultaneously at number one in the UK , making One Direction the youngest act in British chart history to achieve the feat . In addition , the song became a top forty hit in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Denmark , Sweden , and Switzerland . It became their third song to attain a top @-@ forty position in both Sweden and Belgium ( Wallonia ) . Elsewhere in Europe , the song charted in lower regions on the singles charts of Austria , Belgium ( Flanders ) , France , Germany , and Slovakia .
The single bowed at number nine on the Australian Singles Chart of 25 November 2012 , marking its peak position and the group 's fourth top ten hit in Australia . It held that position for a second week and has been certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 210 @,@ 000 copies . The track made its New Zealand Singles Chart debut at number two on 19 November 2012 , denoting its highest charting position and the quintet 's third top five appearance in New Zealand . " Little Things " has received a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , indicating sales of 7 @,@ 500 copies .
The ballad became One Direction 's fourth top forty hit on the Canadian Hot 100 , peaking at number 20 . In the week ending 18 November 2012 , " Little Things " debuted on the United States Billboard Hot 100 at number 41 , selling 91 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . As a result of an " end @-@ of @-@ year download rush " in the week ending 30 December 2012 , the single 's weekly sales rose 189 % from the previous week to 153 @,@ 000 copies sold . The sales rise signified a new peak of number 33 on the Hot 100 by the single 's seventh charting week . The track marks the boy band 's fourth top forty hit on the Hot 100 and also attained positions on the Pop Songs and Hot 100 Airplay charts , peaking at numbers 19 and 61 , respectively . " Little Things " had sold 502 @,@ 000 copies in the United States by 7 January 2013 . The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 9 May 2013 , denoting shipments of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Little Things " was shot entirely in black @-@ and @-@ white and directed by Vaughan Arnell , who had previously directed the band 's music video for their previous single " Live While We 're Young " . Tomlinson disclosed via social networking website Twitter that an accompanying music video for " Little Things " was in production on 15 October 2012 . Band member Zayn Malik confirmed that they had finished filming the video the following day . On each of the five days preceding the video 's premiere , One Direction posted a teaser trailer of the video online . Each teaser showed footage from the video and behind the scenes , and one member of the band announcing how many days were left until the video premiere . The official video was uploaded to their Vevo account on YouTube on 2 November 2012 .
The music video consists of a simplistic concept — a One Direction recording session . In a November 2012 interview with MTV News , Arnell said he did not want to make it about anything more than that , " When I first heard the track , the mix on it was so simple and so pure and you could hear all the qualities of the voices on the track , I just wanted to come up with something that when the viewer watched it , it was almost like sitting there listening to the boys sing the track . " Arnell subsequently developed the idea of a recording studio setting , thinking that it was " the most pure way to do it " . He wanted to make the music video as " uncontrived as possible " without " any other bullsh-- or effects in the way of it . " While Arnell conceded that music video may seem like a simple concept , the shoot itself took over twelve hours to complete and said that it was " one of the hardest things I 've ever done . " The group performed it " over and over again because I was just trying to get different shots , different angles , different qualities . " As for the decision to shoot the video in black @-@ and @-@ white , Arnell felt it best captured the essence of the ballad . He also noted that was his intention to give the music video the feeling as if One Direction are singing it right to you , " It 's purely about the clarity of it . When you sit there watching it , it 's almost like these little bits of eye contact [ and ] you really feel like the guys are singing it to you . "
Upon release , ' # LittleThingsOnVEVO ' became the number @-@ one trending topic worldwide on social networking website Twitter . Following the release of the music video for " Little Things " and its accompanying teaser videos , One Direction posted a 138 % increase in Vevo plays and a 159 % increase in Facebook reaction in the United States . As a result of the video schedule , the group topped Billboard 's Social 50 chart for the first time in their 52nd week on the chart , rising 10 @-@ 1 from the previous week . Jocelyn Vena of MTV News characterised it as a straightforward video , which has a " quiet tone " that " complements the ballad 's sentimental lyrics . " Sam Lanksy for Idolator called it " sweet and subdued " and noted that the video is a significant transition from the " over @-@ the @-@ top jubilance " of their " Live While We 're Young " video , writing that the contrast " is nice — even if the ultimate effect is a little sleepy . " A reviewer of The Huffington Post favoured " the low @-@ key , laid @-@ back " approach to the video and concluded that the " intimate feel of the video perfectly accompanies the songs ' sweet lyrics " . An editor for Capital FM highlighted sequences in which the boy band " share individual emotionally charged scenes . "
= = Live performances = =
One Direction performed " Little Things " and " Live While We 're Young " on The X Factor USA ( 8 November ) , and " Little Things " on The X Factor UK ( 11 November ) . The band performed the song along with " What Makes You Beautiful " , " Live While We 're Young " , and " Kiss You " on The Today Show at the Rockefeller Center ( 13 November ) , to a record crowd estimated at 15 @,@ 000 . They performed " Live While We 're Young " and " Little Things " on the BBC 's Children in Need 2012 telethon ( 16 November ) . In addition , they performed " Little Things " on British television series Surprise , Surprise ( 18 November - Recorded 21 October ) , at the 2012 Royal Variety Performance ( 19 November ) , in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II , and on The X Factor Australia ( 20 November ) . " Little Things " was included on the set list of the group 's headlining sold @-@ out show at Madison Square Garden ( 3 December ) . They also performed 3 major concert tours : Take Me Home Tour ( 2013 ) , Where We Are Tour ( 2014 ) & On the Road Again Tour ( 2015 ) .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Ed Sheeran — writing
Fiona Bevan — writing
Tommy Culm — backing vocals
Jake Gosling — production
Chris Leonard — guitar
Credits adapted from Take Me Home 's liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Suillellus amygdalinus =
Suillellus amygdalinus ( formerly Boletus amygdalinus ) is a fungus of the bolete family found in western North America . The fruit bodies , or mushrooms , are characterized by their thick , red to brown caps , red pores , and the strong bluing reaction observed when the mushroom tissue is injured or cut . The cap can reach diameters of up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) and the stipe 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) long by 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick at maturity . This mushroom has been found in manzanita and madrone woodlands of central California north to southern Oregon . Although the edibility of the mushroom is not known with certainty , it may be poisonous , and is not recommended for consumption . Other similar red @-@ pored , bluing boletes from North America , including Rubroboletus eastwoodiae , Boletus luridiformis , and B. subvelutipes , can be distinguished from S. amygdalinus either by the color of the cap , the degree of reticulation ( a network of raised ridges ) on the stipe , or by location .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first named Boletus puniceus by Harry D. Thiers in 1965 , based on specimens he found in Napa County , California , on 23 November 1963 . In 1975 , Thiers changed the name to Boletus amygdalinus ( a nomen nudum ) as he discovered that the epithet had already been used for a different bolete found in Yunnan , China , published in 1948 . The fungus was transferred to Suillellus in 2014 after molecular phylogenetics demonstrated that S. amygdalinus was in a lineage distinct from Boletus .
In Latin , amygdaline means relating to or resembling an almond .
= = Description = =
Suillellus amygdalinus is a large solid mushroom with a convex to somewhat flattened , irregular cap that can reach diameters of 6 to 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) at maturity . The surface of the cap is dry , and matted with fibers ; the cap color of young specimens is red , but the mushrooms typically change to more brownish tones as they mature . The margin of the cap starts out curved inwards ( incurved ) and gradually becomes curved downwards ( decurved ) with age . The pores on the underside of the cap are 0 @.@ 5 to 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 to 0 @.@ 04 in ) wide , angular , and red or red @-@ orange , while the tubes are 1 to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 6 in ) deep .
The stipe lacks a netted pattern ( reticulation ) and is yellow in color but is often covered by red hairs , especially near the base . The stipe is either equal in width throughout , or thicker in the middle ; it reaches dimensions of 5 – 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) long by 1 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The base of the stipe is typically bent . The flesh is 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick , and yellow in color , but like all parts of the mushroom , will stain blue immediately upon bruising or cutting . Both the odor and taste of the fruit bodies are mild .
Although the edibility of S. amygdalinus is not known with certainty , authorities often recommend to avoid consuming blue @-@ staining , red @-@ pored boletes , as several are poisonous . The species was implicated in one group of poisonings in California in 1996 – 97 , but because of the nature of the symptoms experienced , there was probably more than one type of mushroom consumed .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Suillellus amygdalinus produces a dark olive @-@ brown spore print . The spores are thick @-@ walled , smooth , and ellipsoid to somewhat spindle @-@ shaped , with dimensions of 11 @.@ 2 – 16 by 5 @.@ 2 – 8 µm . They become dark ochraceous when stained with Melzer 's reagent , and , because of the occasional presence of two large vacuoles , may appear as if they are two @-@ celled . The basidia ( the spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , contain numerous vacuoles , and measure 30 – 35 by 9 – 11 µm . Cystidia are present on sides of the tubes , and they measure 45 – 54 by 10 – 12 µm . Clamp connections are not present in the hyphae of S. amygdalinus .
Various chemical color tests can be used to help identify fruit bodies suspected to be S. amygdalinus . A drop of dilute potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) will turn the cap flesh dingy orange , while it turns the cap cuticle red , or darker . Ammonia ( as ammonium hydroxide , NH4OH ) produces a dingy yellow on the flesh , and brown on the cap . Iron sulphate ( FeSO4 ) produces either no change to a pale grey color with both the flesh and the cuticle . Hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) causes the flesh to turn orange or pink , but has no color reaction with the cuticle .
= = = Similar species = = =
There are several other red @-@ pored , bluing boletes that could be confused with S. amygdalinus . The poisonous European species Rubroboletus satanas and its North American counterpart R. eastwoodiae have lighter colored caps and a reticulate pattern on the stipe . B. subvelutipes is a highly variable species from eastern North America that includes red in its range of cap colors , and has a fuzzy coating of hairs near the base of its stipe ; it may represent a group of species . Another similar species is B. luridiformis , found in North America and Northern Europe under both broadleaf trees and conifers . Unlike S. amygdalinus , however , B. luridiformis has a dark brown to nearly blackish @-@ brown cap , and a yellow stipe with a dense covering of red pruina ( dots ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Suillellus amygdalinus mushrooms grow on the ground in groups , or scattered about . The fungus has been reported from low @-@ elevation hardwood forests composed of live oak , manzanita and madrone in California , and Oregon . Fruiting occurs after the onset of autumn rains , usually between the October and January . The mushroom can be difficult to spot , as its cap is similar in coloring to the leaves of the madrone tree with which it is associated , and because the mushroom is frequently buried under leaves .
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= Mario Balotelli =
Mario Balotelli Barwuah ( Italian pronunciation : [ ˈmaːrjo baloˈtɛlli ] ; born Mario Barwuah ; 12 August 1990 ) is an Italian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Liverpool and the Italy national team .
He started his professional football career at Lumezzane and played for the first team twice before having an unsuccessful trial at Barcelona , and subsequently joining Internazionale in 2007 . Inter manager Roberto Mancini brought Balotelli into the first team , but when Mancini left , Balotelli 's disciplinary record fell away . He had a strained relationship with new manager José Mourinho and was suspended from Inter 's first team in January 2009 after a number of disciplinary problems .
With doubts over his career at Inter , former coach Roberto Mancini had since moved to Manchester City and decided to give Balotelli a fresh chance at a new club . He joined Manchester City in August 2010 , where his performances and off @-@ field activities continued to be enigmatic and unpredictable . Balotelli eventually fell out of favour with Mancini after a " training ground bust up " between the two in January 2013 . His departure from City and return to Italy with A.C. Milan followed several weeks later . After 18 months at Milan , he returned to the Premier League with Liverpool , going back on loan after an unsuccessful season .
Balotelli earned his first cap for Italy in a friendly match against the Ivory Coast on 10 August 2010 . He has since amassed over 30 caps and represented his country at UEFA Euro 2012 , the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup , and the 2014 FIFA World Cup ; he helped the national side reach the final of Euro 2012 , and also won a bronze medal at the Confederations Cup . Along with Antonio Cassano , he is Italy 's top @-@ scorer in the UEFA European Championships , with 3 goals . He is also Italy 's top scorer in the FIFA Confederations Cup , alongside Giuseppe Rossi and Daniele De Rossi , with 2 goals .
= = Early life = =
Mario Balotelli was born in Palermo , Sicily as the son of Ghanaian immigrants . The family moved to Bagnolo Mella in the province of Brescia , Lombardy , when he was two .
In 1993 , when he was three , Balotelli was placed in foster care to the Balotelli family when his own family was unable to pay for his health care needs . His foster parents are Silvia , the Jewish daughter of Holocaust survivors , and Francesco Balotelli . They lived in the town of Concesio , Brescia , in northern Italy .
At first , he stayed at the Balotellis during the weekdays , and returned to his biological parents on weekends . He later was permanently fostered by the Balotellis full @-@ time , and adopted their surname . In June 2012 , he dedicated his goals that put Italy in the final of the Euro 2012 football championships to his foster mother Silvia . Balotelli had to wait until his 18th birthday to request Italian citizenship , as his foster family had not adopted him . He officially gained citizenship in Concesio on 13 August 2008 . After the ceremony he released the following statement :
I am Italian , I feel Italian , I will forever play with the Italian national team .
Mario Balotelli
Mario has three biological siblings : Abigail , Enoch , and Angel Barwuah . Enoch Barwuah , two years younger than Balotelli , is also a professional footballer .
= = Club career = =
= = = Lumezzane = = =
Balotelli began his career at Lumezzane . At the age of 15 he was promoted to the first team , making his first team debut in a Serie C1 league match against Padova on 2 April 2006 .
= = = Internazionale = = =
Having had an unsuccessful trial with Barcelona at the age of 15 , Balotelli was signed by Internazionale in 2006 on loan with a pre @-@ set price of € 150 @,@ 000 to co @-@ own the player . In June 2007 Inter exercised the option and purchased another half for additional € 190 @,@ 000 . On 8 November 2007 , as part of Sheffield F.C. ' s 150th anniversary celebrations , Balotelli featured in a friendly between the two sides at Sheffield United 's Bramall Lane . The game finished 5 – 2 to Inter , with Balotelli scoring twice . He made his first team and Serie A debut on 16 December 2007 , replacing David Suazo in a 2 – 0 win against Cagliari . Three days later he was featured in the starting lineup in a Coppa Italia match against Reggina , scoring two goals in a 4 – 1 win . Balotelli gained national attention after he scored two goals against Juventus in the return leg of the Coppa Italia quarter @-@ finals , being instrumental in a 3 – 2 away win for Inter . His first Serie A goal then came in April 2008 in a 2 – 0 away win against Atalanta . Inter went on to win the 2007 – 08 Serie A. Balotelli was a substitute in the 2008 Supercoppa Italiana final against Roma . He came on as a replacement for Luís Figo , scoring in the 83rd minute . Inter went on to win the final 6 – 5 on penalties after the match ended 2 – 2 .
In November 2008 , Balotelli became the youngest Inter player ( at 18 years and 85 days ) to score in the Champions League when he scored a goal in a 3 – 3 draw against Cypriot side Anorthosis Famagusta , beating the previous record set by Obafemi Martins ( at 18 years and 145 days ) . In an April 2009 match with Juventus where he scored Inter 's only goal in a 1 – 1 draw , Balotelli was racially abused by Juventus fans throughout the game . This led Inter owner Massimo Moratti to say that he would have pulled the team off the pitch had he been present . The racist chants were also condemned by Juventus chairman Giovanni Cobolli Gigli and Juventus were given a one @-@ game home @-@ fan ban because of the incident . Inter won Serie A for the fourth time in a row .
In his second season with Inter , Balotelli had a number of disciplinary problems , most notably involving head coach José Mourinho who excluded him from the first team in the second half of January 2009 . Earlier that season Mourinho had accused Balotelli of showing a lack of effort in training , stating " as far as I 'm concerned , a young boy like him cannot allow himself to train less than people like Figo , Córdoba , and Zanetti . " Balotelli continued to be the subject of racist chants throughout the season , becoming the focus of Juventus fans even during games not involving Inter , leading to Juventus being fined twice and the club ultimately punished with a partial stadium closure .
Balotelli 's disciplinary problems , and his difficult relationship with Mourinho , continued in the 2009 – 10 season . In November Inter drew 1 – 1 against Roma and Mourinho criticized his players , even going as far as saying that Balotelli " came close to a zero rating " . Balotelli had another negative encounter with Juventus fans in the heated Derby d 'Italia encounter in an away match against Juventus on 5 December 2009 , which Inter lost 2 – 1 . When he was elbowed by Juventus midfielder Felipe Melo in the shoulder , Balotelli fell theatrically onto the pitch , for which he was booked , while Melo was sent off for a second yellow card . The incident sparked an altercation between Balotelli 's teammate Thiago Motta and Juventus goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon . The tension between Balotelli and Mourinho reached its peak on the eve of the UEFA Champions League second leg against Chelsea after the young striker was not called @-@ up , following an altercation with his manager . Despite Inter 's 1 – 0 win at Stamford Bridge , London , Balotelli was criticized by several senior players including captain Javier Zanetti and veteran defender Marco Materazzi , as well as by his own agent . In March 2010 he came under heavy criticism from fans after he publicly sported an A.C. Milan ( Inter 's cross @-@ town rivals ) jersey on the Italian show Striscia la Notizia .
Balotelli released a statement of apology in Inter 's's official website that read :
" I am sorry for the situation that has been created recently . I am the first person who has suffered because I adore football and I want to play , and now I am waiting in silence so I can return to being useful to my team . I want to put the past behind me , look to the future and concentrate on the upcoming commitments and make myself ready . "
Mario Balotelli
After a falling @-@ out with Mourinho , Balotelli was recalled for Inter 's April 2010 match against Bologna , and he marked his return with a goal in their 3 – 0 win . He again caused controversy in the Champions League semi @-@ final against Barcelona on 20 April 2010 as he threw his jersey on the ground after the final whistle , in response to Inter fans who had booed him for his poor performance . He admitted three years later that the incident was the only regret in his life . Disgruntled fans confronted and tried to attack Balotelli after the game . His behavior on the pitch brought disapproval from his teammates , with Zanetti publicly saying " Mario needs to focus on doing what he can do on the pitch , he can 't allow himself to behave like this . " Amid these controversies with his club and manager , many Premier League teams , including Manchester United and Manchester City , indicated that they were interested in signing Balotelli in July 2010 .
= = = Manchester City = = =
= = = = 2010 – 11 = = = =
After weeks of speculation , Inter reached an agreement for Balotelli 's transfer to Manchester City on 12 August 2010 for € 21 @.@ 8 million . At Manchester City Balotelli reunited with his former boss , Roberto Mancini , who said , " His style of play will suit the Premier League , and because he is still so young there is a big chance for him to improve . He is a strong and exciting player , and City fans will enjoy watching him . " Balotelli exchanged squad number with teammate Greg Cunningham so that he could continue to wear the number 45 shirt .
On 19 August 2010 Balotelli came on as a substitute to score in his debut against Politehnica Timișoara in a 1 – 0 away win in the Europa League , but during the match injured the lateral meniscus in his right knee and on 8 September underwent surgery that sidelined him until October . Balotelli eventually made his Premier League debut on 24 October as a substitute in a 3 – 0 home defeat to Arsenal and made his first Premier League on 30 October in a 2 – 1 away defeat to Wolverhampton Wanderers . Balotelli scored his first and second Premier League goals on 7 November in a 2 – 0 away win to West Brom . In the same game Balotelli received a red card for violent conduct as the result of a clash with Youssuf Mulumbu , which his manager Roberto Mancini described as unfair . Balotelli scored the first two of City 's three goals in the 3 – 0 win over FC Red Bull Salzburg in Manchester City 's Europa League group stage match .
On 21 December 2010 Balotelli won the Golden Boy Award , saying that only one of the past winners was slightly better than he was – Lionel Messi . He also claimed not to know of Arsenal 's Jack Wilshere , the player he narrowly beat to the award . On 28 December 2010 Balotelli scored his first Premier League hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 0 win over Aston Villa . Despite this success Balotelli still had disciplinary problems , and in March 2011 he was sent off in the second @-@ leg of Manchester City 's Europa League draw with Dynamo Kyiv . On 14 May 2011 Balotelli was man of the match in the 2011 FA Cup Final as Manchester City defeated Stoke City 1 – 0 to win their first trophy in thirty @-@ five years .
= = = = 2011 – 12 = = = =
Balotelli scored his first goal of the 2011 – 12 campaign in a 2 – 0 League Cup win against Birmingham City . He followed this up with the opening goal against Everton three days later . On 1 October 2011 he scored his third goal in as many games in a 4 – 0 win away to Blackburn Rovers . Balotelli scored the opening two goals and forced the dismissal of Jonny Evans as City beat Manchester United 6 – 1 at Old Trafford on 23 October 2011 in what would prove to be a decisive game in helping win Manchester City the league title . Balotelli made his Champions League debut for City on 2 November 2011 , in the second leg against Villarreal . He scored on a penalty shot near the end of the first half , his first Champions League goal for City and his seventh goal overall in the season . On 27 November , Balotelli came on as a 65th @-@ minute substitute against Liverpool and was sent off after receiving two yellow cards . Balotelli scored using his right shoulder in City 's 5 – 1 win over Norwich City on 3 December . He put City 1 – 0 up against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge after just two minutes on 12 December , although Chelsea rallied to win 2 – 1 .
On 22 January 2012 , Balotelli came on as a substitute during a match against Tottenham Hotspur . He appeared to stamp on Scott Parker during the match against Tottenham , but , already booked , did not get a second yellow from referee Howard Webb , who did not see the incident . Balotelli subsequently scored his first goal of 2012 , an injury @-@ time penalty which secured a 3 – 2 win for City . He was charged for violent conduct for the kick against Scott Parker and was suspended for four matches , three for violent conduct and one for his second sending off . On 25 February , he scored his tenth league goal of the season in a 3 – 0 home win against Blackburn Rovers . He scored again the following game in a 2 – 0 win against Bolton Wanderers . On 31 March , Balotelli scored twice as City drew 3 – 3 at home against Sunderland . However , Balotelli was criticized for his actions in the match after squabbling with Aleksandar Kolarov over a free kick . Roberto Mancini claimed after the game that he had considered substituting Balotelli just five minutes into the match . On 8 April 2012 , Balotelli received his fourth red card of the season , after receiving his second yellow card during the match for a tackle against Bacary Sagna during City 's 1 – 0 loss to Arsenal in April 2012 . He was banned for three games ( one for the two yellow cards and two for the previous two red cards in the same season ) . After the Arsenal match , Mancini appeared to have finally lost his patience with Balotelli , suggesting that Balotelli would not play any part in the remainder of City 's season and be sold by the club . Despite this , Balotelli did make an appearance as a late substitute in the last game of the season , a title @-@ deciding match against Queens Park Rangers . Balotelli provided the assist to striker Sergio Agüero , who scored in the 94th minute to give City their first league title since 1968 .
= = = = 2012 – 13 = = = =
In December 2012 , Balotelli decided to fight against Manchester City 's decision to fine him two weeks ' wages for his poor disciplinary record the previous season by taking his club to a Premier League tribunal . Balotelli missed 11 games domestically and in Europe last season because of suspensions . With less than a day remaining to the start of the hearing , Balotelli dropped his tribunal action and accepted the fine .
= = = A.C. Milan = = =
= = = = 2012 – 13 = = = =
On 29 January 2013 , A.C. Milan 's organising director Umberto Gandini announced that the team had agreed a deal to sign Balotelli from Manchester City on a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half year deal rumoured to be worth € 20 million plus bonuses and add @-@ ons . Manchester City 's then manager Roberto Mancini suggested he had sanctioned Balotelli 's sale to Milan for the good of the player , describing the forward as " like another one of my children " and saying Balotelli could become one of the best players in the world when restored to Serie A. On 31 January 2013 , the Serie A giants completed the signing , and Balotelli was awarded the number 45 shirt , the same number he wore for Inter Milan and Manchester City . Milan 's vice @-@ president , Adriano Galliani , said " Balotelli in Rossoneri is a dream that has been realized . It is a transfer that everyone wanted : club , president and fans . " Balotelli received a warm reception when he returned to Milan . His arrival saw some fans scuffling with police and one policeman was taken to hospital with head injuries . It was stated that Silvio Berlusconi 's signing of Balotelli would help him gain extra votes in the 2013 Italian general election .
On 3 February 2013 , Balotelli made his debut for Milan and scored two goals , including a last minute penalty to earn a 2 – 1 victory over Udinese . The win lifted Milan to fourth in the table , ahead of Inter Milan on goal difference . In the next two matches , Balotelli scored two goals , including 30 yards ( 27 m ) free @-@ kick against Parma . With that goal , he equaled Oliver Bierhoff 's record of four goals in first three matches for Milan . In his fifth appearance Balotelli appeared as a substitute against Genoa and scored his fifth goal for his new club . In the match against Palermo , Balotelli continued his impressive scoring streak with two more goals , one from a penalty and another from an M 'Baye Niang cross .
On the final day of the season , Balotelli scored his twelfth goal in thirteen games for Milan as the team beat Siena to qualify for the 2013 – 14 Champions League .
= = = = 2013 – 14 = = = =
On 22 September 2013 , Balotelli missed a penalty in a competitive match for the first time in 22 attempts as a professional ; the kick was saved by Pepe Reina as Milan lost 2 – 1 to Napoli . During a match against Catania on 1 December , Balotelli accused opponent Nicolás Spolli of racially abusing him , but there was insufficient evidence for any action to be taken . The following week , Balotelli scored two goals in a 2 – 2 draw with Livorno , including a sensational 30 @-@ yard direct free kick that was clocked at a speed of 109 km / h .
= = = Liverpool = = =
= = = = 2014 – 15 = = = =
In August 2014 , Balotelli joined Liverpool for a fee of £ 16 million , to replace the outbound Luis Suárez . He made his Liverpool debut in a league game away to Tottenham Hotspur on the 31st of August , a game Liverpool won 3 – 0 . Balotelli scored his first Liverpool goal on 16 September , opening a 2 – 1 Anfield victory against Ludogorets Razgrad in the group stage of the UEFA Champions League . In a match in the same competition on 22 October against Real Madrid , Balotelli was criticised by manager Brendan Rodgers for swapping shirts with opponent Pepe at half time , saying " It 's something that doesn 't happen here and shouldn 't happen here . "
On 18 December 2014 , he was suspended for one match and fined £ 25 @,@ 000 for posting an image on social media which appeared to contain anti @-@ Semitic and racist references .
Balotelli 's first Premier League goal for Liverpool came on his 13th appearance , on 10 February 2015 , an 83rd @-@ minute winner in a 3 – 2 victory over Tottenham Hotspur at Anfield , nine minutes after replacing Daniel Sturridge . He scored just 4 goals in 28 appearances and at season 's end he was adjudged by many to be among the worst signings of the season .
= = = = Return to Milan ( loan ) = = = =
On 27 August 2015 , Balotelli returned to A.C. Milan on season @-@ long loan deal . On 22 September 2015 , Balotelli scored his first goal after returning to Milan on his third appearance to open the scoring in the 5th minute from a free kick at 25 yards out against Udinese in a 3 – 2 away win . However , a week later he suffered a groin injury in a 1 – 0 defeat to Genoa on 27 September , requiring surgery and ruling him out for three months . He returned to action , coming on as a substitute on 17 January 2016 in a 2 – 0 home win over Fiorentina ; before scoring the lone goal from the penalty spot nine days later during the first semi final leg of the Coppa Italia against Alessandria , as he helped Milan reach the final of the tournament . On 1 May , he had his penalty saved in a 3 – 3 home draw against Frosinone , for which he was mocked by opponent Mirko Gori . Balotelli finished the season with only one goal in 20 league appearances , as Milan finished the season in seventh place , once again failing to qualify for Europe following their 1 – 0 defeat to Juventus in the 2016 Coppa Italia final .
= = International career = =
Balotelli was unable to answer call @-@ ups to the Italian national under @-@ 15 and under @-@ 17 teams as he was still considered to be a Ghanaian immigrant .
On 7 August 2007 , five days before his seventeenth birthday , Balotelli received his first senior International call @-@ up for Ghana from their coach Claude Le Roy for a friendly against Senegal at the New Den stadium in London , England , on 21 August 2007 . He declined the offer citing once again his willingness to play for Italy when he became eligible . He also stated his willingness to represent Italy at international level once he acquired an Italian passport .
Italy U @-@ 21 coach Pierluigi Casiraghi stated his intention to call up Balotelli once he obtained Italian citizenship . On 13 August 2008 Balotelli was finally given Italian citizenship .
This is even more exciting than making my debut in Serie A. The best birthday present I could receive now would be a call to join the Italy squad , although I 'd be happy to play for the Under 21 team .
Mario Balotelli
Casiraghi called him to join the Italy national under @-@ 21 football team Azzurrini on 29 August for the matches against Greece and Croatia . In his debut on 5 September 2008 he scored his first international goal in a 1 – 1 draw with the Greek U @-@ 21 's .
Balotelli was named in the final 23 @-@ man squad for the 2009 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championships and scored the opening goal against the hosts Sweden in the 23rd minute . Barely 15 minutes later he was shown a red card for retaliating against a Swedish midfielder Pontus Wernbloom . Italy were eliminated by eventual champions Germany in the semi @-@ finals , following a 1 @-@ 0 defeat .
On 10 August 2010 , Balotelli made his first appearance for the Italian senior team , as part of the squad announced by new head coach Cesare Prandelli , in a friendly match against Côte d 'Ivoire – Italy 's first match after the 2010 World Cup . In that match he started alongside debutant Amauri and striker Antonio Cassano in a 1 – 0 loss . On 11 November 2011 , Balotelli scored his first senior international goal in a 2 – 0 win against Poland at Stadion Miejski in Wrocław , Poland , also setting up Italy 's second goal of the match .
= = = UEFA Euro 2012 = = =
Before the tournament in Poland and Ukraine , Balotelli was interviewed by a newspaper about racism amongst fans in the host countries . During the interview , Balotelli reiterated his threat to walk off the pitch if any of the opposition fans racially abused him in any way , and said that he would ' kill ' anyone that threw a banana at him . He spoke about his increasing fears that black players would be targeted by racists and that he refused to accept racism in any form , talking of his past experience of racism in football notably during his time playing in Serie A for Inter Milan . During the build @-@ up to the competition Manchester City 's manager Roberto Mancini had repeatedly defended Balotelli , but he and footballer Daniele De Rossi believed that Mario would need to grow up and mature if he was going to become the centrepiece of future Italian success .
On 10 June 2012 , Balotelli also became the first black player to appear for Italy in a major tournament ( Euro or World Cup ) in a 1 – 1 draw against Spain , Italy 's first match of Euro 2012 . Italy and Spain later played each other for the second time in the tournament in the Ukraine 's capital city of Kiev . During the 1 – 1 draw Balotelli failed to make an impact , he was substituted off during the 56th minute after missing multiple chances ; specifically a one on one with Spanish goalkeeper and captain Iker Casillas just minutes before being subbed off . His replacement was Antonio Di Natale . The 34 @-@ year @-@ old managed to secure his 11th international goal and put Italy ahead within his time on the pitch . With Balotelli continuing his run of poor form for his nation , fans and critics began calling for Di Natale to replace the " immature and unpredictable striker . "
Later in the tournament , on 18 June 2012 , Mario Balotelli scored his first goal in a major international tournament in a 2 – 0 victory against the Republic of Ireland . When he attempted to celebrate this goal , he was immediately halted by teammate Leonardo Bonucci , who covered Balotelli 's mouth with his hand for fear that the striker would say something to " get in trouble . " Balotelli had been dropped to the bench by Cesare Prandelli prior to the game due to his lack of ability shown in his previous group games , so when he was subbed on against Ireland fans didn 't expect him to have much of an impact , and his celebration of his goal may have originally been directed towards the naysayers who believe he is bad for the team . Balotelli went on to start against England in the quarter @-@ finals , his performance was described as wasteful but his effort was rated highly in a game where he missed multiple chances . He scored the first penalty taken in the shootout against his Manchester City teammate Joe Hart . On 28 June , Balotelli scored twice within the first 40 minutes in Italy 's semi @-@ final clash with Germany , as the Azzurri won 2 – 1 and progressed to the Euro 2012 final against European and World champions Spain . After scoring the second goal in that semi @-@ final , he ripped off his shirt and stood motionless as he flexed his muscles , developing a famous celebration . Going into the final Balotelli said that , Manchester City 's title success meant that failure in the Euros would not signal a personal failure this season . He also said that he was unfazed by the pressure he supposedly has on his shoulders going into the final , with new high expectations of him from his home supporters after his amazing performance against Germany .
During the tournament , Balotelli was subject to a case of racial abuse during the game against Croatia , which led UEFA to fine the Croatian Football Federation € 80 @,@ 000 . Italy were defeated 4 – 0 in the final by defending champions Spain . Despite the heavy defeat , Balotelli was named as part of the Euro 2012 Team of the Tournament due to his performances . With 3 goals , Balotelli finished the tournament as the joint top scorer along with 5 other players , although the Golden Boot ultimately went to Fernando Torres , due to his assist in the Euro 2012 final .
= = = 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifying = = =
After establishing himself in the side at Euro 2012 , Balotelli remained the first choice striker for Italy 's 2014 World Cup qualifying campaign .
On 21 March 2013 , he scored a long range equaliser in a friendly match against Brazil at the Stade de Genève . Five days later he scored both goals as Italy defeated Malta in a World Cup qualifier , continuing his prolific scoring streak for both club and country since signing for A.C. Milan .
On 7 June 2013 , Balotelli was sent @-@ off in a 0 – 0 draw with the Czech Republic in Prague . On 10 September 2013 , Balotelli scored the winning goal in a World Cup qualifying match against the Czech Republic in Turin , which allowed Italy to clinch the first place spot in their qualifying group , and ultimately achieve their objective of qualifying for the 2014 World Cup . Balotelli finished the 2014 World Cup qualifying campaign as Italy 's top scorer , with 5 goals , and he was also the top scorer of his qualifying group , helping Italy to win their group undefeated and qualify for the upcoming World Cup .
= = = 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup = = =
On 3 June 2013 , he was named in Italy 's squad for the 2013 Confederations Cup . In Italy 's opening match on 16 June , Balotelli scored a late @-@ winner , helping Italy to beat Mexico 2 – 1 . In Italy 's next group match with Japan , Balotelli scored a penalty to make it 3 – 2 after being 2 – 0 down in the first half . Italy went on to win the match 4 – 3 , which allowed them to participate in the semi @-@ finals of the Confederations Cup for the first time in their history . In Italy 's final group match against hosts and eventual champions Brazil , Balotelli set up Emanuele Giaccherini 's equaliser with a back @-@ heel , although Italy eventually lost the match 4 – 2 . Prior to the semi @-@ final , Balotelli suffered a thigh injury , preventing him from playing in the remainder of the tournament . Italy finished the tournament in third place after defeating Uruguay in a play @-@ off .
= = = 2014 FIFA World Cup = = =
On 1 June 2014 , Balotelli was selected in Italy 's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup . In Italy 's opening match of the tournament , he scored the team 's winning goal in a 2 – 1 defeat of England on 14 June . After the match against England , Balotelli says playing in the World Cup for the first time was " a wonderful sensation to experience " and dedicated the goal to his future wife . Italy lost their next two matches , however , and were eliminated in the first round , finishing third in their group , while Prandelli stepped down from his position as Italy 's manager .
= = = Conte era = = =
Under Italy 's new manager Antonio Conte , Balotelli only received one call @-@ up in November 2014 , but was unable to make a single appearance for Italy due to injury . After a negative season with Milan , he was left out of Conte 's 23 @-@ man squad for UEFA Euro 2016 .
= = Style of play = =
Agile , quick and powerful , Balotelli is credited with pace , strength , and technical ability , but criticized for a perceived poor and immature attitude at times . Balotelli is also a set @-@ piece specialist due to his powerful shot , and is regarded by teammates and the media as a promising but undisciplined player . He is regarded as one of the best penalty kick takers in world football , a view backed by his former Manchester City goalkeeping team @-@ mate Joe Hart . Balotelli missed his first competitive penalty against Napoli on 22 September 2013 when it was saved by Pepe Reina .
In his two years at Manchester City , he received four red cards – against West Bromwich Albion ( November 2010 ) , Dynamo Kyiv ( March 2011 ) , Liverpool ( November 2011 ) and Arsenal ( April 2012 ) . He also in this time served suspensions for other incidents such as the supposed stamp on Scott Parker .
= = Personality and public image = =
Balotelli is nicknamed Super Mario after the Italian video game character Mario from the iconic Nintendo series .
Balotelli has been given a reputation by the media for being a difficult character and taking part in questionable and often amusing activities . He was once described by Jose Mourinho as " unmanageable . " In June 2010 , Balotelli and a group of friends fired air pistols in the open in Milan 's Piazza della Repubblica . Although denying that he is " crazy " as his mentor Roberto Mancini frequently claims , Balotelli has admitted that he " sometimes does strange things " . In 2010 , he was photographed in the company of two noted Mafia mobsters . Since joining Manchester City , Balotelli has gained a cult following . Manchester City supporters regularly sang a song with lyrics which made reference to his activities . Musician Tinchy Stryder recorded a song in Balotelli 's honour , Mario Balotelli .
Balotelli has been the subject of numerous newspaper stories since joining Manchester City ; some have been confirmed as true while others have turned out to be erroneous . Within days of joining Manchester City , Balotelli was involved in a car crash . It was reported that Balotelli was carrying £ 5 @,@ 000 cash at the time – and that when a police officer asked why he had such a large sum of cash Balotelli replied : " Because I am rich " . Off @-@ field activities involving Balotelli have included driving into a women 's prison in Italy to " have a look round " , and throwing darts at a youth team player during a training ground ' prank ' – all of which have been confirmed to be true . Balotelli has also been subjected to tabloid rumours about him confronting a bully in a school after querying why a young Manchester City fan was not attending classes , and giving £ 1 @,@ 000 to a homeless man on the streets of Manchester . Both of these reports turned out to be false .
Video footage before City 's Europa League clash with Dynamo Kiev in March 2011 showed Balotelli requiring assistance to put on a training bib , an incident which teammate Edin Džeko was seen mimicking the following week in the warm up before City 's game at Chelsea . In September 2011 , Balotelli was reportedly seen using his iPad whilst on the substitutes ' bench for Italy during their game with the Faroe Islands , although he denied this on a visit to a prison later that week .
Balotelli celebrated his goal against Manchester United in October 2011 by unveiling a shirt with the words : " Why always me ? " on it – a celebration which seemingly disputes the accuracy of newspaper reports . The day before the match , Balotelli and his friends set Balotelli 's house on fire when a firework was let off in it , and later that week Balotelli was unveiled as Greater Manchester 's ambassador for firework safety . On 5 November 2011 , at the annual fireworks display at Edenbridge , Kent , a 12 metre tall bonfire effigy of Balotelli was unveiled – complete with a Super Mario hat , and a house in the right hand and a ' Giant TNT ' firework in his left , which were reference to his recent incident . In December 2011 , Balotelli broke a 48 @-@ hour curfew before City 's game against Chelsea to go to a curry house , although he " was not drinking alcohol , signed autographs , posed for pictures with fellow diners and was involved in a mock sword @-@ fight using rolling pins " . The club launched an internal investigation . In March 2012 , when Inter Milan ( Balotelli 's former club ) held a press conference for their new manager Andrea Stramaccioni , Balotelli gatecrashed the event . In December 2012 , Balotelli was due to take Manchester City to a Premier League tribunal to protest against a fine of two weeks ' wages over his poor disciplinary record , but eventually dropped his tribunal action a day before the hearing .
On 1 December 2014 , Balotelli was accused of racism and antisemitism for posting an image on Instagram of the video game character Mario . The image promoted anti @-@ racism by telling others to be like the character , attributing him qualities stereotypically associated with different ethnicities , ending the idea that he " jumps like a black man and grabs coins like a jew " . In response to criticisms , he wrote : " My Mom is jewish so all of u shut up please " .
= = Personal life = =
In 2012 , Balotelli featured in GQ where he and British musician Tinie Tempah were named as the best and second @-@ best dressed men in the world respectively . Balotelli also appeared on the cover of the November 2012 edition of Time Magazine .
Balotelli is a fan of mixed martial arts , as he has stated in the past that he would love to compete in the sport professionally if he were not a footballer .
Balotelli owns several cars , including a Range Rover Evoque , Ferrari 458 Spider , Bentley Continental GT , Maserati GT , and Audi R8 V10 .
In January 2013 , Balotelli 's net worth was estimated to be US $ 40 million , up from US $ 25 million in January 2012 . Balotelli bought a £ 3 million mansion in the United Kingdom .
Balotelli no longer drinks alcohol .
In July 2012 , Balotelli 's former girlfriend Raffaella Fico claimed that she was pregnant with his child , while Balotelli responded by claiming that he would only assume paternal responsibilities upon a positive paternity test . Fico 's daughter Pia was born on 5 December 2012 . Later in December 2012 , Fico accused Balotelli of being " irresponsible " and " not interested " in her newborn daughter . In response , Balotelli threatened to take legal action against Fico to defend his reputation against what he considered false accusations . In February 2014 , Balotelli finally acknowledged paternity of his daughter Pia following a positive DNA test .
In March 2013 , Balotelli became engaged to wed his Belgian girlfriend , Fanny Neguesha . They split in September 2014 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played on 21 May 2016
= = = International = = =
As of match played on 24 June 2014 .
= = = = International goals = = = =
Scores and results list Italy 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Internazionale
Serie A ( 3 ) : 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10
Coppa Italia ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
Supercoppa Italiana ( 1 ) : 2008
UEFA Champions League ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
Manchester City
Premier League ( 1 ) : 2011 – 12
FA Cup ( 1 ) : 2010 – 11
FA Community Shield ( 1 ) : 2012
= = = International = = =
UEFA European Football Championship Runner up : 2012
FIFA Confederations Cup Third place : 2013
= = = Individual = = =
Coppa Italia Top Goalscorer ( 1 ) : 2007 – 08
Golden Boy Award ( 1 ) : 2010
FA Cup Final Man of the Match ( 1 ) : 2011
UEFA Euro Team of the Tournament ( 1 ) : 2012
UEFA European Championship Co @-@ Top Goalscorer ( 1 ) : 2012
Serie A Team of the Year ( 1 ) : 2012 – 13
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= Ninian Edwards =
Ninian Edwards ( March 17 , 1775 – July 20 , 1833 ) was a founding political figure of the state of Illinois . He served as the only governor of the Illinois Territory from 1809 to 1818 , as one of the first two United States Senators from Illinois from 1818 to 1824 , and as the third Governor of Illinois from 1826 to 1830 . In a time and place where personal coalitions were more influential than parties , Edwards led one of the two main factions in frontier Illinois politics .
Born in Maryland , Edwards began his political career in Kentucky , where he served as a legislator and judge . He rose to the position of Chief Justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals in 1808 , at the time Kentucky 's highest court . In 1809 , U.S. President James Madison appointed him to govern the newly created Illinois Territory . He held that post for three terms , overseeing the territory 's transition first to democratic " second grade " government , and then to statehood in 1818 . On its second day in session , the Illinois General Assembly elected Edwards to the U.S. Senate , where conflict with rivals damaged him politically .
Edwards won an unlikely 1826 election to become Governor of Illinois . Conflict with the legislature over state bank regulations marked Edwards ' administration , as did the pursuit of Indian removal . As governor or territorial governor he twice sent Illinois militia against Native Americans , in the War of 1812 and the Winnebago War , and signed treaties for the cession of Native American land . Edwards returned to private life when his term ended in 1830 and died of cholera two years later .
= = Early life = =
Ninian Edwards was born in 1775 to the prominent Edwards family in Montgomery County , Maryland . His mother , Margaret Beall Edwards , was from another prominent local family . His father Benjamin Edwards served in the Maryland House of Delegates , in Maryland 's state ratifying convention for the U.S. Constitution , and in the United States House of Representatives , filling a vacant seat for two months . Ninian was educated by private tutors , one of whom was the future U.S. Attorney General William Wirt . He attended Dickinson College from 1790 to 1792 but did not graduate , leaving college to study law . His son Ninian Wirt Edwards wrote later that Edwards spent some of his time at Dickinson reading medicine , a field to which he devoted considerable time in his later years .
In 1794 , at the age of 19 , Edwards moved to Nelson County , Kentucky to manage some family land . He showed a great aptitude for business and leadership and was soon elected to a seat in the Kentucky House of Representatives , before he was even eligible to vote . In 1802 he was awarded the rank of major in the militia . In 1803 he moved to Russellville , Kentucky , and won a succession of public offices : circuit court judge in 1803 , presidential elector in 1804 ( voting for Thomas Jefferson ) , and judge and finally chief justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals , which at the time was Kentucky 's highest court . He joined the high court in 1806 and won the leadership position in 1808 .
A well @-@ educated landowning aristocrat , Edwards deliberately cultivated the image of the natural leader . Thomas Ford writes that he continued to dress like an 18th @-@ century gentleman long after such fashions had gone out of style , and that his public speaking was marked by showy eloquence . Edwards consciously positioned himself in the select class of men who dominated Kentucky and , later , Illinois politics . In 1803 in Russellville , Edwards married Elvira Lane , a relative from Maryland .
= = Territorial governorship = =
The Illinois Territory was created in 1809 . It included all of what today is the state of Wisconsin , as well as parts of Minnesota and Michigan . Its population was almost entirely concentrated in the south , in the region later known as Egypt . President James Madison first appointed Kentucky politician John Boyle as its governor . Boyle collected his salary for the position for 21 days but then resigned to take Edwards ' job as Kentucky Chief Justice , while friends in Washington helped secure Edwards ' appointment as territorial governor . In the meantime , Territorial Secretary Nathaniel Pope , a cousin of Edwards , had to assume the powers of acting governor , creating Illinois ' first counties and appointing officials to form the new government . Only 34 years old at the time of his appointment , Ninian Edwards is the youngest man ever to govern Illinois as either a state or a territory .
Edwards settled in the American Bottom on land he received as a grant upon his appointment as governor . He named his new farm Elvirade , after his wife . Along with his family , Edwards brought a number of slaves , whom he did not free even though the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 had made slavery illegal in the territory . An 1803 " Law Concerning Servants " had been promulgated for the Indiana Territory by then @-@ Governor William Henry Harrison that maintained the status of people brought into the territory " under contract to serve another in any trade or occupation . " The law , which remained in force in the Illinois territory , permitted slavery to persist for decades under the guise of indentured servitude . Most of Illinois ' early governors were slaveowners , and Edwards was no exception . Later , he may have made extra income by renting some of his " indentured servants " out for labor in Missouri .
The new territorial governor was sworn in on June 11 , 1809 . At first Edwards tried to avoid partisanship but soon found that faction was an inevitable result of his power to appoint officials and distribute government jobs . Although the First Party System continued to define national politics , the Federalist and Republican Parties never took hold in frontier Illinois . Rather , factional loyalties were created by personality , personal bonds such as kinship and militia service , and especially the distribution of patronage . In the early territorial years , two rival factions grew up around Edwards and Judge Jesse B. Thomas . These two factions formed Illinois ' political landscape during its time as a territory and for its first several years of statehood .
= = = Democratic government = = =
Throughout Edwards ' three terms as governor , he showed a willingness to surrender his own considerable powers in order to expand participatory government in the Illinois Territory . Before 1812 , while Illinois had a first @-@ grade territorial status , Edwards had vast powers to appoint county and local officials ; however , he made it his practice to consider local opinion as much as he could when making appointments , often giving weight to petitions signed by local residents . He attempted to do the same for militia officers for a time , letting the men of a unit elect their leaders , but he soon abandoned this policy as impractical .
In 1812 , Edwards successfully persuaded Congress to modify a provision of the 1787 Ordinance limiting voting rights to freeholders of 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land . Due to long @-@ running disputes over fraudulently sold lands , very few Illinois frontiersmen could qualify . At Edwards ' urging , Congress granted the Illinois Territory universal white male suffrage , making it the most democratic U.S. territory at the time . In April , Edwards held a referendum on moving to second @-@ grade government , allowing the people of Illinois to elect a legislature and a non @-@ voting delegate to Congress . The referendum passed , and elections were held in October that sent Shadrach Bond to Washington as Illinois ' first congressional delegate .
= = = War of 1812 = = =
Edwards had not been governor long when Illinois became the scene of fighting during the War of 1812 . Relations between Illinois settlers and Native Americans worsened throughout the territory during 1810 and 1811 . By June 1811 , Governor Edwards ordered the construction of a series of blockhouses and called out three companies of militia .
The declaration of war and the Battle of Fort Dearborn in 1812 convinced Edwards that Potawatomi and Kickapoo in the territory were preparing to launch a major attack on the southern settlements . In his capacity as commander in chief , Edwards gathered 350 mounted rangers and volunteers near Edwardsville and personally led an expedition north to Peoria . After burning two Kickapoo villages on the Sangamon River along the way , the militia advanced on Peoria itself . All told , the short campaign burned several villages and inflicted dozens of casualties before returning . The attack angered both the Peoria villagers and the U.S. government because it had been carried out against Native Americans loyal to Black Partridge and Gomo , two leaders who had not joined Tecumseh 's War and were considered friendly to U.S. interests . A second attack under Captain Thomas Craig killed a large number of French settlers from Peoria as well as Potawatomi . In 1813 , Illinois and Missouri militia joined a force of United States infantry under Benjamin Howard to drive all Native American villagers away from Peoria and establish Fort Clark .
Edwards ' actions alienated those Native Americans friendly to the U.S. in the region . Ninian Edwards , having lost the confidence of the Madison administration , waited out the war in Kentucky . However , he was reappointed to a second and then a third term as territorial governor in 1812 and 1815 , and he was also named one of the three U.S. negotiators of the Treaties of Portage des Sioux in 1815 .
= = = Second and third terms = = =
During his nine years as territorial governor , Edwards made a good deal of money through several profitable ventures , including farming , land speculation , and investment in sawmills , grist mills , and stores .
Edwards ' political rivalry with Jesse B. Thomas continued for the rest of his time as governor . Edwards , along with much of the legislature , criticized the territory 's judges for their inactivity . Among their complaints were that the judges did not hold court often enough and spent too much time absent from the territory . The legislature passed a bill in 1814 to reform the territory 's judicial system . The judges refused to acknowledge the act , claiming that they were outside the jurisdiction of the legislature . In 1815 the issue was resolved by Congress , which passed a law supporting Edwards and the legislature .
In December 1817 , Edwards , responding to a movement for statehood led by his ally Daniel Pope Cook , recommended to the legislature that Illinois apply for admission to the Union . He also recommended that a census first be taken of the territory , a standard practice , but the legislature rejected this . Legislators , particularly those opposed to slavery , feared that any delay would allow Missouri to apply for statehood before Illinois , and that since Missouri was a slave state , this would cause so much turmoil in Congress that it would delay Illinois ' admission even longer .
In order to emphasize to Congress that Illinois would be a free state , the legislature passed in January 1818 a bill that would both abolish Illinois ' " indentured servant " system of de facto slavery , and prohibit Illinois ' future Constitution from reinstating it . Governor Edwards issued his only veto to send the bill back to the legislature , and it was never revised . He made his objections on constitutional grounds , but he also had a conflict of interest as the owner of several slaves himself .
During Edwards ' terms as territorial governor , Illinois ' population more than tripled , from 12 @,@ 282 in 1810 to 40 @,@ 258 in 1818 ( a census was finally conducted later that year ) . The population did not meet the 60 @,@ 000 threshold the Northwest Ordinance required for a new state , but both Illinoisans and Congress expected continued growth .
= = Senate career = =
Illinois quickly proceeded along the steps to statehood . Its constitution was finished in August 1818 ; elections were held in September ; and in October , the first General Assembly met in Kaskaskia . On October 6 , Ninian Edwards stepped down , and Shadrach Bond was inaugurated as Illinois ' first governor . The following day the new state legislature voted for Illinois ' two members of the U.S. Senate . Edwards was quickly chosen on the first ballot ; his rival Thomas was only elected after the fourth . Edwards and Thomas then drew straws to determine their respective terms : Thomas was placed in Class II of the Senate and could serve until 1823 , while Edwards was placed in Class III and had to face reelection in February 1819 . Edwards and Thomas still had to wait for Congress to formally ratify Illinois ' constitution and admission to the Union , which it did on November 25 . On December 3 the two Senators were finally seated , leaving Edwards with a mere three months in his first term .
Edwards ' re @-@ election was more difficult . In four months he had lost the temporary support of Thomas ' allies in the General Assembly who had voted for him in 1818 . He narrowly defeated Thomas partisan Michael Jones by a vote of 23 – 19 . This may have been due to the influence of the powerful Secretary of State Elias Kane , a Thomas ally .
Like most members of Congress during the Era of Good Feelings , Senator Edwards sat as a member of the Democratic @-@ Republican Party . As his second term drew on , he joined the Adams @-@ Clay faction that would develop into the National Republicans after Edwards left office . Edwards voted for the Missouri Compromise in 1820 , a bill that Thomas sponsored . He voted against a law reducing prices for federal land , which made both Edwards and Representative Daniel Pope Cook targets of criticism at home . On May 6 , 1821 , Cook married Edwards ' daughter Julia .
Ninian Edwards caused trouble for himself when he wrote several articles in the Washington Republican under the pseudonym " A.B. " that attacked U.S. Treasury Secretary William H. Crawford . Edwards alleged that Crawford had known of the impending failure of Illinois ' Bank of Edwardsville in 1821 , but had not withdrawn federal money from it . Edwards found that none of Crawford 's rivals were willing to support his charges , and he was unable to produce corroborating evidence . He resigned his Senate seat on March 4 , 1824 , to take a job he wanted as the first United States Minister to Mexico . While en route to his new position , Edwards was called back to Washington to testify before a special House committee concerning the " A.B. Plot " . Unable to substantiate his claims , Edwards resigned his diplomatic post , to be replaced by Joel Roberts Poinsett .
Back in Illinois , Edwards settled in Belleville , a town whose site he had once owned before selling off its lots at a profit .
= = State governorship = =
= = = Election of 1826 = = =
When he returned to Illinois , Edwards appeared to be a discredited politician . He no longer had a loyal coalition in the General Assembly to re @-@ elect him to the U.S. Senate . His actions in the " A.B. Plot " had made him lose favor with President Adams ; therefore he could not expect another federal appointment . In addition , supporters of Andrew Jackson were becoming a force in Illinois politics . Illinois frontier voters so admired Jackson that soon , for the first time , they would give their support to a national party , the Democrats . Ninian Edwards never criticized Jackson , but as an Adams @-@ Clay Republican Senator he was not part of Jackson 's growing coalition . Jacksonians deeply resented Edwards ' ally Cook , who had voted against Jackson when the presidential election of 1824 was decided in the House of Representatives .
However , when he ran for governor in 1826 , Edwards had the good fortune to enter a three @-@ way race that split the Jacksonians between state Senator Thomas Sloo and Lieutenant Governor Adolphus Hubbard . As a campaign issue , Edwards focused on Illinois ' dire financial situation , blaming Sloo and Hubbard and other legislators for it . Edwards won 49 @.@ 5 percent of the vote to Sloo 's 46 percent , with the rest going to Hubbard .
= = = Administration = = =
Edwards ' gubernatorial term was another period of rapid growth for Illinois . In the decade from 1820 to 1830 , the population again nearly tripled from 55 @,@ 211 to 157 @,@ 445 . During this era , Illinois was the fastest @-@ growing territory in the world .
Edwards ' administration was hampered by his conflict with the legislature , primarily over the struggling Bank of Illinois . The bank had been established in 1821 , and from the beginning it had been underfunded , its notes had badly depreciated , and it had helped put the state deeply in debt . In his inaugural address Edwards undiplomatically attacked bank officials and politicians alike , accusing them of fraud and perjury . From that point , Edwards had a poor relationship with the General Assembly . During his term the Assembly did eventually pass a bank regulation bill , but it also passed a measure to relieve debtors despite Edwards ' objections that the state could not afford it .
In 1827 Illinois established its first penitentiary , at Alton . That same year , the state received a federal land grant to build the Illinois and Michigan Canal , though work did not begin for several years .
Also in 1827 , Edwards ordered the Illinois militia to join another war against Native Americans in northern Illinois . The Winnebago War , fought between white settlers and members of the Ho @-@ Chunk tribe , broke out in Wisconsin ( then part of the Michigan Territory ) but spread to the lead @-@ mining region around Galena . Edwards dispatched the militia and ordered 600 more men to be recruited in Sangamon County . The show of force convinced the Ho @-@ Chunk to surrender .
After the war , Edwards urged the federal government to remove the remaining Native Americans from northern Illinois , claiming that their presence violated " the rights of a sovereign and independent state " , and hinting that he might dispatch the militia again to force them out . The federal government applied diplomatic pressure , and on July 29 , 1829 , the Potawatomi , Ottawa , and Ojibwe ceded 3 @,@ 000 square miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km2 ) of northern land to the State of Illinois ; the Winnebago made a cession in August .
= = Later life = =
Under the 1818 constitution , governors were limited to a single term . When Edwards ' ended on December 6 , 1830 , he returned to private life . He ran for the U.S. House of Representatives in 1832 and lost . Edwards devoted himself to charitable medical work in Belleville , giving free care to local residents . A cholera epidemic came through the area in 1833 , carried by Winfield Scott 's troops during the Black Hawk War . Edwards stayed in the town to care for his patients and caught the disease , dying on July 20 . Ninian Edwards was interred in Belleville , but he was later moved to Springfield 's Oak Ridge Cemetery .
= = Family = =
Three of Edwards ' sons and one son @-@ in @-@ law followed him into politics . Ninian Wirt Edwards ( 1809 – 1889 ) , named for his father and his father 's childhood tutor William Wirt , served as Illinois Attorney General , in the General Assembly , and as Illinois ' first Superintendent of Public Instruction . He was married to Elizabeth Porter Todd , a sister of Mary Todd Lincoln . Their daughter Julia Cook Edwards married Edward Lewis Baker , editor of the Illinois State Journal and son of Congressman David Jewett Baker .
Another son , Albert Gallatin Edwards ( 1812 – 1892 ) , was an assistant secretary of the U.S. Treasury under President Abraham Lincoln . In 1887 he founded the brokerage firm A. G. Edwards in Saint Louis , Missouri . A third son , Benjamin S. Edwards ( 1818 – 1886 ) , established a successful law practice in Springfield , Illinois and served as a judge in Illinois ' Thirteenth Circuit . Ninian Edwards ' daughter , Julia Edwards Cook , married Congressman Daniel Pope Cook . Their son , John Pope Cook , was a mayor of Springfield and a general in the Union Army during the American Civil War .
= = Legacy = =
Edwards County , Illinois was named for him , as is the St. Louis , Missouri Metro @-@ East area city of Edwardsville , Illinois . Both were named for him during his time as territorial governor . The territorial legislature named Edwards County , while Edwardsville was named by its founder , Thomas Kirkpatrick . The Edwards Trace , pioneer Central Illinois trail , was named for Ninian Edwards and his War of 1812 campaign .
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= Getty Foundation =
The Getty Foundation , based in Los Angeles , California at the Getty Center , awards grants for " the understanding and preservation of the visual arts " . In the past , it funded the Getty Leadership Institute for " current and future museum leaders " , which is now at Claremont Graduate University . Its budget for 2006 @-@ 07 was $ 27 @.@ 8 million . It is part of the J. Paul Getty Trust .
= = Grants = =
The Foundation was originally called the " Getty Grant Program , " which began in 1984 under the direction of Deborah Marrow . The J. Paul Getty Trust can spend up to 0 @.@ 75 % of its endowment on gifts and grants ; by 1990 the Getty Grant Program ( then based in Santa Monica ) had made 530 grants totaling $ 20 million to " art historians , conservators and art museums in 18 countries " . Among notable grants of the Program were grants to partially fund the publication of books , for example to " provide for additional illustrations or allow a book 's purchase price to be lowered " . Some books " published with the assistance of the Getty Grant Program " were :
Hamburger , Jeffrey F. The Rothschild canticles : art and mysticism in Flanders and the Rhineland circa 1300 . New Haven : Yale University Press , 1990 . ISBN 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 04308 @-@ 2
Nesbit , Molly , and Eugène Atget . Atget 's seven albums . New Haven : Yale University Press , 1992 . ISBN 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 03580 @-@ 2
Jones , Amelia , and Laura Cottingham . Sexual politics : Judy Chicago 's Dinner Party in feminist art history . [ Los Angeles , CA ] : UCLA at the Armand Hammer Museum of Art and Cultural Center in association with University of California Press , Berkeley , 1996 . ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 20565 @-@ 0
In 1998 , the Program granted $ 750 @,@ 000 for electronic cataloging to art museums in the Los Angeles area . The program awarded $ 180 @,@ 000 in 1999 to the National Gallery in Prague to digitize images of works of art in its collections . In 2005 , the program awarded the University of California , Los Angeles and to the Museum of Fine Arts , Houston almost $ 400 @,@ 000 to " support the documentation and preservation of Latino and Latin American art " .
The name of the Getty Grant Program was changed to " Getty Foundation " in 2005 to " better reflect [ ] the expanded scope of the Getty 's grant @-@ making over the past two decades and reaffirm [ ] its commitment to philanthropy going forward " . Grants made by the Foundation include funding the Multicultural Undergraduate Internship Program , begun in 1993 , " seeks to increase staff diversity within visual arts organizations " in Los Angeles County . Between 2002 and 2007 , the Foundation expended over $ 13 @.@ 5 million to fund " plans to care for , maintain , and preserve ... historic resources " at 86 United States colleges and universities . In 2006 , the Foundation committed $ 3 @.@ 5 million to restore an 80 by 100 foot " America Tropical " mural on Olvera Street in Los Angeles that was painted by David Alfaro Siqueiros . In 2006 , in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina , the Foundation announced a $ 2 million fund " to aid New Orleans 's visual arts organizations " .
As of June 2008 , the Foundation has four priorities for grants :
" Strengthening art history as a global discipline "
" Promoting the interdisciplinary practice of conservation "
" Increasing access to museum and archival collections "
" Developing current and future professionals and leaders "
In the summer of 2011 , the foundation is funding Multicultural Undergraduate Internships at 70 Los Angeles @-@ area museums and visual arts organizations . The internships seek to attract into museum and visual arts organizations students from historically underrepresented groups : people of African American , Asian , Latino / Hispanic , Native American , and Pacific Islander descent .
A major Getty initiative for 2011 @-@ 12 is Pacific Standard Time : Art in LA 1945 @-@ 1980 , is an unprecedented collaboration that brings together more than sixty cultural institutions from across Southern California for six months beginning October 2011 to tell the story of the birth of the L.A. art scene .
= = Getty Leadership Institute at Claremont Graduate University = =
The Foundation also sponsors the Getty Leadership Institute ( GLI ) . The major GLI program is the Museum Leadership Institute ( MLI ) , formerly known as the Museum Management Institute , which " has served close to 1 @,@ 000 museum professionals from the United States and 30 countries worldwide " . It offers a three @-@ week curriculum for " museum directors and senior executive team members " , with instruction in areas such as " strategy , marketing , management and finance " . Most of the attendees work in art museums ; among the executives who attended the MLI were the directors of the Frick Collection , San Francisco Museum of Modern Art , Van Gogh Museum , and Winnipeg Art Gallery .
In addition to the MLI , GLI offers other professional development programs , convenes meetings involving non @-@ profit agencies , and hosts an online forum . The GLI began in 1979 with a headquarters in New York City and classes taught at the University of California Berkeley . From 1999 to 2009 , the program was headquartered at the Getty Center in Los Angeles , California , and in 2004 , classes moved from Berkeley to the Getty Center . In 2010 , the GLI affiliated with Claremont Graduate University in Claremont , California and was renamed The Getty Leadership Institute at Claremont Graduate University . After the transfer , the foundation supports the GLI with a three @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 2 million grant , but the program is headquartered on the Claremont campus . Claremont is funding GLI 's indirect costs . Although the transfer took effect on January 2 , 2010 , the 2010 MLI was held at the Getty Center . The 2011 MLI will be held on the Claremont campus .
= = Senior staff = =
The Foundation 's senior staff includes :
Joan Weinstein , Interim Director
Associate Director , Grants Administration : Rebecca Martin
Program Officer : Angie Kim
Senior Program Officer : Nancy Micklewright
Program Officer : Antoine M. Wilmering
Head , Leadership Institute : Philip M. Nowlen
Principal Project Specialist : Kathleen Johnson
Deborah Marrow , who was Foundation Director , now serves as interim president and CEO of the J. Paul Getty Trust .
= = Employees and budget = =
During the period July 2006 - June 2007 , the Foundation had approximately 30 full @-@ time and part @-@ time employees , and a budget of $ 27 @.@ 8 million .
= = Foundation with similar name = =
The Getty Foundation should not be confused with the " Ann and Gordon Getty Foundation , " which is based in San Francisco , California , and which awards grants largely " to promote the fields of music , the opera , and the symphony " .
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= Jokhang =
The Jokhang ( Tibetan : ཇོ ་ ཁང ། , Chinese : 大昭寺 ) , also known as the Qoikang Monastery , Jokang , Jokhang Temple , Jokhang Monastery and Zuglagkang ( Tibetan : གཙུག ་ ལག ་ ཁང ༌ ། , Wylie : gtsug @-@ lag @-@ khang , ZYPY : Zuglagkang or Tsuklakang ) , is a Buddhist temple in Barkhor Square in Lhasa , the capital city of Tibet . Tibetans , in general , consider this temple as the most sacred and important temple in Tibet . The temple is currently maintained by the Gelug school , but they accept worshipers from all sects of Buddhism . The temple 's architectural style is a mixture of Indian vihara design , Tibetan and Nepalese design .
The Jokhang was founded during the reign of King Songtsen Gampo . According to tradition , the temple was built for the king 's two brides : Princess Wencheng of the Chinese Tang dynasty and Princess Bhrikuti of Nepal . Both are said to have brought important Buddhist statues and images from China and Nepal to Tibet , which were housed here , as part of their dowries . The oldest part of the temple was built in 652 . In the next 900 years the temple was enlarged several times with the last renovation done in 1610 by the Fifth Dalai Lama . Following the death of Gampo , the image in Ramcho Lake temple was moved to the Jokhang temple for security reasons . When King Tresang Detsan ruled from 755 to 797 , the Buddha image of the Jokhang temple was hidden , as the king 's minister was hostile to the spread of Buddhism in Tibet . During the late ninth and early tenth centuries , the Jokhang and Ramoche temples were said to have been used as stables . In 1049 Atisha , a renowned teacher of Buddhism from Bengal taught in Jokhang .
Around the 14th century , the temple was associated with the Vajrasana in India . In the 18th century the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty , following the Gorkha @-@ Tibetan war in 1792 , did not allow the Nepalese to visit this temple and it became an exclusive place of worship for the Tibetans . During the Chinese development of Lhasa , the Barkhor Square in front of the temple was encroached . During the Cultural Revolution , Red Guards attacked the Jokhang temple in 1966 and for a decade there was no worship . Renovation of the Jokhang took place from 1972 to 1980 . In 2000 , the Jokhang became a UNESCO World Heritage Site as an extension of the Potala Palace ( a World Heritage Site since 1994 ) . Many Nepalese artists have worked on the temple 's design and construction .
= = Location = =
The temple , considered the " spiritual heart of the city " and the most sacred in Tibet , is at the center of an ancient network of Buddhist temples in Lhasa . It is the focal point of commercial activity in the city , with a maze of streets radiating from it . The Jokhang is 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) east of the Potala Palace . Barkhor , the market square in central Lhasa , has a walkway for pilgrims to walk around the temple ( which takes about 20 minutes ) . Barkhor Square is marked by four stone sankang ( incense burners ) , two of which are in front of the temple and two in the rear .
= = Etymology = =
Rasa Thrulnag Tsuklakang ( " House of Mysteries " or " House of Religious Science " ) was the Jokhang 's ancient name . When King Songtsen built the temple his capital city was known as Rasa ( " Goats " ) , since goats were used to move earth during its construction . After the king 's death , Rasa became known as Lhasa ( Place of the Gods ) ; the temple was called Jokhang — " Temple of the Lord " — derived from Jowo Shakyamuni Buddha , its primary image . The Jokhnag 's Chinese name is Dazhao ; it is also known as Zuglagkang , Qoikang Monastery and Tsuglhakhange .
= = History = =
Tibetans viewed their country as a living entity controlled by srin ma ( pronounced " sinma " ) , a wild demoness who opposed the propagation of Buddhism in the country . To thwart her evil intentions , King Songtsen Gampo ( the first king of a unified Tibet ) developed a plan to build twelve temples across the country . The temples were built in three stages . In the first stage central Tibet was covered with four temples , known as the " four horns " ( ru bzhi ) . Four more temples , ( mtha 'dul ) , were built in the outer areas in the second stage ; the last four , the yang 'dul , were built on the country 's frontiers . The Jokhag temple was finally built in the heart of the srin ma , ensuring her subjugation .
To forge ties with neighboring Nepal , Songtsen Gampo sent envoys to King Amsuvarman seeking his daughter 's hand in marriage and the king accepted . His daughter , Bhrikuti , came to Tibet as the king 's Nepalese wife ( tritsun ; belsa in Tibetan ) . The image of Akshobhya Buddha ( or Mikyoba ) , which she had brought as part of her dowry , was deified in a temple in the middle of a lake known as Ramoche .
Gampo , wishing to obtain a second wife from China , sent his ambassador to Emperor Taizong ( 627 – 650 ) of the Tang dynasty for one of his daughters . Taizong rejected the king 's proposal , considering Tibetans " barbarians " , and announced the marriage of one of his daughters to the king of Duyu , a Hun . This infuriated Gampo , who mounted attacks on tribal areas affiliated with the Tang dynasty and then attacked the Tang city of Songzhou . Telling the emperor that he would escalate his aggression unless the emperor agreed to his proposal , Gampo sent a conciliatory gift of a gold @-@ studded " suit of armour " with another request for marriage . Taizong conceded , giving Princess Wencheng to the Tibetan king . When Wencheng went to Tibet in 640 as the Chinese wife of the king ( known as Gyasa in Tibet ) , she brought an image of Sakyamuni Buddha as a young prince . The image was deified in a temple originally named Trulnang , which became the Jokhang . The temple became the holiest shrine in Tibet and the image , known as Jowo Rinpoche , has become the country 's most @-@ revered idol .
The oldest part of the temple was built in 652 by Songtsen Gampo . To find a location for the temple , the king reportedly tossed his hat ( a ring in another version ) ahead of him with a promise to build a temple where the hat landed . It landed in a lake , where a white stupa ( memorial monument ) suddenly emerged over which the temple was built . In another version of the legend , Queen Bhrikuti founded the temple to install the statue she had brought and Queen Wencheng selected the site according to Chinese geomancy and feng shui . The lake was filled , leaving a small pond now visible as a well fed by the ancient lake , and a temple was built on the filled area . Over the next nine centuries , the temple was enlarged ; its last renovation was carried out in 1610 by the Fifth Dalai Lama .
The temple 's design and construction are attributed to Nepalese craftsmen . After Songtsen Gampo 's death , Queen Wencheng reportedly moved the statue of Jowo from the Ramoche temple to the Jokhang temple to secure it from Chinese attack . The part of the temple known as the Chapel was the hiding place of the Jowo Sakyamuni .
During the reign of King Tresang Detsan from 755 to 797 , Buddhists were persecuted because the king 's minister , Marshang Zongbagyi ( a devotee of Bon ) , was hostile to Buddhism . During this time the image of Akshobya Buddha in the Jokhang temple was hidden underground , reportedly 200 people failed to locate it . The images in the Jokhang and Ramoche temples were moved to Jizong in Ngari , and the monks were persecuted and driven from Jokhang . During the anti @-@ Buddhist activity of the late ninth and early tenth centuries , the Jokhang and Ramoche temples were said to be used as stables . In 1049 Atisha , a renowned teacher of Buddhism from Bengal who taught in Jokhang and died in 1054 , found the " Royal Testament of the Pillar " ( Bka ' chems ka khol ma ) in a pillar at Jokhang ; the document was said to be the testament of Songtsen Gampo .
Beginning in about the 14th century , the temple was associated with the Vajrasana in India . It is said that the image of Buddha deified in the Jokhang is the 12 @-@ year @-@ old Buddha earlier located in the Bodh Gaya Temple in India , indicating " historical and ritual " links between India and Tibet . Tibetans call Jokhang the " Vajrasana of Tibet " ( Bod yul gyi rDo rje gdani ) , the " second Vajrasana " ( rDo rje gdan pal } and " Vajrasan , the navel of the land of snow " ( Gangs can sa yi lte ba rDo rje gdani ) .
After the occupation of Nepal by the Gorkhas in 1769 , during the Gorkha @-@ Tibetan war in 1792 the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty drove the Gorkhas from Tibet and the Tibetans were isolated from their neighbors . The period , lasting for more than a century , has been called " the Dark Age of Tibet " . Pilgrimages outside the country were forbidden for Tibetans , and the Qianlong Emperor suggested that it would be equally effective to worship the Jowo Buddha at the Jokhang .
In Chinese development of Lhasa , Barkhor Square was encroached when the walkway around the temple was destroyed . An inner walkway was converted into a plaza , leaving only a short walkway as a pilgrimage route . In the square , religious objects related to the pilgrimage are sold .
During the Cultural Revolution , Red Guards attacked the Jokhang in 1966 and for a decade there was no worship in Tibetan monasteries . Renovation of the Jokhang began in 1972 , and was mostly complete by 1980 . After this and the end of persecution , the temple was re @-@ consecrated . It is now visited by a large number of Tibetans , who come to worship Jowo in the temple 's inner sanctum . During the Revolution , the temple was spared destruction and was reportedly boarded up until 1979 . At that time , portions of the Jokhang reportedly housed pigs , a slaughterhouse and Chinese army barracks . Soldiers burned historic Tibetan scriptures . For a time , it was a hotel .
Two flagstone doring ( inscribed pillars ) outside the temple , flanking its north and south entrances , are worshiped by Tibetans . The first monument , a March 1794 edict known as the " Forever Following Tablet " in Chinese , records advice on hygiene to prevent smallpox ; some has been chiseled out by Tibetans who believed that the stone itself had curative powers . The second , far older , pillar is 5 @.@ 5 metres ( 18 ft ) high with a crown in the shape of a palace and an inscription dated 821 or 822 . The tablet has a number of names ; " Number One Tablet in Asia " , " Lhasa Alliance Tablet " , " Changing Alliance Tablet " , " Uncle and Nephew Alliance Tablet " and the " Tang Dynasty @-@ Tubo Peace Alliance Tablet " . ) Its inscription , in Tibetan and Chinese , is a treaty between the Tibetan king Ralpachen and the Chinese emperor delineating the boundary between their countries . Both inscriptions were enclosed by brick walls when Barkhor Square was developed in 1985 . The Sino @-@ Tibetan treaty reads , " Tibet and China shall abide by the frontiers of which they are now in occupation . All to the east is the country of Great China ; and all to the west is , without question , the country of Great Tibet . Henceforth on neither side shall there be waging of war nor seizing of territory . If any person incurs suspicion he shall be arrested ; his business shall be inquired into and he shall be escorted back " .
According to the Dalai Lama , among the many images in the temple was an image of Chenrizi , made of clay in the temple , within which the small wooden statue of the Buddha brought from Nepal was hidden . The image was in the temple for 1300 years , and when Songtsen Gampo died his soul was believed to have entered the small wooden statue . During the Cultural Revolution , the clay image was smashed and the smaller Buddha was given by a Tibetan to the Dalai Lama .
In 2000 , the Jokhang became a UNESCO World Heritage Site as an extension of the Potala Palace ( a World Heritage Site since 1994 ) to facilitate conservation efforts . The temple is listed in the first group of State Cultural Protection Relic Units , and has been categorized as a 4A @-@ level tourist site .
= = Architecture = =
The Jokhang temple covers an area of 2 @.@ 51 hectares ( 6 @.@ 2 acres ) . When it was built during the seventh century , it had eight rooms on two floors to house scriptures and sculptures of the Buddha . The temple had brick @-@ lined floors , columns and door frames and carvings made of wood . During the Tubo period , there was conflict between followers of Buddhism and the indigenous Bon religion . Changes in dynastic rule affected the Jokhang Monastery ; after 1409 , during the Ming dynasty , many improvements were made to the temple . The second and third floors of the Buddha Hall and the annex buildings were built during the 11th century . The main hall is the four @-@ story Buddha Hall .
The temple has an east @-@ west orientation , facing Nepal to the west in honour of Princess Bhrikuti . Additionally , the monastery 's main gate faces west . The Jokhang is aligned along an axis , beginning with an arch gate and followed by the Buddha Hall , an enclosed passage , a cloister , atriums and a hostel for the lamas ( monks ) . Inside the entrance are four " Guardian Kings " ( Chokyong ) , two on each side . The main shrine is on the ground floor . On the first floor are murals , residences for the monks and a private room for the Dalai Lama , and there are residences for the monks and chapels on all four sides of the shrine . The temple is made of wood and stone . Its architecture features the Tibetan Buddhist style , with influences from China , Indian vihara design and Nepal . The roof is covered with gilded bronze tiles , figurines and decorated pavilions .
The central Buddha Hall is tall , with a large , paved courtyard . A porch leads to the open courtyard , which is two concentric circles with two temples : one in the outer circle and another in the inner circle . The outer circle has a circular path , with a number of large prayer wheels ( nangkhor ) ; this path leads to the main shrine , which is surrounded by chapels . Only one of the temple murals remains , depicting the arrival of Queen Wencheng and an image of the Buddha . The image , brought by the king 's Nepalese wife and initially kept at Ramoche , was moved to Jokhang and kept in the rear center of the inner temple . This Buddha has remained on a platform since the eighth century ; on a number of occasions , it was moved for safekeeping . The image , amidst those of the king and his two consorts , has been gilded several times . In the main hall on the ground floor is a gilded bronze statue of Jowo Sakyamuni , 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 ft 11 in ) tall , representing the Buddha at age twelve . The image has a bejeweled crown , cover around its shoulder , a diamond on its forehead and wears a pearl @-@ studded garment . The Buddha is seated in a lotus position on a three @-@ tiered lotus throne , with his left hand on his lap and his right hand touching the earth . A number of chapels surround the Jowo Sakayamuni , dedicated to gods and bodhisattvas . The most important bodhisattva here is the Avalokiteshwara , the patron saint of Tibet , with a thousand eyes and a thousand arms . Flanking the main hall are halls for Amitabha ( the Buddha of the past ) and Qamba ( the Buddha of the future ) . Incarnations of Sakyamuni are enshrined on either side of a central axis , and the Buddha 's warrior guard is in the middle of the halls on the left side .
In addition to the main hall and its adjoining halls , on both sides of the Buddha Hall are dozens of 20 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 220 sq ft ) chapels . The Prince of Dharma chapel is on the third floor , including sculptures of Songtsen Gampo , Princess Wencheng , Princess Bhrikuti , Gar Tongtsan ( the Tabo minister ) and Thonmi Sambhota , the inventor of Tibetan script . The halls are surrounded by enclosed walkways .
Decorations of winged apsaras , human and animal figurines , flowers and grasses are carved on the superstructure . Images of sphinxes with a variety of expressions are carved below the roof .
The temple complex has more than 3 @,@ 000 images of the Buddha and other deities ( including an 85 @-@ foot ( 26 m ) image of the Buddha ) and historical figures , in addition to manuscripts and other objects . The temple walls are decorated with religious and historical murals .
On the rooftop and roof ridges are iconic statues of golden deer flanking a Dharma wheel , victory flags and monstrous fish . The temple interior is a dark labyrinth of chapels , illuminated by votive candles and filled with incense . Although portions of the temple has been rebuilt , original elements remain . The wooden beams and rafters have been shown by carbon dating to be original , and the Newari door frames , columns and finials dating to the seventh and eighth centuries were brought from the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal .
In addition to walking around the temple and spinning prayer wheels , pilgrims prostrate themselves before approaching the main deity ; some crawl a considerable distance to the main shrine . The prayer chanted during this worship is " Om mani padme hum " ( Hail to the jewel in the lotus ) . Pilgrims queue on both sides of the platform to place a ceremonial scarf ( katak ) around the Buddha 's neck or touch the image 's knee . A walled enclosure in front of the Jokhang , near the Tang Dynasty @-@ Tubo Peace Alliance Tablet , contains the stump of a willow known as the " Tang Dynstay Willow " or the " Princess Willow " . The willow was reportedly planted by Princess Wencheng .
= = Buddhist scriptures and sculptures = =
The Jokhang has a sizable , significant collection of cultural artifacts , including Tang @-@ dynasty bronze sculptures and finely @-@ sculpted figures in different shapes from the Ming dynasty . Among hundreds of thangkas , two notable paintings of Chakrasamvara and Yamanataka date to the reign of the Yongle Emperor ; both are embroidered on silk and well @-@ preserved . The collection also has 54 boxes of Tripiṭaka printed in red , 108 carved sandalwood boxes with sutras and a vase ( a gift from the Qianlong Emperor ) used to select the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama .
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= Christmas in the post @-@ war United States =
Christmas in the United States during the post @-@ War years ( 1946 – 1964 ) reflected a period of peace , productivity , and prosperity . Americans staged sumptuous Christmases and enjoyed a variety of holiday foods unknown to previous generations . Several films , foods , toys , and television programs of the era have become American Christmas traditions .
Once reliant upon Germany for its ornaments , toys , and even its Christmas customs , America became self @-@ sufficient in the post @-@ War years with Christmas ornaments and toys being manufactured in the United States that were considerably less expensive than their German counterparts . American Christmas customs and traditions such as visits to department store Santas and letter writing to Santa at the North Pole remained intact during America 's post @-@ War years , but the era generated contributions that have endured to become traditions .
NORAD 's tracking of Santa 's sleigh on Christmas Eve , for example , was initiated in 1955 and has become an annual tradition . The stop motion animated film , Rudolph the Red @-@ Nosed Reindeer remains an annual telecast on American television — almost fifty years after its debut , and Dr. Seuss 's The Grinch Who Stole Christmas of 1957 has become a literary Christmas classic .
Several Christmas firsts mark the post @-@ War era that include the first White House Christmas card , the first Christmas postage stamp , the first opera composed for television ( Amahl and the Night Visitors ) , the first Christmas Day basketball game , and the first Elvis Presley Christmas album . The era saw the production and manufacture of toys that have become classics such as Candy Land , Mr. Potato Head , and Barbie .
= = Christmas trees = =
= = = Types = = =
During the post @-@ War years , Americans could select their Christmas trees from a variety of offerings . Natural trees had become the preferred choice in America when Christmas tree farms began supplying them to large metropolitan areas in the 1920s . Artificial trees of bristles , aluminum trees , and flocked trees became alternatives to real trees during the post @-@ War period .
= = = = Natural = = = =
In 1900 , only one in five American families had a [ Christmas tree ] . While America never lacked for real trees , the time and expense of retrieving them from the wild was significant . Early in the twentieth century , however , Christmas tree farms began supplying large metropolitan areas with real trees . In the 1920s , real trees became commonplace , supplanting artificial trees in American homes .
= = = = Artificial = = = =
Artificial trees made of goose feathers were in use in American homes since the 1880s . In the 1930s , however , The Addis Brush Company , an American toilet bowl brush manufacturer , began making artificial trees of green @-@ dyed bristles and then supplied the British ( who suffered a dearth of wild trees ) with thousands of artificial trees in the post @-@ War years . Americans took little interest in the Addis artificial trees and remained loyal to real trees .
= = = = Aluminum = = = =
In 1950 , the Addis Brush Company patented an aluminum Christmas tree , the Silver Pine , that came with a floodlight and a rotating color wheel . Modern Coatings , Inc. of Chicago manufactured aluminum trees in 1958 , and The Aluminum Specialty Company of Manitowoc , Wisconsin manufactured more than a million aluminum trees between 1959 and 1969 . The trees , including the company 's flagship product the " Evergleam " , retailed for $ 25 .
The aluminum tree spectacle could be enhanced with a rotating Christmas tree stand . The futuristic , Space Age look of the trees made them especially suited to the streamlined home decor of the period . Sales of aluminum trees declined after being treated satirically in the 1965 animated Christmas television special , A Charlie Brown Christmas .
= = = = Flocked = = = =
In the 1960s , flocked Christmas trees in purple , gold , pink , and even black became popular . The trees ' branches were coated in a chemically @-@ created , flame retardant substance resembling snow . Sophisticated style mavens suggested developing a new Christmas tree theme every year and buying color coordinated ornaments . Natural trees would return to favor in the 1970s when country arts and crafts became popular .
= = = Decorations = = =
The post @-@ War period saw changes in the production of Christmas tree ornaments . Shiny Brite and other ornament companies began mass @-@ producing inexpensive glass ornaments . Bubble lights were introduced during the period , and inexpensive , lit @-@ from @-@ within tree toppers were another option for the tree .
= = = = Toppers and stands = = = =
In the post @-@ War years , translucent , molded plastic , electrified , lit @-@ from @-@ within tree toppers in the shape of angels and stars became popular . Although Santa Claus and other Christmas icons were introduced as electrified toppers , the star and the angel of the Victorian era remained the preferred motif . Glass spire ornaments were also popular as toppers .
The first decorated water reservoir tree stands appeared on the American market in the 1940s . Tin Christmas tree stands decorated with lithographed holiday icons manufactured by National Outfit Manufacturers Association were produced in the 1950s and have become collectibles of the era .
= = = = Lights = = = =
Bubble lights , a type of incandescent novelty light , were invented by Carl Otis in 1935 , who then sold the patents to the NOMA ( National Outfit Manufacturer 's Association ) Electric Corporation . NOMA launched the novelty lights on the Christmas market in 1946 when war shortages ended . Bubble lights became hugely popular . Their main feature was a sealed glass tube with a colored bubbling liquid inside .
Other companies followed with their own bubble light versions and other lighting novelties . In 1946 , Sylvania introduced fluorescent pastel lights . In 1955 , NOMA manufactured flashing lights . In 1958 , GE launched Lighted Ice Bulbs , blue bulbs covered with ' ice ' crystals . Fairy Lights were imported from Europe in 1950 and eventually morphed into the inexpensive mini @-@ lights popular in the last decades of the 20th century .
= = = = Ornaments = = = =
German glass ornaments were introduced to America by Frank Woolworth in the 1880s but such ornaments were produced under labor @-@ intensive conditions and were expensive , with few Americans being able to afford more than one or two ornaments per year . On the eve of World War II , however , American companies began manufacturing inexpensive , mass @-@ produced ornaments that made it possible for almost any American to have an extensive collection of Christmas ornaments for little cost within moments . With a few modifications , Corning Glass 's light bulb machine could spit out 2 @,@ 000 blank glass ornaments a minute that were then bought by ornament companies to be decorated , packaged and sold by the dozen .
= = = = = Shiny Brite = = = = =
Max Eckhardt 's Shiny Brite company manufactured colorful glass ornaments in a variety of sizes and shapes through the era . Packed in boxes by the dozen or half dozen , glimpses of the ornaments could be caught through the cellophane windows of the boxes ' covers . The reds and greens of the past were supplemented with turquoise , chartreuse , orange , purple , and other vibrant colors .
Glittery bands of mica decorated some balls while others were silk screened with seasonal motifs such as snowy scenes , sleigh rides , carolers , and poinsettias . Some balls featured silvery indents on their surfaces that reflected the surrounding light . In the early 1950s , clear glass balls appeared decorated with bands of color or glittering sparkles . Molded plastic Santa Clauses , angels , snowmen , and other holiday icons were inexpensive , mass @-@ produced , and readily available .
= = = Outdoor lighting = = =
McAdenville , North Carolina claims the distinction of being the first community to use outdoor Christmas lights . The Library of Congress notes that " the tradition of decorating evergreen trees with Christmas lights dates back to 1956 when the McAdenville Men 's Club conceived of the idea of decorating a few trees around the McAdenville Community Center . "
While the Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree has had " lights " since 1931 , the Rockefeller Tree did not have real electric lights until 1956 . Philadelphia 's Christmas Light Show and Disney 's Christmas Tree also began in 1956 . Though GE sponsored community lighting competitions during the 1920s , it was not until the mid @-@ 1950s that outdoor Christmas lighting was adopted by most Americans . Strings of lights gradually began adorning mantles and doorways inside houses , and trimming the rafters , roof lines , and porch railings outside .
= = = National Christmas Tree = = =
The tradition of having a National Christmas Tree in Washington , D.C. began in 1923 when a 48 @-@ foot Balsam Fir from Vermont was placed in the Ellipse outside the White House . On Christmas Eve , President Calvin Coolidge lit the 2 @,@ 500 red , white and green electric bulbs on the tree .
In 1941 , President Franklin Delano Roosevelt had the tree moved from the Ellipse to the White House grounds , where it remained until 1954 when it was returned to the Ellipse . In 1946 , the lighting ceremony became a televised event , though not with widespread telecast . From 1948 to 1951 , President Harry S. Truman signalled the lighting of the tree by remote control from his Independence , Missouri home , but in 1952 , he stayed at the White House for the lighting ceremony . In 1953 , the ceremony was widely telecast and President Dwight David Eisenhower 's address was radio broadcast through the Voice of America in thirty @-@ four languages .
In 1954 , businessmen in the Washington , D.C. area became involved and greatly expanded the program with the Christmas Pageant of Peace . The Pageant centered around the lighting of the Christmas tree , and included various elements such as a life @-@ sized reproduction of the nativity scene . Every year from 1954 to 1972 , a tree was cut and brought to the White House from a different US state and installed at the Ellipse . The ceremony of the tree lighting was then followed by Christmas presentations through the holiday season .
= = Santa Claus = =
Rituals surrounding Santa Claus such as department store visits to the " jolly old elf " , and letter writing to his North Pole workshop remained intact during the post @-@ War era . New to the mix was Santa 's Workshop ( one of the first theme parks in the US ) , and NORAD 's tracking of Santa 's sleigh via radar on Christmas Eve . In Cleveland , Ohio , a costumed character called Mr. Jingeling entertained shoppers annually at Halle 's Department Store during the season .
= = = Santa 's Workshop = = =
In 1949 , one of the first theme parks in the United States , Santa 's Workshop , was constructed near Whiteface Mountain in New York State . The park was designed by Arto Monaco , of Upper Jay , New York , and built by the site 's owner Harold Fortune , of Lake Placid , New York . The idea for the park originated in a story that Lake Placid businessman Julian Reiss told his daughter about a baby bear who visits Santa Claus 's workshop at the North Pole .
The park features tame deer , storybook characters , and similar attractions . Single day attendance at the park peaked at 14 @,@ 000 on September 2 , 1951 . On December 16 , 1953 , the U.S. Postal Service awarded North Pole , New York status as a " Rural Postal Station " . In the same year , the park 's Santa Claus and his reindeer participated in the Pageant of Peace in Washington , D.C. as well as Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade in New York City . The Nativity Pageant was introduced at the park in 1954 .
= = = NORAD tracking of Santa 's journey = = =
In 1955 , an advertisement encouraging children to call Santa Claus over a special telephone number was printed in Colorado Springs , Colorado . Due to an error , the phone number that was printed was that of the Continental Air Defense ( CONAD ) . Colonel Harry Shoup was on duty on Christmas Eve 1955 and took many calls from children inquiring about Santa . He told his operators to give a current location for Santa Claus to any child who called in . Three years later , the North American Aerospace Defense Command ( NORAD ) was formed and the NORAD Tracks Santa service continued .
= = = Mr. Jingeling = = =
Mr. Jingeling , the Keeper of the Keys to Santa 's Workshop , was created in 1956 as a radio spokesman to promote the toys sold at Halle 's Department Store in Cleveland , Ohio . Mr. Jingeling was immediately popular and became an annual fixture at Halle 's where he prowled the seventh floor toy department entertaining shoppers . The costumed character was first played by Max Ellis , a Cleveland Play House actor , and then by Earl W. Keyes , a television producer and director , who remained with the role for many years . In addition to his department store duties , Mr. Jingeling appeared on a local children 's television program telling stories , singing songs , and reminding viewers to visit Halle 's .
= = Toys = =
The post @-@ War Christmas toy extravaganza had its seed in Clement Clarke Moore 's A Visit from St. Nicholas . There , Saint Nicholas is depicted not as the thin , somewhat forbidding , charity dispensing character of European lore but as a dimpled , " jolly old elf " whose stomach shakes like " a bowlful of jelly " when he laughs , and who enters a dwelling through the chimney with a pack of toys on his back .
In the nineteenth century , Germany was the toy making capitol of the world , but high importation costs made German toys relatively expensive in America . Toy costs were lowered when German toymakers began mass @-@ producing toys under the direction of Frank Woolworth and shipping their products to Woolworth 's warehouses for packaging and distribution .
With the loss of German toys on the American market during World War I , toy manufacturing in the United States began in earnest . The Great Depression was a temporary setback but WWII proved a catalyst . In the aftermath of the war , American couples were eager to settle down , have kids , and lavish the sumptuous Christmases they never had on their offspring .
The post @-@ War years saw the creation of toys that are still in production today and include Candy Land , Cootie , the hula hoop , Barbie , and Etch A Sketch .
Television cultivated the American Christmas toy extravaganza . Manufacturers sidestepped the parent in selling a toy and went directly to the child . Mr. Potato Head was the first toy advertised on television and retail sales topped $ 4 million in the toy 's first year . Play @-@ Doh 's sales skyrocketed after being advertised on influential children 's television programs such as Ding Dong School and Captain Kangaroo .
= = Christmas cards = =
The first White House Christmas card was sent during the administration of Dwight David Eisenhower in 1953 . President Eisenhower was an amateur artist and personally consulted with the head of Hallmark Cards on the project . Over the course of two terms , the Eisenhower White House issued 38 different cards and prints with many of them bearing the President 's own artwork . The tradition was continued during the Kennedy years with Jacqueline Kennedy 's artwork featured on a 1963 card issued to raise funds for a national performing arts center .
Early in the post @-@ War years , cards exhibited traditional sentiments and art that reassured war weary Americans . As the 1960s neared , however , sophisticated , adult @-@ oriented cards called " Slim Jims " began appearing on the market . The cards displayed Santas driving fin @-@ tailed convertibles and beatniks delivering greetings in hepcat lingo . The highly stylized cards remained popular well into the 1960s , poking fun at fads and world events . Family photo cards and newsletters ( meticulously handwritten or typed by busy moms ) became commonplace during the 1960s as well .
Hallmark brought African American culture to greeting cards in the 1960s as well as contemporary cultural images such as elves sporting Beatle haircuts and psychedelic Christmas trees in Warholesque colors . " Happy Christmas " replaced " Merry Christmas " here and there after clergymen decided the traditional greeting was associated with inebriation . In 1961 , 50 billion Christmas cards were mailed by Americans , and , in 1962 , America 's first Christmas postage stamp was issued — causing a mild firestorm by those who felt the stamp violated separation of church and state .
= = Foods = =
Mamie Eisenhower 's Million @-@ Dollar Fudge Recipe was a favorite holiday treat of the Eisenhower White House years. and first appeared in Who Says We Can 't Cook ? , a spiral @-@ bound collection of recipes published in 1955 by the Women 's National Press Club of Washington , D.C. Mamie 's husband Ike named the recipe .
1955 saw the culinary debut of Green Bean Casserole , a dish that remains a holiday favorite in America . Its ingredients include green beans , cream of mushroom soup , and , as a topping , French 's Fried Onions . The casserole was created by Campbell Soup Company in order to promote its cream soups . French 's reports that 50 % of all French 's Fried Onions consumption occurs over Thanksgiving , Christmas , and Easter .
Cookie cutting and decorating reached its cultural zenith during the boomer years with Christmas cookie cutouts of reindeer , trees , stars , and bells providing sustenance for kids and dads . Moms packed their favorite home baked cookies into Tupperware containers and carried them to cookie swap parties with friends and neighbors . Red plastic cutters replaced tin cutters during the war years when metal was scarce and can be found today at garage sales and flea markets .
A snack hit of the 1955 holiday season was Chex Party Mix , a combination of Wheat Chex , Rice Chex , and Corn Chex , nuts , pretzels and a dressing of melted butter , Worcestershire sauce , and onion and garlic powders . The treat remains a popular holiday snack .
= = Teenagers = =
= = = Gifts = = =
Gifts for teens in the post @-@ War years included face powder , radios , telephones , and cars . In the early 1950s , Angel Face powder was advertised as " the perfect girl @-@ to @-@ girl " Christmas gift . The first transistor radios hit the market just before Christmas 1954 and were a luxury item at US $ 49 @.@ 95 ( $ 322 in 2000 values ) . A leather case and earphone cost an additional $ 11 @.@ 45 ( $ 73 ) . By the end of the decade however , prices dropped so quickly that an 8 @-@ transistor radio could be had for less than $ 10 .
Another gift in demand was the streamlined , oval @-@ shaped Princess telephone introduced in the early 1960s . The phone came in a variety of colors , including pink , turquoise , and cream . When one of Mattel 's Barbie doll outfits included a Princess phone as an accessory , a fashion trend was born . By 1963 , many Baby Boomers had reached driver 's license age and , for the first time , middle @-@ class families splurged on cars for their offspring .
= = = Films and music = = =
Twentieth Century Fox 's 1956 Christmas offering was The Girl Can 't Help It , a musical film originally intended as a vehicle for sex symbol Jayne Mansfield , with the subplot being a satire of teenagers and rock ‘ n ’ roll music . The unintended result was the " most potent " celebration of rock music ever captured on film .
In December 1961 , Disney Studios released Babes in Toyland , a film version of Victor Herbert 's 1903 operetta starring teen heartthrobs Annette Funicello and Tommy Sands . Though new songs with jazzy tempi were incorporated into the film and one critic was delighted with the film 's colorful numbers , Babes in Toyland was neither a success nor a complete box office flop . Its gigantic toy soldiers became members of the Disneyland and Walt Disney World Christmas Parades .
Two rockabilly / rock and roll style songs of the late 1950s became hugely popular . " Jingle Bell Rock " , written by Joe Beal and Jim Boothe , was recorded by Bobby Helms in 1957 . The song is regarded as the first rock and roll Christmas song , and has hit the Billboard charts a record six times since its original release . It is second in popularity only to " White Christmas , " with 120 million copies sold . " Jingle Bell Rock " hit # 6 in its first year , despite having been released only two days before Christmas .
" Rockin ' Around the Christmas Tree " , written by Johnny Marks and recorded by Brenda Lee in 1958 for Decca Records , was another rockabilly / rock and roll flavored Christmas tune . While it was neglected in its first two seasons , the song hit # 16 on the Billboard pop chart during the Christmas season of 1960 . Eight million copies were sold over thirty years .
= = Music = =
Elvis ' Christmas Album was released in October 1957 , the first of only two Christmas albums Elvis recorded . The album featured eight Christmas songs , and four gospel songs . " Santa Claus Is Back In Town " and " Santa Bring My Baby Back ( to Me ) " were both commissioned expressly for the album . Elvis ' reading of Ernest Tubb 's 1949 hit , " Blue Christmas " made the tune a holiday staple .
His version of " White Christmas " brought calls from the song 's composer Irving Berlin to have the song , and the entire album , banned from radio airplay . Berlin thought Elvis 's rendition a " profane parody of his cherished yuletide standard " . Most US radio stations ignored Berlin 's request , though at least one DJ was fired for playing a tune from the album . As of 2007 , Elvis ' Christmas Album is the top @-@ selling holiday release of all time with 9 million in sales , according to the RIAA .
" Rudolph the Red @-@ Nosed Reindeer " was composed in 1948 by Johnny Marks after a 1939 poem by Robert L. May who created Rudolph as part of his employment with Montgomery Ward . The song tells the story of a reindeer whose shiny red nose guides Santa 's sleigh through the fog on Christmas Eve . Gene Autry 's 1949 recording remained at # 1 for a week and brought the song widespread fame . Only " White Christmas " has sold more copies .
Autry had another hit in 1950 with " Frosty the Snowman " , written by Jack Rollins and Steve Nelson as a direct attempt to create a success in the vein of " Rudolph The Red @-@ Nosed Reindeer " . The song tells the story of a magical snowman who has playful adventures with children . In 1963 , " Frosty " hit its highest position ever at # 13 in a version by The Ronettes .
Spike Jones 's rendition of " All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth " hit # 1 on the pop charts in 1951 . The tune was composed in December 1944 by elementary school music teacher Don Gardner when he noticed most of his students were missing their front " baby " teeth . Inspired , he dashed off the song in thirty minutes . In Spike Jones ' original hit recording , a grownup pretends to be a lisping kid who cannot whistle . Nat King Cole also covered the tune .
" The Little Drummer Boy " , based on an ancient Czech folksong , was written by Katherine K. Davis in 1957 . The song tells the apocryphal story of a poor young boy who , unable to afford a gift for the infant Jesus , plays his drum with Mary 's approval . The baby smiles at the boy in gratitude . The 1958 version by the Harry Simeone Chorale is the standard , and hit the unparalleled record of placing in the Top 40 for five straight Christmases in a row . Simeone recorded the song in a Greenwich Village cathedral to give it a hushed respect . Its highest position on both the US and UK charts was # 13 .
" Silver Bells " was composed by Jay Livingston and Ray Evans , introduced by Bob Hope and Marilyn Maxwell in the film , The Lemon Drop Kid and recorded by Bing Crosby and Carol Richards in 1952 . The song was inspired by Salvation Army bellringers and is one of the very few songs about Christmas in the city . The song was originally called " Tinkle Bell " , but Livingston 's wife reminded him that " tinkle " had another association . " It was something you did in the bathroom , " Evans recalled years after the song 's composition , " but that 's a woman 's word and I 'd never thought of it . " " Silver Bells " ranks # 13 on ASCAP 's list of most @-@ played holiday songs .
" I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus " was written and composed by Tommie Connor in 1952 and originally recorded by thirteen @-@ year @-@ old Jimmy Boyd . The song reached # 1 on the Billboard charts in 1952 , and on the Cash Box Magazine chart at the beginning of the following year . Boyd 's record was condemned by the Roman Catholic Church in Boston on the grounds it mixed sex with Christmas . Boyd was widely photographed meeting with the Archdiocese to explain the song .
" Santa Baby " was written by Joan Javits and Philip Springer in 1953 . The song is a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek look at a Christmas list of a woman who wants the most extravagant gifts for the holiday . " Santa Baby " was originally sung and recorded by Eartha Kitt and became a huge hit at # 4 in 1953 .
Jackson 5 Christmas Album was the only holiday album released by Motown family quintet The Jackson 5 . Released in October 1970 , the album showcased the brothers ' harmonies and vocals . Lead singer Michael Jackson is prominently featured on the album tracks . Included on the Christmas Album is the Jackson 5 's hit single version of " Santa Claus Is Coming to Town " . Rendered with a pop @-@ soul feel , the Jackson 5 's versions of " I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus " and " Santa Claus Is Coming to Town " remain frequent radio requests during the holiday season .
The album spent all four weeks at the number one position on Billboard magazine 's special Christmas Albums chart that the magazine published in December 1970 , making it the best @-@ selling holiday album of that year . It has sold over 3 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide . [ 2 ] In 2003 , Universal Motown re @-@ released the album with " Little Christmas Tree " ( from A Motown Christmas ) . In 2009 , this configuration was released as Ultimate Christmas Collection with Christmas messages , remixes , and a Christmas medley , and again as Merry Christmas Jackson 's. http : / / www.allmusic.com / album / r9998 [ edit ]
= = Literature = =
In 1957 , Dr. Seuss 's How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! was published by Random House . The tale 's rhyming verse accompanies illustrations by the author , and follows a disagreeable character called the Grinch and his attempts to thwart the arrival of Christmas by stealing the gifts , trims , and other trappings of the holiday from the happy Whos of Whoville . In spite of his attempts , Christmas arrives all the same .
The Grinch realizes then that Christmas is something more than its trappings . The book criticizes the commercialization of Christmas and satirizes those who exploit the holiday . The tale was adapted into a 1966 short animated film for television with a screenplay by Seuss and narration by Boris Karloff . Later adaptations include a Broadway musical and a feature film in 2000 starring Jim Carrey .
At 100 years of age in 1960 , Grandma Moses illustrated Clement Clark Moore 's Christmas poem , A Visit from Saint Nicholas as The Night Before Christmas for Random House . The book was published after her death in 1961 .
= = Film = =
The years immediately following WWII saw the release of two of the most popular Christmas films in US history : It 's a Wonderful Life ( 1946 ) and Miracle on 34th Street ( 1947 ) . Moviefone listed the two movies as number two and three respectively in their " 25 Best Christmas Movies of All Time " . The Times of London , in a similar ranking , had the two in tenth and eight respectively , while placing fourth 1942 's Holiday Inn , the movie that launched Bing Crosby 's White Christmas . Particularly Frank Capra 's It 's a Wonderful Life , starring James Stewart has been called " a testament to the family values of small @-@ town America just after WWII . "
Santa Claus Conquers the Martians ( 1964 ) regularly appears on lists of the worst films ever made . Paul Jacobson , the film 's producer and a former unit manager for the television program , Howdy Doody , described his film as a " Yuletide science fiction fantasy " , and with the best of intentions , hoped to bring something to movie theaters at a time of the year when there was a paucity of children 's entertainment other than the annual Disney feature .
In Jacobson 's film , Martians kidnap Santa Claus in a plan to bring fun to their listless , TV @-@ obsessed children . Once on Mars , Santa mass @-@ produces toys using a computerized machine , foils a sourpuss saboteur , and generates fun for all . Santa Claus Conquers the Martians has been novelized , adapted to musical stagings , and has taken its place as a holiday cult classic . Child actress Pia Zadora played one of the Martian children and years later commented , " It was very well done , considering it was shot twenty years ago - gimme a break - and really is very entertaining . It 's become a Christmas classic , really . "
= = Television = =
Christmas television is predominantly secular and focuses on the ethical message of generosity through gift giving and Santa Claus , or the psychological message of home , nostalgia and childhood , or both . The theological message of the holiday — the Incarnation — is rarely encountered in Christmas television . Such a message would be inaccessible to many Americans .
In 1949 , Gian Carlo Menotti was commissioned by NBC 's Opera Theatre to write an opera for television . After a year and a half of delay , he set to work , completing Amahl and the Night Visitors five days before its scheduled airing on Christmas Eve 1951 at 9 : 30 to 10 : 30 p.m .. Menotti 's work was inspired by Hieronymous Bosch 's painting , The Adoration of the Magi . The composer himself appeared on @-@ screen to introduce the opera and give the background of the events leading up to its composition . He also brought director Kirk Browning and conductor Thomas Schippers on @-@ camera to thank them .
An estimated five million viewers tuned in — to this day , the largest audience for a televised opera in America . Skeptic Olin Downes declared in a New York Times front page review that " television , operatically speaking , has come of age " and Newsweek called the telecast , " the best production of opera yet seen on TV . "
The opera 's appeal lay not only in its story about a crippled shepherd boy healed on the first Christmas Eve but in its wedding of opera and the limitations of television . The broad effects of theater were eschewed and instead an intimacy appropriate to the television studio and home viewing was cultivated . The production starred Chet Allen as Amahl and Rosemary Kuhlmann as his mother . Kuhlmann reprised her role annually for many years .
In 1953 , Amahl was colorcast . The opera claims the distinctions of being the first opera written for television , the first presentation of the teleseries Hallmark Hall of Fame , and the first Christmas television special to become an annual tradition . The opera was telecast on NBC from 1951 to 1966 with many of the original cast and crew participating .
On December 18 , 1962 , NBC aired the first animated Christmas special created specifically for television , Mister Magoo 's Christmas Carol . Based on Dickens ' novelette , A Christmas Carol , the animated special featured a score by Broadway duo Jule Styne and Bob Merrill .
On December 6 , 1964 , NBC aired Rudolph the Red – Nosed Reindeer , a stop motion animated special produced by Rankin / Bass . The special was based on a 1949 song by Johnny Marks , which was based in turn on a 1939 poem by Robert L. May . The program has aired every year since 1964 , making it the longest @-@ running Christmas television special .
= = Christmas clubs = =
Christmas clubs were savings programs first offered by banks in 1909 . The concept was simple : bank customers deposited a set amount of money each week into a special savings account , and received the money at a later date for Christmas shopping .
One radio program episode used Christmas clubs as a background . The December 23 , 1949 episode of Life of Riley saw the show 's protagonist Chester Riley attempting to withdraw his US $ 2 Christmas club money but discovering his account has accumulated a variety of fees including one for the passbook , another for early withdrawal , and yet another for the bank 's mailed reminders . The luckless Riley owes the bank 25 cents .
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= Josef Wurmheller =
Josef " Sepp " Wurmheller ( 4 May 1917 – 22 June 1944 ) was a German Luftwaffe pilot during World War II , a fighter ace credited with 102 enemy aircraft shot down in over 300 combat missions . He claimed the majority of his aerial victories over the Western Front , and nine over the Eastern Front . Of his 93 victories over the Western Allies , at least 18 – 20 were four @-@ engined bombers and 56 were against Supermarine Spitfire fighters .
Born in Hausham , Wurmheller was a glider pilot in his youth , and volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe of the Third Reich in 1937 . Following flight training he was posted to Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 — 53rd Fighter Wing ) in 1939 . He claimed his first aerial victory on the Western Front on 30 September 1939 , a phase of World War II dubbed the Phoney War . He then served as a flight instructor before returning to JG 53 for the Battle of Britain . In June 1941 he participated in Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . He was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 4 September 1941 after 32 victories . Following another tour as fighter pilot instructor , he was posted to Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen " ( JG 2 — 2nd Fighter Wing ) operating on the Channel Front . Wurmheller claimed seven aerial victories during the Dieppe Raid on 19 August 1942 and after his 67th victory was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 1 October 1942 .
In April 1943 , Wurmheller was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 9 . Staffel ( 9th squadron ) of JG 2 " Richthofen " . On 8 June 1944 , two days after the Allied Invasion of Normandy , he was given command of III . Gruppe ( 3rd group ) of JG 2 " Richthofen " . He and his wingman were killed in a mid @-@ air collision during combat near Alençon , France on 22 June 1944 . Wurmheller was posthumously promoted to Major ( major ) and was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords on 24 October 1944 .
= = Early life and career = =
Wurmheller was born on 4 May 1917 in Hausham in the Kingdom of Bavaria , a federated state of the German Empire . After growing up on his uncle 's farm at Schliersee , he spent four years working as a miner like his father . He was also an enthusiastic glider pilot and in 1937 he volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe . Following training as a fighter pilot , Wurmheller , holding the rank of Unteroffizier ( sergeant ) , was posted to 2 . Staffel ( 2nd squadron ) of Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 — 53rd Fighter Wing ) in 1939 .
= = World War II = =
World War II in Europe began on Friday , 1 September 1939 , when German forces invaded Poland . On 30 September , elements of I. Gruppe ( 1st group ) of JG 53 encountered a formation of five Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Fairey Battle single @-@ engined bombers in the vicinity of Saarbrücken during the early Phoney War period . Wurmheller claimed his first victory during this encounter . The Fairey Battle K9283 , of No. 150 Squadron flown by Squadron Leader William MacDonald , was on an aerial reconnaissance mission in the area from Metzing to Saarbrücken and crash @-@ landed at Écury @-@ sur @-@ Coole . For this victory , Wurmheller received the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz 2 . Klasse ) on 19 October 1939 . He was posted to the Jagdfliegerschule ( fighter pilot school ) at Werneuchen as an instructor in November 1939 .
= = = Battle of Britain and Eastern Front = = =
Following a tour as an instructor at the Luftwaffe fighter pilot school , Wurmheller returned to 5 . Staffel of JG 53 in June 1940 . During the Battle of Britain , he flew combat missions as a fighter pilot and as a fighter @-@ bomber pilot . He claimed four further victories in this campaign and was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class ( Eisernes Kreuz 1 . Klasse ) on 16 October 1940 . He was shot down three times himself by RAF fighters and each time had to bail out . On the third occasion , he was shot down in Messerschmitt Bf 109 E @-@ 4 ( Werknummer 5242 — factory number ) at approximately 5 : 10 pm on 23 November over the English Channel and had to swim for four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours before he was rescued by a Schnellboot ( E @-@ boat ) of the Kriegsmarine ( Navy ) . Hospitalized until March 1941 , he returned to combat duty and claimed two Supermarine Spitfires shot down on 7 May 1941 , his 9th and 10th victories .
Wurmheller 's unit was subsequently transferred to the Eastern Front in preparation for Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , which began on 22 June 1941 . During Barbarossa he was deployed in the southern sector of the German advance . He added nine victories — eight bombers and one Polikarpov I @-@ 16 " Rata " fighter — in this theater of operations . His last victory on the Eastern Front , his 19th overall , was claimed on 15 July 1941 .
= = = Channel Front = = =
Wurmheller was transferred back to the Channel Front on 20 July 1941 . He was assigned to the Stab ( headquarters unit ) of II . Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen " ( JG 2 — 2nd Fighter Wing ) , named after the World War I fighter ace Manfred von Richthofen . He claimed his 20th aerial victory on 24 July 1941 and over a period of four weeks claimed a further 12 victories , all over Spitfires , including five in one day , making him an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " .
On 30 August 1941 , Wurmheller was awarded the Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ) , and on 4 September he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) for 32 aerial victories . His former unit , 5 . Staffel of JG 53 , had nominated him for the Knight 's Cross , but the nomination was not approved until he was assigned to JG 2 " Richthofen " . On the same day , his fellow II . Gruppe pilot Oberfeldwebel Kurt Bühligen also received the Knight 's Cross . At the time , Wurmheller flew a Bf 109 F @-@ 2 from the airbase at St Pol @-@ Bryas .
Following a minor injury , Wurmheller was again posted to the fighter pilot school in Werneuchen as an instructor . Upon his return to front line duty in May 1942 , he was posted to 1 . Staffel and claimed 10 victories during May 1942 and a further 12 victories the following month . Among these claims were four Spitfires shot down on 31 May and five on 5 June 1942 . Most of these missions were flown with Rudolf Pflanz as his wingman .
Wurmheller 's most successful day as a fighter pilot was during the Dieppe Raid on 19 August 1942 . On that day , the Allies unsuccessfully attacked the German @-@ occupied port of Dieppe . Over 6 @,@ 000 infantrymen , predominantly Canadian , were supported by a Canadian armored regiment and a strong force of Royal Marines and smaller RAF landing contingents . Wurmheller , whose right foot was plastered in an orthopedic cast , claimed seven victories during the course of four combat missions that day , six Spitfires and a Bristol Blenheim bomber . The Blenheim most likely was a misidentified Martin Baltimore . He had to abort his first mission due to engine trouble , suffering a minor concussion in the forced landing . He returned from his second mission claiming two Spitfires and a Blenheim shot down . His third mission resulted in the destruction of three more Spitfires , his 56th to 58th victories . Wurmheller claimed another Spitfire shout down on his fourth combat mission . The next day , 20 August , he claimed his 60th aerial victory , which earned him the German Cross in Gold ( Deutsches Kreuz in Gold ) ; it was awarded on 21 August .
Wurmheller was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) for bravery in the face of the enemy on 1 October 1942 . Following his 67th aerial victory , achieved in about 150 combat missions , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 14 November 1942 . He was the 146th officer or soldier of the Wehrmacht so honored .
The United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) , in particular the Eighth Air Force , began regular combat when the VIII Bomber Command attacked the Rouen – Sotteville marshalling yards in France on 17 August 1942 . Wurmheller claimed four Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bombers shot down on 3 January 1943 . On 1 April 1943 he was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 9 . Staffel of JG 2 " Richthofen " , succeeding Hauptmann ( Captain ) Siegfried Schnell , who was transferred to III . Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 54 — 54th Fighter Wing ) . Wurmheller claimed his 70th victory on 17 May , when he shot down a B @-@ 17 .
On 23 September , Wurmheller was wounded by bomb splinters while making an emergency landing in his Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 A @-@ 6 during a bombing raid at Vannes – Meucon . " Sepp " , as he was named by his comrades , was promoted to Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) on 1 August 1943 and to Hauptmann on 1 November 1943 . He claimed his first heavy bomber in the Defense of the Reich campaign on 8 February 1944 in the vicinity of Le Tréport . On 8 March 1944 , he claimed his 90th victory overall .
= = = Group commander and death = = =
Wurmheller claimed further aerial victories following the Allied invasion of Normandy on 6 June 1944 . He was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of III . Gruppe of JG 2 " Richthofen " on 8 June , succeeding Hauptmann Herbert Huppertz who was killed in action near Caen earlier that day . Wurmheller claimed the last three victories of his total of 102 on 16 June 1944 . He was the 80th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark .
Wurmheller was killed in his Fw 190 A @-@ 8 ( Werknummer 171 053 ) on 22 June 1944 , when he collided with his wingman , Feldwebel ( Staff Sergeant ) Kurt Franzke , during aerial combat with USAAF Republic P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt and Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) Spitfire fighters near Alençon . He was posthumously awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) and promoted to the rank of Major ( major ) on 24 October 1944 , which was back @-@ dated to 1 June 1944 . Wurmheller and Franzke were buried side by side at the War Cemetery Champigny @-@ St. André , near Saint @-@ André @-@ de @-@ l 'Eure , in plot 9 , graves 1704 and 1705 respectively .
= = Awards = =
Wound Badge in Black
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold with Pennant " 400 "
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 19 October 1939 )
1st Class ( 16 October 1940 )
Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( 30 August 1941 )
German Cross in Gold on 21 August 1942 as Oberfeldwebel in the I. / Jagdgeschwader 2
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Knight 's Cross on 4 September 1941 as Oberfeldwebel and pilot in the 9 . / Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen "
146th Oak Leaves on 13 November 1942 as Leutnant ( war officer ) and pilot in the 7 . / Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen "
108th Swords on 24 October 1944 ( posthumously ) as Hauptmann ( war officer ) and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen "
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= What Lies Below =
" What Lies Below " is the 13th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . Set in a quarantined Boston office building , the episode revolves around a thousands @-@ year @-@ old virus that infects and then influences its victims to attempt to spread the contagion outside of the building .
It was the third Fringe episode to be written by supervising producer Jeff Vlaming , while it was director Deran Sarafian 's only credit for the series to date . After his character becomes infected , actor Joshua Jackson commented during shooting to " just imagine the worst hangover I 've ever had and multiply it by ten " .
" What Lies Below " first aired in the United States on January 21 , 2010 on the Fox network . An estimated 6 @.@ 90 million viewers watched the episode , and it received mixed reviews from critics , with one calling it average and predictable .
= = Plot = =
In Boston , a visibly sick man from the Netherlands arrives at an office building , only to collapse and die . The veins in his body erupt with blood , spraying surrounding witnesses . The Fringe team arrive on site , and while interviewing the witnesses , another man also becomes sick . The sick man attempts to leave the building , only to be stopped by Walter ( John Noble ) , who sees the man spray out blood and realizes there is a contagion . The building is quarantined with Walter 's son Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) , FBI agent Olivia ( Anna Torv ) , and the rest of the witnesses still inside .
The CDC arrives and soon clash with Walter , who wants some blood samples to take back to his lab at Harvard . As another witness , the receptionist , falls ill , the rest begin panicking that the virus is an airborne contagion . Olivia discovers that the Dutch man was an oil consultant who arrived to meet with Mr. Ames , one of the other office workers trapped in the building .
Walter explains that viruses have forms of " personalities , " that influence their hosts to act in certain ways . He posits that the virus is not airborne after all , but needs more samples for further tests . Meanwhile the infected receptionist is influenced by the virus , jumps out a window , and also scares Peter into falling into an infected pool of blood . The woman is sprayed with decontaminate spray , as Peter quickly rinses himself off . Knowing he is likely infected , Peter searches through the Dutch man 's pockets , leading to the discovery of a briefcase infected by the virus .
Walter continues his theory that the virus wants to escape the building , hence the multiple escape attempts by the infected . The virus was found on a sample taken 10 miles below the earth , and may be 75 @,@ 000 years old and responsible for wiping out the Ice Age mammals . As a bio @-@ hazard team enters the building to test people for the virus , a CDC official orders the army to prepare for a " level six eradication " , because they still do not know how to contain it .
Peter manages to fake the test and hide his infection . He and Olivia begin leading a team of healthy people outside the building , but before Peter is able to leave , his nose bleeds , clearly revealing that he is infected . While the virus overtakes Peter 's health and sanity , Walter becomes increasingly distressed as he fears losing his son again , and accidentally blurts out that he " can 't let Peter die again " to Astrid ( Jasika Nicole ) . Despite the threat of eradication and death , he and Astrid remain in the building to run further tests on the Dutch man . Walter realizes that sulfuric ash killed the virus thousands of years ago , and successfully finds a cure with some horseradish he found in the office break room .
The CDC agrees to allow Olivia to enter the building and use the air ventilation system to spread some fentanyl gas , which will gain them time while the cure is synthesized . While inside , Peter attacks her , but Olivia is able to turn the air on , successfully knocking out the building 's occupants . Peter and everyone else are successfully cured . Astrid later approaches Walter and asks what he meant when he said he couldn 't let Peter die again , to which he responds by saying " some things are meant to be left alone . "
= = Production = =
Supervising producer Jeff Vlaming wrote " What Lies Below " , his second episode of the season . Filmmaker Deran Sarafian served as the director , his first and only Fringe directional credit . The episode featured one @-@ time guest appearances by actors Demore Barnes , Geoff Pierson , Conrad Coates , Natassia Malthe , and David Richmond @-@ Peck . Actor Joshua Jackson , who plays an infected Peter Bishop in the episode , noted during shooting that he found inspiration from " imagin [ ing ] the worst hangover I 've ever had and multiply it by ten " .
Actress Jasika Nicole was pleased that the writers decided to let her character discover Walter 's secret , commenting " Astrid finds out in a really emotional way because Walter lets it slip to her accidentally . I think that it was really nice for them to invite Astrid into the importance of that instead of keeping her in the dark . At least she knows that she 's a part of this family and this affects her . I think she serves as a really important character in these later episodes because Astrid is kind of the only person that isn 't directly involved with everything that is still on his side . She has to step up to the plate and be that comfort for him because if he doesn 't have anyone there , he 's basically going to regress and go back to the place , I think mentally , that he was in when he was in the mental institution . And of course we don 't want that . "
One of the episode 's scenes involves an infected woman jumping out of the building onto a van in an attempt to spread the virus further . To simulate her 160 @-@ feet fall , stuntwoman Angela Uyeda was placed in a crane 10 to 15 feet above the van and asked to jump onto the van below . The crew removed the roof structure on the van , and carefully rigged it to cave @-@ in upon impact but also make it as painless as possible for Uyeda . To achieve this , they modified the ribs that supported the roof by placing them on pins that would snap , and also added a three @-@ millimeter glass plate that would snap between two sheets of black hard nylon @-@ type plastic to further emphasize the distance she jumped .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The first airing of " What Lies Below " was watched by an estimated 6 @.@ 90 million viewers in the United States , with a 2 @.@ 6 / 7 rating for those aged 18 – 49 . SFScope writer Sarah Stegall considered these numbers to be " steady but stagnant ratings " , as they were " not much different " from the previous week .
= = = Reviews = = =
" What Lies Below " received mixed reviews from television critics . The A.V. Club contributor Todd VanDerWerff graded the episode with a B- , explaining that despite some nice moments , it was " an episode of the show that started out utterly predictably , continued along an utterly predictable path and yet somehow got fairly enjoyable by the end just through sheer force of will on the part of the cast . " IGN 's Ramsey Isler also found the episode average and predictable , as it lacked " much of the quintessential storytelling elements that , once upon a time , made this one of the best shows on TV . " Like many other critics , Isler thought the episode was too similar to The X @-@ Files , and gave it 7 @.@ 0 / 10 . TV Squad columnist Jane Boursaw thought Walter discovering a cure was a little far @-@ fetched , and wished Broyles was a greater part of the show . Television Without Pity gave the episode a B + .
Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times thought it was a really good episode , and even wished it could have been turned into a movie , were Fringe to get into filmmaking . Josh Wigler of MTV thought it was a " pretty cool " mystery @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week , and " while not quite as strong as when the mythology is in full gear , ' What Lies Below ' was nonetheless a compelling hour of television . " He was however bothered that there was no further information about the parallel universe . UGO Networks writer Alex Zalben compared " What Lies Below " to the similarly @-@ plotted The X @-@ Files episode " Ice " . Zalben concluded , " Though both episodes are very good , ' Ice ' is one of the best X @-@ Files hours ever , perfectly channeling – but not ripping off – John Carpenter 's The Thing . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Director Deran Sarafian submitted " What Lies Below " for consideration in the Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series category at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards . He did not receive a nomination .
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= Flitch of bacon custom =
The awarding of a flitch of bacon to married couples who can swear to not having regretted their marriage for a year and a day is an old tradition , the remnants of which still survive in some pockets in England . The tradition was maintained at Wychnoure until at least the eighteenth century but now remains only as a carving over the fireplace . At Little Dunmow in Essex a similar ceremony also survived into the eighteenth century . The tradition can be traced back to at least the fourteenth century at both sites and the Dunmow flitch is referred to in Chaucer . The awarding of a flitch at both sites seems to have been an exceedingly rare event .
The Dunmow tradition was revived in Victorian times , largely inspired by a book ( The Flitch of Bacon ) by William Harrison Ainsworth . Flitch trials are still held in modern times at Great Dunmow . A counsel is employed to cross @-@ examine the nominated couples and attempt to show they are undeserving of the award .
There is evidence that the flitch of bacon tradition existed outside Britain in mainland Europe and some would push its origins back as far as Saxon times . Historian Hélène Adeline Guerber associates the origins of the flitch of bacon ceremony with the Yule feast of Norse tradition in which boar meat is eaten in honour of the god Freyr .
= = Whichnoure = =
The manor of Whichnoure ( now Wychnor Hall ) near Lichfield , Staffordshire was granted to Sir Philip de Somerville in the 10th year of the reign of Edward III ( 1336 ) from the Earl of Lancaster for a small fee but also on condition that he kept ready " arrayed at all times of the year but Lent , one bacon @-@ flyke hanging in his hall at Whichnoure , to be given to every man or woman who demanded it a year and a day after the marriage , upon their swearing they would not have changed for none other " .
The couple are required to produce two of their neighbours to witness that the oath is true . The oath that was to be sworn by the couple reads ,
Hear ye , Sir Philip de Somervile , lord of Whichenoure , maintainer and giver of this Bacon , that I , ( husband ) , syth I wedded ( wife ) , my wyfe , and syth I had her in my kepyng and at wylle , by a Yere and a Day after our Marryage , I would not have changed for none other , farer ne fowler , richer ne powrer , ne for none other descended of gretter lynage , sleeping ne waking , at noo time ; and if the said ( wife ) were sole , and I sole , I would take her to be my wyfe before all the wymen of the worlde , of what condytions soevere they be , good or evyle , as helpe me God , and his Seyntys , and this flesh , and all fleshes .
The winning couple are escorted away in a grand ceremony with " trompets , tabourets , and other manoir of mynstralcie " . Although this is a valuable prize , it does not seem to have been claimed very often . Horace Walpole , who visited Whichnoure in 1760 , reported that the flitch had not been claimed for thirty years and that a real flitch of bacon was no longer kept ready at the manor . A replacement , carved in wood , was now displayed over the mantle of the fireplace in the main hall , presumably in order to continue to meet the conditions of the original land grant .
Walpole is quite taken by this tradition and mentions it in several letters to his friends . In a letter to the Countess of Ailesbury ( Lady Caroline Campbell , daughter of John Campbell , 4th Duke of Argyll and widow of Charles Bruce , 4th Earl of Elgin and 3rd Earl of Ailesbury but by this stage married to Hon. H. S. Conway ) , Walpole with tongue firmly in cheek berates her for not having come to Whichnoure to claim the flitch : " Are you not ashamed , Madam , never to have put in your claim ? It is above a year and a day that you have been married , and I never once heard either of you mention a journey to Whichnoure . " Describing the location and explaining why the flitch no longer gets claimed , he writes " ... it is a little paradise , and the more like an antique one , as , by all I have said , the married couples seem to be driven out of it . " Walpole concludes , " If you love a prospect , or bacon , you will certainly come hither . "
An anonymous humorous piece appeared in Joseph Addison 's Spectator in 1714 purporting to explain the rarity of the flitch being awarded in terms of the poor quality of the applicants . The writer claims that the source is the Register of Whichenovre @-@ hall but the truth is that the piece is almost certainly entirely fictitious . The first couple to claim , according to this account , were at first successful , but then had the flitch taken away from them after they began to argue about how it should be dressed . Another couple failed when the husband , who had only reluctantly attended , had his ears boxed by his wife during the questioning . A couple who applied after only their honeymoon had finished passed the questioning but since insufficient time had elapsed were awarded just one rasher . One of only two couples to be successful in the first century of the tradition was a ship 's captain and his wife who had not actually seen one another for over a year since their marriage .
As well as to married couples , a flitch of bacon was also given at Whichnoure to men in the religious profession one year and a day following their retirement .
= = Dunmow = =
A rather better @-@ known example of the awarding of a flitch of bacon to married couples occurred at Little Dunmow Priory in Essex . It is generally held to have been instituted by the family of Robert Fitzwalter in the 13th century . According to Rev. W. W. Skeat in his notes to the fourteenth @-@ century The Vision of William Concerning Piers the Plowman ,
In the present passage we have the earliest known allusion to the singular custom known as that of " the Dunmow flitch of Bacon . " The custom was — " that if any pair could , after a twelvemonth of matrimony , come forward , and make oath at Dunmow [ co . Essex ] that , during the whole time , they had never had a quarrel , never regretted their marriage , and , if again open to an engagement , would make exactly that they had made , they should be rewarded with a flitch of Bacon . "
It is referred to in Chaucer ( 1343 – 1400 ) in a way that makes clear the reference would already be well known to the reader . It continued to be awarded until the middle of the 18th century , the last successful claim being made on 20 June 1751 . The ceremony of this last flitch award was recorded by the artist David Ogborne who was present at the time to make sketches and , later , engravings . His images were later used as source material by Ainsworth for his novel , The Flitch of Bacon . Ainsworth 's 1854 novel proved so popular that it revived the custom which has continued in one form or another down to the present day and is now held every leap year .
The oath to be taken was very similar to the one at Whichnoure , that " neither of them in a year and a day , neither sleeping or waking , repented of their marriage " . The couple are required to kneel on sharp stones in the churchyard while taking the oath and a verse was chanted ;
Following the taking of the oath , the couple are then paraded around the town with their bacon in a noisy ceremony , much as at Whichnoure .
The historical Dunmow flitch is known to have been successfully claimed only a total of six times , although there may have been more that are unknown ( among the possible ones there are Montagu Burgoyne and his wife Elizabeth ) . Three are known prior to the dissolution of the monasteries from the records of the house of Sir Richard St George , and a further three awards are known from the records of the manor court at Dunmow now in the British Museum . There was a long gap after the dissolution but the tradition was revived by Sir Thomas May in 1701 when he became the owner of the Priory .
There was an attempt made to claim the flitch on 12 June 1772 by John and Susan Gilder . The couple had given due notice of their claim and were accompanied by a large crowd of onlookers . However , the lord of the manor had ordered that the ceremony should not take place and the gates of the priory were nailed shut to prevent it . By 1809 the tradition was definitely abolished . A further attempt to claim the flitch was made in 1832 by Josiah Vine , a retired cheesemaker , who travelled with his wife from Reading to make his claim . He too was refused a trial by a very unsympathetic Steward of Little Dunmow . John Bull on 8 October 1837 reported that it had been revived by the Saffron Walden and Dunmow Agricultural Society . Apparently however , this flitch was merely distributed at the annual society dinner . In 1851 a couple from Felstead were also refused a trial at the Priory , but obtained a flitch from the people of nearby Great Dunmow who felt that they deserved it .
= = = Modern flitch trials = = =
The flitch trials were revived in the Victorian era after the publication of Ainsworth 's novel in 1854 which proved to be tremendously popular . Ainsworth aided the reinstitution by himself donating two flitches for the first of the revived ceremonies in 1855 . They have been held ever since in one form or another except for a gap caused by the World Wars . The first ceremony after World War II was held in 1949 , despite rationing still being in force . The modern trials are held every fourth year on leap years , the next one is planned for 2016 . The event is organised by the Dunmow Flitch Trials Committee who employ a counsel to cross @-@ examine the applicants in an attempt to save the bacon for the sponsors who donated it . The trial is decided by a jury .
When first revived the original stones on which the couple knelt had been removed and the chair on which they were carried if successful is kept permanently in Little Dunmow Priory . However , replacements for both of these have been provided for the modern ceremony . The modern trials are held in the town of Great Dunmow rather than the location of the original custom at Little Dunmow , a smaller nearby village .
Dunmow claims to be the only location to have continued the flitch of bacon custom into the 21st century .
= = Older traditions = =
Although the flitch ceremony at Dunmow is generally held to have originated with the Fitzwalters in the 13th century there are some who would date it to earlier Norman or Saxon times , one suggested date being 1104 , the founding of the Little Dunmow Priory . This is partly because the flitch of Dunmow seems to have already been common knowledge in very early works such as the prologue to Chaucer 's " Wife of Bath " and also in the Visions of Pierce Plowman by William Langland . Some would also read passages in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as alluding to the Dunmow flitch .
It is possible that the flitch of bacon custom was at one time quite widespread . There was a flitch of bacon tradition at the Abbey of St Melaine , Rennes , Brittany , where the bacon is said to have hung for six centuries without being claimed . In Vienna , there was a similar tradition in which the prize was a ham of bacon rather than a flitch . The ham was hung over the city gate , from where the winner was expected to climb up and remove it himself . One such winner had the prize revoked after winning it , after he inadvertently let slip that his wife would rebuke him for staining his coat while bringing down the ham .
Historian Hélène Adeline Guerber theorizes that the tradition traces back to an ancient Norse custom connected with the Yule feast , a Germanic pagan festival that in modern times has inextricably been absorbed into Christmas . Guerber theorizes that Yule is primarily dedicated to the god Thor , but is also important for the god Freyr ( who rides a wild boar , Gullinbursti ) . A boar is eaten at Yule in Freyr 's honour and the boar can only be carved by a man of unstained reputation . Guerber says that Freyr was the patron of gladness and harmony and was often invoked by married couples who wished for the same , and that this led to the custom of married couples who actually succeeded in living in harmony for a given period being rewarded with a piece of boar meat . Guerber states that it is this tradition that became the flitch of bacon custom after converting boar meat into bacon .
= = In the arts and culture = =
The flitch of bacon , subtitled The custom of Dunmow : a tale of English home is a novel by William Harrison Ainsworth first published in 1854 . The central plot of the story is the flitch at Dunmow and the scheming by the leading character to be awarded it by marrying a succession of women in an attempt to find the right one . The description of the ceremony in the book is partly based on the art of David Ogborne , an eyewitness to the last ceremony in 1751 .
The Flitch of Bacon public house , of which the protagonist of Ainsworth 's novel is the publican , still exists in Little Dunmow .
The Flitch of Bacon is a comic opera from 1779 by William Shield and Sir Henry Bate Dudley .
Made in Heaven is a 1952 film starring David Tomlinson and Petula Clark about a married couple attempting to win the Dunmow flitch .
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= Third Battle of Gaza =
The Third Battle of Gaza was fought on the night of 1 / 2 November 1917 between British and Ottoman forces during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I , and came after the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) victory at the Battle of Beersheba had ended the Stalemate in Southern Palestine . The fighting occurred at the beginning of the Southern Palestine Offensive , and together with attacks on Hareira and Sheria on 6 – 7 November and the continuing Battle of Tel el Khuweilfe which had been launched by General Edmund Allenby on 1 November , it eventually broke the Gaza to Beersheba line defended by the Yildirim Army Group . Despite having held this line since March 1917 , the Ottoman Army was forced to evacuate Gaza and Tel el Khuweilfe during the night of 6 / 7 November . Only Sheria held out for most of the 7 November before it too was captured .
Following British defeats at the First and Second Battles of Gaza in March and April 1917 , Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode commanding the EEF 's Eastern Force and Kress von Kressenstein 's Ottoman Empire force had each adopted a defensive posture and a stalemate had developed in Southern Palestine . Entrenched defences approximately on the lines held at the end of the second battle were strengthened , and both sides undertook regular mounted reconnaissances into the open eastern flank . In late June , Allenby replaced General Archibald Murray as commander of the EEF , which he quickly reorganised . At about the same time , the Ottoman Fourth Army was also restructured . As the stalemate continued in terrible conditions through the summer , reinforcements began to arrive to replace the large number of casualties suffered by the EEF during the previous fighting for Gaza , while several additional divisions also arrived . The Ottoman defenders were also reinforced at this time , and both sides carried out training while manning the front lines and monitoring the open eastern flank . By mid @-@ October , as the Battle of Passchendaele continued on the Western Front , the last of the British reinforcements arrived as Allenby 's preparations to commence a campaign of manoeuvre neared completion .
Prior to the Second Battle of Gaza , the town had been developed into a strong modern fortress , with entrenchments , wire entanglements and a glacis on its south and south – eastern edges . A series of field works , mutually supported by artillery , machine guns and rifles , extended from Gaza eastwards to within 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of Beersheba . Beginning on 27 October , the EEF began a heavy and almost continuous bombardment of Gaza . During this time , the EEF 's XXI Corps , holding the Gaza section of the line , had been mostly passive until the night of 1 / 2 November , when a series determined night @-@ time assaults were mounted against the Gaza defences . Yet these attacks were only partially successful due to the strength of the garrison . The bombardment of Gaza intensified on 6 November and during the night of 6 / 7 November successful attacks were launched on several trench systems . On the morning of 7 November , Gaza was found to have been evacuated during the night . The Gaza to Beersheba line subsequently collapsed and the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies were forced into retreat . Following several battles during the pursuit , the EEF captured Jerusalem on 9 December 1917 .
= = Background = =
Gaza was " a strong modern fortress , well entrenched and wired , with good observation and a glacis on its southern and south – eastern face . " These defences which were too strong for a daytime attack were extended eastwards by a series of " field works " to four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from Beersheba . These fortifications were between 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 400 to 1 @,@ 800 m ) apart , each mutually supported by fire from artillery , machine guns and rifles .
As the troops of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) began to concentrate in preparation for their attacks , they left their camps standing to deceive German and Ottoman aerial reconnaissances . The EEF assumed their opponents thought there were still six infantry divisions in the Gaza area and one in the eastern sector towards Beersheba . However , according to Falls , " [ t ] here is evidence that the [ Yildirim Army Group ] were fairly accurately informed of the British dispositions . " On 28 October , they knew the camps at Khan Yunis and Rafa were empty and accurately placed three infantry divisions east of the Wadi Ghuzzee with a fourth , the 10th ( Irish ) Division approaching the wadi . They estimated more cavalry at Asluj and Khalasa than was actually there .
The loss of Beersheba on 31 October stunned the Yildirim Army Group commander and staff . The Beersheba garrison withdrew either to the Ottoman defences around Tel es Sheria or northwards to Tel el Khuweilfe to defend the Hebron road . Here a considerable force , including all available reserve units , was deployed in the Kuweilfeh area to stop a threatened advance up the Hebron road to Jerusalem about fifty miles ( 80 km ) to the north . According to Powles , " ... the Turkish line had been thrown back on its left , but not broken . " The remainder of the Ottoman line stretching westward to the Mediterranean coast continued to be strongly defended , particularly at Hareira , Sharia and Gaza , but the loss of Beersheba had placed EEF mounted units across the Beersheba to Hebron and Jerusalem road , and three Eighth Army infantry battalions were sent by the German General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein to reinforce the Ottoman troops fighting at Khuweilfe to protect the road . They established a new defensive line north of Beersheba , and the 19th Division was sent from the XXII Corps defending Gaza to reinforce the new line at Ebuhof . However , the objective of the EEF advance north of Beersheba was to separate the Ottoman forces supplied by the roads and railways from Ramleh on the maritime plain from those supplied by the motor road from Jerusalem north of Beersheba . Such an advance would also place the EEF infantry corps in a position to begin to " roll up " the Ottoman flank .
= = Prelude = =
The EEF controlled the coastal sea lanes , and the Intelligence Service spread rumours about possible sea landings in the rear of Gaza . Ships were seen taking soundings off the coast and a fleet of small boats was located near Deir el Belah . During the late afternoon of 1 November , an embarkation of members of the Egyptian Labour Corps onto motor launches , trawlers and tugs at Deir el Belah was staged as a feint , giving the appearance of continuing into the night . The next morning , two trawlers appeared off the mouth of the Wadi el Hesi north of Gaza . To add to the confusion , between the Battle of Beersheba on 31 October and the main attacks at the Battle of Hareira and Sheria beginning on 6 November , the Ottoman left flank north of Beersheba was being fiercely contested during the Battle of Tel el Khuweilfe for control of the road to Hebron and Jerusalem . According to Wavell , " an assault on a portion of the Gaza defences was to be made by the XXI Corps . " The date of this attack , which was primarily a feint , was scheduled for between 24 and 48 hours before the attack on Sheria .
Meanwhile , preparations for the main attacks on the Gaza line at Hareira and Sharia , began on 1 November when the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division , with the Imperial Camel Brigade on the right , advanced northwards to occupy a line 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the west without opposition . This placed the infantry in a position from which they could cover the right flank of the proposed attack by the XX Corps on Hareira and Sheria .
= = = Defenders = = =
After the second battle for Gaza in April 1917 , Kress von Kressenstein — commander of the victorious 3rd , 16th and 53rd Divisions — was reinforced by the 7th and 54th Divisions . The 7th Infantry Division ( later part of the Eighth Army ) had experienced four months of strategic movement , similar to that of the 54th Division . Having arrived at Jerusalem , in early May the 20th Infantry Regiment began company @-@ level training . After moving to Beersheba where they remained in reserve , they participated in theatre @-@ specific training until late June , when they went into the front line . Training in fortification , reconnaissance , and counter – reconnaissance continued . The 21st Infantry Regiment received similar training , and on 6 August the regimental colours of the 20th and 21st Infantry Regiments were awarded military medals for service in the Gallipoli Campaign . At Beersheba on 28 June , the 7th Infantry Division inactivated the fourth company of each infantry battalion , before activating a machine gun company armed with light machine guns , in every infantry battalion on 10 August . Every Ottoman infantry division in Palestine repeated this reorganisation , with one quarter of their rifle strength being replaced by light machine guns , considerably increasing their fire power and strengthening their offensive and defensive capabilities . Following orders from von Kressenstein commanding the Gaza to Beersheba line defences , assault detachments equivalent to the German Stosstruppen ( Stormtroopers ) were formed . The 7th Division activated an assault detachment of fifty men on 17 July 1917 .
The Yildirim Army Group under the command of Field Marshal Erich von Falkenhayn was responsible for the defence of Palestine . On the western flank the Ottoman Eighth Army was composed of the XXII Corps ' 3rd and 53rd Divisions defending Gaza and the XX Corps ' 26th and 54th Divisions defending the line stretching to the east of Gaza , under the command of von Kressenstein . The defence of Gaza was the responsibility of XXII Corps , which had two divisions in the front line ( 53rd , 3rd from west to east ) and two in reserve ( 7th and 19th ) . The XXII Corps ' four regiments had 4 @,@ 500 rifles , which were reinforced by two divisions to bring the total to 8 @,@ 000 defenders , deployed thus :
53rd Division holding from the Mediterranean shore to the eastern side of Gaza ( veteran of the Second Battle of Gaza ) ,
3rd Division on their left ( veteran of the First and Second Battles of Gaza ) , and the
7th Division in reserve close behind .
These three divisions were supported by the 116 guns of the Ottoman XXII Corps artillery , six large naval guns and several batteries of 150 mm howitzers .
On the left of the XX Corps the Ottoman Seventh Army defended Beersheba , under the command of Fevzi Pasa .
= = = Attackers = = =
The EEF comprised 200 @,@ 000 men including Arab workers , 46 @,@ 000 horses , 20 @,@ 000 camels , more than 15 @,@ 000 mules and donkeys , and hundreds of artillery pieces . The fighting strength of the EEF was 100 @,@ 189 :
Desert Mounted Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel had 745 officers , 17 @,@ 935 other ranks in the Anzac , Australian and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions ;
XX Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode had 1 @,@ 435 officers , 44 @,@ 171 other ranks in the 10th , 53rd , 60th and 74th ( Yeomanry ) Divisions ; and
XXI Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin had 1 @,@ 154 officers and 34 @,@ 759 other ranks in three infantry divisions . By 30 October there were 35 @,@ 000 rifles in the XXI Corps deployed to attack Gaza . They were :
52nd ( Lowland ) Division ( veteran of the First and Second Battles of Gaza )
54th ( East Anglian ) Division ( veteran of the First and Second Battles of Gaza )
75th Division
Composite Force of almost a division , consisting of the 25th Indian Infantry Brigade , a West Indian battalion , the French Détachement français de Palestine and the Italian Distaccamento italiano di Palestina , was camped east of the 75th Division .
Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade 1 @,@ 000 sabres
XXI Corps Cavalry Regiment , also known as the Composite Regiment , consisted of one squadron each from the Royal Glasgow Yeomanry , the Duke of Lancaster Yeomanry , and the 1 / 1st Hertfordshire Yeomanry .
The majority of General Edmund Allenby 's infantry were Territorial divisions , mobilised at the outbreak of the war . Most had fought the Ottoman Army before . During the Gallipoli Campaign , the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division fought at Cape Helles , the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division and the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division fought at Suvla Bay , while the 60th ( London ) Division had served on the Western Front and on the Salonika Front . The recently formed 74th ( Yeomanry ) Division was raised from eighteen under @-@ strength yeomanry regiments , all of which had fought dismounted at Gallipoli . The 10th ( Irish ) Division was a New Army ( K1 ) division , and had also fought at Suvla Bay and at Salonika . All three of the brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division and the two light horse brigades of the Australian Mounted Division had also fought at Gallipoli .
Army Wing aircraft were assigned to carry out strategic reconnaissances , to report on Ottoman reserves well behind their lines , to carry out daily photography , and to conduct air raids . Fighter and bombing squadrons were established for these purposes while the Corps Squadrons were attached to the two infantry corps carried out artillery and contact patrols , along with tactical reconnaissance .
= = = = Sherifial Forces = = = =
In July , Allenby was hopeful that T. E. Lawrence and the Sherifial Arab force could support a September attack by the EEF , recognising that harvests were being collected before that time , and that after the end of September they normally moved to camel @-@ grazing lands in the Syrian desert . He wrote , " They , naturally , won 't and can 't do much unless I move ; and it is not much use their destroying the Turks ' communications unless I take immediate advantage of such destruction ... If I bring them into the fight and do not make progress myself , this will also expose them to retaliation — which to some tribes , such as the Druzes , S. of Damascus , may mean annihilation . " The EEF encouraged the Bedouin to defect :
The Arab rebellion is spreading well , and the Turkish communications will be difficult to guard against their raids . The enclosed photograph of the Shereef of Mecca , and the proclamation by him , is one of the means we have of inducing the Arabs to desert the Turks . We drop these papers and packets of cigarettes over the Turkish lines from aeroplanes . The proclamation is an appeal from the Shereef to the Arabs to leave the Turks and join in the war against them for the freedom and independence of Arabia . A good many come in , as a result of our propaganda .
= = Battle = =
Four EEF infantry brigades of 10 @,@ 000 rifles attacked four Ottoman regiments of 4 @,@ 500 rifles — which were reinforced by two divisions to over 8 @,@ 000 . Both sides suffered heavy losses . The attacks were to be carried out by well @-@ prepared troops , with overwhelming artillery support and six Mark IV tanks . These attacks were designed to keep the Gaza garrison of 8 @,@ 000 riflemen supported by 116 guns in place after the capture of Beersheba and during preparations for the main EEF attacks on Hareira and Sheria .
= = = Preliminary raids on Outpost Hill = = =
On 26 October , units of the 75th Division raided Outpost Hill . Then , just hours after the capture of Beersheba , on 1 November , a second raid by five officers and 220 riflemen of the 3 / 3rd Gurkhas Rifles ( 233rd Brigade 75th Division ) was carried out against Outpost Hill . At 03 : 00 , under cover of an intense bombardment , they entered the Ottoman defences on the hill ; two Gurkhas were killed and twenty @-@ three wounded . During the fighting , they killed twenty @-@ eight Ottoman soldiers and captured sixteen , before returning to their lines . The division was to make another attack during the next night , ( 1 / 2 November ) towards Atawineh Redoubt , on the Gaza to Beersheba road .
= = = Bombardment = = =
On 27 October , the XXI Corps artillery began the bombardment of Gaza , which gradually grew more intense with the support of British and French Navy 's guns from 29 October . They included the fourteen inches ( 360 mm ) guns on HMS Raglan , the Monitors M15 9 @.@ 2 inches ( 230 mm ) guns , the M29 , the M31 , and the M32 with 6 inches ( 150 mm ) guns , the cruiser Grafton , and the destroyers Staunch and Comet . French vessels included the Requin , Arbalète , Voltigeur , Coutelas , Fauconneau and Hache . There were also two river gunboats Ladybird and Aphis , and three seaplane bombers . This flotilla was in action — although not altogether to allow for return to Port Said for refuelling — until the attack on Gaza was launched . The flotilla was targeted by hostile aircraft , while a shell from an Ottoman shore battery hit the mess deck of the Requin , causing 38 casualties .
The land based artillery of Bulfin 's XXI Corps ' heavy artillery consisted of 68 medium and heavy guns and howitzers , which were directed on to the Ottoman batteries during the battle . In addition two 6 @-@ inch guns made a surprise attack on the Ottoman railhead at Beit Hanun at a range of nine miles ( 14 km ) , supported by balloon observation . Between 27 October and the attack on Gaza , 15 @,@ 000 rounds were fired by the heavy artillery ; three hundred rounds were allocated for the destruction of each Ottoman battery which had been located . The anti – battery bombardments between 29 – 31 October also fired gas shells , which apparently had little or no effect . Together with the corps ' three divisional artilleries , the guns produced the heaviest bombardment of World War I outside European theatres . The sixth night 's bombardment from onshore and offshore guns produced " an even heavier concentration of fire on a small area than had been put in on the first day of the Battle of the Somme . " The six @-@ day bombardment program was arranged " so that the whole of the front of our group is plastered all day and every day . "
= = = 1 / 2 November night attacks = = =
The XXI Corps attacks were focused on a five thousand yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) stretch of sandhills stretching from Umbrella Hill about two thousand yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) south @-@ west of Gaza to the Mediterranean Sea . They were timed for the night because the strength of the Ottoman machine guns in defensive positions made day @-@ time attacks impossible . On the right flank , the final objective of the attack was only 500 yards ( 460 m ) behind the Ottoman front line , but on the left it was 2 @,@ 500 yards ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) away .
The first phase was the attack at Umbrella Hill by the 1 / 7th Battalion Scottish Rifles with one company of 1 / 8th Battalion , Scottish Rifles ( 156th Brigade , 52nd Division ) . The second phase was the capture on a broad front of El Arish Redoubt to the Sea Post on the shore by the 1 / 4th Battalion , Royal Scots and one company of 1 / 8th Battalion , Scottish Rifles ( 156th Brigade ) . The third phase was to be conducted by the 161st Brigade ( less one battalion ) and the 163rd Brigade ( 54th Division ) against Gaza 's south @-@ western defences , while the fourth phase by the 162nd Brigade was to capture Gun Hill and Sheikh Hasan 3 @,@ 500 yards ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) behind the front line at Sheikh Ajlin . On 1 and 2 November , the Ottoman 7th and 53rd Divisions continued to defend most of their front line , carrying out locally successful counterattacks .
= = = = Phase one : Umbrella Hill = = = =
On 1 November , the assault of Umbrella Hill — a sand dune two thousand yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) south – west of Gaza to the west of the Rafa to Gaza road overlooking the main objectives — was to begin at 23 : 00 . The defending garrison was " assumed to be about 350 strong " . However , at 10 : 50 a preliminary move into No Man 's Land was observed by Ottoman soldiers in Fisher 's Orchard , who gave the alarm and began firing machine guns and rifles from the Ottoman trenches on Umbrella Hill . At 23 : 00 , an intense EEF bombardment began enabling a tape to be laid , along which the attacking troops formed up to launch their attack ten minutes later . Under cover of the intense ten @-@ minute bombardment , the 1 / 7th Battalion , Scottish Rifles with one company of 1 / 8th Battalion , Scottish Rifles ( 156th Brigade , 52nd ( Lowland ) Division ) attacked Umbrella Hill . After killing many of the defenders , they quickly captured the hill , three officers , fifty @-@ five Ottoman soldiers , three Lewis guns and numerous bombs . The attackers suffered light casualties ; however the sand dune was difficult to defend because the Ottoman trenches — without revetments — had virtually disappeared during the previous bombardments . The following Ottoman bombardment of Umbrella Hill caused 103 casualties to the 1 / 7th Battalion Scottish Rifles during the next twenty @-@ four hours . However , with the hill captured by the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , the main attack could begin .
= = = = Phase two : El Arish redoubt = = = =
The second phase began at 03 : 00 on 2 November when the 156th Brigade of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division launched the first attack on the El Arish Redoubt . This attack was aimed at breaking the line of defensive fortifications consisting of three groups of trench complexes and redoubts . These were the El Arish , Rafa , and Cricket redoubts , which were connected by a " series of trench lines several layers thick , and backed by other trenches and strong points " stretching two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) along the seaward defences to the west of Umbrella Hill . The attack on El Arish redoubt was to be supported by two of the six available tanks of the Palestine Tank Detachment 's eight tanks .
The 1 / 4th Battalion , Royal Scots ( 156th Brigade ) assault on El Arish Redoubt was carried out in waves through the Ottoman trenches , during which six Ottoman mines exploded , causing EEF casualties . The Ottoman artillery , which had become active as a result of the first attack , had stopped shortly before the second attack began at 06 : 00 with an intense , ten @-@ minute bombardment . At 06 : 30 , a heavy Ottoman counterattack drove back the leading company of Royal Scots , causing a number of casualties . A platoon from another company helped rally the remnants of the leading company , which was reinforced by the 1 / 4th Battalion Royal Scots and 1 / 8th Battalion Scottish Rifles when the position was consolidated . Two tanks passed through El Arish Redoubt , but shortly afterwards one was abandoned and the other hit , while a third tank moved along the front line rolling out wire from Sea Post on the coast to Beach Post .
A man who obviously had been able to get more than his allowance [ of rum ] started singing loudly , and was removed . We then set off in a long line , and passed through our front line trenches into " No – Man 's – Land . " I saw a man breaking the ranks , and dodging back towards our lines , obviously his nerves having given way . An NCO dashed out , got hold of him , and took him away . I was with Hq. sigs . [ headquarters signals ] in the " fourth wave . " Four parallel lines of white tape , had been laid out , and I and the others spaced ourselves out along the fourth tape , and lay down , facing the enemy lines , to await the signal to advance . Two tanks came rumbling up from behind , and a few of us had to jump up and get out of the way to let them pass ... Our shelling increased in volume , and at 03 : 00 the 4th RS [ Royal Scots ] advanced in four lines on a front of 300 yards ( 270 m ) towards the El Arish Redoubt . Two Turkish contact mines exploded as our " first wave " approached the redoubt , blowing many of the men to pieces . We were not , of course , aware of this at the time . As I got near the Turkish trenches the enemy shell and machine – gun fire became so intense , with shells bursting all around , that I and several others decided to stop in a large shell or mine crater for a few minutes till the shelling eased somewhat . When the barrage moved forward we resumed our advance .
= = = = Phase three : coastal defences = = = =
When the Royal Scots had entered the eastern section of the El Arish Redoubt during the second phase of the attack , the western half was still held by Ottoman defenders . These defences became the objectives of the attacks by the 161st and 163rd Brigades of the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division , supported by four tanks — including the two which had passed through the El Arish redoubt . On the right of the 163rd Brigade 's advance , the 1 / 5th Battalion , The Suffolk Regiment moved towards the Ottoman trenches following a creeping barrage to attack and over – run the western El Arish trenches during hand – to – hand fighting when the 1 / 5th Battalion , The Suffolk Regiment suffered light casualties . Although they had captured the third line , part of this captured territory had to be abandoned because it was exposed to hostile fire , so they consolidated their position along the second line . Half of the 1 / 8th Battalion , Hampshire Regiment attacked Burj Trench while the other half attacked Triangle Trench , although it was not their objective . This caused some confusion , and the 1 / 4th and 1 / 5th Battalions , The Norfolk Regiment lost direction in the dust and smoke of the cloudy , hazy night . As a result , only small numbers reached Gibraltar and Crested Rock , from where they were quickly forced to withdraw .
On the left , the attacks by the 161st Brigade were similarly weakened by loss of direction when the 1 / 5th Battalion , The Essex Regiment attacked Rafa Redoubt instead of Zowaiid trench . However , the 1 / 6th Battalion , The Essex Regiment attacked and captured Beach and Sea Posts before attacking the Rafa Redoubt and trench systems , suffering light casualties . In support , a tank rolled out wire as it drove along the front line from Sea Post to Beach Post . Cricket Redoubt was captured with the help of the tank from Beach Post ; although the tank was temporarily disabled in the process . After being repaired , the tank was transporting some engineers ' stores to Sheikh Hasan when it was hit and disabled again . Two reserve tanks were ordered forward carrying engineers ' stores — including sandbags which were set on fire by hostile fire .
On the morning of the 2nd , Bulfin put in an attack , by the 54th and part of the 52nd Division , on the S.W. of Gaza . He got all his objectives , with the exception of a few yards of trench here and there ... The navy have given us great help . They are making splendid practice on the Gaza defences , and the railway bridge and junction at Deir Sineid . This is the result of careful preliminary work and close collaboration between land and sea .
= = = = Phase four : 2 November = = = =
On their right , the 1 / 10th Battalion , London Regiment ( 161st Brigade ) finished capturing and consolidating the Rafa redoubt , which had only been partly captured by the 1 / 6th Battalion , The Essex Regiment . Without the assistance of tanks which had been put out of action , this battalion lost contact with the barrage and suffered heavy losses . Nevertheless , they captured Gun Hill and by 06 : 00 on 2 November they were preparing to attack Sheikh Hasan , which they captured fifteen minutes later along with 182 prisoners .
Lion Trench , .75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) north @-@ east of Sheikh Hasan , was attacked at 07 : 30 by the 1 / 4th Battalion , Northamptonshire Regiment ( 162nd Brigade ) with the objective of clearing a gap through which the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade could advance . However , 20 minutes after their successful attack , the Northamptonshire without artillery support were almost surrounded and forced to retreat to Sheikh Hasan on the coast . Here a strong counterattack was threatened by two regiments of reinforcements from the Ottoman 7th Division , which were advancing from Deir Sneid to the north and north @-@ east . ( See Falls Map 6 Coastal sector ) These Ottoman reinforcements were stopped by accurate shelling by the Corps Heavy Artillery , which fired on a three thousand yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) line previously registered and by shelling from the monitors off the coast . A planned repeat of the Lion Trench attack was postponed when the 1 / 4th Battalion , Northamptonshire Regiment attacked Yunis Trench instead . Although they captured the trench they were driven back by a counterattack . Throughout the remainder of the day , Ottoman heavy batteries shelled Sheikh Hasan , before the batteries were withdrawn during the night to the north @-@ east of Gaza . During the night of 2 / 3 November , Ottoman troops strengthened their defences on Turtle Hill , facing Sheikh Hasan .
The Third Battle of Gaza was never intended to capture the town , but to keep the garrison in place after the capture of Beersheba . Only the first line of Ottoman trenches had been the objectives of the XXI Corps , which used new infantry tactics , tanks and massed artillery organised in accordance with Western Front standards . Although all objectives had not been won , the operations had forced two regiments of the Ottoman 7th Division reserve to move away from Hareira and Sheria , forward to strengthen the Ottoman defences between Gaza and the sea . According to the British official historian , " The attack on the western defences of Gaza ... had fulfilled the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief 's object . " The EEF had also inflicted severe losses on the Ottoman defenders ; more than one thousand of whom the EEF buried in the captured trenches . The EEF captured twenty @-@ eight officers , 418 soldiers , twenty @-@ nine machine guns and seven trench mortars . During the fighting , the corps infantry had advanced about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) on a five thousand yards ( 4 @.@ 6 km ) front , and held their gains against repeated Ottoman counterattacks , although the attempt to create a gap for the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade to ride through was not successful . The front line defensive system on the south – west side of Gaza had been captured and the infantry occupied a position from which they could threaten " Ali Muntar and the rest of the defences in front of the town . " The XXI Corps suffered 350 killed , 350 missing and two thousand wounded during this fighting . Many casualties were blamed on loss of direction and crowding in the captured trenches , which were too shallow .
This morning , at 3 o 'clock , I attacked the SW front of the Gaza defences . We took them ; on a front of some 6000 yards , and to a depth of some 1000 to 1500 yards . We now overlook Gaza ; and my left is on the sea coast , NE of the town . The Navy cooperated with fire from the sea ; and shot well . We 've taken some 300 prisoners and some machine guns , so far .
= = = Air raids = = =
Air raids by the EEF were carried out during the night of 1 / 2 November , with twelve bombs being dropped on Gaza , and on 3 and 4 November , with air raids over the hills north of Beersheba .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = 3 – 6 November = = =
During a Khamsin on 3 November while the bombardment of Gaza resumed , the 1 / 4th Battalion The Essex Regiment ( 161st Brigade , 54th Division , XXI Corps ) attacked and captured Yunis trench at 04 : 30 . However , they were heavily counterattacked and forced to withdraw . The following night , several strong Ottoman counterattacks were made on the 75th Division 's position at Sheikh Abbas on the eastern side of Gaza , which were all stopped by machine gun and rifle fire . Meanwhile , the newly won position at Sheikh Hasan on the Ottoman right flank was consolidated .
By 5 November 1917 , the Ottoman XXII Corps commander in charge of the defence of Gaza , Colonel Refet Bele , was continuing to maintain the " integrity of the Gaza fortress " , despite the Gaza garrison 's artillery batteries having only about 300 shells left . These batteries had also been suffering from effective counter @-@ battery fire from the EEF Heavy Artillery Groups . Refet had been warned the day before that evacuation may be necessary because of the loss of Beersheba , so plans were prepared for the complete withdrawal from the town during the night of 6 / 7 November , to a new defensive line on the Wadi Hesi . Falkenhayn commanding Yildirim Army Group realised that the Ottoman forces could not hold the EEF any longer , and he ordered the Eighth and Seventh Armies to withdraw about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . The first indications of the withdrawal were seen by EEF aerial reconnaissance , which reported Ottoman hospitals being moved back towards Mejdel . At midnight on 6 / 7 November , XXI Corps infantry patrols found Gaza had been evacuated by the Ottoman defenders . Until 6 November , German aircraft had rarely been seen over the Gaza lines , but that afternoon two R.E.8s and two B.E.12.as from No. 1 Squadron AFC patrolling and taking photographs were attacked and badly damaged by four Albatros aircraft .
Meanwhile , the heavy EEF bombardment of the Ottoman line in the XXI Corps area at Gaza , which had resumed on 3 November , grew in intensity with the naval guns joining in on 5 and 6 November , and it reached its maximum intensity on 6 November . During the night of 6 / 7 November the XXI Corps was to launch an attack on Outpost Hill and the Yunus and Belah trench systems , after the main EEF attack on Hareira and Sheria began . This attack on the Wadi esh Sheria was to be " carried out in the most favourable circumstances " against only two Ottoman regiments holding the 6 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) line .
After launching the successful attack on 6 November against Hareira , the Sheria trenches were also attacked late in the day . These attacks were supported by renewed attacks in the Tel el Khuweilfe area at the eastern extremity of the Ottoman front line . During these attacks , the whole of the Kawukah trenches and part of the Rushdi system which protected Hareira Redoubt , were captured and the Ottoman defenders were forced to withdraw to the Hareira Redoubt . Late in the day a large part of the Sheria defences were also captured after Hareira was bypassed . Only Tel esh Sheria blocked the British advance and Allenby ordered the next day 's attacks to continue on Tel esh Sheria , and to be renewed at Gaza . While these attacks took place on 6 November , EEF aircraft bombed Gaza , the main Ottoman positions behind the Kauwukah defences near Um Ameidat , and positions west of Sheria . Three air combats were also fought against three hostile aircraft during the day . Mejdel was also bombed by EEF aircraft . Allenby wrote :
We 've had a successful day . We attacked the left of the Turkish positions , from N. of Beersheba , and have rolled them up as far as Sharia . The Turks fought well but have been badly defeated . Now , at 6 p.m. , I am sending out orders to press in pursuit tomorrow . Gaza was not attacked ; but I should not be surprised if this affected seriously her defenders . I am putting a lot of shell into them , and the Navy are still pounding them effectively .
= = = 7 November = = =
= = = = Occupation of Gaza = = = =
The EEF 's occupation of Gaza was not strongly resisted and a general advance during the morning of 7 November found the town abandoned . Orders for an attack at 04 : 50 by the 75th Division on Outpost Hill on the eastern side of Gaza had been issued ; these were expanded to include Middlesex Hill and a 54th ( East Anglian ) Division attack on the Belah and Yunis trenches , and Turtle Hill in the coastal sector . However , by 04 : 35 , two battalions each from the 161st and the 162nd Brigades ( 54th Division ) supported by artillery had already advanced to occupy Lion and Tiger Trenches and Sheikh Redwan in the coastal sector to the north @-@ north @-@ west of Gaza . The advance by the 162nd Brigade took them through " the gardens and fields of Gaza to the main road northwards " , when patrols sent into the city found it deserted . British artillery had destroyed all the homes , of the 40 @,@ 000 people who had lived in Gaza before the war . The 54th ( East Anglian ) Division subsequently took up a line stretching from the Jaffa road north of Sheikh Redwan to the Mediterranean sea .
When the Ottoman withdrawal became apparent on 7 November , the Royal Flying Corps — which had been mainly involved in strategic reconnaissance for the 40th ( Army ) Wing , artillery registration and tactical photography for the 5th ( Corps ) Wing — began bombing and machine gun air raids . For seven days , they also made numerous air attacks on Ottoman infrastructure including aerodromes , transport , artillery , and retreating columns .
= = = = Mounted breakthrough = = = =
The 75th Division ( XXI Corps ) with the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade attached had been ordered to attack Outpost Hill on the eastern side of Gaza , and exploit any potential breakthrough . By 01 : 00 on 7 November , the 233rd Brigade ( 75th Division ) had already occupied Outpost Hill , and as the brigade moved forward to occupy Green Hill and the Labyrinth at 05 : 00 , they were only opposed by individual riflemen . By 07 : 00 , the 233rd Brigade had patrols on Ali Muntar ridge , while on their right , the 234th Brigade found that the Beer trenches and Road Redoubt defending the Gaza to Beersheba road were still held in strength with machine guns . Throughout the day the Ottoman rearguards in Tank and Atawineh Redoubts continued to fire their artillery at the increasing numbers of EEF troops advancing behind both these Ottoman rearguard 's flanks . However , by nightfall , the Beer trenches , and the Road and Tank Redoubts had been captured .
The Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade , which had been carrying out patrolling duties based at Tel el Jemmi , was ready to exploit a breakthrough at Gaza , and the Anzac and Australian Mounted Divisions were also prepared for a pursuit through a breach in the line at Sheria . At 09 : 00 , the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade rode through the ruins of Gaza to reach Beit Hanun at 13 : 00 , where they encountered part of the Gaza garrison defending a strong rearguard position on a ridge 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) south @-@ east of Beit Hanun .
The Hyderabad and Mysore Lancers had advanced through Jebaliya to link with the Glasgow , Lancashire , and Hertfordshire squadrons of the XXI Corps Cavalry Regiment , holding the high ground at Beit Lahl five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of Gaza , where they threatened the Ottoman flank . While the Corps Cavalry Regiment captured Beit Lahia , the Hyderabad Lancers advanced at 15 : 00 to capture the ridge west of Beit Hanun at Sheikh Munam , but the village was strongly defended by numerous Ottoman machine gun detachments . Early in the afternoon , a regiment of the 4th Light Horse Brigade rode across to the north @-@ west to link with the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade , which had been out of contact with the XX Corps and the Desert Mounted Corps . The 12th Light Horse Regiment ( 4th Light Horse Brigade ) met up with the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of Beit Hanun at 14 : 45 . Here they delivered orders for the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade to attack the Ottoman rearguard on the Wadi el Hesi near Tumra to the north of Beit Hanun . ( See sketch map showing the advance by the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division on 7 November 1917 ) . By 16 : 55 , the rearguard was reported to still be holding Beit Hanun , with concentrations of Ottoman forces at Al Majdal ( also known as el Mejdel and Ashkelon ) and Beit Duras .
The lancers advanced from the east onto the ridge overlooking Beit Hanun , and despite meeting considerable resistance , captured the position . In the process , they secured twenty @-@ three prisoners , some artillery pieces and a large quantity of ammunition . They also captured the town 's water pumping machinery intact , but were forced to withdraw back to Jebaliye for water as the equipment ran on gas made from charcoal , which had to be converted before it could be used .
= = = = Infantry pursuit = = = =
While the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division was ordered by the XXI Corps to take up a line from the Jaffa road north of Sheikh Radwan to the sea on the northern outskirts of Gaza , the 157th Brigade ( 52nd Division ) began the infantry pursuit by advancing along the shore , reaching Sheikh Hasan by 12 : 15 . By 16 : 00 , these troops were seen marching along the coast towards the mouth of the Wadi Hesi — the nearest likely defensive line north of Gaza . By dusk , the 157th Brigade had reached and crossed the Wadi el Hesi near its mouth seven miles ( 11 km ) north of Gaza while the remainder of the XXI Corps occupied Gaza . Although dumps of rations , ammunition and engineer stores had been formed in concealed positions in the XXI Corps area before the battle , the corps was not in a position to move any distance . Almost all of their transport except ammunition tractors had been transferred to the XX Corps and the Desert Mounted Corps for their attack at the Battle of Beersheba .
= = = 8 November = = =
By the evening of 8 November , all the Ottoman positions of the Gaza to Beersheba line had been captured and the Eighth Army was in full retreat . In conjunction with the captures in the centre of the line at Sheria , the occupation of Gaza enabled a swift direct advance northwards , preventing a strong consolidation of the Wadi Hesi rearguard position . However , the Ottoman XXII Corps was not defeated at Gaza , but conducted a skillful , tactical retreat from the town , demonstrating both operational and tactical mobility . Late in the afternoon of 8 November , twenty @-@ eight British and Australian aircraft flew over Huj , the headquarters of the Ottoman force , targeting German and Ottoman aerodromes , railway junctions , dumps , and troops in close formation with bombs and machine guns . Arak el Menshiye was raided twice during the day with two hundred bombs dropped , forty @-@ eight hit ten hostile aircraft still on the ground . The next day , Et Tine was bombed , with at least nine hostile aircraft damaged . Virtually continual aerial attacks were made on railway stations , troops on the march and transport , while a German aircraft was shot down in flames near the Wadi Hesi .
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= She ( Tyler , the Creator song ) =
" She " is a song by American hip hop artist and OFWGKTA member Tyler , The Creator from his album Goblin . It was released May 10 , 2011 as the third single from the album . It features another OFWGKTA member Frank Ocean , and serves as his debut single as an artist . The song was written by both Tyler and Ocean , with the production handled by Tyler . The song is written from the perspective of an obsessive lover who stalks and watches a woman while she sleeps . Lyrically , the song explored dark themes of necrophilia , stalking and obsession . The song received positive reviews from critics who praised Ocean 's hook , though the subject matter was often noted as questionable in nature and content .
A music video for the single was released June 3 , 2011 on the OFWGKTA YouTube channel . It was directed by Tyler himself and features Ocean . The video contains black humor and was noted for approaching its subject matter in a satirical , tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek manner . Both Tyler and Ocean would often perform the song together during their various tours and was notably performed at the April 2011 Coachella Musical Festival .
= = Production and composition = =
Rapper Tyler , the Creator , who is often known for his controversial nature , and R & B singer and occasional rapper Frank Ocean , who joined hip @-@ hop collective Odd Future , had quickly bonded and became friends , collaborating on several tracks such as " Analog 2 " , " Window " and " She . " Ocean appears on the track " She " providing a rapping verse , and the hook , while Tyler raps and covers the production .
" She " has been described as " the closest thing to a slow jam on Goblin , where " Tyler genuinely wrestles with lust . " The song features Tyler , the Creator pining " for a gorgeous girl " while " crooner Frank Ocean chimes in with a vocal hook " . The track is " delivered with sweetly juvenile expressions of desire , except that Tyler peppers the track with a single @-@ word epithet that would earn him a kick in the groin from any self @-@ respecting woman . " HipHopDX 's Sean Ryon mused that " even the more subdued songs like " She " with Frank Ocean " embody " Tyler ’ s middle @-@ fingers @-@ up attitude , as he twists perverted tales of stalking girls and “ stabbing Bruno Mars in his goddamn esophagus ” into anathematic odes to unbridled individualism . "
Though it was noted that even " She " has " passing moments of lyrical humanity to go with the pliant music ( " When I 'm with my friends I just put on a front / But in the back of my top I 'm writing songs about ' we ' " ) . It 's almost like there 's boyish innocence lurking underneath all that bile . " The Village Voice 's Eric Harvey mused that the " sinuous Frank Ocean feature " She " ramps up the voyeurism " and noted that he " keeps things within a Rear Window framework . He admits he 's going through the dating motions strictly to get laid , but he also says that his violent front is just a show for his boys . "
The song was featured on Tyler 's second studio album titled Goblin , in which " She " was released as the fourth single from that album .
= = Reception = =
" She " received positive reviews from most music critics . Pitchfork Media 's Scott Plagenhoef commented that while Goblin " could have used an editor " , " the highs are very high : " She " work as standalones away from the album as a whole . " Source writer Kazeem commented " Tyler links up with fellow breakout star of the OFWGKTA , Frank Ocean , where the in demand crooner spits a couple of better @-@ than @-@ it has @-@ any @-@ right @-@ being 16 bars , while seamlessly weaving into a haunting hook . " Craig Jenkin 's Prefix Magazine mused that the " jazzy chord progression and syrupy vocals from Odd Future associate Frank Ocean sneakily conceal its stalker vibe and crass lyrical conceit . " AbsolutePunk 's Ian Walker praised Ocean on the track , writing : " his verse and chorus showcase both sides of his expertise , as he can write both hip @-@ hop and R & B influenced vocals with ease . While “ She ” tends to get lost in the midst of heavier tracks like “ Yonkers ” and “ Transylvania , ” it deserves a ton of recognition for leaning a bit more towards a mainstream sound Odd Future isn 't known for while staying true to their original vision . "
NME 's Louis Pattison described the track as a " curdled take on silky ’ 70s rare groove legend Roy Ayers " and stated that it was " actually rather gorgeous " . Tiny Mix Tapes commented however that Tyler 's " flow is painful to listen to on slower tracks such as " She " though [ it ] was saved by his ambition [ in ] production " . Max Feldman of PopMatters noted that Tyler " also does a lot of thinking through the medium of his own genitals , as evidenced on lusty R & B crooner " She " where he lets his perverse side free . "
= = Promotion = =
The music video for " She " was shot in Los Angeles . Ocean posted several behind the scene photos of the video shoot onto his own personal tumblr account , including pictures " with a pretty young thing as his leading lady . " Ocean plays " double duty as a cop and the man of the house , almost unrecognizable in a white wig and drab attire . In one of the more chilling images , Tyler stares into the camera as a gun is pointed at his head , wearing the same black contacts he sported in his viral sensation “ Yonkers ” video . "
The video opens with Odd Future 's R & B crooner Frank Ocean in bed with the unnamed " she " of the video , and the singer stops when he sees a masked Tyler staring outside of her bedroom window . The rapper eventually enters the room as the girl falls asleep , caressing her and writing a note on her mirror while spitting the song 's first verse ; " I finally got the courage to ask you on a date , so just say yes and let the future fall into place , " a " twitchy Tyler asks the girl -- before the cops show up and arrest him . "
Tyler performed " She " and " Novacane " with Ocean at an Odd Future performance in New York . During Odd Future 2012 's tour promoting The Odd Future Tape Vol . 2 , Ocean performed with the group and played the song Tyler .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" She " ( featuring Frank Ocean ) — 4 : 13
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= Big Brother 10 ( UK ) =
Big Brother 2009 , also known as Big Brother 10 , was the tenth series of the British reality television series Big Brother . It began on 4 June 2009 and was aired on Channel 4 and E4 for 93 days , concluding on 4 September 2009 when Sophie " Dogface " Reade was crowned the winner with 74 @.@ 4 % of the viewer 's vote . The format of the programme remained largely unchanged from previous series ; a group of people , referred to as housemates , are enclosed in the Big Brother House under the surveillance of cameras and microphones . Each week , the viewers decide which of a selection of housemates is evicted and , in the final week , one housemate is voted as the winner . The daily highlights programme was narrated by Marcus Bentley , Davina McCall fronted the launch programme , evictions , special episodes , the final and Big Brother 's Big Mouth and George Lamb presented Big Brother 's Little Brother .
The programme included 22 participants , four of whom left the programme voluntarily whilst the fate of the others was decided by the public vote . The housemates were originally competing to win a £ 100 @,@ 000 prize but , due to rule @-@ breaking by the participants , this was reduced to £ 71 @,@ 320 . The series , which was sponsored by Lucozade , achieved significantly less media coverage and viewing figures , resulting in it becoming the least @-@ watched series in Big Brother UK history until Big Brother 12 in 2011 . This series also attracted controversy , with accusations of bullying between contestants drawing complaints and criticisms levelled at the welfare of housemates after they left the programme .
No housemates represented from series participated in Ultimate Big Brother , neither did any participate in tasks during that series .
On 17 May 2012 , housemate Sophia Brown died at the age of 30 , after suffering from the condition Lupus almost all her life . Marcus Bentley , McCall and several former housemates including Karly , Lisa , Marcus , Rodrigo and winner Sophie sent their condolences on Twitter shortly after her death .
= = Production = =
Big Brother 10 was produced by Brighter Pictures , a division of Endemol . This series of the programme had been confirmed since 2006 as part of a £ 180 million contract between Endemol and Channel 4 . Phil Edgar @-@ Jones was the creative director of the series whilst Sharon Powers was the executive producer . Open auditions for the programme , which were confirmed during the final of Celebrity Big Brother 6 , began on 3 January 2009 in Edinburgh and ended on 7 February in Manchester . Internet auditioning via YouTube , which saw 2 @,@ 600 apply , ended on 3 February 2009 . Auditionees were subjected to three interviews with various producers , additional meetings with a psychologist and a psychiatrist and a final " talk of doom " , in which they were warned about the negative impact that appearing on Big Brother could have on their lives . In the weeks preceding the series , the selected housemates were put into " hiding " with no access to the outside world . Housemates were offered aftercare from the production team for up to six months after they left the programme .
= = = Eye logo = = =
The programme 's logo , the Big Brother Eye , is based on a black , purple and blue thumbprint and was released on 11 May . It was designed by Daniel Eatock . From 19 May , Channel 4 began uploading teaser clips to the official Big Brother UK YouTube channel ; these were also aired during commercial breaks on Channel 4 and its related channels . The series was sponsored by Lucozade Energy and the promotional break bumpers were created by M & C Saatchi and are based upon a ' little brother versus big brother ' scenario . The programme began on 4 June , with a 95 @-@ minute special programme which introduced the initial 16 participants , and was broadcast on Channel 4 and E4 over a period of 93 days , concluding with the final on 4 September .
= = = Broadcasts = = =
The main television coverage of Big Brother 10 was screened using daily highlights programmes , narrated by Marcus Bentley . These episodes summarised the events of the previous day in the House . Alongside these highlights shows were spin @-@ off programmes , Big Brother 's Big Mouth and Big Brother 's Little Brother , that commented on fandom , cultural reaction to the events within the House and included interviews with celebrities , former housemates and family and friends of housemates . On Fridays , a live eviction programme was hosted by Davina McCall in which the evicted contestant left the house and received an interview from McCall and two guests . For 2009 , BBLB returned with George Lamb presenting five weekday evening programmes and one Sunday edition per week . Big Mouth was also fronted by McCall and was broadcast on E4 on Friday nights for an hour after the main eviction programme .
= = = = Interview panel = = = =
In a change to normal eviction interviews this series saw McCall and the evictee on a panel joined by two celebrity fans or psychologists , joining them were :
Sophia Judi James and Dom Joly
Cairon Iain Lee and Vanessa Feltz
Angel Anthea Turner
Sree Kelly Osbourne
Kris Mel Blatt
Karly Judi James and Kathy Burke
Kenneth Terry Christian
Noirin Judi James and Jo Whiley
Hira Emma Kennedy and Bob Mortimer
Freddie Judi James and John McCririck
Bea Ulrika Jonsson
Marcus Grace Dent
Lisa Dave Schneider and Kim Woodburn
The panel was not used for the finale , however , Judi James made a recorded segment about each finalist . The panel format was scrapped for the following celebrity and regular series , where McCall interviewed the evictee in the traditional format .
= = House = =
As with each series since Big Brother 2002 , the programme was filmed at Elstree Studios in Borehamwood , Hertfordshire . A total of 27 editing suites , manned by over 300 members of staff , were situated in the " George Lucas Stage " to produce the programme . In the 18 May issue of Star magazine , aerial photographs of the House were published , showing the garden under construction . Official pictures of the House interior were released by Channel 4 on 1 June , showing the entrance stairway , living room and garden . The entrance stairway had images of insects on its walls whilst the garden and living room had a science fiction theme ; the former included a bus stop as the designated smoking area . On 3 June , Metro published an image of the Diary Room , which has a multicoloured chair and wall pattern . There was also a shipping container @-@ based bathroom , a sitting room with red sofas , a wood panelled kitched with purple , black and white fittings and a bedroom with splats of paint covering the walls . The house contained 44 cameras , 75 two @-@ way mirrors and 57 fixed microphones , as well as individual microphones for each housemate .
= = Format = =
The format remained largely unchanged from previous series . Housemates were incarcerated in the Big Brother House with no contact to and from the outside world . Each week , the housemates took part in a compulsory task that determined the amount of money they were allocated to spend on their shopping ; if they passed , they received a luxury budget and they were allocated a basic budget if they failed . Housemates were instructed to nominate two fellow housemates for eviction each week . This compulsory vote was conducted in the privacy of the Diary Room and housemates were not allowed to discuss the nomination process or influence the nominations of others . On Day 68 , Big Brother changed the rules to allow housemates to discuss nominations until further notice . The two or more housemates who gathered the most nominations per week faced a public vote and the housemate receiving the most votes was evicted from the House on the Friday and interviewed by Davina McCall . Housemates could voluntarily leave the House at any time and those who broke the rules could have been ejected by Big Brother .
In a change from previous series , Channel 4 announced that it would no longer donate any of its income from the premium @-@ rate telephone lines , by which viewers vote for whom they would like to see evicted or win the programme , to charitable organisations . The broadcaster said that the current economic downturn is to blame for this decision and that the change would bring Big Brother into line with other programmes of its kind , such as The X Factor and Strictly Come Dancing . The format of the live eviction interview programme was altered for this series . Unlike previous series in which McCall interviewed evicted housemates by herself , she was instead joined by two guest panellists to " interrogate " the evictee . Panellists included former housemates , journalists , psychologists , and fans of the programme . A new rule was added to the programme at the start of the series ; " fake romances " were not permitted .
= = Housemates = =
Big Brother 10 saw 22 contestants competing to win . Sixteen participants entered the House on Day 1 and an additional five housemates entered the House on Day 44 , followed by one other on Day 56 . Four housemates left the House on their own accord . This series also gains the distinction of featuring the first homosexual relationship in the programme 's history , which involved the housemates Charlie Drummond and Rodrigo Lopes .
Angel McKenzie ( born 10 June 1973 ) is a 35 @-@ year @-@ old professional boxer and artist from Moscow , Russia . She is the adoptive daughter of former British and European light welterweight boxing champion , Clinton McKenzie She became a housemate as the result of a public vote on Day 4 . She kept her birthday a secret from her fellow housemates , celebrating it alone in the Diary Room . On Day 21 , in a special live nominations show , she was nominated for the first time . On Day 23 , became the fourth housemate to be evicted with 81 % of the public vote . Angel later appeared in the first episode of game show Red or Black ? on 3 September 2011 , where she finished as a runner @-@ up .
Bea Hamill ( born 28 September 1984 ) entered the House on Day 44 with four other new housemates . Alongside them she was tasked with ensuring that Noirin and Halfwit received the most nominations but refused to participate claiming it went against her morals . She was evicted on Day 79 , in week twelve just one week before the final .
Beinazir Lasharie ( born 8 January 1981 ) is a study support assistant from Pakistan . Her family , after receiving death threats due to their support of former Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto were given asylum in the United Kingdom when she was a year old . On Day 4 , Beinazir did not gain full housemate status by public vote and became the first evictee . There was no crowd present as she left the House and she was escorted from the premises in a red Routemaster Bus .
Cairon Reon Austin @-@ Hill ( born 5 July 1990 ) is a student and the youngest contestant in this year 's Big Brother . He became a housemate after winning the biscuit dunking task on Day 3 . On Day 12 , Cairon received four nominations by his fellow housemates which was enough to be up for eviction against Freddie . On Day 16 , he became the third evictee with 73 @.@ 16 % of the vote .
Charles Andrew " Charlie " Drummond ( born 3 January 1987 ) is a 22 @-@ year @-@ old Jobcentre customer service advisor from Cleadon . He was Mr Gay Newcastle 2007 and was a runner up for Mr Gay UK . He became a housemate for successfully walking barefoot on broken sugar glass , believing it to be real glass . He finished in 4th place .
David Ramsden ( born 2 September 1980 ) is a clothing recycler from Dewsbury , near Leeds in West Yorkshire . He entered the House on Day 44 with four other new housemates . With them he was tasked with ensuring that Noirin and Halfwit received the most nominations , but the new housemates failed their task and faced the public vote , though the eviction was ultimately cancelled . On Day 91 , David celebrated his 29th birthday , and he received a birthday message from fashion designer Vivienne Westwood , who he claims is his hero . David has also been on UK television show Golden Balls . He finished 3rd .
Frederick " Freddie / Halfwit " George Fisher , ( born 21 June 1985 ) is an Oxford graduate and book reseller from Market Drayton , who lives with his parents at their stately home . He changed his name by deed poll to Halfwit in order to gain housemate status . On Day 6 Halfwit was nominated for eviction by his fellow housemates and on Day 9 he survived the public vote after receiving 8 @.@ 8 % of the vote . On Day 12 he was nominated for eviction along with Cairon and on Day 16 , with 26 @.@ 84 % , he survived his second public vote . On Day 21 , in a special live nominations show , he was nominated for the third time , surviving with 19 % of the public vote on Day 23 . On Day 26 , Halfwit was nominated for eviction along with Sree , surviving for the fourth consecutive time on Day 30 with 15 % of the public vote . Halfwit survived the most consecutive evictions out of anyone in the history of the show , having survived the public vote 5 times in a row and 7 times in total . On Day 72 as a special prize , Halfwit and Dogface legally changed their names back to Freddie and Sophie . On the same day Freddie was evicted from the house over Marcus gaining 53 @.@ 6 % of the public vote to evict .
Hira Habibshah entered on Day 44 , and was given a secret mission in which she had to brief her fellow new housemates , it involved ensuring that Noirin and Halfwit were nominated . The task was failed , resulting in her nomination along with the other new housemates . On Day 59 , she was named the ' Most Entertaining Housemate ' by Big Brother . On Day 65 she became the ninth person to be evicted with 5 @.@ 65 % of the public vote .
Isaac Stout is Noirin 's boyfriend and entered the house disguised as a fish and chips delivery @-@ man on Day 56 , and later walked out on day 58 after girlfriend , Noirin , was evicted . He originally met Noirin during his time as a castmate on MTV 's The Real World : Sydney .
Karly Ashworth ( born 14 April 1988 ) is a part @-@ time glamour model from Fife in Scotland . She was polled as one of FHM 's Top High Street Honeys . She became the seventh housemate after being tricked into believing that she had a motorbike ridden over her stomach . On Day 39 , Karly was nominated for eviction by her fellow housemates . Karly was evicted on Day 44 , the same night as her boyfriend , Kenneth , entered the house as a new housemate .
Kenneth Tong entered the house on Day 44 , minutes before his girlfriend Karly was evicted . Alongside his fellow new housemates , he had to ensure that both Noirin and Halfwit were nominated for eviction but the new housemates failed their task so faced the public vote . Tong blamed fellow housemate Bea Hamill for the task 's failure as she had refused to participate on " moral grounds " . Following an argument between the pair , Tong was warned by Big Brother for language that " could be perceived as threatening " when he said he would " pay someone to deal with her " . On Day 50 , Kenneth fled the house via the rooftop with Marcus ' assistance . As a result , the eviction for week eight was cancelled .
Kris Donnelly ( born 17 April 1985 ) is a visual merchandiser from Shrewsbury . He became the fourth person to be confirmed as a housemate when he was selected by Lisa , who had earned the privilege to choose by answering a ringing phone . On Day 33 , Big Brother told Kris to remain silent until 2 a.m. as punishment for discussing nominations or automatically face the public vote . He failed to keep quiet and faced eviction . On Day 37 , he was evicted with 63 % of the public vote .
Lisa Elizabeth Wallace ( born 12 February 1968 ) is the oldest contestant in the series who entered the House with a distinctive pink mohican haircut , which she shaved off during the series . She became the third person to be rewarded with housemate status when she answered a ringing telephone . She was evicted on day 90 in the final eviction of the series with 68 @.@ 59 % to evict .
Marcus Akin ( born 10 August 1973 ) was made a housemate as the result of a public vote on Day 4 . On Day 29 , Marcus was warned about comments he made to fellow housemate Sree , which Marcus hotly denied . On Day 50 , he helped Kenneth Tong escape from the Big Brother house . Marcus was the twelfth housemate to be evicted with 64 % of the vote on day 86 .
Noirin Kelly ( born 6 September 1983 ) from Dublin , Republic of Ireland is a former All Ireland athletics champion . She also appeared on The Real World : Sydney in 2007 as the girlfriend of fellow contestant Isaac Stout . She was granted housemate status when she allowed Rodrigo to shave her eyebrows and draw a moustache and glasses with permanent marker on her face . She had to do this every day until further notice . On Day 58 , Noirin was evicted from the Big Brother house with 60 @.@ 0 % of the public vote . Outside of the house in September 2009 Norin appeared on the front cover of Nuts and 10 pages of the magazine consisted of pictures of her and an interview with her .
Rodrigo Lopes born 1 December 1985 ) is a Brazilian student living in Leeds . Rodrigo was the twelfth person to enter the house and earned housemate status after convincing Noirin to allow her eyebrows to be shaved and to draw a moustache and glasses on her face under the order of Big Brother . Rodrigo had spoken of an ambition to drink tea with the " Queen of Britain " and on Day 61 Big Brother gave Rodrigo the opportunity to send a letter to the Queen . Big Brother offered Rodrigo a chance to have tea with the " Queen " . However , all of the other housemates had to trick Rodrigo into thinking the Queen lookalike was actually the Queen . Rodrigo finished in 5th place . In 2012 , Rodrigo told the press that she is a trans woman , and she now uses the name Rebekah Shelton .
Saffia May Corden ( born 14 October 1981 ) is a beauty consultant from Hucknall , Nottingham and single mother of two children . She became a housemate for successfully walking barefoot on broken sugar glass , believing it to be real glass . She walked from the House on Day 8 .
Siavash Sabbaghpour ( born 25 April 1986 ) is an event organiser who left his homeland Iran at an early age to live in London . He was known in the house for wearing eccentric clothes and admitted he was a " slave to fashion " . Siavash was made a housemate as the result of a public vote on Day 4 and finished in second place .
Sophia Brown ( 8 December 1983 - 17 May 2012 ) was from London and worked as a private banking assistant . She was is 4 ' 11 " , and had the autoimmune condition lupus . She was made a housemate as the result of a public vote on Day 4 . On Day 6 Sophia was nominated for eviction by her fellow housemates . On Day 9 she became the second evictee with 91 @.@ 2 % of the public vote . Sophia died on 17 May 2012 .
Sophie / Dogface Victoria Reade ( born 18 May 1989 ) is a glamour model from Nantwich , Cheshire and was the winner of the series . She changed her name by deed poll to Dogface in order to become a housemate . On Day 72 as a special prize , Halfwit and Dogface legally changed their names back to Freddie and Sophie . Sophie was announced the winner of the show on 4 September with 74 @.@ 4 % of the final vote .
Sree Dasari ( born 14 September 1984 ) is from India . A students ' union president , he was in the United Kingdom studying for a master 's degree in International Business at the University of Hertfordshire in Hatfield . He was made a housemate as the result of a public vote on Day 4 . On Day 31 , with 85 % of the public vote , Sree became the fifth evictee and crowned Best Housemate Award for the season 10 . He attempted suicide by slashing his wrists shortly after being evicted .
Thomas Martin " Tom " Oliver ( born 22 June 1981 ) entered on Day 44 . On Day 53 , Tom voluntarily left the Big Brother after 9 days .
= = Summary = =
During the first three days , the group undertook a series of tasks by which they could earn the right to become housemates . For the first task , Rodrigo was given four minutes to convince someone to let him shave off their eyebrows and have a moustache and a pair of glasses permanently drawn on to their face for an unstated period of time ; he successfully convinced Noirin and they both became housemates , gaining access to the previously locked bedroom . The remaining non @-@ housemates were instructed to change into a special uniform . Anyone not obeying would lose the opportunity to become a housemate . Lisa gained housemate status in the early hours of Day 2 when she answered a ringing phone in the living room . Given 15 minutes to select the fourth housemate , she chose Kris . Charlie and Saffia later became housemates after walking barefoot over broken sugar glass , believing it to be real glass , and Karly became the seventh housemate after being tricked into believing that she had a motorbike ridden over her stomach . Freddie and Sophie became housemates after changing their names , documented by deed poll to Halfwit and Dogface respectively . On Day 3 Cairon earned housemate status by dunking a biscuit in a cup of tea for 25 @.@ 5 seconds without it disintegrating . Remaining non @-@ housemates Angel , Beinazir , Marcus , Siavash , Sophia and Sree faced the public vote on Day 4 to determine which five would become housemates and which one would be evicted . With 6 @.@ 8 % of a vote to save , Beinazir became the first evictee without ever becoming a housemate .
The first round of nominations took place on Day 6 and resulted in Halfwit and Sophia facing the public vote . On Day 8 , the first shopping task saw Kris negotiate his way through a field of laser beams to retrieve the " Emerald of Hope " , with one of his fellow housemates being soaked by a bursting balloon full of gunge whenever he interrupted a beam . He completed the task successfully , earning a luxury budget . However , as punishment for Marcus , Sophia and Sree discussing nominations , Big Brother doubled the price of every item on the shopping list . Later that day , Saffia left the House voluntarily to be with her children and Sophia was evicted with 91 @.@ 2 % of the public vote the following night . Cairon and Halfwit received the most nominations in week two and faced eviction . The housemates successfully learned and performed the song and dance routine " Me Ol ' Bamboo " from the film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang and won a luxury shopping budget of £ 5 per person per day . On Day 16 , Cairon was evicted with 73 @.@ 2 % of the vote .
Day 18 , the first day of week three , began with a day @-@ long hippy @-@ themed celebration of Halfwit 's 24th birthday , in which Big Brother gave him the " Gift of Normality " that he could keep for himself or give to either Dogface or Noirin . He chose Noirin , freeing her from the obligation to draw a moustache and glasses on her face each day . The housemates failed every part of the Tudor @-@ themed shopping task and received only a basic budget . During the task , Siavash , playing King Henry VIII , was called upon to ban one housemate from nominating and to grant another immunity . He chose Charlie and Marcus respectively . On Day 21 , the housemates nominated against the clock in a live programme , resulting in Angel and Halfwit facing the public vote . On Day 23 , Angel became the fourth person to be evicted with 81 @.@ 0 % of the vote .
Halfwit and Sree received the most nominations and faced the public vote in week four . In an Italy @-@ themed shopping task , Siavash played the role of a fashionista who was required to change his outfit at Big Brother 's request and strike a pose whenever Madonna 's " Vogue " was played into the House . Sree and Dogface 's contribution was to run a 24 @-@ hour ice cream delivery service , while Marcus and Noirin created paintings based on the works of Leonardo da Vinci and Sandro Botticelli . Charlie and Kris played Italian footballers and Lisa had to predict football scores correctly . The task climaxed in a performance of Giacomo Puccini 's Nessun Dorma with Karly , Halfwit and Rodrigo playing The Three Tenors . On Day 28 , the housemates were told they had passed the task , earning themselves a luxury shopping budget . On Day 30 , Sree became the fifth person to be evicted from the House with 85 @.@ 0 % of the vote .
In week five , on Day 33 , Big Brother punished Charlie for discussing nominations , telling him to remain silent for the rest of the day or else face the public vote . Later , Dogface and Kris were similarly punished , also for discussing nominations . All three failed to keep quiet and faced the public vote , along with Halfwit and Marcus , who received the most nominations . On Day 35 , the housemates failed the circus @-@ themed shopping task and received a basic shopping budget . On Day 37 , Kris became the sixth person to be evicted from the House with 63 @.@ 0 % of the vote .
In week six , on Day 39 , Big Brother told Siavash and Dogface that , because they had discussed nominations earlier in the week , they would face eviction if they uttered a single profanity before 3 p.m. They both failed and therefore faced the public vote , along with Karly and Noirin who received the most nominations . The shopping task consisted of nine separate challenges from previous editions of Big Brother , in which housemates had to compete against former contestants ( see the week seven shopping task section ) . The housemates failed to pass the required number of challenges and therefore failed the overall task . On Day 44 , five new housemates , Kenneth , Bea , David , Hira and Tom entered the House and Karly became the seventh person to be evicted with 50 @.@ 4 % of the vote .
Week seven saw housemates take part in a Greek @-@ themed shopping task with a twist , which involved Charlie and Rodrigo learning a routine by Stavros Flatley , a dance duo featured on Britain 's Got Talent . However , playing Zeus , Halfwit was the only housemate aware of the true nature of the task . In each of three challenges he had to ensure , while still keeping the secret , that his chosen champion defeated the appropriate Greek god . He failed and the housemates received a basic shopping budget . Bea , Charlie , David , Dogface , Halfwit , Hira , Kenneth , Marcus , Noirin , Siavash and Tom all faced eviction . In the early hours of Day 50 , Kenneth escaped from the House via the rooftop with help from Marcus , and this led to the eviction being cancelled .
In week eight , in the early hours of Day 53 , Tom voluntarily left the Big Brother House . With five nominations each , Marcus and Noirin faced the public vote . For the shopping task the housemates split into two groups , creating human puppets with one housemate providing the head and feet and another providing the arms , and making them dance to music by Girls Aloud and Take That . Visitors to the Big Brother web site decided by voting that the housemates had failed the task . On Day 56 , Noirin 's ex @-@ boyfriend Isaac entered the House , but left voluntarily shortly after Noirin 's eviction on Day 58 with 60 @.@ 0 % of the public vote .
Bea and Marcus received the most nominations in week nine , but Marcus 's attempts to persuade the housemates to nominate him and Siavash 's refusal to nominate backfired when Big Brother declared the result void and made all housemates face the public vote to save , not evict . The shopping task was based on Lewis Carroll 's Victorian children 's novel Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland in which Hira , in the role of Alice , having first been " shrunk " in the Diary Room , spent more than five hours searching for a key buried inside a giant cupcake using only her face . The housemates passed the task and received a luxury shopping budget . On Day 65 , Hira became the ninth evictee , having received 5 @.@ 7 % of the vote to save .
In week ten , following continual rule breaking by a number of housemates , Big Brother decided to allow the discussion of nominations until further notice . Halfwit and Marcus received the most nominations and faced the public vote . The housemates took part in a " Best of British " shopping task in which they had to bog snorkel , play the bagpipes and convince Rodrigo he had met the Queen , who was in fact the impersonator Janette Charles . On Day 72 , as a special prize for succeeding in this task , Halfwit and Dogface legally changed their names back to Freddie and Sophie . On the same day , Freddie became the tenth evictee from the Big Brother House with 53 @.@ 6 % of the public vote .
Siavash and Sophie both refused to nominate in week eleven . As punishment for breaking this fundamental rule , Big Brother decided that the first two housemates with whom Siavash came into contact and the first two that Sophie mentioned by name after leaving the Diary Room would be taken as their nominations . Siavash touched Bea and Sophie , and Sophie named Rodrigo and Bea . Bea , David and Marcus received the most nominations and faced the public vote this week . In the House of Horrors @-@ themed shopping task Charlie , in the role of Dr Frankenstein , played a version of the game Operation in which Bea , playing his Monster , received a shock whenever his hand faltered . On Day 79 , Bea was evicted with 88 @.@ 2 % of the vote .
The housemates participated in a future @-@ related task during week twelve , in which Sophie and Rodrigo learned a robotic dance routine to Daft Punk 's song " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " and Lisa and David left the House with instructions to have photographs taken by members of the public in front of three London landmarks whilst dressed as aliens . While they were away , the rest of the housemates attempted to break out of the House and Big Brother responded by reducing the £ 100 @,@ 000 prize fund to zero , later announcing that the housemates would be given a chance to win back the money over the course of the next few days . As Siavash refused to nominate , Big Brother allocated his nominations to Charlie and Sophie and Marcus and Siavash were put up for eviction . On Day 85 , Siavash accepted the offer of £ 10 @,@ 000 towards the prize fund for exchanging his clothes with an outfit provided by Big Brother and the Housemates received a £ 20 cheque after requesting a mystery prize from the weekly shopping list . Later that day , Marcus rejected Big Brother 's offer of £ 15 @,@ 000 to shave his ponytail and the group turned down the chance to win £ 1 @,@ 500 by swimming 1 @,@ 500 lengths of the pool . On Day 86 , Rodrigo won £ 6 @,@ 000 towards the prize fund by correctly guessed the regional locations of three animals after listening to a series of sound effects . Later that day , Marcus was evicted with 64 @.@ 0 % of the public vote .
The housemates competed in a " task with no name " on Day 87 , the first day of week thirteen . In this task , the Housemates were provided with several challenges and puzzles but were unaware that they all had to leave the room in order to pass . The housemates passed the task and added £ 10 @,@ 000 to the prize fund . The following day , the housemates ' previous nominations were shown to the group and Big Brother set them a quiz on what they had seen in order to add money to the prize fund . The group answered 53 of the 60 questions correctly , gaining £ 5 @,@ 300 to the winner 's prize . A round of nominations took place on this day , which Charlie , Siavash and Sophie refused to participate in . This meant that all of the housemates faced eviction , as David , Lisa and Rodrigo received the most eligible nominations . On Day 89 , the housemates were shown the episode of Big Brother which documented Day 50 in the House and were told to re @-@ enact it over a five @-@ hour period . They passed this task , earning a luxury shopping budget . However , in order to view the reconstruction the group had to replicate the music video of " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , a song by Beyoncé Knowles . The group did so , with David portraying Knowles , and were therefore rewarded with a screening of the task after Lisa was evicted with 68 @.@ 6 % of the vote . On Day 91 , Charlie , Rodrigo , Sophie and Siavash were instructed to rank themselves in different categories , such as order of selfishness and likelihood to win . David , who was isolated in the Diary Room , had to answer questions based on their answers . As he answered four of the ten questions correctly , he added £ 40 @,@ 000 to the prize fund . This meant that the prize fund was settled at £ 71 @,@ 320 .
After Lisa 's eviction on Day 90 , the viewers began voting for who they wanted to win the programme . On Day 93 , the final day , Rodrigo was the first to be evicted with 11 @.@ 0 % of the five @-@ way vote and he was followed by Charlie , who received 13 @.@ 2 % of the five @-@ way vote . It was then announced that David had finished in third place after gaining 19 @.@ 0 % of the three @-@ way vote . Davina McCall then revealed that Sophie had won this series with 74 @.@ 4 % of the final two @-@ way vote , with Siavash finishing in second place .
= = Nominations table = =
= = Tenth year commemorations = =
= = = Additional programming = = =
Three special , one @-@ off programmes aired on E4 before the launch to commemorate ten years of the programme . The first of which , entitled Jade : As Seen On TV aired on 26 May and commented on the life of Big Brother 2002 contestant Jade Goody and the infamy that surrounded her . The most successful Big Brother housemate worldwide , Goody died of cervical cancer two months before the programme aired . The programme was watched by 305 @,@ 000 people ; 1 @.@ 8 % of the TV audience .
Big Brother 's Big Quiz , hosted by Davina McCall , aired on 29 May and featured celebrity team captains singer Jamelia , TV presenter and Celebrity Big Brother winner Ulrika Jonsson and comedians Danny Wallace and Jack Whitehall . It also featured former Big Brother housemates such as Craig Phillips and Sam and Amanda Marchant .
Big Brother : A Decade in the Headlines was transmitted on 30 May and looked back at the social , political and cultural changes that Big Brother had made to society since it began . The documentary was hosted by Grace Dent and featured participation from Mark Frith , Carole Malone , Oona King , Peter Tatchell , Krishnan Guru @-@ Murthy and Ian Hyland .
Spin @-@ off programme Big Brother 's Little Brother featured new competitions and features to mark the event . The first , The George Lamb Quiz of the Decade , was launched on 7 June . The participants had to show their knowledge of the programme by participating in a quiz relating to every series of Big Brother . Another competition was established as part of the Greek @-@ themed task in week eight . Here , male Big Brother 's Little Brother viewers were asked to apply to become a date for Bea Hammill , who was playing the role of Aphrodite . The contestant chosen was Robin from Bristol . The programme also offered a viewer the chance to become Big Brother and talk to the housemates via the Diary Room on the final day of the programme ; this was won by Simon " Jobby " Jobson , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old DJ from Alnwick , Northumberland . Former housemates , such as Nadia Almada and Rachel Rice , also appeared as guests to mark the occasion .
= = = Week seven shopping task = = =
The shopping task for week seven saw housemates from the previous nine series temporarily return , as current housemates competed against them in a series of " classic " tasks . Former housemates were not paid ; a donation was made to Jade Goody 's trust fund instead . On Day 40 , Craig Phillips , winner of the first series of Big Brother , entered the house to participate in a replica of his series ' assault course task alongside Halfwit . Phillips was drafted in after " Nasty " Nick Bateman withdrew . Later that day , Lisa competed in a task to build a sugar cube tower alongside Dean O 'Loughlin of series two . Day 41 saw Alex Sibley , Sophie Pritchard and Lee Davey from the programme 's third edition compete in a re @-@ creation of the egg and spoon race task with Rodrigo trying to predict the outcome . Later that day , Federico Martone from series four participated in a gymkhana competition against Noirin using fake horses and Dogface and Michelle Bass both sang Pie Jesu , which featured in the wedding task of series five , with viewers deciding which performance was the best . On Day 42 , Craig Coates and Makosi Musambasi challenged Siavash to the box task from the sixth series and series seven 's Nikki Grahame reenacted her silent disco task alongside Karly . Brian Belo from series eight took part in a word association game with Charlie . The task drew to a close on Day 43 when Rex Newmark from the previous series returned to participate in the electric shock task with Marcus , in which the rest of housemates were subjected to shocks . The housemates failed to pass the required minimum of seven of the nine challenges and therefore failed the overall task .
= = Reception = =
In comparison with other contemporary reality television programmes and previous editions of Big Brother , this series has received lower viewing figures and less press coverage . Bookmakers have also reported that this series has attracted the lowest amount of bets placed for any reality programme in the last decade . Four weeks before the programme began , former chat show presenter Michael Parkinson was critical of the programme ; " I object to the exploitation of the underclass in shows like Big Brother . It is the modern version of Bedlam , where you pay to see the poor benighted people making asses of themselves " . Charlie Brooker of The Guardian said that the series contained forgettable participants and that the producers were alienating the viewers with confusing tasks that seemed to take place " every four minutes " . Simmy Richman of The Independent wrote that the programme had become predictable after ten editions and that it had a " here @-@ we @-@ go @-@ again feel " . They also complained that the format had become clichéd and the housemates stereotypical , and they criticised the producers for enrolling participants who were using the programme as " a springboard to a Heat magazine cover and temporary free entry to dodgy nightclubs " . Maggie Brown , writing in her book A Licence to be Different — The Story of Channel 4 , believed that the programme limited its broadcaster as the cost to produce the programme were not justified by the number of viewers it attracted . Mark Lawson , also writing in The Guardian , suggested that the lack of viewers linked with a tired format and minimal press coverage , claiming that the newspapers had become preoccupied with stories such as the outbreak of swine flu , death of Michael Jackson and MPs ' expenses scandal . Lawson also believed that the death of Big Brother 2002 participant Jade Goody prior to the launch of Big Brother 2009 contributed to the low viewing figures . Journalist James Donaghy branded the programme a " sorry atrocity " and celebrity gossip blogger Darryn Lyons said that the series had been " massively disappointing " , pinpointing Isaac Stout 's entrance as a " desperate stunt " to attract viewers . Despite returning to the House to participate in a task , former housemate Dean O 'Loughlin has also been critical of this series , describing it as " way too superficial " .
However , the series has also received praise from various parties . For example , Gerard Gilbert of The Independent argued that in comparison to contemporary TV dramas , Big Brother provides much more entertainment , psychological depth and social impact . Gilbert also commented that the storylines of the programme were equal to that of the works of Samuel Beckett . Craig Phillips , the winner of the first series of Big Brother , and the programme 's presenter Davina McCall have responded to the criticisms of the programme 's decreasing viewing figures , respectively arguing that the programme achieves low numbers due to the different way in which viewers can watch the programme and that the programme is achieving well considering its timeslot and broadcaster . Brian Dowling , who won the second edition of Big Brother in 2001 , defended both the programme and the reality genre as a whole , telling BBC Breakfast that producers were simply providing viewers what they want , such as extreme participants . The Guardian 's Heidi Stephens also complimented the series by claiming that it has " seen the emergence of some truly fascinating personalities " and welcomed the return to the basic format of the programme . Stephens went on to compare the storylines and characters of the programme with that of a John Hughes film . Aisleyne Horgan @-@ Wallace , who came third in the seventh series , and Big Brother 2003 winner Cameron Stout praised the selection of housemates , both claiming that the quality of the programme had improved on previous years . Entertainment website Digital Spy was also complimentary of the series , naming Sophie " Dogface " Reade and Kris Donnelly as two of the sexiest housemates of the past ten years and Angel McKenzie as one of the most outrageous . Towards the end of the programme 's airing , Neil Boom of The Independent argued that the series is " one of the best ever " despite a decline in the number of viewers . He claimed that there was still high interest on internet forums and that the lower television ratings might be due to the removal of the 24 @-@ hour live feed . He praised the selection of housemates and highlighted Siavash , Freddie and Marcus as particular examples . Following the end of the series , Davina McCall also considered Big Brother 10 to be " Big Brother at its best . "
= = = Viewing figures = = =
These viewing figures are taken from BARB .
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= 1949 Ambato earthquake =
The 1949 Ambato earthquake was the largest earthquake in the Western Hemisphere in more than five years . On August 5 , 1949 , it struck Ecuador 's Tungurahua Province southeast of its capital Ambato and killed 5 @,@ 050 people . Measuring 6 @.@ 8 on the Richter scale it originated from a hypocenter 40 km ( 25 mi ) beneath the surface . The nearby villages of Guano , Patate , Pelileo , and Pillaro were destroyed , and the city of Ambato suffered heavy damage . The earthquake flattened entire buildings , and subsequent landslides caused damage throughout the Tungurahua , Chimborazo , and Cotopaxi Provinces . It disrupted water mains and communication lines and opened a fissure into which the small town of Libertad sank . Moderate shaking from the event extended as far away as Quito and Guayaquil .
Earthquakes in Ecuador stem from two major interrelated tectonic areas : the subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate and the Andean Volcanic Belt . The 1949 Ambato earthquake initially followed an intersection of several northwest @-@ southeast @-@ trending faults in the Inter @-@ Andean Valley which were created by the subduction of the Carnegie Ridge . Strata of rock cracked as the earthquake ruptured the faults , sending out powerful shockwaves . Today threats exist throughout the country from both interplate and intraplate seismicity .
= = Background = =
Earthquakes are common in Ecuador . Near the Nazca subduction zone the recorded history of interplate earthquakes spans 80 years . At the time it struck the 1949 Ambato earthquake was the second @-@ worst earthquake in Ecuador 's modern history topped only by the 1797 Riobamba earthquake , and the most devastating earthquake in the Western Hemisphere since the 1944 San Juan earthquake . Several major earthquakes have occurred throughout the country since 1949 , including the 1987 Ecuador earthquakes and the 1997 Ecuador earthquake . The 2007 Peru earthquake also affected the country .
= = Geology = =
Much of South American seismic activity and volcanism originates from subduction of the oceanic Nazca Plate under the continental South American Plate and subduction of the Pacific 's lithosphere under the South American continent . This seismicity extends for 6 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 728 mi ) along the continent 's western edge and probably stems from a region of northeast @-@ trending faulting near the Ecuadorian Trench . The region of faulting may actually function as its own microplate .
The Carnegie Ridge is sliding under Ecuadorian land , causing coastal uplift and volcanism . The ridge 's movement may also have changed the type of faulting along the coast , causing strike @-@ slip faults ( faults that move horizontally past each other ) . Evidence of this subduction altering the course of faulting is found at the Yaquina fault , which , unlike the rest of the Panama Basin faults , trends to the west instead of north @-@ south , indicating that the Carnegie Ridge may be colliding with the continental mass of Ecuador . This collision created northwest @-@ southeast and northeast @-@ southwest @-@ trending faults in the region , and with that , caused strong earthquakes in Riobamba in 1797 and Alausi in 1961 . Several of the northwest @-@ southeast @-@ trending faults converge in the Inter @-@ Andean Valley where the 1949 Ambato earthquake took place .
The hypocenter of the earthquake occurred 40 km ( 25 mi ) beneath the surface , under a mountain 72 km ( 45 mi ) from Ambato . Nearby fault lines ruptured , breaking rock strata and sending shock waves to the surface capable of bringing down entire buildings . Life reported that local seismologists first placed the earthquake 's magnitude at 7 @.@ 5 , but the official measurement was later revised to 6 @.@ 8 .
= = Damage and casualties = =
The earthquake was preceded by a foreshock which although modest was strong enough to cause chaos and force people to flee from their homes into the streets . The main shock originated southeast of Ambato . When the primary shock hit Ambato 's main cathedral and military barracks collapsed , as did most of the city 's buildings , scores of young girls preparing for their first communions perished in the cathedral . The shaking ruptured water mains , disabled communication lines , opened cracks in the earth , reduced bridges to rubble , and derailed a train . The earthquake demolished buildings in rural hamlets ; closer to the nearest mountains of the Andes , landslides destroyed roads and blocked rivers . The village of Libertad near Pelileo sank 460 m ( 1 @,@ 509 ft ) into a huge hole about 800 m ( 2 @,@ 625 ft ) in diameter with all of its 100 inhabitants . Shaking up to intensity IV extended as far away as Quito and Guayaquil .
Initial reports ( around August 7 ) estimated the death toll at 2 @,@ 700 people . The cities of Patate and Pelileo suffered the most with 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 300 dead respectively . In Ambato reports of the death toll ranged from 400 to 500 , and the Ecuadorean Embassy in Washington , D.C. , estimated that 1 @,@ 000 to more than 2 @,@ 000 people were injured . The town of Pillaro , destroyed by the quake , had more than 20 dead , and in Latacunga , 11 were killed and 30 injured ; 50 homes , two churches , and the local government building were also ruined . Fifteen other towns and cities were also badly affected , including Guano which was devastated .
Later counts assumed around 3 @,@ 200 casualties in Pelileo ; the total death toll estimates were adjusted to around 4 @,@ 000 people . Officials reported that many of the dead had been inside buildings as they buckled or were killed by flooding brought about by the blockage of a drainage canal . Others were crushed by landslides from nearby mountains . No homes in the city of Pelileo were left standing , many buildings were flattened , and large cracks formed in the ground . In Ambato alone 75 percent of the homes still standing had to be demolished . On August 8 , an aftershock with " considerable strength " struck near Ambato .
The final death toll according to the United States Geological Survey was 5 @,@ 050 . The earthquake severely affected some 30 communities and left approximately 100 @,@ 000 people homeless .
= = Relief efforts = =
Ecuador 's President Galo Plaza Lasso flew to Ambato to take personal charge of the primary relief efforts . Plaza directed rescue efforts for two days as airlifts from Quito dropped supplies . A group of Red Cross volunteers and medical supplies were sent on American aircraft . The United States Army sent two relief teams equipped with serum and blood plasma . The mayor of Miami along with seven other politicians began a fund @-@ raising campaign for medical needs and clothing and coordinated the distribution of 69 kg ( 152 lb ) of Rexall drugs . Several nearby countries sent airplanes carrying medicine and food . A local fund @-@ raising effort collected 250 @,@ 000 Ecuadorian sucres ( approximately $ 14 @,@ 815 1949 USD ) within two hours of its launch . Plaza said " We have not lost our courage . Neither Ambato nor Ecuador shall cry any more , but begin to work . "
On August 7 a plane carrying 34 rescue workers from the Shell Oil Company crashed 32 km ( 20 mi ) from Ambato leaving no survivors . Disease began to spread in Pelileo within days of the earthquake which prompted a team of American soldiers – who were acting as relief workers – to order water purification devices and DDT airdrops to cleanse the area of airborne agents . Sick victims were quarantined and prevented from leaving the city .
= = Aftermath = =
The earthquake considerably impacted a number of cities : it destroyed Guano , Patate , Pelileo , Pillaro , and one @-@ third of Ambato . The city of Ambato was a " scene of anguish and pain " described by " scores of little funerals winding their way through the debris " . The brand @-@ new hospital had been reduced to four walls , and most of the buildings in town were demolished . In Pelileo relief workers found victims feeding buried people through holes in the ground . In the days following the earthquakes aftershocks occurred and torrential rains ensued .
In an effort to help the inhabitants a festival of fruit and flowers was held on June 29 , 1950 . The festival was a success and became an annual event that is celebrated each year during Carnaval and is now an important tourist attraction . Ambato was completely rebuilt after the earthquake . The city 's main church , the Iglesia Matriz de Ambato , was replaced by a new cathedral known as Iglesia La Catedral in 1954 . Pelileo was rebuilt on a new site 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from its previous location .
= = Current situation = =
Ambato is frequently visited by tourists traveling on the Pan @-@ American Highway . The city is well known for its extensive market which sells a wide array of items including local delicacies and flowers , and for its quintas – old estates that serve as historic parks – some of which pre @-@ date the earthquake .
Ecuador is still at risk from earthquakes : both intraplate ( such as those in March 1987 ) and interplate earthquakes are possible . Intraplate seismicity poses a more formidable threat , as it can be much more powerful than interplate seismicity and is usually associated with landslides , subsidence , and even soil liquefaction .
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= The 3rd Birthday =
The 3rd Birthday ( Japanese : ザ ・ サード バースデイ , Hepburn : Za Sādo Bāsudei ) is a third @-@ person role @-@ playing shooter co @-@ developed by Square Enix and HexaDrive , and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation Portable . It was released in 2010 in Japan and 2011 in North America and Europe . The game is both the third entry in the Parasite Eve video game series , based on the titular Japanese novel , and a spin @-@ off , having only a loose connection to events from past games . The game features a third @-@ person shooter @-@ based combat system with role @-@ playing mechanics . A key mechanic is the Overdive ability , which allows the player to possess pre @-@ positioned human allies and inflict damage upon enemies .
The game takes place in 2013 , a year after creatures known as the Twisted have appeared from beneath Manhattan and decimated the city . To fight back against the Twisted , an investigatory team called the Counter Twisted Investigation ( CTI ) is formed . Among their number is series protagonist Aya Brea , who was found unconscious and suffering amnesia two years before the game 's events . Using her Overdive ability , Aya travels into the past to alter the outcome of battles against the Twisted . At the same time , Aya attempts to find out the origin of the Twisted and regain her memories .
The 3rd Birthday was created as a conceptual rebirth for Aya 's character , as well as a means of re @-@ introducing her to the gaming community , with it being over a decade since the last game in the series . Among the staff were Hajime Tabata , Yoshinori Kitase , Motomu Toriyama , Isamu Kamikokuryo , and Aya 's original designer Tetsuya Nomura . Originally announced as an episodic title for mobile phones , the game was later changed into a PSP exclusive . Upon release , the game reached sixth place in Japanese sales charts , and was among the top five games in North American and UK sales charts during its opening months . Reviews have been mixed ; critics praised the presentation and several parts of the gameplay , while opinions were mixed about the story , and many cited difficulties with camera control and some of the shooter mechanics . Several reviewers have also made negative comments on Aya 's portrayal .
= = Gameplay = =
The 3rd Birthday is a third @-@ person role @-@ playing shooter . The player controls series protagonist Aya Brea through rendered @-@ to @-@ scale environments in from a third person perspective . The game plays out as a series of missions , between which Aya rests at the Counter Twisted Investigation headquarters , which acts as the game 's main hub . In the hub , Aya can receive briefings for missions , view additional documents , buy and customize new weapons . She also has the option to transport back there should she die during a mission . The game can be saved both at the hub and in safe zones within missions . At the end of each mission , Aya is given a grade based on performance , enemies killed , and the number of times she died . Depending on her score , she will earn differing amounts of Bounty Points , a currency used to customize weapons and repair protective gear in the hub area .
During missions , players navigate a series of linear linked areas fighting off multiple enemies . Items can be picked up during missions , such as grenades and medical kits . Aya has access to multiple guns for use in combat , including handguns , assault rifles and shotguns . By holding down a button on the controller , Aya automatically aims at an enemy and can fire at will . Taking cover behind objects or shields , or standing idle outside of battle , allows Aya to regenerate health . While in combat , an energy meter is charged and can be activated when full . When activated , Aya entered " Liberation Mode " , a state enabling her to move around the battlefield at high speed for a short period of time .
In most battle situations , Aya is accompanied by a group of allied NPC ( non @-@ playable character ) soldiers that the player can direct around the battle area . Available commands include offering supporting fire , directly attacking enemies , or staying behind cover . They can also all fire at the same enemy in certain situations , dealing high damage . Each NPC has a separate health meter , and is permanently removed from battle upon defeat . Central to combat is Overdive , an ability which enables Aya to transmit herself between bodies . If her health is low , Aya can transport into the body of an allied NPC , taking on their health level , position and current weapon in the process . NPCs not controlled by Aya are controlled by the game 's AI . Aya can remain in a body for the duration of a level , or until the unit has died . If Aya cannot jump to another body , she dies and the level must either be restarted or exited . Overdive can be activated at any time , enabling Aya to transport around the battlefield to avoid enemy attacks or save herself when her current unit 's health is low . Overdive can also be used to attack enemies if Aya maintains a sustained assault . After a time , a triangle icon appears on enemies , allowing her to perform an Overdive attack , dealing high damage to the targeted enemy .
During combat , Aya gains experience points and gains experience levels when a certain quantity is achieved . Gaining a level both restores her health and raises her maximum health and energy levels . Weapons also gain levels the more they are used . In addition to leveling up , Aya 's stats can be customized using Over Energy ( OE ) clips found during missions or acquired during Overdive attacks . Using a 3x3 grid accessed in the hub area , certain OE clips grand different stat boosts and abilities . Creating a new grid automatically deletes the effects of the original .
= = Plot = =
The game 's story plays out in episodes , similar to a television series , with many events told out of sequence . On Christmas Eve of 2012 , monstrous creatures dubbed as " Babels " appear in New York City . Along with lifeforms spawned by them called the Twisted , they lay wasted to the city and consume any human in their path . By the following year , an investigatory team known as the CTI ( Counter Twisted Investigation ) has been formed . One of the CTI members is Aya Brea , who was found outside St. Thomson 's Cathedral in 2010 , just before the Babels and Twisted began appearing . Dr. Hyde Bohr , Chief of the CTI , finds that Aya is suffering from amnesia , and that her personality has changed . After taking Aya in , the CTI discovered that she was capable of transferring her soul from body to body independent of time , an ability dubbed " Overdive " , which enables her to fight the Twisted .
Bohr and the others planned to use this unique ability to travel back through time and prevent the disaster , developing a machine called " Overdive System " to allow Aya to travel into the past and change events . As she embarks on each mission , she is confronted by powerful , sentient Twisted born from corrupted humans , later dubbed High Ones . One such High One is Kyle Madigan , a man she met and fell in love with during Parasite Eve II . As she defeats each High One , she regains pieces of her memory , most prominently her memories of being engaged to Kyle , and the existence of Eve Brea , her adopted sister . After an incident that saw the CTI HQ and the Overdive device destroyed by the Kyle High One , Aya reunites with Kunihiko Maeda , a man who aided her in Parasite Eve , to resolve the entire mystery behind the appearance of the Babel , Twisted and High Ones . Aya eventually discovers that Bohr is himself a High One . Bohr masterminded the death of other High Ones in order to form the Grand Babel , which functions like a giant Overdive system . Bohr seeks to dive back in the past to Time Zero , the point where events were set in motion , to fulfill his plan for the survival of his own species from a time war cycle between humans , the Twisted , and the High Ones . Aya battles Bohr and is pulled with him into Time Zero , where she discovers the truth .
In 2010 at St. Thomson 's Cathedral , Aya and Kyle were going to be married . The Cathedral was attacked by a SWAT team and Aya was killed . Eve attempted to save Aya by sending her consciousness into Aya 's body , creating the Overdive ability . The event caused Aya 's consciousness to separate from her body and fragment through time to create the Twisted , Eve 's consciousness to become trapped in Aya 's body , and parts of Eve 's body to be transplanted into people close to the pair to create the High Ones . The " Aya " of the main story is in fact Eve in Aya 's body . After these revelations , Eve returns to her body and is asked by Bohr to assimilate him and trigger the birth of a new species . Eve refuses , and when Bohr tries to force the process , a reborn Aya shoots him to death . Aya then reveals that to avert the birth of the Twisted and High Ones , the sources ( Aya and Eve ) must be removed . Expressing her regret at not being able to marry Kyle , she tells Eve to shoot her . In a fit of emotion , Eve switches bodies with Aya before shooting her , creating a new timeline where Eve 's body and Aya 's consciousness do not exist , erasing the game 's events . Though Eve offers to marry Kyle , he refuses and hints that he is going to find Aya . In a post @-@ credits sequence four years after the game 's events , Eve is walking the streets of New York and is wished a " Happy Fourth Birthday " by a woman resembling Aya .
= = Development = =
Concepts for a third installment in the Parasite Eve video game series had been around for some time . As work was being finished on Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII , Nomura voiced his wish to create a new game for the character Aya Brea , and this time it was taken up . Despite the story of Parasite Eve II not leaving many avenues for a sequel , the development team wanted to take advantage of advancing gaming technology and popularity by creating a mature gaming experience that would re @-@ introduce Aya to players around the world . The main staff consisted of director Hajime Tabata , producer Yoshinori Kitase , creative producer and character designer Tetsuya Nomura , art director Isamu Kamikokuryo , scenario director Motomu Toriyama , and main writer Toshimitsu Takeuchi . Nomura requested Tabata as the two had worked well together on previous projects , and Nomura was busy with other projects despite his strong interest . The 3rd Birthday was originally announced in May 2007 as an episodic mobile game developed by Square Enix for Japan 's FOMA mobile service . In 2008 , during a special Square Enix event , the game was announced to have changed to a game for the PlayStation Portable . Part of the reason , as stated by Nomura , was that the desired level of realism was not possible on mobile phones . The game became exclusive to PSP as Tabata wanted to make full usage of the platform 's hardware capabilities , along with it being a gaming platform available worldwide . Tabata and his team worked on the The 3rd Birthday at the same time as fellow mobile @-@ turned @-@ PSP title Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 . Square Enix requested Tabata to concentrate on finishing The 3rd Birthday , leading to Type @-@ 0 almost being cancelled .
The final version of the game was co @-@ developed by Square Enix and HexaDrive , a company created by former Capcom staff members . As the new form of The 3rd Birthday had transformed into a third @-@ person shooter , Square Enix wanted staff members with experience at developing such games , and then @-@ company CEO Yoichi Wada recommended HexaDrive to Tabata . As multiple HexaDrive staff members had also worked on fellow shooter Lost Planet : Extreme Condition , Tabata agreed to the collaboration . While aiming for a high quality product , the team designed the game as if for the PlayStation 3 home console , then worked to fit it onto the PSP . During development , the team sought creative help from the team developing Final Fantasy XIII for the visual design . The team had previous experimented with shooters with Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , but this time they wanted to create something closer to a third @-@ person shooter . While working inside the control and hardware limitations of the title , the team created firearms and the lock @-@ on mechanic as the fundamental attack action , instead of the free @-@ roaming style of a standard third @-@ person shooter . While designing levels to function with the game 's Overdive system , the team considered what the level would hold , how often players would utilize the function , the difficulty of levels , and the positioning and strength of enemies . During development , a questionnaire was circulated around company staff concerning the character Aya , to find out which of the planned features was popular . One of those that survived in the final game was Aya 's clothes being damaged when she was hit by an enemy , which was used to emphasize her sexuality . Nomura was among the first to suggest this feature originally .
Nomura worked on the character designs for the main cast . He was originally only going to work on Aya and Eve , but after seeing the settings for the other characters , he offered to design them too . The team wanted to emphasize the character 's sexuality . As part of this , the team included a scene where Aya takes a shower . This was inspired by a similar scene in Parasite Eve II . When the title was being developed for PSP , the team 's main challenge with the character was to make her look as realistic as possible while retaining her established physical traits . Using this new realism , the team wanted to portray the fear felt by humans when faced with such threats through Aya . Achieving this realism proved one of the most difficult aspects of development . Her alternate costumes were not a high priority for the team , so their artists had high creative freedom .
While many of the concepts for the final version were present in the original mobile version , such as Overdive and the Twisted , the original story was scrapped when the game changed platforms . In creating the story for The 3rd Birthday , the team took inspiration from the 10 @-@ year gap in the character 's in @-@ game and real @-@ time history . This meant that it would be difficult to create a straightforward sequel , so the team instead decided to make the game about Aya 's return . Toriyama imagined story concepts such as the snowy New York setting and the image of a bloodstained wedding dress . These two concepts survived the platform change . Over the course of the development , he adjusted the plot numerous times to be more adult @-@ oriented and to include complex narrative twists . The original concept was to make the game feel like a television drama , with multiple cliffhangers and moments of high drama . The game was designed from the outset as having no direct connection to the previous Parasite Eve games . The game 's title came from it being Aya 's third video game appearance , as well as it being a noticeable change in setting . The game 's logo was designed to both look like the letter " B " and the number " 3 " . It was originally only going to represent the number , but Nomura added the extra lines to display the game 's " multi @-@ faceted " nature .
= = = Music = = =
The music for The 3rd Birthday was composed by Mitsuto Suzuki and Tsuyoshi Sekito , with additional work by original Parasite Eve composer Yoko Shimomura . Shimomura was involved from an early stage , when The 3rd Birthday was still a mobile game . When she was originally asked to compose for the title , she was involved with a number of other projects which made handling the entire score difficult . When asked whether she wanted to work with anyone on the composition , she suggested Suzuki and Sekito . The general instruction was to follow the pattern used by the music for Parasite Eve , with Suzuki and Sekito handling the majority of tracks , going so far as referring to the songs from the original Parasite Eve when handling remixes of old themes . In keeping with the game 's other development goals , Shimomura wanted to alter some of the established music , although she asked the team to include familiar themes from earlier games for fans . Suzuki was responsible for a large amount of track mixing . Sekito was mostly involved with choosing and helping with instrumentation , in particular whether to include symphonic music . The composers had a relatively high degree of freedom , but they also had problems when composing some tracks that did not fit into selected scenes . Re @-@ orchestrations of two pieces of classical music , " Sleepers Wake " by Johann Sebastian Bach , and " Joy to the World " , a popular Christmas song , were used by Suzuki and Shimomura respectively to represent key moments and motifs within the game . The order of songs in the game was created to reflect the situation in a level . These variations were emphasized during mixing , while they also needed to adjust the mixing and track length based on the game as a whole . For the game 's theme song , the company collaborated with Japanese rock band Superfly . The game 's theme song Eyes on Me , described as a " standard love song " , was specially composed by the band for the game . It was the band 's first video game theme song . The game 's soundtrack was released as an album by Square Enix on December 22 , 2010 . The 3rd Birthday Original Soundtrack contains 66 tracks across 3 discs and has a total length of 2 : 56 : 52 .
= = Reception = =
During production , Nomura and Tabata stated that the team were aiming to sell 500 @,@ 000 copies of the game , a sales @-@ goal based strategy they had previously used for Crisis Core . During its first week , The 3rd Birthday debuted at # 6 in Japanese gaming charts , selling 140 @,@ 000 units . By the end of 2011 , the game had sold 249 @,@ 747 units in Japan . The game reached the top of the charts for PSP games in North America by the beginning of April 2011 , overtaking fellow Square Enix title Dissidia 012 : Final Fantasy and the PSP port of The Legend of Heroes : Trails in the Sky . Later that month , it had fallen to # 3 in US charts , remaining there into June of that year . In the UK during the same initial period , it reached # 3 , tailing behind Dissidia 012 and Lego Star Wars III : The Clone Wars .
Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu praised the title 's gameplay , calling Aya " deeply customizable " , finding the Overdive system and its strategic elements exhilarating and saying that those undaunted by the high difficulty would find much enjoyment in repeated playthroughs . Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com called it " an interesting blend of RPG and shooter " , praising the working of Overdive . Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed was less enthusiastic , referring to the conflicts with the Twisted as " relentless and ultimately repetitive " , finding the high difficulty off @-@ putting and Aya 's movement speed unsuited for battle . Game Informer 's Annette Gonzalez enjoyed the control layout and gameplay , but cited difficulties with the camera . Carolyn Petit of GameSpot said that the game sometimes succeeded in creating tension , but that other battles were frustrating and the camera was difficult . IGN 's Patrick Kolan was pleased with the effort put into the game , and generally praised the battle and later levels , despite several cases of repetition during the main campaign . Emily Gera of VideoGamer.com found the basic shooter gameplay repetitive , but felt that the gameplay was saved by the Overdive ability and the quality of fights .
Parish said the game looked " gorgeous " and the soundtrack " exceptional " . Petit praised the CGI cutscenes and varied level environments , and said the score " shifts adeptly between haunting and thrilling to suit the action . " Kolan generally called the game one of the best @-@ looking entries on the platform , and praised the soundtrack , despite it being " a little ho @-@ hum " . Gonzalez also praised the cutscenes , while citing the environments as " [ ranging ] from detailed to drab " .
Famitsu was less positive about the story , saying that the mix of different elements made it " a bit hard to follow . " Parish positively noted connections to the second game , but finding the later story developments either confusing or weak , and disliked the way returning supporting characters had been changed . Petit said that those who wanted a straightforward story would be disappointed , and positively noted its exploration of existence , identity , and memory . Her main criticism was with the dialogue , which she referred to as " stilted " . Kolan also faulted the voice acting and localization , especially when compared to games such as Tactics Ogre : Let Us Cling Together . Gonzalez cited the story as intriguing , with " plenty of plot twists " . Parish and Petit were both highly critical of Aya 's portrayal : Parish disliked both her outfit , which seemed to conform too much female stereotypes in video games , and the clothes @-@ tearing mechanic , which seemed to be included merely to flaunt her sexuality . Petit shared many points of criticism with Parish , also noting that Aya 's portrayal of " one @-@ part action hero , one @-@ part submissive sex object " was wrong for a lead character , and that Aya 's in @-@ combat vocals were not suited to the game 's situations . Reed referred to Aya as " [ a ] sighing , whimpering lead character " .
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= John Marshall Harlan II =
John Marshall Harlan ( May 20 , 1899 – December 29 , 1971 ) was an American jurist who served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court from 1955 to 1971 . His namesake was his grandfather John Marshall Harlan , another associate justice who served from 1877 to 1911 .
Harlan was a student at Upper Canada College and Appleby College and then at Princeton University . Awarded a Rhodes Scholarship , he studied law at Balliol College , Oxford . Upon his return to the U.S. in 1923 Harlan worked in the law firm of Root , Clark , Buckner & Howland while studying at New York Law School . Later he served as Assistant U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York and as Special Assistant Attorney General of New York . In 1954 Harlan was appointed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit , and a year later president Dwight Eisenhower nominated Harlan to the United States Supreme Court following the death of Justice Robert H. Jackson .
Harlan is often characterized as a member of the conservative wing of the Warren Court . He advocated a limited role for the judiciary , remarking that the Supreme Court should not be considered " a general haven for reform movements " . In general , Harlan adhered more closely to precedent , and was more reluctant to overturn legislation , than many of his colleagues on the Court . He strongly disagreed with the doctrine of incorporation , which held that the provisions of the federal Bill of Rights applied to the state governments , not merely the Federal . At the same time , he advocated a broad interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment 's Due Process Clause , arguing that it protected a wide range of rights not expressly mentioned in the United States Constitution . Harlan is sometimes called the " great dissenter " of the Warren Court , and has been described as one of the most influential Supreme Court justices in the twentieth century . Justice Harlan was gravely ill when he retired from the Supreme Court on September 23 , 1971 . He died from spinal cancer three months later , on December 29 , 1971 . After Harlan 's retirement , President Nixon appointed William Rehnquist to replace him .
= = Early life and career = =
John Marshall Harlan was born on May 20 , 1899 in Chicago , Illinois . He was the son of John Maynard Harlan , a Chicago lawyer and politician , and Elizabeth Flagg . He had three sisters . Historically , Harlan 's family had been politically active . His forebear , George Harlan , served as one of governors of Delaware during the seventeenth century ; his great @-@ grandfather , James Harlan , was a congressman during the 1830s ; his grandfather , also John Marshall Harlan , was an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1877 to 1911 ; and his uncle , James S. Harlan , was attorney general of Puerto Rico and then chairman of the Interstate Commerce Commission .
In his younger years , Harlan attended The Latin School of Chicago . He later attended two boarding high schools in the Toronto Area , Canada : Upper Canada College and Appleby College . Upon graduation from Appleby , Harlan returned to the U.S. and in 1916 enrolled at Princeton University . There , he was a member of the Ivy Club , served as an editor of The Daily Princetonian , and was class president during his junior and senior years . After graduating from the university in 1920 , he received a Rhodes Scholarship , which he used to attend Balliol College , Oxford . He studied jurisprudence at Oxford for three years , returning from England in 1923 . Upon his return to the United States , he began work with the law firm of Root , Clark , Buckner & Howland ( now known as Dewey & LeBoeuf ) , one of the leading law firms in the country , while studying law at New York Law School . He received his law degree in 1924 and earned admission to the bar in 1925 .
Between 1925 and 1927 , Harlan served as Assistant U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York , heading the district 's Prohibition unit . He prosecuted Harry M. Daugherty , former United States Attorney General . In 1928 , he was appointed Special Assistant Attorney General of New York , in which capacity he investigated a scandal involving sewer construction in Queens . He prosecuted Maurice E. Connolly , the Queens borough president , for his involvement in the affair . In 1930 , Harlan returned to his old law firm , becoming a partner one year later . At the firm , he served as chief assistant for senior partner Emory Buckner and followed him into public service when Buckner was appointed United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York . As one of " Buckner 's Boy Scouts " , eager young Assistant United States Attorneys , Harlan worked on Prohibition cases , and swore off drinking except when the prosecutors visited the Harlan family fishing camp in Quebec , where Prohibition did not apply . Harlan remained in public service until 1930 , and then returned to his firm . Buckner had also returned to the firm , and after Buckner 's death , Harlan became the leading trial lawyer at the firm .
As a trial lawyer Harlan was involved in a number of famous cases . One such case was the conflict over the estate left after the death in 1931 of Ella Wendel , who had no heirs and left almost all her wealth estimated at 30 – 100 million to churches and charities . However a number of claimants , filed suits in state and federal courts demanding a part of her fortune . Most of the claimants were imposters ; Harlan acted as the main defender of her estate and will as well as the chief negotiator . Eventually a settlement among lawful claimants was reached in 1933 . In the following years Harlan specialized in corporate law dealing with the cases like Randall v. Bailey , concerning the interpretation of state law governing distribution of corporate dividends . In 1940 , he represented the New York Board of Higher Education unsuccessfully in The Bertrand Russell Case in its efforts to retain Bertrand Russell on the faculty of the City College of New York ; Russell was declared " morally unfit " to teach . The future justice also represented boxer Gene Tunney in a breach of contract suit brought by a would @-@ be fight manager , a matter settled out of court .
In 1937 , Harlan was one of five founders of the controversial Pioneer Fund , a group associated with eugenics advocacy , and served on its board for long time . He , however , never played any significant role in the fund .
During World War II , Harlan volunteered for military duty , serving as a colonel in the United States Army Air Force from 1943 to 1945 . He was the chief of the Operational Analysis Section of the Eighth Air Force in England . He won the Legion of Merit from the United States , and the Croix de guerre from both France and Belgium . In 1946 Harlan returned to private law practice representing Du Pont family members against a federal antitrust lawsuit . In 1951 , however , he returned to public service , serving as Chief Counsel to the New York State Crime Commission , where he investigated the relationship between organized crime and the state government as well as illegal gambling activities in New York and other areas . During this period Harlan also served as a committee chairman of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York , and to which he was later elected vice president . Harlan 's main specialization at that time was corporate and anti @-@ trust law .
= = Personal life = =
In 1928 , Harlan married Ethel Andrews , who was the daughter of Yale history professor Charles McLean Andrews . This was the second marriage for her . Ethel was originally married to a New York architect Henry K. Murphy , who was twenty years her elder . After Ethel divorced Murphy in 1927 , her brother John invited her to a Christmas party at Root , Clark , Buckner & Howland , where she was introduced to John Harlan . They saw each other regularly afterwards and married on November 10 , 1928 in Farmington , Connecticut .
Harlan , a Presbyterian , maintained a New York City apartment , a summer home in Weston , Connecticut and a fishing camp in Murray Bay , Quebec , a lifestyle he described as " awfully tame and correct " . The justice played golf , favored tweeds , and wore a gold watch which had belonged to the first Justice Harlan . In addition to carrying his grandfather 's watch , when he joined the Supreme Court he used the same furniture which had furnished his grandfather 's chambers .
John and Ethel Harlan had one daughter , Evangeline Dillingham ( born on February 2 , 1932 ) . She was married to Frank Dillingham of West Redding , Connecticut , until his death , and has five children . One of Eve 's children , Amelia Newcomb , is the international news editor at The Christian Science Monitor. and has two children : Harlan , named after John Marshall Harlan II , and Matthew Trevithick . Another daughter , Kate Dillingham , is a professional musician ( cellist ) and published author .
= = Supreme Court career = =
On January 13 , 1954 , United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower nominated Harlan to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit , to fill a vacancy created by the death of Judge Augustus Noble Hand . He was confirmed by the United States Senate on February 9 , and took office on February 10 . Harlan knew this court well , as he had often appeared before it and was friendly with many of the judges . However , his stay on the court only lasted for a year . On January 10 , 1955 , President Eisenhower nominated Harlan to the United States Supreme Court following the death of Justice Robert H. Jackson . On being nominated , the reticent Harlan called reporters into his chambers in New York , and stated , in full , " I am very deeply honored . " Despite the brevity of his stay on the Second Circuit , Harlan would serve as the Circuit Justice responsible for the Second Circuit throughout his Supreme Court capacity , and , in that capacity , would enjoyably attend the Circuit 's annual conference , bringing his wife and catching up on the latest gossip .
Harlan 's nomination came shortly after the Supreme Court handed down its landmark decision in Brown v. Board of Education , declaring segregation in public schools unconstitutional . James Eastland ( the chairman of the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary ) and several other southern senators delayed his confirmation , because they ( correctly ) believed that he would support desegregation of the schools and civil rights . Unlike almost all previous Supreme Court nominees , Harlan appeared before the Senate Judiciary Committee to answer questions relating to his judicial views . Every Supreme Court nominee since Harlan has been questioned by the Judiciary Committee before confirmation . The Senate finally confirmed him on March 17 , 1955 by a vote of 71 – 11 . He took seat on March 28 , 1955 . Of the eleven senators who voted against his appointment , nine were from the South . He was replaced on the Second Circuit by Joseph Edward Lumbard .
On the Supreme Court , Harlan often voted alongside Justice Felix Frankfurter , who was his principal mentor on the court . Some legal scholars even viewed him as " Frankfurter without mustard " , though others recognize his own important contributions to the evolution of the legal thought . Harlan was an ideological adversary — but close personal friend — of Justice Hugo Black , with whom he disagreed on a variety of issues , including the applicability of the Bill of Rights to the states , the Due Process Clause , and the Equal Protection Clause .
Justice Harlan was very close to the law clerks whom he hired , and continued to take an interest in them after they left his chambers to continue their legal careers . The justice would advise them on their careers , hold annual reunions , and place pictures of their children on his chambers ' walls . He would say to them of the Warren Court , " We must consider this only temporary , " that the Court had gone astray , but would soon right itself .
Justice Harlan is remembered by people , who worked with him , for his tolerance and civility . He treated his fellow Justices , clerks and attorneys representing parties with respect and consideration . While Justice Harlan often strongly objected to certain conclusions and arguments , he never criticized other justices or anybody else personally , and never said any disparaging words about someone 's motivations and capacity . Harlan was reluctant to show emotion , and was never heard to complain about anything . Harlan was one of the intellectual leaders of the Warren Court . Harvard Constitutional law expert Paul Freund said of him :
His thinking threw light in a very introspective way on the entire process of the judicial function . His decisions , beyond just the vote they represented , were sufficiently philosophical to be of enduring interest . He decided the case before him with that respect for its particulars , its special features , that marks alike the honest artist and the just judge .
= = Jurisprudence = =
Harlan 's jurisprudence is often characterized as conservative . He held precedent to be of great importance , adhering to the principle of stare decisis more closely than many of his Supreme Court colleagues . Unlike Justice Black , he eschewed strict textualism . While he believed that the original intention of the Framers should play an important part in constitutional adjudication , he also held that broad phrases like " liberty " in the Due Process Clause could be given an evolving interpretation .
Harlan believed that most problems should be solved by the political process , and that the judiciary should play only a limited role . In his dissent to Reynolds v. Sims , he wrote :
These decisions give support to a current mistaken view of the Constitution and the constitutional function of this court . This view , in short , is that every major social ill in this country can find its cure in some constitutional principle and that this court should take the lead in promoting reform when other branches of government fail to act . The Constitution is not a panacea for every blot upon the public welfare nor should this court , ordained as a judicial body , be thought of as a general haven of reform movements .
= = = Equal Protection Clause = = =
The Supreme Court decided several important equal protection cases during the first years of Harlan 's career . In these cases , Harlan regularly voted in favor of civil rights — similar to his grandfather , the only dissenting justice in the infamous Plessy v. Ferguson case .
He voted with the majority in Cooper v. Aaron , compelling defiant officials in Arkansas to desegregate public schools . He joined the opinion in Gomillion v. Lightfoot , which declared that states could not redraw political boundaries in order to reduce the voting power of African @-@ Americans . Moreover , he joined the unanimous decision in Loving v. Virginia , which struck down state laws that banned interracial marriage .
= = = Due Process Clause = = =
Justice Harlan advocated a broad interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment 's Due Process Clause . He subscribed to the doctrine that the clause not only provided procedural guarantees , but also protected a wide range of fundamental rights , including those that were not specifically mentioned in the text of the Constitution . ( See substantive due process . ) However , as Justice Byron White noted in his dissenting opinion in Moore v. East Cleveland , " no one was more sensitive than Mr. Justice Harlan to any suggestion that his approach to the Due Process Clause would lead to judges ' roaming at large in the constitutional field . ' " Under Harlan 's approach , judges would be limited in the Due Process area by " respect for the teachings of history , solid recognition of the basic values that underlie our society , and wise appreciation of the great roles that the doctrines of federalism and separation of powers have played in establishing and preserving American freedoms . "
Harlan set forth his interpretation in an often cited dissenting opinion to Poe v. Ullman , which involved a challenge to a Connecticut law banning the use of contraceptives . The Supreme Court dismissed the case on technical grounds , holding that the case was not ripe for adjudication . Justice Harlan dissented from the dismissal , suggesting that the Court should have considered the merits of the case . Thereafter , he indicated his support for a broad view of the due process clause 's reference to " liberty . " He wrote , " This ' liberty ' is not a series of isolated points pricked out in terms of the taking of property ; the freedom of speech , press , and religion ; the right to keep and bear arms ; the freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures ; and so on . It is a rational continuum which , broadly speaking , includes a freedom from all substantial arbitrary impositions and purposeless restraints . " He suggested that the due process clause encompassed a right to privacy , and concluded that a prohibition on contraception violated this right .
The same law was challenged again in Griswold v. Connecticut . This time , the Supreme Court agreed to consider the case , and concluded that the law violated the Constitution . However , the decision was based not on the due process clause , but on the argument that a right to privacy was found in the " penumbras " of other provisions of the Bill of Rights . Justice Harlan concurred in the result , but criticized the Court for relying on the Bill of Rights in reaching its decision . " The Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment stands , " he wrote , " on its own bottom . " The Supreme Court would later adopt Harlan 's approach , relying on the due process clause rather than the penumbras of the Bill of Rights in right to privacy cases such as Roe v. Wade and Lawrence v. Texas .
Harlan 's interpretation of the Due Process Clause attracted the criticism of Justice Black , who rejected the idea that the Clause included a " substantive " component , considering this interpretation unjustifiably broad and historically unsound . The Supreme Court has agreed with Harlan , and has continued to apply the doctrine of substantive due process in a wide variety of cases .
= = = Incorporation = = =
Justice Harlan was strongly opposed to the theory that the Fourteenth Amendment " incorporated " the Bill of Rights — that is , made the provisions of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states . His opinion on the matter was opposite to that of his grandfather , who supported the full incorporation of the Bill of Rights . When it was originally ratified , the Bill of Rights was binding only upon the federal government , as the Supreme Court ruled in the 1833 case Barron v. Baltimore . Some jurists argued that the Fourteenth Amendment made the entirety of the Bill of Rights binding upon the states as well . Harlan , however , rejected this doctrine , which he called " historically unfounded " in his Griswold concurrence .
Instead , Justice Harlan believed that the Fourteenth Amendment 's due process clause only protected " fundamental " rights . Thus , if a guarantee of the Bill of Rights was " fundamental " or " implicit in the concept of ordered liberty , " Harlan agreed that it applied to the states as well as the federal government . Thus , for example , Harlan believed that the First Amendment 's free speech clause applied to the states , but that the Fifth Amendment 's self @-@ incrimination clause did not .
Harlan 's approach was largely similar to that of Justices Benjamin Cardozo and Felix Frankfurter . It drew criticism from Justice Black , a proponent of the total incorporation theory . Black claimed that the process of identifying some rights as more " fundamental " than others was largely arbitrary , and depended on each Justice 's personal opinions .
The Supreme Court has eventually adopted some elements of Harlan 's approach , holding that only some Bill of Rights guarantees were applicable against the states — the doctrine known as selective incorporation . However , under Chief Justice Earl Warren during the 1960s , an increasing number of rights were deemed sufficiently fundamental for incorporation ( Harlan regularly dissented from these rulings ) . Hence , the majority of provisions from the Bill of Rights have been extended to the states ; the exceptions are the Third Amendment , the grand jury clause of the Fifth Amendment , the Seventh Amendment , the excessive bail provision of the Eighth Amendment , the Ninth Amendment , and the Tenth Amendment . Thus , although the Supreme Court has agreed with Harlan 's general reasoning , the end result of its jurisprudence is very different from what Harlan advocated .
= = = First Amendment = = =
Justice Harlan supported many of the Warren Court 's landmark decisions relating to the separation of church and state . For instance , he voted in favor of the Court 's ruling that the states could not use religious tests as qualifications for public office in Torcaso v. Watkins . He joined in Engel v. Vitale , which declared that it was unconstitutional for states to require the recitation of official prayers in public schools . In Epperson v. Arkansas , similarly , he voted to strike down an Arkansas law banning the teaching of evolution .
In many cases , Harlan took a fairly broad view of First Amendment rights such as the freedom of speech and of the press , although he thought that the First Amendment applied directly only to the federal government . According to Harlan the freedom of speech was among the " fundamental principles of liberty and justice " and therefore applicable also to states , but less stringently than to the national government . Moreover , Justice Harlan believed that federal laws censoring " obscene " publications violated the free speech clause . Thus , he dissented from Roth v. United States , in which the Supreme Court upheld the validity of a federal obscenity law . At the same time , Harlan did not believe that the Constitution prevented the states from censoring obscenity . He explained in his Roth dissent :
The danger is perhaps not great if the people of one State , through their legislature , decide that Lady Chatterley 's Lover goes so far beyond the acceptable standards of candor that it will be deemed offensive and non @-@ sellable , for the State next door is still free to make its own choice . At least we do not have one uniform standard . But the dangers to free thought and expression are truly great if the Federal Government imposes a blanket ban over the Nation on such a book . [ ... ] The fact that the people of one State cannot read some of the works of D. H. Lawrence seems to me , if not wise or desirable , at least acceptable . But that no person in the United States should be allowed to do so seems to me to be intolerable , and violative of both the letter and spirit of the First Amendment .
Harlan concurred in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan , which required public officials suing newspapers for libel to prove that the publisher had acted with " actual malice . " This stringent standard made it much more difficult for public officials to win libel cases . He did not , however , go as far as Justices Hugo Black and William O. Douglas , who suggested that all libel laws were unconstitutional . In Street v. New York , Harlan wrote the opinion of the court , ruling that the government could not punish an individual for insulting the American flag . In 1969 he noted that the Supreme Court had consistently " rejected all manner of prior restraint on publication . "
When Harlan was a Circuit Judge in 1955 , he authorized the decision upholding the conviction of leaders of the Communist Party USA ( including Elizabeth Gurley Flynn ) under the Smith Act . The ruling was based on the previous Supreme Court 's decisions , by which the Court of Appeals was bound . Later , when he was a Supreme Court justice , Harlan , however , wrote an opinion overturning the conviction of Communist Party activists as unconstitutional in the case of Yates v. United States . Another such case was Watkins v. United States .
Harlan penned the majority opinion in Cohen v. California , holding that wearing a jacket emblazoned with the words " Fuck the Draft " was speech protected by the First Amendment . His opinion was later described by constitutional law expert Professor Yale Kamisar as one of the greatest ever written on freedom of expression . In the Cohen opinion , Harlan famously wrote " one man 's vulgarity is another 's lyric , " a quote that was later denounced by Robert Bork as " moral relativism " .
Justice Harlan is credited for the establishing that the First Amendment protects the freedom of association . In NAACP v. Alabama , Justice Harlan delivered the opinion of the court , invalidating an Alabama law that required the NAACP to disclose membership lists . However he did not believe that individuals were entitled to exercise their First Amendment rights wherever they pleased . He joined in Adderley v. Florida , which controversially upheld a trespassing conviction for protesters who demonstrated on government property . He dissented from Brown v. Louisiana , in which the Court held that protesters were entitled to engage in a sit @-@ in at a public library . Likewise , he disagreed with Tinker v. Des Moines , in which the Supreme Court ruled that students had the right to wear armbands ( as a form of protest ) in public schools .
= = = Criminal procedure = = =
During the 1960s the Warren Court made a series of rulings expanding the rights of criminal defendants . In some instances , Justice Harlan concurred in the result , while in many other cases he found himself in dissent . Harlan was usually joined by the other moderate members of the Court : Justices Potter Stewart , Tom Clark , and Byron White .
Most notably , Harlan dissented from Supreme Court rulings restricting interrogation techniques used by law enforcement officers . For example , he dissented from the Court 's holding in Escobedo v. Illinois , that the police could not refuse to honor a suspect 's request to consult with his lawyer during an interrogation . Harlan called the rule " ill @-@ conceived " and suggested that it " unjustifiably fetters perfectly legitimate methods of criminal law enforcement . " He disagreed with Miranda v. Arizona , which required law enforcement officials to warn a suspect of his rights before questioning him ( see Miranda warning ) . He closed his dissenting opinion with a quotation from his predecessor , Justice Robert H. Jackson : " This Court is forever adding new stories to the temples of constitutional law , and the temples have a way of collapsing when one story too many is added . "
In Gideon v. Wainwright , Justice Harlan agreed that the Constitution required states to provide attorneys for defendants who could not afford their own counsel . However , he believed that this requirement applied only at trial , and not on appeal ; thus , he dissented from Douglas v. California .
Harlan wrote the majority opinion Leary v. United States — a case that declared Marijuana Tax Act unconstitutional based on the Fifth Amendment protection against self @-@ incrimination .
Justice Harlan 's concurrence in Katz v. United States set forth the test for determining whether government conduct constituted a search . In this case the Supreme Court held that eavesdropping of the petitioner 's telephone conversation constituted a search in the meaning of the Fourth Amendment and thus required a warrant . According to Justice Harlan , there is a two @-@ part requirement for a search : 1 . That the individual have a subjective expectation of privacy ; and 2 . That the individual 's expectation of privacy is " one that society is prepared to recognize as ' reasonable . ' "
= = = Voting rights = = =
Justice Harlan rejected the theory that the Constitution enshrined the so @-@ called " one man , one vote " principle , or the principle that legislative districts must be roughly equal in population . In this regard , he shared the views of Justice Felix Frankfurter , who in Colegrove v. Green admonished the courts to stay out of the " political thicket " of reapportionment . The Supreme Court , however , disagreed with Harlan in a series of rulings during the 1960s . The first case in this line of rulings was Baker v. Carr . The Court ruled that the courts had jurisdiction over malapportionment issues and therefore were entitled to review the validity of district boundaries . Harlan , however , dissented , on the grounds that the plaintiffs failed to demonstrate that malapportionment violated their individual rights .
Then , in Wesberry v. Sanders , the Supreme Court , relying on the Constitution 's requirement that the United States House of Representatives be elected " by the People of the several States , " ruled that congressional districts in any particular state must be approximately equal in population . Harlan vigorously dissented , writing , " I had not expected to witness the day when the Supreme Court of the United States would render a decision which casts grave doubt on the constitutionality of the composition of the House of Representatives . It is not an exaggeration to say that such is the effect of today 's decision . " He proceeded to argue that the Court 's decision was inconsistent with both the history and text of the Constitution ; moreover , he claimed that only Congress , not the judiciary , had the power to require congressional districts with equal populations .
Harlan was the sole dissenter in Reynolds v. Sims , in which the Court relied on the Equal Protection Clause to extend the one man , one vote principle to state legislative districts . He analyzed the language and history of the Fourteenth Amendment , and concluded that the Equal Protection Clause was never intended to encompass voting rights . Because the Fifteenth Amendment would have been superfluous if the Fourteenth Amendment ( the basis of the reapportionment decisions ) had conferred a general right to vote , he claimed that the Constitution did not require states to adhere to the one man , one vote principle , and that the Court was merely imposing its own political theories on the nation . He suggested , in addition , that the problem of malapportionment was one that should be solved by the political process , and not by litigation . He wrote :
This Court , limited in function in accordance with that premise , does not serve its high purpose when it exceeds its authority , even to satisfy justified impatience with the slow workings of the political process . For when , in the name of constitutional interpretation , the Court adds something to the Constitution that was deliberately excluded from it , the Court , in reality , substitutes its view of what should be so for the amending process .
For similar reasons , Harlan dissented from Carrington v. Rash , in which the Court held that voter qualifications were subject to scrutiny under the equal protection clause . He claimed in his dissent , " the Court totally ignores , as it did in last Term 's reapportionment cases [ ... ] all the history of the Fourteenth Amendment and the course of judicial decisions which together plainly show that the Equal Protection Clause was not intended to touch state electoral matters . " Similarly , Justice Harlan disagreed with the Court 's ruling in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections , invalidating the use of the poll tax as a qualification to vote .
= = Retirement and death = =
John M. Harlan 's health began to deteriorate towards the end of his career . His eyesight began to fail during the late 1960s . To cover this , he would bring materials to within an inch of his eyes , and have clerks and his wife read to him ( once when the Court took an obscenity case , a chagrined Harlan had his wife read him Lady Chatterley 's Lover ) . Gravely ill , he retired from the Supreme Court on September 23 , 1971 .
Harlan died from spinal cancer three months later , on December 29 , 1971 . He was buried at the Emmanuel Church Cemetery in Weston , Connecticut . President Richard Nixon considered nominating Mildred Lillie , a California appeals court judge , to fill the vacant seat ; Lillie would have been the first female nominee to the Supreme Court . However , Nixon decided against Lillie 's nomination after the American Bar Association found Lillie to be unqualified . Thereafter , Nixon nominated William Rehnquist ( a future Chief Justice ) , who was confirmed by the Senate .
Despite his many dissents , Harlan has been described as one of the most influential Supreme Court justices of the twentieth century . He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1960 . Harlan 's extensive professional and Supreme Court papers ( 343 cubic feet ) were donated to Princeton University , where they are housed at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library and open to research . Other papers repose at several other libraries . Ethel Harlan , his wife , outlived him by only a few months and died on June 12 , 1972 . She suffered from Alzheimer 's disease for the last seven years of her life .
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= Interstate 190 ( New York ) =
Interstate 190 ( I @-@ 190 , locally known as The One @-@ Ninety ) is a north – south auxiliary Interstate Highway that connects I @-@ 90 in Buffalo , New York with the Canada @-@ U.S. border near Niagara Falls . The freeway bisects downtown Buffalo before crossing Grand Island and travelling around the outskirts of Niagara Falls before crossing the Niagara River on the Queenston @-@ Lewiston Bridge into Ontario . On the Canadian side of the border , the freeway continues as Highway 405 , a short spur that connects with the Queen Elizabeth Way ( QEW ) , which in turn provides a freeway connection to Toronto , Canada 's largest city . The 28 @.@ 34 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 45 @.@ 61 km ) route also provides access to the Peace Bridge between Buffalo and Fort Erie , Ontario .
Officially , I @-@ 190 from I @-@ 90 north to New York State Route 384 ( NY 384 ) is named the Niagara Thruway and is part of the New York State Thruway system . The remainder , from NY 384 to Lewiston , is known as the Niagara Expressway and is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation . I @-@ 190 is the only three @-@ digit Interstate Highway to reach the Canada – US border , and one of only two to connect to an international border , the other being Interstate 110 in Texas .
Parts of the highway were built along the former rights @-@ of @-@ way of the Lehigh Valley Railroad and the Erie Canal . The entire route was built as part of the New York State Thruway in the late 1950s and early 1960s , and was completed in 1964 . In 2006 , the tolls along the freeway were removed , although the Grand Island ones remain in place .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 190 begins at an interchange with the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) in Cheektowaga in Erie County , just north of the West Seneca town line and east of the Buffalo city line . I @-@ 190 heads west into Buffalo , passing the former location of the City Line toll barrier ahead of an interchange with South Ogden Street ( exit 1 ) . Farther west , I @-@ 190 meets NY 354 ( exit 2 ) , NY 16 ( exit 3 ) , and several local streets before entering downtown Buffalo . Within the downtown area , I @-@ 190 passes between First Niagara Center and Coca @-@ Cola Field near an interchange with NY 5 ( exit 7 ) on the shores of Lake Erie . At NY 5 , I @-@ 190 turns northward to follow the path of the Niagara River . Shortly after meeting NY 266 ( exit 8 ) immediately northwest of downtown , I @-@ 190 interchanges with Porter Avenue ( exit 9 ) , a local roadway connecting I @-@ 190 to the Peace Bridge and , thus , the Queen Elizabeth Way in Canada .
North of downtown Buffalo , I @-@ 190 follows the eastern edge of the Black Rock Canal ( and passes the site of the former Black Rock toll barrier ) before rejoining the banks of the Niagara near an exit with the Scajaquada Expressway ( NY 198 , exit 11 ) . I @-@ 190 continues north through the northern extents of Buffalo , meeting multiple streets before separating from the Niagara and interchanging with NY 266 and NY 324 ( exits 15 and 16 ) in quick succession . At exit 16 , NY 324 joins I @-@ 190 northward through western Tonawanda . The two routes then meet I @-@ 290 and NY 266 a second time prior to crossing the Niagara River on the South Grand Island Bridge . NY 324 leaves the expressway shortly after arriving on Grand Island at exit 18 .
I @-@ 190 and NY 324 follow parallel routings across Grand Island , with both roads passing on opposite sides of Martin 's Fantasy Island , a local amusement park , near the center of the island . At the northern edge of the island , NY 324 , as signed , terminates at exit 20 ; however , officially , NY 324 rejoins I @-@ 190 across the Niagara River once again via the North Grand Island Bridge . Now in Niagara Falls , Niagara County , NY 324 ends at a complex interchange featuring NY 384 , the Niagara Scenic Parkway , and the LaSalle Expressway on the eastern bank of the river . Farther north , I @-@ 190 meets U.S. Route 62 ( US 62 ) at exit 22 and NY 182 at exit 23 .
Past NY 182 , I @-@ 190 turns to the northwest , skirting the northeastern edge of Niagara Falls and roughly paralleling NY 265 to the east . In Lewiston , the expressway meets NY 31 at exit 24 southwest of the large Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant reservoir . I @-@ 190 continues onward , crossing the canal between the reservoir and the power plant on a small dam also used by NY 265 . The freeway then interchanges with NY 265 , the Niagara Scenic Parkway , and NY 104 at the expansive exit 25 before curving to the west and terminating at the approach to the Lewiston – Queenston Bridge . Across the bridge in Queenston , Ontario , the roadway becomes Highway 405 .
= = History = =
The portion of modern I @-@ 190 south of NY 384 in Niagara Falls was originally built by the New York State Thruway Authority as part of the New York State Thruway system . Construction on two segments of the highway — from South Ogden Street to Porter Avenue in downtown Buffalo and from Beaver Island Parkway to West River Road on Grand Island — began in 1953 . On Grand Island , construction began to connect the two existing two lane bridges on July 16 , 1954 . By 1955 , construction had begun on the remainder of the Niagara Thruway . On July 30 , 1959 , the Thruway was opened from the Tri @-@ Level Interchange at I @-@ 90 to Porter Avenue , and from Sheridan Drive to the southern Grand Island bridge . The remainder of the highway , with the exception of the twinned Grand Island bridges , was completed by 1964 .
On August 14 , 1957 , the routing of what is now I @-@ 190 ( including the then @-@ partially complete Niagara Thruway ) was originally designated as I @-@ 90N , as intercity routes were assigned before three @-@ digit Interstate numbers were applied to the shorter intracity routes . I @-@ 90N was renumbered to I @-@ 190 on February 24 , 1959 . Construction on the portion of I @-@ 190 north of NY 384 began c . 1962 and was completed by 1964 .
In 1991 , maintenance of I @-@ 84 in downstate New York was transferred from the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) to the New York State Thruway Authority ( NYSTA ) . The monies for that purpose came from tolls levied on I @-@ 190 in downtown Buffalo . Under the laws authorizing the Thruway construction , the tolls were to be removed once the original bonds used to pay for the construction were paid off , which occurred in 1996 ; however , the tolls would remain for ten more years . Attorney Carl Paladino brought a lawsuit against the state in 2006 to force the removal of the tolls . On October 30 , 2006 , the Thruway Authority voted to both begin the process of returning maintenance of I @-@ 84 to NYSDOT and to remove the tolls on I @-@ 190 in Buffalo . Collection of the tolls stopped that day . Both major candidates in the 2006 New York gubernatorial election , Democrat Eliot Spitzer and Republican John Faso , had pledged to remove the tolls on I @-@ 190 if elected . While the toll barriers in Buffalo have since been demolished , the tolls further north on the two Grand Island bridges still remain .
= = Exit list = =
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= Everytime =
" Everytime " is a song by American recording artist Britney Spears , taken from her fourth studio album , In the Zone ( 2003 ) . It was released on May 10 , 2004 by Jive Records as the third single from the album . After her relationship with American singer Justin Timberlake ended in 2002 , she made friends with her backing vocalist Annet Artani . They started writing songs together at Spears 's house in Los Angeles , and then traveled to Lombardy , Italy , where " Everytime " was written . Spears composed the music and she developed the lyrics with Artani . According to Artani , the song was written as a response to Timberlake 's 2002 song " Cry Me a River " . Spears has neither confirmed nor denied these allegations .
" Everytime " is considered a pop ballad with breathy vocals . Its lyrics are a plea for forgiveness for inadvertently hurting a former lover . Music critics mostly complimented its lyrical content , deeming the song " organic " in comparison with most of the tracks on its host album . Spears ' maturity in the production and her songwriting abilities were also complimented . " Everytime " peaked inside the top five in several countries , while reaching the top of the charts in Australia , Hungary , Ireland and the United Kingdom . In the U.S. it was a top 20 single , peaking at number 15 on Billboard Hot 100 . Spears performed " Everytime " in a series of live appearances such as television shows Saturday Night Live and Top of the Pops . She has also performed the song on piano in a flowered @-@ themed setting at The Onyx Hotel Tour ( 2004 ) , while suspended on a giant umbrella at The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) and in an angel costume at Britney : Piece of Me ( 2013 ) . " Everytime " has been covered by artists such as Glen Hansard and Kelly Clarkson , and was used in the film Spring Breakers ( 2013 ) .
Inspired by the cinematography of Leaving Las Vegas , the music video for " Everytime " portrays Spears as a star hounded by paparazzi , who drowns in her bathtub when she starts bleeding from a wound in her head . In the hospital , doctors fail to resuscitate her while a child is born in the next room , implying she has been reincarnated . The original treatment would have had Spears killing herself from a drug overdose , but the plot was removed after it received criticism by organizations such as Kidscape , who perceived it as a glamorization of suicide . Critics noted the video for its religious references to The Passion of the Christ , Kabbalah and stigmata , and for predicting Spears 's future struggles with fame .
= = Background and writing = =
Spears 's relationship of three years with pop singer Justin Timberlake ended in 2002 after months of speculation . In November 2002 , Timberlake released the song " Cry Me a River " as the second single from his solo debut album . The music video featured a Spears look @-@ alike and fueled the rumors that she had been unfaithful to him . " Cry Me a River " is often credited as being the song that propelled the album into the charts . In September 2001 , Annet Artani accepted to become a backing vocalist for Spears 's 2001 – 2002 Dream Within a Dream Tour . Her interactions with Spears during most of the tour were limited to small conversations at the gym and vocal warm ups . Artani had begun a relationship with the show 's musical director during 2002 ; however , it was not working out well by the end of the tour . Before the last date in Mexico City , Spears called her and asked about the relationship . Artani told her they were going to break up , to which Spears responded , " Don 't worry about it , you 're going to hang out with me " . Following the end of the tour , Spears and Artani began to forge a friendship . Spears invited Artani to her house in Los Angeles , California . According to Artani , their relationship grew out of their shared romantic experiences at the time . She explained , " Basically , we commiserated because she , at that time , had broken up with Justin [ Timberlake ] . Maybe like nine months before , but of course it was really fresh in the media . I was just breaking up with this guy , so we kind of like — I think we kind of needed each other . " Artani stayed at Spears 's house for a few weeks , in which they started writing songs at the piano . Shortly after , they traveled to Lake Como in Lombardy , Italy . Artani added , " It was me and her , her stylist and Felicia , and we had this humongous house to ourselves , and they had a piano there as well " .
According to Artani , " Everytime " was written in large part as a response to " Cry Me a River " as well as various radio interviews . Artani explained , " He was getting personal . Here , she had a different type of image , and he was really exposing some stuff that she probably didn 't want out there , and in front of her little sister ... I remember her sister being mortified and her being mortified . I 'm sure that that really hurt her . " The song was also speculated to be a reply to Timberlake 's " Never Again " , a ballad which appeared on his debut solo album Justified . " Everytime " was recorded at Conway Studios in Los Angeles and mixed at Frou Frou Central in London , United Kingdom . During an interview with Hip Online , Spears commented about the recording sessions , saying ,
" ... Like with ' Everytime ' I wrote the whole thing from scratch on the piano . Musically there was no track or anything . I was just at my house and I did the whole thing by myself . And then I went and I played it for [ Guy Sigsworth ] and I just basically told him exactly how I wanted the song to sound . And he was so amazing because there 's a lot of producers you tell them things and they don 't get it . And you 're like oh , that 's not the right way . He got it just right . He was amazing . And so that song specifically , you know , I did everything . "
" Everytime " was one of the first songs finished for In the Zone , previewed on May 30 , 2003 , to Quddus Philippe of MTV at Battery Studios in New York City . It was registered with the U.S. Copyright Office on April 26 , 2003 under the title of " Everytime I Try " and SRU000530591 registration number with a given recording year of 2002 . Spears named it the most personal song of the album along with " Touch of My Hand " , explaining , " It 's one of the songs that when you hear , it 's like the kind of song when you go to heaven . It kind of takes you away . You know , it takes you in to a very cool consciousness I think . "
= = Composition = =
" Everytime " is a pop ballad . It begins with a music box introduction accompanying Spears 's breathy vocals , which build from soft to strong through the song . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , " Everytime " is composed in the key of E ♭ major , with a tempo of 110 beats per minute . Spears 's vocal range spans from the low @-@ tone of A ♭ 3 to the high @-@ tone of E ♭ 5 . " Everytime " lyrics are a plea for forgiveness for inadvertently hurting a former lover . In the song , the singer explains she feels unable to continue in lines such as " Everytime I try to fly I fall / Without my wings I feel so small " . Jennifer Vineyard of MTV compared the song lyrically to another ballad from In the Zone , " Shadow " , since they both speak " about how reminders of a lover can still linger after he 's gone . " During an interview with Jennifer Vineyard of MTV , Spears said about " Everytime " , " It 's about heartbreak , it 's about your first love , your first true love . That 's something all people can relate to , because you all have that first love that you think you 're going to be with the rest of your life . " When asked if " Everytime " was about Timberlake during an interview with Diane Sawyer in PrimeTime , she responded " I 'll let the song speak for itself . "
= = Critical response = =
Gavin Mueller of Stylus Magazine deemed " Everytime " as the best track of In the Zone , explaining " it is just a spare piano ballad , simple yet effectively fragile " . Ali Fenwick of The Johns Hopkins News @-@ Letter complimented Spears 's songwriting and added the song " shows a glimmer of the talent that hides behind the robotic , synthed @-@ out vocals on the rest of the album . " Christy Lemire of msnbc.com called it " actually a pretty tune " and named it the best ballad in Greatest Hits : My Prerogative . Jason Shawhan of About.com said " Everytime " " screams Single ! " .
Spence D. of IGN said the song " continues to mine the Zone turf and unleashes what is ostensibly Britney 's first mature ballad , at least in terms of being musically staid and stripped of any danceteria sweat and gloss . " Linda McGee of RTÉ.ie said that along with In the Zone 's " Brave New Girl " , they were " individually impressive " , but disrupted the direction of the album . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly commented , " With its dainty piano , ' Everytime ' plays like a forlorn postmortem on her Justin Timberlake era . " Sterling Clover of The Village Voice called it " a weeper in the best ' Time After Time ' ( 1984 ) tradition . " William Shaw of Blender said that while " Everytime " was not her greatest ballad , the lyrics were " certainly heartfelt " . A reviewer from the Huddersfield Daily Examiner stated , " [ the ] breathy ballad [ has ] got a stage musical feel to it , but Britney 's no Elaine Paige " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine named it along with " Shadow " " two sappy ballads " .
= = Commercial performance = =
On May 22 , 2004 , " Everytime " debuted at number 61 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the " Highest Debut " of the week . On July 3 , 2004 , it peaked at number 15 and stayed in the position for four weeks . The song also peaked at number four on Billboard 's Pop Songs and at number 17 and number 25 on the Hot Dance Club Songs and Adult Pop Songs charts , respectively . On November 18 , 2004 , " Everytime " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) selling 500 @,@ 000 copies . As of July 2010 , " Everytime " has sold 469 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the United States .
In Canada , the song peaked at number two on the Canadian Singles Chart .
In Australia , " Everytime " debuted at the top of the ARIA Singles Chart on the week of June 28 , 2004 , becoming the " Highest Debut " . It received a gold certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments over 35 @,@ 000 units .
In the United Kingdom , the single debuted at the top of the UK Singles Chart on June 20 , 2004 ― for the week ending date June 26 , 2004 ― becoming her second consecutive number one single in Britain from In the Zone , following Toxic in March 2004 . According to The Official Charts Company , the song has sold 270 @,@ 000 copies in Britain .
" Everytime " was also successful elsewhere in Europe , reaching the top of the charts in Hungary and Ireland , peaking at number two in France , number three in Sweden and reaching top five positions in Austria , Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Czech Republic , Denmark , Germany , Norway and the Netherlands .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and release = = =
On March 9 , 2004 , the treatment of the music video for " Everytime " was released online . It portrayed Spears as a star hounded by photographers , who eventually kills herself by taking prescription drugs and drowning in a bathtub . The suicide scene was perceived to be Spears 's response to the rumors that suggested she suffered from a mental disorder . After news of the concept broke , it was criticized by a number of organizations in the United Kingdom and the United States . Director of child protection charity Kidscape , Michele Elliott , said , " This is absolutely outrageous , totally irresponsible , completely stupid . If even one child follows her lead she will surely be held responsible . What is she thinking of ? " . She also commented the release of the music video could cause an increase in suicide rates , comparing it to the death of actress Marilyn Monroe in August 1962 . MTV News ' " You Tell Us " also received numerous letters from upset viewers , who criticized Spears saying they perceived the ending was a glamorization of suicide . On March 12 , 2004 , Spears announced through Jive Records she had removed the concept , " due to the potential for a fictional accidental occurrence to be misinterpreted as a suicide " . She also clarified it was not her intent to present suicide in any sort of positive light .
The video was directed by David LaChapelle and shot on March 13 and 14 , 2004 , in Los Angeles . The lighting was described as " saturated , but low and naturalistic " to give the video a cinematic feel , referencing the 1995 film Leaving Las Vegas . It premiered on TRL on April 12 , 2004 . Spears called the show and explained the video explored reincarnation . She added , " It 's more like a movie . It 's different than anything I 've ever done . It 's dark , and it shows me in a different light . Of course , I 'm going to go back and do dance videos , but I wanted to be inspired and challenged . " An alternate version of the video which features Spears singing in the white hallway scenes was released on the 2004 DVD Greatest Hits : My Prerogative .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with an aerial shot of Las Vegas , Nevada , showing the Palms Casino Resort and continues with a shot of a marquee hotel that reads " Britney Spears Live From Miami The Onyx Hotel Tour Las Vegas " , with a picture of Spears holding a leather strap and referencing her Showtime concert special from Miami . Christian author Eva Marie Everson compared the image to " Madonna doing her own impersonation of Marilyn Monroe . " Spears and her boyfriend ( played by Stephen Dorff ) are arriving to the hotel inside a limousine . They sit apart from each other , staring out separate windows . Spears wears a Birmingham Barons cap in these scenes . The boyfriend is talking on his cell phone , and when she attempts to touch him , he pushes her away . The entrance is full of fans and paparazzi taking pictures . When they leave the car , fans and paparazzi alike act in an extreme way and fights break in the crowd . While her bodyguards try to protect her , her boyfriend throws magazines at the paparazzi . Stephanie Zacharek of The New York Times compared the shots of the paparazzi with the Jews in the 2004 film The Passion of the Christ . During this scene , she gets hit in the head with a camera , and unknowingly gets a wound on her head , but keeps walking .
Inside their hotel room , Spears and her boyfriend start screaming at each other . He throws a vase at the wall while Spears goes into the bathroom , hurling something at the mirror . She begins to fill the bathtub and remove her clothes . After this , the video includes intercut scenes of a close @-@ up of Spears singing in a white shirt in front of a bright white light . As she lies in the bathtub , a red string , a custom associated with Kabbalah is seen in her wrist . She touches her head and looks at her hand , realizing she is bleeding from the wound . According to Jennifer Vineyard of MTV , the blood in her hand is stigmata . She loses consciousness in the bathtub and drowns . Shortly after , her boyfriend finds her and tries to resuscitate her . Meanwhile , it is revealed that in the close @-@ up scenes Spears is actually inside a hospital hallway . The video continues with scenes of her being carried into an ambulance and surrounded by photographers , as well as scenes of her being resuscitated by doctors in a hospital bed . The ghost of Spears in a white shirt , watches herself in the bed and walks into the next room , where a baby girl is born . Spears is then seen running away from the camera into the light . The music video ends with her rising from under the water , resting her head and smiling , suggesting the whole scene of her death was a dream or a morbid fantasy .
= = = Reception = = =
Eva Marie Everson wrote that the music video showed the reality " behind the glitz and the glamour " . Dominic Fox commented , " Even in its bowdlerised form , the ' Everytime ' video presents a moment of existential indecision , a fugue of suicidal ideation in which the singer fantasises about her own death " . While reviewing the music video for her 2009 single " If U Seek Amy " , James Montgomery of MTV called the music video for " Everytime " " underrated " . Rolling Stone in their 2009 article " Britney Spears : The Complete Video Guide " , called it " horribly prophetic and depressing " and added that the clip foreshadowed Spears 's struggles with fame and mental instability during 2007 and 2008 .
= = Live performances = =
On October 18 , 2003 , " Everytime " was performed by Spears during the twenty @-@ ninth season of the American comedy show Saturday Night Live . She also performed it at Britney Spears : In the Zone , a concert special that aired in ABC on November 17 , 2003 . " Everytime " was also performed by Spears at 2004 's The Onyx Hotel Tour . Before the tour began , Spears said that it was one of the songs she was looking most forward to perform , explaining , " I really think I 'm talking to everyone when I perform ' Everytime ' " . It was the first song of the third act , titled " Mystic Garden " . It began with a video interlude in which Spears walked into a garden wearing a rainbow @-@ colored dress and sat in a flower @-@ covered piano . As the video ended , it was revealed that she was sitting onstage in a similar setting . She started the performance talking to the audience about the media coverage of her personal life . She played the piano and sang until the second verse , where she stood up and walked to the center of the stage to continue the performance . Neil Strauss of The New York Times commented , " It was the only song that she appeared to sing unaccompanied by backing tapes " . Kelefa Sanneh of Blender called it the best performance of the show .
" Everytime " was also performed by Spears at the British music chart show Top of the Pops on August 5 , 2004 . Spears also performed the song at 2009 's The Circus Starring Britney Spears . " Everytime " was the only song that was not included in the released setlist , and was added as a surprise . It was the sixth and last song of the second act , titled " House of Fun ( Anything Goes ) " . After a Bollywood @-@ inspired performance of " Me Against the Music " from In the Zone , Spears sat on a giant umbrella in the middle of the stage and briefly talked to the audience . She performed " Everytime " while the umbrella was lifted into the air . Spears included " Everytime " on the setlist for her Las Vegas residency , Britney : Piece of Me . After a brief interlude , descended from the ceilling as a " giant , white @-@ winged angel " . After a snow shower of confetti , the song transitioned into " ... Baby One More Time " .
= = Cover versions = =
" Everytime " was covered by Glen Hansard of Irish band The Frames . It was recorded during a live show at Today FM and released in the 2004 covers compilation , Even Better than the Real Thing Vol . 2 . It was also covered in Mandarin by Taiwanese girl group S.H.E and released on their studio album Encore ( 2004 ) . Their version was retitled " Bié Shuō Duìbùqǐ " ( 別說對不起 " Don 't Say Sorry " ) . American pop rock singer Sally Maer also covered " Everytime " to release it on her studio album Bed of Roses ( 2008 ) . " Everytime " was used during the 2009 Irish production of the 1896 play The Seagull . Jackie Evancho covered the song for her debut album Prelude to a Dream ( 2009 ) . On August 19 , 2010 , her version debuted at number three on Billboard 's Classical Digital Songs chart . British singer Cher Lloyd covered the song live on The X Factor in the United Kingdom in 2010 . On July 27 , 2012 , Kelly Clarkson covered the song during the Las Vegas stop of her summer tour , as an audience request . Clarkson had a harpist accompany her during the performance , and told the audience , " This song is one of my favourite songs . [ ... ] I actually prefer [ Spears 's ] version better , because it just sounds really sad , but I 'm going to try and do it . " Spears approved of Clarkson 's cover via her Twitter account , calling it " beautiful " . " Everytime " was also covered on the American series Glee episode " Britney 2 @.@ 0 " by the character Marley Rose ( played by Melissa Benoist ) ; her rendition was rated a B by TVLine 's Michael Slezak . In July 2016 , the song was covered by YouTube personality Trisha Paytas .
" Everytime " was also used in the 2013 American film Spring Breakers , directed by Harmony Korine . The scene begins with the characters of Candy ( Vanessa Hudgens ) , Brittany ( Ashley Benson ) and Cotty ( Rachel Korine ) standing in the backyard of the character of Alien ( James Franco ) , who sits at a white grand piano . The girls are wearing My Little Pony ski masks , sparkly pink tiger bathing suits , sweatpants with " DTF " on the rear and shotguns in their hands . They ask Alien to " Play us something sweet . Something uplifting , Something fucking inspiring , " to which he responds " One of the greatest singers of all time , and an angel if there ever was one on this earth " , before starting to sing " Everytime " . As the song transitions from Alien 's vocals to Spears 's original version we are shown a montage of the girls and Alien robbing other spring breakers at gunpoint . Harmony Korine said about the song ,
" I like her music ! I think it ’ s like perfect pop music . That song " Everytime " — I was always taken by that song . It has this real kind of beauty and airlessness and this haunting kind of morose lullaby effect and underneath it there ’ s some type of hardcore aggression and menace that was really connected to the film in the way that the film deals with the culture of surfaces , this candy @-@ coated neon haze reality . Underneath it , there ’ s this subtext and feeling of this kind of darkness . It was a connection I felt . "
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Britney Spears – lead vocals , songwriting , production
Annet Artani – songwriting
Guy Sigsworth – co @-@ production , all instruments
Sean McGhee – mixing , engineering , editing
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= The Book Job =
" The Book Job " is the sixth episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 20 , 2011 . In the episode , Lisa is shocked to discover that all popular young @-@ adult novels are conceived by book publishing executives through use of market research and ghostwriters to make money . When Homer hears this , he decides to get rich by starting work on a fantasy novel about trolls together with Bart , Principal Skinner , Patty , Moe , Professor Frink , and author Neil Gaiman . Lisa , who does not think writing should be about money , decides to write a novel on her own . However , she is constantly distracted by other things and fails to make any progress on it . After selling their novel to a book publishing executive , the group members later discover that the executive has replaced the trolls with vampires because vampires are more popular . In an attempt to replace this new version with the old before the novel goes into print , they break into the book publishing company 's headquarters .
The episode was written by freelancer Dan Vebber , though The Simpsons executive producer Matt Selman received the idea for it . His inspiration came from a magazine article he had read about the book packaging company Alloy Entertainment and its use of ghostwriters . In addition , the episode was inspired by the Ocean 's Trilogy , a film series about a group of criminals that heist casinos , and features many elements from it . Actor Andy García , who appears in that series as a casino owner , guest starred in " The Book Job " as the book publishing executive . It also contains several references to and parodies of the Harry Potter and Twilight series , aimed at young adults . The episode was seen by approximately 5 @.@ 77 million people during its original airing and since then it has received positive reviews from television critics , particularly for its satire of the book publishing industry and for its references to the Ocean 's Trilogy . Gaiman , who provided his voice for the episode , has also been praised for his performance .
= = Plot = =
After watching a dinosaur show at an arena in Springfield , Lisa discovers one of her favorite authors , T. R. Francis , working there in a dinosaur costume . The woman reveals to a shocked Lisa that she is just an actress the book publishing company used for the jacket photos , and that T. R. Francis is a complete fabrication . She further reveals that all popular young @-@ adult book series are conceived by book publishing executives through market research and the use of multiple ghostwriters , just to make more money . When Homer finds out about this , he decides to get rich by group @-@ writing a fantasy novel . He recruits a team consisting of Bart , Principal Skinner , Patty Bouvier , Moe Szyslak , and Professor Frink , all of whom have personal attributes or experiences that will help with writing the book : Skinner knows what teens like , Patty is a fantasy fiction fan , Moe has already published some children 's books , and Frink has a computer . Lisa is shocked to find that they are group @-@ writing a book , as she knows the only reason one would do that is to gain money . To show that what they are doing is wrong , she decides to write a novel on her own with a personal story that readers will connect with .
For their novel , the group members decide to take the typical elements from already popular young @-@ adult series . Homer initially suggest that they write about vampires , but Patty notes the fact that there are already so many popular novels out there in that genre . They therefore decide to write about an orphan troll who goes to a magic school located under the Brooklyn Bridge . Fantasy author Neil Gaiman overhears the team talking and offers his help writing the novel ; although they allow him to join , he is only given the task of bringing food for them while they are writing . The group members quickly finish the novel , which they name The Troll Twins of Underbridge Academy , and meet up with a book publishing executive for TweenLit Inc. at a book fair . Although he likes the novel , he dismisses it because it lacks a fake author with an inspirational back story . Meanwhile , Lisa is having a hard time making progress on her book because of constant distractions and quickly becomes saddened after realizing that she will never have her name on a novel . However , Homer approaches her and offers her to be the fake author of The Troll Twins of Underbridge Academy . Lisa admits defeat and takes the offer . They and the rest of the crew then approach the book publishing executive again , and he decides to buy the novel for a million dollars . As the team is celebrating at Moe 's Tavern , they receive an advance copy . They are shocked to discover that the publisher has replaced the troll @-@ aspects of the story with vampires , renaming the novel The Vampire Twins of Transylvania Prep , because market testing showed that vampires are more popular than trolls .
The team breaks into TweenLit Inc . ' s headquarters , planning to replace the new novel with their old version before the mass printing begins . However , when they reach the printing room , the book publishing executive shows up with a group of armed men . He reveals that someone tipped him off about their plan , just as Lisa appears letting them know it was her because she wants her name on a book that will actually be popular . The executive types in the password in the printing machine and gives Lisa the honor of inserting the USB flash drive with the novel on it . Later , when the saddened members of the group @-@ writing team are walking away from the headquarters , they pass a book store and discover that The Troll Twins of Underbridge Academy is being put on the stands . Lisa shows up again , letting them know that she only pretended to betray them so that the publisher would type in the password . When Lisa gave Bart a hug , she replaced the executive 's flash drive with Bart 's flash drive that contained the troll novel . As a result , she was able to put the original version into print . Lisa is happy to know that her name is finally on a book ; however , when she opens a copy , she discovers that Gaiman is listed as the author , not her . It turns out that there were three flash drives and that Gaiman heisted his way to the best @-@ seller list " once again " despite being illiterate . During the credits , it is revealed that Moe was aware of Gaiman 's scheme , and was in fact allied with him from the start . The two celebrate with a toast at Shelbyville Beach , but Gaiman double @-@ crosses Moe and poisons his drink .
= = Production = =
Freelance writer Dan Vebber , who is known for his work on the animated series Futurama , wrote " The Book Job " with contributions from the staff writers on The Simpsons . Matt Selman , an executive producer and writer on The Simpsons , was the one who conceived of the idea behind the episode . He was inspired by an article in The New Yorker about the book packaging company Alloy Entertainment — the publisher of series such as Gossip Girl and Vampire Diaries — and the company 's use of ghostwriters . According to Selman , the article " was all about how these executives take market research and come up with the ideas for these books and farms them out and slaps the name of fake writers on them and fabricates backgrounds for these authors who don ’ t exist . We took that trend and kind of blew it up and shoved it in the face of Lisa " .
Selman told the Los Angeles Times that the episode praises collaborative writing , and answers the question of whether or not writing in a group is as valuable as writing alone . He commented : " I 've been with The Simpsons for 15 years and everyday [ sic ] it 's been pretty much writing as a team . We ’ re proud of what we 've done even if it 's not the traditional idea of one writer sitting down with a passion and a vision . In a strange way this episode ends up as a defense of writing in a group and celebrating the way it makes you feel connected to the work and to the people in that group in ways you didn 't expect . It 's all about a writers room ... and you know , in the story , Homer 's cynical heist team does end up being incredibly productive . " The episode features several references to literature and parodies several popular young @-@ adult book series , particularly Twilight , a vampire @-@ themed fantasy book series by Stephenie Meyer that has received much popularity . While chasing T. R. Francis through the stadium where the dinosaur show took place , Lisa passes a bathroom in which a group of dinosaurs are smoking in reference to a Far Side comic of dinosaurs smoking . The dinosaur show itself , Sitting with Dinosaurs , is based on the live Walking with Dinosaurs show .
In addition to literature , the episode spoofs the Ocean 's Trilogy , a film series about a group of criminals that heist casinos . Selman revealed to Entertainment Weekly in January 2011 that the episode is essentially about " Homer and some people in Springfield hav [ ing ] to perpetrate an Ocean 's Eleven – style heist in the non @-@ Ocean 's Eleven world of children ’ s fantasy book publishing . " Throughout the episode as the story progresses , title cards with titles such as " The Crew " , " The Setup " , " The Heist " , and " The Payday " appear . During these title cards , which last for about three to four seconds each , a version of the song " Gritty Shaker " by David Holmes is heard . This song was played for approximately three minutes during a scene in Ocean 's Eleven . On his blog , The Simpsons music editor Chris Ledesma wrote that Selman wanted " Gritty Shaker " to be played repeatedly throughout " The Book Job " because he erroneously thought that was how it was done in film . During the heist of TweenLit Inc . ' s headquarters , the screen splits in several ways , showing the different team members making their way to the printing room . According to Selman , " the set @-@ up and feel [ of the episode ] is a real creative departure for us . It 's sort of a heist movie where the heist is writing a book but when that kicks in , there 's a giant stylistic leap . It 's also a little sillier , a little more stylistic than most episodes . We 're coming up on 500 episodes , but really , this is the kind of episode a show would only do if hadn 't already had a couple hundred episodes . " Cuban American actor Andy García , who appeared in the Ocean 's Trilogy as casino owner Terry Benedict , guest starred in " The Book Job " as the book publishing executive . At the end of January 2011 , the recording of his performance took place .
English fantasy author Neil Gaiman guest starred in the episode as himself , helping Homer and the others write the book . He recorded his lines in January 2011 in Los Angeles , California under the direction of Selman . Gaiman has said that when he first agreed to guest star , he assumed he would only be getting a brief appearance , popping up for a few seconds . He told the press that " when they actually sent me the script and I started to read it and discovered that I was in it all the way through and was actually having to act and that stuff happened , it was enormously fun . " Gaiman also noted that he does not think the episode gives an entirely accurate portrayal of him , commenting : " Truthfully , the real @-@ life me almost never hangs around in Barnes & Noble @-@ like bookstores waiting to find groups of local townsfolk who 've decided to write pseudonymous young adult fantasy series , offering my services . And even if I did , I probably wouldn 't be doing the catering . " On his official Tumblr page , Gaiman noted that while he did not have much input on the story , he got to improvise while recording and gave suggestions on how to make his dialogue sound as close to something he might actually say in real life .
= = Release and reception = =
" The Book Job " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 20 , 2011 . It was watched by approximately 5 @.@ 77 million people during this broadcast . In the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , the episode received a 2 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating ( down twenty @-@ one percent from the previous episode ) and a seven percent share . The Simpsons became the second highest @-@ rated program in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night in terms of total viewers and in the 18 – 49 demographic , finishing with a higher rating than Allen Gregory and American Dad ! , but a lower rating than Family Guy .
Since airing , " The Book Job " has received positive reviews from critics . Josh Harrison of Ology named it one the season 's strongest episodes so far , praising it for featuring " a brilliant appearance by author [ ... ] Neil Gaiman and a slick Ocean 's Eleven aesthetic " . AOL TV 's Jason Hughes applauded the uncommon structuring of the episode , writing : " So why was this episode so much more fun than usual ? We think it has to do with the format and the playfulness in the presentation . After two decades , it pays to shake things up and give us a completely fresh look at the show . Even the team created some new combinations from the massive Springfield citizenry . Maybe they should consider doing that more often . " Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club praised the episode as " entertaining and successful " , commenting that " element of surprise is the key here , and The Simpsons did something quite surprising tonight , combining a parody of heist movies with a sharp satirical look at book mill publishing . With the successful guest appearances by both Neil Gaiman and Andy García , this episode delivered an increasingly rare treat for Simpsons fans : a well @-@ written and well @-@ acted half @-@ hour that gets better and funnier as it goes . " Childs did , however , criticize the " split screens of various heist @-@ style shenanigans " as the " least amusing part of the episode . " He noted that while " the rest of the gags have some thrust to them , [ these ] cross the line into cute pandering to the audience . Fortunately , they are over in about ten seconds . "
Michael Cavna of The Washington Post wrote positively about the episode , commenting that from " the one @-@ liners of the episode ’ s dinosaur @-@ show opening ( reminding that a prime @-@ time ' fossil ' like The Simpsons still has sharp comedic bicuspids ) to the final trick up ' Neil Gaiman ’ s ' dark sleeve , ' The Book Job ' is worthy of the show ’ s DVD wall of fame . " Cavna particularly praised the episode for being based on real @-@ life publishing , noting how Selman drew inspiration from the article on Alloy Entertainment . He also commended the parodies of the Ocean 's Trilogy and Far Side , and Gaimain 's guest appearance . Cavna wrote that " Gaiman ’ s role is so much more than mere walk @-@ on . Like the show ’ s very best guest voice performances , here Gaiman is called upon to lend true dimension to the episode . " Similarly , Cyriaque Lamar of io9 wrote that the episode " did justice to Gaiman 's guest appearance ... in that it made the author look like a total nutcase . " He added that " Gaiman gamely depicts himself as a goony spaniel . Sure , Andy García guest @-@ starred too , but Gaiman stole the show . " In addition , Lamar praised the episode for several of its gags , including the Far Side reference and the disclosures of Patty being able to speak fluent Dothraki and Twilight originally revolving around golems .
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= Jon Weber ( baseball ) =
Jonathan Brian Weber ( born January 20 , 1978 in Lakewood , California ) is a professional baseball player . An outfielder , Weber bats and throws left @-@ handed . Considered a journeyman , Weber has played professionally in minor league baseball since 1999 , without playing in Major League Baseball .
Weber played collegiately for Los Angeles Harbor College and Texas Tech University before embarking on his professional career in 1999 . As a professional , he played in the minor league organizations of the Cincinnati Reds , Oakland Athletics , Los Angeles Dodgers , Arizona Diamondbacks , Tampa Bay Rays , New York Yankees , and Detroit Tigers . He has also played independent league baseball in the unaffiliated Frontier League , Northern League , and American Association of Independent Professional Baseball . Weber has competed for the United States national baseball team , winning the gold medal at the 2009 Baseball World Cup .
= = Amateur career = =
Weber was born in Lakewood , California . He attended Lakewood High School in Lakewood , California . There , he played for the school 's baseball team , known as the Lancers , graduating in 1996 .
Out of high school , Weber was selected by the Oakland Athletics in the thirty @-@ first round of the 1997 Major League Baseball Draft . However , he chose not to sign with the Athletics , opting to attend college . He began his college baseball career at Los Angeles Harbor College ( LAHC ) of the National Junior College Athletic Association ( NJCAA ) in 1997 . At LAHC , Weber was a NJCAA All @-@ America selection .
In 1999 , Weber transferred to Texas Tech University to compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association 's ( NCAA ) Division I during his junior year . At Texas Tech , he played college baseball for the Texas Tech Red Raiders baseball team in the Big 12 Conference . Weber led the conference with eight triples , setting a Red Raiders team record in the process . He was named the Collegiate Baseball National Player of the Week and Big 12 Baseball Player / Pitcher of the Week for the week of February 1 , 1999 . Weber became the fourth player in Texas Tech history to hit for the cycle .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 1999 – 2004 = = =
Weber signed his first professional contract with the Cincinnati Reds as a non @-@ drafted free agent in August 1999 . He made his professional debut that summer with the Rookie @-@ level Billings Mustangs of the Pioneer League , recording a .238 batting average , .365 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) and .500 slugging percentage ( SLG ) with five home runs and 17 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 22 games . The next year , he hit .221 with a .333 OBP and .333 SLG with six home runs and 34 RBIs in 108 games for the Single @-@ A Clinton LumberKings of the Midwest League . However , Weber was released by the Reds after the season . He felt the Reds " treated [ him ] like a non @-@ prospect " .
In 2001 , Weber played independent league baseball for the Canton Crocodiles of the Frontier League . He batted .307 with a .382 OBP , .559 SLG , 18 home runs and 69 RBI in 84 games , being named to the Frontier League post @-@ season All @-@ Star team . He led the Frontier League in home runs and triples . Canton sold Weber to the Fargo @-@ Moorhead Redhawks of the independent Northern League in 2002 , where he hit .296 with a .351 OBP , .501 SLG , and 30 doubles for Fargo @-@ Morehead , placing fourth in the league in doubles . Back with Fargo @-@ Moorhead to open 2003 , he batted .309 with a .408 OBP and .520 SLG through 52 games , as the team went on to win the Northern League championship .
However , in July 2003 , the Oakland Athletics organization purchased Weber 's contract from Fargo @-@ Moorhead . With the Athletics organization , Weber hit .361 with a .394 OBP , .626 SLG , seven home runs and 48 RBIs in 35 games with the Single @-@ A Advanced Modesto A 's of the California League for the remainder of that year . In 2004 , he hit .280 with a .356 OBP , .458 SLG , 15 home runs and 68 RBI in 111 games with the Double @-@ A Midland RockHounds of the Texas League , and hit .341 with a .383 OBP , .568 SLG , two home runs and 12 RBI in 12 games with the Triple @-@ A Sacramento River Cats of the Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) , helping the River Cats win the PCL championship .
= = = 2005 – 2009 = = =
Weber signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers after the 2004 season as a free agent . In 2005 he hit .300 with a .369 OBP , .456 SLG , 11 home runs and 68 RBIs in 117 games with the Double @-@ A Jacksonville Suns of the Southern League . He was ninth in the league in batting average and led the league 's outfielders in assists ( 19 ) and double plays ( 7 ) . With Weber , Jacksonville won the Southern League championship , his third year in a row as a member of a championship @-@ winning team . During the season , Weber received a 15 @-@ game suspension for violating minor league baseball 's drug policy . Weber , who failed a drug test administered in August 2004 , said he had taken thermogin , a supplement that contained the banned substance ephedrine , and denied taking steroids .
After starting the 2006 season with the Triple @-@ A Las Vegas Stars of the PCL , where he hit .258 with a .338 OBP , .352 SLG , 2 home runs and 31 RBI in 82 games , he was released . He signed with the Arizona Diamondbacks , where he played for the Triple @-@ A Tucson Sidewinders of the PCL , hitting .321 with a .374 OBP , .518 SLG , 5 home runs and 27 RBI in 46 games . The Sidewinders won the PCL championship , Weber 's fourth consecutive league championship .
Weber was released by the Diamondbacks during 2007 spring training . He signed with Fargo @-@ Moorhead . After 16 games there , batting .283 with a .371 OBP and .417 SLG , his contract was sold to the Texas Rangers on June 4 , 2007 . The Rangers assigned him to the Single @-@ A Advanced Bakersfield Blaze of the California League , where he hit .356 with a .416 OBP , .550 SLG , five home runs , 14 doubles , 25 RBI , and 34 runs scored in 37 games . After spending a month with the Rangers organization , on July 16 , the Tampa Bay Rays purchased his contract from the Rangers and assigned him to the Triple @-@ A Durham Bulls of the International League . There , he hit .265 with three home runs and 21 RBIs in 39 games . Weber re @-@ signed with the Rays on a minor league contract after the 2007 season , and batted .265 with a .334 OBP , .447 SLG , 13 home runs for the Bulls in 2008 .
Weber returned to the Rays ' organization in 2009 , almost making the Rays ' opening day roster until Matt Joyce recovered from an injury . Weber returned to Durham , where he hit .302 with 14 home runs in 117 games , and led the 2009 International League with 46 doubles and finished ninth in batting average . He was named to the International League post @-@ season All @-@ Star team .
= = = 2010 – present = = =
After the 2009 season , Weber signed with the New York Yankees organization and was invited to spring training for the 2010 season . Weber signed with the Yankees because they gave him an opportunity to compete for a job in the major leagues , while other teams told him they viewed him exclusively as a minor leaguer . In spring training , Weber led the Yankees with a .483 batting average and was presented with the James P. Dawson Award , given annually to the best rookie in the Yankees ' camp . Manager Joe Girardi indicated that Weber could beat out Marcus Thames and Rule 5 draft pick Jamie Hoffmann for the fifth outfielder position on the Yankees 25 man roster , but ultimately the Yankees chose Thames , as the Yankees preferred a right @-@ handed batter to complement their left @-@ handed hitting outfielders , and assigned Weber to the Triple @-@ A Scranton Wilkes @-@ Barre Yankees . He hit .258 with no home runs in 47 games with Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre before being released by the Yankees on June 3 . He signed with the Detroit Tigers , reporting to the Triple @-@ A Toledo Mud Hens of the International League . He hit .256 with a .310 OBP and .372 SLG in 21 games for Toledo . He announced his retirement on July 15 , 2010 .
On July 19 , 2010 , Major League Baseball announced Weber 's 100 @-@ game suspension for having failed a drug test for the third time . The drug was identified as a " drug of abuse " rather than a performance @-@ enhancing drug .
Despite announcing his retirement earlier in the year , Weber continued his career in leagues unaffiliated with MLB . He played winter league baseball in the winter of 2010 @-@ 11 in the Dominican Republic , then signed with the Winnipeg Goldeyes of the American Association of Independent Professional Baseball in June when they had an injury to outfielder Jonathan Wyatt . Weber was named the team 's most valuable player . Weber returned to Winnipeg for the 2012 season . After batting .281 in 78 games , the Goldeyes waived Weber , giving him his unconditional release .
= = International career = =
Weber joined the United States national baseball team for the 2009 Baseball World Cup held in Nettuno , Italy in September 2009 , helping the United States win the gold medal . Weber made the Cup 's All @-@ Tournament Team .
Weber has routinely played winter league baseball . Following the 2006 season , Weber played for the Naranjeros de Hermosillo of the Mexican Pacific League ( MPL ) , appearing in the 2006 Caribbean Series . He played for the Cañeros de Los Mochis of the MPL after the 2007 season . With the Venados de Mazatlán of the MPL after the 2008 season , Weber reached the 2009 Caribbean Series . In the 2011 @-@ 12 offseason , he played for the Gigantes del Cibao of the Dominican Winter League .
= = Personal life = =
Weber is married . He and his wife have two children . Weber works in construction during his time away from baseball to help make ends meet .
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= Rose and Bernard Nadler =
Rose and Bernard Nadler are fictional characters on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) television series Lost , played by L. Scott Caldwell and Sam Anderson respectively . Rose and Bernard visit a faith healer on their honeymoon in Australia , in the hope of healing Rose 's cancer . When Bernard visits the restroom during the return flight , the plane splits in half , with the two halves crashing on different parts of an island in the South Pacific . The couple reunite midway through season two , and Rose reveals the Island has healed her . After time traveling in season five they separate from the remaining survivors and build a cabin near the ocean to live in .
Originally , the story of a woman separated from her husband when the plane crashes was going to be used for Kate , but when Kate 's role in the series changed the producers kept that story for Rose . Much of the couple 's story prior to the plane crash was based on the events of Caldwell 's life ; she married her husband even though he was dying . Due to Caldwell and Anderson having other acting commitments , the writers found it difficult finding time when both actors could appear together in the show , resulting in neither character featuring in most of season three . Critics reacted positively to the couple , often hoping they would appear more frequently , and both actors were praised for their work .
= = Arc = =
Most of the couple 's backstory is told in flashbacks during " S.O.S. " . Rose Henderson , an office manager , meets dentist Bernard Nadler when her car becomes stuck in a snowbank one night . After dating for five months , Bernard proposes to her , which prompts Rose to reveal she has cancer that had gone into remission but has now returned ; she only has a year left to live . The two marry regardless , and on their honeymoon in Australia , Bernard takes Rose to a faith healer named Isaac ( Wayne Pygram ) . Despite her initial protests , she agrees to see him . Isaac is unable to heal her , but Rose tells Bernard that he was able to , in order to stop him from wasting any more of the time that they have left together . During a flashback in " Pilot : Part 1 " , Rose is seated alone across from Jack Shepherd on Oceanic Flight 815 , after Bernard leaves to use one of the restrooms , when the plane suddenly hits turbulence . It splits apart in midair , with the fuselage and tail @-@ section landing at opposite ends of an island .
Upon impact , Rose lies unconscious on the beach with the fuselage survivors , but is eventually revived by Jack ( Matthew Fox ) . During the first few days on the Island , Rose is in shock , and keeps herself away from the other survivors , attracting the attention of Jack . While Jack believes that Bernard is dead , Rose is adamant that he is still alive . After Claire ( Emilie de Ravin ) is kidnapped by the Island 's inhabitants ( known to the survivors as the Others ) , Rose comforts Charlie ( Dominic Monaghan ) , who believes it is not his fault and encourages him not to lose hope and prays for him .
During season two it is shown that Bernard lands with the tail @-@ section survivors on the other side of the Island . After the Others invade their camp , Bernard finds himself as one of the few remaining survivors . They move inland , and discover an abandoned research station , where they find an assortment of items , including a radio . Bernard uses the radio , and makes contact with Boone ( Ian Somerhalder ) , one of the fuselage survivors , but Ana Lucia ( Michelle Rodriguez ) switches it off , dismissing it as a trick by the Others . After three of the fuselage survivors , Michael ( Harold Perrineau ) , Jin ( Daniel Dae Kim ) and Sawyer ( Josh Holloway ) meet the tail @-@ section survivors , they reassure Bernard that Rose is alive and well . They all set off to migrate with the fuselage survivors . Near the fuselage survivors ' beach camp , Ana Lucia accidentally kills one of the fuselage survivors , Shannon ( Maggie Grace ) , she refuses to allow anyone to go any further , but they eventually press on without her ; Bernard is then reunited with Rose . In " S.O.S. " , Bernard concocts a plan to create a giant S.O.S. sign on the beach , but Rose discourages him from spreading false hope among the survivors , and refuses to take part . She confesses that she was not healed in Australia , but has now been healed by the Island , so fears that her illness will return should she leave the Island .
In the twenty @-@ first episode of season three , " Greatest Hits " , Jack announces his plan to rig their tents with dynamite to prevent the Others from kidnapping anyone else , so Rose and Bernard assist by tying lengths of wire together . Rose grows concerned when Bernard volunteers to stay behind and detonate the dynamite . She reluctantly allows him to take part , but grows angry at Jack when the plan backfires later that night , and Bernard is captured by the Others . He is soon rescued by Sawyer , Hurley ( Jorge Garcia ) and Juliet ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) , who kill the Others holding him hostage . Rose watches on as Jack contacts a nearby freighter that he believes has come to rescue them . In the season four premiere " The Beginning of the End " , the survivors reunite in the jungle , where Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) proposes they hide from the freighter crew , as he believes them to be dangerous . Bernard allows Rose to decide whether to follow Jack or Locke , and she chooses Jack . When the people who arrived from the freighter use morse code to contact the boat , Bernard , who also knows morse code , reveals that they are lying about the message and that there is in fact no one coming to rescue them . Jack falls ill and needs his appendix removed , so Rose and Bernard help with the operation : Rose prepares the table and Bernard helps to knock him out , but Rose is confused to why Jack fell ill when the island normally heals sickness .
After Ben ( Michael Emerson ) , the leader of the Others , causes the Island to move , Rose and Bernard are amongst the survivors who begin to jump to different periods of time , but they eventually lose the others . After three years , Sawyer , Juliet and Kate ( Evangeline Lilly ) encounter Rose and Bernard , and the couple explains they have built a cabin and retired , purposely avoiding contact with the remaining survivors because they wish to live their remaining days in peace . Later , they rescue Desmond ( Henry Ian Cusick ) from a well , and are threatened by the Man in Black ( Terry O 'Quinn ) . Desmond and the Man in Black reach an agreement and leave Rose and Bernard alone . In season six , the afterlife experienced by the characters is shown , in which Rose is the supervisor at a temp agency while Bernard is once again working as a dentist . In the series finale , Rose and Bernard reunite with the other survivors from the plane in a church , where they prepare to " move on " together .
= = Development = =
In the initial plans for the series , Jack was going to die midway through the first episode , and then Kate would emerge as the leader of the survivors . Kate 's original backstory was that her husband went to the bathroom shortly before the plane split in mid @-@ air , and on the Island she would remain adamant that he was alive . However the Lost producers changed their minds about Jack 's death ; they decided he would become the leader and created a new backstory for Kate . They still liked Kate 's original backstory , so they used it for Rose . As Rose is black , the producers thought the audience would expect Rose 's husband to also be black , and decided to make Bernard a white character to surprise the audience . They expected the audience to assume Mr. Eko ( Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje ) , the only black man in the tail @-@ section survivors , was Bernard . L. Scott Caldwell , Rose 's portrayer , was unaware of their plans and had been picturing her own husband , a tall black man , when playing the scenes . When she found out Bernard was white she was surprised , but not shocked . Sam Anderson was unaware of which character he would be playing when he was cast in Lost . During his audition he performed a scene where a man from the plane crash was informed his daughter was still alive , which he noted covered a similar emotion to the scene in which Bernard is told Rose is still alive . Anderson and Caldwell were given a rough idea of how much they would appear at the start of the seasons .
Caldwell and Anderson deliberately did not meet before their reunion scene in " Collision " as they wanted it to be as authentic as possible . In the following episode , Hurley comments that he did not expect Rose 's husband to be white , before Jack quickly changes the subject . The producers felt it was important to address that they are an interracial couple , and that Hurley was saying what the audience would be thinking . Caldwell agreed with them and thought it would be odd if the issue was not addressed . Anderson also was glad that Hurley brought up the issue , and liked that Jack did not pay any attention .
The couple 's backstory was originally planned to be told during season three ; however during season two , the Lost writers wanted to tell the story of one of the background characters of the show . As Rose and Bernard are the most prominent of these characters , and fans were keen to learn their backstory , they decided to do an episode focusing on the couple . Caldwell 's husband was going through health problems during the shooting of the first season , which was the inspiration for Rose 's flashbacks in " S.O.S. " . Following this episode , Caldwell did not think Rose 's healing had anything to do with the Island and stated " If she is cured , it 's because she 's willed it herself " .
Other than reused footage from " Pilot : Part 1 " in " Exposé " , Rose and Bernard do not feature in season three until the twenty @-@ first episode " Greatest Hits " . The writers cited Caldwell and Anderson 's other projects as a reason for their absence . Additionally , it was feared that fans would complain if the couple appeared when many actors with star billing had received limited screentime in the early third season . The writers did not want to have the couple on the show to just stand in the background ; they wanted to have Rose and Bernard in the show with interesting storylines . Anderson found that although he normally had more fun portraying villains , playing Bernard was " one of the greatest rides of [ his ] life " .
= = Reception = =
Throughout the series Rose and Bernard have been well received . Chris Carabott from IGN found the conversation where Rose insists Bernard is alive " touching " . TV Guide 's Matt Roush called Caldwell " terrific " , and hoped the producers would use her again in the future . Entertainment Weekly 's Michael Slezak was surprised when he discovered Bernard is white , although he was unsure why . Mac Slocum , senior editor of Filmfodder.com , thought it was " super @-@ emotional " when Bernard asked the survivors if Rose was still alive . C. K. Sample III , of AOL 's TV Squad , liked " S.O.S. " because it showed " two characters ' back stories which we 've all been longing to see " , and noted the couple represent the theme of dichotomy within the show . Lost producer Leonard Dick called Rose and Bernard " much @-@ beloved characters " , and thought they did an " excellent job " in " S.O.S. " . Jen Chaney from The Washington Post thought it was " touching " and " poignant " that the couple 's backstory was based on Caldwell 's real life . Noel Murray of The A.V. Club conceded that whilst learning Rose and Bernard 's backstory was entertaining , it wasted time and slowed down the pace of the storytelling .
Rick Porter from Zap2it was pleased when Rose and Bernard returned in " Greatest Hits " . After this reappearance , Patrick Day from the Los Angeles Times hoped they would be featured more often , saying " If they brought these two back ... just to kill them , it will be anti @-@ climactic " . Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen called their return a " sight @-@ for @-@ sore @-@ eyes " . Maureen Ryan from the Chicago Tribune thought Rose was speaking for the fans when she said " If you say ' live together , die alone ' to me , Jack , I 'm going to punch you in your face " , and hoped Rose and Bernard would feature more often in future episodes . The couple were ranked twelfth in IGN 's list of the top fifteen characters from the first three seasons . The critics from IGN also liked Rose 's " live together , die alone " line , which they called " both surprising comic relief and the stuff of solid character development ; characters like Rose remember and evolve , even if they spend most of their time on the sidelines " . The couple were called " the unofficial heart of the show " by the critics , who noted every appearance made by them was a welcome one . Erin Martell from TV Squad thought Rose 's role in " Something Nice Back Home " was " awesome " , because she asked all the questions fans have been asking .
Variety 's Cynthia Littleton " loved seeing Bernard in Grizzly Adams mode " in the season five finale , while Ryan McGee from Zap2it compared Bernard 's appearance to both Moses and the Gorton 's Fisherman . McGee said " It ’ s a gorgeous , gorgeous scene , even if it stands as a meta @-@ criticism of the angst and turmoil of the show ’ s major characters " . Alan Sepinwall from The Star @-@ Ledger called it " one of the best , most moving scenes of the finale " . Noel Murray from The A.V. Club thought the scene was useful as it allowed the characters to leave the show , but also it caused him to question whether opting out was the right or wrong thing to do . The Huffington Post 's Jay Glatfelter thought their decision not to participate " all but solidified them as the ' Adam and Eve ' [ skeletons ] from the caves " , although this was shown not to be the case in season six . Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune listed the pair amongst her favourite characters of the series , commenting " Few things made [ her ] happier than seeing them comfortably ensconced in their retirement cabin with Walt 's dog , Vincent . They had the good sense to give up the whole island rat race , and their optimistic , straightforward attitudes and down @-@ to @-@ earth humor grounded Lost and gave us a window into normalcy , which , goodness knows , we needed sometimes " .
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= Banksia speciosa =
Banksia speciosa , commonly known as the showy banksia , is a species of large shrub or small tree in the family Proteaceae . It occurs on the south coast of Western Australia between Hopetoun ( 33 ° 57 ′ S ) and the Great Australian Bight ( approximately 33 ° S 130 ° E ) , growing on white or grey sand in shrubland . Reaching up to 8 m ( 26 ft ) in height , it is a single @-@ stemmed plant that has thin leaves with prominent triangular " teeth " along each margin , which are 20 – 45 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 17 @.@ 7 in ) long and 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide . The prominent cream @-@ yellow flower spikes known as inflorescences appear throughout the year . As they age they develop up to 20 follicles each that store seeds until opened by fire . Banksia speciosa . Though widely occurring , it is highly sensitive to dieback and large populations of plants have succumbed to the disease .
Collected and described by Robert Brown in the early 19th century , Banksia speciosa is classified in the series Banksia within the genus . Its closest relative is B. baxteri . Banksia speciosa plants are killed by bushfire , and regenerate from seed . The flowers attract nectar- and insect @-@ feeding birds , particularly honeyeaters , and a variety of insects . In cultivation , Banksia speciosa grows well in a sunny location on well @-@ drained soil in areas with dry summers . It cannot be grown in areas with humid summers , though it has been grafted onto Banksia serrata or B. integrifolia .
= = Description = =
Banksia speciosa grows as a shrub or small tree anywhere from 1 to 6 or rarely 8 m ( 4 – 26 ft ) high . It has an open many @-@ branched habit , arising from a single stem or trunk with smooth grey bark . Unlike many banksias , it does not have a lignotuber . The plant puts on new growth , which is covered in rusty @-@ coloured fur , in summer . The long thin leaves are linear , 20 – 45 cm ( 8 – 18 in ) long and 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide . They are bordered with 20 to 42 prominent triangular lobes that have a zigzag pattern . The lobes are 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) long and 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 in ) wide , while the V @-@ shaped sinuses between intrude almost to the midrib of the leaf . The leaf margins are slightly recurved . On the underside of each lobe , there are 3 – 10 nerves converging on the lobe apex . The midrib is raised on the leaf undersurface ; it is covered with white hair when new but brownish hair when mature .
The cream to yellow flower spikes , known as inflorescences , can appear at any time of year . They arise on the ends of one- or two @-@ year @-@ old stems and are roughly cylindrical in shape with a domed apex , measuring 4 – 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) high and 9 – 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide at anthesis . Each is a compound flowering structure , with a large number of individual flowers arising out of a central woody axis . A field study on the southern sandplains revealed an average count of 1369 ± 79 on each spike . The perianth is grey @-@ cream in bud , maturing to a more yellow or cream . The style is cream and the tip of the pollen @-@ presenter maroon . Ageing spikes are grey , with old flowers remaining on them , and develop up to 20 large red follicles each . Roughly oval and jutting out prominently from the spike , each follicle is 3 @.@ 5 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) long by 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 in ) wide and 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 in ) high and is covered in dense fur , red @-@ brown initially before aging to grey . It remains closed until opened by bushfire , and contains one or two viable seeds .
The seed is 3 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 8 in ) long and fairly flattened , and is composed of the seed body proper , measuring 1 – 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) long and 0 @.@ 9 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) wide , and a papery wing . One side , termed the outer surface , is grey and the other is dark brown ; on this side the seed body protrudes and is covered with tiny filaments . The seeds are separated by a dark brown seed separator that is roughly the same shape as the seeds with a depression where the seed body sits adjacent to it in the follicle . It measures 3 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 – 2 in ) long and 2 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 in ) wide . The dull green cotyledons of seedlings are wider than they are long , measuring 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) across and 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) long , described by Alex George as " broadly obovate " . Each cotyledon has a 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 in ) auricle at its base and has three faint nerve @-@ like markings on its lower half . The hypocotyl is smooth and red . The seedling leaves emerge in an opposite arrangement and are deeply serrated into three triangular lobes on each side . The seedling stem is covered in white hair .
A variant from the Gibson area has an upright habit and leaves . Otherwise , Banksia speciosa shows little variation across its range . Combined with its vigour and prominence in its habitat , this has led George to speculate that it is a recent development among its relatives .
Banksia baxteri resembles B. speciosa and co @-@ occurs with it at the western edge of its range , but has shorter , wider leaves with larger lobes , shorter flower spikes and is a smaller , more open shrub .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first botanical collection of this species may well have been Claude Riche , naturalist to Bruni d 'Entrecasteaux 's 1791 expedition in search of the lost ships of Jean @-@ François de Galaup , comte de La Pérouse . During a visit to Esperance Bay , Riche explored an area in which B. speciosa is extremely common . However , he got lost and was forced to abandon his collections . The species was eventually collected by Robert Brown in 1802 , and published by him in 1810 . Alex George selected an 1802 specimen collected at Lucky Bay to be the lectotype in 1981 . An early common name was handsome banksia . Common names include showy banksia and ricrac banksia , from the zigzag shape of its long thin leaves .
Robert Brown recorded 31 species of Banksia in his 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen , and in his taxonomic arrangement , placed the taxon in the subgenus Banksia verae , the " True Banksias " , because the inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike . By the time Carl Meissner published his 1856 arrangement of the genus , there were 58 described Banksia species . Meissner divided Brown 's Banksia verae , which had been renamed Eubanksia by Stephan Endlicher in 1847 , into four series based on leaf properties . He placed B. speciosa in the series Dryandroideae .
George Bentham published a thorough revision of Banksia in his landmark publication Flora Australiensis in 1870 . In Bentham 's arrangement , the number of recognised Banksia species was reduced from 60 to 46 . Bentham defined four sections based on leaf , style and pollen @-@ presenter characters . Banksia speciosa was placed in section Orthostylis .
In 1891 , German botanist Otto Kuntze challenged the generic name Banksia L.f. , on the grounds that the name Banksia had previously been published in 1775 as Banksia J.R.Forst & G.Forst , referring to the genus now known as Pimelea . Kuntze proposed Sirmuellera as an alternative , republishing B. speciosa as Sirmuellera speciosa . The challenge failed , and Banksia L.f. was formally conserved .
= = = Current placement = = =
Alex George published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his classic 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) . Endlicher 's Eubanksia became B. subg . Banksia , and was divided into three sections . B. speciosa was placed in B. sect . Banksia , and this was further divided into nine series , with B. speciosa placed in B. ser . Banksia . He thought its closest relative was clearly Banksia baxteri based on their similar appearance , noting the two overlapped in their distribution .
Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus in 1996 ; their morphological cladistic analysis yielded a cladogram significantly different from George 's arrangement . Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement retained B. speciosa in series Banksia , placing it in B. subser . Cratistylis along with B. baxteri as its sister taxon and seven other Western Australian species . This arrangement stood until 1999 , when George effectively reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the Flora of Australia series . B. speciosa 's placement within Banksia according to Flora of Australia is as follows :
Genus Banksia
Subgenus Banksia
Section Banksia
Series Banksia
B. serrata
B. aemula
B. ornata
B. baxteri
B. speciosa
B. menziesii
B. candolleana
B. sceptrum
In 2002 , a molecular study by Austin Mast again showed Banksia speciosa and B. baxteri to be each other 's closest relatives , but they were only distantly related to other members of the series Banksia . Instead , their next closest relative turned out to be the distinctive Banksia coccinea .
Mast , Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for Banksia in 2005 . They inferred a phylogeny greatly different from the accepted taxonomic arrangement , including finding Banksia to be paraphyletic with respect to Dryandra . A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time , but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the species having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons ; in this way they also redefined the autonym B. subg . Banksia . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete . In the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. speciosa is placed in B. subg . Banksia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Banksia speciosa occurs on coastal dunes and sandplains in the Esperance Plains and Mallee biogeographic regions on the south coast of Western Australia , from East Mount Barren in the Fitzgerald River National Park and the vicinity of Hopetoun eastwards to Israelite Bay , generally within 50 km ( 31 mi ) of the coast . The range extends inland to Mount Ragged and 25 km ( 16 mi ) southwest of Grass Patch . There is an outlying population to the east at Point Culver on the Great Australian Bight .
Banksia speciosa grows on flat or gently sloping ground on deep white or grey sand . It is often the dominant shrub in shrubland , commonly found with such species as Lambertia inermis , Banksia pulchella , and B. petiolaris .
= = Ecology = =
The prominent flower spikes are visited by many birds and insects . Honeyeaters are common visitors , particularly the New Holland honeyeater , as well as the fuscous honeyeater , western wattlebird and western spinebill . Other birds recorded foraging include the grey butcherbird and species of thornbill . Insects recorded include ants , bees , wasps , butterflies , moths , flies and beetles . The short @-@ billed black cockatoo breaks off old cones with follicles to eat the seed , often doing so before the seed is ripe .
Banksia speciosa is serotinous , that is , it has an aerial seed bank in its canopy in the form of the follicles of the old flower spikes . These are opened by fire and release seed in large numbers , which germinate and grow after rain . Seed can last for many years ; old spikes 11 to 12 years old have been found to have 50 % viable seed . Flower spikes appear to have similar numbers of follicles regardless of the age of the parent plant . Young plants begin flowering three years after regenerating from bushfire and store progressively larger numbers of old flowerheads ( and hence seed ) in the canopy . In one study , decade @-@ old plants averaged around 3 @.@ 5 old cones , whereas 21 @-@ year @-@ old plants had 105 , and were calculated as having over 900 viable seeds per plant . Plants appear to have a life span of at least 40 years , as healthy and vigorous individuals of this age are known . An experimental burn and monitoring of resultant seedling germination and growth showed B. speciosa seeds , though numerous , had poor rates of establishment but that seedlings were able to access water more easily and had higher rates of survival after two years than co @-@ occurring Banksia species . Though this suggested B. speciosa might outcompete its conspecifics , the authors of the study noted that there could be other factors not accounted for in its natural environment .
Banksia speciosa is extremely sensitive to dieback caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi and numbers in Cape Le Grand and Cape Arid National Parks have been drastically reduced as whole populations of plants have perished after exposure . It is an indicator species for the presence of the disease . Nursery plants in Italy perished from root and basal stem rot from the pathogen Phytophthora taxon niederhauserii .
The tiny sac fungus Phyllachora banksiae subspecies westraliensis has been described from the leaves of B. speciosa , its sole host . This fungus manifests as round flat cream @-@ coloured spots around 1 – 3 mm in diameter on the upper leaf surface . The surrounding leaf tissue is sometimes discoloured orange . One or two shiny black fruit bodies measuring around 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 75 by 0 @.@ 25 – 1 mm appear in the centre of the spots .
= = Cultivation = =
A fast @-@ growing and attractive plant , Banksia speciosa grows readily in a sunny location in dry climates on well @-@ drained soil , but does poorly in areas of humid summer climate , such as Australia 's east coast . It has been grafted successfully onto Banksia serrata and B. integrifolia to enable cultivation in these areas . Seeds do not require any treatment , and take 27 to 41 days to germinate . A specimen flowered in a greenhouse in the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh in 1830 . Banksia speciosa is an important cut flower crop . It was one of several species considered for commercial cropping in Tenerife , and trials showed that seedlings were moderately tolerant to salinity .
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= Blackburn Firebrand =
The Blackburn Firebrand was a British single @-@ engine strike fighter for the Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Navy designed during World War II by Blackburn Aircraft . Originally intended to serve as a pure fighter , its unimpressive performance and the allocation of its Napier Sabre piston engine by the Ministry of Aircraft Production for the Hawker Typhoon caused it to be redesigned as a strike fighter to take advantage of its load @-@ carrying capability . Development was slow and the first production aircraft was not delivered until after the end of the war . Only a few hundred were built before it was withdrawn from front @-@ line service in 1953 .
= = Development = =
In general , the Fleet Air Arm had required fighters that were capable of navigating long ranges over sea and speed differential over attackers was not critical . However , while defence of British naval bases was a RAF commitment , provision had not been made for this and so the Admiralty accepted that it would have to take on the duty . For this it needed an interceptor fighter . Experience in the Norwegian Campaign of early 1940 had also shown a high @-@ performance , carrier @-@ based , single @-@ seat fighter would be an advantage . Blackburn tendered their B @-@ 37 design using the Napier Sabre 24 @-@ cylinder H @-@ type engine , and this was accepted by June 1940 with a proposal to order " off the drawing board " ( meaning without prototypes ) . Air Ministry Specification N.11 / 40 — stating a minimum top speed of 350 knots ( 650 km / h ; 400 mph ) — was raised to cover this design and an order placed in January 1941 for three prototypes .
The B @-@ 37 , given the service name " Firebrand " on 11 July 1941 , was a low @-@ winged , all @-@ metal monoplane . Aft of the cockpit the fuselage was an oval @-@ shaped stressed @-@ skin semi @-@ monocoque , but forward it had a circular @-@ section , tubular @-@ steel frame that housed the 169 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 770 l ; 203 US gal ) main fuel tank and the 71 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 320 l ; 85 US gal ) auxiliary fuel tank behind the engine . The radiators for the neatly cowled Sabre engine were housed in wing @-@ root extensions . The large wing consisted of a two @-@ spar centre section with manually folded outer panels ( with 5 degrees of dihedral ) to allow more compact storage in the hangar decks of aircraft carriers . To increase lift and reduce landing speed the wing was fitted with large , hydraulically powered Fowler flaps that extended to the edges of the Frise ailerons . The fixed armament of four 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Hispano autocannon was fitted in the outer wing panels with 200 rounds per gun . The vertical stabilizer and rudder were positioned forward of the horizontal stabilizer to ensure spin recovery and that the rudder would retain its effectiveness . The mainwheels of the conventional landing gear were mounted at the ends of the centre wing section and retracted inwards . The Firebrand was unusual in that there was an airspeed gauge mounted outside of the cockpit so that during landing the pilot would not have to look down into the cockpit to take instrument readings , presaging the development of the modern heads @-@ up display .
The unarmed first prototype first flew on 27 February 1942 using the Sabre II , the first of two armed prototypes following on 15 July . The initial flight trials were a disappointment as the aircraft could only reach 32 mph ( 51 km / h ) below Blackburn 's estimated maximum speed of 390 mph . Replacement of the Sabre II with a Sabre III ( an engine built specifically for the Firebrand ) improved its top speed to 358 mph ( 576 km / h ) . The second prototype , DD810 , conducted deck @-@ landing trials , with Commander Dennis Cambell at the controls , aboard the fleet carrier HMS Illustrious in February 1943 . The Sabre engine was also used in the Hawker Typhoon , a fighter already in production , and the Ministry of Air Production ( MAP ) decided that the Typhoon had priority for the Sabre . The Sabre was also experiencing production problems and so a new engine was needed , along with the necessary airframe improvements to accommodate it ; rather than abandon the time and effort invested in the design , the MAP decided to convert the Firebrand into an interim strike fighter to meet the Fleet Air Arm 's requirement for a single @-@ seat torpedo bomber capable of carrying bombs and rockets as well as engaging in air @-@ to @-@ air combat . Nine production F. Mk I aircraft were built to the original specifications and all were retained for trials and development work .
After it was badly damaged during an emergency landing , DD810 was converted into a prototype of the first strike variant , the Firebrand T.F. Mk II ( with the company designation B @-@ 45 ) , that flew on 31 March 1943 . It was an adaptation of the Mk I with the wing centre section widened by 1 foot 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 39 @.@ 4 cm ) to make room for the torpedo on the centreline between the mainwheels . Like the Mk I , the TF Mk II only saw a very limited production run of 12 aircraft and they were also allocated for development work , including those assigned to 708 Naval Air Squadron , a shore @-@ based trials unit . Blackburn proposed several versions of the Sabre @-@ powered aircraft including one for the RAF as the B @-@ 41 , a version with a high @-@ lift wing as the B @-@ 42 , and the B @-@ 43 floatplane , none of which were accepted for further development .
A new specification was issued as S.8 / 43 to cover the development of the Firebrand T.F. Mk III ( B @-@ 45 ) with the 2 @,@ 400 @-@ horsepower ( 1 @,@ 800 kW ) Bristol Centaurus VII radial engine . Two prototypes were converted from incomplete F Mk Is and 27 additional aircraft were delivered , completing the first batch of 50 aircraft . The first prototype flew on 21 December 1943 , but construction of the new aircraft was very slow with the first flight not being made until November 1944 . Most changes were related to the installation of the larger @-@ diameter Centaurus engine , including air intakes for the carburetor and oil cooler in the wing @-@ root extensions that formerly housed the engine 's radiators . Spring @-@ loaded trim tabs were also fitted to all control surfaces . Production aircraft after the first 10 were fitted with the improved Centaurus IX engine . The Mk III was found to be unsuitable for carrier operations for a variety of reasons . The new engine produced more torque than the Sabre , and rudder control was insufficient on takeoff with the full flaps needed for carrier use . Visibility while landing was very poor , the tailhook attachment to the airframe was too weak , and the aircraft had a tendency to drop a wing at the stall while landing , so development continued to rectify these issues .
The T.F. Mk IV ( B @-@ 46 ) , as the new development was designated , featured larger tail surfaces for better low @-@ speed control . The enlarged rudder was horn balanced and the vertical stabilizer was offset three degrees to port to counteract the four @-@ bladed Rotol propeller 's torque . The wings now featured hydraulically operated dive brakes on both upper and lower surfaces . The aircraft 's wings were now stressed to carry one 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 910 kg ) bomb under each wing or a 45 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 200 l ; 54 US gal ) drop tank or eight RP @-@ 3 rockets . The frame that held the torpedo was connected to the undercarriage so that it pivoted nose @-@ downward to increase ground clearance with the landing gear extended and pivoted upward to reduce drag while in flight . A 100 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 450 l ; 120 US gal ) fuel tank could be fitted on the centreline in lieu of the torpedo . The Mk IV first flew on 17 May 1945 , and was the first version of the Firebrand to enter mass production , with 170 built , although 50 more aircraft were cancelled .
The later Firebrand T.F. Mk 5 featured minor aerodynamic improvements and 123 were converted from Mk IVs . The final version was the Firebrand T.F. Mk 5A with hydraulically boosted ailerons to increase the aircraft 's rate of roll . Two Mk 5s and five Mk IVs were converted to Mk 5A standard .
= = Operational history = =
The Firebrand did not see action in World War II , as TF 4s were not issued to 813 Naval Air Squadron until 1 September 1945 . The squadron was disbanded 30 September 1946 without ever deploying to sea . It was reformed with TF 5s on 1 May 1947 and flew them from the carrier HMS Implacable , later HMS Indomitable , until it was reequipped with turboprop Westland Wyvern attack aircraft in February 1953 . 827 Naval Air Squadron received their TF 5 and 5As on 13 December 1950 and flew them primarily off the carrier HMS Eagle until it disbanded on 19 November 1952 . A variety of second @-@ line squadrons were issued Firebrands of various marks for training or trials at one time or another .
In test pilot and naval aviator Captain Eric Brown 's opinion the aircraft was " short of performance , sadly lacking in manoeuvrability , especially in rate of roll " . Furthermore , the positioning of the cockpit even with the trailing edge of the wing gave the pilot a very poor view over the nose and inhibited his ability to view his target and to land his aircraft aboard a carrier , enough so that Brown called it " a disaster as a deck @-@ landing aircraft " .
= = Variants = =
Blackburn B @-@ 37
Three prototypes ordered to meet Specification N.11 / 40 , named Firebrand on 11 July 1941 . Second prototype re @-@ built as T.F. II prototype .
Firebrand F. I
Production variant of the Blackburn B.37 with an order for 50 aircraft to be built at Brough , most completed as T.F. II and T.F. III variants , first nine completed as F. Is .
Firebrand T.F. II
Improved variant , 12 built from original production branch .
Firebrand T.F. III
Blackburn B @-@ 45 , a Centarus VII powered @-@ variant , two prototypes to S.8 / 43 and 27 production aircraft for original production batch .
Firebrand T.F. IV
Blackburn B @-@ 46 , improved variant with 2 @,@ 520 bhp Centaurus IX or Centaurus 57 , 250 ordered , but only 170 were completed , of which 124 were converted to T.F. 5 standard , some before delivery . Six were modified and designated as T.F. IV ( mod ) .
Firebrand T.F. 5
Improved variant , 124 modified from T.F. IV , two conversions to T.F. 5A .
Firebrand T.F. 5A
One prototype modified from a T.F. 5 and six conversions from either T.F. IV or Vs .
= = Operators = =
United Kingdom
Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm
813 Naval Air Squadron
827 Naval Air Squadron
= = Specifications ( Firebrand T.F. Mk IV ) = =
Data from The Firebrand ... Blackburn 's Baby ' Battleship'
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 38 ft 9 in ( 11 @.@ 81 m )
Wingspan : 51 ft 3 @.@ 5 in ( 15 @.@ 634 m )
Height : 13 ft 3 in ( 4 @.@ 04 m )
Wing area : 383 sq ft ( 35 @.@ 6 m2 )
Empty weight : 11 @,@ 457 lb ( 5 @,@ 197 kg )
Gross weight : 16 @,@ 700 lb ( 7 @,@ 575 kg )
Fuel capacity : 239 imp gal ( 1 @,@ 090 l ; 287 US gal )
Powerplant : 1 × Bristol Centaurus IX 18 @-@ cylinder radial engine , 2 @,@ 520 hp ( 1 @,@ 880 kW )
Propellers : 4 @-@ bladed Rotol , 13 ft 3 in ( 4 @.@ 04 m ) diameter
Performance
Maximum speed : 342 mph ( 550 km / h ; 297 kn )
Cruise speed : 256 mph ( 222 kn ; 412 km / h )
Range : 745 mi ( 647 nmi ; 1 @,@ 199 km )
Rate of climb : 2 @,@ 600 ft / min ( 13 m / s )
Armament
Guns : 4 × 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Hispano autocannon
Rockets : 16 × RP @-@ 3
Bombs : 1 × 1 @,@ 850 lb ( 840 kg ) torpedo or 2 × 2 @,@ 000 lb ( 910 kg ) bombs
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= Alexander Stoddart =
Alexander " Sandy " Stoddart ( born 1959 ) is a Scottish sculptor , who , since 2008 , has been the Queen 's Sculptor in Ordinary in Scotland . He works primarily on figurative sculpture in clay within the neoclassical tradition . Stoddart is best known for his civic monuments , including 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) bronze statues of David Hume and Adam Smith , philosophers during the Scottish Enlightenment , on the Royal Mile in Edinburgh , and others of James Clerk Maxwell and John Witherspoon . Stoddart says of his own motivation , " My great ambition is to do sculpture for Scotland " , primarily through large civic monuments to figures from the country 's past .
Stoddart was born in Edinburgh and raised in Renfrewshire , where he developed an early interest in the arts and music , and later trained in fine art at the Glasgow School of Art ( 1976 – 1980 ) and read the History of Art at the University of Glasgow . During this time he became increasingly critical of contemporary trends in art , such as pop art , and concentrated on creating figurine pieces in clay . Stoddart associates the lack of form in modern art with social decay ; in contrast , his works include many classical allusions .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Stoddart 's grandfather was an evangelical Baptist preacher , and his parents met through that church . He was born in Edinburgh , though his father , also an artist , moved the family to the village of Elderslie in Renfrewshire , where the young Stoddart immediately noticed the monument there at William Wallace 's purported birthplace . Today , Stoddart lives and works in nearby Paisley . At school Stoddart became interested in music ( and remains so ) but decided he was not good enough to become a professional .
= = = Education = = =
Stoddart went , aged seventeen , to train in fine art at the Glasgow School of Art where he studied from 1976 to 1980 . There he settled on sculpture and initially worked within the modernist vogue . Stoddart has recalled an epiphany moment several times : when , after finishing a riveted metal pop @-@ art sculpture ( praised by his tutors ) he found a bust of the Apollo Belvedere , " I thought my pop @-@ riveted thing was rubbish by comparison . It 's extraordinarily easy to pop @-@ rivet two bits of metal together and extraordinarily difficult to make a figure like the Apollo , but I thought I had to try . "
Stoddart wrote his undergraduate thesis on the life and work of John Mossman , an English sculptor who worked in Scotland for fifty years . His work remains an influence on Stoddart . Stoddart graduated in 1980 with a Bachelor of Arts degree , first class , though he was demoralised by his peers ' ignorance of the art history : " the name Raphael meant nothing to them " . He went on to read History of Art at the University of Glasgow . Afterwards , he worked for six " difficult " years in the studio of Ian Hamilton Finlay . Although Hamilton Finlay is considered one of the most important Scottish artists of the 20th century , Stoddart profoundly disagrees with his working methods : " Finlay was the godfather of a problem that 's rampant everywhere today . He called the people who made his work ' collaborators ' . What we call them nowadays is ' fabricators ' . They 're talented people who are plastically capable , but they never meet their ' artist ' . They 're grateful , desperate and thwarted . "
He is an Honorary Professor at the University of the West of Scotland . On 30 December 2008 , it was announced that Stoddart had been appointed Her Majesty 's Sculptor in Ordinary in Scotland .
= = Aesthetic viewpoint = =
Stoddart is deeply critical of modernism and contemporary art , and scornful of " public art " , a phrase which makes him search for " a glass of whisky and a revolver " . He has repeatedly criticised winners of the Turner Prize , such as Damien Hirst " there 's plenty of them " , and Tracey Emin , whom he calls " the high priestess of societal decline " . Stoddart said of his own repeated public denouncements , " Somebody will be exhibiting a bunch of bananas in a gallery , and they 'll [ radio producers ] get me on to talk dirty about it " . Stoddart has characterised modern art as dominated by left @-@ wing politics , to the extent that " certain artistic forms likewise became suspect : the tune ; the rhyme ; the moulding ; the plinth " as coercive and overly traditional . He argued that an equestrian statue of the Mariner King , William IV should be placed on the fourth plinth in Trafalgar Square , as originally intended .
He developed an interest in music at school , where he learned to play the piano , which he still does daily . He called his own medium , sculpture " an art inferior to the super @-@ art of music " and nominated Wagner as the greatest composer . Stoddart developed his theme on the quietism of monumental art and its relation to Schopenhaurian resignation in a lecture to the Wagner Society of Scotland on 2 March 2008 .
Stoddart works within the neo @-@ classical tradition of art , and believes that greatness and respect for posterity are important considerations . In 2010 he rebuffed a query about his interest in sculpting a memorial to Bill McLaren , a rugby union broadcaster : " I do not do sportsmen and I certainly do not do sports commentators . I do artists , philosophers and poets " , he said , warning that memorials are often hastily erected . Advocates of the memorial described the remarks as insensitive , and said that " To have Bill looking down on the fans at Murrayfield , microphone in hand , would bring a huge smile to so many faces . "
Despite their idiomatic differences , Raymond McKenzie argues that the works of both Ian Hamilton Finlay and Stoddart combine formal and intellectual elegance with sharp , sometimes satirical critiques of contemporary society .
Stoddart himself outspoken about Modernism , and its contemporary failures and historical misunderstandings , without hesitation , makes clear that his work stems from a Modernism born in neo @-@ classicism , " And yet , after having said all this about Modernism , I consider myself a Modernist – but in the context of a vast application of the term extending miles beyond the pokey wee official area to which usually it is confined . For in truth there are really two kinds of Modernism to be uncovered in the space of the last two and a half centuries , and it is to the first and largest of these that I belong and to which , in my small way , I contribute . This is the Modernism that was born in neo @-@ classicism and has , as its great central titan , the mighty Richard Wagner . "
= = Works = =
= = = Civic monuments = = =
In his own work , Stoddart has developed " heroic @-@ realist " neo @-@ classical representations of historical figures . Stoddart works as a civic @-@ monumentalist for Scotland , and described the need his work fills thus : " We need serious monuments which don 't have the Braveheart touch . If we 're to be a nation , we need that . Fletcher of Saltoun is absolutely urgent if we 're to show we mean business . We don 't do it with a stupid Parliament building that looks like a Barcelona @-@ inspired cafeteria . It 's a bloody outrage . "
He has made sculptures of David Hume and Adam Smith , philosophers of the Scottish Enlightenment , which stand in the Royal Mile in Edinburgh . Hume is depicted in a philosopher 's toga , representing the timelessness of philosophical thought , a decision which was criticised as atavistic after the unveiling in 1996 , though Stoddart remained stoic , " So here I discovered that the right thing , done in public , will often earn one great disapproval : a lesson for life – in the modern age at least . " Local philosophy students soon began a tradition of rubbing the statue 's toe to absorb some of his knowledge . Though Stoddart placed the foot over the edge of the plinth to encourage such engagement , the irony of the practice given Hume 's critiques of superstition has been remarked upon .
Smith , a philosopher who forged the new discipline of economics , is , by contrast , depicted in contemporary attire , showing his concern for the practical matters of economic activity , a gown draped over his shoulder retains the connection to philosophy and academia . Smith 's economic ideas are also encoded into the statue : the plough behind him represents the agrarian economics he supplanted , the beehive before , is a symbol of the industry he predicted would come . His hand , resting on a globe , is obscured by the gown : a literal presentation of Smith 's famous metaphor of the invisible hand . The life @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half size statue of Smith , is cast in bronze from a plaster model by the sculptor and was unveiled in 2008 . It was funded by private subscriptions organised by the Adam Smith Institute .
Stoddart 's statue of James Clerk Maxwell , a physicist , stands in George Street in Edinburgh and a memorial to Robert Louis Stevenson , a novelist , is on Corstorphine Road . His monument to John Witherspoon stands in Paisley , with a copy outside Princeton University .
There are several pieces by Stoddart in Glasgow 's Merchant City quarter . Italia , a 2 @.@ 6 metre , glass re @-@ in @-@ forced polymer statue on top of Ingram Street represents the contribution of Italian traders to the area . Classical in style , the female form is swathed in a chiton and carries symbols of ancient Italy : a palm branch in her right hand and an inverted cornucopia in her left . On John Street , a trio of figures , Mercury , Mercurius and Mercurial form a triangle . The first two , identical figures , sit above the John St. façade of the Italian centre ; their English and Roman names signify the two different manifestations of the deity in Roman mythology . Here , they embody a " dialogue " between ancient lore and modern city life . Opposite , on a plinth on the street , stands Mercurial , cast in bronze and with the adjectival form of the name , it complements the duality of the other two with an underlying unity .
Putative projects include a monument to Willie Gallacher , the Paisley @-@ born Communist MP , championed by Tony Benn and funded by a public appeal and " Oscar " , an amphitheatre carved into the rock on the Scottish coast dedicated to Ossian , the mythical Scot bard .
= = = Busts , cabinet displays and architectural sculpture = = =
During 2000 to 2002 the Queen 's Gallery at Buckingham Palace was renovated in the neo @-@ classical style under the direction of John Simpson , envisioned as " building visible history " . For the walls in the two @-@ storied entrance hall , Stoddart made architectural friezes which interpret Homeric themes in twentieth century Britain . For the Sackler Library in Oxford University , he made a 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) bronze frieze , depicting an allegory of traditionalist and modernist values . Stoddart has also worked on busts of living figures whom he admires , often fellow @-@ classicists including Roger Scruton , a philosopher , Robert Adam and John Simpson , architects , the architectural historian David Watkin , and Tony Benn , the politician .
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= ANAK Society =
The ANAK Society is the oldest known secret society and honor society at the Georgia Institute of Technology ( Georgia Tech ) in Atlanta , Georgia , United States . Founded in 1908 , ANAK 's purpose is " to honor outstanding juniors and seniors who have shown both exemplary leadership and a true love for Georgia Tech " . The society is named after Anak , a biblical figure said to be the forefather of a race of giants .
ANAK comprises at least 1 @,@ 100 Georgia Tech graduates , faculty members , and honorary members . Although not founded as a secret society , it has kept its activities and membership rosters confidential since 1961 . Membership is made public upon a student 's graduation or a faculty member 's retirement . Notable members include Jimmy Carter ( honorary ) , Bobby Dodd ( honorary ) , Ivan Allen Jr . , Bobby Jones , and most of Georgia Tech 's presidents . Membership in the ANAK Society has long been considered the highest honor a Georgia Tech student can receive , although the society 's activities have been the object of suspicion and controversy in recent years .
The society has been influential in the history of Georgia Tech . ANAK played a major role in establishing several of Georgia Tech 's most active student organizations – including its yearbook , the Blueprint ; its student newspaper , the Technique ; and its Student Government Association – as well as several lasting Georgia Tech traditions . The society also claims involvement in a number of civil rights projects , most notably in peacefully integrating Georgia Tech 's first African American students and preventing the Ku Klux Klan from setting up a student chapter at Georgia Tech . These claims have yet to be substantiated by independent sources .
A philanthropic organization , the ANAK Society annually awards two undergraduate student scholarships , the George Wingfield Semmes Memorial Scholarship and the Merri Gaye Hitt Memorial Scholarship . Additionally , the society annually recognizes distinguished Georgia Tech alumni with the Joseph M. Pettit Distinguished Service Award . The society 's ANAK Award , granted annually to an outstanding Georgia Tech faculty member , is considered the most prestigious award of its kind . The society has also donated a number of gifts to Georgia Tech in honor of its members and notable alumni .
= = Name and symbology = =
The ANAK Society explained its name as originating from a passage in the Book of Numbers , one of the books of the Hebrew Bible . The passage , attributed to Numbers 13 : 33 , reads , " And there were the Nephilin [ sic ] , the sons of ANAK , who came of the giants : and we were in our own sight as grasshoppers , and so we were in their sight . " Anak was a biblical figure said to be the forefather of the Nephilim , a race of giants . For unknown reasons , the society 's name has sustained minor alterations over the years , from Anak in the 1908 Blue Print , the first edition of Georgia Tech 's yearbook , to ANAK in recent editions of The Technique , Georgia Tech 's student newspaper .
The ANAK Society has adopted a number of symbols over the years , although it has never offered any official explanation as to their meaning . From its founding in 1908 to 1927 , the society identified itself only by the name " Anak " or " Anak Society " . In 1928 and 1929 , the society adopted a bend sinister gules , a type of diagonal red line borrowed from heraldry . The bend was dropped after 1930 , following the introduction of a crest bearing the face of a cyclops and the Hebrew inscription ענק , meaning Anak , both affixed to a capital letter T. This loosely drawn crest was replaced with a more professionally illustrated version in 1940 ( see right image ) . In later decades , the society adopted a simple lidless eye to represent itself ; this symbol appeared on red ribbon armbands worn at ANAK " tapping " rituals and a plaque outside the Paul G. Mayer Memorial Garden on Georgia Tech 's campus . Most recently , ANAK published a modernized version of its crest , a lidless eye affixed to a capital letter T , in The Technique in January 2008 to commemorate its centennial .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
The ANAK Society was founded on January 1 , 1908 by four Georgia Tech seniors : George Wyman McCarty , Jr . ( President ) , Harry Read Vaughan ( Vice President ) , Lewis Edward Goodier , Jr . ( Secretary ) and Charles Atwater Sweet , Jr . ( Treasurer ) . The " guiding spirit " behind these students was said to be William Henry Emerson , a professor of chemistry . Officer titles were named after famous cyclopes in Greek mythology : the president was Polyphemus ; the vice president , Brontes ; the treasurer , Stereopes ; and the secretary , Arges . Other charter members ( all seniors ) were G. A. Hendrie , C. A. Adamson , S. J. Hargrove , J. E. Davenport , L. W. Robert , W. R. Snyder , C. L. Emerson ( son of William Henry Emerson ) and G. W. Holmes Cheney . Additional members have been initiated each subsequent year , but following the tradition set by the society 's founders , no more than 12 members may be initiated per year .
In the 1909 Blue Print , the society described its purpose as follows : " [ The ANAK Society ] is composed of men from the Senior Class of Georgia Tech who have shown themselves zealous in the development of college spirit . This organization is not here , primarily , as a social club or honorary society , but to do all it can to develop a better morale among the student body and improve all phases of college life . "
As the society 's membership base grew , its influence and prestige likewise increased . By 1940 , the ANAK Society was referred to as " the oldest honorary organization on the Tech campus " and membership as " the highest local honor a Tech student may obtain " . These claims would generally go unchallenged throughout the rest of the century . Faculty recognition by the society , first initiated with the ANAK Award in 1942 , would reach an equivalent level of prestige by the end of the century .
= = = Transition to a secret society = = =
For many years following the ANAK Society 's founding , membership was not confidential . ANAK members would select new initiates by " tapping " them ( tapping them on the shoulder ) or presenting them with red ribbon armbands at Georgia Tech 's semi @-@ annual Interfraternity Council ( IFC ) dance . The ritual was dropped in 1961 when ANAK elected to become a secret society . From this point forward , ANAK membership was made public only upon a student 's graduation , via a list of graduating ANAK members published in the Blueprint and the Technique each year and the ANAK Society 's home page . A similar policy applies to faculty and honorary members , whose involvement with the society is only made known upon their retirement from Georgia Tech .
The specific reasons for ANAK 's transition to secrecy remain unclear . One reason , cited in several editions of the Blueprint , offers that the society changed its policies to protect its members from fallout associated with ANAK 's civil rights activities at the time . According to Gary S. May , the society 's faculty advisor , ANAK membership is confidential because " the members don 't want to exert undue influence on processes or people because of their status as a member " . In contrast , critics of the society suggest that the society acts in secret to shirk accountability for any negative consequences of its activities .
= = = Modern organization = = =
By the 21st century , ANAK comprised at least 1 @,@ 100 graduates , faculty members and honorary members . Among current Georgia Tech students , only upperclassmen ( junior and senior undergraduates ) are eligible for regular membership . Honorary memberships for faculty members and distinguished alumni are also available . The society apparently selects members based on " leadership ability , personal achievement , strong character , and love for Georgia Tech " . Membership is unrestricted by race or gender , and academic achievement is not considered in the selection criteria . The society admitted its first female member , Carol A. Burtz , in 1976 , 23 years after Georgia Tech began admitting women .
As the ANAK Society is ostensibly a student organization at Georgia Tech , it is subject to the same rules and regulations as other student organizations . The society files paperwork with Georgia Tech administration and the Student Government Association , holds elections for each of its four mandatory officer positions ( president , vice president , treasurer , and secretary ) and is formally advised by a Georgia Tech faculty member . The president 's name must be kept on file in the Office of Leadership and Civic Engagement , available to any student who seeks it . As of 2007 , the society 's current faculty advisor is Gary S. May , the dean of the College of Engineering and an ANAK member since 1985 .
= = Influence = =
= = = Student organizations = = =
The ANAK Society played a major role in establishing several of Georgia Tech 's most active student organizations , including two student publications and the student government . The society 's existence was formally announced in the first edition of the Blue Print in 1908 . Four ANAK charter members served on the first Blue Print editorial board . By 1911 , ANAK admitted four more 1908 Blue Print editors into the society , including Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief John G. Chapman . These close relationships enabled the society to assert a great deal of control over the yearbook 's direction in future decades . Along with several other clubs and societies , ANAK listed its membership roster and provided a group photograph in the yearbook .
ANAK and three Georgia Tech faculty members appointed the first staff of the Technique , Georgia Tech 's student newspaper . Eugene A. Turner , secretary of the Georgia Tech YMCA , and Albert Blohm , an adjunct professor of English , served as the newspaper 's first editors , while W. G. Perry , a junior professor of English , acted as the Technique 's first faculty advisor . The Technique published its first edition on November 11 , 1911 , and has been in continuous weekly publication since that time , with a modern circulation of 10 @,@ 000 .
In the absence of an official student government during the first few decades at Georgia Tech , the ANAK society acted as an unofficial student government and proposed an Honor Code , modeled on that of West Point 's , in 1908 . ANAK worked to set up a more formal organization , the Student Council ( later the Student Government Association ) , in 1922 , at which point it relinquished any decision @-@ making privileges it had over the student body .
Other student organizations ANAK claims to have established include a chapter of the YMCA in 1910 and the Ramblin ' Reck Club in 1930 . The former claim , however , contradicts evidence of a YMCA chapter existing before 1908 , and possibly as early as 1901 . In 1912 , ANAK additionally formed the Koseme Society , a comparable honor society geared towards sophomores and juniors at Georgia Tech .
= = = Traditions = = =
The ANAK Society is credited with beginning a number of lasting Georgia Tech traditions . ANAK created the " Rat Cap " , a gold baseball cap still distributed to new Georgia Tech students , in 1915 in response to distinctive freshman headgear popularized at other educational institutions at the time . ANAK organized the first homecoming celebration combined with an alumni reunion around 1920 , a tradition that continues to this day .
= = = Civil rights = = =
Beginning in the early 1920s , the ANAK Society involved itself in a number of civil rights activities . In 1921 , ANAK spearheaded an effort to prevent the white supremacist Ku Klux Klan from setting up a chapter at Georgia Tech . The effort was successful .
Around 1960 , ANAK held a series of secret dinner meetings with the families of Ford Greene , Ralph A. Long , Jr. and Lawrence Michael Williams , Georgia Tech 's first three African American students . The goal of these meetings , facilitated through the Georgia Tech YMCA , was to discuss the range of potential situations that could arise when the three students enrolled at Georgia Tech the following year , as well as appropriate reactions to each of these situations . When Greene , Long , and Williams enrolled in the fall semester of 1961 , ANAK members discreetly kept a close watch on the three students for the first two weeks to ensure their safety . As a result of ANAK 's efforts and those of other Institute and city organizations , none of the students was involved in any serious incident , paving the way for continued peaceful racial integration .
= = Philanthropy = =
A philanthropic organization , the ANAK Society annually awards two undergraduate student scholarships , the George Wingfield Semmes Memorial Scholarship and the Merri Gaye Hitt Memorial Scholarship . Semmes and Hitt were both Georgia Tech alumni and ANAK members ; Semmes , the Class of 1910 and Hitt , the Class of 1977 . Additionally , the society annually recognizes distinguished Georgia Tech alumni with the Joseph M. Pettit Distinguished Service Award ( formerly the ANAK Service Award ) . Finally , since 1942 ( annually since 1947 ) , the society has presented the ANAK Award to an outstanding Georgia Tech faculty member . This award is considered " the highest honor the undergraduate student body can bestow on a Georgia Tech faculty member " . For example , upon his retirement in 1999 , Georgia Tech professor David J. McGill recalled winning the ANAK Award in 1990 as the highlight of his teaching career , despite having also won two Outstanding Teaching Awards ( in 1974 and 1986 ) and being named the Carnegie Foundation 's Professor of the Year for the state of Georgia in 1996 .
The ANAK Society has donated a number of gifts to Georgia Tech . In 1921 , the society donated a staircase connecting Tech Tower to the D. P. Savant Building . The staircase bears a plaque naming ANAK as the benefactor , one of very few conspicuous declarations of the society 's existence on the Georgia Tech campus . On September 26 , 1947 , ANAK presented a life @-@ size bronze bust of Georgia Tech football head coach William A. Alexander to the Georgia Tech Athletic Association to commemorate the society 's 40th anniversary . The bust was sculpted by Julian H. Harris , a noted sculptor , architect , and Georgia Tech professor from 1936 to 1972 . Along with the Class of 1924 , ANAK gifted a portrait of William Henry Emerson , Georgia Tech 's first dean , to Georgia Tech in 1924 . The portrait was painted by noted Atlanta artist Kate Edwards . After being lost some time in the 1980s , the portrait was found and restored in the early 1990s . It has hung in the atrium of the Lyman Hall Building since October 15 , 1992 . Along with the Omicron Delta Kappa honor society , ANAK was involved in the dedication of the Paul G. Mayer Memorial Garden on May 30 , 1987 . The garden , located between the Georgia Tech Library and the William Vernon Skiles Classroom Building , features a plaque bearing the lidless eye symbol of the ANAK Society .
In 2002 , the ANAK Society donated a collection of its records from 1948 to 1983 to Georgia Tech . The records are publicly available through the Georgia Tech Library 's Archives and Records Management Department and include constitutions , anniversary dinner invitations , and member directories .
= = Controversy = =
In recent years , ANAK 's influence and status as a secret society has raised suspicion and controversy among Georgia Tech students . In particular , the society had " fallen under heavy scrutiny " during a series of student government election scandals in the late 1990s .
In 1998 , Marc D. Galindo , a Georgia Tech student and ANAK member , defeated competitor Vikas Chinnan in Student Government Association runoff elections after Chinnan was disqualified for repeated campaign violations . The disqualification , however , was eventually overturned by the Undergraduate Judiciary Cabinet ( the judiciary branch of student government ) . Although Galindo had committed a similar ( but not identical nor a repeated ) campaign violation , the Elections Committee did not disqualify him . Galindo had used his staff account to distribute campaign information while Chinnan had repeatedly used academic email distribution lists not available to the general public . Allegations of corruption erupted when two members of the Elections Committee turned out to be Galindo 's fellow ANAK members ; however , no proof of wrongdoing was ever uncovered . Chinnan , at the time of the election , was dating Anu Khurana , the then @-@ president of the ANAK Society . Chinnan had agreed with and acknowledged that Galindo had not wanted him to be " disqualified on a technicality " .
A similar incident occurred at Georgia Tech the following year . During Student Government Association elections in 1999 , rumors circulated that Wendy Horowitz , a candidate for Student Body President , was a member of ANAK . " Conspiracy theories " and " intense debate " ensued among students regarding the society 's intentions , benevolent or otherwise . Horowitz lost the election , a result widely attributed to her purported ANAK affiliation . It was later revealed that Horowitz , in fact , had served as president of the ANAK Society for the 1999 – 2000 term .
As a result of these controversies , a general feeling of distrust towards the ANAK society propagated throughout the Georgia Tech campus , epitomized by an anonymous email circulated in 1999 that accused ANAK of " being the ' lapdog of President Clough ' [ and ] improperly influencing elections , scholarships , and the press , among other things " . Critics expressed concern that ANAK members were shirking accountability for " their mistakes , their bad ideas , and their bad decisions " under the guise of eschewing " praise for their accomplishments " . The Student Government Association 's policy towards secret societies was called into question , resulting in a Joint Campus Organizations Committee ( JCOC ) resolution to consider the issue of accountability among student organization leaders . The controversial JCOC resolution , strongly opposed by ANAK representatives , would " require candidates for officer positions to recognize all campus affiliations including position and duration of involvement " . The resolution failed , ensuring that ANAK membership rosters and meetings would continue to remain confidential .
= = Notable members = =
The ANAK Society has granted honorary membership to a host of notable individuals associated with Georgia Tech , including former United States senator Sam Nunn , former Georgia Tech football head coach Bobby Dodd , former Georgia Tech basketball head coach Bobby Cremins , sportscaster Al Ciraldo , former United States president Jimmy Carter ( inducted 1946 ) , and most of Georgia Tech 's presidents . Notable ANAK members who were active in the society as Georgia Tech students include former Atlanta mayor Ivan Allen , Jr . ( inducted 1933 ) , Scientific Atlanta founder Glen P. Robinson , former United States astronaut John W. Young ( inducted 1952 ) and former Georgia Tech football head coach William A. Alexander ( inducted 1912 ) , and Lucius Sanford and Reggie Wilkes , former Georgia Tech and NFL football players ( inducted 1978 ) . George P. Burdell , Georgia Tech 's most famous fictional student , has been a member of the ANAK Society since 1930 .
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= Ready to Die =
Ready to Die is the debut studio album by American rapper The Notorious B.I.G. ; it was released on September 13 , 1994 , by Bad Boy Records . The label 's first release , the album features production by Bad Boy founder Sean " Puffy " Combs , Easy Mo Bee , Chucky Thompson , DJ Premier and Lord Finesse , among others . Recording for the album took place during 1993 to 1994 at The Hit Factory and D & D Studios in New York City . The partly autobiographical album tells the story of B.I.G. ' s experiences as a young criminal . Ready to Die is his only studio album released during his lifetime , as he was murdered just days prior to the release of his second album , Life After Death ( 1997 ) .
Ready to Die was released to critical acclaim and became a commercial success , achieving gold certification . In 1995 , after the release , the album became a certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and the album has reached a certified quadruple platinum with sales . It was significant for revitalizing the East Coast hip hop scene , amid West Coast hip hop 's commercial dominance . The album 's second single , " Big Poppa " , was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance at the 1996 Grammy Awards . Ready to Die has been regarded by many music critics as one of the greatest hip @-@ hop albums of all time . In 2003 , it was ranked number 133 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time , making it the third highest hip hop album on the list after It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back and Raising Hell . In 2006 , Time included it on their list of the 100 greatest albums of all time .
= = Background and recording = =
The album was recorded in New York City ( mainly in The Hit Factory recording studio ) in two stages between 1993 and 1994 . In 1994 , Biggie was only 21 going through 22 @-@ years old , when he recorded the album . In 1993 , Biggie was signed to the Uptown Records label by A & R Sean " Puffy " Combs . Biggie started recording his debut album in New York , after making a numerous guest appearances on among his label @-@ mates ' singles during the previous year . The first tracks recorded include the album 's darker , less radio @-@ friendly content ( including " Ready to Die , " " Gimme the Loot " and " Things Done Changed " ) . In these sessions , XXL magazine describe an " inexperienced , higher @-@ pitched " Biggie sounding " hungry and paranoid " .
When executive producer Sean " Puffy " Combs was fired from Uptown , Biggie 's career hung in limbo , as the album was only partially completed . After a brief period dealing drugs in North Carolina , Biggie returned to the studio the following year on Combs ' new Bad Boy Records label possessing " a smoother , more confident vocal tone " and completed the album . In this stage , the more commercial @-@ sounding tracks of the album were recorded , including the album 's singles . Between the two stages , XXL writes that Biggie moved from writing his lyrics in notebooks to freestyling them from memory .
The album was released with a cover depicting an infant resembling the artist , though sporting an afro , which pertains to the album 's concept of the artist 's life from birth to his death . It has been listed as among the best album covers in hip hop .
= = = Lawsuits and sample removal = = =
On March 24 , 2006 , Bridgeport Music and Westbound Records won a federal lawsuit against Bad Boy Records for copyright infringement , with a jury deciding that Combs and Bad Boy had illegally used samples for the production of the songs " Ready to Die " , " Machine Gun Funk " , and " Gimme the Loot " . The jury awarded $ 4 @.@ 2 million in punitive and direct damages to the two plaintiffs , and federal judge Todd Campbell enacted an immediate sales ban on the album and tracks in question . On appeal , the Sixth Circuit found the damages unconstitutionally high and in violation of due process and remanded the case , at which point Campbell reduced them by $ 2 @.@ 8 million ; however , the verdict was upheld . All versions of the album released since the lawsuit are without the disputed samples .
Although a fair use issue , Combs and Bad Boy never raised the legal concept of the fair use doctrine in their defense . This decision was questioned by some legal experts : Anthony Falzone of the Fair Use Project at Stanford Law School criticized Combs and Bad Boy for not defending the legality of sampling and suggested that they might have refused to raise such a defense because they feared it could later imperil their control over their own music .
On April 2 , 2014 , Lee Hutson of The Impressions filed a multimillion @-@ dollar copyright infringement suit against Combs , Bad Boy Records , and the estate of the late Notorious B.I.G. for copyright infringement , alleging that his song " Can 't Say Enough About Mom " was illegally sampled in the production of the song " The What " . The estate countersued in turn , claiming the sample as used was short , adapted , and supplemented , and thus subject to fair use , a legal tactic not pursued previously .
= = Composition = =
= = = Production = = =
The production on the album was mainly handled by Easy Mo Bee and The Hitmen . Cheo H. Coker of Rolling Stone depicted the beats as " heavy bottomed and slick , but B.I.G. ' s rhymes are the showstoppers . The tracks only enhance them , whether it 's the live bass driving a menacing undercurrent or [ the ] use of bluesy guitar and wah @-@ wah feedback " and that the production is used to " push the rapper to new heights . " The production is mainly sample @-@ based with the samples varying from the percussion of funk tracks to the vocals of hip hop songs . Steve Huey presented some criticism over the beats , stating that the " deliberate beats do get a little samey , but it hardly matters : this is Biggie 's show " .
= = = Lyrical themes = = =
The Notorious B.I.G. ' s lyrics on the album were generally praised by critics . Many critics applauded his story @-@ telling ability such as Allmusic writer Steve Huey , who stated " His raps are easy to understand , but his skills are hardly lacking — he has a loose , easy flow and a talent for piling multiple rhymes on top of one another in quick succession " . He also went on to mention that his lyrics are " firmly rooted in reality , but play like [ a ] scene from a movie " . Touré , writing for The New York Times , referred to The Notorious B.I.G. , proclaiming that he stood out from other rappers because " his lyrics mix autobiographical details about crime and violence with emotional honesty , telling how he felt while making a living as a drug dealer " . The album is also noted for its dark tone and sinister sense of depression . In the original Rolling Stone review , Cheo H Coker declared that he " maintains a consistent level of tension by juxtaposing emotional highs and lows " . " Things Done Changed " was also one of the few hip hop songs in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature .
The lyrics on Ready to Die tend to deal with violence , drug dealing , women , alcohol and marijuana use , and other elements of Notorious B.I.G. ' s environment . He rapped about these topics in " clear , sparse terms , allowing the lyrics to hit the first time you hear them " . The album contains a loose concept starting out with an intro that details his birth , his early childhood , his adolescence and his life at the point of the album 's release . Songs on the album range from homicide narratives ( " Warning " ) to braggadocios battle raps ( " The What , " " Unbelievable " ) . The final song was " Suicidal Thoughts " , a song where The Notorious B.I.G. contemplates and finally commits suicide .
= = Singles = =
Three singles were released from the album : " Juicy " , " Big Poppa " , " One More Chance " and a promotional track of Biggie : " Warning " . According to XXL the more commercial sound of the singles compared to the rest of the album was a result of encouragement by Combs during the later recording sessions in which they were recorded .
" Juicy " was released as the lead single on August 8 , 1994 . It peaked at number 27 on the Billboard Hot 100 , number 14 on Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks and reached number 3 on the Hot Rap Singles . It shipped 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and the RIAA certified it Gold on November 8 , 1994 . Produced by Combs , it features a prominent sample of " Juicy Fruit " as performed by James Mtume . Allmusic 's Steve Huey stated that , along with the other singles , it was an " upbeat , commercial moment " , calling it a " rags @-@ to @-@ riches chronicle " . Andrew Kameka , of HipHopDX.com , stated that the song was one of his " greatest and most @-@ revealing songs " and went on to say it was a " Part @-@ autobiography , part @-@ declaration @-@ of @-@ success . It document [ s ] the star 's transition from Brooklyn knucklehead to magazine cover story . " Producer Pete Rock , who was commissioned to remix the track , alleged that Puffy stole the idea for the original song 's beat after hearing it from him during a visit . Rock explained this in an interview with Wax Poetics :
I did the original version , didn 't get credit for it . They came to my house , heard the beat going on the drum machine , it 's the same story . You come downstairs at my crib , you hear music . He heard that shit and the next thing you know it comes out . They had me do a remix , but I tell people , and I will fight it to the end , that I did the original version of that . I 'm not mad at anybody , I just want the correct credit .
" Big Poppa " was released as the second single on February 20 , 1995 and like the previous single , it was a hit on multiple charts . It reached number six on the Billboard Hot 100 , number four on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks and number one on Hot Rap Singles . It sold over a million units and the RIAA certified it Platinum on May 23 , 1995 . Featuring production by Combs and Chucky Thompson of The Hitmen , it samples " Between the Sheets " by The Isley Brothers . The song was nominated at the 1996 Grammy Awards for Best Rap Solo Performance , but lost to Coolio 's " Gangsta 's Paradise " . Steve Huey named it an " overweight @-@ lover anthem " .
" One More Chance " was released as the third single on June 9 , 1995 . The single was a remix of the album track . It was produced by Combs and featured a sample from DeBarge 's " Stay With Me " . It peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached number one on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks and Hot Rap Singles . It sold over a million copies and the RIAA certified it Platinum on July 31 , 1995 . Steve Huey labeled it a " graphic sex rap " . Rolling Stone writer Cheo H. Coker had a similar view of the song , noting that it was " one of the bawdiest sex raps since Kool G Rap 's classic , " Talk Like Sex " and continued , stating it " proves hilarious simply because of B.I.G. ' s Dolemitelike vulgarity . "
= = Commercial success = =
The album shipped 57 @,@ 000 units in its first week of release . However , it was then certified gold by the RIAA only two months after its release on November 16 , 1994 , and was certified double platinum on October 16 , 1995 , only a year and one month after its release . Ready to Die was then certified triple platinum on August 26 , 1998 and was later certified 4x platinum by the RIAA on October 19 , 1999
= = Critical reception = =
Ready to Die received critical acclaim from music critics . In his review for Rolling Stone , Cheo H. Cocker stated " Ready to Die is the strongest solo rap debut since Ice Cube 's Amerikkka 's Most Wanted . From the breathtakingly visual moments of his birth to his Cobainesque end in " Suicidal Thoughts , " B.I.G. proves a captivating listen . It 's difficult to get him out of your head once you sample what he has to offer " . Robert Christgau from The Village Voice commented " His sex raps are erotic , his jokes are funny , and his music makes the thug life sound scary rather than luxuriously laid back . When he considers suicide , I not only take him at his word , I actively hope he finds another way " . The New York Times wrote " Though drug dealing carries tremendous heroic value with some young urban dwellers , he sacrifices the figure 's romantic potential . His raps acknowledge both the excitement of drug dealing and the stress caused by the threat from other dealers , robbers , the police and parents , sometimes one 's own . In presenting the downside of that life , Ready to Die offers perhaps the most balanced and honest portrait of the dealer 's life of any in hip @-@ hop " .
Q magazine gave Ready to Die three out of five stars , and stated " the natural rapping , clever use of sound effects and acted dialogue , and concept element ( from a baby being born at the start to the fading heartbeat at the end ) set this well apart from the average gangsta bragging " . In their original review for Ready to Die , The Source gave it four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five ' mics ' , stating " Big weaves tales like a cinematographer , each song is like another scene in his lifestyle . Overall , this package is complete : ridiculous beats , harmonizing honeys , ill sound effects , criminal scenarios , and familiar hooks " . In 1996 , acclaimed singer @-@ songwriter Randy Newman enthused " It 's one of the best records ever made . It 's a strange album in that the first cut says , ' Oh , back in the old days was everybody was shootin ' everybody … ' and ' Let 's stop killing each other ' , and then the rest of the record is all about people killing each other . It 's the damnedest thing ; I don 't know what the hell he had in mind … It 's like when Public Enemy would put out a record and it was noticeably classier than all the other rap stuff at the time . "
= = = Retrospect = = =
In retrospect , Ready to Die has been highly acclaimed . In 1998 , The Source included it on their 100 Best Rap Albums of All Time list , and in 2002 , they re @-@ rated it to the maximum five ' mics ' . Rolling Stone has also given acclaim to Ready to Die over the years . In 2003 , they ranked it number 133 on their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list , and one year later , they re @-@ rated it to five stars . In 2011 , Rolling Stone also placed it at number eight on their 100 Best Albums of the Nineties list , and described it as " mapping out the sound of ' '90 's cool " . Kilian Murphy from Stylus Magazine wrote favorably of the album in a retrospective review , and concluded " Sweet , hypocritical , sensitive , violent , depressed and jubilant ; these words could all fittingly describe Big at various points on Ready to Die . "
Steve Huey from AllMusic gave it five stars , stating " The album that reinvented East Coast rap for the gangsta age , Ready to Die made the Notorious B.I.G. a star . Today it 's recognized as one of the greatest hardcore rap albums ever recorded , and that 's mostly due to Biggie 's skill as a storyteller " . In 2006 , Time magazine included it on their 100 Greatest Albums of All Time list , and stated " On Ready to Die , Wallace took his street corner experiences and filtered them through his considerable charm . The result was a record that mixed long stretches of menace with romance and lots of humor . No rapper ever made multi @-@ syllabic rhymes sound as smooth " . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = = Accolades = = =
The information regarding accolades is adapted from Acclaimedmusic.net , except for lists that are sourced otherwise .
( * ) signifies unordered lists
= = Track listing = =
= = = Samples = = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
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= SMS Árpád =
SMS Árpád was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the early 20th century . She was launched on 11 September 1901 as the second of three Habsburg @-@ class battleships . Along with her sister ships , she participated at the bombardment of Ancona during World War I. Due to a shortage of coal , she was soon decommissioned after the bombardment of Ancona and used as harbor defense ship for the remainder of the war . After the war , all of the Habsburg @-@ class battleships were ceded to Great Britain as war prizes . She was scrapped in Italy in 1921 .
= = Construction and layout = =
Árpád was the second of three battleships of her class . Her hull was laid down on 10 June 1899 at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste . Following more than two years of construction , she was launched on 11 September 1901 . After final fitting @-@ out work was finished , Árpád was fully ready for service and commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 15 June 1903 .
Like all ships of her class , Árpád was 113 @.@ 11 m ( 371 ft 1 in ) long at the waterline and was 114 @.@ 55 m ( 375 ft 10 in ) in overall length . She had a beam of 19 @.@ 8 m ( 65 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 5 m ( 24 ft 7 in ) . Freeboard was approximately 5 @.@ 8 m ( 19 ft ) forward and about 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) aft . She also displaced 8 @,@ 364 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 232 long tons ) . Once construction on her had finished and she was commissioned into the Navy , Árpád had a crew of 638 officers and enlisted men .
Árpád was powered by 2 @-@ shaft , 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines , which were supplied with steam by 16 Belleville boilers . Árpád 's power output was rated at 14 @,@ 307 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 669 kW ) , which produced a top speed of 19 @.@ 65 knots ( 36 @.@ 39 km / h ; 22 @.@ 61 mph ) .
The hull for the ship was constructed from longitudinal and transverse steel frames , over which the outer hull plates were riveted into place . The hull incorporated a double bottom that ran for 63 % of the ship 's length . A series of watertight bulkheads also extended from the keel to the gun deck . All in all , there was a total of 174 watertight compartments in the ship . Árpád had a metacentric height of between .82 m ( 2 @.@ 7 ft ) and 1 @.@ 02 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . Bilge keels were mounted on either side of the hull to reduce rolling and prevent her from capsizing . Árpád had a flush main deck that was planked with wood , while the upper decks were covered with linoleum or corticine .
Árpád had three 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) L / 40 guns , two mounted in a twin turret forward and one mounted in a single turret aft of the main superstructure . The C 97 @-@ type guns were manufactured by Krupp in Germany . The main guns fired at a rate of between three and four 215 kg ( 474 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells per minute . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 40 guns in casemates . These guns could fire at 4 – 5 shells per minute . She was built with face @-@ hardened chrome @-@ nickel steel . The main armored belt was 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) in the central portion of the ship , where the ammunition magazines , machinery spaces , and other critical areas were located . The belt tapered slightly to 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) on either end of the central section .
= = Service history = =
= = = Peacetime = = =
Árpád took part in her first fleet maneuvers in mid @-@ 1903 with her sister ship Habsburg . The third sister , Babenberg , was commissioned in Summer 1904 , and participated in successive fleet drills . Following a series of simulated war games pitting Árpád and her sister ships against the three Monarch @-@ class battleships , Árpád and the other two Habsburg @-@ class ships became the I Battleship Division . This new division was active in the Mediterranean region . When Habsburg underwent a training cruise with the three Monarch @-@ class battleships in January 1903 , Árpád joined her the next year in a voyage around the Mediterranean Sea . With the commissioning of the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships in 1906 and 1907 , the Habsburg @-@ class ships were transferred from the I to the II Battleship Division , and the three Monarch @-@ class battleships were moved from the II to the III Battleship Division . In 1910 – 1911 , Árpád had one of her superstructure decks removed to reduce weight .
= = = World War I = = =
Early in World War I , Árpád was transferred to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's IV Division after the first new Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships came into service . At around the same time , Árpád , her sister ships Habsburg and Babenberg and the remainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy were mobilized to support the flight of SMS Goeben and Breslau from 28 July to 10 August 1914 . The two German ships were stationed in the Mediterranean and were attempting to break out of the strait of Messina , which was surrounded by British vessels . After breaking out , the German ships planned to steam to Turkey . After the Germans successfully broke out of Messina , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was recalled . The fleet had by that time advanced as far south as Brindisi in southeastern coast of Italy . After Italy entered the war on the side of France and Great Britain , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy bombarded several Italian port cities along the Adriatic coast . Árpád took part in the Bombardment of Ancona on 23 May 1915 .
Due to a coal shortage , Árpád was later decommissioned and re @-@ purposed as a harbor defense ship for the latter half of the war . Árpád 's crew was transferred to man the new U @-@ boats and aircraft . Following the war , Árpád , along with her sister ships , were awarded to Great Britain as war prizes . They were sold to Italy and broken up for scrap in 1921 .
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= History of the United States Navy =
The history of the United States Navy divides into two major periods : the " Old Navy " , a small but respected force of sailing ships that was also notable for innovation in the use of ironclads during the American Civil War , and the " New Navy " , the result of a modernization effort that began in the 1880s and made it the largest in the world by the 1920s .
The United States Navy claims 13 October 1775 as the date of its official establishment , when the Second Continental Congress passed a resolution creating the Continental Navy . With the end of the American Revolutionary War , the Continental Navy was disbanded . Under President George Washington threats to American merchant shipping by Barbary pirates from 4 north African Muslim States , in the Mediterranean , led to the Naval Act of 1794 , which created a permanent standing U.S. Navy . The original six frigates were authorized as part of the Act . Over the next 20 years , the Navy fought the French Navy in the Quasi @-@ War ( 1798 – 99 ) , Barbary states in the First and Second Barbary Wars , and the British in the War of 1812 . After the War of 1812 , the U.S. Navy was at peace until the Mexican – American War in 1846 , and served to combat piracy in the Mediterranean and Caribbean seas , as well fighting the slave trade . In 1845 , the Naval Academy was founded . In 1861 , the American Civil War began and the U.S. Navy fought the small Confederate Navy with both sailing ships and ironclad ships while forming a blockade that shut down the Confederacy 's civilian shipping . After the Civil war , most of the its ships were laid up in reserve , and by 1878 , the Navy was just 6 @,@ 000 men .
In 1882 , the U.S. Navy consisted of many outdated ship designs . Over the next decade , Congress approved building multiple modern armored cruisers and battleships , and by around the start of the 20th century had moved from twelfth place in 1870 to fifth place in terms of numbers of ships . After winning two major battles during the 1898 Spanish – American War , the Navy continued to build more ships , and by the end of World War I had more men and women in uniform than the Royal Navy . The Washington Naval Conference recognized the Navy as equal in capital ship size to the Royal Navy , and during the 1920s and 1930s , the Navy built several aircraft carriers and battleships . The Navy was drawn into World War II after the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 , and over the next four years fought many historic battles including the Battle of the Coral Sea , the Battle of Midway , multiple naval battles during the Guadalcanal Campaign , and the largest naval battle in history , the Battle of Leyte Gulf . Much of the Navy 's activity concerned the support of landings , not only with the " island @-@ hopping " campaign in the Pacific , but also with the European landings . When the Japanese surrendered , a large flotilla entered Tokyo Bay to witness the formal ceremony conducted on the battleship Missouri , on which officials from the Japanese government signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender . By the end of the war , the Navy had over 1 @,@ 600 warships .
After World War II ended , the U.S. Navy entered the Cold War and participated in the Korean War , the Vietnam War , the Persian Gulf War , and the Iraq War . Following the collapse of the Soviet Union , the Soviet Navy fell apart , which made the United States the world 's undisputed naval superpower . Nuclear power and ballistic missile technology led to new ship propulsion and weapon systems , which were used in the Nimitz @-@ class aircraft carriers and Ohio @-@ class submarines . By 1978 , the number of ships had dwindled to less than 400 , many of which were from World War II , which prompted Ronald Reagan to institute a program for a modern , 600 @-@ ship Navy . Today , the United States is the world 's undisputed naval superpower , with the ability to engage and project power in two simultaneous limited wars along separate fronts . In March 2007 , the U.S. Navy reached its smallest fleet size , with 274 ships , since World War I. Former U.S. Navy admirals who head the U.S. Naval Institute have raised concerns about what they see as the ability to respond to ' aggressive moves by Iran and China.'
= = Foundations of the " Old Navy " = =
= = = Continental Navy ( 1775 – 1785 ) = = =
The Navy was rooted in the American seafaring tradition , which produced a large community of sailors , captains and shipbuilders in the colonial era . During the Revolution , several states operated their own navies . On 12 June 1775 , the Rhode Island General Assembly passed a resolution creating a navy for the colony of Rhode Island . The same day , Governor Nicholas Cooke signed orders addressed to Captain Abraham Whipple , commander of the sloop Katy , and commodore of the armed vessels employed by the government .
The first formal movement for the creation of a Continental navy came from Rhode Island , because its merchants ' widespread smuggling activities had been severely harassed by British frigates . On 26 August 1775 , Rhode Island passed a resolution that there be a single Continental fleet funded by the Continental Congress . The resolution was introduced in the Continental Congress on 3 October 1775 , but was tabled . In the meantime , George Washington had begun to acquire ships , starting with the schooner USS Hannah which was paid for out of Washington 's own pocket . Hannah was commissioned and launched on 5 September 1775 , from the port of Marblehead , Massachusetts .
The US Navy recognizes 13 October 1775 as the date of its official establishment — the date of the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia , Pennsylvania that created the Continental Navy . On this day , Congress authorized the purchase of two vessels to be armed for a cruise against British merchant ships . Congress on 13 December 1775 , authorized the building of thirteen frigates within the next three months , five ships of 32 guns , five with 28 guns and three with 24 guns .
On Lake Champlain , Benedict Arnold ordered the construction of 12 Navy vessels to slow down the British fleet that was invading New York from Canada . The British fleet did destroy Arnold 's fleet , but the U.S. fleet managed to slow down the British after a two @-@ day battle , known as the Battle of Valcour Island , and managed to slow the progression of the British Army . By mid @-@ 1776 , a number of ships , ranging up to and including the thirteen frigates approved by Congress , were under construction , but their effectiveness was limited ; they were completely outmatched by the mighty Royal Navy , and nearly all were captured or sunk by 1781 .
Privateers had some success , with 1 @,@ 697 letters of marque being issued by Congress . Individual states , American agents in Europe and in the Caribbean also issued commissions ; taking duplications into account more than 2 @,@ 000 commissions were issued by the various authorities . Over 2 @,@ 200 British ships were taken by Yankee privateers , amounting to almost $ 66 million , a significant sum at the time .
One particularly notable American naval hero of the Revolution was John Paul Jones , who in his famous voyage around the British Isles defeated the British ship Serapis ( 1779 ) in the Battle of Flamborough Head . Partway through the battle , with the rigging of the two ships entangled , and several guns of Jones ' ship Bonhomme Richard ( 1765 ) out of action , the captain of Serapis asked Jones if he had struck his colors , to which Jones has been quoted as replying , " I have not yet begun to fight ! "
France officially entered the war on 17 June 1778 , and the ships of the French Navy sent to the Western Hemisphere spent most of the year in the West Indies , and only sailed near the Thirteen Colonies during the Caribbean hurricane season from July until November . The first French fleet attempted landings in New York and Rhode Island , but ultimately failed to engage British forces during 1778 . In 1779 , a fleet commanded by Vice Admiral Charles Henri , comte d 'Estaing assisted American forces attempting to recapture Savvanah , Georgia .
In 1780 , a fleet with 6 @,@ 000 troops commanded by Lieutenant General Jean @-@ Baptiste , comte de Rochambeau landed at Newport , Rhode Island , and shortly afterwards the fleet was blockaded by the British . In early 1781 , Washington and de Rochambeau planned an attack against the British in the Chesapeake Bay area to coordinate with the arrival of a large fleet commanded by Vice Admiral François , comte de Grasse . Successfully deceiving the British that an attack was planned in New York , Washington and de Rochambeau marched to Virginia , and de Grasse began landing forces near Yorktown , Virginia . On 5 September 1781 a major naval action was fought by de Grasse and the British at the Battle of the Virginia Capes , ending with the French fleet in control of the Chesapeake Bay . The U.S. Navy continued to interdict British supply ships until peace was finally declared in late 1783 .
= = = Disarmament ( 1785 – 1794 ) = = =
The Revolutionary War was ended by the Treaty of Paris in 1783 , and by 1785 the Continental Navy was disbanded and the remaining ships were sold . The frigate Alliance , which had fired the last shots of the American Revolutionary War , was also the last ship in the Navy . A faction within Congress wanted to keep the ship , but the new nation did not have the funds to keep her in service . Other than a general lack of money , other factors for the disarmament of the navy were the loose confederation of the states , a change of goals from war to peace , and more domestic and fewer foreign interests .
After the American Revolutionary War the brand @-@ new United States struggled to stay financially afloat . National income was desperately needed and most came from tariffs on imported goods . Because of rampant smuggling , the need was immediate for strong enforcement of tariff laws . On 4 August 1790 the United States Congress , urged on by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton , created the Revenue @-@ Marine , the forerunner for the United States Coast Guard , to enforce the tariff and all other maritime laws . Ten cutters were initially ordered . Between 1790 and 1797 when the Navy Department was created , the Revenue @-@ Marine was the only armed maritime service for the United States .
American merchant shipping had been protected by the British Navy , and as a consequence of the Treaty of Paris and the disarmament of the Continental Navy , the United States no longer had any protection for its ships from pirates . The fledgling nation did not have the funds to pay annual tribute to the Barbary states , so their ships were vulnerable for capture after 1785 . By 1789 , the new Constitution of the United States authorized Congress to create a navy , but during George Washington 's first term ( 1787 – 1793 ) little was done to rearm the navy . In 1793 , the French Revolutionary Wars between Great Britain and France began , and a truce negotiated between Portugal and Algiers ended Portugal 's blockade of the Strait of Gibraltar which had kept the Barbary pirates in the Mediterranean . Soon after , the pirates sailed into the Atlantic , and captured 11 American merchant ships and more than a hundred seamen .
In reaction to the seizure of the American vessels , Congress debated and approved the Naval Act of 1794 , which authorized the building of six frigates , four of 44 guns and two of 36 guns . Supporters were mostly from the northern states and the coastal regions , who argued the Navy would result in savings in insurance and ransom payments , while opponents from southern states and inland regions thought a navy was not worth the expense and would drive the United States into more costly wars .
= = = Establishment ( 1794 – 1812 ) = = =
After the passage of the Naval Act of 1794 , work began on the construction of the six frigates : USS United States , President , Constellation , Chesapeake , Congress , and Constitution . Constitution , launched in 1797 and the most famous of the six , was nicknamed " Old Ironsides " ( like the earlier HMS Britannia ) and , thanks to the efforts of Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. , is still in existence today , anchored in Boston harbor . Soon after the bill was passed , Congress authorized $ 800 @,@ 000 to obtain a treaty with the Algerians and ransom the captives , triggering an amendment of the Act which would halt the construction of ships if peace was declared . After considerable debate , three of the six frigates were authorized to be completed : United States , Constitution and Constellation . However , the first naval vessel to sail was USS Ganges , on 24 May 1798 .
At the same time , tensions between the U.S. and France developed into the Quasi @-@ War , which originated from the Treaty of Alliance ( 1778 ) that had brought the French into the Revolutionary War . The United States preferred to take a position of neutrality in the conflicts between France and Britain , but this put the nation at odds with both Britain and France . After the Jay Treaty was authorized with Britain in 1794 , France began to side against the United States and by 1797 they had seized over 300 American vessels . The newly inaugurated President John Adams took steps to deal with the crisis , working with Congress to finish the three almost @-@ completed frigates , approving funds to build the other three , and attempting to negotiate an agreement similar to the Jay Treaty with France . The XYZ Affair originated with a report distributed by Adams where alleged French agents were identified by the letters X , Y , and Z who informed the delegation a bribe must be paid before the diplomats could meet with the foreign minister , and the resulting scandal increased popular support in the country for a war with France . Concerns about the War Department 's ability to manage a navy led to the creation of the Department of the Navy , which was established on 30 April 1798 .
The war with France was fought almost entirely at sea , mostly between privateers and merchant ships . The first victory for the United States Navy was on 7 July 1798 when USS Delaware captured the French privateer Le Croyable , and the first victory over an enemy warship was on 9 February 1799 when the frigate Constellation captured the French frigate L 'Insurgente . By the end of 1800 , peace with France had been declared , and in 1801 , to prevent a second disarmament of the Navy , the outgoing Federalist administration rushed through Congress an act authorizing a peacetime navy for the first time , which limited the navy to six active frigates and seven in ordinary , as well as 45 officers and 150 midshipmen . The remainder of the ships in service were sold and the dismissed officers were given four months pay .
The problems with the Barbary states had never gone away , and on 10 May 1801 the Tripolitans declared war on the United States by chopping down the flag in front of the American Embassy , which began the First Barbary War . USS Philadelphia was captured by the Moors , but then set on fire in an American raid led by Stephen Decatur . The Marines invaded the " shores of Tripoli " in 1805 , capturing the city of Derna , the first time the U.S. flag ever flew over a foreign conquest . This act was enough to induce the Barbary rulers to sign peace treaties . Subsequently the Navy was greatly reduced for reasons of economy , and instead of regular ships , many gunboats were built , intended for coastal use only . This policy proved completely ineffective within a decade .
President Thomas Jefferson and his Republican party opposed a strong navy , arguing that small gunboats in the major harbors were all the nation needed to defend itself . They proved useless in wartime .
The Royal Navy continued to illegally press American sailors into the Royal Navy ; an estimated 10 @,@ 000 sailors between 1799 and 1812 . In 1807 , in the Chesapeake @-@ Leopard Affair , HMS Leopard demanded that USS Chesapeake submit to an inspection , ostensibly looking for British citizens but in reality looking for any suitable sailors to press into the Royal Navy . Leopard severely damaged Chesapeake when she refused . The most violent of many such encounters , the affair further fueled the tensions and in June 1812 the U.S. declared war on Britain .
= = = War of 1812 ( 1812 – 1815 ) = = =
Much of the war was expected to be fought at sea ; and within an hour of the announcement of war , the diminutive American navy set forth to do battle with an opponent outnumbering it 50 @-@ to @-@ 1 . After two months , USS Constitution sank HMS Guerriere ; Guerriere 's crew were most dismayed to see their cannonballs bouncing off the Constitution 's unusually strong live oak hull , giving her the enduring nickname of " Old Ironsides " . On 29 December 1812 Constitution defeated HMS Java off the coast of Brazil and Java was burned after the Americans determined she could not be salvaged . On 25 October 1812 , USS United States captured HMS Macedonian ; after the battle Macedonian was captured and entered into American service . In 1813 , USS Essex commenced a very fruitful raiding venture into the South Pacific , preying upon the British merchant and whaling industry . The Essex was already known for her capture of HMS Alert and a British transport the previous year , and gained further success capturing 15 British merchantmen / whalers . The British finally took action , dispatching HMS Cherub and HMS Phoebe to stop the Essex . After violating Chile 's neutrality , the British captured the Essex in the Battle of Valparaíso .
The capture of the three British frigates led the British to deploy more vessels on the American seaboard to tighten the blockade . On 1 June 1813 , off Boston Harbor , the frigate USS Chesapeake , commanded by Captain James Lawrence , was captured by the British frigate HMS Shannon under Captain Sir Philip Broke . Lawrence was mortally wounded and famously cried out , " Don 't give up the ship ! " . Despite their earlier successes , by 1814 many of the Navy 's best ships were blockaded in port and unable to prevent British incursions on land via the sea .
During the summer of 1814 , the British fought the Chesapeake Campaign , which was climaxed by amphibious assaults against Washington and Baltimore . The capital fell to the British almost without a fight , and several ships were burned at the Washington Navy Yard , including the 44 @-@ gun frigate USS Columbia . At Baltimore , the bombardment by Fort McHenry inspired Francis Scott Key to write " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " , and the hulks blocking the channel prevented the fleet from entering the harbor ; the army reembarked on the ships , ending the battle .
The American naval victories at the Battle of Lake Champlain and Battle of Lake Erie halted the final British offensive in the north and helped to deny the British exclusive rights to the Great Lakes in the Treaty of Ghent . Shortly before the treaty was signed , USS President was captured by 4 British frigates . Three days after the treaty was signed , the Constitution captured HMS Levant and Cyane . The final naval action of the war occurred almost 5 months after the treaty on 30 June 1815 when the sloop USS Peacock captured the East India Company brig Nautilus , the last enemy ship captured by the U.S. Navy until World War II .
= = = Continental Expansion ( 1815 – 1861 ) = = =
After the war , the Navy 's accomplishments paid off in the form of better funding , and it embarked on the construction of many new ships . However , the expense of the larger ships was prohibitive , and many of them stayed in shipyards half @-@ completed , in readiness for another war , until the Age of Sail had almost completely passed . The main force of the Navy continued to be large sailing frigates with a number of smaller sloops during the three decades of peace . By the 1840s , the Navy began to adopt steam power and shell guns , but they lagged behind the French and British in adopting the new technologies .
Enlisted sailors during this time included many foreign @-@ born men , and native @-@ born Americans were usually social outcasts who had few other employment options or they were trying to escape punishment for crimes . In 1835 , almost 3 @,@ 000 men sailed with merchant ships out of Boston harbor , but only 90 men were recruited by the Navy . It was unlawful for black men to serve in the Navy , but the shortage of men was so acute this law was frequently ignored .
Discipline followed the customs of the Royal Navy but punishment was much milder than typical in European navies . Sodomy was rarely prosecuted . The Army abolished flogging as a punishment in 1812 , but the Navy kept it until 1850 .
During the War of 1812 , the Barbary states took advantage of the weakness of the United States Navy to again capture American merchant ships and sailors . After the Treaty of Ghent was signed , the United States looked at ending the piracy in the Mediterranean which had plagued American merchants for two decades . On 3 March 1815 , the U.S. Congress authorized deployment of naval power against Algiers , beginning the Second Barbary War . Two powerful squadrons under the command of Commodores Stephen Decatur , Jr. and William Bainbridge , including the 74 @-@ gun ships of the line Washington , Independence , and Franklin , were dispatched to the Mediterranean . Shortly after departing Gibraltar en route to Algiers , Decatur 's squadron encountered the Algerian flagship Meshuda , and , in the Action of 17 June 1815 , captured it . Not long afterward , the American squadron likewise captured the Algerian brig Estedio in the Battle off Cape Palos . By June , the squadrons had reached Algiers and peace was negotiated with the Dey , including a return of captured vessels and men , a guarantee of no further tributes and a right to trade in the region .
Piracy in the Caribbean sea was also a major problem , and between 1815 and 1822 an estimated 3 @,@ 000 ships were captured by pirates . In 1819 , Congress authorized President James Madison to deal with this threat , and since many of the pirates were privateers of the newly independent states of Latin America , he decided to embark on a strategy of diplomacy backed up by the guns of the Navy . An agreement with Venezuela was reached in 1819 , but ships were still regularly captured until a military campaign by the West India Squadron , under the command of David Porter , used a combination of large frigates escorting merchant ships backed by many small craft searching small coves and islands , and capturing pirate vessels . During this campaign USS Sea Gull became the first steam @-@ powered ship to see combat action . Although isolated instances of piracy continued into the 1830s , by 1826 the frequent attacks had ended and the region was declared free for commerce .
Another international problem was the slave trade , and the African squadron was formed in 1820 to deal with this threat . Politically , the suppression of the slave trade was unpopular , and the squadron was withdrawn in 1823 ostensibly to deal with piracy in the Caribbean , and did not return to the African coast until the passage of the Webster – Ashburton treaty with Britain in 1842 . After the treaty was passed , the United States used fewer ships than the treaty required , ordered the ships based far from the coast of Africa , and used ships that were too large to operate close to shore . Between 1845 and 1850 , the United States Navy captured only 10 slave vessels , while the British captured 423 vessels carrying 27 @,@ 000 captives .
Congress formally authorized the establishment of the United States Military Academy in 1802 , but it took almost 50 years to approve a similar school for naval officers . During the long period of peace between 1815 and 1846 , midshipmen had few opportunities for promotion , and their warrants were often obtained via patronage . The poor quality of officer training in the U.S. Navy became visible after the Somers Affair , an alleged mutiny aboard the training ship USS Somers in 1842 , and the subsequent execution of midshipman Philip Spencer . George Bancroft , appointed Secretary of the Navy in 1845 , decided to work outside of congressional approval and create a new academy for officers . He formed a council led by Commodore Perry to create a new system for training officers , and turned the old Fort Severn at Annapolis into a new institution in 1845 which would be designated as the United States Naval Academy by Congress in 1851 .
Naval forces participated in the effort to forcibly move the Seminole Indians from Florida to a reservation west of the Mississippi . After a massacre of army soldiers near Tampa on 28 December 1835 , marines and sailors were added to the forces which fought the Second Seminole War from 1836 until 1842 . A " mosquito fleet " was formed in the Everglades out of various small craft to transport a mixture of army and navy personnel to pursue the Seminoles into the swamps . About 1 @,@ 500 soldiers were killed during the conflict , some Seminoles agreed to move but a small group of Seminoles remained in control of the Everglades and the area around Lake Okeechobee .
The Navy played a role in two major operations of the Mexican – American War ( 1845 – 1848 ) ; during the Battle of Veracruz , it transported the invasion force that captured Veracruz by landing 12 @,@ 000 troops and their equipment in one day , leading eventually to the capture of Mexico City , and the end of the war . Its Pacific Squadron 's ships facilitated the capture of California .
In 1853 Commodore Matthew Perry led the Perry Expedition , a squadron of four ships which sailed to Japan to establish normal relations with Japan . Perry 's two technologically advanced steam @-@ powered ships and calm , firm diplomacy convinced Japan to end three centuries of isolation and sign Treaty of Kanagawa with the U.S. in 1854 . Nominally a treaty of friendship , the agreement soon paved the way for the opening of Japan and normal trade relations with the United States and Europe .
= = = American Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) = = =
Between the beginning of the war and the end of 1861 , 373 commissioned officers , warrant officers , and midshipmen resigned or were dismissed from the United States Navy and went on to serve the Confederacy . On 20 April 1861 , the Union burned its ships that were at the Norfolk Navy Yard to prevent their capture by the Confederates , but not all of the ships were completely destroyed . The screw frigate USS Merrimack was so hastily scuttled that her hull and steam engine were basically intact , which gave the South 's Stephen Mallory the idea of raising her and then armoring the upper sides with iron plate . The resulting ship was named CSS Virginia . Meanwhile , John Ericsson had similar ideas , and received funding to build USS Monitor .
Winfield Scott , the commanding general of the U.S. Army at the beginning of the war , devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible . His idea was that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy ; then the capture of the Mississippi River would split the South . Lincoln adopted the plan in terms of a blockade to squeeze to death the Confederate economy , but overruled Scott 's warnings that his new army was not ready for an offensive operation because public opinion demanded an immediate attack .
On 8 March 1862 , the Confederate Navy initiated the first combat between ironclads when the Virginia successfully attacked the blockade . The next day , the Monitor engaged the Virginia in the Battle of Hampton Roads . Their battle ended in a draw , and the Confederacy later lost the Virginia when the ship was scuttled to prevent capture . The Monitor was the prototype for the monitor warship and many more were built by the Union Navy . While the Confederacy built more ironclad ships during the war , they lacked the ability to build or purchase ships that could effectively counter the monitors .
Along with ironclad ships , the new technologies of naval mines , which were known as torpedoes after the torpedo eel , and submarine warfare were introduced during the war by the Confederacy . During the Battle of Mobile Bay , mines were used to protect the harbor and sank the Union monitor USS Tecumseh . After Tecumseh sank , Admiral David G. Farragut famously said , " Damn the torpedoes , full speed ahead ! " . The forerunner of the modern submarine , CSS David , attacked USS New Ironsides using a spar torpedo . The Union ship was barely damaged and the resulting geyser of water put out the fires in the submarine 's boiler , rendering the submarine immobile . Another submarine , CSS H.L. Hunley , was designed to dive and surface but ultimately did not work well and sank on five occasions during trials . In action against USS Housatonic the submarine successfully sank its target but was lost by the same explosion .
The Confederate States of America operated a number of commerce raiders and blockade runners , CSS Alabama being the most famous , and British investors built small , fast blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Bermuda , Cuba , and The Bahamas in return for high @-@ priced cotton and tobacco . When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner , the ship and cargo were sold and the proceeds given to the Navy sailors ; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released .
The blockade of the South caused the Southern economy to collapse during the war . Shortages of food and supplies were caused by the blockade , the failure of Southern railroads , the loss of control of the main rivers , and foraging by Union and Confederate armies . The standard of living fell even as large @-@ scale printing of paper money caused inflation and distrust of the currency . By 1864 the internal food distribution had broken down , leaving cities without enough food and causing food riots across the Confederacy . The Union victory at the Second Battle of Fort Fisher in January 1865 closed the last useful Southern port , virtually ending blockade running and hastening the end of the war .
= = = Decline of the Navy ( 1865 – 1882 ) = = =
After the war , the Navy went into a period of decline . In 1864 , the Navy had 51 @,@ 500 men in uniform , and almost 700 ships and about 60 monitor @-@ type coastal ironclads which made the U.S. Navy the second largest in the world after the Royal Navy . By 1880 the Navy only had 48 ships in commission , 6 @,@ 000 men , and the ships and shore facilities were decrepit but Congress saw no need to spend money to improve them . The Navy was unprepared to fight a major maritime war before 1897 .
In 1871 , an expedition of five warships commanded by Rear Admiral John Rodgers was sent to Korea to obtain an apology for the murders of several shipwrecked American sailors and secure a treaty to protect shipwrecked foreigners in the future . After a small skirmish , Rodgers launched an amphibious assault of approximately 650 men on the forts protecting Seoul . Despite the capture of the forts , the Koreans refused to negotiate , and the expedition was forced to leave before the start of typhoon season . Nine sailors and six marines received Medals of Honor for their acts of heroism during the Korean campaign ; the first for actions in a foreign conflict .
By the 1870s most of the ironclads from the Civil War were laid up in reserve , leaving the United States virtually without an ironclad fleet . When the Virginius Affair first broke out in 1873 , a Spanish ironclad happened to be anchored in New York Harbor , leading to the uncomfortable realization on the part of the U.S. Navy that it had no ship capable of defeating such a vessel . The Navy hastily issued contracts for the construction of five new ironclads , and accelerated its existing repair program for several more . USS Puritan and the four Amphitrite @-@ class monitors were subsequently built as a result of the Virginius war scare . All five vessels would later take part in the Spanish – American War of 1898 .
By the time the Garfield administration assumed office in 1881 , the Navy 's condition had deteriorated still further . A review conducted on behalf of the new Secretary of the Navy , William H. Hunt , found that of 140 vessels on the Navy 's active list , only 52 were in an operational state , of which a mere 17 were iron @-@ hulled ships , including 14 aging Civil War era ironclads . Hunt recognized the necessity of modernizing the Navy , and set up an informal advisory board to make recommendations . Also to be expected , morale was considerably down ; officers and sailors in foreign ports were all too aware that their old wooden ships would not survive long in the event of war . The limitations of the monitor type effectively prevented the United States from projecting power overseas , and until the 1890s the United States would have come off badly in a conflict with even Spain or the Latin American powers .
= = " New Navy " = =
= = = Rebuilding ( 1882 – 1898 ) = = =
In 1882 , on the recommendation of an advisory panel , the Navy Secretary William H. Hunt requested funds from Congress to construct modern ships . The request was rejected initially , but in 1883 Congress authorized the construction of three protected cruisers , USS Chicago , USS Boston , and USS Atlanta , and the dispatch vessel USS Dolphin , together known as the ABCD ships . In 1885 , two more protected cruisers , USS Charleston and USS Newark which was the last American cruiser to be fitted with a sail rig , were authorized . Congress also authorized the construction of the first battleships in the Navy , USS Texas and USS Maine . The ABCD ships proved to be excellent vessels , and the three cruisers were organized into the Squadron of Evolution , popularly known as the White Squadron because of the color of the hulls , which was used to train a generation of officers and men .
Alfred Thayer Mahan 's book The Influence of Sea Power upon History , 1660 – 1783 , published in 1890 , was very influential in justifying the naval program to the civilian government and to the general public . With the closing of the frontier , some Americans began to look outwards , to the Caribbean , to Hawaii and the Pacific , and with the doctrine of Manifest Destiny as philosophical justification , many saw the Navy as an essential part of realizing that doctrine beyond the limits of the American continent .
In 1890 , Mahan 's doctrine influenced Navy Secretary Benjamin F. Tracy to propose the United States start building no less than 200 ships of all types , but Congress rejected the proposal . Instead , the Navy Act of 1890 authorized building three battleships , USS Indiana , USS Massachusetts , and USS Oregon , followed by USS Iowa . By around the start of the 20th century , two Kearsarge @-@ class battleships and three Illinois @-@ class battleships were completed or under construction , which brought the U.S. Navy from twelfth place in 1870 to fifth place among the world 's navies .
Battle tactics , especially long @-@ range gunnery , became a central concern .
= = = Spanish – American War ( 1898 ) = = =
The United States was interested in purchasing colonies from Spain , specifically Cuba , but Spain refused . Newspapers wrote stories , many which were fabricated , about atrocities committed in Spanish colonies which raised tensions between the two countries . A riot gave the United States an excuse to send USS Maine to Cuba , and the subsequent explosion of Maine in Havana Harbor increased popular support for war with Spain . The cause of the explosion was investigated by a board of inquiry , which in March 1898 came to the conclusion the explosion was caused by a sea mine , and there was pressure from the public to blame Spain for sinking the ship . However , later investigations pointed to an internal explosion in one of the magazines caused by heat from a fire in the adjacent coal bunker .
Assistant Navy secretary Theodore Roosevelt quietly positioned the Navy for attack before the Spanish – American War was declared in April 1898 . The Asiatic Squadron , under the command of George Dewey , immediately left Hong Kong for the Philippines , attacking and decisively defeating the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila Bay . A few weeks later , the North Atlantic Squadron destroyed the majority of heavy Spanish naval units in the Caribbean in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba .
The Navy 's experience in this war was both encouraging , in that it had won , and cautionary , in that the enemy had one of the weakest of the worlds ' modern fleets , and that the Manila Bay attack was extremely risky ; if the American ships had been severely damaged or had run out of supplies , they were 7 @,@ 000 miles from the nearest American harbor . This realization would have a profound effect on Navy strategy , and , indeed , American foreign policy , in the next several decades .
= = = Rise of the Modern Navy ( 1898 – 1914 ) = = =
Fortunately for the New Navy , its most ardent political supporter , Theodore Roosevelt , became President in 1901 . Under his administration , the Navy went from the sixth largest in the world to second only to the Royal Navy . Theodore Roosevelt 's administration became involved in the politics of the Caribbean and Central America , with interventions in 1901 , 1902 , 1903 , and 1906 . At a speech in 1901 , Roosevelt said , " Speak softly and carry a big stick , you will go far " , which was a cornerstone of diplomacy during his presidency .
Roosevelt believed that a U.S.-controlled canal across Central America was a vital strategic interest to the U.S. Navy , because it would significantly shorten travel times for ships between the two coasts . Roosevelt was able to reverse a decision in favor of a Nicaraguan Canal and instead moved to purchase the failed French effort across the Isthmus of Panama . The isthmus was controlled by Colombia , and in early 1903 , the Hay – Herrán Treaty was signed by both nations to give control of the canal to the United States . After the Colombian Senate failed to ratify the treaty , Roosevelt implied to Panamanian rebels that if they revolted , the US Navy would assist their cause for independence . Panama proceeded to proclaim its independence on 3 November 1903 , and USS Nashville impeded any interference from Colombia . The victorious Panamanians allowed the United States control of the Panama Canal Zone on 23 February 1904 , for US $ 10 million . The naval base at Guantanamo Bay , Cuba was built in 1905 to protect the canal .
The latest technological innovation of the time , submarines , were developed in the state of New Jersey by an Irish @-@ American inventor , John Philip Holland . His submarine , USS Holland was officially commissioned into U.S. Navy service in the fall of 1900 . The Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1905 and the launching of HMS Dreadnought in the following year lent impetus to the construction program . At the end of 1907 Roosevelt had sixteen new battleships to make up his " Great White Fleet " , which he sent on a cruise around the world . While nominally peaceful , and a valuable training exercise for the rapidly expanding Navy , it was also useful politically as a demonstration of United States power and capabilities ; at every port , the politicians and naval officers of both potential allies and enemies were welcomed on board and given tours . The cruise had the desired effect , and American power was subsequently taken more seriously .
The voyage taught the Navy more fueling stations were needed around the world , and the strategic potential of the Panama Canal , which was completed in 1914 . The Great White Fleet required almost 50 coaling ships , and during the cruise most of the fleet 's coal was purchased from the British , who could deny access to fuel during a military crisis as they did with Russia during the Russo @-@ Japanese War .
= = = World War I ( 1914 – 1918 ) = = =
= = = = Mexico = = = =
When United States agents discovered that the German merchant ship Ypiranga was carrying illegal arms to Mexico , President Wilson ordered the Navy to stop the ship from docking at the port of Veracruz . On 21 April 1914 , a naval brigade of marines and sailors occupied Veracruz . A total of 55 Medals of Honor were awarded for acts of heroism at Veracruz , the largest number ever granted for a single action .
= = = = Preparing for war 1914 @-@ 1917 = = = =
Despite U.S. declarations of neutrality and German accountability for its unrestricted submarine warfare , in 1915 the British passenger liner Lusitania was sunk , leading to calls for war . President Wilson forced the Germans to suspend unrestricted submarine warfare and after long debate Congress passes the Naval Act of 1916 that authorized a $ 500 million construction program over three years for 10 battleships , 6 battlecruisers , 10 scout cruisers , 50 destroyers and 67 submarines . The idea was a balanced fleet , but in the event destroyers were much more important , because they had to handle uboats and convoys . By the end of the war 273 destroyers had been ordered ; most were finished after World War I ended but many served in World War II . There were few war plans beyond the defense of the main American harbors .
Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels , a pacifistic journalist , had built up the educational resources of the Navy and made its Naval War College an essential experience for would @-@ be admirals . However , he alienated the officer corps with his moralistic reforms , ( no wine in the officers ' mess , no hazing at Annapolis , more chaplains and YMCAs ) . Ignoring the nation 's strategic needs , and disdaining the advice of its experts , Daniels suspended meetings of the Joint Army and Navy Board for two years because it was giving unwelcome advice . He chopped in half the General Board 's recommendations for new ships , reduced the authority of officers in the Navy yards where ships were built and repaired , and ignored the administrative chaos in his department . Bradley Fiske , one of the most innovative admirals in American naval history , in 1914 was Daniels ' top aide ; he recommended a reorganization that would prepare for war , but Daniels refused . Instead he replaced Fiske in 1915 and brought in for the new post of Chief of Naval Operations an unknown captain , William S. Benson . Chosen for his compliance , Benson proved a wily bureaucrat who was more interested in preparing for an eventual showdown with Britain than an immediate one with Germany .
In 1915 Daniels set up the Naval Consulting Board headed by Thomas Edison to obtain the advice and expertise of leading scientists , engineers , and industrialists . It popularized technology , naval expansion , and military preparedness , and was well covered in the media . Daniels and Benson rejected proposals to send observers to Europe , leaving the Navy in the dark about the success of the German submarine campaign . Admiral William Sims charged after the war that in April , 1917 , only ten percent of the Navy 's warships were fully manned ; the rest lacked 43 % of their seamen . Only a third of the ships were fully ready . Light antisubmarine ships were few in number , as if no one had noticed the u @-@ boat factor that had been the focus of foreign policy for two years . The Navy 's only warfighting plan , the " Black Plan " assumed the Royal Navy did not exist and that German battleships were moving freely about the Atlantic and the Caribbean and threatening the Panama Canal . His most recent biographer concludes that , " it is true that Daniels had not prepared the navy for the war it would have to fight . "
= = = = Fighting a world war , 1917 – 18 = = = =
America entered the war in April 1917 and the Navy 's role was mostly limited to convoy escort and troop transport and the laying of a minefield across the North Sea . The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet , destroyers to Queenstown , Ireland and submarines to help guard convoys . Several regiments of Marines were also dispatched to France . The first victory for the Navy in the war occurred on 17 November 1917 when USS Fanning and USS Nicholson sank the German U @-@ boat U @-@ 58 . During World War I , the Navy was the first branch of the United States armed forces to allow enlistment by women in a non @-@ nursing capacity , as Yeoman ( F ) . The first woman to enlist in the U.S. Navy was Loretta Perfectus Walsh on 17 March 1917 .
The Navy 's vast wartime expansion was overseen by civilian officials , especially Assistant Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt . In peacetime , the Navy confined all munitions that lacked civilian uses , including warships , naval guns , and shells to Navy yards . The Navy yards expanded enormously , and subcontracted the shells and explosives to chemical companies like DuPont and Hercules . Items available on the civilian market , such as food and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors . Armor plate and airplanes were purchased on the market .
= = = Inter @-@ war entrenchment and expansion ( 1918 – 1941 ) = = =
At the end of World War I , the United States Navy had almost 500 @,@ 000 officers and enlisted men and women and in terms of personnel was the largest in the world . Younger officers were enthusiastic about the potential of land @-@ based naval aviation as well as the potential roles of aircraft carriers . Chief of Naval Operations Benson was not among them . He tried to abolish aviation in 1919 because he could not " conceive of any use the fleet will ever have for aviation . " However Roosevelt listened to the visionaries and reversed Benson 's decision .
After a short period of demobilization , the major naval nations of the globe began programmes for increasing the size and number of their capital ships . Wilson 's plan for a world @-@ leading set of capital ships led to a Japanese counter @-@ programme , and a plan by the British to build sufficient ships to maintain a navy superior to either . American isolationist feeling and the economic concerns of the others led to the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 . The outcome of the conference included the Washington Naval Treaty ( also known as the Five @-@ Power treaty ) , and limitations on the use of submarines . The Treaty prescribed a ratio of 5 : 5 : 3 : 1 : 1 for capital ships between treaty nations . The treaty recognized the U.S. Navy as being equal to the Royal Navy with 525 @,@ 000 tons of capital ships and 135 @,@ 000 tons of aircraft carriers , and the Japanese as the third power . Many older ships were scrapped by the five nations to meet the treaty limitations , and new building of capital ships limited .
One consequence was to encourage the development of light cruisers and aircraft carriers . The United States 's first carrier , a converted collier named USS Langley was commissioned in 1922 , and soon joined by USS Lexington and USS Saratoga , which had been designed as battlecruisers until the treaty forbade it . Organizationally , the Bureau of Aeronautics was formed in 1921 ; naval aviators would become referred to as members of the United States Naval Air Corps .
Army airman Billy Mitchell challenged the Navy by trying to demonstrate that warships could be destroyed by land @-@ based bombers . He destroyed his career in 1925 by publicly attacking senior leaders in the Army and Navy for incompetence for their " almost treasonable administration of the national defense . "
The Vinson @-@ Trammell Act of 1934 set up a regular program of ship building and modernization to bring the Navy to the maximum size allowed by treaty . The Navy 's preparation was helped along by another Navy assistant secretary turned president , Franklin D. Roosevelt . The naval limitation treaties also applied to bases , but Congress only approved building seaplane bases on Wake Island , Midway Island and Dutch Harbor and rejected any additional funds for bases on Guam and the Philippines . Navy ships were designed with greater endurance and range which allowed them to operate further from bases and between refits .
The Navy had a presence in the Far East with a naval base in the US @-@ owned Philippines and river gunboats in China on the Yangtze River . The gunboat USS Panay was bombed and machine @-@ gunned by Japanese airplanes . Washington quickly accepted Japan 's apologies and compensation .
African @-@ Americans were enlisted during World War I , but this was halted in 1919 and they were mustered out of the Navy . Starting in the 1930s a few were recruited to serve as stewards in the officers mess . African @-@ Americans were recruited in larger numbers only after Roosevelt insisted in 1942 .
The Naval Act of 1936 authorized the first new battleship since 1921 , and USS North Carolina , was laid down in October 1937 . The Second Vinson Act authorized a 20 % increase in the size of the Navy , and in June 1940 the Two @-@ Ocean Navy Act authorized an 11 % expansion in the Navy . Chief of Naval Operations Harold Rainsford Stark asked for another 70 % increase , amounting to about 200 additional ships , which was authorized by Congress in less than a month . In September 1940 , the Destroyers for Bases Agreement gave Britain much @-@ needed destroyers — of WWI vintage — in exchange for United States use of British bases .
In 1941 , the Atlantic Fleet was reactivated . The Navy 's first shot in anger came on 9 April , when the destroyer USS Niblack dropped depth charges on a U @-@ boat detected while Niblack was rescuing survivors from a torpedoed Dutch freighter . In October , the destroyers Kearny and Reuben James were torpedoed , and Reuben James was lost .
= = = = Submarines = = = =
Submarines were the " silent service " — in terms of operating characteristics and the closed @-@ mouth preferences of the submariners . Strategists had , however , been looking into this new type of warship , influenced in large part by Germany 's nearly successful U @-@ boat campaign . As early as 1912 , Lieutenant Chester Nimitz had argued for long @-@ range submarines to accompany the fleet to scout the enemy 's location . The new head of the Submarine Section in 1919 was Captain Thomas Hart , who argued that submarines could win the next war : " There is no quicker or more effective method of defeating Japan than the cutting of her sea communications . " However Hart was astonished to discover how backward American submarines were compared to captured German U @-@ boats , and how unready they were for their mission . The public supported submarines for their coastal protection mission ; they would presumably intercept enemy fleets approaching San Francisco or New York . The Navy realized it was a mission that isolationists in Congress would fund , but it was not actually serious . Old @-@ line admirals said the mission of the subs ought to be as eyes of the battle fleet , and as assistants in battle . That was unfeasible since even on the surface submarines could not move faster than 20 knots , far slower than the 30 knot main warships . The young commanders were organized into a " Submarine Officers ' Conference " in 1926 . They argued they were best suited for the commerce raiding that had been the forte of the U @-@ boats . They therefore redesigned their new boats along German lines , and added the new requirement that they be capable of sailing alone for 7 @,@ 500 miles on a 75 @-@ day mission . Unrestricted submarine warfare had led to war with Germany in 1917 , and was still vigorously condemned both by public opinion and by treaties , including the London Treaty of 1930 . Nevertheless , the submariners planned a role in unrestricted warfare against Japanese merchant ships , transports and oil tankers . The Navy kept its plans secret from civilians . It was an admiral , not President Roosevelt , who within hours of the Pearl Harbor attack , ordered unrestricted warfare against any enemy ship anywhere in the Pacific .
The submariners had won over Navy strategists , but their equipment was not yet capable of handling their secret mission . The challenge of designing appropriate new boats became a high priority by 1934 , and was solved in 1936 as the first new long @-@ range , all welded submarines were launched . Even better were the S @-@ class Salmon class ( launched in 1937 ) , and its successors the T @-@ class or Tambor submarines of 1939 and the Gato class of 1940 . The new models cost about $ 5 – 6 million each . At 300 feet in length and 1500 tons , they were twice as big as the German U @-@ boats , but still highly maneuverable . In only 35 seconds they could crash dive to 60 feet . The superb Mark 3 TDC Torpedo Data Computer ( an analog computer ) took data from periscope or sonar readings on the target 's bearing , range and angle on the bow , and continuously set the course and proper gyroscope angle for a salvo of torpedoes until the moment of firing . Six forward tubes and 4 aft were ready for the 24 Mk @-@ 14 " fish " the subs carried . Cruising on the surface at 20 knots ( using 4 diesel engines ) or maneuvering underwater at 8 @-@ 10 knots ( using battery @-@ powered electric motors ) they could circle around slow @-@ moving merchant ships . New steels and welding techniques strengthened the hull , enabling the subs to dive as deep as 400 feet in order to avoid depth charges . Expecting long cruises the 65 crewmen enjoyed good living conditions , complete with frozen steaks and air conditioning to handle the hot waters of the Pacific . The new subs could remain at sea for 75 days , and cover 10 @,@ 000 miles , without resupply . The submariners thought they were ready — but they had two hidden flaws . The penny @-@ pinching atmosphere of the 1930s produced hypercautious commanders and defective torpedoes . Both would have to be replaced in World War II .
= = Modern era = =
= = = World War II ( 1941 – 1945 ) = = =
= = = = Command structure = = = =
After the disaster at Pearl Harbor Roosevelt turned to the most aggressive sailor available , Admiral Ernest J. King ( 1878 @-@ 1956 ) . Experienced in big guns , aviation and submarines , King had a broad knowledge and a total dedication to victory . He was perhaps the most dominating admiral in American naval history ; he was hated but obeyed , for he made all the decisions from his command post in the Washington , and avoided telling anyone . The civilian Secretary of the Navy was a cipher whom King kept in the dark ; that only changed when the Secretary died in 1944 and Roosevelt brought in his tough @-@ minded aide James Forrestal . Despite the decision of the Joint Chiefs of Staff under Admiral William D. Leahy to concentrate first against Germany , King made the defeat of Japan his highest priority . For example , King insisted on fighting for Guadalcanal despite strong Army objections . His main strike force was built around carriers based at Pearl Harbor under the command of Chester Nimitz . Nimitz had one main battle fleet , with the same ships and sailors but two command systems that rotated every few months between Admiral Bull Halsey and Admiral Raymond A. Spruance . The Navy had a major advantage : it had broken the Japanese code . It deduced that Hawaii was the target in June 1942 , and that Yamamoto ’ s fleet would strike at Midway Island . King only had four carriers in operation ; he sent them all to Midway where in a miraculous few minutes they sank the Japanese carriers . This gave the Americans the advantage in firepower that grew rapidly as new American warships came on line much faster than Japan could build them . King paid special attention to submarines to use against the overextended Japanese logistics system . They were built for long @-@ range missions in tropical waters , and set out to sink the freighters , troop transports and oil tankers that held the Japanese domains together . The Southwest Pacific theatre , based in Australia , was under the control of Army General Douglas MacArthur ; King assigned him a fleet of his own without any big carriers .
= = = = Carrier warfare = = = =
On 7 December 1941 , Japan 's carriers launched the Attack on Pearl Harbor , sinking or disabling the entire battleship fleet . The stupendous defeat forced Admiral King to develop a new strategy based on carriers . Although the sunken battleships were raised , and many new ones were built , battleships played a secondary role in the war , limited chiefly to bombardment of islands scheduled for amphibious landings . The " Big Gun " club that had dominated the Navy since the Civil War lost its clout .
The U.S. was helpless in the next six months as the Japanese swept through the Western Pacific and into the Indian Ocean , rolling up the Philippines as well as the main British base at Singapore . After reeling from these defeats the Navy stabilized its lines in summer 1942 .
At the start of the war , the United States and Japan were well matched in aircraft carriers , in terms of numbers and quality . Both sides had nine , but the Mitsubishi A6M Zero carrier fighter plane was superior in terms of range and maneuverability to its American counterpart , the F4F Wildcat . By reverse engineering a captured Zero , the American engineers identified its weaknesses , such as inadequate protection for the pilot and the fuel tanks , and built the Hellcat as a superior weapon system . In late 1943 the Grumman F6F Hellcats entered combat . Powered by the same 2 @,@ 000 horsepower Pratt and Whitney 18 @-@ cylinder radial engine as used by the F4U Corsair already in service with the Marine Corps and the UK 's allied Fleet Air Arm , the F6Fs were faster ( at 400 mph ) than the Zeros , quicker to climb ( at 3 @,@ 000 feet per minute ) , more nimble at high altitudes , better at diving , had more armor , more firepower ( 6 machine guns fired 120 bullets per second ) than the Zero 's two machine guns and pair of 20 mm autocannon , carried more ammunition , and used a gunsight designed for deflection shooting at an angle . Although the Hellcat was heavier and had a shorter range than the Zero , on the whole it proved a far superior weapon . Japan 's carrier and pilot losses at Midway crippled its offensive capability , but America 's overwhelming offensive capability came from shipyards that increasingly out produced Japan 's , from the refineries that produced high @-@ octane gasoline , and from the training fields that produced much better trained pilots . In 1942 Japan commissioned 6 new carriers but lost 6 ; in 1943 it commissioned 3 and lost 1 . The turning point came in 1944 when it added 8 and lost 13 . At war 's end Japan had 5 carriers tied up in port ; all have been damaged , all lacked fuel and all lacked warplanes . Meanwhile , the US launched 13 small carriers in 1942 and one large one ; and in 1943 added 15 large and 50 escort carriers , and more came in 1944 and 1945 . The new American carriers were much better designed , with far more antiaircraft guns , and powerful radar .
Both sides were overextended in the exhaustive sea , air and land battles for Guadalcanal . The Japanese were better at night combat ( because they American destroyers had only trained for attacks on battleships ) . However , the Japanese could not feed its soldiers so the Americans eventually won because of superior logistics . The Navy built up its forces in 1942 @-@ 43 , and developed a strategy of " island @-@ hopping , that is to skip over most of the heavily defended Japanese islands and instead go further on and select islands to seize for forward air bases .
In the Atlantic , the Allies waged a long battle with German submarines which was termed the Battle of the Atlantic . Navy aircraft flew from bases in Greenland and Iceland to hunt submarines , and hundreds of escort carriers and destroyer escorts were built which were specifically designed to protect merchant convoys . In the Pacific , in an ironic twist , the U.S. submarines fought against Japanese shipping in a mirror image of the Atlantic , with U.S. submarines hunting Japanese merchant ships . At the end of the war the U.S. had 260 submarines in commission . It had lost 52 submarines during the war , 36 in actions in the Pacific . Submarines effectively destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet by January 1945 and choked off Japan 's oil supply .
In the summer of 1943 , the U.S. began the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign to retake the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . After this success , the Americans went on to the Mariana and Palau Islands in summer 1944 . Following their defeat at the Battle of Saipan , the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Combined Fleet , with 5 aircraft carriers , sortied to attack the Navy 's Fifth Fleet during the Battle of the Philippine Sea , which was the largest aircraft carrier battle in history . The battle was so one @-@ sided that it became known as the " Marianas turkey shoot " ; the U.S. lost 130 aircraft and no ships while the Japanese lost 411 planes and 3 carriers . Following victory in the Marianas , the U.S. began the reconquest of the Philippines at Leyte in October 1944 . The Japanese fleet sortied to attack the invasion fleet , resulting in the four @-@ day Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history . The first kamikaze missions are flown during the battle , sinking USS St. Lo and damaging several other U.S. ships ; these attacks were the most effective anti @-@ ship weapon of the war .
The Battle of Okinawa became the last major battle between U.S. and Japanese ground units . Okinawa was to become a staging area for the eventual invasion of Japan since it was just 350 miles ( 560 km ) south of the Japanese mainland . Marines and soldiers landed unopposed on 1 April 1945 , to begin an 82 @-@ day campaign which became the largest land @-@ sea @-@ air battle in history and was noted for the ferocity of the fighting and the high civilian casualties with over 150 @,@ 000 Okinawans losing their lives . Japanese kamikaze pilots inflicted the largest loss of ships in U.S. naval history with the sinking of 36 and the damaging of another 243 . Total U.S. casualties were over 12 @,@ 500 dead and 38 @,@ 000 wounded , while the Japanese lost over 110 @,@ 000 men , making Okinawa one of the bloodiest battles in history .
The fierce fighting on Okinawa is said to have played a part in President Truman ’ s decision to use the atomic bomb and to forsake an invasion of Japan . When the Japanese surrendered , a flotilla of 374 ships entered Tokyo Bay to witness the ceremony conducted on the battleship USS Missouri . By the end of the war the US Navy had over 1200 warships .
= = = Cold War ( 1945 – 1991 ) = = =
The immediate postwar fate of the Navy was the scrapping and mothballing of ships on a large scale ; by 1948 only 267 ships were active in the Navy .
Another important postwar development for the Navy was that in 1948 the Women 's Armed Services Integration Act gave women permanent status in the Regular and Reserve forces of the Navy .
The Navy gradually developed a reputation for having the most highly developed technology of all the U.S. services . The 1950s saw the development of nuclear power for ships , under the leadership of Admiral Hyman G. Rickover , the development of missiles and jets for Navy use and the construction of supercarriers . The USS Enterprise was the world 's first nuclear @-@ powered aircraft carrier and was followed by the Nimitz @-@ class supercarriers . Ballistic missile submarines grew ever more deadly and quiet , culminating in the Ohio @-@ class submarines .
Tension with the Soviet Union came to a head in the Korean War , and it became clear that the peacetime Navy would have to be much larger than ever imagined . Fleets were assigned to geographic areas around the world , and ships were sent to hot spots as a standard part of the response to the periodic crises . However , because the North Korean navy was not large , the Korean War featured few naval battles ; the combatant navies served mostly as naval artillery for their in @-@ country armies . A large amphibious landing at Inchon succeeded in driving the North Koreans back across the 38th parallel . The Battle of Chosin Reservoir ended with the evacuation of almost 105 @,@ 000 UN troops from the port of Hungnam .
The U.S. Navy 's 1956 shipbuilding program was significant because it included authorization for the construction of eight submarines , the largest such order since World War II . This FY @-@ 56 program included five nuclear @-@ powered submarines – Triton , the guided missile submarine Halibut , the lead ship for the Skipjack class , and the final two Skate @-@ class attack submarines , Sargo and Seadragon . It also included the three diesel @-@ electric Barbel class , the last diesel @-@ electric submarines to be built by the U.S. Navy .
An unlikely combination of Navy ships fought in the Vietnam War ; aircraft carriers offshore launched thousands of air strikes , while small gunboats of the " Brown @-@ water navy " patrolled the rivers . Despite the naval activity , new construction was curtailed by Presidents Johnson and Nixon to save money , and many of the carriers on Yankee Station dated from World War II . By 1978 the fleet had dwindled to 217 surface ships and 119 submarines .
Meanwhile , the Soviet fleet had been growing , and outnumbered the U.S. fleet in every type except carriers , and the Navy calculated they probably would be defeated by the Soviet Navy in a major conflict . This concern led the Reagan administration to set a goal for a 600 @-@ ship Navy , and by 1988 the fleet was at 588 , although it declined again in subsequent years . The Iowa @-@ class battleships Iowa , New Jersey , Missouri , and Wisconsin were reactivated after 40 years in storage , modernized , and made showy appearances off the shores of Lebanon and elsewhere . In 1987 and 1988 , the United States Navy conducted various combat operations in the Persian Gulf against Iran , most notably Operation Praying Mantis , the largest surface @-@ air naval battle since World War II .
= = = Post – Cold War ( 1991 – present ) = = =
When a crisis confronts the nation , the first question often asked by policymakers is : ' What naval forces are available and how fast can they be on station ? '
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union , the Soviet Navy fell apart , without sufficient personnel to man many of its ships or the money to maintain them — indeed , many of them were sold to foreign nations . This left the United States as the world 's undisputed naval superpower . U.S. naval forces did undergo a decline in absolute terms but relative to the rest of the world , however , United States dwarfs other nations ' naval power as evinced by its 11 aircraft supercarriers and their supporting battle groups . During the 1990s , the United States naval strategy was based on the overall military strategy of the United States which emphasized the ability of the United States to engage in two simultaneous limited wars along separate fronts .
The ships of the Navy participated in a number of conflicts after the end of the Cold War . After diplomatic efforts failed , the Navy was instrumental in the opening phases of the 1991 Gulf War with Iraq ; the ships of the navy launched hundreds of Tomahawk II cruise missiles and naval aircraft flew sorties from six carriers in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea . The battleships Missouri and Wisconsin fired their 16 @-@ inch guns for the first time since the Korean war on several targets in Kuwait in early February . In 1999 , hundreds of Navy and Marine Corps aircraft flew thousands of sorties from bases in Italy and carriers in the Adriatic against targets in Serbia and Kosovo to try to stop the ethnic cleansing in Kosovo . After a 78 @-@ day campaign Serbia capitulated to NATO 's demands .
As a result of a large number of command officers being fired for failing to do their job properly , in 2012 the Chief of Naval Operations ( CNO ) ordered a new method of selecting command officers across the Navy .
In March 2007 , the U.S. Navy reached its smallest fleet size , with 274 ships , since World War I. Since the end of the Cold War , the Navy has shifted its focus from preparations for large @-@ scale war with the Soviet Union to special operations and strike missions in regional conflicts . The Navy participated in Operation Enduring Freedom , Operation Iraqi Freedom , and is a major participant in the ongoing War on Terror , largely in this capacity . Development continues on new ships and weapons , including the Gerald R. Ford @-@ class aircraft carrier and the Littoral combat ship . One hundred and three U.S. Navy personnel died in the Iraq War . U.S. Navy warships launched cruise missiles into military targets in Libya during Operation Odyssey Dawn to enforce a UN resolution .
Former U.S. Navy admirals who head the U.S. Naval Institute have raised concerns about what they see as the ability to respond to " aggressive moves by Iran and China " . As part of the pivot to the Pacific , Defense Secretary Leon E. Panetta said that the Navy would switch from a 50 / 50 split between the Pacific and the Atlantic to a 60 / 40 percent split that favored the Pacific , but the Chief of Naval Operations , Admiral Jonathan Greenert , and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , General Martin Dempsey , have said that this would not mean " a big influx of troops or ships in the Western Pacific " . This pivot is a continuation of the trend towards the Pacific that first saw the Cold War 's focus against the Soviet Union with 60 percent of the American submarine fleet stationed in the Atlantic shift towards an even split between the coasts and then in 2006 , 60 percent of the submarines stationed on the Pacific side to counter China . The pivot is not entirely about numbers as some of the most advanced platforms will now have a Pacific focus , where their capabilities are most needed . However even a single incident can make a big dent in a fleet of modest size with global missions .
On January 12 , 2016 , Iranian armed forces captured United States Navy personnel when their boats entered Iranian territorial waters off the coast of Farsi Island in the Persian Gulf . They were released the next day following diplomatic discussions between the USA and Iran .
= = = Historiography = = =
Hackemer , Kurt H. " The US Navy , 1860 – 1920 . " in James C. Bradford A Companion to American Military History ( 2 vol 2009 ) 1 : 388 – 98
Holwitt , Joel I. " Review Essay : Reappraising the Interwar U.S. Navy , " Journal of Military History ( 2012 ) 76 # 1 193 – 210
McKee , Christopher . " The US Navy , 1794 – 1860 : Men , Ships , and Governance . " in James C. Bradford A Companion to American Military History ( 2 vol 2009 ) 1 : 378 @-@ 87 .
Winkler , David F. " The US Navy since 1920 . " in James C. Bradford A Companion to American Military History ( 2 vol 2009 ) 1 : 399 – 410 .
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= All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes =
All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes , published in 1986 , is the fifth book in African @-@ American writer and poet Maya Angelou 's seven @-@ volume autobiography series . Set between 1962 and 1965 , the book begins when Angelou is 33 years old , and recounts the years she lived in Accra , Ghana . The book , deriving its title from a Negro spiritual , begins where Angelou 's previous memoir , The Heart of a Woman , ends — with the traumatic car accident involving her son Guy — and closes with Angelou returning to America .
As she had started to do in her first autobiography , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , and continued throughout her series , Angelou upholds the long tradition of African @-@ American autobiography . At the same time she makes a deliberate attempt to challenge the usual structure of the autobiography by critiquing , changing , and expanding the genre . Angelou had matured as a writer by the time she wrote Traveling Shoes , to the point that she was able to play with the form and structure of the work . As in her previous books , it consists of a series of anecdotes connected by theme . She depicts her struggle with being the mother of a grown son , and with her place in her new home .
Angelou examines many of the same subjects and themes that her previous autobiographies covered . Although motherhood is an important theme in this book , it does not overwhelm the text as it does in some of her other works . At the end of the book , she ties up the mother / son plot when she leaves her son in Ghana and returns to America . According to scholar Mary Jane Lupton , " Angelou 's exploration of her African and African @-@ American identities " is an important theme in Traveling Shoes . By the end of the book , Angelou comes to term with what scholar Dolly McPherson calls her " double @-@ consciousness " , the parallels and connections between the African and American parts of her history and character . Racism continues to be an important theme as she learns more about it and about herself . Journey and a sense of home is another important theme in this book ; Angelou upholds the African @-@ American tradition of the slave narrative and of her own series of autobiographies . This time she focuses on " trying to get home " , or on becoming assimilated in African culture , which she finds unattainable .
All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes received a mixed reception from critics , but most of their reviews were positive .
= = Background = =
All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes , published in 1986 , is the fifth installment of Maya Angelou 's series of seven autobiographies . The success of Angelou 's previous autobiographies and the publication of four volumes of poetry had brought Angelou a considerable amount of fame by 1986 . And Still I Rise , published in 1978 , reinforced Angelou 's success as a writer . Her first volume of poetry , Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie ( 1971 ) was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize .
As writer Hilton Als states , Angelou was one of the first African @-@ American female writers to publicly discuss her personal life , and one of the first to use herself as a central character in her books , something she continues in Traveling Shoes . Writer Julian Mayfield , who calls her first autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings " a work of art that eludes description " , states that Angelou 's work sets a precedent not only for other Black women writers , but for the genre of autobiography as a whole .
Als called Angelou one of the " pioneers of self @-@ exposure " , willing to focus honestly on the more negative aspects of her personality and choices . For example , while Angelou was composing her second autobiography , Gather Together in My Name , she was concerned about how her readers would react to her disclosure that she had been a prostitute . Her husband Paul Du Feu talked her into publishing the book by encouraging her to " tell the truth as a writer " and " be honest about it " . Through the writing of her life stories Angelou has become recognized and highly respected as a spokesperson for Blacks and women . It made her , as scholar Joanne Braxton has stated , " without a doubt , ... America 's most visible black woman autobiographer " .
According to McPherson , Traveling Shoes is " a mixture of Maya Angelou 's personal recollection and a historical document of the time in which it is set " , the early 1960s . This was the first time that many Black Americans , due to the independence of Ghana and other African states , as well as the emergence of African leaders such as Kwame Nkrumah , were able to view Africa in a positive way . Ghana was " the center of an African cultural renaissance " and of Pan @-@ Africanism during this time .
= = Title = =
According to Angelou , the title of Traveling Shoes comes from a spiritual . African @-@ American scholar Lyman B. Hagen reports that the title comes from the spiritual " All God 's Chillun Got Wings " , Angelou 's " clever reference " to her ongoing search for a home while being aware of " our ultimate home " . The title demonstrates Angelou 's love of African @-@ American spirituals and deep sense of religion that appears in all of her works . Critic Mary Jane Lupton finds the appearance of the word " traveling " purposeful , since it emphasizes the journey theme , one of Angelou 's most important themes of the book . Like Angelou 's previous volumes in her series , the title contributes to its plot and thematic impact .
= = Plot summary = =
All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes begins as Angelou 's previous book , The Heart of a Woman , ends : with her depiction of a serious automobile accident involving her son Guy . After spending two years in Cairo , they come to Accra to enroll Guy in the University of Ghana , and the accident occurs three days after they arrive . Following Guy 's long convalescence , they remain in Ghana , Angelou for four years , from 1962 to 1965 . Angelou describes Guy 's recovery , including her deep depression . She is confronted by her friend Julian Mayfield , who introduces her to writer and actor Efua Sutherland , the Director of the National Theatre of Ghana . Sutherland becomes Angelou 's " sister @-@ friend " and allows her to cry out all her pain and bitterness .
Angelou finds a job at the University of Ghana and " falls in love " with the country and with its people , who remind her of African Americans she knew in Arkansas and California . As the parent of an adult , she experiences new freedoms , respects Guy 's choices , and consciously stops making her son the center of her life . She creates new friendships with her roommates and native Africans , both male and female . She becomes part of a group of American expatriates whom she calls the " Revolutionist Returnees " , people such as Mayfield and his wife Ana Livia , who share her struggles .
Angelou strengthens her ties with Africa while traveling through eastern Ghanaian villages , and through her relationships with several Africans . She describes a few romantic prospects , one of which is with a man who proposes that she become his " second wife " and accept West African customs . She also becomes a supporter of Ghana president Kwame Nkrumah and close friends with tribal leader Nana Nketsia and poet Kwesi Brew . During one of her travels through West Africa , a woman identifies her as a member of the Bambara tribe based solely upon her appearance and behavior , which helps Angelou discover the similarities between her American traditions and those of her West African ancestors .
Although Angelou is disillusioned with the nonviolent strategies of Martin Luther King , Jr . , she and her friends commemorate his 1963 march on Washington by organizing a parallel demonstration in Ghana . The demonstration becomes a tribute to African @-@ American W.E.B. Du Bois , who has died the previous evening . A few pages later , she allies herself with Malcolm X , who visits Ghana in 1964 to elicit the support of Black world leaders . He encourages Angelou to return to America to help him coordinate his efforts , as she had done for King in The Heart of a Woman . While driving Malcolm X to the airport , he chastises her for her bitterness about Du Bois ' wife Shirley Graham 's lack of support for the civil rights movement .
Angelou and her roommates reluctantly hire a village boy named Kojo to do housework for them . He reminds her of her brother Bailey , and he serves as a substitute for her son Guy . She accepts a maternal role with Kojo , helping him with his schoolwork and welcoming the thanks of his family . Traveling Shoes , like Angelou 's previous autobiographies , is full of conflicts with Guy , especially surrounding his independence , his separation from his mother , and his choices . When she learns that he is dating a woman older than her , she reacts with anger and threatens to strike him , but he patronizes her , calls her his " little mother " , and insists upon his autonomy from her .
The African narrative in Traveling Shoes is interrupted by " a journey within a journey " when she decides to join a theatrical company in a revival of The Blacks , a play by French writer Jean Genet . As she had done in New York and described in her previous autobiography The Heart of a Woman , she plays the White Queen and tours Berlin and Venice with the company , which include Cicely Tyson , James Earl Jones , Lou Gossett , Jr. and Roscoe Lee Brown . While in Berlin , she accepts a breakfast invitation with a racist , wealthy German family .
The book ends with Angelou 's decision to return to America . At the airport , a group of her friends and associates , including Guy , are present to wish her farewell as she leaves . She metaphorically connects her departure from the African continent with the forced enslavement of her ancestors and her departure from Guy .
= = Genre = =
All seven of Angelou 's installments of her life story continue the long tradition of African @-@ American autobiography . Starting with I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , Angelou made a deliberate attempt while writing her books to challenge the usual structure of the autobiography by critiquing , changing , and expanding the genre . Her use of fiction @-@ writing techniques such as dialogue , characterization , and thematic development has often led reviewers to categorize her books as autobiographical fiction . Angelou expressed in a 1989 interview her opinion that she was the only " serious " writer to choose the genre to express herself . Angelou reports not one person 's story , but the collective 's . She represents the convention in African @-@ American autobiography , which serves as a public gesture that speaks for an entire group of people . As Angelou had done in her previous autobiographies , she uses elements of the African @-@ American slave narrative , including as Lupton puts it , " the journey , the quest for freedom ; [ and ] empathy for the horrors suffered by slaves " .
All of Angelou 's autobiographies conform to the genre 's standard structure : they are written by a single author , they are chronological , and they contain elements of character , technique , and theme . Although Angelou referred to her books as autobiographies in 1983 interview with African @-@ American literature critic Claudia Tate , she acknowledged that there are fictional aspects to all her books , with the tendency to " diverge from the conventional notion of autobiography as truth " . When speaking of her unique use of the genre , Angelou acknowledges that she follows the slave narrative tradition of " speaking in the first @-@ person singular talking about the first @-@ person plural , always saying I meaning ' we ' " . McPherson states that Angelou is a master of this autobiographical form , especially the " confrontation of the Black self within a society that threatens to destroy it " , but departs from it in Traveling Shoes by taking the action to Africa . Lupton , referring to the journey motif in the book , insists that its narrative point of view is " again sustained through the first @-@ person autobiographer in motion " .
Angelou recognizes that there are fictional aspects to all her books , although there is less fictionalization in Traveling Shoes than in her previous autobiographies . Her approach parallels the conventions of many African @-@ American autobiographies written during the abolitionist period in the US , when truth was often censored for purposes of self @-@ protection . Hagen places Angelou in the long tradition of African @-@ American autobiography , but insists that Angelou has created a unique interpretation of the autobiographical form . Journalist George Plimpton asked her in a 1998 interview if she changed the truth to improve her story ; she stated , " Sometimes I make a diameter from a composite of three or four people , because the essence in only one person is not sufficiently strong to be written about " . Although Angelou has never admitted to changing the facts in her stories , she fictionalizes them to make an impact and to enhance her readers ' interest . Angelou 's long @-@ time editor , Robert Loomis stated that she could have rewritten any of her books by changing the order of her facts to make a different impact on the reader .
= = Style = =
For the first and only time in Angelou 's series , she repeats the same episode in detail — her son 's automobile accident — at the end of her fourth autobiography The Heart of a Woman and the beginning of this one , a technique that both centralizes each installment and connects each book in the series with each other . Additionally , each volume " ends with abrupt suspense " . It also creates a strong and emotional link between the two autobiographies . Angelou has said that she used this technique so that each book would stand alone and to establish the setting in Traveling Shoes — " who she was and what she was doing in Africa " .
In Traveling Shoes , Angelou has matured as a writer to the point that she can experiment with form . For the first time , instead of using traditional numbered chapters , the book consists of anecdotes separated with a few inches of white space . Lupton calls these segments " short stories or vignettes " , a technique that Angelou had used before , to portray dynamic characters such as Malcolm X. Angelou 's stories are told within the context of her entire life story , but each vignette can be read or analyzed individually , without harming the text 's consistency . Most of Angelou 's anecdotes no longer focus on the famous or her family , but on Ghanaians ; for example , according to Lupton , her description of her houseboy Kojo is her most delightful character sketch in the book .
In Traveling Shoes , Angelou continues to demonstrate her strengths as an autobiographer , especially her ability to connect emotionally with her audience , which Lupton calls her " superb use of language in recording moments of emotional intensity " . As in her previous books , Angelou uses inventive metaphors and personifications of abstract objects and concepts . Even her descriptions exhibit the style , developed after years of maturity as a writer , of " displaying vivid and captivating sentences and phrases " . Angelou 's self @-@ portrait of a Black woman and her ability to communicate her misfortunes destroys stereotypes and demonstrates " the trials , rejections , and endurances which so many Black women share " . Hagen calls this book " reflective " and its writer " introspective and deeply moved " .
Even though Traveling Shoes can be read on its own , Angelou connects the events in this book with her previous volumes , as she had done throughout her series . As McPherson states , " Everyday experiences serve as links to Angelou 's past and thus embody powerful meanings " . Events that occur in this book and Angelou 's responses to them evoke earlier moments in her previous books ; for example , Angelou responds to her son 's accident with muteness , as she had responded to her rape in Caged Bird . As is customary in autobiography in general , she uses the literary convention of flashbacks in order to tie this book to its predecessors . She uses humor , another convention she has used before , both to criticize racism and to balance her weighty insights . She also uses quotes from literary sources , especially the Bible , which demonstrates that she has not lost contact with her family roots as she searches for a home and for her identity .
Traveling Shoes is " more tightly controlled " than Angelou 's previous books , most likely due to the dominance of the travel motif . Setting , always an important element for Angelou , becomes even more important in this book . Unlike her previous books , most of this book 's action occurs in one setting , Accra , which contributes to and is tightly connected with her personal development . Angelou 's feelings towards living in Ghana are ambivalent , which provides Traveling Shoes with richness and depth . Many feel that Angelou 's inclusion of her tour with The Blacks to Berlin and Venice as a digression that detracts from the African setting , but Lupton sees it as a contribution to her character development and provides the book with a " universal quality " as Angelou reaches beyond the confines of her personal life and encounters racism in Germany . During this trip , she comes to see her fellow African @-@ Americans differently , as more spirited than the Africans she has met in Ghana .
= = Themes = =
= = = Motherhood = = =
A major theme in Traveling Shoes , one that many critics overlook , is Angelou 's love for her son . The theme of motherhood is one of Angelou 's most consistent themes throughout her series of autobiographies , although it does not overwhelm this book as it does in Gather Together in My Name and Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas . Motherhood is present in many of the book 's subthemes — her relationship with her houseboy Kojo , her delight in being called " Auntie " by many African children , and her feelings toward " Mother Africa " . Traveling Shoes begins with Guy 's accident , his long recovery , and his mother 's reaction to it , thus universalizing the fear of every parent — the death of a child . The main character is a mother of a grown son , so liberation from the daily responsibilities of motherhood is emphasized , but it is complicated by the recognition that part of motherhood is letting go , something Angelou struggles with . Confrontations between Angelou and Guy are minimal , consisting of their conflict over his choice of dating a much @-@ older woman and of his demands for autonomy after she returns from the Genet tour . Angelou seems to vacillate between wanting to supervise him and wanting to let go throughout this book . In this way , as Lupton says , the motherhood theme , like the identity theme , is " dual in nature " .
Like many of her previous books , Angelou is conflicted about her feelings towards Guy , and is skilled at expressing it in this book . One way she expresses her conflict is through her reluctant relationship with Kojo . She compares her feelings for Kojo with the pain of childbirth , and he serves as substitute for Guy . At the end of the book Angelou leaves Guy in Africa to continue his education , suggesting , as Lupton puts it , the " apparent end of the mother / son plot " . Lupton also reports that some reviewers have criticized Angelou for " the willful cutting of the maternal ties that she established throughout the series " , but Angelou implies in Traveling Shoes that motherhood is never over .
= = = Race / Identity = = =
Angelou 's exploration of her African and African @-@ American identities is an important theme in Traveling Shoes . The alliances and relationships with those she meets in Ghana contribute to Angelou 's identity and growth . Her experiences in Ghana helped her come to terms with her personal and historical past , and by the end of the book she is ready to return to America with a deeper understanding of both the African and American parts of her character . McPherson calls Angelou 's parallels and connections between Africa and America her " double @-@ consciousness " , which contribute to her understanding of herself .
Angelou is able to recognize similarities between African and African @-@ American culture ; as Lupton puts it , the " blue songs , shouts , and gospels " she has grown up with in America " echo the rhythms of West Africa " . She recognizes the connections between African and American Black cultures , including the children 's games , the folklore , the spoken and non @-@ verbal languages , the food , sensibilities , and behavior . She connects the behavior of many African mother figures , especially their generosity , with her grandmother 's behaviors . In one of the most significant sections of Traveling Shoes , Angelou recounts an encounter with a West African woman who recognizes her , on the basis of her appearance , as a member of the Bambara group of West Africa . As Lupton states , these and other experiences in Ghana demonstrate her maturity , as a mother who is able to let go of her adult son , as a woman who is no longer dependent upon a man , and as an American who is able to " perceive the roots of her identity " and how they affect her personality .
Angelou comes to terms with her difficult past , both as a descendant of Africans taken forcibly to America as slaves and as an African @-@ American who has experienced racism . As she tells interviewer Connie Martinson , she brought her son to Ghana to protect him from the negative effects of racism because she did not think he had the tools to withstand them . She remains in Accra after his accident because it was traumatic for her as well — so traumatic it reduces her to silence , similar to her muteness after she was raped as a child in Caged Bird . Her friend Julian Mayfield introduces her to Efua Sutherland , who becomes Angelou 's " Sister friend " and allows her to cry out her pain , grief , and fear , something Angelou later admitted went against her American upbringing of emotional restraint .
Racism , an important theme in all of Angelou 's autobiographies , continues to be important in this book , but she has matured in the way she deals with it in Traveling Shoes . For the first time in Angelou 's life , she " does not feel threatened by racial hate " in Ghana . She finds a strong support system there , and as Hagen states , she " has come far from the mute , shy little girl of Stamps , Arkansas " . As Hagen states , Angelou " is not yet ready to toss off the stings of prejudice , but tolerance and even a certain understanding can be glimpsed " . This is demonstrated in Angelou 's treatment of the " genocidal involvement of Africans in slave @-@ trading " , something that is often overlooked or misrepresented by other Black writers . Angelou is taught an important lesson about combating racism by Malcolm X , who compares it to a mountain in which everyone 's efforts , even the efforts of Shirley Graham DuBois , whom Angelou resents , is needed .
Angelou learns lessons about herself and about racism throughout Traveling Shoes , even during her brief tour of Venice and Berlin for The Blacks revival . She revives her passion for African @-@ American culture as she associates with other African @-@ Americans for the first time since moving to Ghana . She compares her experiences of American racism with Germany 's history of racial prejudice and military aggression . The verbal violence of the folk tales shared during her luncheon with her German hosts and Israeli friend is as significant to Angelou as physical violence , to the point that she becomes ill . Angelou 's first @-@ hand experience with fascism , as well as the racist sensibilities of the German family she visits , " help shape and broaden her constantly changing vision " regarding racial prejudice .
= = = Journey / Home = = =
I never agreed , even as a young person , with the Thomas Wolfe title You Can 't Go Home Again . Instinctively I didn ’ t . But the truth is , you can never leave home . You take it with you ; it ’ s under your fingernails ; it ’ s in the hair follicles ; it ’ s in the way you smile ; it ’ s in the ride of your hips , in the passage of your breasts ; it ’ s all there , no matter where you go . You can take on the affectations and the postures of other places and even learn to speak their ways . But the truth is , home is between your teeth .
--Maya Angelou , 1990
The journey , or travel , is a common theme in American autobiography as a whole ; as McPherson states , it is something of a national myth to Americans as a people . This is also the case for African @-@ American autobiography , which has its roots in the slave narrative . Like those narratives that focus on the writers ' search for freedom from bondage , modern African @-@ American autobiographers such as Angelou seek to develop " an authentic self " and the freedom to find it in their community . McPherson states , " The journey to a distant goal , the return home , and the quest which involves the voyage out , achievement , and return are typical patterns in Black autobiography " .
The travel motif is seen throughout Angelou 's series of autobiographies , emphasizing what Lupton describes as Angelou 's " continuing journey of the self " . Angelou continues the travel motif in Traveling Shoes , as evidenced in the book 's title , but her primary motivation in living in Africa , as she told interviewer George Plimpton , was " trying to get home " . Angelou not only relates her own journey of an African @-@ American woman searching for a home , but the journeys of other Black expatriates at the time , whom McPherson compares to the descriptions of white expatriates in Europe in the 1920s by Ernest Hemingway and Henry James .
Angelou was one of over two hundred Black American expatriates living in Accra at the time . She was able to find a small group of expatriates , humorously dubbed " the Revolutionary Returnees " , who became her main source of support as she struggled with her place in African culture — " the conflicting feelings of being ' home ' yet simultaneously being ' homeless , ' cut off from America without tangible roots in their adopted black nation " . For many Black Americans , it was the first time they were able to positively identify with Africa . Angelou describes the group of Black American expatriates as " a little group of Black folks , looking for a home " . Reviewer Jackie Gropman has stated that Angelou presents her readers with " a wealth of information and penetrating impressions of the proud , optimistic new country of Ghana " . Angelou also presents a " romanticized " view of Africa . She " falls in love " with Ghana and wishes to settle into her new home " as a baby nuzzles in a mother 's arms " .
Angelou soon discovers that her fellow Black expatriates " share similar delusions " and that their feelings towards Ghana and its people are not reciprocated . Lupton states , " Angelou 's alliance with the African @-@ American community often focuses on their indignation over the Ghanaians ' refusal to fully welcome them " . Angelou uses the parallel demonstration to King 's 1963 March on Washington to demonstrate both her and her fellow expatriates ' tenuous relationship with Africa and her desire for full citizenship and assimilation , an " unattainable goal that falls outside of her desire for assimilation " and something she can never acquire in Ghana . Not only is Angelou a Black American , whether she likes it or not , " she is a Black American in exile " . Houston A. Baker , Jr . , in his review of Traveling Shoes , states that Angelou is unable to experience a connection with what Angelou calls the " soul " of Africa , and that Angelou speculates that only the American Black , forcibly displaced and taken from the home of her ancestors , can truly understand " that home is the place where one is created " .
Angelou 's issues are resolved at the end of Traveling Shoes when she decides to leave Guy to continue his education in Accra and return to America . The final scene of the book is at the Accra airport , with Angelou surrounded by Guy and her friends as they wish her farewell . Even though she " forsakes her new embraced alliance with Mother Africa , " she claims she is " not sad " to be leaving . She calls her departure a " second leave @-@ taking " , and compares it to the last time she left her son , with his grandmother in Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas when he was a child , and to the forced departure from Africa by her ancestors . As Lupton states , " Angelou 's journey from Africa back to America is in certain ways a restatement of the historical phase known as mid @-@ passage , when slaves were brutally transported in ships from West Africa to the so @-@ called New World " .
= = Critical reception = =
All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes was greeted with both praise and disappointment , although reviews of the book were generally positive . According to the Poetry Foundation , " Most critics have judged Angelou ’ s subsequent autobiographies in light of her first , and I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings remains the most highly praised " . Hagen states that Traveling Shoes , as in her previous books , demonstrated Angelou 's " broad appeal " to both her readers and her critics . The book 's accuracy was verified by her close friend and fellow expatriate Julian Mayfield .
Even though Traveling Shoes is Angelou 's fifth book in her series of autobiographies , it is able to stand on its own . Houston A. Baker , Jr . , in his review of the book , called Angelou " one of the geniuses of Afro @-@ American serial autobiography " . Interviewer Connie Martinson told Angelou , " You make me , the reader ... live through it with you " . Scholar Eugenia Collier , writing when the possibility of the publication of consequent autobiographies in Angelou 's series was uncertain , considered Traveling Shoes " the apex toward which the other autobiographies have pointed " . Hagen considered Traveling Shoes " another professional , rich , full , journeyman text " , and saw a higher @-@ quality of writing , especially her " often lyrical and soaring " prose , than in her previous books . Other reviewers agree . Reviewer Janet A. Blundell found the book " absorbing reading " , and reviewer Jackie Gropman stated that the " prose sings " .
Some critics were less favorable in their views of All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes . Even though the book left interviewer Russell Harris with " a haunting feeling " , he found the book more " pedantic " than her previous books , and thought that it contained fewer fictional aspects compared to Angelou 's other autobiographies . Scholar John C. Gruesser found the conflicts in the book unresolved and the ending " too easily manufactured at the last minute to resolve the problem of the book " . Reviewer Deborah E. McDowell agreed , and found the resolution of the plot to be " stereotyped and unauthentic " .
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= Bad Timing ( Adventure Time ) =
" Bad Timing " is the forty @-@ ninth episode from the fifth season of Adventure Time , an animated television series . It was written by Pendleton Ward , who created the show , and Kent Osborne , its head of story . In the episode , Lumpy Space Princess falls in love with a former mate ( Mark Proksch ) from secondary school . When she suspects she has lost her date to Princess Bubblegum , she attempts to wield time travel to win back his affections .
Visually unique to this episode , it comprises two frames : a circular inner frame holds the main story , while the outer margins carry small creatures . The writers likened the story to revisiting a former high school peer who was , at the time , unnoticeable . Originally aired on 3 March 2014 , this broadcast was seen by more than one million viewers . Writers of entertainment @-@ related publications praised the episode for its depth of mood and visuals . The New Yorker critic Emily Nussbaum , in particular , saw it as establishing Lumpy 's intricacy as a character , and Eric Kohn in IndieWire called the episode the pièce de résistance of the show .
= = Background = =
Adventure Time follows the adventures of principal characters Finn the Human , aged 16 , and Jake the Dog . Recurring characters featured in " Bad Timing " include Princess Bubblegum and Lumpy Space Princess . As she governs her kingdom of candy people , Bubblegum works as a scientist on varying experiments . Meanwhile , Lumpy ( Pendleton Ward ) , portrayed as a valley girl , is the source of drama due to her arrogant personality and shallow relationships with others .
= = Plot = =
Princess Bubblegum demonstrates to company a device capable of time travel . Lumpy Space Princess comes in and demands Bubblegum transport Lumpy back to when she and her ex were still in love . Bubblegum explains that the machine is only capable of logging molecules of a given entity . Lumpy attacks her , and Bubblegum forces her to leave .
Lamenting at a bar , she meets Johnnie ( Mark Proksch ) , a former mate at their secondary school . Johnnie confesses his anxiety regarding a scheduled interview with Bubblegum for a business venture . Lumpy advises that he fix his posture as to appear more confident . Johnnie thanks Lumpy for her advice and invites her to his complex . There , the two fall in love and share good nights . When Lumpy finds Johnnie absent in the morning , she suspects that he , like her ex , has abandoned her . Much to her relief , she finds him cooking breakfast in his kitchen . When he returns from the interview , he reveals he has been invited to a separate meeting with Bubblegum at her castle . Lumpy asks that she appear with him , but Johnnie says the meeting is private . Supposing Bubblegum has stolen his heart , Lumpy leaves in a fit of rage .
Delivering a monologue on the passion necessary for love , Lumpy hurls a Molotov cocktail at the castle . Bubblegum considers its impact an attack on her kingdom and tells Johnnie to hide at the foot of their desk . When Lumpy finds Johnnie , she uses the device on him , attempting to revert him to when he loved her . Johnnie disappears ; when Bubblegum figures out what has happened , she informs Lumpy that by failing to log his molecules , he no longer exists as part of their universe . To avoid having to grieve , Lumpy asks Bubblegum to use the device , properly , on her . Erased of her memory past her attacking Bubblegum , Lumpy storms out . Bubblegum pours herself a drink .
= = Production = =
This episode is the forty @-@ ninth from the fifth season of Adventure Time . Visually , the episode is framed having the important events of the story occur in its center , bordered circularly . Small polygonal creatures appear in the margins of the outer frame . Film and television critic Eric Kohn , in IndieWire , dubbed the inner frame a time bubble , absorbing the creatures Bubblegum experiments on with the time travel device . Following Lumpy having her memory erased in the episode , Johnnie appears in the outer frame .
" Bad Timing " was written by Pendleton Ward and Kent Osborne . They previously collaborated with Jack Pendarvis and Adam Muto to come up with the idea for the episode , with the former duo adapting that to a storyboard . The creator of Adventure Time , Ward resigned from his occupation as its runner during production of the season . Osborne is the head of story . Alluding to the episode , for Hulu , Muto and Osborne summarized it as Lumpy confounding the concept of time travel . The writers related the episode to " one of those situations where you run into someone from high school and you 're like , ' Woah , why didn 't I ever notice you before ? ' " Alluded to in this episode , the one it precedes involves time travel as well .
= = Release and reception = =
Cartoon Network originally aired " Bad Timing " on 3 March 2014 . Over a million and a half people saw the episode live on broadcast . Television critic Emily Nussbaum gave this episode praise in The New Yorker , comparing it to a fairy tale characterized by laughter and sorrow . Kohn called its mood happy yet miserable the same , evoking more emotions as a whole than even the preceding episode . The A.V. Club writer Oliver Sava gave it an A grade , finding it , like Kohn , emotionally intense . Kohn praised the episode for supplying Lumpy , a usually arrogant character , with a tragic circumstance . Sava saw the character as more explored that way . Nussbaum , who considered the episode proof of her intricacy as a character , wrote that Lumpy appropriately shows pathos .
Sava specifically lauded the monologue delivered by Lumpy for showing her consistent strength that makes her so admirable . He further praised how the episode was capable of condensing mature topics for children the show is aimed at in a humorous way . Kohn opined the episode helms the " waters of eroticism " responsibly . In the Adventure Time – dedicated podcast Conversation Parade , hosted by John Moe and Open Mike Eagle , Moe found Johnnie written so " incredibly complicated , whimsy , and sad " that he performed – with the direction of guest Osborne – some of his lines on the podcast .
Kohn regarded its visuals as the pinnacle of the show . Sava wrote that the notion of time being a flat circle could have inspired the circular shape of the inner frame . He noted the use of color beyond the circle as a way to convey the many emotions evoked for the whole of the episode . Ignoring this device , Sava saw its use as humorous diversions while it contributed to the splendor . Nussbaum described the creatures appearing in the outer frame as annotative and a mute chorus , suggesting they live in a parallel universe of both connection and isolation . The episode was later released on DVD twice , first in the year of that broadcast , as part of the Princess Day box set , and later in 2015 , as part of a box set for the complete fifth season . Home video critic Justin Remer called " Bad Timing " " surprisingly devastating " in DVD Talk . Kohn summed up the episode 's climax as the pièce de résistance of Adventure Time .
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= Hurricane John ( 2006 ) =
Hurricane John was the eleventh named storm , seventh hurricane , and fifth major hurricane of the 2006 Pacific hurricane season . Hurricane John developed on August 28 from a tropical wave to the south of Mexico . Favorable conditions allowed the storm to intensify quickly , and it attained peak winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) on August 30 . Eyewall replacement cycles and land interaction with western Mexico weakened the hurricane , and John made landfall on southeastern Baja California Sur with winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) on September 1 . It slowly weakened as it moved northwestward through the Baja California peninsula , and dissipated on September 4 . Moisture from the remnants of the storm entered the southwest United States .
The hurricane threatened large portions of the western coastline of Mexico , resulting in the evacuation of tens of thousands of people . In coastal portions of western Mexico , strong winds downed trees , while heavy rain resulted in mudslides . Hurricane John caused moderate damage on the Baja California peninsula , including the destruction of more than 200 houses and thousands of flimsy shacks . The hurricane killed five people in Mexico , and damage totaled $ 663 million ( 2006 MXN , $ 60 @.@ 8 million 2006 USD ) . In the southwest United States , moisture from the remnants of John produced heavy rainfall . The rainfall aided drought conditions in portions of northern Texas , although it was detrimental in locations that had received above @-@ normal rainfall throughout the year .
= = Meteorological history = =
The tropical wave that would become John moved off the coast of Africa on August 17 . It entered the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 24 , and quickly showed signs of organization . That night , Dvorak classifications were initiated on the system while it was just west of Costa Rica , and it moved west @-@ northwestward at 10 – 15 mph ( 15 – 25 km / h ) . Conditions appeared favorable for further development , and convection increased late on August 26 over the area of low pressure . Early on August 27 , the system became much better organized about 250 miles ( 400 km ) south @-@ southwest of Guatemala , although convection remained minimal . Early on August 28 , banding increased within its organizing convection , and the system developed into Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E.
Due to low amounts of vertical shear , very warm waters , and abundant moisture , steady intensification was forecast , and the depression strengthened to Tropical Storm John later on August 28 . Deep convection continued to develop over the storm , while an eye feature developed within the expanding central dense overcast . The storm continued to intensify , and John attained hurricane status on August 29 while 190 miles ( 305 km ) south @-@ southeast of Acapulco . Banding features continued to increase as the hurricane moved west @-@ northwestward around the southwest periphery of a mid- to upper @-@ level ridge over northern Mexico . The hurricane underwent rapid intensification , and John attained major hurricane status 12 hours after becoming a hurricane . Shortly thereafter , the eye became obscured , and the intensity remained at 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) due to an eyewall replacement cycle . Another eye formed , and based on Reconnaissance data , the hurricane attained Category 4 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale on August 30 about 160 miles ( 260 km ) west of Acapulco , or 95 miles ( 155 km ) south of Lázaro Cárdenas , Michoacán . Hours later , the hurricane underwent another eyewall replacement cycle , and subsequently weakened to Category 3 status as it paralleled the Mexican coastline a short distance offshore .
Due to land interaction and its eyewall replacement cycle , Hurricane John weakened to a 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) hurricane by late on August 31 , but restrengthened to a major hurricane shortly after as its eye became better defined . After completing another eyewall replacement cycle , the hurricane again weakened to Category 2 status , and on September 1 it made landfall on Cabo del Este on the southern tip of Baja California Sur with winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . John passed near La Paz as a weakening Category 1 hurricane on September 2 , and weakened to a tropical storm shortly thereafter over land . John continued to weaken , and late on September 3 the system deteriorated to a tropical depression while still over land . By September 4 , most of the convection decoupled from the circulation towards mainland Mexico , and a clear circulation had not been discernible for 24 hours . Based on the disorganization of the system , the National Hurricane Center issued its last advisory on the system .
= = Preparations = =
The Mexican army and emergency services were stationed near the coast , while classes at public schools in and around Acapulco were canceled . Officials in Acapulco advised residents in low @-@ lying areas to be on alert , and also urged fishermen to return to harbor . Authorities in the twin resort cities of Ixtapa and Zihuatanejo closed the port to small ocean craft . Government officials in the state of Jalisco declared a mandatory evacuation for 8 @,@ 000 citizens in low @-@ lying areas to 900 temporary shelters . Temporary shelters were also set up near Acapulco . The state of Michoacán was on a yellow alert , the middle of a five @-@ level alert system . Carnival Cruise Lines diverted the path of one cruise ship traveling along the Pacific waters off Mexico .
On August 31 , the Baja California Sur state government ordered the evacuation of more than 10 @,@ 000 residents . Those who refused to follow the evacuation order would have been forced to evacuate by the army . Shelters were set up to allow local residents and tourists to ride out the storm . Just weeks after a major flood in the area , officials evacuated hundreds of citizens in Las Presas in northern Mexico area near a dam . All public schools in the area were closed , as well .
The United States ' National Weather Service issued flood watches and warnings for portions of Texas and the southern two @-@ thirds of New Mexico .
= = Impact = =
= = = Mexico = = =
The powerful winds of Hurricane John produced heavy surf and downed trees near Acapulco . The hurricane produced a 10 foot ( 3 m ) storm surge in Acapulco that flooded coastal roads . In addition , John caused heavy rainfall along the western coast of Mexico , peaking at 12 @.@ 5 inches ( 317 @.@ 5 mm ) in Los Planes , Jalisco . The rainfall resulted in mudslides in the Costa Chica region of Guerrero , leaving around 70 communities isolated .
In La Paz , capital of Baja California Sur , the hurricane downed 40 power poles . Authorities cut off the power supply to the city to prevent electrocutions from downed wires . Strong winds downed trees and destroyed many advertisement signs . Heavy rainfall totaling more than 20 inches ( 500 mm ) in isolated areas resulted in ankle @-@ deep flooding , closing many roads in addition to the airport in La Paz . In La Paz , 300 families received damage to their homes , with another 200 families left homeless after their houses were destroyed . The combination of winds and rain destroyed thousands of flimsy houses across the region . The rainfall also destroyed large areas of crops , and also killed many livestock . The rainfall caused the Iguagil dam in Comondú to overflow , isolating 15 towns due to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) floodwaters . In the coastal city of Mulegé , flash flooding caused widespread damage throughout the town and the death of a United States citizen . More than 250 homes were damaged or destroyed in the town , leaving many people homeless . Severe flooding blocked portions of Federal Highway 1 , and damaged an aqueduct in the region .
In all , Hurricane John destroyed hundreds of houses and blew off the roofs of 160 houses on the Baja California peninsula . Five people were killed , and damage in Mexico amounted to $ 663 million ( 2006 MXN , $ 60 @.@ 8 million 2006 USD ) .
In Ciudad Juárez , Chihuahua , across the U.S. border from El Paso , Texas , rainfall from the storm 's remnants flooded 20 neighborhoods , downed power lines , and resulted in several traffic accidents . Rainfall from John , combined with continual precipitation during the two weeks before the storm , left thousands of people homeless .
= = = United States = = =
Moisture from the remnants of John combined with an approaching cold front to produce moderate amounts of rainfall across the southwest United States , including a total of 8 inches ( 200 mm ) in Whitharral and more than 3 inches ( 75 mm ) in El Paso , Texas . The rainfall flooded many roads in southwestern Texas , including a ½ mile ( 800 m ) portion of Interstate 10 in El Paso . A slick runway at El Paso International Airport delayed a Continental Airlines jet when its tires were stuck in mud . Rainfall from John in El Paso , combined with an unusually wet year , resulted in twice the normal annual rainfall , and caused 2006 to be the ninth wettest year on record by September . Damage totaled about $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 2006 USD ) in the El Paso area from the precipitation . In northern Texas , the rainfall alleviated a severe drought , caused the Double Mountain Fork Brazos River to swell and Lake Alan Henry to overflow . The Texas Department of Transportation closed numerous roads due to flooding from the precipitation , including a portion of U.S. Route 385 near Levelland . Several other roads were washed out .
Moisture derived from John also produced rainfall across southern New Mexico , peaking at 5 @.@ 25 inches ( 133 mm ) at Ruidoso . The rainfall overflowed rivers , forcing people to evacuate along the Rio Ruidoso . The rainfall also caused isolated road flooding . Rainfall in New Mexico canceled an annual wine festival in Las Cruces and caused muddy conditions at the All American Futurity at the Ruidoso Downs , the biggest day of horse racing in New Mexico . Flooding was severe in Mesquite , Hatch , and Rincon , where many homes experienced 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of flooding and mud . Some homeowners lost all they owned . Tropical moisture from the storm also produced rainfall in Arizona and Southern California . In California , the rainfall produced eight separate mudslides , trapping 19 vehicles , but caused no injuries .
= = Aftermath = =
Branches of the Mexican Red Cross in Guerrero , Oaxaca and Michoacán were put on alert . The organization 's national emergency response team was on stand @-@ by to assist the most affected areas . Navy helicopters delivered food and water to remote areas of the Baja California peninsula . The Mexican Red Cross dispatched 2 @,@ 000 food parcels to the southern tip of Baja California Sur . In the city of Mulegé , gas supply , which was necessary to run generators , was low , drinking water was gone , and the airstrip was covered with mud . Many homeless residents initially stayed with friends or in government @-@ run shelters . Throughout the Baja California peninsula , thousands remained without water or electricity two days after the storm , although a pilot from Phoenix prepared to fly to the disaster area with 100 gallons ( 380 litres ) of water . Other pilots were expected to execute similar flights , as well . The office of Baja California Sur Tourism stated that minimal damage occurred to the tourism infrastructure , with only minimal delays to airports , roads , and maritime facilities . The Episcopal Relief and Development delivered food , clothing , medicine , and transportation to about 100 families , and gave mattresses to about 80 families .
Many residents in Tucson , including more than 50 students , delivered supplies to flood victims in New Mexico , including clothing and other donations .
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= Fort Manoel =
Fort Manoel ( Maltese : Forti Manoel or Fortizza Manoel ) is a star fort on Manoel Island in Gżira , Malta . It was built in the 18th century by the Order of Saint John , during the reign of Grand Master António Manoel de Vilhena , after whom it is named . The British military took over the fort in 1800 and it remained in use by them until 1964 . The fort was severely damaged in World War II , but it was restored and it is now in good condition .
Fort Manoel is located to the north west of Valletta , and commands Marsamxett Harbour and the anchorage of Sliema Creek . The fort is an example of Baroque architecture , and it was designed with both functionality and aesthetics in mind .
Fort Manoel has been on Malta 's tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1998 , as part of the Knights ' Fortifications around the Harbours of Malta .
= = History = =
= = = Background and failed proposals = = =
In the 16th century , the Marsamxett Harbour was one of the two major harbours in the Maltese city of Valletta . In the centre of the harbour was an island , originally known as l 'Isolotto and now known as Manoel Island after the fort , which overlooked the city . Shortly after Valletta 's construction , the Order of Saint John realised this was a potential vulnerability in the city 's defences . As early as 1569 , it was proposed that a small fort with a cavalier be built on the Isolotto to prevent the enemy from taking the island and building batteries on it . The threat was again highlighted by the Spanish military engineer Scipione Campi in 1577 , and by Giovanni Battista in 1582 .
The next proposal to build a fortification on the island was made by the Italian military engineer Antonio Maurizio Valperga in 1670 . He proposed a roughly hexagonal fort with a hornwork , in the Dutch style of fortification . The proposal was criticized by the Order 's engineers , and a third proposal was drawn up by the Flemish military engineer Carlos de Grunenbergh in 1687 . Grunenburgh 's proposal consisted of a fort with four bastions and a ravelin , surrounded by a ditch , covertway and faussebraye .
Other proposals were made in 1715 , this time by the knight René Jacob de Tigné and a team of French engineers . There were several different plans , including building a coastal battery and a redoubt . Other plans included building a four @-@ bastioned fort , or combining all three ( fort , battery and redoubt ) for the defence of the island .
= = = Construction = = =
Eventually , the final design was agreed in 1723 , and it incorporated the work of de Tigné as well as Charles François de Mondion , the Order 's military engineer . The new fort was to be square in shape , with four bastions and two cavaliers . The fort was financed by , and named after , the Portuguese Grand Master , António Manoel de Vilhena . He also set up the Manoel Foundation , a fund responsible for the maintenance and garrison of Fort Manoel and its outworks .
The first stone was laid by de Vilhena on 14 September 1723 , and work progressed rapidly . By 1727 , the enceinte , cavaliers and gateway were complete . The ditch had been excavated by 1732 , while the chapel , barracks , magazines and countermines were completed in around 1733 . The fort was an active military establishment by 1734 . When Mondion died in 1733 , he was buried in the crypt under the fort 's chapel .
In 1757 , Lembi Battery was added near Tigné Point , Sliema . The battery was funded by the Manoel Foundation and it was considered to be an outwork of Fort Manoel , since it was intended to prevent an enemy from bombarding the fort 's northern flank . It was decommissioned following the construction of Fort Tigné in 1795 . The construction of the latter fort was also partially funded by the Manoel Foundation .
= = = French occupation = = =
The fort first saw use during the French invasion of Malta in June 1798 , in the French Revolutionary Wars . At the time , it was commanded by the Portuguese knight Gourgeau , and it was garrisoned by the Cacciatori , who were a volunteer chasseur light infantry regiment , as well as a few men from the Birchircara militia . The fort surrendered after Grand Master Hompesch officially capitulated to Napoleon .
A French garrison of a few hundred men took over the fort on 12 June . During the subsequent Maltese uprising and insurrection against the French , Maltese insurgents built Għargħar and Sqaq Cappara batteries to bombard Fort Manoel . The Maltese attacked the fort on a number of occasions , and the French retaliated with their own bombardment at least once . On 12 September 1799 , a company of French troops from Fort Manoel attempted to silence an insurgent gun position in San Ġwann , but were repelled by the Maltese insurgents .
= = = British rule = = =
When Malta became a British protectorate in 1800 , Fort Manoel was officially taken over by the British military that September . In the late 19th century , the echaugettes on the bastions facing Valletta were dismantled to make way for gun emplacements . Later on , significant alterations were made to St. Anthony Bastion , when its gunpowder magazine was demolished to make way for a battery of three QF 12 @-@ pounder guns .
The British military finally decommissioned the fort 's guns in 1906 , although it remained a military establishment . It was included on the Antiquities List of 1925 . The fort saw use again during World War II , when a battery of 3 @.@ 7 @-@ inch heavy anti @-@ aircraft guns was deployed there . The guns were mounted in concrete gun emplacements and deployed in a semicircle in and around the fort . The fort suffered considerable damage to its ramparts , barracks and chapel as a result of aerial bombing during the war . The fort was eventually decommissioned in 1964 .
= = = Recent history = = =
After being decommissioned , Fort Manoel was abandoned and fell into a state of disrepair . Parts of it were also vandalized . In 1970 , the Royal Malta Yacht Club acquired part of the fort as its club house , and the yacht club remained there until it acquired new premises in Ta ' Xbiex in 2008 .
In August 2001 , the development company MIDI plc began restoration work on the fort . Phase One of the project , which included the restoration of the piazza and the reconstruction of the ruined chapel , was completed in 2009 . The second phase , including the restoration of the outer fortifications and glacis , was approved by the Malta Environment and Planning Authority in 2012 . The restoration of Fort Manoel together with that of the nearby Fort Tigné cost a total of € 30 million .
= = Layout = =
Fort Manoel is built in the shape of a square , with a pentagonal bastion on each corner , giving it the shape of a star fort . The four bastions are called St. Helen , St. Anthony , St. John and Notre Dame Bastions .
St. Helen and St. Anthony Bastions are located on the seaward side , facing Valletta . They originally had echaugettes and gunpowder magazines , but the echaugettes on both bastions were dismantled in the 19th century , and the magazine on St. Anthony Bastion was demolished to make way for three QF 12 @-@ pounder gun emplacements . The magazine on St. Helen Bastion is still intact . The curtain wall linking these two bastions contains the main gate , which is protected by a lunette known as the Couvre Porte .
St. John and Notre Dame Bastions are located along the landward side of the fort . Each bastion is protected by a low cavalier . The curtain wall between the two bastions is further protected by a pentagonal ravelin , which is largely rock hewn .
A Piazza is located inside the fort , and it contains the rebuilt Chapel of St. Anthony of Padua , several barrack blocks , an armoury and other buildings . A statue of Grand Master Vilhena once stood in the square but it was removed in the 19th century and relocated to Valletta . It was later relocated once again and it is now in Floriana .
= = Ghost story = =
The fort is supposedly haunted by the Black Knight , who wears the armour and regalia of the Order of St. John , and resembles Grand Master de Vilhena . In the 1940s , the knight began to appear out of thin air near the ruins of the Chapel of St. Anthony of Padua , which had just been bombed in World War II . The apparition was reportedly seen by Maltese and English men within the fort . When the rubble from the ruined chapel began to be cleared , the workmen reported that the knight was supervising their work . When the crypt beneath the chapel was opened , it was found that it had been vandalized , and the remains of knights which had been buried there were scattered around . After the crypt was restored and the bones were reburied , the Black Knight stopped appearing . In 1980 , the crypt was vandalized for a second time , and the Black Knight reportedly began to appear again .
= = In popular culture = =
Fort Manoel is featured in the 2007 fiction book Il @-@ Misteru tal @-@ Forti Manoel ( The Mystery of Fort Manoel ) by Charles Zarb .
The fort served as a location for the shooting of the climactic scene of Baelor , the ninth episode of the TV series Game of Thrones , in 2011 .
The fort was also used in the filming of the 2016 films Risen and Assassin 's Creed .
The fort is also visible in the 2016 film 13 Hours : The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi .
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= Graudenz @-@ class cruiser =
The Graudenz class of light cruisers was a class of two ships built for the German Imperial Navy . The class comprised SMS Graudenz and SMS Regensburg . The ships both were laid down in 1912 , launched in October 1913 and April 1914 and commissioned in August 1914 and January 1915 , respectively . They were armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm guns , though over the course of their careers , they were rearmed with seven more powerful 15 cm guns . They displaced 6 @,@ 382 t ( 6 @,@ 281 long tons ) at full load and were rated at a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph )
Both ships saw extensive service during World War I , primarily in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . They participated in several raids on the British coast , screening for the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group . Regensburg saw heavy combat at the Battle of Jutland , the largest naval battle of the war ; Graudenz had been damaged by a mine and was in dock for repairs at the time of the battle . Both were involved in the Wilhelmshaven mutiny at the end of the war . Following Germany 's defeat , Graudenz was ceded to Italy and served as Ancona until 1937 , when she was sold for scrap . Regensburg was transferred to France , where she served as Strasbourg until 1936 , when she was converted into a barracks ship . She was ultimately scuttled in Lorient to protect the German U @-@ boat pens there .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Graudenz class were 139 meters ( 456 ft ) long at the waterline and 142 @.@ 70 m ( 468 @.@ 2 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 13 @.@ 80 m ( 45 @.@ 3 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 75 m ( 18 @.@ 9 ft ) forward and 6 @.@ 08 m ( 19 @.@ 9 ft ) aft . They displaced 4 @,@ 912 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 834 long tons ) at designed displacement and 6 @,@ 382 t ( 6 @,@ 281 long tons ) at full combat load . The ships ' hulls were constructed with longitudinal steel frames and contained seventeen watertight compartments and a double bottom that extended for forty @-@ seven percent of the length of the keel .
The two vessels each had a standard crew of twenty @-@ one officers and 364 enlisted men . While serving as a second command flagship or a flotilla leader , they had an additional three officers and fourteen enlisted men for the commander 's staff . They carried a number of smaller boats , including one picket boat , one barge , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies . The German Navy regarded the ships as good sea boats , with slight weather helm and gentle motion in a swell . The cruisers were maneuverable , but were slow going into a turn . Steering was controlled by a single large rudder . They lost speed only slightly in a head sea , but lost up to sixty percent in hard turns . They had a transverse metacentric height of .79 m ( 2 ft 7 in ) .
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine @-@ type steam turbines , each of which drove a three @-@ bladed screw 3 @.@ 50 m ( 11 ft 6 in ) in diameter . Each turbine was divided into its own engine room . They were designed to give 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) . These were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers , divided into four boiler rooms on the centerline . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . The ships carried 1 @,@ 280 t ( 1 @,@ 260 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 375 t ( 369 long tons ) of oil that gave them a range of approximately 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . At 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) , the range fell considerably , to 1 @,@ 000 nmi ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) . Each ship had two turbo generators and one diesel generator with a combined output of 260 kilowatts ( 350 hp ) at 220 Volts .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships were armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two in a superfiring pair aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . These were replaced with seven 15 cm SK L / 45 guns and two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns in 1916 for Graudenz and 1917 for Regensburg . They were also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . Two deck @-@ mounted launchers were added for Graudenz when the gun armament was upgraded ; Regensburg had her submerged tubes removed and four deck mounted launchers installed . Both ships could also carry 120 mines .
The ships were protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships and 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) thick on the bow . The stern was unarmored . The deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate forward , 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick amidships , and 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick aft . Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck and belt armor . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 20 mm thick roof . A rangefinder was added with 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick steel plating . The main battery guns had 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick gun shields .
= = Service history = =
= = = Graudenz = = =
Graudenz saw extensive service during World War I , including serving as part of the reconnaissance screen for the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group during the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby in December 1914 . The ship also took part in the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915 , and the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 . She had been damaged by a mine and was unable to participate in the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 . She was assigned to the planned final operation of the High Seas Fleet in October 1918 , weeks before the end of the war , but a major mutiny forced the cancellation of the plan . After the end of the war , the ship was ceded to Italy as a war prize and commissioned into the Italian Navy as Ancona ; she remained in service until 1937 when she was stricken and broken up for scrap .
= = = Regensburg = = =
Regensburg served in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet during World War I. She saw significant action at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , where she served as the leader of the torpedo boat flotillas that screened for the I Scouting Group battlecruisers . Like Graudenz , Regensburg was to have participated in the final sortie of the German fleet at the end of the war , and was involved in the mutiny that forced the cancellation of the plan . After the end of the war , she was ceded to France in 1920 and renamed Strasbourg . In 1928 she took part in the Arctic rescue operations searching for the Airship Italia . Removed from service in 1936 , she was used as a barracks ship in Lorient until 1944 , when she was seized by the Germans and scuttled in the harbor to protect the U @-@ boat pens there .
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= Worcester city walls =
Worcester 's city walls are a sequence of defensive structures built around the city of Worcester in England between the 1st and 17th centuries . The first walls to be built around Worcester were constructed by the Romans . These early walls lasted beyond the fall of the Empire , and the defences encouraged several early Christian foundations to establish themselves in Worcester during the troubled 6th and 7th centuries . The Anglo @-@ Saxons expanded Worcester in the 890s , forming a new walled , planned city , called a burh . The burh utilised the southern stretches of the old Roman walls , but pushed further north to enclose a much larger area . The Anglo @-@ Saxon city walls were maintained by a share of taxes on a local market and streets , in an agreement reinforced by a royal charter .
After the Norman conquest of England in the 11th century a motte and bailey castle was constructed on the south side of the city , but the Norman rulers continued to use the older burh walls , despite the city having expanded beyond these defences in the north and south @-@ east . During the years of the Anarchy in the 1140s , Worcester was successfully attacked several times ; after the war a new city wall was built to improve the city 's defences . The new walls , completed by the early 13th century , were constructed of stone and had three main gates . They were maintained in good condition into the 17th century .
During the English Civil War in the 1640s the old medieval walls were reinforced with modern earthwork bastions and an outlying fort , called a sconce . Worcester changed hands several times during the conflict , and after the war ended the newer fortifications were dismantled . During the 18th century the older medieval stone walls and gatehouses were sold and mostly destroyed : by the 20th century , few parts survived . Post @-@ war archaeology in the 1950s and 1960s and construction work in the 1970s revealed previously hidden stretches of the wall , and in the 21st century plans have been drawn up to improve the conservation and maintenance of this historic monument .
= = History = =
= = = 1st – 7th centuries = = =
The first defensive walls at Worcester were built after the Roman conquest of Britain in AD 43 . Although a settlement existed on the site during the Iron Age , there is no evidence that walls were ever built around it . The Roman town was probably preceded by the construction a Roman fort , both located on the south side of the modern city and protected by the River Severn to the west . There are relatively few historical details or archaeological evidence from this period , but archaeological investigations of the Roman town walls suggest that it had wooden ramparts and was protected by an 89 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) wide ditch . As with other Roman towns , the walls would have enclosed a rectangular town , protecting a settlement with a grid @-@ like network of streets .
The decline of the Roman Empire brought an end to Roman rule in Britain by the start of the 5th century . The town within the old Roman walls at Worcester continued to be occupied however , remaining a prominent military feature . New Christian religious foundations were established at Worcester during this period , attracted there in large part by the security the Roman defences offered during a troubled period . In the 7th century , Worcester Cathedral was built , once again within the old Roman walls .
= = = 8th – 11th centuries = = =
During the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , Worcester first became the capital of the Hwicce kingdom , and later formed part of the wider kingdom of Mercia . Worcester and its defences were reorganised by Ealdorman Æthelred and Æthelflæd and bishop Werferth in the 890s . This involved creating a burh , a fortified Anglo @-@ Saxon town ; in Worcester this took the form of a planned settlement , extending out from the old Roman defences , with the Shambles forming a street running along the wall on the east . Archaeological evidence suggests that the burh had 4 @,@ 650 feet ( 1 @,@ 417 m ) of walls in total ; documentary evidence from the Burghal Hidage document , written shortly after the creation of the walls , suggests they were 4 @,@ 960 feet ( 1 @,@ 512 m ) long , a discrepancy that may be accounted for by changes in the course of the river since the 10th century . The walls incorporated the old Roman fortifications on the south and south @-@ east side of the city and appear to have included a defensive ditch , with a revetment supporting a wooden palisade .
The creation of the burh walls is recorded in a charter witnessed by King Alfred , which lays out the responsibilities of the various churchmen and nobles involved , and notes that the upkeep of the walls would be paid for out of a share of taxes on a new market and on the new streets . The local lords took responsibility for building the burh wall , which unusually for the period was not built on royal lands . During the 10th century , the documents on the burh suggest that the aristocratic thegns living around Worcester also owned and maintained buildings within the walls ; Creighton and Higham suggest that these may have been linked to their responsibilities for defending the settlement .
During the 10th and 11th centuries Worcester spread north beyond the original burh walls , and south @-@ east to form Sidbury . In 1041 Worcester was attacked by the royal army of Harthacnut over a tax @-@ dispute that had led to the death of two of the king 's men ; despite the defensive walls , the city was successfully taken and burnt .
= = = 11th – 16th centuries = = =
In 1066 William the Conqueror defeated the English army at the battle of Hastings and Norman forces advanced west into Worcestershire . To reinforce their occupation , the Normans built a motte and bailey castle on the south side of the city , taking advantage of the shape of the existing burh walls . The remaining burh walls continued to be used into the Norman period , but the city had already spread beyond them , reducing their effectiveness .
In the late 1130s a period of civil war broke out in England , called the Anarchy , in which the rival factions of King Stephen and the Empress Matilda contested the kingdom – Worcestershire proved to be a key battleground in the war . The first attack on Worcester itself occurred in late 1139 when an Angevin army from Gloucestershire assaulted the city . After an attempt to take the castle on the south side of the city , the Gloucester forces entered from the north , looting and burning . Worcester became a base for Stephen 's forces for a period , before joining the Empress 's faction . In response , Stephen first stormed and burnt the city in 1148 , and then attacked it again in 1150 , shortly before the end of the conflict . From the accounts of these sieges , it appears that Worcester still lacked substantial walls during this period .
During the second half of the 12th century a new city wall began to be built around Worcester , with work probably continuing until early the next century . Enclosing about 85 acres ( 34 @.@ 4 hectares ) , its design tracked the flow of natural streams to the north and east , and made use of the castle in the south as part of the defences . The walls were constructed of sandstone , and appear to have been surrounded by a flat bottomed , water @-@ filled ditch , more than 30 feet ( 9 m ) wide . The new walls cut across existing parts of the city and would have required the demolition of numerous existing buildings that lay in their way ; the new defences also cut off the outlying districts of Sidbury , Lowesmoore , Foregate Street and The Tything from the inside of the walled city . Three main gates were built in the walls – North Gate , St Martin 's Gate and Sidbury Gate – protected by gatehouses of paired circular towers and arrowslits for use by crossbowmen . Smaller gates were built between them , such as Friar 's Gate .
Civil war broke out again in England in 1215 between forces loyal to King John and rebel barons , supported in due course by Prince Louis of France , in what gas become known as the First Barons ' War . Worcester sided with the rebels , and in July 1216 the city was attacked by forces under the command of Ranulf , the Earl of Chester . Ranulf attempted to storm the castle , rather than the north side of the city , and after he eventually gained access a £ 100 fine was imposed on the city with the threat that their walls would be destroyed if the money was not paid . Although Worcester 's walls clearly played a military role during this period , they would also have been symbolically important to the city and have played a part in controlling civic access and enforcing the city 's laws .
One method of paying for the construction and maintenance of city walls was a tax called murage , usually levied by permission of the king on particular goods being imported into a city . In Worcester , murage was raised to support work on the walls during three main phases , 1224 to 1239 , 1252 to 1310 and 1364 to 1411 . Worcester was attacked again during the Second Barons ' War in the 1260s , and the records suggest that some of the murage payments were used to repair damage caused by that attack . In the late 14th century a watergate was built in the western walls of the city , close to a slipway for launching boats . Worcester 's last murage grant occurred in 1439 , although in 1459 Henry VI allowed the city to use stones from the castle to repair the walls to defend the city in anticipation of a Yorkist attack during the Wars of the Roses . As in many other English towns and cities , as the medieval period progressed , housing began to encroach on the city walls in Worcester .
= = = 17th – 19th centuries = = =
At the start of the 17th century , Worcester 's city walls were still intact , and were recorded in John Speed 's famous 1610 map of the city . In 1642 the English Civil War broke out between followers of King Charles I and Parliament . Worcester began the war under Royalist control , before rapidly being taken by Parliament and then changing hands again in 1643 following the battle of Edgehill . Worcester remained Royalist for the rest of the war until it was once again besieged and finally surrendered in 1646 .
The war was the first prolonged conflict in Britain to involve the use of artillery and gunpowder . Sieges became a prominent part of the war with over 300 occurring during the period . Worcester was once again a strategically important region in the war , and walled towns and cities like Worcester that could be defended against passing armies were particularly significant from a military perspective . By the 1640s the design of military fortifications had progressed significantly on the continent , owing largely to the Thirty Years War ; while older medieval stone walls still had military utility , they typically needed reinforcement with more modern earthworks to be truly effective . These new ideas were applied to city defences in England . In some cases a circuit of forts was built around a city ; in other cases , an entirely new city wall comprising modern bastions would be built . At Worcester , the unimproved walls were considered to be indefensible at the start of the war in 1642 , and the chosen solution was to directly reinforce the existing medieval wall with new earthworks .
To form these new defences , the buildings outside the old city walls were cleared and six large bastions were attached to them along the north and east sides of the city , while a sconce , Fort Royal Hill was built outside Sidbury Gate in the south , linked to the walls by a walkway . The ditch protecting the new earthworks was relatively shallow at about eight feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) deep , but when combined with the high ramparts of the bastions , which were probably protected by sharpened stakes and a banquette firing platform , the bastions would have been well defended . The reinforced walls were manned in 1642 by soldiers employed by the Robert Devereux , the Earl of Essex . Prince Maurice subsequently conscripted the adult men and women of Worcester to work on the walls , threatening the death penalty if they did not attend . During the 1643 and 1646 sieges the reinforced defences were able to withstand the artillery bombardments – the surrender in 1646 was mainly the result of a shortage of food and the collapse of the wider Royalist position across the south @-@ west of England .
Following further fighting between 1648 and 1649 , the Third English Civil War broke out in 1651 . Royalist forces under the command of Charles II advanced as far as Worcester , where the army paused to reinforce the walls further and await reinforcements in relative safety . The Parliamentary forces under Oliver Cromwell attacked in early September ; the ensuing battle of Worcester saw the Royalist forces pushed steadily back into the city . Fort Royal was successfully stormed and its guns turned on the city itself . Cromwell 's men began forcing their way into the city from west , south and east and by the evening the city had fallen . The collapse marked the end of the Third Civil War . In the aftermath the bastions and other fortifications were mostly destroyed by Parliament , although the medieval walls and gates were spared .
By the 18th century local residents had built summer houses on top of the walls , which were still largely intact . During the next hundred years city and town walls across England began to be demolished to make way for new developments , and Worcester proved no exception . By the end of the century the walls and gates were being sold off and destroyed ; Friar 's Gate was probably the last to be demolished , early in the 19th century . Only a few tracts of wall survived , often concealed behind other buildings and new constructions .
= = Today = =
The remains of Worcester 's city walls were largely ignored until after the Second World War ; limited archaeological excavations first began in 1957 . Work continued in the 1960s and picked up pace in the 1970s , when the creation of the City Walls Road in Worcester uncovered more parts of the wall , formerly hidden from view . The Civil War earthworks of Fort Royal Hill are still visible overlooking the city .
As a result of their mixed history , the remains of the walls are owned by various different organisations and subject to different legal protection . Some parts of the walls are protected as Grade II listed buildings and scheduled monuments , although most of the walls lack this legal recognition . The multiple ownership of the different parts of the city walls contributed to what English Heritage considered an " uncoordinated " approach to their conservation . In response , a conservation plan has been created by Worcester City Council , proposing that the walls , despite their mixed ownership , should be managed as a single historic monument , and advising that some sections be repaired urgently ; as of 2010 this plan was awaiting approval by English Heritage .
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= Blink @-@ 182 ( album ) =
Blink @-@ 182 is the eponymously titled fifth studio album by American pop @-@ punk band Blink @-@ 182 . It was produced by Jerry Finn and released November 18 , 2003 , through Geffen Records . Following the band 's ascent to stardom and success of their prior two releases , the trio were compelled to take a break and subsequently participated in various side projects ( Box Car Racer and Transplants ) . When they regrouped , the band felt inspired to approach song structure and arrangements differently on their next effort together . The record was left untitled as to refrain from labeling its content , and its packaging features a " smiley face " logo inspired by pop art .
Recorded throughout 2003 , Blink @-@ 182 marks a departure from the band 's earlier work , infusing experimental elements into their usual pop punk sound , inspired by lifestyle changes ( the band members all became fathers before the album was released ) and side projects . Its songs are characterized by downcast and expansive sonic atmospheres , showcasing what critics dubbed a more elaborate , mature side of the band . Songwriting is more personal in nature and explores darker territory , touching upon the realities of adulthood and unexpected hardships . The record features a collaboration with The Cure frontman Robert Smith .
Fans were generally split regarding the band 's " new " direction , but the record proved successful , selling 2 @.@ 2 million copies in the United States . The album received positive reviews , with critics welcoming the change in tone . Lead singles " Feeling This " and " I Miss You " received the most radio airplay of the four singles released and peaked high on Billboard charts . The worldwide touring schedule , which saw the band travel to Japan and Australia , also found the three performing for troops stationed in the Middle East . Blink @-@ 182 was the band 's last recording with longtime producer Jerry Finn and their final original material before a four @-@ year @-@ long hiatus .
= = Background = =
Take Off Your Pants and Jacket became Blink @-@ 182 's first number one album in the United States upon its June 2001 release ; it also hit the top position in Canada and Germany . Hit singles " The Rock Show " and " First Date " continued the band 's mainstream success worldwide , with MTV cementing their image as video stars . However , guitarist Tom DeLonge felt as though his creativity was stifled by label limitations , and sessions became contentious among the trio . They rescheduled European tour dates in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks , and they were called off a second time after DeLonge suffered a herniated disc in his back . With time off from touring , DeLonge felt an " itch to do something where he didn 't feel locked in to what Blink was , " and channeled his chronic back pain and resulting frustration into Box Car Racer ( 2002 ) , a post @-@ hardcore disc that further explores his Fugazi and Refused inspiration . Refraining from paying for a studio drummer , he invited Blink drummer Travis Barker to record drums on the project .
Box Car Racer , intended as a one @-@ time experimental project , became a full @-@ fledged band with Barker behind the kit and Hazen Street guitarist David Kennedy on guitar . Blink bassist Mark Hoppus felt betrayed and jealous , and it would create an unresolved tension within the trio that followed the band for several years . " At the end of 2001 it felt like Blink @-@ 182 had broken up . It wasn ’ t spoken about , but it felt over , " said Hoppus later . Barker , meanwhile , joined rap rock group Transplants in 2002 , and was featured on their first album , Transplants . In addition , Blink @-@ 182 co @-@ headlined the Pop Disaster Tour with Green Day , alongside opening acts Jimmy Eat World , Saves the Day and Kut U Up in 2002 . It was an " uncomfortable " time in the band , according to Hoppus , but they had " hundreds of discussions about it " and seemingly moved on . Barker felt the dynamics of the band changed with Hoppus and DeLonge 's marriages : " Blink @-@ 182 were no longer just three inseparable guys who were touring together . " Meanwhile , he began dating model Shanna Moakler , inviting tabloid attention , adding to the " awkwardness " present in the band .
The post @-@ hardcore sound of Box Car Racer inspired the change in tone and experimental nature the band approached Blink @-@ 182 with . Hoppus described his desire for the album to experiment with different arrangements in a 2002 interview : " Before , we got one guitar sound that we changed a little bit through the record . This time we want to try a whole different setup for each song . " Hoppus recalled that Barker entered the production process by urging the band to " [ not think of the album ] as the next Blink @-@ 182 record — think of it as the first Blink @-@ 182 record . " The members were also inspired after hearing Houston : We Have a Drinking Problem by Bad Astronaut and its expansive sound . " Once the door was opened by Tom and Travis with Box Car Racer , Mark started to be more on board with that concept . He was also more flexible and the next Blink album was able to be a pretty big departure from the previous two , " said assistant engineer Sam Boukas . " Box Car Racer opened the door in that sense and I think the three of them wanted to be more creative and have more creative liberty on that next album . "
= = Recording and production = =
In January 2003 , the band rented a home in the San Diego luxury community of Rancho Santa Fe , planning to record the entire album there . In addition to being converted into a studio , pay @-@ per @-@ view pornography was on continuous play , and it included a space to " smoke hella weed " in the garage . The trio ditched their typical previous recording process ( writing and demoing several songs and recording them in a studio one instrument at a time ) , and instead approached each song together . The band " attacked " each song and worked on three @-@ four songs per day , simply moving on to the next one when feeling " burned out " on a track . The band also had fun at the home studio ; DeLonge commented , " If I wasn ’ t smoking half of Colombia I probably ran up $ 3 million in adult film charges . " The band recorded at the home until April 2003 , when the owners of the house " kicked them out . " Barker , unwilling to leave Moakler , would drive from Los Angeles to San Diego each day . He subsequently left that spring to tour with Transplants , leaving the band with a variety of drum tracks to listen to while he was gone . The band regrouped after being " kicked out " of the house they were recording in by the owners , and began recording at Rolling Thunder studios until the band left to perform a couple of summer shows in Canada and Japan , where they premiered several songs live . The in @-@ studio antics and behind the scenes moments were recorded and posted on the official Blink @-@ 182 website throughout 2003 , as well as a MTV album release segment .
The recording process of the album eventually lasted from January to August 2003 , with an additional mixing and mastering period lasting until October . Previous Blink @-@ 182 sessions were recorded in three months . The band stated that being in a studio longer than three months gave them the luxury of experimenting with different methods of writing , playing , and recording . The band built each song with a minute attention to detail . Hoppus described the studio as a " musical laboratory " : over 70 guitars , 30 amps , " 30 or 40 " different snare drums , up to six drum kits , and various keyboards , turntables , and pianos were used in the album 's production . Barker was responsible for the turntables and a copy of Pink Floyd 's The Wall . The group also enlisted the help of James Guthrie , an engineer behind The Wall . The trio also sent The Cure frontman Robert Smith the bed track of " All of This " in hopes he would contribute ; Smith makes a guest appearance and recorded his parts in England . The three initially believed their legitimacy would be in question due to the humor @-@ oriented nature of their earlier recordings , to which Smith responded , " Nobody knows what kind of songs you are going to write in the future and nobody knows the full potential of any band . I really like the music you sent me . " The band also collaborated with DJ Shadow and Dan the Automator , and Barker desired to work with The Neptunes . Jerry Finn , who had produced the previous two Blink @-@ 182 albums and the Box Car Racer album , returned to produce Blink @-@ 182 , which would be his final contribution with the band .
As the record neared completion by August , the band performed for a short time for the armed forces in the Middle East , and premiered more new songs at their Reading and Leeds sets . The trio shot small , home @-@ made videos for several songs on Blink @-@ 182 , as well as the official music video for " Feeling This " , which they picked as the first single . The band spent time to finalize the CD booklet and album artwork in September . Mark Hoppus stated that the album was so " personal to all three of us that we really wanted to be involved in every aspect of it . " The release date kept getting missed and pushed back to where Jordan Schur , then @-@ president of Geffen Records , made calls asking , " What is the absolute last possible second that we can turn this thing in and still make our release date ? " DeLonge described the final days of mixing the album as " crazy stressful " , with " literally hours to turn [ the album ] to have it come it out on time . " The album was in production so late that final mixes were still being judged by Hoppus , DeLonge , and Barker the night before the album was sent to the pressing plant . For Barker , he later considered it his favorite time in the band 's history , commenting , " That was a good time in my life . I was smoking just enough weed and taking just enough pills . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Music and style = = =
While still rooted in pop punk , Blink @-@ 182 finds the band expanding their sonic template with darker , restless songs . The compositions on the record have been described as musically diverse and " borderline experimental , " with sullen moodiness and off @-@ kilter hooks the basis for many tracks . The record pulls from a variety of styles , including electronic rock , jangle pop , and " reflective " alternative rock . Experimentation was constantly present : the band tried different mic techniques and toyed with harmonium organs , Polynesian Gamelan bells , and turntables . The band infused these experimentalist elements into their usual pop punk sound , inspired by lifestyle changes ( the band members all became fathers before the album was released ) and side @-@ projects ( Box Car Racer and Transplants . ) In a full article about the album in the November 20 , 2003 , edition of the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel , Ben Wener described the music of the album as " expansive , downcast , and sometimes spectral . " The New York Times considered that the album may have been influenced by the growing popularity of emo pop , while Allmusic regarded it a delve into post @-@ punk . " Much of the punk has been dissolved , the buzzsaw guitars faded into the corners , allowing room for staggering dynamics , cathartic guitar bursts and a weightier , more experimental and ambitious sound , " wrote Tom Bryant of Kerrang ! . The goal for Blink @-@ 182 was continuity : each song develops lyrically like chapters in a book , and songs segue into one another to present a cohesive feel instead of a regular collection of tracks . In addition to the side @-@ projects , the music of the album was inspired by the September 11 attacks and the onset of the Iraq War . The mood was unsettling for DeLonge , whose brother is a Navy officer : " It was so weird because we 'd all be glued to the TV , watching these bombs explode over another country . So I 'd see all this and wonder where he was at , and then we 'd have to go into the next room and sing or finish writing lyrics . I think it affected our moods throughout the day . " In addition , it was just inspired by socializing : " We would just hang out for hours talking . It was really cool , " said DeLonge .
= = = Lyrics = = =
Music critics agreed that this album represents a more " mature " Blink @-@ 182 than seen in the past , noticeable by the absence of songs with toilet humour or jokes for which the band had been known . Mark Hoppus , the bassist in the band , said in an interview with MTV Album Launch that the desired effect of the album was for people to listen to it and say , " Wait a minute ... that 's Blink @-@ 182 ? " The themes for the album include growing up and dealing with the realities of adulthood including relationship woes , daily pressures and unexpected hardships . The album is lyrically consumed with sorrow and uncertainty about the world . Entertainment Weekly described the album as a concept album based on a dying relationship , a " self @-@ meditation on romantic decay . " " I think at this point in our career , we are better musicians and we 've evolved our way of thinking as far as songwriting , " DeLonge told Billboard in reference to the band 's more mature lyricism . Hoppus , in his interview with the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel , described the lyrics as the most personal he had written up to that point . While past recordings tended to meditate on feelings from high school , the band felt it was akin to safety net and desired to write about " what 's going on [ … ] right now . " Lyrics continued to be autobiographical , but the band took more time than usual on their writing . DeLonge would routinely rewrite his sections upwards of four times .
= = Songs = =
The record opens with " Feeling This " , which features flanged drums and an unconventional " syncopated Latin @-@ flavored backbeat and a harmony @-@ rich chorus " following a series of " half @-@ barked " vocals . " Feeling This " was the first song written for the album , and illustrates a scenario of lust , ambivalence and regret , with the protagonist of the song reflecting over his romance 's dimming flame in the chorus : " Fate fell short this time / Your smile fades in the summer . " Hoppus and DeLonge wrote the song in two different rooms and upon meeting to discuss the song , the two realized they had both written about sex : the passionate , lustful side ( reflected in the verses ) and the romantic side ( the choruses ) . It segues into " Obvious " , which explores the Wall of Sound technique and features a brooding , heavy intro combined with cascading guitar riffs . " Obvious " equates broken hearts with global violence . " I Miss You " is an all @-@ acoustic affair , featuring a melancholy piano , cello , upright acoustic bass , and a " brushstroked hip @-@ hop groove . " The song features references to Tim Burton 's 1993 animated film The Nightmare Before Christmas , with " We can live like Jack and Sally " and " We 'll have Halloween on Christmas " . In interviews and the liner notes for Blink @-@ 182 , Barker reveals that the line was directed towards his then girlfriend , Shanna Moakler . " Violence " flicks between " bizarre , spoken jazzy verses and anthemic punk rock choruses . "
" Stockholm Syndrome " has been described as " the most obvious examples of Blink @-@ 182 's experimentation " , was recorded using a microphone dating back to the 1950s , and the reverb on the vocals was achieved by playing the recordings into a shower . The drum fills for the song were recorded separately than the rest of the tracks , with the tape machines " sped up and super compressed " , then played back at normal speed , to sound really " deep and gigantic " , according to Hoppus in the liner notes for Blink @-@ 182 . It features an interlude before it in which Joanne Whalley reads letters Hoppus ' grandfather wrote to his grandmother during World War II . DeLonge explained the letters as " Real sincere , genuine letters from the worst war in history . " " Down " continues the theme of longing , set to a rain @-@ drenched soundscape . The original version of " Down " ran over six minutes long , and contained a drum and bass breakdown from Barker . " The Fallen Interlude " , which functions as an outro to " Down " , finds Barker showcasing different percussive techniques over a funk @-@ tinged jazz sound . It is a near @-@ instrumental recorded with Sick Jacken of hip @-@ hop band Psycho Realm . " Go " is the record 's only straight punk rock song , and precedes " Asthenia " , in which real NASA transmissions from the Apollo 9 space flight are used . " Asthenia " is centered on a fictional astronaut stranded in space , floating in an Apollo capsule , and contemplating whether or not returning to his home planet . It is also the only song in Blink 182 's catalog that to feature a 3 / 4 time signature ( during the bridge ) . The song was inspired by DeLonge ’ s self @-@ admitted " paranoia " regarding the future and how war and famine could effect it .
" Always " features an uptempo backbeat combined with a New Romantic @-@ era keyboard , and pulls from new wave influences ; the band often jokingly called the track the " ' 80s song . " It contains a riff reminiscent of The Only Ones ' " Another Girl , Another Planet " . " Easy Target " and " All of This " were based on a story from producer Jerry Finn 's middle school years . Finn was in love with a female classmate , Holly , who invited him over , only for have her and her friend drench him with a hose ; humiliated , he rode home on his bicycle . " All of This " is a gothic @-@ tinged pop song that uses strings and guitar effects to create a moody atmosphere . The track " Here 's Your Letter " , according to Hoppus in the liner notes for Blink @-@ 182 , is about " people 's inability to communicate with one another and how words and explanations only confuse the issues . " " I 'm Lost Without You " mixes an industrial loop with piano . The latter track took many months to create , and took " over 50 " different tracks , including two drum sets combined during the last minute of the song . Barker described the idea for the percussion combination as " something we always wanted to do , but never got around to , " and believed the song sounded like Pink Floyd or Failure .
The UK edition of the record features B @-@ side " Not Now " , originally recorded during the sessions . " Not Now " features a church organ in its verses and guitar riffs reminiscent of the Descendents ; its subject matter continues the theme of complicated miscommunication and fading love .
= = Packaging and title = =
Due to some contradicting sources , the title of the album ( or lack thereof ) is debated . Travis Barker , in his memoir Can I Say , writes that " Some people think it ’ s a self @-@ titled album , called Blink @-@ 182 , but Mark [ Hoppus ] has always insisted it was actually untitled . " A 2003 interview and article from MTV News discussing the naming of the pending album repeatedly refers to the release as the " untitled album , " while a press release from that time period confirms the same . Despite this , several critics have used the terms " eponymous " and " self @-@ titled " in describing the album . In a 2009 MTV News article , James Montgomery refers to the album as self @-@ titled , joking , " Or Untitled … It 's never really been clear . " The title for the album was originally rumored to be Use Your Erection I & II , a parody of the Guns N ' Roses albums Use Your Illusion I and II , but was revealed to be a joke Barker made to " get a rise out of people . " DeLonge , in reference to previous joke album titles ( such as Enema of the State ) , stated , " We didn 't want to label it with a joke title that people might expect . " As such , a Billboard article from the week of the album 's release lists three rejected joke titles : Diarrhea de Janeiro , Vasectomy , Vasect @-@ a @-@ you and " Our Pet Sounds " .
To support the new album , Blink @-@ 182 created an entirely new logo , a " smiley face " with X 's for each eye and five arrows on the left side of its face . According to Barker , the Blink @-@ 182 logo originated at his clothing line , Famous Stars and Straps . Barker wanted to brand an icon for the band : " It just had to be a cool kind of happy face but I wanted arrows . You know , like The Jam were my favorite band , they always had arrows in their logos and stuff . It was just kind of inspired by pop @-@ art . " Hoppus seconded this sentiment : " He spearheaded all the artwork for the record . There were smiley @-@ face stickers and posters all over Los Angeles , and that was his idea . " Barker invited his tattoo artist , Mister Cartoon , to create artwork for the record , and his good friend Estevan Oriol to handle photography . " His style , incorporated into Blink ’ s , didn ’ t make us too gangster : it just gave us a bit of an edge . It was cool to feel like Blink had a dangerous side , " Barker later remembered . The logo was later changed to have six arrows around the time that they released " Neighborhoods " . Their reunion record .
musicOMH described the album booklet as " ... Meticulously put together and resembling a Warholian pastiche . " Each song includes small notes detailing the lyrical inspiration for each song , what it means to each band member , and the recording techniques used . The band originally wanted each CD booklet to be made from canvas material . Geffen gave the band a choice between the custom artwork or keeping the sale price down to US $ 12 , and the band chose the latter , as they felt it was more important that young listeners obtain the record for less money .
= = Promotion and singles = =
Blink @-@ 182 was the band 's first release on Geffen , which absorbed sister label MCA Records in 2003 . Prior to it dissolving , MCA had attempted to penalize the band for breaking stipulations in their contract that they would have an album out by a specific quarter . MCA had previously rushed the band into recording Take Off Your Pants and Jacket , but the band had much more freedom with Geffen . " Geffen came down and heard three songs and they said , ' This is the best record you 've ever done , this is the record of your career , take as much time as you want , call us when it 's done . ' It just completely outlined the perspective of putting accounting before creative , and when you 're in the entertainment business , you 've got to put creative first . It 's an art , you 've got to look at it like an art , treat it like an art , and then you 'll get the best product in the long run . "
Promotion for the record included a " golden ticket " contest – the prize being a private Blink @-@ 182 show for the winner . MTV 's website streamed the full album a week before its release , beginning on November 10 . As promotion for the album and single release [ s ] , the band performed " Feeling This " on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! on a week after the release of the album on November 26 , 2003 , and " Down " on Late Show with David Letterman on May 27 , 2004 . Performances of " I Miss You " and " The Rock Show " on The WB 's Pepsi Smash concert series from June 10 , 2004 , were released on the Australian Tour edition of the album , as well as the " Always " single .
The band picked " Feeling This " as the first single because it was representative of the transition the band had undergone since Take Off Your Pants and Jacket . A slightly different version of the song had been released previously as part of the soundtrack for the video game Madden NFL 2004 under the erroneous title " Action " . Barker explained in an interview that " ' Action ' just sounded kind of dorky to us . Like we would always call it ' Feeling This ' and then someone at our label , I think , like wrote it as ' Action ' one time and sent out singles to people . And it was always supposed to be ' Feeling This ' . " The video for " Feeling This " was recorded shortly before the release of the album in October 2003 . The track peaked high at number 2 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart , hovering at that position for three weeks . " I Miss You " was commissioned as the record 's second single in December 2003 , when the band recorded a music video for it . " I Miss You " became arguably the most successful single from the album , becoming Blink @-@ 182 's second number 1 hit on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart during the week of April 3 , 2004 , until dethroned by Hoobastank 's " The Reason " two weeks later .
Despite briefly considering " Easy Target " to be released as the album 's third single , " Down " was released instead . The video for " Down " , which features real @-@ life ex @-@ gang members , made its television premiere in June 2004 . The single was a mixed success , peaking at number 10 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart during the week of July 31 , 2004 , but quickly falling off afterward . " Always " was announced as the fourth and final single from Blink @-@ 182 in August 2004 . " It 's gonna change people 's lives and might actually change the world forever , " DeLonge jokingly predicted . After deciding on the video concept , the clip was recorded and released in November 2004 , and continued success all the way into January 2005 . A fifth single from the album ( " All of This " ) was discussed ; however , plans were dropped following the band 's declaration of an ' indefinite hiatus ' in February 2005 . In response to the idea of " All of This " becoming a possible single , DeLonge joked " We would love it because it 's a bad @-@ ass song , and The Cure 's Robert Smith sings on it , and that makes us cooler than everybody else . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The album debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart , with first @-@ week sales of 313 @,@ 000 copies . In comparison , Take Off Your Pants and Jacket debuted at number one and sold more than 350 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album charted at number three , below fellow new album In the Zone by Britney Spears ( number one ) and above remix album Let It Be ... Naked by The Beatles ( number five ) . Blink @-@ 182 charted highest in Canada , where it debuted at number one . The album was also successful in other countries , debuting in the top ten in Australia and New Zealand .
The album was certified by the RIAA as platinum for shipments of over one million copies in 2004 , although it has since sold over 2 @.@ 2 million copies in the US and 7 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide. and the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) and Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) as double platinum , respectively . The album has also reached platinum certifications in the United Kingdom .
= = = Critical response = = =
The album received generally favorable reviews by music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 71 , based on 12 reviews . Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone , while giving the album four stars , wrote that " ... their lyrics are still unsophisticated and lovelorn , but even the poppiest tunes prove artful " . Her review regards Blink @-@ 182 as " more experimental and harder @-@ hitting than anything else [ the band ] has done " . It was subsequently included in the Top 50 Best of 2003 end of the year list by Rolling Stone . The album was given four stars by Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine , who called Blink @-@ 182 " an unexpected and welcome maturation from a band that just an album ago seemed permanently stuck in juvenilia . " Blender 's Jonah Weiner praised DeLonge 's vocals , describing them as a " lean , thrilling ride through adolescent hopelessness . " Many critics expressed surprise at the newfound maturity of the band , and lauded the surprise appearance of The Cure vocalist Robert Smith on the track " All of This " .
The band 's decision in favor of more mature material was received positively by many critics ; Tim Newbound of Soul Shine Magazine wrote that " Blink show that they can retain their infectious and endearing qualities while recording music of a more thoughtful calibre . " Spin described the record as emotionally intense , and best experienced through headphones . USA Today 's Edna Gundersen felt that " Blink @-@ 182 bravely adheres to a single sober theme — a disintegrating romance — through 14 songs that adhere to its pop @-@ punk principles without recycling cartoonish accessories . Blink @-@ 182 is growing up , not growing stale . " Nick Catucci of The Village Voice called the album " brilliant " and compared Blink @-@ 182 to fellow pop punk band Green Day 's 2000 effort , Warning , writing , " Let it be noted , however , that Warning searches for subject matter where Blink @-@ 182 searches for meaning . " Greg Kot of Entertainment Weekly wrote that " Despite their newfound earnestness , [ the band ] seem incapable of pretension . And in a career littered with songs about awkward moments , their latest is a dork classic . " Scott Shelter of Slant gave the album four stars , stating " Giving up the fart jokes is risky business for Blink — but Blink @-@ 182 might just be the band 's best album to date . " Among the more negative reviews , Jason Arnopp of Q felt the majority of material forgettable , but commended it as " some of their most imaginatively constructed work . " The A.V. Club 's Stephen Thompson believed " The disc [ does ] meander in spots , and its most achingly sincere love songs become cloying . "
= = Touring = =
Blink @-@ 182 announced their first tour in support of Blink @-@ 182 on October 17 , 2003 , named the DollaBill Tour . The all @-@ ages club tour featured support acts Bubba Sparxxx and The Kinison , and , as the name suggests , tickets were sold for $ 1 . DeLonge explained the first return to small venues in several years in the initial press release for the tour : " For years we played in small clubs and that 's where you can really connect with your fans . " The tour ended shortly after the release of Blink @-@ 182 on November 21 , 2003 , at local San Diego venue SOMA . An additional concert at the Phoenix Concert Theatre on December 2 , 2003 , was held in Toronto , Canada with My Chemical Romance as the opener .
A performance at KWOD 's Twisted X @-@ Mas show shortly before Christmas 2003 became the final show of the year , and a European tour followed during in mid @-@ February 2004 . During an Australian tour in March 2004 , Barker injured his foot and the band was forced to cancel tour dates in Japan for the rest of the month . A U.S. tour took place from late April to May 2004 , and a highly publicized tour featuring Blink @-@ 182 and No Doubt was performed during June 2004 , in support of Blink @-@ 182 and No Doubt 's The Singles 1992 – 2003 . The cancelled Australian tour dates were rescheduled and performed in August and September 2004 . The band appeared on September 17 , 2004 , at the MTV Icon tribute to The Cure , performing a cover of " A Letter to Elise " and " All of This " , which was recorded and later broadcast on October 31 , 2004 . The band headed to Europe for a two @-@ week tour near the end of the year , which culminated at their final show on December 16 , 2004 , at the Point Theatre in Dublin , Ireland .
Although the band had planned for a U.S. tour in support of " Always " , tensions within the band had risen on the final European tour and the band announced an ' indefinite hiatus ' on February 22 , 2005 , as breakup rumors swirled . After touring through 2004 , the three essentially stopped communicating with one another . Hoppus had initially had difficulty accepting the group 's new direction . After some tragic events involving the band and its entourage , Blink @-@ 182 reunited in February 2009 .
= = Legacy = =
The Los Angeles Times referred to Blink @-@ 182 as the band 's " underrated masterwork , " writing that the record is generally considered by " fans , critics and band members alike as its best work , Blink ’ s answer to Pet Sounds or Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . " The band themselves have regarded it as a " huge turning point " in their career , marking a change in the way to write and record music , as well as view themselves . In his memoir Can I Say , Barker writes : " It had a little bit of everything : we ventured far enough outside our genre to make ourselves happy , but not so far that we offended our fan base . It was a perfect happy medium , and it ’ s the Blink album that Mark , Tom , and I are most proud of . "
The band celebrated the tenth anniversary of the album by performing it in full in November 2013 . After a pair of Hollywood Palladium shows sold out in a record 32 seconds , the band added three additional dates at The Wiltern in Los Angeles , which also sold out . MTV News called it " a fitting tribute to an album that , in the decade since it was first released , has become a bit of a touchstone — a defining moment not just for the band , but for the genre of punk , in all its permutations . " Jon Blistein of Radio.com called the album " an unquestionable masterpiece " in the site 's " Not Fade Away " series , which examines " some of the greatest albums of the past few decades . " In it , he writes on the album 's influence : " Blink @-@ 182 was the band ’ s most concise break from the pop @-@ punk formula and a catalyst for the wave of pierced @-@ hearts @-@ stuck @-@ to @-@ sleeves @-@ with @-@ tears @-@ and @-@ guyliner " emo " outfits that rose to popularity in its wake ( sans the potty humor , of course ) , including but not limited to Fall Out Boy , My Chemical Romance and Panic ! at the Disco . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Mark Hoppus , Tom DeLonge , and Travis Barker , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= = Certifications = =
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= 2003 North Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 2003 North Indian Ocean cyclone season was mostly focused in the Bay of Bengal , where six of the seven depressions developed . The remaining system was a tropical cyclone that developed in the Arabian Sea in November , which was also the only system that did not affect land . There were three cyclonic storms , which is below the average of 5 @.@ 4 . Only one storm formed before the start of the monsoon season in June , although it was also the most notable . On May 10 , a depression formed in the central Bay of Bengal , and within a few days became a very severe cyclonic storm . After it stalled , it drew moisture from the southwest to produce severe flooding across Sri Lanka , killing 254 people and becoming the worst floods there since 1947 . Damage on the island totaled $ 135 million ( 2003 USD ) . The storm eventually made landfall in Myanmar on May 19 . It is possible that the storm contributed to a deadly heat wave in India due to shifting air currents .
In late July , a monsoon depression moved across much of India , and another monsoon disturbance persisted off the coast of Pakistan . The interaction between the two systems resulted in heavy rainfall across the region , flooding dozens of villages . Monsoonal rainfall killed 285 people between Pakistan and India in the summer of 2003 . In late August , another monsoon depression moved across northeastern India . A depression that struck Andhra Pradesh in India killed 21 people in early October . Later that month , a tropical depression crossed Thailand from the western Pacific Ocean , contributing to ongoing flooding that killed 19 . Once in the Indian Ocean , this system struck southeastern India without causing much damage . The last system of the year was a cyclonic storm that struck southeastern India in December , killing 81 people and causing $ 28 million in damage ( 2003 USD ) .
= = Season summary = =
There were seven depressions throughout the season , of which three attained cyclonic storm status . One of the cyclonic storms formed before the start of the monsoon season , two depressions formed during the monsoon season from June to September , and the remaining systems formed after September . The number of depressions was similar or greater than that of the previous three years . However , the total of 3 cyclonic storms was below the average of 5 @.@ 4 .
In May 2004 , seven of the eight members of the World Meteorological Organization panel on tropical cyclones for the North Indian Ocean met in Colombo , Sri Lanka to review the season . During the meeting , the panel announced the first list of tropical cyclone names to be used in the basin for the following season . The panel noted the increasing frequency of deadly natural disasters in the region , such as the floods that affected Sri Lanka in May 2003 from a cyclone . One of the panel 's goals was increased coordination between the countries in the region . The India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) in New Delhi served as the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center , although the Joint Typhoon Warning Center also issued warnings for the region in an unofficial capacity . The IMD utilized satellite data from EUMETSAT to track cyclones , as well as radars from Bangladesh , Sri Lanka , and India .
There were several other monsoon disturbances that affected various countries in the region , including Bangladesh , Pakistan , and Oman . On July 27 , during the monsoon season , an area of convection exited from the coast of Pakistan . On the next day , the thunderstorms organized around the center , prompting the Pakistan Meteorological Department to classify the system as a monsoon depression . The IMD operationally classified the system as a depression on July 29 , although it was dropped during the agency 's annual report . The system weakened into a remnant low on July 30 . The system drew moisture from another depression that had moved across India from the Bay of Bengal , bringing three days of heavy rainfall to Karachi , Pakistan . Badin in southeastern Pakistan recorded 292 mm ( 11 @.@ 5 in ) of rainfall in 24 hours . The rainfall extended into northwestern India , and in Gujarat , a station received more than its annual rainfall during the deluge . Flooding from the heavy rainfall destroyed widespread crops and flooded dozens of villages , and ongoing rains persisted throughout the summer , killing 285 people in the two countries .
= = Storms = =
= = = Very Severe Cyclonic Storm BOB 01 ( 01B ) = = =
The first storm of the season originated from the monsoon trough , developing into a depression on May 10 in the Bay of Bengal . Initially favorable conditions allowed the system to steadily intensify while moving northwestward , reaching peak maximum sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) on May 13 . This made it a very severe cyclonic storm according to the IMD . The storm later drifted northward and later to the east in the central Bay of Bengal , although increased wind shear induced weakening into a deep depression . The system eventually began a steady northeast track , bringing it ashore in western Myanmar on May 19 as a re @-@ intensified cyclonic storm . It dissipated shortly thereafter over land , and was no longer observable on satellite imagery by May 20 .
Early and later in its duration , the storm brought rainfall to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Although the storm never passed within 700 km ( 430 mi ) of the island , the cyclone produced torrential rainfall across southwest Sri Lanka after it stalled in the central Bay of Bengal . The storm drew moisture from the southwest that coalesced in the mountainous portion of the island . A station at Ratnapura recorded 366 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 14 @.@ 41 in ) of rainfall in 18 hours on May 17 , including 99 @.@ 8 mm ( 3 @.@ 93 in ) in one hour . This followed a period of regular rainfall in the first 15 days of May across the region . The rains caused flooding and landslides in southwestern Sri Lanka that destroyed 24 @,@ 750 homes and damaged 32 @,@ 426 others , leaving about 800 @,@ 000 people homeless . Overall damage totaled about $ 29 million ( 2003 USD ) , mostly to roads and buildings , and there were 254 deaths . This made it the worst floods on the island since 1947 . The storm also drew moisture away from India , which possibly contributed to a heat wave that killed 1 @,@ 200 people , and dropped heavy rainfall in Myanmar .
= = = Deep Depression BOB 02 = = =
A low pressure area persisted over the northern Bay of Bengal on July 22 , eventually organizing into a depression on July 25 about 160 km ( 100 mi ) south of Kolkata . Moving northwestward , the system quickly intensified into a deep depression , with peak winds estimated at 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . Late on July 25 , the system made landfall north of Balasore in Odisha state . It progressed inland across India , weakening to depression status but remaining a distinct system . On July 28 , the depression degenerated into a remnant low over Rajasthan in northwestern India , later merging with a heat low . Rainfall associated with the system mostly occurred in the southwestern periphery , with a peak of 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) at Kendrapara ; there was little damage . Rainfall also spread into Bangladesh .
= = = Depression BOB 03 = = =
On August 27 , a low pressure area concentrated into a depression about 230 km ( 145 mi ) south of Kolkata . The system largely consisted of a circulation without much organized convection . It moved to the west @-@ northwest and failed to intensify , moving ashore near Chandabali , Odisha on August 28 . Once over land , the depression stalled until dissipating on August 29 . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) at Kantamal in Odisha , and there were no reports of damage . The system was largely connected with the monsoon , resulting in an increase in rainfall over northeastern India .
= = = Depression BOB 04 = = =
A low pressure area persisted on October 4 in the western Bay of Bengal , off the east coast of Tamil Nadu . Two days later , the system organized into a depression and moved northward . Early on October 7 , the depression made landfall at Kalingapatnam , Andhra Pradesh . After moving slowly northwestward over land , the system turned to the northeast , degenerating into a remnant low on October 10 over West Bengal . The depression dropped heavy rainfall along its path , peaking at 380 mm ( 15 in ) in Chandabali , Odisha . Kolkata received 267 mm ( 10 @.@ 5 in ) , and rainfall spread as far northeast as Assam . The rains caused widespread flooding across southeastern India , inundating 20 villages and covering 16 @,@ 000 hectares ( 39 @,@ 000 acres ) of rice paddies . A tornado spawned by the depression injured 11 people and damaged several houses in Murshidabad . Across its track , the depression killed 13 people in West Bengal and another eight in Andhra Pradesh .
= = = Deep Depression BOB 05 ( 23W ) = = =
On October 21 , an area of convection formed in the Gulf of Thailand in the western Pacific Ocean . With low wind shear , the thunderstorms organized around the circulation , prompting the JTWC to initiate advisories on Tropical Depression 23W . While drifting northward , the system failed to organize further . Later , a ridge steered the depression to the west , bringing it ashore Thailand on October 24 near Hua Hin District . The next day , the circulation entered the Bay of Bengal after weakening over land , passing near the Andaman and Nicobar Islands . On October 26 , the IMD began classifying the system as a depression . The convection gradually reorganized as the system turned to the northwest , prompting the JTWC to upgrade it to a minimal tropical storm on October 27 . On the same day , the IMD upgraded it to deep depression status . The system made landfall between Visakhapatnam and Kalingapatnam in Andhra Pradesh on October 28 , and dissipated the next day .
While crossing Thailand , the depression produced heavy rainfall reaching 127 @.@ 7 mm ( 5 @.@ 03 in ) at Hua Hin over a 24 ‑ hour period . Ongoing monsoonal flooding in the country forced thousands of people to evacuate their houses . About 22 @,@ 000 cattle were killed , and large areas of farmlands were inundated . Officials opened the Kaeng Krajan Dam to prevent it from being destroyed by the floods . Damage from the depression alone was estimated at ฿ 1 billion baht ( $ 25 million 2003 USD ) . The monsoonal rains in October and November 2003 in the country killed 19 people . In India , the depression dropped locally heavy rainfall , reaching 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) in Dummugudem . There was little damage in the country .
= = = Severe Cyclonic Storm ARB 06 ( 02A ) = = =
The lone system in the Arabian Sea in the season originated from a trough . On November 10 , an area of convection formed off the western coast of India . With little wind shear , the system organized further as it moved west @-@ southwestward due to a ridge to the north . On November 12 , the system developed into a depression and quickly intensified into a deep depression . That day , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 02A , and it intensified into a cyclonic storm on November 13 . The storm was located at an unusually low latitude of 6 ° N. After an eye developed in the center of the convection , the JTWC upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , estimating peak winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) on November 14 . By contrast , the IMD estimated peak winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) , making the system a severe cyclonic storm . Subsequently , drier air weakened the storm , causing the convection to decrease . By November 15 , the storm had weakened to depression status while approaching Somalia . That day , the JTWC discontinued advisories while the storm was about 520 km ( 320 mi ) east of the Somalia coastline . On November 16 , the depression degenerated into a remnant low , and subsequently dissipated .
= = = Severe Cyclonic Storm BOB 07 ( 03B ) = = =
On December 10 , an area of convection with an associated circulation persisted about 740 km ( 460 mi ) west of the northern tip of Sumatra , as part of a trough in the region and enhanced by the monsoon . A steady decline in the wind shear allowed the thunderstorms to organize , and a depression formed on December 11 . On the next day , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 03B . The storm moved generally northwestward , steered by a ridge to the north . The IMD upgraded the system to a deep depression and later cyclonic storm on December 13 , and further to a severe cyclonic storm a day later . The agency estimated peak winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) , noting spiral convection organizing around the beginnings of an eye feature . The storm also developed well @-@ defined outflow due to an approaching trough from the west . At around 14 : 30 UTC on December 15 , the storm made landfall near False Divi Point in southeastern India , along the coast of Andhra Pradesh . After turning to the northeast over land , the system rapidly weakened , degenerating into a remnant low on December 16 .
Before the storm made landfall , officials evacuated about 20 @,@ 000 people . As the storm moved ashore in India , it produced heavy rainfall that reached 190 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) at Repalle , Andhra Pradesh . Light rains fell in neighboring Tamil Nadu . The rains deluged 61 @,@ 898 @.@ 5 ha ( 152 @,@ 955 acres ) of fields in Andhra Pradesh . The storm damaged or destroyed 9 @,@ 090 houses , and downed several trees and power lines . Local news reports indicated that the storm produced 10 m ( 33 ft ) waves as it moved ashore , which damaged a ship and forced its crew to be rescued by the Indian Coast Guard . In Andhra Pradesh , the storm killed 83 people and resulted in $ 28 million ( 2003 USD ) in damage . After the storm , the government provided ₹ 50 @,@ 000 rupees ( $ 1 @,@ 111 USD ) to the family of every storm victim .
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= Political Animals and Animal Politics =
Political Animals and Animal Politics is a 2014 edited collection published by Palgrave Macmillan and edited by the green political theorists Marcel Wissenburg and David Schlosberg . The volume addresses the emergence of academic animal ethics informed by political philosophy ( as opposed to moral philosophy ) , and was the first edited collection to be published on the topic , as well as the first book @-@ length attempt to explore the limits of the literature . As well as a substantial introduction by the editors , it features ten sole @-@ authored chapters split over three parts , with contributions from Wissenburg , Schlosberg , Manuel Arias @-@ Maldonado , Chad Flanders , Christie Smith , Clemens Driessen , Simon Otjes , Kurtis Boyer , Per @-@ Anders Svärd and Mihnea Tanasescu .
In part , Political Animals and Animal Politics arose from a workshop Wissenburg and Schlosberg had organised at the 2012 European Consortium for Political Research Joint Sessions conference , though not all attendees contributed to the volume and not all contributors presented at the workshop . Political Animals and Animal Politics was published as part of the Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series , edited by Andrew Linzey and Priscilla Cohn . Reviewers praised the volume for its trailblazing nature , picking out the contributions from Driessen , Wissenburg , Flanders and Boyer , but challenged its inclusion of environmentally @-@ focused contributions and criticised it for its failure to include contributions from the key voices in the politically @-@ focused animal ethics literature , such as Robert Garner , Sue Donaldson and Will Kymlicka , Alasdair Cochrane , Kimberly Smith or Siobhan O 'Sullivan .
= = Production and release = =
Marcel Wissenburg and David Schlosberg organised a workshop entitled " Political Animals and Animal Politics " at the 2012 European Consortium for Political Research Joint Sessions conference , which was held at the University of Antwerp , Belgium , between 10 – 15 April 2012 . The two had been talking for around a year about organising a conference broadly on the theme of " nature , animals and political theory " . The workshop aimed to fill a gap in the political literature on the status of nonhuman animals , something previously considered only at the margins of work otherwise about the environment / resource management , or else by those more primarily interested in moral issues . Both Wissenburg and Schlosberg presented papers , and , in addition , papers were presented by Manuel Arias @-@ Maldonado ( University of Granada ) , Susan Boonman @-@ Berson ( Wageningen University and Research Centre ) , Kurtis Boyer ( Lund University ) , Clemens Driessen ( Utrecht University ) , Chad Flanders ( Saint Louis University ) , Robert Garner ( University of Leicester ) , Margareta Hanes ( Vrije Universiteit Brussel ) , Paul Lucardie ( University of Groningen ) , Christopher Neff ( University of Sydney ) , Kaspar Ossenblok ( Ghent University ) , Simon Otjes ( Leiden University ) , Christie Smith ( University of Exeter ) , Mihnea Tanasescu ( Vrije Universiteit Brussel ) and Catherine Zwetkoff ( University of Liège ) .
The workshop also featured a lecture by Michel Vandenbosch , of the Belgian organisation Global Action in the Interest of Animals . On the workshop 's second day , those involved were joined by Niko Koffeman of the Dutch Party for the Animals and Karen Soeters of that party 's Pierson Foundation think tank . Footage from that day of the workshop , shot by Joost de Haas , was included in the documentary film De Haas in de Marathon ( The Hare in the Marathon , 2012 ) . For Schlosberg , the workshop , and the wide range of papers presented , illustrated the " coming @-@ of @-@ age of animal politics as a sub field of political theory " .
This workshop formed the basis of Political Animals and Animal Politics , a collection edited by Wissenburg and Schlosberg , with earlier versions of many of the volume 's chapters having being presented at that time . Originally , the editors had intended to have discussion of political theory , of movements for animals and of real @-@ world politics , but the final volume was somewhat more theory @-@ based than this . Political Animals and Animal Politics was published in 2014 by Palgrave Macmillan in hardback format ; it is part of the Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series , which is edited by Andrew Linzey and Priscilla Cohn . This interdisciplinary series aims to explore the practical and conceptual challenges posed by animal ethics .
Political Animals and Animal Politics was the first edited collection devoted to the " political turn in animal ethics " , and the first " book @-@ length attempt at seeking to define the contours " of this literature . The book engages with what the editors call " animal political philosophy " , which they identify as an academic literature at the meeting point of animal ethics , political philosophy and real @-@ world but theory @-@ driven politics . Wissenburg and Schlosberg posit that this literature , though at one time only a small part of more morally @-@ focused animal ethics , has developed into a separate field of enquiry in its own right . They single out two key texts : Robert Garner 's 2013 A Theory of Justice for Animals ( Oxford University Press ) and Sue Donaldson and Will Kymlicka 's 2011 Zoopolis ( Oxford University Press ) . Recognising the editors ' identification of the political turn in animal ethics , Garner , writing with Siobhan O 'Sullivan and Alasdair Cochrane , argues that the literature is both made distinct and unified by its focus on justice ; contributions to this literature , these authors argue , " imagine how political institutions , structures and processes might be transformed so as to secure justice for both human and nonhuman animals . Put simply , the essential feature of the political turn is this constructive focus on justice . "
= = Synopsis = =
Political Animals and Animal Politics has three key aims , and , correspondingly , its chapters are split into three sections . These aims are the analysis of three key " innovations " that the editors identify in the book 's introduction . The first of these is the move , in animal ethics , from thinking about personal change to thinking about the implementation of rules or norms of conduct at the societal level . The second of these is a possible rapprochement between animal ethics and ecologism ( environmental ethics and green political theory ) . The third is the increased presence of animal protection laws for the benefit of nonhuman animals themselves . Aside from the introduction , the book features ten single @-@ authored chapters , with three in Part I : The Politicization of the Animal Advocacy Discourse , three in Part II : The Rapprochement between Animal Ethics and Ecologism , and four in Part III : The Introduction of Laws and Institutions for the Benefit of Animals .
= = Contributions = =
" Rethinking the Human @-@ Animal Divide in the Anthropocene " , Manuel Arias @-@ Maldonado
Arias @-@ Maldonado argues that traditional appeals to the value of nonhuman animals have failed to be sufficiently motivating , and that , instead , human / nonhuman relationships are appropriately grounded upon the ideas of human exceptionalism and human domination . These notions , he claims , can be the basis of political transformation for nonhuman animals . He argues that once these ideas are properly understood , they can ground an idea of human sympathy for nonhuman animals , which is just one part of a caring and sustainable Anthropocene . Even if an alternative politics might ultimately be preferable , Arias @-@ Maldonado argues , a change to a focus on sympathy might be useful and realistic as a political strategy .
" An Agenda for Animal Political Theory " , Marcel Wissenburg
For the purposes of his contribution , Wissenburg takes many standard contentions in animal ethics for granted . However , he challenges mainstream animal ethicists ' tendency to adopt the language of liberalism , which he suggests misconstrues nonhuman animals as individuals and posits false dichotomies about their status . This adoption of liberal ideas can come in Tom Regan 's " old " form or Donaldson and Kymlicka 's " new " form . Wissenburg challenges Donaldson and Kymlicka 's extension of citizenship to nonhuman animals , and instead sketches the outline of an alternative proposal which pays attention to individual animals ' modes of being . This he labels , paraphrasing Robert Nozick , " liberalism for humans and feudalism for animals " .
" Public Reason and Animal Rights " , Chad Flanders
Flanders argues that nonhuman animals could be " below " politics , in that they do not have politically @-@ considerable interests , or " above " politics , in that they have rights which trump political decision @-@ making processes . Flanders argues that if animals are excluded from basic justice , as John Rawls held , they can be defended on metaphysical grounds ( what Rawls refers to as on the basis of comprehensive doctrines , as opposed to the public reasons which must be used for arguments in the political realm ) . This is potentially liberating for animal advocates . Nonetheless , Flanders argues , animal issues may be matters of basic justice insofar as they affect humans or the animals themselves have rights . Alternatively , the wrongness of animal cruelty may be a " fixed point " in our political reasoning . Flanders concludes that Rawlsianism provides a good starting point for the inclusion of animals in political decision @-@ making .
" Articulating Ecological Injustices of Recognition " , Christie Smith
Smith argues that Val Plumwood is incorrect to declare the resituation of animals into ethical terms as supererogatory as opposed to the necessary resituation of humans into ecological terms , as the two tasks are linked . Smith rejects the culture / nature dichotomy , and suggests that a politics of recognition is an appropriate way to think about relationships . She draws upon feminist and ecofeminist literature to conceive of recognition theory beyond intersubjective self / other relations , allowing recognition beyond a human self , a concept which she challenges . Smith seeks to show that recognition theories should not be considered " soft " or " naive " as accounts of justice , and instead that they offer an appropriate mode for thinking about ecological and animal injustices .
" Ecological Justice for the Anthropocene " , David Schlosberg
Schlosberg 's contribution , is , in many ways , a response to challenges made to his Defining Environmental Justice ( 2007 ) . Schlosberg aims to step beyond previous accounts of animal rights or environmentalism as requirements of justice by deploying a mixed capabilities / deliberation approach applicable to both ecosystems and nonhuman animals . Schlosberg challenges criticisms of his capabilities approach ( specifically , a capabilities approach which moves beyond humans ) grounded in the existence of conflicts of capabilities , claiming that a form of deliberative democracy can overcome the problem posed by these conflicts . His mixed account , he claims , provide a form of justice appropriate for thinking about human and nonhuman individuals and collectives in the Anthropocene .
" Animal Deliberation " , Clemens Driessen
Driessen explores ways in which nonhuman animals might be understood to be engaging in political deliberation . His claim is empirical rather than normative , as he presents nonhuman animals as already being in political dialogue with humans ; rather than arguing that rights should be extended to animals , he calls for a recognition of how interactions with animals have always been political . This is particularly noticeable , he argues , when humans are involved in the development of new technologies , analysing the example ( following Bruno Latour ) of Gaston Lagaffe building a door in dialogue with his boss and the office cat , and of farmers and cows using milking robots . He argues that a recognition of this animal deliberation can lead to more thoughtful forms of both environmentalism and democracy .
" Animal Party Politics in Parliament " , Simon Otjes
Otjes 's approach is more empirical than that of many contributors to Political Animals and Animal Politics . He examines the Dutch Party for the Animals ( PvdD ) , which , in 2006 , won two seats in the House of Representatives . Otjes explores whether the PvdD 's presence has changed the amount of time more established parties spent on animal issues by examining both parliamentary speeches and motions before and after the introduction of the PvdD members . He finds that established parties began to talk more about animal issues in 2006 , and that this could be attributed to conflict between the PvdD and the established parties . Though Otjes allows that his study 's relevance may seem limited , he concludes that smaller parties can affect government agenda by remaining focused on their own primary concern .
" The Limits of Species Advocacy " , Kurtis Boyer
Boyer observes the distinction between how nonhuman animals can receive political protection as individuals and as species . He argues that the latter form of protection is motivated by a desire to preserve human experience of the species rather than the experiences of the nonhuman animals themselves . Politically @-@ motivated species advocacy , Boyer argues , is highly anthropocentric , as advocates present these animals as sharing in particular revered virtues ; as a result , the likes of habitat and genetic health are the focus of advocates , rather than nonhuman animals themselves . Using the example of polar bear preservation , Boyer illustrates how species advocacy becomes tied up with broader political goals concerning humans and competing visions of the value of animals . He concludes that the advancement of species advocacy can limit the achievement of animal welfare / rights goals .
" Slaughter and Animal Welfarism in Sweden 1900 – 1944 " , Per @-@ Anders Svärd
Svärd , taking a more empirical approach than many other contributors , explores laws surrounding animal welfare in early 20th century Sweden . He seeks to offer an empirical grounding for the argument that animal welfarism is problematic for animals , entrenching harmful use and speciesism . He analyses all official documentation from the Riksdag from 1900 – 1944 on the subject of animal slaughter and welfare drawing upon Foucauldian policy analysis and poststructuralist discourse analysis . He conceives of the debates as a political problematisation in which ( drawing upon Lacanian psychoanalysis ) animal cruelty was blamed on certain " other " groups ( such as Jews and Sami ) . He argues that animal welfarism was not the natural continuation of an old anti @-@ cruelty discourse , but that Sweden 's 1937 regulation of slaughter and 1944 animal protection laws served to reconstitute , reaffirm and expand speciesist relations , paving the way for animal exploitation 's expansion .
" The Rights of Nature : Theory and Practice " , Mihnea Tanasescu
Tanasescu explores the idea of rights for nature , an idea which , though unorthodox , has seen success in implementation . He first introduces the concept , with a focus on the differences between moral and legal rights , before examining the particular case of Ecuador 's entrenchment of rights for nature in its 2008 constitution , which is compared with other real @-@ world cases . He finally addresses what can be learnt from these theoretical and practical considerations . He concludes that much work on the topic is left to be done , but the key lesson to be learnt is the significance of innovation ; environmental politics , he claims , should remain both inventive and optimistic .
= = Academic reception = =
Political Animals and Animal Politics was reviewed by Garner for Environmental Values and the British philosopher Josh Milburn for the Political Studies Review . Garner lamented the absence of many of the key voices in the political theory literature on animal ethics — such as Cochrane , Donaldson and Kymlicka , O 'Sullivan , Tony Milligan , Kimberly Smith or Garner himself — in the book , meaning that Political Animals and Animal Politics " takes on the role of an observer of this debate rather than directly contributing to it in a leading sense " . In addition , he felt that the book offered little consideration of the details of the work of these leading theorists , identifying the absence of discussion of Cochrane 's interest @-@ based rights approach , a superficial consideration of Regan 's account of animal rights , an oversimplification of his own position and a lack of context to understand the respective work of Kimberly Smith and O 'Sullivan . He considered Wisseburg 's chapter to be the only one which engages with the debate about the political turn in general , but notes that Wissenburg 's approach is a negative one ; Garner considers this unsurprising , given that Wissenburg is a green political theorist with little sympathy for " animal political theory " .
Milburn questioned the success of the volume in achieving its second stated goal , concerning rapprochement between animal and environmental ethics ; he considered the contributions respectively of Christie Smith , Schlosberg , and Tanasescu to be more clearly in the domain of environmental ethics than animal ethics , questioning the extent to which they belong in a volume about " animal politics " . He felt that the opening chapters ( and introduction ) did well to establish the volume , and was happy with the inclusion of the more empirical contributions , given their potential theoretical significance . Milburn picked out the chapters by Driessen , Boyer and Wissenburg respectively as highlights , suggesting that the contributions of Driessen and Boyer seemed to challenge the volume 's second stated goal , and noting that , though it was strong , he disagreed with the claims of Wissenburg 's chapter . Garner highlighted the contributions of Flanders and Driessen . He commended the editors for putting together the book , and , though he claimed that it was likely to be superseded , concluded that Political Animals and Animal Politics should be " welcomed for its trailblazing " .
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= St Cristiolus 's Church , Llangristiolus =
St Cristiolus 's Church , Llangristiolus is a medieval church near the village of Llangristiolus , in Anglesey , north Wales . The village , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the building , takes its name from the church . Reputedly founded by St Cristiolus in 610 , the present building dates from the 12th and 13th centuries . Alterations were made in the 16th century , when the large east window in Perpendicular style was added to the chancel – a window which has been described by one guide to the buildings of north Wales as " almost too big to fit " in the wall . Some restoration work took place in the mid @-@ 19th century , when further windows were added and the chancel largely rebuilt .
The church is still in use for weekly Sunday services ( in Welsh and English ) , as part of the Church in Wales , and is one of four churches in a combined parish . It is a Grade II * listed building , a national designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , in particular because of its age and the east window . The church contains a decorated font from the 12th century , as well as memorials from the 18th , 19th and 20th centuries . Richard Owen , a 19th @-@ century Calvinistic Methodist minister from Llangristiolus , is buried in the graveyard .
= = History and location = =
St Cristiolus 's Church is in central Anglesey , north Wales . It is situated just to the south of the A5 and A55 roads , on raised ground above Malltraeth Marsh . The modern village of Llangristiolus is about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the west of the church . The village takes its name from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " -gristiolus " is a modified form of the saint 's name .
The date of foundation of the first building on this site is unknown . Geraint Jones , in a 2006 guide to Anglesey churches , wrote that it is thought that St Cristiolus established a church here in 610 . Cristiolus , a 7th @-@ century saint about whom little detail is known , was a follower of St Cadfan , a Breton saint associated with the Christian community on Bardsey Island in Wales . Cristiolus is also credited with the foundation of the church in Eglwyswrw in modern @-@ day Pembrokeshire , south Wales . He was the brother of St Rhystud , who established the church at Llanrhystud in mid @-@ Wales .
The present building dates from the 12th century ; it is the only medieval building in the parish . During the 13th century , the chancel was extended , and the older part of the church may have been rebuilt using the previous stones at this time . By 1535 , the position of rector of the parish was held by the person holding the position of Archdeacon of Anglesey , as part of the remuneration for that office ; this is no longer the case . Further structural changes to the church were made in the early 16th century when some windows were added to the chancel . In 1852 , restoration work took place to the nave and chancel under Henry Kennedy , architect of the Diocese of Bangor . The chancel was rebuilt , although the east wall and window were retained , and further windows were added in the church .
St Cristiolus 's Church is still in regular use and belongs to the Church in Wales . It is one of six churches in the combined benefice of Plwyf Seintiau Braint a Chefni . The other churches in the benefice are St Michael 's , Gaerwen ; St Ffinan 's , Llanffinan ; St Caffo 's , Llangaffo ; St Edwen 's , Llanedwen ; and St Mary 's , Llanfairpwll . It is within the deanery of Malltraeth , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . The current incumbent ( as of 2013 ) , Emlyn Williams , was appointed as vicar of St Cristiolus 's Church in 2007 ; before that , the position had been vacant for 20 years despite many attempts by the Church in Wales to fill it . He is assisted by one associate priest and two associate curates . Services are held every Sunday morning , alternating between a bilingual service of Holy Communion and a service of Morning Prayer ; there are no midweek services .
People associated with the church include Henry Maurice ( elected Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity at the University of Oxford shortly before his death in 1691 ; his father , Thomas , was the perpetual curate of the church ) and the 19th @-@ century writer and priest Owen Wynne Jones ( who was the curate for a time in the early 1860s ) . The 19th @-@ century Calvinistic Methodist preacher Richard Owen was born in the parish , and is buried in the graveyard that surrounds the church .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The church is built from rubble masonry ( mainly gritstone ) and dressed with freestone . The nave measures 44 feet 9 inches long by 15 feet 6 inches wide ( 13 @.@ 6 by 4 @.@ 7 m ) and the chancel measures 32 feet 9 inches long by 20 feet 6 inches ( 10 by 6 @.@ 25 m ) wide . The nave has three bays , and the chancel at the east end of the nave has two bays ; it is slightly wider than the nave . The nave and the chancel have external buttresses .
Internally , the chancel arch dates from the 13th century . It is 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide and 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) from the floor to the top of the arch ; the supporting pillars are 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) tall . There are windows from the early 16th century in the chancel , with the large east window in Perpendicular style ( in contrast to the rest of the church , which is mainly in Decorated style ) . It has five ogee @-@ headed lights separated by vertical tracery , and measures 10 feet 10 inches ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) at its widest point by 14 feet 2 inches ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) at its tallest . Unlike most of the other windows in the church , it contains coloured glass . A smaller window in the north wall also dates from this time , and has a square frame containing two lights ; a matching window was added in the 19th century in the opposite wall . The other windows in the church are from the 19th century in various designs . One window , in the north wall of the nave , has had stained glass added as a memorial to two local residents who died in the 1990s .
The entrance is through a porch ( probably dating from the 16th century ) on the south side of the building , at the west end of the nave . At the west end of the roof , which is made of slate , there is an ornate bellcote for one bell ( added by Kennedy ) . There are plain iron crosses on top of the porch and the chancel . Inside , the rafters and trusses of the roof are exposed . The pews and choir stalls were added in the 19th century . The nave has a brass memorial to a former Chancellor of Bangor Cathedral , William Morgan ( died 1713 ) , his wife and son . There are other memorials inside the church , including one for those from the parish who died during the First World War .
The gritstone circular font , at the west end , dates from the 12th century , and has six decorative panels . It is one of a group of fonts in north @-@ west Wales using interlace ( a medieval decorative style ) showing links to Irish and Norse artistic traditions ; other similar fonts in Anglesey are found at St Ceinwen 's , Cerrigceinwen , St Peter 's , Newborough and St Beuno 's , Trefdraeth . One author says that the patterns on the fonts at Llangristiolus and St Beuno 's Church , Pistyll ( in the nearby county of Gwynedd ) seem " closely linked " to patterns on one of the stone crosses at St Seiriol 's Church , Penmon .
= = Churchyard = =
The churchyard contains six Commonwealth war graves : in the east part of the ground are buried two British Army soldiers of World War I and north @-@ north @-@ west of the church are buried three soldiers and an airman of World War II .
= = Assessment = =
The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest ( of three ) grade of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 30 January 1968 , and has been listed because it is a medieval church that , unusually for Anglesey , dates substantially from the 12th and 13th centuries . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes the " fine 16th @-@ century rebuilding of the chancel " and the chancel window . The chancel arch has been described ( in a 2009 guide to the buildings of north @-@ west Wales ) as the best such arch in the region , and the " fine " east window as " almost too big to fit " in the wall .
The 19th @-@ century antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described the church as " a spacious structure , exhibiting some excellent architectural details , and decorated with an east window , of good design , enriched with tracery . " Writing in 1846 ( before Kennedy 's restoration work in 1852 ) , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones noted a wooden gallery at the west end , above the font , inscribed RICHARDUS DE GREY FECIT 1778 . LAUS DEO . He described the chancel arch as displaying " workmanship of good character . "
The Welsh politician and church historian Sir Stephen Glynne visited the church in 1849 . He wrote that it was a " fair specimen of the better sort of Anglesey village church " . The nave and chancel were " of good proportions " , with the chancel " properly distinguished and developed " . He also said that the chancel arch was " of considerable elegance , unusual in North Wales , having excellent moulding and clustered shafts which have a Middle Pointed character . "
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= Scottish Parliament Building =
The Scottish Parliament Building ( Scottish Gaelic : Pàrlamaid na h @-@ Alba , Scots : Scots Pairlament Biggin ) is the home of the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood , within the UNESCO World Heritage Site in central Edinburgh . Construction of the building commenced in June 1999 and the Members of the Scottish Parliament ( MSPs ) held their first debate in the new building on 7 September 2004 . The formal opening by Queen Elizabeth II took place on 9 October 2004 . Enric Miralles , the Spanish Catalan architect who designed the building , died before its completion .
From 1999 until the opening of the new building in 2004 , committee rooms and the debating chamber of the Scottish Parliament were housed in the General Assembly Hall of the Church of Scotland located on The Mound in Edinburgh . Office and administrative accommodation in support of the Parliament were provided in buildings leased from the City of Edinburgh Council . The new Scottish Parliament Building brought together these different elements into one purpose @-@ built parliamentary complex , housing 129 MSPs and more than 1 @,@ 000 staff and civil servants .
From the outset , the building and its construction have been controversial . The choices of location , architect , design , and construction company were all criticised by politicians , the media and the Scottish public . Scheduled to open in 2001 , it did so in 2004 , more than three years late with an estimated final cost of £ 414 million , many times higher than initial estimates of between £ 10m and £ 40m . A major public inquiry into the handling of the construction , chaired by the former Lord Advocate , Peter Fraser , was established in 2003 . The inquiry concluded in September 2004 and criticised the management of the whole project from the realisation of cost increases down to the way in which major design changes were implemented . Despite these criticisms and a mixed public reaction , the building was welcomed by architectural academics and critics . The building aimed to achieve a poetic union between the Scottish landscape , its people , its culture , and the city of Edinburgh . The parliament building won numerous awards including the 2005 Stirling Prize and has been described by landscape architect Charles Jencks as " a tour de force of arts and crafts and quality without parallel in the last 100 years of British architecture " .
= = Location = =
Comprising an area of 1 @.@ 6 ha ( 4 acres ) , with a perimeter of 480 m ( 1570 ft ) , the Scottish Parliament building is located 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) east of Edinburgh city centre on the edge of the Old Town . The large site previously housed the headquarters of the Scottish and Newcastle brewery which were demolished to make way for the building . The boundary of the site is marked by the Canongate stretch of the Royal Mile on its northern side , Horse Wynd on its eastern side , where the public entrance to the building is , and Reid 's Close on its western side . Reid 's Close connects the Canongate and Holyrood Road on the southwestern side of the complex . The south eastern side of the complex is bounded by the Our Dynamic Earth visitor attraction which opened in July 1999 , and Queen 's Drive which fringes the slopes of the Salisbury Crags .
In the immediate vicinity of the building is the Palace of Holyroodhouse , which is bordered by the broad expanse of Holyrood Park . To the south of the parliamentary complex are the steep slopes of the Salisbury Crags and Arthur 's Seat . The Holyrood and Dumbiedykes areas , to the west of the site , have been extensively redeveloped since 1998 , with new retail , hotel and office developments , including Barclay House , the new offices of The Scotsman Publications Ltd .
= = Project history = =
Before 1707 , the Kingdom of Scotland was a sovereign independent state which had its own legislature — the Parliament of Scotland — which met , latterly , at Parliament House on the Royal Mile in Edinburgh . The Treaty of Union , signed in 1707 , created an incorporating political union between the Kingdom of Scots and the Kingdom of England . The two previous Acts of Union ( one for the British Parliament and one for the Parliament of Scotland ) had dissolved the previous parliaments . The Treaty of Union created the Parliament of Great Britain which was housed in the Palace of Westminster in London . As a consequence , Scotland was directly governed from London for the next 292 years without a legislature or a Parliament building of its own .
Pressure for an independent parliament grew in the 1970s with the growth of the Scottish National Party and monies were invested into the conversion of the former Royal High School on Calton Hill into an official parliament . Whilst much of this conversion was completed ( including creation of the main debating hall ) and the building was renamed New Parliament House it was determined that the facility was too small for its stated purpose ( as and when that purpose arose ) . Following the April 1992 election , when a weakened John Major was re @-@ elected , a campaign group set up adjacent to the Royal High School at the foot of the access road to Calton Hill . Starting informally this became a permanently manned " vigil " to keep the concept in the public mind . This led to the Royal High School being the " popular " choice of site in the public ( and particularly SNP ) mindset .
A referendum of the Scottish electorate , held on 11 September 1997 , approved the establishment of a directly @-@ elected Scottish Parliament to legislate on most domestic affairs . Following this , the Scottish Office , led by the then Secretary of State for Scotland , Donald Dewar , decided that a new purpose @-@ built facility would be constructed in Edinburgh , to house the Scottish Parliament .
Initially , three sites in and around Edinburgh were considered as possible locations for the building , including St Andrew 's House / New Parliament House ( better known as the imposing former Royal High School on Calton Hill ) St Andrews House being the home of the Scottish Office — later the Scottish Government ; Victoria Quay at Leith docks ( adjacent to the major Scottish Office building there ) and Haymarket on the vacant railway goods yard , in the west end of the city . The Holyrood site was not entered into the picture until after the official closure date of the competition between the three sites . The date for announcing the winner overran and on the date of the expected announcement instead it was announced that they were going to " rethink their decision " ( inferring that indeed a decision had been made ) and add the Holyrood Brewery site into the running ( which had only just closed ) . However negotiations with the brewing company Scottish and Newcastle , who owned the land , resulted in the company indicating that they would be able to vacate the site in early 1999 . As a consequence , the Secretary of State for Scotland agreed that the Holyrood site merited inclusion on the shortlist of proposed locations . The Scottish Office commissioned feasibility studies of the specified areas in late 1997 and in January 1998 , the Holyrood site was selected from the shortlist .
Following on from the site selection , the Scottish Office announced that an international competition would be held to find a designer for a new building to house the Parliament . A design committee was appointed under the chairmanship of Dewar , and was tasked with choosing from a shortlist of designs . Proposals were submitted from internationally renowned architects such as Rafael Viñoly , Michael Wilford and Richard Meier . Twelve designs were selected in March 1998 , which were whittled down to five by the following May . The five final designs were put on public display throughout Scotland in June 1998 . Feedback from the public displays showed that the designs of the Spanish architect Enric Miralles were amongst the most popular . The design team took account of public opinion on the designs and invited all five shortlisted entrants to make presentations on their proposed designs before announcing a winner .
On 6 July 1998 , it was declared that the design of Enric Miralles was chosen , with work being awarded to EMBT / RMJM ( Scotland ) Ltd , a Spanish @-@ Scottish joint venture design company , specifically created for the project . Construction , which was undertaken by Bovis , commenced in June 1999 , with the demolition of the Scottish and Newcastle brewery and the beginning of foundation work to support the structure of the building . MSPs began to move into the building complex in the Summer of 2004 , with the official opening by the Queen taking place in October of the same year .
= = Parliamentary complex = =
We don 't want to forget that the Scottish Parliament will be in Edinburgh , but will belong to Scotland , to the Scottish land . The Parliament should be able to reflect the land it represents . The building should arise from the sloping base of Arthur 's Seat and arrive into the city almost surging out of the rock .
Miralles sought to design a parliament building that could represent and present a national identity . This intractably difficult question was tackled by displacing the question of identity into the landscape of Scotland . In a characteristically poetic approach he talked about slotting the building into the land " in the form of a gathering situation : an amphitheatre , coming out from Arthur 's Seat . " where the building would reflect a dialogue between the landscape and the act of people sitting . So an early goal of the design was to open the building and its public spaces , not just to Edinburgh but to a more general concept of the Scottish landscape . Miralles intended to use the parliament to help build the end of Canongate — " not just another building on the street ... it should reinforce the existing qualities of the site and its surroundings . In a subtle game of cross views and political implications . "
The result was a non @-@ hierarchical , organic collection of low @-@ lying buildings intended to allow views of , and blend in with , the surrounding rugged scenery and symbolise the connection between nature and the Scottish people . As a consequence the building has many features connected to nature and land , such as the leaf shaped motifs of the roof in the Garden Lobby of the building , and the large windows of the debating chamber , committee rooms and the Tower Buildings which face the broad expanse of Holyrood Park , Arthur 's Seat and the Salisbury Crags . Inside the buildings , the connection to the land is reinforced by the use of Scottish rock such as gneiss and granite in the flooring and walls , and the use of oak and sycamore in the construction of the furniture .
The Parliament is actually a campus of several buildings , reflecting different architectural styles , with a total floor area of 31 @,@ 000 square metres ( 312 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , providing accommodation for MSPs , their researchers and parliamentary staff . The buildings have a variety of features , with the most distinctive external characterisation being the roof of the Tower Buildings , said to be reminiscent of upturned boats on the shoreline . The inspiration had come from Edwin Lutyens ' sheds , made from upturned herring busses ( boats ) which Miralles saw on a visit to Lindisfarne in Northumberland . It is said that in the first design meeting , Miralles , armed with some twigs and leaves , thrust them onto a table and declared " This is the Scottish Parliament " reinforcing the unique and abstract nature of the parliamentary campus .
The north @-@ western boundaries of the site , the MSPs ' building , Queensberry House and the Canongate Building reinforce the existing medieval street patterns " expressing intimacy with the city and its citizens " . The south @-@ eastern aspect of the complex is extensively landscaped . Concrete " branches " , covered in turf and wild grass extend from the parliamentary buildings , and provide members of the public with somewhere to sit and relax . Indigenous Scottish wildflowers and plants cover much of the area , blending the Parliament 's grounds with the nearby Holyrood Park and Salisbury Crags . Oak , Rowan , Lime and Cherry trees have also been planted in the grounds . Adjacent to the landscaped area of the complex , where it meets Horse Wynd , there is an open plan piazza , with bike racks , seating and external lighting shaped like rocks incorporated into concrete paving . Three distinctive water features provide the centrepiece for this area .
References to Scottish culture are also reflected in the building and particularly on some of the building 's elevations . There are a series of " trigger panels " , constructed out of timber or granite . Not to everyone 's taste , these have been said to represent anvils , hairdryers , guns , question marks or even the hammer and sickle . Shortly after the official opening of the building , Enric Miralles ' widow , Benedetta Tagliabue , revealed that the design is simply that of a window curtain pulled back . Her late husband however , enjoying the use of ambiguous forms with multiple meanings , had previously said he would love the profile to evoke an icon of Scottish culture , the painting of Reverend Walker skating on ice . The architectural critic Charles Jencks finds this a particularly apt metaphor for balanced movement and democratic debate and also notes the irony that Miralles too was skating on ice with his designs for the building . Elsewhere , in the public area beneath the debating chamber , the curved concrete vaults carry various stylised Saltires . Here the architect intends another metaphor ; by setting the debating chamber directly above the public area , he seeks to remind MSPs whilst sitting in the chamber that their power derives from the people below them .
The Scottish Parliament Building is open to visitors all year round . On non @-@ sitting days , normally Mondays , Fridays and weekends as well as during parliamentary recess periods , visitors are able to view the Main Hall of the building and can access the public galleries of the debating chamber and main committee rooms . Guided tours are also available on non @-@ sitting days and these allow visitors access to the floor of the chamber , the Garden Lobby , Queensberry House and committee rooms in the company of a parliamentary guide . On sitting days , members of the public must purchase tickets for the public galleries of both the chamber and committee rooms .
= = = Sustainability = = =
The Scottish Parliament Building was designed with a number of sustainability features in mind . The decision to build the Parliament on a brownfield site and its proximity to hubs of public transport are seen as sustainable , environmentally friendly features . All of the electricity purchased for the building comes from renewable sources and solar panels on the Canongate Building are used for heating water in the complex .
A high level of insulation was used to keep the building warm during the winter months . This approach , however , brings with it the potential problem of overheating during the summer due to solar heat gains through the glazing , body heat and the use of computers and electric lighting . Standard solutions to the problem usually involve using energy intensive HVAC systems . The Scottish Parliament Building , however , reduces the requirements for such systems to only 20 % of the accommodation by a variety of strategies . Natural ventilation is used wherever possible . A computerised management system senses the temperature in different parts of the Parliament and automatically opens windows to keep the building cool . During summer months , the building opens the windows during the night time when it is unoccupied and permits the heavy concrete floors and structure to cool and rid themselves of heat absorbed during the day.This then helps to keep the building temperature down during the day by absorbing the excess heat from the glazing , occupants and electrical equipment . Some of the concrete floors are further cooled by water from 25 metres ( 80 ft ) deep bore holes beneath the parliamentary campus which also provide water for the toilet facilities . The building achieves the highest rating in the Building Research Establishment 's Environmental Assessment Method ( BREEAM ) .
= = = Debating chamber = = =
The debating chamber contains a shallow elliptical horseshoe of seating for the MSPs , with the governing party or parties sitting in the middle of the semicircle and opposition parties on either side , similar to other European legislatures . Such a layout is intended to blur political divisions and principally reflects the desire to encourage consensus amongst elected members . This is in contrast to the " adversarial " layout reminiscent of other Westminster style national legislatures , including the House of Commons , where government and opposition sit apart and facing one another . There are 131 desks and chairs on the floor of the chamber for all the elected members of the Scottish Parliament and members of the Scottish Government . The desks are constructed out of oak and sycamore and are fitted with a lectern , a microphone and in @-@ built speakers as well as the electronic voting equipment used by MSPs . Galleries above the main floor can accommodate a total of 255 members of the public , 18 guests and 34 members of the press .
The most notable feature of the chamber is the roof . The roof is supported by a structure of laminated oak beams joined with a total of 112 stainless steel connectors ( each slightly different ) , which in turn are suspended on steel rods from the walls . The connecting nodes were fabricated by welders for Scotland 's oil industry . Such a structure enables the debating chamber to span over 30 metres ( 100 ft ) without any supporting columns . In entering the chamber , MSPs pass under a stone lintel — the Arniston Stone — that was once part of the pre @-@ 1707 Parliament building , Parliament House . The use of the Arniston Stone in the structure of the debating chamber symbolises the connection between the historical Parliament of Scotland and the present day Scottish Parliament .
Cut into the western wall of the debating chamber are laminated glass panels , of different shapes , intended to give a human dimension to the chamber . At night , light is shone through the glass panels and is projected onto the MSPs ' desks to create the impression that the chamber is never unoccupied . Natural light diffuses into the chamber and is provided by " glass fins " which run down from light spaces in the ceiling . Glimpses out of the chamber are given to the landscape and city beyond , intentionally , to visually connect the MSPs to Scotland . The necessities of a modern parliament , banks of light , cameras , electronic voting and the MSPs ' console have all been transformed into works of craft and art , displaying the sweeping curves and leaf motifs that inform the rest of the building . Such is the level of craftsmanship , a result of the union of Miralles ' inventive designs , superb detailing by RMJM and excellent craftsmanship in execution , that Jencks was prompted to state that the [ Parliament ] is " an arts and crafts building , designed with high @-@ tech flair . You really have to go back to the Houses of Parliament in London to get interior design of such a high creative level — in fact , it is more creative " .
On 2 March 2006 , a beam in the roof of the debating chamber swung loose from its hinges during a debate , resulting in the evacuation of the debating chamber and the suspension of parliamentary business . Parliament moved to other premises while the whole roof structure was inspected and remedial works were carried out . The structural engineers , Arup , stated that the problem with the collapsed beam was entirely due to the failure of one bolt and the absence of another . There was no design fault . The engineers concluded , in a report to MSPs , that the damage is likely to have been done during construction work on the chamber roof , in the latter phases of the project . The report also indicated that whilst one of the bolts was missing , the other was broken and had damaged threads commensurate with being overtightened or jammed , which twisted the head off , or came close to doing so .
= = = Garden Lobby = = =
The Garden Lobby is at the centre of the parliamentary complex and connects the debating chamber , committee rooms and administrative offices of the Tower Buildings , with Queensberry House and the MSP building . The Garden Lobby is the place where official events as well as television interviews normally take place and it is used as an open social space for MSPs and parliamentary staff . The main feature of the Garden Lobby are the rooflights , which when viewed from above resemble leaves or the early Christian " vesica " shape and allow natural light into the building . The rooflights are made from stainless steel and the glasswork is covered by a lattice of solid oak struts . The route through the Garden Lobby up the main staircase to the debating chamber has been described as " one of the great processional routes in contemporary architecture . "
= = = MSP building = = =
The MSP building is connected to the Tower Buildings by way of the Garden Lobby and stands at the western end of the parliamentary complex , adjoining Reid 's Close . The block contains offices for each MSP and two members of staff , fitted out with custom @-@ designed furniture . The building is between four and six storeys in height , and is clad in granite . MSPs occupy 108 of the total 114 rooms in the building . Each office is divided into two parts — one for the MSP , with a floor space of 15 square metres ( 160 sq ft ) and another part for their staff , which has a floor space of 12 square metres ( 130 sq ft ) . The most distinctive feature of the MSP block are the unusual windows which project out from the building onto the western elevation of the parliamentary complex , inspired by a combination of the repeated leaf motif and the traditional Scottish stepped gable . In each office , these bay windows have a seat and shelving and are intended as " contemplation spaces " . Constructed from stainless steel and framed in oak , with oak lattices covering the glass , the windows are designed to provide MSPs with privacy and shade from the sun . Criticism has been levelled at the design of the windows by some MSPs who claim that the design blocks out natural light from their offices . To remove the uniformity from the western side of the building , the windows jut out at different widths and angles . At its north end , the building is six storeys high ( ground floor plus five ) stepping down to four storeys ( ground floor plus three ) at the south end .
= = = Other buildings = = =
Four tower buildings fan out along the front , or eastern edge , of the parliamentary complex and are notable for the curvature of their roofs . The Tower Buildings are home to the public entrance of the Scottish Parliament and to the Main Hall which is located on the eastern side of the parliamentary complex , beneath the debating chamber . A stone vaulted ceiling is the principal feature of the Main Hall , which has cross like representations carved into it , reminiscent of the Saltire — the national flag of Scotland . The main hall contains permanent exhibitions on the role of the Scottish Parliament , as well as public seating , a visitor information desk , a shop , lockers and a creche . Like much of the parliamentary complex , the materials used to construct the Main Hall and its vaulted ceiling include Kemnay Granite from Aberdeenshire in north east Scotland and Caithness stone which is used in much of the flooring in the buildings . Connected to the Tower Buildings in the eastern portion of the complex are the Media and Canongate Buildings , which house the IT and procurement departments of the Parliament , as well as media offices and the Scottish Parliament Information Centre ( SPICe ) . The centrepiece of the Canongate Building is a two @-@ storey cantilever structure , with the building connected at one end by reinforced concrete and 18 metres ( 60 ft ) of the building suspended above ground and protruding outwards unsupported by any columns .
Originally dating from 1667 , Queensberry House is an example of a seventeenth century Edinburgh townhouse and contrasts with the modern architecture of the rest of the parliamentary complex . From c.1800 , Queensberry House has been used as a hospital , army barracks , a refuge and a geriatric hospital . In 1996 , the geriatric hospital closed and the building was incorporated into the Scottish and Newcastle brewery , who owned the surrounding site . The building has been extensively refurbished , and returned to its original height of three storeys to provide facilities for the Presiding Officer , Deputy Presiding Officers , the Chief Executive of the Scottish Parliament and various parliamentary support staff . Internally and externally the building has been strengthened with reinforced steel and concrete . The original timber flooring has been replaced throughout with a mixture of carpet , vinyl , oak and Caithness stone . Queensberry House also contains the Donald Dewar Room , dedicated to the founding First Minister of Scotland who died in October 2000 . The room hosts the personal collection of books and other memorabilia donated to the Parliament by the family of Donald Dewar after his death .
= = = Artwork and features = = =
The Scottish Parliament holds a wide variety of artwork and sculpture ranging from specially commissioned pieces to official gifts from overseas parliamentary delegations . The intention of including artwork and sculptures in the building reinforces the desire of Miralles that the project should reflect the nature of Scotland , particularly its land and people . In order to facilitate the incorporation of art into the building , a consultative steering group was established by the Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body ( SPCB ) under the chairmanship of Jamie Stone MSP with the remit of deciding which artworks should be chosen . Some pieces of artwork are on public display in the building . As well as artwork and sculptures , quotations , furniture and photography have been commissioned as part of the art strategy . A range of quotations have been inscribed onto the stonework in and around the parliamentary complex . Beneath the Canongate Building façade is the Canongate Wall , constructed from a variety of indigenous Scottish rocks such as Lewisian gneiss , Torridonian sandstone and Easdale slate . The stones are set into large concrete casts , each one inscribed with a quotation . The Canongate Wall contains a total of 24 quotations . Etched along the lower stretch of the wall is a pictorial representation of the Old Town of Edinburgh @-@ based around a sketch by Enric Miralles showing the view of the Old Town from his bedroom window in the Balmoral Hotel .
The Main Hall of the Parliament contains a number of distinctive features and sculptures , including the gold @-@ plated Honours of Scotland sculpture . Presented by the Queen upon the opening of the Parliament building , the sculpture is modelled on the actual Honours of Scotland , the crown , sceptre and the sword of the state , and combines these three separate elements into one composition . During meetings of the original Parliament of Scotland , the actual Honours were always present but since 1819 they have been permanently housed in Edinburgh Castle . The 11 m ( 36 ft ) long Visitor Information Desk also stands in the Main Hall . Commissioned by the art strategy group , the desk combines a unique design constructed from oak and sycamore and functions as a workstation for six members of parliamentary staff . At a cost of £ 88 @,@ 000 the desk has been criticised by some over its price and functionality .
Another feature gifted to the Scottish Parliament by the Queen , following its inauguration in July 1999 , is the parliamentary mace . The mace is housed in a glass case in the debating chamber and has a formal , ceremonial role during meetings of the Parliament . The mace sits in front of the Presiding Officers ' desk and is made from silver and inlaid with gold panned from Scottish rivers and inscribed with the words : Wisdom , Compassion , Justice and Integrity . The words - There shall be a Scottish Parliament ( which are the first words of the Scotland Act 1998 ) , are inscribed around the head of the mace . At the beginning of each session in the chamber , the case is removed to symbolise that a full meeting of the Parliament is taking place .
= = Critical response = =
Public reaction to the design of the building has been mixed . In the first 6 months of the building being open to the public , 250 @,@ 000 people visited it , which Presiding Officer George Reid has said showed the public were " voting with their feet " . Critics of the building , such as Margo MacDonald MSP , have pointed out that the high number of visitors does not prove that all of them like the building . As well as cost , criticisms of the building stem primarily from the modernist and abstract architecture , the quality of the building work and the location of the building .
The mixed public reaction contrasts sharply with the response from architectural critics . Its rampant complexity , iconography and layering of meaning and metaphor are widely regarded as producing a building which is " quite a meal " . This prompted Catherine Slessor , writing in the Architectural Review , to describe it as " A Celtic @-@ Spanish cocktail to blow both minds and budgets , it doesn 't play safe , energetically mining a new seam of National Romanticism refined and reinterpreted for the twenty @-@ first century . " Jencks attempted to dampen criticism of the cost overruns by questioning how ' value for money ' might be judged . For him , the building is not just a functional or economic enterprise , it is an exploration of national identity and in comparing it to other comparable assemblies , not least the Palace of Westminster , he argues the cost is comparable . The conception of the building has been singled out for praise , particularly in the way it re @-@ establishes Scotland 's traditional focus towards mainland Europe and its values by means of the layout of the non @-@ adversarial debating chamber and the creation of the public spaces in front of the building , " where people can meet and express themselves as a force " . In an era of the Bilbao effect and the iconic building , Jencks is impressed that rather than being a monumental building , as is usual for capital landmarks , the building creates a complex union of nature and culture that nestles itself into the landscape .
The building has also won a number of awards , including an award at the VIII Biennial of Spanish Architecture , the RIAS Andrew Doolan Award for Architecture , and the 2005 Stirling Prize , the UK 's most prestigious architecture award . The inclusion of the Scottish Parliament Building on the shortlist for the Stirling Prize in 2004 , led the judges to describe the building as " a statement of sparkling excellence " . In October 2005 the building was identified as Scotland 's 4th greatest modern building by readers of Prospect magazine .
= = Problems = =
= = = Timeline of cost increases = = =
The construction of the Scottish Parliament Building has generated controversy in several respects . Rising costs and the use of public money to fund the project generated most controversy . Initial estimates for constructing a new building were projected to be between £ 10m and £ 40m in 1997 . By early 2004 , the estimated final cost of the project was set at £ 430m , some ten times greater .
= = = Controversy = = =
Notwithstanding the level of controversy surrounding cost , the Scottish Parliament Building proved controversial in a number of other respects : the decision to construct a new building , the choice of site , the selection of a non @-@ Scottish architect , and the selection of Bovis as construction manager after having earlier been excluded from the shortlist . In 1997 , the initial cost of constructing a new Parliament building was given as £ 40 million , a figure produced by the Scottish Office , prior to the September 1997 devolution referendum , and subsequently revealed to be the figure for housing MSPs . Further controversy surrounding the project sprang from the selection of the Holyrood site , which was a late entrant onto the list of sites to be considered , and the rejection of the Royal High School on Calton Hill , long thought to be the home of any future devolved Scottish Parliament . After a formal visit to the Royal High School by Dewar and his aides on 30 May 1997 , it was rejected as unsuitable on the grounds of size and location .
Control of the building project passed from the Scottish Office to the cross @-@ party Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body ( SPCB ) on 1 June 1999 , headed by the Parliament 's then Presiding Officer , Sir David Steel , at a time of increasing costs . Rising costs sprang from the need for a formal entrance and the need to accommodate parliamentary staff in light of better knowledge of how Parliament was working at its primary location on the Royal Mile , where it was clear there were staff overcrowding problems . With the cost increases in mind , and heightened media interest in the Holyrood Project , the Members of the Scottish Parliament held a debate on whether to continue with construction on 17 June 1999 voting by a majority of 66 to 57 in favour to complete the project .
In August 1999 , the architect informed the project group that the Parliament would need to be further increased in size by 4 @,@ 000 square metres ( 43 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . A subsequent costing revealed that taking into account the increased floorspace net construction costs had risen to £ 115m by September 1999 . Early in 2000 , the SPCB commissioned an independent report by the architect John Spencely . The report concluded that savings of 20 % could be made on the current project and that scrapping the project completely at that stage or moving to another site would entail additional costs of £ 30m . Spencely also cited poor communication between the SPCB and construction officials as increasingly costly . Given the outcomes of the Spencely report , MSPs voted to continue with the construction project on the Holyrood site in a debate in the Scottish Parliament on 5 April 2000 .
The project was also complicated by the deaths of Miralles in July 2000 , of Dewar the following October and the existence of a multi @-@ headed client consisting of the SPCB , the Presiding Officer and an architectural advisor . The client took over the running of the project from the Scottish Executive ( formerly the Scottish Office ) while it was already under construction . Subsequently , the events of 9 / 11 led to further design changes , especially with regard to security , which again resulted in rising costs . However , it was later rejected that the re @-@ designs required to incorporate greater security into the building structure were the " single biggest " factor affecting the increased costs of the project .
By March 2004 the cost had reached the sum of £ 430m ( compared to an original budget of £ 55m in July 1998 when the architects were appointed ) . This equates to £ 85 for each of the 5 @.@ 1 million people in Scotland . A report published by the Auditor General for Scotland in July 2004 specifically identified elements that contributed to both increasing costs and the delay in completing the project . His report criticised the overall management of the project and stated that had the management and construction process been executed better , costs could have been reduced . The report attempted to identify the reasons why there had been an acceleration in cost from £ 195m in September 2000 to £ 431m in February 2004 and concluded that over 2000 design changes to the project were a major factor . The building was finally certified for occupation in the Summer of 2004 , with the official opening in October of the same year , three years behind schedule .
= = Fraser Inquiry = =
In May 2003 the First Minister , Jack McConnell , announced a major public inquiry into the handling of the building project . The inquiry ( known as the Holyrood Inquiry , or the Fraser Inquiry ) was headed by Lord Fraser of Carmyllie and held at the Scottish Land Court in Edinburgh . The inquiry took evidence from architects , civil servants , politicians and the building companies . Evidence was taken over the course of 49 hearings and the final report ran to 300 pages .
= = = Criticisms = = =
Presenting his report in September 2004 , Lord Fraser told how he was " astonished " that year after year the ministers who were in charge were kept so much in the dark over the increases in cost estimates . He also stated that a Parliament building of sufficient scale could never have been built for less than £ 50m , and was " amazed " that the belief that it could be was perpetuated for so long . He believed that from at least April 2000 , when MSPs commissioned the Spencely Report to decide whether the building should continue , it should have been realised that the building was bound to cost in excess of £ 200m . Furthermore , £ 150m of the final cost was wasted as a result of design delays , over @-@ optimistic programming and uncertain authority .
Despite having only an outline design , the designers RMJM / EMBT ( Scotland ) Ltd stated without foundation that the building could be completed within a £ 50m budget . Nevertheless , these estimates were believed by officials . The two architectural practices in the RMJM and EMBT joint venture operated dysfunctionally and failed to communicate effectively with each other and the project manager . The death of Miralles also gave rise to a substantial period of disharmony . The Brief emphasised the importance of design and quality over cost , and was not updated despite considerable evolution of the design . Ministers were not informed of grave concerns within the Scottish Office over the cost of the project and officials failed to take the advice of the cost consultants .
The Scottish Office decided to procure the construction work under a " construction management contract " , rather than under a Private Finance Initiative , in order to speed construction , but without properly evaluating the financial risks of doing so , and - in a decision that Fraser stated " beggars belief " - without asking Ministers to approve it . This was one of the two most flawed decisions which the report singled out , the other was the insistence on a rigid programme . Officials decided that rapid delivery of the new building was to be the priority , but that quality should be maintained . It was therefore inevitable that the cost would suffer . The client was obsessed with early completion and failed to understand the impact on cost and the completion date if high @-@ quality work and a complex building were required . In attempting to achieve early completion , the management contractor produced optimistic programmes , to which the architects were unwise to commit . The main causes of the slippage were delays in designing a challenging project that was to be delivered against a tight timetable using an unusual procurement route .
The inquiry was widely seen as clearing Donald Dewar for the initial mishandling of the project . This came after speculation suggesting that Dewar was aware that the initial costs of a new Parliament Building , circulated to the public , were too low . However , in his report , Lord Fraser stated " there was no evidence whatsoever , that he [ Dewar ] deliberately or knowingly misled MSPs . He relied on cost figures given to him by senior civil servants . " The inquiry also resisted the temptation to " lay all of the blame at the door of a deceased wayward architectural genius [ Miralles ] ..... costs rose because the client wanted increases and changes or at least approved of them in one manifestation or other . "
= = = Reaction and recommendations = = =
In his report , Lord Fraser set out a number of recommendations stemming from the inquiry . Primarily , in terms of design selection and when using an international architect linking with a Scottish @-@ based firm , the report advised that a full analysis of the compatibility of different working cultures and practices needs to be made .
Lord Fraser advocated that when " construction management " contracts were used , civil servants or local government officials should evaluate the risks of such a contract and set out the advantages and disadvantages of embarking upon such a route before their political superiors . Alongside that recommendation , Lord Fraser stated that independent advisors should be retained and have the ability to communicate their advice to ministers , without those views being " filtered " by public officials . Similarly , where civil servants are part of large project management contracts , clear guidelines of governance should be set out and be as rigorous as standards applied in the private sector .
Following publication of the report , Jack McConnell stated that the Fraser recommendations would be fully implemented , and that fundamental reform of the civil service was already under way , with trained professionals being recruited to handle such projects . The First Minister emphasised that he was keen to see an increase in the specialist skills of civil servants , in order for them to be able to administer projects of such magnitude in the future . John Elvidge , the most senior civil servant in Scotland , admitted that best practice had not been followed and apologised for the way the project had been handled . He did not rule out the possibility of taking disciplinary action against civil service staff , although subsequent Scottish Government investigations resulted in no action being taken against individual public officials involved with the project .
= = Demonstrations = =
In 2015 , the pro @-@ independence group People 's Voice established a demonstration camp on the grounds of the Scottish parliament demanding independence. this camp was objected to as it risked infringing on the political neutrality of the parliamentary estate and prevented others from using the grounds . Sheriff officers have issued the campers with a notice ordering them to leave , however the campers have refused .
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= James D. Black =
James Dixon Black ( September 24 , 1849 – August 5 , 1938 ) was the 39th Governor of Kentucky , serving for seven months in 1919 . He ascended to the office when Governor Augustus O. Stanley was elected to the U.S. Senate .
Black graduated from Tusculum College in 1872 and taught school while studying law . He was admitted to the bar in 1874 and opened his legal practice in Barbourville , Kentucky . Eventually , his son , Pitzer Dixon , and his son @-@ in @-@ law , Hiram H. Owens , became partners in his practice , called Black , Black and Owens . Deeply interested in education , he served as superintendent of the Knox County public schools for two years , and was instrumental in the founding of Union College in Barbourville . He served as president of the college from 1910 to 1912 .
Black was chosen as the Democratic nominee for lieutenant governor in 1915 , despite having only meager previous political experience . He was elected on a ticket with Augustus O. Stanley and was elevated to governor when Stanley resigned to take a seat in the U.S. Senate . Much of his seven months as governor were spent on his re @-@ election campaign . He was unable to satisfactorily answer charges of corruption made against the Stanley administration by his opponent , Edwin P. Morrow . Morrow won the election by more than 40 @,@ 000 votes . Black returned to his legal practice in Barbourville and served as president of a bank founded by his older brother . He was campaign manager for Alben Barkley 's senatorial campaign when he died of pneumonia on August 5 , 1938 .
= = Early life and family = =
James Dixon Black was born on September 24 , 1849 nine miles from Barbourville on Richland Creek in Knox County , Kentucky . He was the youngest of twelve children born to John Craig and Clarissa " Cassie " ( Jones ) Black . Black 's older brother , Isaac Jones Black ( August 5 , 1828 - October 22 , 1866 ) , was captain of the 49th Kentucky Mounted Infantry in the Union Army during the Civil War .
Black was educated in the rural and subscription schools in and around Barbourville . In 1872 , he graduated from Tusculum College near Greeneville , Tennessee with a Bachelor of Arts degree . After college , Black returned to Knox County where he taught in the public schools for two years . Concurrently , he studied law , and was admitted to the bar in August 1874 . He opened his legal practice in Barbourville .
Black married Mary Jeanette " Nettie " Pitzer on December 2 , 1875 in Barbourville . The couple had three children : Pitzer Dixon , Gertrude Dawn , and Georgia Clarice . All were members of the Methodist Episcopal Church . All three children graduated from what is now Centre College in Danville , Kentucky . Pitzer then went on to study law at the University of Virginia . After being admitted to the bar , he became a partner in his father 's law firm . Georgia Black married Hiram Hercules Owens , who also became a partner in the Barbourville firm of Black , Black , and Owens .
= = Educational career = =
Black was elected to represent Knox and Whitley counties in the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1876 . A Democrat representing a district with a majority of Republican voters , he served a single , one @-@ year term .
In 1879 , Black and other citizens of Barbourville purchased stock to fund the start up of a new college in Barbourville . Black insisted that the college be named Union College , because he hoped the college would unify the community . He continued to be involved in the development of the college , serving as its attorney and as a fund @-@ raiser . Deeply interested in education , he also served as superintendent of the Knox County public schools in 1884 and 1885 , but returned to his law practice thereafter .
A long @-@ time Freemason , Black served as master of his local lodge on seven different occasions , was twice high priest of the Barbourville Chapter of the Royal Arch Masons , and was chosen Grand Master of Kentucky in 1888 . In 1893 , he was chosen by Kentucky governor John Y. Brown as a commissioner to the Chicago World 's Columbian Exposition , representing Kentucky 's forestry and mineral departments .
On September 10 , 1910 , Black was named the eighth president of Union College . The following year , his alma mater awarded him an honorary Doctor of Laws degree . He served as president of Union College until 1912 .
= = Political career = =
Black returned to politics in 1912 when he became Kentucky 's first assistant attorney general . In 1915 , he was chosen as the Democratic nominee for lieutenant governor . Black was pro @-@ temperance , and was chosen to balance the ticket with Augustus O. Stanley , who opposed prohibition . While Black defeated his opponent , Lewis L. Walker , by more than 8 @,@ 000 votes , Stanley bested Republican Edwin P. Morrow by only 421 votes , the closest gubernatorial election in the state 's history .
Though Stanley and Black won the election , they never became political allies . At the time of their election and service , the Kentucky Constitution prescribed that the lieutenant governor would act as governor any time the governor left the state . Consequently , Stanley refused to travel out of state on vacation because he feared he would not approve of anyone Black would appoint to any unfilled governmental offices while he was gone .
Black ascended to the governorship on May 19 , 1919 when Governor Stanley resigned to assume a seat in the U.S. Senate . His pro @-@ temperance stand cost him many of Stanley 's supporters , while his association with Stanley , a prohibition opponent , caused his support to wane among prohibitionists . There was no legislative session of the General Assembly during Black 's term , so potential conflicts with the legislature were avoided .
Black immediately faced accusations of poor appointments by Stanley . The School Textbook Commission was singled out for particular criticism . The Kentucky Court of Appeals had ruled that the Commission acted illegally in selecting textbooks submitted in dummy form . Black called on the commissioners to resign , but when they refused , he claimed he had no power to remove them except for fraud or corruption . The Louisville Courier @-@ Journal pointed out that Black could replace any Stanley appointees that had not yet been confirmed by the Senate , but Black refused to do so . Some believed that Black had agreed to retain Stanley 's appointees in exchange for Stanley 's support of Black 's re @-@ election campaign .
The settlement of state inheritance taxes on two estates also plagued Black . In the first case , Governor Stanley had made a compromise settlement of back taxes with L. V. Harkness before his death . The compromise was criticized , and although Black asked the attorney general to investigate , the case was not decided during Black 's tenure as governor . In the second case , Stanley had appointed three special attorneys to collect inheritance taxes from the estate of Mrs. Robert Worth Bingham . Black wanted the attorneys to resign and save the state their large fees , but refused to remove them outright . This action was made more damning because one of the attorneys was a member of Black 's campaign staff .
In 1919 , Black was chosen as the Democratic gubernatorial nominee over John D. Carroll , chief justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals , by more than 20 @,@ 000 votes . The Republicans again nominated Edwin P. Morrow , who implored voters to " Right the Wrong of 1915 " . Since Black had very little record as governor in his own right , Morrow campaigned against him by attacking Stanley 's administration as corrupt . Morrow cited as evidence the tax cases of Mr. Harkness and Mrs. Bingham and Black 's inaction against the State Textbook Commission .
Black tried to remain positive in his race , and focused on national issues rather than defending Stanley 's administration . He touted his support of President Woodrow Wilson and declared his support for the United States ' admission into the League of Nations . His support of Wilson hurt him with German American voters , and Wilson 's handling of recent coal strikes hurt Black with the traditionally Democratic labor vote .
Days before the election , Morrow exposed a contract approved by the state Board of Control to purchase cloth from a man named A. S. J. Armstrong at twice its normal price . Black responded to the allegation by temporarily suspending his campaign and ordering an investigation . The investigation revealed that Armstrong was a plumber who was bidding on behalf of his brother @-@ in @-@ law , a former prison official in the Stanley administration . Despite this revelation , Black refused to remove members of the Board of Control . This issue finally sank Black 's candidacy ; Morrow won the election by more than 40 @,@ 000 votes .
In his final days in office , Black considered many requests for executive clemency . On December 1 , 1919 , he issued a pardon for Henry Youtsey , a recent parolee who had served eighteen years for conspiracy in the assassination of Governor William Goebel .
In 1918 , while still serving as lieutenant governor , Black had assumed the presidency of the John A. Black National Bank of Barbourville , named for and founded by his older brother . He became chief prohibition inspector for Kentucky in 1920 . Later , he served as director of the Barbourville Cemetery Company . While working as Ninth Congressional District campaign manager for Senator Alben Barkley in 1938 , Black developed pneumonia and died on August 5 , 1938 . He is entombed in a mausoleum at Barbourville Cemetery .
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= John de Breton =
John de Breton ( sometimes John le Breton , John Breton , John Bretun or John Brito ; died c . 12 May 1275 ) was a medieval Bishop of Hereford . He served as a royal justice and sheriff before being nominated to Hereford . He is sometimes credited with the legal treatise Britton ; but in its current form Breton cannot be the author as the work refers to laws written 15 years after the bishop 's death .
= = Life = =
Breton was the son of William le Breton , a royal justice . The elder Breton , who is sometimes styled William Brito in records , came from a family who often served as justices and other legal officials . Occasionally the younger Breton appears in the records as John Bretun or John Brito . He served as Sheriff of Herefordshire from 1254 to 1257 , and then as constable and bailiff of Abergavenny around 1257 . In October 1259 he was sent abroad on matters pertaining to King Henry III of England , and Henry 's son , the future Edward I. He then served Edward as keeper of the prince 's wardrobe and then after November 1261 as the prince 's steward .
In late 1261 Breton is noted as owing £ 120 in the royal records . A notation next to the debt implies that he was a canon of Hereford Cathedral at this point , but the Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066 – 1300 does not identify him as such . Breton does not appear in the records from this point until after the Battle of Evesham in 1265 , when he is noted as holding a grant of royal safeguarding .
Breton served as a royal justice from 1266 , first in the Court of Common Pleas , and then at the King 's Bench from 1268 . He was elected to the see of Hereford around 6 January 1269 . He was consecrated on 2 June 1269 at Waverley by Nicholas of Ely who was Bishop of Winchester . After his election and consecration , he no longer served as a royal justice .
Breton was given leave to go to the continent to meet Edward when he returned from Crusade , in 1273 , but the bishop did not attend Edward 's coronation .
= = Death and legacy = =
Breton died on or before 12 May 1275 , when the custodian of the bishopric was given orders to seize Breton 's estate because of debts owed to the king . These debts dated back over 20 years , to his time as sheriff . A Thomas le Breton , presumably a relative , was a canon at Hereford Cathedral from 1273 , and probably owed his office to John .
A number of chronicles that mention Breton 's death also note that he was the author of a legal treatise entitled le Bretoun , but this cannot be the surviving work called Britton , at least not in the current form , as that work discusses laws composed 15 years after Breton 's death . It is unclear why he was credited with the work , and whether this attribution is just a confusion of Breton with the real author or if he did in fact author the work , which was later revised . The fact that the Britton is written in French , not Latin , and that it contains little information about the theory of law , being mostly concerned with the practical application of laws , points rather strongly to an author who was a royal justice , which Breton was .
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= River Trym =
The River Trym is a short river , some 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) in length , which rises in Filton , South Gloucestershire , England . The upper reaches are culverted , some underground , through mostly urban landscapes , but once it emerges into the open it flows through a nature reserve and city parks before joining the tidal River Avon at Sea Mills . 18th @-@ century water mills near the mouth gave the area its name .
Portus Abonae was a Roman port at the mouth which provided an embarkation point for journeys across the River Severn to South Wales . In the 18th century there were short lived attempts at creating a port and a whale fishery here . The name Trym appears to have Anglo @-@ Saxon roots . In recent years silting problems , caused by urban development have caused some difficulties , but alleviation works have helped reduce the problem .
= = Course = =
The Trym rises near Filton in South Gloucestershire , in the area of Filton Golf Club. and much of its upper course is culverted underneath 20th century housing . It surfaces in the Bristol suburb of Southmead , then flows open through Badock 's Wood nature reserve . Just south of here is Henleaze Swimming Lake , a former quarry fed by springs , the overflow running into the Trym . The river is culverted through Westbury @-@ on @-@ Trym village . A sluice here is used to divert water into a storm drain in times of high rainfall to save the village centre from flooding .
The Trym then disappears into culverts , re @-@ emerging at Henbury Golf Club before entering the Blaise Castle estate where it is joined on the right bank by the Hazel Brook above Coombe Dingle . The remains of Coombe Mill , which was fed by both the Hazel Brook and the Trym can be seen here . Passing under Dingle Road bridge , the river then flows through Sea Mills river park , passing under the Portway and the Severn Beach railway line before joining the river Avon . A weir under the Portway prevents flooding upstream , except during the highest spring tides .
= = Natural history = =
Badock 's Wood in Southmead is a nature reserve managed by Bristol City Council . Areas of beech , oak and ash woodland support a range of other bushes and shrubs , including hazel , maple , hawthorn and blackthorn . Badock 's Meadow , a former prefab housing estate has been reseeded with native meadow plants including oxeye daisies , yellow rattle , wild carrot and knapweed . Wildlife includes native woodland birds including woodpeckers and owls , also pipistrelle bats .
The Blaise Castle estate contains a variety of trees and plant life , also providing cover for birds and small mammals . Further downstream , just above Sea Mills , Himalayan Balsam and Japanese Knotweed , both invasive riverside plants have established themselves . Ducks and moorhen can be found along many stretches of the river , with gulls and estuary birds near the mouth .
A pollution incident by Wessex Water which allowed sewage to flow into the Trym in 2001 , killing eels , sticklebacks and invertebrates , resulted in a fine following prosecution by the Environment Agency . Other pollution incidents have followed .
= = History = =
At the confluence of the Trym with the Avon was the Roman port and small town of Portus Abonae , which took its name from the main river Avon which simply means ' river ' in British Celtic . Abona was a staging point for the Roman invasion of Wales and was at the western end of the Roman road from Silchester .
In the 15th century there were tide mills at Millpill , near the mouth . An attempt was made in 1712 by the entrepreneur Joshua Franklyn to open a commercial dock at the mouth of the Trym , on the Roman site , but the venture foundered after a few decades . A whale fishery enterprise set up in 1752 was equally short lived . Parts of the dock walls can still be seen .
= = Etymology = =
Linguistics sources indicate that the name Trym may derive from the Anglo @-@ Saxon , meaning ' firm ' or ' strong ' one ' .
= = Hydrology = =
The flow of the river has decreased in power in recent years , partly because of surface run @-@ off in the upper catchment of the Hazel Brook , especially from the large retail centre at Cribbs Causeway , which sends a good deal of silt into the system , slowing the flow and creating a risk of flooding downstream . This problem has now been partially alleviated by the construction of the Catbrain attenuation reservoir near Cribbs Causeway . Measurements of pollution by the city council show the water to be relatively clean .
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= Natasha Williams ( Neighbours ) =
Natasha " Tash " Williams is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours , played by Valentina Novakovic . The role of Natasha is Novakovic 's first acting job and she relocated from Sydney to Melbourne for filming . Natasha was introduced to Neighbours along with her father , Michael Williams ( Sandy Winton ) and she made her debut screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 5 May 2010 . In November 2012 , Novakovic confirmed that she would be leaving Neighbours and she filmed her final scenes in December . Natasha departed on 29 March 2013 .
Natasha has been described as spirited , rebellious and having a burning desire to rule the school . She likes to have all the attention on her and often chooses to rebel so people will notice her . She can also be quite manipulative . Executive producer , Susan Bower said Natasha loves to gossip and wants to be a famous model . She often clashes with Summer Hoyland ( Jordy Lucas ) , who is a feminist and quite the opposite to her . Novakovic stated that Natasha and Summer are " frenemies . " The actress also explained that she finds playing Natasha challenging , as her persona is quite different from her own . Novakovic has said that she would like to see Natasha grow up , become nicer and turn over a new leaf . She expressed her desire to portray Natasha 's softer and funnier side during an interview with Digital Spy .
Natasha 's storylines have mainly focused on her relationship with Andrew Robinson ( Jordan Smith ) . Novakovic named this storyline as one of her favourites and said that Natasha and Andrew belong together as they bring out the worst in each other . Their relationship led to a complex love triangle involving Summer and later saw Natasha faking a pregnancy to keep Andrew . Natasha casually dates Ivan DeMarco ( Ben Knight ) and in a bid to appear more mature , she sends him naked photos of herself . They are leaked , causing a scandal amongst Natasha 's school friends . Other storylines have seen Natasha trying to achieve her dream of becoming a model , making sure she remains popular at school , coping with her father 's relationships and discovering the truth about her mother 's death .
= = Storylines = =
Natasha models for a PirateNet advertising campaign , where she meets Andrew Robinson and Summer Hoyland . Natasha gets into trouble with her father , Michael ( Sandy Winton ) , after he finds out she lied by saying she was eighteen on the consent form . He threatens to sue the station owner and Andrew 's father , Paul Robinson ( Stefan Dennis ) . Natasha and Andrew work together to change the posters , so they are no longer revealing . They then attend a concert together and kiss at the end of the night . Natasha clashes with Summer and starts a rumour that her boyfriend , Chris Pappas ( James Mason ) , bought the baskestball team captaincy . Her relationship with her father is strained further when he learns she started the rumour . The schools English teacher , Libby Kennedy ( Kym Valentine ) , discovers Natasha is hiding her maths skills and makes her join the Mathletes as a punishment . Natasha wonders if Andrew is only with her because of her looks and she becomes insecure about their relationship .
Natasha and Andrew break up and Natasha briefly dates Kyle Canning . Natasha discovers that a student in her class is gay and tries to out them , the resulting rumours lead Chris to reveal he is gay . Michael starts dating Ruby Rogers ( Yesse Spence ) and Natasha tries to sabotage the relationship . She reveals that she does not want to see Michael get hurt . Natasha becomes head of the school social committee and she bullies the other members , in particular Sophie Ramsay ( Kaiya Jones ) , into voting for the things she wants . Natasha notices that Andrew is spending time with Summer and she steals the social money , causing the event to be cancelled . Natasha convinces Andrew to throw a party and they get back together . Michael discovers Natasha took the money and suspends her . Natasha later warns Summer to stay away from Andrew . When she notices Summer 's house is on fire , Natasha runs in to rescue her . Michael finds Natasha and they , along with Summer and Andrew , are rescued by firefighters .
Natasha sustains a burn on her neck and she becomes insecure about it . Natasha sees Andrew and Summer kissing , which leaves her devastated . To stop Andrew from breaking up with her , Natasha tells him she is pregnant . Michael , though initially angry , tells his daughter that he will support her . Andrew books Natasha in for an ultrasound scan and after trying to get out of it , Natasha buys fake ultrasound images over the internet . She convinces Andrew not to come into the doctor 's office with her and she gives him the fake pictures . Summer reveals the images are fake and Natasha explains that she lied because Andrew cheated on her . Michael tells Natasha that he no longer trusts her and she becomes ostracised at school . Natasha is thrown off the Mathletes team and Lisa Devine ( Sophie Tilson ) takes her place as the most popular girl in the school . Chris befriends Natasha and she and Summer apologise to each other for their actions . Chris and Natasha try to get Summer and Andrew back together and Natasha successfully challenges Lisa for the Mathletes captaincy .
Feeling lonely , Natasha goes out clubbing and meets Ivan DeMarco ( Ben Knight ) , an older man . Michael discovers the relationship and bans Natasha from seeing Ivan . However , Natasha continues to see him in secret and when Ivan asks her for some naked pictures , she sends him some . Natasha learns Ivan has been showing the pictures to his friends and that they are on the internet . She initially lies to Michael about who took the photos , but Michael learns the truth from Ivan . Natasha becomes desperate to win her father 's favour back and she sprays the street with derogatory graffiti about herself . However , Michael discovers she was responsible for the graffiti and he disowns her . After she is taunted about her appearance , Natasha decides to get rhinoplasty and uses Michael 's credit card to pay the deposit . Natasha then sells some of her father 's records to raise the money and Michael decides to send her to a boarding school . He changes his mind after Natasha nearly drowns in the pool at Number 30 and their relationship begins to improve .
Natasha begins looking for information about her mother , Helena , and learns that her aunt Emilia lives in Australia . Without revealing her identity , Natasha meets Emilia at a fashion shoot . Emilia works out Natasha is her niece and comes to Erinsborough to talk to her . Natasha learns her mother drowned and she demands the truth about her death . Michael reveals that Helena was not a strong swimmer , but she went into the sea to save Natasha . When he became aware of what was happening , he could only save one of them . Michael reassures Natasha that Helena 's death was not her fault . Michael collapses and undergoes surgery for a perforated stomach ulcer , causing Natasha to blame herself for his condition . However , she learns that Michael caught Summer cheating on her exam the day he collapsed and falls out with her friends , as they let her blame herself for what happened . After receiving her exam results , Natasha decides to study Contemporary Arts at university .
Michael and Emilia reveal that they are dating and Natasha accepts their relationship . However , when she learns that they were having affair at the time Helena died , Natasha takes Michael 's panel van and sets it on fire . Natasha remains angry with her father and after asking him to leave her alone , she learns he has gone to Serbia with Emilia . Natasha throws a house party , but it gets out of control and the street is trashed . When Natasha is fined by the police , she is forced to seek employment to earn some money . She competes with Kate Ramsay ( Ashleigh Brewer ) for a job at Charlie 's and Celeste McIntyre ( Cassandra Magrath ) gives them both a two @-@ week trial . When Michael informs her that he is selling the house , Natasha tries to put off potential buyers and decides to sabotage Kate 's chances of getting the job at Charlie 's . Natasha becomes upset when Mason Reeves ( Carter Doyle ) tries to ask her out , revealing that he saw her pictures online . Jade Mitchell ( Gemma Pranita ) comforts Natasha and opens up to her about an abusive relationship that she was once in .
Celeste gives Natasha the waitressing job at Charlie 's and she moves in with Summer and Karl Kennedy ( Alan Fletcher ) , after her house is sold . Natasha also decides to drop out of her university course , upon realising that it is not right for her . Natasha meets Ed Lee ( Sebastian Gregory ) at Charlie 's and offers to help him solve a maths equation , but he dismisses her . When she solves the problem , he invites her to a maths club . Natasha later transfers to his calculus course and Ed helps her with conditional probability , which they use to predict the outcome of a game of cards . They decide to play a game of Blackjack with a group of guys at Charlie 's , but are forced to stop when a couple of police officers walks in . Natasha convinces Ed to hold a game at the Men 's Shed , so they can continue to test the theory and make some money . Andrew comes up with an idea to use the theory to make an odds calculator mobile app . When Natasha goes to asks Ed about the idea , he introduces her to the hobby of LARPing , before agreeing to sign Andrew 's contract .
Natasha spends more time with Ed and attends a comic swap with him . Shortly before a press conference for the app , Ed finds an error and he and Natasha work together to fix it . While they are celebrating , Natasha and Ed almost kiss . Andrew asks Natasha to talk to a blogger about the app without Ed , which she thinks is wrong . When Ed learns what has happened , he accuses Natasha and Andrew of using him . Natasha tries to apologise , but Ed insists that she and Andrew pay him for his help and then they can go their separate ways . Ed and Natasha eventually make up and she asks him out on a date . Andrew reveals that an offer as been made for the app , but Natasha refuses to sell it . During a car journey to the city with her friends , Natasha learns that Andrew faked her signature to sell the app behind her back and an argument breaks out . Andrew tries to stop Natasha from calling the police and he bumps Chris ' arm , causing him to lose control of the car and crash . Natasha frees herself from the car , before pulling Ed from the wreckage .
At the hospital , Natasha blames Andrew for the crash . She learns Ed has a fractured collarbone and sits with him until he wakes up . When he does , Natasha kisses him . They begin dating , but Natasha worries that they do not have much in common . Natasha helps organise a ball for the university and takes an immediate dislike to Ed 's vintage suit . She spills coffee on it and then lends Ed a nicer one that she found . Ed realises what she has done and they fight . After apologising to each other , Natasha decides to break up with Ed , as they are too different . When Natasha finds Andrew having a fit in Charlie 's , she learns that he has epilepsy . She agrees to keep it a secret . After he collapses , Natasha encourages Andrew to go to the hospital for tests . Before he can leave , he suffers a fit in front of Paul . Andrew initially blames Natasha for causing the fit when Paul takes Charlie 's away from him . She then helps him to convince Paul to change his mind . Natasha and Andrew begin dating again in secret . They later decide to tell everyone and Summer reveals that she already knew and does not mind . Natasha later finds an old email from Andrew proclaiming his love for Summer and she begins to worry about her relationship with him . However , Andrew reassures her that he loves her and their relationship is different this time around . Natasha asks Andrew to take a month of celibacy , but they end up breaking it early . Natasha quits university and tells Andrew that she is leaving Erinsborough to travel around Europe . She asks Andrew to come with her and he agrees . They leave the following day with Paul 's blessing .
= = Casting = =
In early 2010 , it was announced that three new characters ; Doug Harris ( Mahesh Jadu ) , Michael Williams ( Sandy Winton ) and Natasha Williams were to join Neighbours in the following months . Novakovic , a performing arts college graduate , was cast in the role of Natasha . The actress had been studying architecture at university , before she chose to move into acting . Shortly after her casting was announced , Novakovic revealed that the role of Natasha was her first acting job and that while she would always be interested in architecture , she really wanted to enjoy the experience on Neighbours . Novakovic moved from Sydney to Melbourne , where Neighbours is filmed , for the role . She is three years older than the character she portrays . In 2011 , Novakovic revealed she is still happy with the career choice she made , stating " I enjoy what I 'm doing now a lot more than studying , because this is where I want to be . [ ... ] The best thing for me is that I enjoy going to work every day and have some great friends there , including the crew . It 's awesome to do something you love every single day . "
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Before she entered Neighbours , Natasha was described as being " spirited , rebellious and conniving " . Channel Five 's Holy Soap website described her as being a " teen rebel " . After she entered the show , Network Ten described Natasha as having a " major attitude " and a " burning desire to rule the school . " They also go on to explain that Natasha never misses an opportunity to be the centre of attention and does whatever it takes to be noticed . However , Natasha really wants to get her father 's attention and she chooses to rebel , so that he notices her . TV Soap called Natasha a vixen and Novakovic describes Natasha as being " manipulative " and knowing what she wants .
During an interview , executive producer Susan Bower explained that Natasha is " a teenage troublemaker who is actually really , really clever " . Natasha wants to be a famous model , she loves to gossip and she knows how to get the boy 's attentions . Bower also added that Natasha and Summer Hoyland ( Jordy Lucas ) clash because Summer is a feminist who fights for causes , while Natasha is the opposite . Novakovic is fond of the love @-@ hate relationship Natasha shares with Summer and said that they were " frenemies . " She further explained , " They 're in the same social group at school , and despite the fact that they have so many differences , they 're similar in a lot of ways . And Summer is Natasha 's only female friend , don 't forget . "
Natasha 's personality began to change and in October 2010 , Novakovic said " When she arrived she was full @-@ on , and that was all a part of getting the attention she loves . It 's all about knowing that she 's liked . But she 's more settled now " . Novakovic also explained that it is " quite challenging " to play someone so different from herself , but it is fun . She also hoped that she is not as irritating as Natasha in real life and added " I 'm not a manipulative teenage girl who 's forever wanting everything her own way . " In March 2011 , Novakovic revealed that she would like to see Natasha become a nicer person , grow up and turn over a new leaf . She said " There are glimpses of the nice girl in Tash . " She later said that as she has played the villain for over a year , she would like to show Natasha 's " softer , funnier side . " Novakovic also hoped that her future storylines could see Natasha 's background and her relationship with her mother explored and developed .
In November 2012 , Novakovic proclaimed that Natasha was still herself , despite how much she had grown . She explained " It 's so much fun to playing such a free spirited character . I like that she 's matured and thinks a little clearer now that she is older , but I don 't think Tash could ever become boring , no matter how much she matures . "
= = = Family = = =
In order to form the father @-@ daughter bond needed for their respective roles , both Novakovic and Winton introduced each other to their families . The actors spent a lot of time together , to ensure they were comfortable together on and off screen . Natasha 's father , Michael , is a widower and she is his only child . Bower revealed Natasha has her father wrapped around her finger . Michael dotes upon Natasha and Bower opined Natasha causes havoc because he is not strict with her . Winton said he thinks Michael is not handling things with Natasha " too poorly " , but she does make things difficult for him . During a 2011 interview with Channel 5 , Winton said that Michael and Natasha 's relationship had become tortured . Winton stated that Michael wishes Natasha would stop lying to him and hoped she would get her act together , so they could have some semblance of a father / daughter relationship . Winton wanted Michael to build a better relationship with Natasha in the future as he loves her , despite the things she has done .
Following an incident in which Natasha sprays graffiti around Ramsay Street , Michael disowns his daughter and ignores her attempts to get back in his good books . Natasha finds the situation weird and she is hurt by her father 's actions . Novakovic said Natasha is disappointed in herself for hurting Michael so much . Natasha responds by taking advantage of her new independence to try to get Michael 's attention . She also tries to get back on her father 's good side , by doing some housekeeping , but Michael brushes it all aside . Of how Natasha feels about this , Novakovic said " She knows how much her father loves her which is why this is even more jarring , as she realises it must be killing her father to act this way . " Natasha and Michael eventually make amends , but it is not an easy journey and they have a lot to work through . Novakovic told Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy that the storyline would change Natasha and she would become more sensitive and less self @-@ absorbed .
Bower later teased an upcoming storyline which shows the beginning of Natasha wanting to find out more about her late mother . Bower told Kilkelly that the secret would be revealed in three parts , which would change Natasha and Michael 's lives forever . " In July 2011 , it was announced Natasha 's long lost aunt , Emilia ( played by Freya Stafford ) , would be introduced . The Neighbours official website said Emilia 's arrival would dig up a lot of secrets and she plays a " pivotol role in Natasha 's teenage angst . " Novakovic revealed Natasha and Emilia had met before , but Natasha was a toddler and does not remember her . The actress said Natasha and Emilia begin meeting each other in secret and get along well . Novakovic added " Although when Tash mentions her mother , Emilia 's reaction is quite strange . But there is so much coming up between these two that all this could change ! "
= = = Relationship with Andrew Robinson = = =
Natasha starts dating Andrew Robinson ( Jordan Smith ) and she believes that they are perfect for each other . Novakovic said that they " bring out the worst in each other " and added " I don 't think she could find a guy that would tolerate her like Andrew does . She thinks he 's the only guy she could possibly be with . " Natasha thinks that school and studying is not cool and is happy that Andrew feels the same , until Summer Hoyland joins their class and Andrew becomes interested in his studies . Natasha fears that she could lose her control over Andrew . Summer later asks Natasha if there is anything else , other than the physical aspect , to her relationship with Andrew . Novakovic says that " Natasha is furious , but it does make her stop and think about what she is doing . " Natasha does begin to have her doubts about the relationship and she decides to test Andrew , by telling him she wants their relationship to have to be about communicating and understanding each other . Andrew does not take the new direction of the relationship well . Novakovic said that Natasha believes the relationship between her neighbours , Susan ( Jackie Woodburne ) and Karl Kennedy ( Alan Fletcher ) , is something to be inspired by . She added " That 's what she wants to look forward to , but she 's getting way ahead of herself . Andrew likes her but he isn 't as serious as she is . " Novakovic opined that Andrew and Natasha " bring out the worst in each other " and that Natasha 's relationship with Andrew had been one of her favourite storylines .
Andrew and Natasha briefly split and she starts dating Kyle Canning ( Chris Milligan ) . Natasha decides to break off the relationship , but Kyle dumps her first . TV Soap said " She 's usually the one calling the shots and doing the dumping , but young Natasha is about to find out what it 's like on the other side of the fence " . They add that Natasha rarely thinks before dropping one guy and moving onto another . Natasha grows bored of Kyle 's company , but Kyle also becomes bored with his younger girlfriend and he ends their relationship . Natasha is embarrassed and she lies to Andrew about who ended the relationship first . Natasha and Andrew eventually get back together and Adelaide Now said that thrills Natasha " as she 's completely obsessed " with Andrew .
A love triangle between Natasha , Andrew and Summer is formed . Natasha 's feelings for Andrew grow when they organise a party together , but she notices Andrew 's concern for Summer when she collapses and warns Summer away from Andrew . Natasha later asks Andrew if he loves her , but he does not reply . In December 2010 , Summer and Andrew give into their feelings for each other and have sex . Novakovic said Natasha would be " devastated " if she knew what had happened and that she would not let Andrew and Summer off lightly . Andrew tells Natasha that he is going to business meeting , but he meets Summer instead . While they are together in Summer 's house , a fire breaks out . Natasha sees the smoke and calls her father and the emergency services before entering the house to rescue Summer , unaware Andrew is also there . Novakovic explained Natasha 's ordeal : " Natasha is pulled from the fire by her dad , Michael . Andrew and Summer are rescued separately , and Natasha has no idea of the reason why Andrew was in the house - he was cheating on her with Summer ! " After the rescue , Natasha has to come to terms with the fact she will be scarred from a burn she sustains on her neck . Novakovic said that it is a " big deal " for Natasha , as she aspires to be a model and this could ruin her chances . Novakovic also opines that Summer wants nothing more than to be with Andrew , but how can she take him when Natasha tried to save her ? Novakovic believed Natasha was blasé to their feelings adding " Deep down , I think Natasha knows that there 's something going on , but she doesn 't want to admit it to herself . But sooner or later , I reckon she 'll have to face the inevitable . "
= = = Fake pregnancy = = =
A couple of months later , Natasha discovers Andrew is cheating on her with Summer . Natasha is hurt and angry and she lies to Andrew about being pregnant . Of Natasha 's rash decision , Novakovic explained " She is hurt and the whole cheating thing has really crushed her . She feels like the fool , no one goes behind her back . And she feels they are pitying her because of her injury [ the burn she sustained in the fire ] and [ she ] really hates that . " Natasha wants Andrew and Summer to feel guilty about betraying her and she wants Andrew for herself . Andrew believes Natasha is pregnant and instead of being with Summer , he decides to stick by Natasha and their baby . Novakovic said that the new storyline is " very exciting " and she could not wait to discover the new developments . Novakovic insisted that Natasha is making the plan up as she goes along . She has not thought it out or how the whole situation might end . Her main goal is to keep Andrew and Summer apart because they betrayed and hurt her . Natasha and Andrew attend a pre @-@ natal class together and they get on quite well . During an interview with Digital Spy , Novakovic explained that Natasha is reminded of why she fell for Andrew in the first place , especially when she sees his gentle side . Because Natasha is getting along well Andrew , there are times when she feels guilty for what she is doing . Natasha does not have any sort of plan to admit the truth as she knows Andrew will be angry .
Novakovic enjoyed filming the storyline because there was so much drama . When she was asked if she had any sympathy for Natasha during filming , she told Digital Spy that she had to because she needed to understand how her character is feeling . Novakovic also hoped viewers would have sympathy for Natasha too . The lie starts to grow out of control and Natasha is forced to make up stories about why she does not want to go to the doctor . She later buys fake ultrasound scan photos over the internet , but Summer becomes suspicious about them and discovers they are from overseas and are fake . Summer realises that Natasha has been lying about being pregnant and reveals the truth in front of Andrew and Natasha 's father , shocking Natasha . Andrew does not take the news well and Michael blames himself for his daughter 's actions . Novakovic hoped the experience would change Natasha and she would start to grow up . The actress added that Natasha cannot cope by herself and if she continues lying to everyone , they may turn against her .
= = = Photo scandal = = =
In June 2011 , Inside Soap reported that Natasha would " hook up " with Ivan DeMarco ( Ben Knight ) , an older man she meets while out clubbing . A source told the magazine : " Tash sets her sights on somebody who isn 't necessarily good for her . " They added that Natasha is in a reckless frame of mind , which leads to more conflict with her father . In an attempt to impress Ivan and to show how mature she is , Natasha sends him " raunchy photos " of herself . The Daily Star reported that Ivan would then betray Natasha by showing the pictures to his friends . Natasha 's pictures go viral after her " act of recklessness " and TV Week said that her situation should be a lesson to anyone thinking of doing the same . Natasha 's classmates find out about the pictures and it causes a scandal at her school . Of the situation , a Neighbours insider told the paper " Tash doesn 't think of the consequences when she takes a series of very naughty pictures of herself to send to Ivan . He 's more than ten years older than her and she 's desperate to keep him interested . "
Natasha 's father , Michael , discovers what has happened and he is disgusted when he hears the boys at school talking about his daughter . He confronts Ivan , thinking he made Natasha take the pictures , but he is " gutted " when he learns that it was all Natasha 's idea . Natasha tries to win her father 's favour back and she sprays some unpleasant graffiti about herself around the street , before playing the victim . Natasha enjoys the attention she receives , but when Michael realises what she did , he chooses to disown his daughter and tells her that he does not care what she gets up to . Natasha is left shocked by Michael 's decision and does not know what to do about it . Natasha becomes insecure following the photo scandal and Michael 's rejection of her and she begins to obsess about improving her appearance . Natasha searches for nose jobs online , before stealing her father 's credit card and booking herself in for a procedure .
= = = Ed Lee = = =
A writer for Channel 5 revealed in March 2012 , that Natasha would be introduced to the hobby of LARPing , by a new guy who has " a surprising impact on her " . The following month , it was announced that Sebastian Gregory had joined the cast of Neighbours as " maths genius " Ed Lee , Natasha 's new love interest . Shortly after she drops out of her arts course at university , Natasha meets Ed in Charlie 's . She initially believes he is trying to ask her out on a date , but is embarrassed when she realises that she has misred the signals . Natasha apologises and offers to help him out with a difficult maths equation he has been trying to solve . A writer for All About Soap explained " judgemental Ed dismisses her , assuming the waitress hasn 't got much in the brains department ! " . Natasha solves Ed 's equation , proving him wrong and forcing him to apologise to her . Ed then invites Natasha to attend a university maths club , but she leaves at the last minute " refusing to be labelled a nerd . " Natasha , Andrew and Ed make an anti @-@ gambling phone app using a maths probability theory and Natasha develops feelings for Ed . While they are celebrating the completion of the phone app , Natasha and Ed embrace and almost share a kiss . However , the moment is ruined when Andrew calls Natasha . Jackie Brygel of TV Week commented " Will beauty and the geek , Tash and Ed , ever get to lock lips ? "
= = = Departure = = =
On 1 November 2012 , Novakovic confirmed that she would be leaving Neighbours to pursue acting opportunities in the United States . Of her decision to leave the serial , Novakovic stated " Australia is small compared to what else is out there , especially in Los Angeles . I love acting and it 's what I want to do , so why not be in the thick of it all ? I certainly love to do more Aussie things but , being realistic , there is nowhere near as much opportunity here . " During her first interview since announcing her departure , Novakovic explained that her main reasons for leaving Neighbours were to try other things and explore different characters . The actress said that she had wanted to do two years with the show , but when the time came , she decided to stay for another year to prepare herself to leave .
Novakovic told Kilkelly that she did not have the full details of how Natasha would leave , but said that it would involve " a drive off in a car " . She did not mind Natasha leaving the show without a dramatic exit , stating that leaving on good terms would be good . The actress commented that she had loved her character 's transition from " bratty " to " almost nice " and believed that Natasha was still herself no matter what she had gone through . Novakovic was pleased that she got to explore every aspect of Natasha and go through every emotion with her . She added that she wanted Natasha to be remembered by the viewers . Novakovic filmed her final scenes in December , but Natasha continued to appear on @-@ screen until 29 March 2013 .
= = Reception = =
For her portrayal of Natasha , Novakovic was included on the long list for the 2011 Most Popular New Talent Logie Award . A writer for Holy Soap said Natasha 's most memorable moment was " Showing she could be a heroine as she rushed to rescue her friends from the Ramsay Street fire . " Virginia Blackburn of the Daily Express nicknamed Natasha and Andrew " The Swot and The Slug " after learning about Natasha 's talent for Maths . A reporter from The Sun @-@ Herald branded Natasha a " teen rebel " , while a TV Soap columnist stated that she was the new Izzy Hoyland of Neighbours . Michelle Duff of The Dominion Post called Natasha a " blonde @-@ haired vixen . " Duff also used Natasha 's fake pregnancy storyline as an example of how life in Ramsay Street is more " melodramatic " than life in a real street . Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail also commented on Natasha 's pregnancy lie , saying " As plans go , Tash 's seem to be right down there with building an ark in Las Vegas . " Stephen later advised Natasha that there were other ways to hold on to a bloke , like using handcuffs . Laura Morgan from All About Soap said she enjoyed Natasha 's fake pregnancy storyline , saying " We love nothing more than a fake pregnancy to shake things up a bit ! " A writer for Channel 5 proclaimed the storyline was " arguably one of the soap 's most jaw @-@ dropping revenge plots . "
Holy Soap ran a poll on who Andrew should be with and 16 @,@ 000 votes were cast , with 92 % of viewers choosing Summer over Natasha . In June 2011 , a Daily Record reporter called Natasha a " wayward teen " and said her relationship with Ivan was likely to end in tears . In August 2011 , Anthony D. Langford of AfterElton commented " the show really needs a new direction for Tash . Her endless stunts and tricks are kind of boring at this point . Tash is a likeable character , and I love her friendship with Chris . But this character needs some growth and a new direction . And perhaps a love interest as well . " Langford later said Natasha just simply asking Aidan Foster ( Bobby Morley ) if he was gay or straight was " so in character that you weren 't shocked when she did it . " All About Soap 's Claire Crick praised Natasha 's reaction to finding out that Michael and Emilia were having an affair at the time of her mother 's death , saying " we can 't help but love her rebellious revenge ! " Crick explained " After being in the dark about her mum 's death all her life , you can 't blame Tash for lashing out , especially when she assumed that her dad was keeping things secret to protect her ... when in actual fact he was just protecting his own sordid secret ! " She added that she could not wait to see what happens next , " especially if it involves more from the tearaway teen – go , Tash ! " A Channel 5 website writer commented that Natasha was " one of Neighbours ' most colourful and controversial characters " .
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= The Eraser =
The Eraser is the debut solo album by Thom Yorke of the English alternative rock band Radiohead , released on 10 July 2006 on the independent label XL Recordings . It was produced by longtime Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich . The album comprises electronic music Yorke recorded during Radiohead 's 2004 hiatus and between their 2005 rehearsals , and makes heavy use of original samples .
The lyrics express Yorke 's political concerns . Lead single " Harrowdown Hill " was written about the death of David Kelly , a whistleblower who allegedly committed suicide after telling a reporter that the British government had falsely identified weapons of mass destruction in Iraq . The album artwork , by longtime Radiohead cover artist Stanley Donwood , was inspired by the legend of King Canute failing to command the ocean , which Yorke likened to government attitudes towards climate change .
The Eraser debuted at number three on the UK Albums Chart and number two on the American Billboard 200 . It was named one of the best albums of 2006 by the NME , Rolling Stone and the Observer , and was nominated for the 2006 Mercury Music Prize and the 2007 Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album .
Two singles were released from the album : " Analyse " and " Harrowdown Hill " . It was followed in the same year by a B @-@ sides EP , Spitting Feathers , and in 2009 a remix album , The Eraser Rmxs . In 2010 , to perform the album live , Yorke formed Atoms for Peace with musicians including Godrich and Red Hot Chili Peppers bassist Flea .
= = Recording = =
In 2004 , after finishing the tour for their sixth album Hail to the Thief ( 2003 ) , Radiohead went on hiatus . Songwriter Thom Yorke began recording The Eraser , his first solo release , with longtime Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich in late 2004 , and continued work throughout 2005 between Radiohead sessions . He told Pitchfork : " I 've been in the band since we left school and never dared do anything on my own ... It was like , ' Man , I 've got to find out what it feels like , ' you know ? "
The album was recorded in Radiohead 's Oxford studio , Godrich 's studio in Covent Garden , and Yorke 's home . Yorke wanted to " approach and engage with computers and not a lot else , and yet still have lots of life and energy in the music . " To generate ideas , he cut and pasted clips at random from Radiohead 's library of original samples , many of which were created on laptops in hotel rooms as the band toured . He would send sound fragments to Godrich , who identified passages that could become songs , edited them , and returned them to Yorke . Describing the collaborative process , Yorke said : " ' Black Swan ' , back in the day , was a ... nine @-@ minute load of bollocks . Except for this one juicy bit , and [ Godrich ] goes past and goes , ' That bit . Fuck the rest . ' Usually it 's something like that . "
To create the title track , Yorke sampled piano chords played by Radiohead guitarist Jonny Greenwood and cut them into a new order . " And it Rained All Night " contains an " enormously shredded @-@ up " sample from " The Gloaming " ( from Hail to the Thief ) , and " Black Swan " samples a rhythm recorded by Radiohead guitarist Ed O 'Brien and drummer Philip Selway in 2000 . Yorke said " Harrowdown Hill " had been " kicking around " during the 2002 Hail to the Thief sessions , but felt it could not have worked as a Radiohead song .
Yorke initially intended to create instrumental tracks , but added vocals at the encouragement of Godrich . On Radiohead albums , Yorke had altered his voice with layers of reverb and digital effects ; however , for The Eraser , Godrich wanted Yorke 's voice to be " dry and loud . " As Yorke found it difficult to write lyrics to loops of music , saying he could not " react spontaneously and differently every time " , he translated the music to guitar and piano and generated new musical components in the process .
Yorke saved one song recorded in the Eraser sessions , " Last Flowers " , for the bonus disc of Radiohead 's seventh album , In Rainbows ( 2007 ) . Another song , " The Hollow Earth " , was finished later and released as a single in 2009 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The Observer described The Eraser as " an insidious collection of skittery beats and pattery rhythms and minimal post @-@ rockisms " . The LA Times described it as " an evocative portrait of life made slippery by urban sprawl , murky political alliances and global warming ... with the blips and bleeps of Yorke 's laptop excursions coalescing into soulful , politically charged songs . " Pitchfork described it as " glitchy , sour , feminine , brooding " . Citing inspiration from the 1997 Björk album Homogenic , Yorke said the album was designed to be heard in an " isolated space – on headphones , or stuck in traffic . " Louis Patterson of the NME and Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone likened the album to the 2000 Radiohead album Kid A.
David Fricke of Rolling Stone felt the album 's lyrics have an " emotional and pictorial directness , rare for Yorke " . According to the Globe and Mail , " The Clock " , influenced by Arabic music , is a " gliding , droning song about losing control while pretending ' that you are still in charge ' . " " Analyse " was inspired by a blackout Yorke experienced in his hometown Oxford : " The houses were all dark , with candlelight in the windows , which is obviously how it would have been when they were built . It was beautiful . " The album title was inspired by " these huge elephants that we have in the room at the moment , in the West , and people are desperately trying to erase them from public consciousness . "
Yorke wrote " Harrowdown Hill " about David Kelly , a whistleblower who allegedly committed suicide after telling a reporter that the British government had falsely identified weapons of mass destruction in Iraq . Kelly 's body was found in the Harrowdown Hill woods near Yorke 's former school in Oxfordshire . According to the Globe and Mail , the song resembles a love song with a sense of " menace " and " grim political showdown " . Yorke was uncomfortable about the subject matter and conscious of Kelly 's grieving family , but felt that " not to write it would perhaps have been worse . " In an interview with the Observer , he said it was " the most angry song " he had ever written .
= = Artwork and packaging = =
The Eraser cover art was created by longtime Radiohead artist Stanley Donwood . The artwork , a linocut titled London Views , depicts a figure standing before London destroyed by flood in imitation of King Canute failing to command the ocean . It was inspired by the 2004 Boscastle flood and an article by the environmentalist Jonathan Porritt comparing the British government 's attitude to climate change to the Canute legend . The album is packaged as a single large foldout containing the CD ; Donwood and Yorke wanted to avoid using plastic .
= = Release = =
On 11 May 2006 , Yorke posted a link to theeraser.net on the official Radiohead website . Two days later , he wrote in a press a press announcing The Eraser : " I have been itching to do something like this for ages . It was fun and quick to do ... Yes , it 's a record ! No , it 's not a Radiohead record . " He emphasised that Radiohead were not splitting up and that the album was made " with their blessing " . Before the album 's release , " Black Swan " was used in the closing credits of the film A Scanner Darkly .
The Eraser was released on July 11 , 2006 by the independent label XL Recordings on CD and vinyl . Yorke said he chose the label because " it 's very mellow . There 's no corporate ethic . All [ major labels are ] like that . Stupid little boys ' games – especially really high up . " The album was also released on iTunes . It debuted at number three in the UK album chart and stayed in the top 100 for ten weeks . In the United States , it debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 , selling over 90 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album leaked online a month before release ; Yorke said he regretted not releasing the album as a download beforehand .
" Harrowdown Hill " was released as a single on August 21 and " Analyse " on November 6 . The album was followed in the same year by a B @-@ sides EP , Spitting Feathers , and in 2009 by The Eraser Rmxs , an album of remixes by various artists .
In 2009 , to perform The Eraser live , Yorke formed Atoms for Peace with musicians including Godrich and Red Hot Chili Peppers bassist Flea . The band performed eight North American shows in 2010 .
= = Critical reception = =
On the review aggregator site Metacritic , The Eraser has a score of 76 / 100 , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Reviewing The Eraser for the NME , Louis Patterson praised Yorke 's vocals and wrote : " Some will mourn its lack of viscera ; its coldness ; its reluctance to rock . But it ’ s yet another revealing glimpse into Yorke 's cryptic inner @-@ world , and one that has the courage not to hide its political message in code . " Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone said : " These aren 't Radiohead songs , or demos for Radiohead songs . They 're something different , something we haven 't heard before ... it 's intensely beautiful , yet it explores the kind of emotional turmoil that makes the angst of [ Radiohead albums ] OK Computer or The Bends sound like kid stuff . " PopMatters wrote : " The Eraser isn ’ t a masterpiece , but it ’ s much more than solo @-@ project divergence . Yorke has stayed focused and created a tight album that draws on its predecessors without being held to or afraid of them . "
In The Guardian , Alexis Petridis wrote that the album " offers a plethora of low @-@ key delights " , but " you can 't help imagining what it might have sounded like if Yorke had turned it over to Radiohead . " The Village Voice praised Yorke 's vocals , but found that " without the hooks of his inspirations or [ Radiohead 's ] density , the results offer pleasantries where they could provoke profound unpleasantries . " Pitchfork wrote that The Eraser is " strikingly beautiful and thuddingly boring in maddeningly equal measure . "
The Eraser was named the 15th best album of 2006 by the NME , the 30th by the Observer , and the 34th by Rolling Stone . It was nominated for the 2006 Mercury Prize and the 2007 Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Thom Yorke , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from the album liner notes .
Stanley Donwood - artwork
Nigel Godrich – arrangement , production , mixing , extra instrumentation
Jonny Greenwood – piano on " The Eraser "
Graeme Stewart - engineering
Darrell Thorp - mixing
Thom Yorke – music , arrangement
= = Chart positions = =
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= Stanley Kubrick =
Stanley Kubrick ( / ˈkuːbrɪk / ; July 26 , 1928 – March 7 , 1999 ) was an American film director , screenwriter , producer , cinematographer , editor , and photographer . Part of the New Hollywood film @-@ making wave , Kubrick 's films are considered by film historian Michel Ciment to be " among the most important contributions to world cinema in the twentieth century " , and he is frequently cited as one of the greatest and most influential directors in cinematic history . His films , which are typically adaptations of novels or short stories , cover a wide range of genres , and are noted for their realism , dark humor , unique cinematography , extensive set designs , and evocative use of music .
Kubrick grew up in the Bronx in New York City , and attended William Howard Taft High School from 1941 to 1945 . Although he only received average grades , Kubrick displayed a keen interest in literature , photography , and film from a young age , and taught himself all aspects of film production and directing after graduating from high school . After working as a photographer for Look magazine in the late 1940s and early 1950s , he began making short films on a shoestring budget , and made his first major Hollywood film , The Killing , for United Artists in 1956 . This was followed by two collaborations with Kirk Douglas , the war picture Paths of Glory ( 1957 ) and the historical epic Spartacus ( 1960 ) . His reputation as a filmmaker in Hollywood grew , and he was approached by Marlon Brando to film what would become One @-@ Eyed Jacks ( 1961 ) , though Brando eventually decided to direct it himself . Creative differences arising from his work with Douglas and the film studios , a dislike of Hollywood , and a growing concern about crime in America prompted Kubrick to move to the United Kingdom in 1961 , where he spent most of the remainder of his life and career . His home at Childwickbury Manor in Hertfordshire , which he shared with his wife Christiane , became his workplace , where he did his writing , research , editing , and management of production details . This allowed him to have almost complete artistic control over his films , but with the rare advantage of having financial support from major Hollywood studios . His first British productions were two films with Peter Sellers , Lolita ( 1962 ) and Dr. Strangelove ( 1964 ) .
Kubrick is noted for his attention to detail and skillful use of music . A demanding perfectionist , he assumed control over most aspects of the filmmaking process , from direction and writing to editing , and took painstaking care with researching his films and staging scenes , working in close coordination with his actors and other collaborators . He often asked for several dozen retakes of the same scene in a movie , which resulted in many conflicts with his casts . Despite the resulting notoriety among actors , many of Kubrick 's films broke new ground in cinematography . The scientific realism and innovative special effects of 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) were without precedent in the history of cinema , and the film earned him his only personal Oscar , for Best Visual Effects . Steven Spielberg has referred to the film as his generation 's " big bang " , and it is often included in polls of the greatest films ever made . For the 18th @-@ century period film Barry Lyndon ( 1975 ) , Kubrick obtained lenses developed by Zeiss for NASA , to film scenes under natural candlelight . With The Shining ( 1980 ) , he became one of the first directors to make use of a Steadicam for stabilized and fluid tracking shots . While many of Kubrick 's films were controversial and initially received mixed reviews upon release — particularly A Clockwork Orange ( 1971 ) , which Kubrick pulled from circulation in the UK following a mass media frenzy — most of his films were nominated for Oscars , Golden Globes , or BAFTA Awards . His last film , Eyes Wide Shut , was completed shortly before his death in 1999 .
= = Early life = =
Stanley Kubrick was born on July 26 , 1928 , in the Lying @-@ In Hospital at 307 Second Avenue in Manhattan , New York City . He was the first of two children of Jacob Leonard Kubrick ( May 21 , 1902 – October 19 , 1985 ) , known as Jack or Jacques , and his wife Sadie Gertrude Kubrick ( née Perveler ; October 28 , 1903 – April 23 , 1985 ) , known as Gert , both of whom were Jewish . His sister , Barbara Mary Kubrick , was born in May 1934 . Jack Kubrick , whose parents and paternal grandparents were of Polish , Austrian , and Romanian origin , was a doctor , graduating from the New York Homeopathic Medical College in 1927 , the same year he married Kubrick 's mother , the child of Austrian immigrants . Kubrick 's great @-@ grandfather , Hersh Kubrick ( also spelled Kubrik or Kubrike ) , arrived at Ellis Island via Liverpool by ship on December 27 , 1899 , at the age of 47 , leaving behind his wife and two grown children , one of whom was Stanley 's grandfather Elias , to start a new life with a younger woman . Elias Kubrick followed in 1902 . At Stanley 's birth , the Kubricks lived in an apartment at 2160 Clinton Avenue in the Bronx . Although his parents had been married in a Jewish ceremony , Kubrick did not have a religious upbringing , and would later profess an atheistic view of the universe . By the district standards of the West Bronx , the family was fairly wealthy , his father earning a good income as a physician .
Soon after his sister 's birth , Kubrick began schooling in Public School 3 in the Bronx , and moved to Public School 90 in June 1938 . Although his IQ was discovered to be above average , his attendance was poor , and he missed 56 days in his first term alone , as many as he attended . He displayed an interest in literature from a young age , and began reading Greek and Roman myths and the fables of the Grimm brothers which " instilled in him a lifelong affinity with Europe " . He spent most Saturdays during the summer watching the New York Yankees , and would later photograph two boys watching the game in an assignment for Look magazine to emulate his own childhood excitement with baseball . When Kubrick was 12 , his father Jack taught him chess . The game remained a lifelong interest of Kubrick 's , appearing in many scenes of his films . Kubrick himself , who later became a member of the United States Chess Federation , explained that chess helped him develop " patience and discipline " in making decisions . At the age of 13 , Kubrick 's father bought him a Graflex camera , triggering a fascination with still photography . He became friends with a neighbor , Marvin Taub , who shared his passion for photography . Taub had his own darkroom , where the young Kubrick and he would spend many hours perusing photographs and watching the chemicals " magically make images on photographic paper " . The two indulged in numerous photographic projects for which they roamed the streets for interesting subjects to capture , and spent time in local cinemas studying films . Freelance photographer Weegee ( Arthur Fellig ) had a considerable influence on Kubrick 's development as a photographer ; Kubrick would later hire Fellig as the special stills photographer for Dr. Strangelove ( 1964 ) . As a teenager , Kubrick was also interested in jazz , and briefly attempted a career as a drummer .
Kubrick attended William Howard Taft High School from 1941 to 1945 . One of his classmates was Edith Gormezano , later known as the singer Eydie Gorme . Though he joined the school 's photographic club , which permitted him to photograph the school 's events in their magazine , he was a mediocre student , with a meager 67 grade average . Introverted and shy , Kubrick had a low attendance record , and often skipped school to watch double @-@ feature films . He graduated in 1945 , but his poor grades , combined with the demand for college admissions from soldiers returning from the Second World War , eliminated hope of higher education . Later in life , Kubrick spoke disdainfully of his education and of contemporary American schooling as a whole , maintaining that schools were ineffective in stimulating critical thinking and student interest . His father was disappointed in his son 's failure to achieve excellence in school , of which he felt Stanley was fully capable . Jack also encouraged Stanley to read from the former 's library at home , while at the same time permitting Stanley to take up photography as a serious hobby .
= = Photographic career = =
While still in high school , Kubrick was chosen as an official school photographer for a year . In the mid @-@ 1940s , since he was not able to gain admission to day session classes at colleges , he briefly attended evening classes at the City College of New York . Eventually , he sold a photographic series to Look magazine , having taken a photo to Helen O 'Brian , head of the photographic department , who purchased it without hesitation for £ 25 on the spot . It was printed on June 26 , 1945 . Kubrick supplemented his income by playing chess " for quarters " in Washington Square Park and various Manhattan chess clubs .
In 1946 , he became an apprentice photographer for Look and later a full @-@ time staff photographer . G. Warren Schloat , Jr . , another new photographer for the magazine at the time , recalled that he thought Kubrick lacked the personality to make it as a director in Hollywood , remarking , " Stanley was a quiet fellow . He didn 't say much . He was thin , skinny , and kind of poor — like we all were " . Kubrick quickly became known , however , for his story @-@ telling in photographs . His first , published on April 16 , 1946 , was entitled " A Short Story from a Movie Balcony " and staged a fracas between a man and a woman , during which the man is slapped in the face , caught genuinely by surprise . In another assignment , 18 pictures were taken of various people waiting in a dental office . It has been said retrospectively that this project demonstrated an early interest of Kubrick in capturing individuals and their feelings in mundane environments . In 1948 , he was sent to Portugal to document a travel piece , and covered the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus in Sarasota , Florida . Kubrick , a boxing enthusiast , eventually began photographing boxing matches for the magazine . His earliest , " Prizefighter " , was published on January 18 , 1949 , and captured a boxing match and the events leading up to it , featuring Walter Cartier . On April 2 , 1949 , he published a photo essay , named " Chicago @-@ City of Extremes " in Look , which displayed his talent early on for creating atmosphere with imagery , including a photograph taken above a congested Chicago street at night . The following year , on July 18 , 1950 , the magazine published his photo essay , " Working Debutante - Betsy von Furstenberg " , which featured a Pablo Picasso portrait of Angel F. de Soto in the background . Kubrick was also assigned to photograph numerous jazz musicians , from Frank Sinatra and Errol Garner to George Lewis , Eddie Condon , Phil Napoleon , Oscar Celestin , Alphonse Picou , Muggsy Spanier , Sharkey Bonano , and others .
Kubrick married his high @-@ school sweetheart Toba Metz on May 28 , 1948 . They lived together in a small apartment at 36 West 16th Street , off 6th Avenue just north of Greenwich Village . During this time , Kubrick began frequenting film screenings at the Museum of Modern Art and the cinemas of New York City . He was inspired by the complex , fluid camerawork of the director Max Ophüls , whose films influenced Kubrick 's later visual style , and by the director Elia Kazan , whom he described as America 's " best director " at that time , with his ability of " performing miracles " with his actors . Friends began to notice that Kubrick had become obsessed with the art of filmmaking — one friend , David Vaughn , observed that Kubrick would scrutinize the film at the cinema when it went silent , and would go back to reading his paper when people started talking . He also spent many hours reading books on film theory and writing down notes . Sergei Eisenstein 's theoretical writings had a profound impact on Kubrick , and he took a great number of notes from books in the library of Arthur Rothstein , the photographic technical director of Look magazine .
= = Film career = =
= = = Short films ( 1951 – 53 ) = = =
Kubrick shared a love of film with his school friend Alexander Singer , who after graduating from high school had the intention of directing a film version of Homer 's The Iliad . Through Singer , who worked in the offices of the newsreel production company , The March of Time , Kubrick learned that it could cost $ 40 @,@ 000 to make a proper short film , money he could not afford . However , he had $ 1500 in savings and managed to produce a few short documentaries fueled by encouragement from Singer . He began learning all he could about filmmaking on his own , calling film suppliers , laboratories , and equipment rental houses .
Kubrick decided to make a short film documentary about boxer Walter Cartier , whom he had photographed and written about for Look magazine a year earlier . He rented a camera and produced a 16 @-@ minute black @-@ and @-@ white documentary , Day of the Fight . Kubrick found the money independently to finance it . He had considered asking Montgomery Clift to narrate it , whom he had met during a photographic session for Look , but settled on CBS news veteran Douglas Edwards . According to Paul Duncan the film was " remarkably accomplished for a first film " , and was notable for using the reverse tracking shot to film a scene in which the brothers walk towards the camera , a device later to become one of Kubrick 's characteristic camera movements . Vincent Cartier , Walter 's brother and manager , later reflected on his observations of Kubrick during the filming . He said , " Stanley was very stoic , impassive but imaginative type person with strong , imaginative thoughts . He commanded respect in a quiet , shy way . Whatever he wanted , you complied , he just captivated you . Anybody who worked with Stanley did just what Stanley wanted " . After a score was added by Singer 's friend Gerald Fried , Kubrick had spent $ 3900 in making it , and sold it to RKO @-@ Pathé for $ 4000 , which was the most the company had ever paid for a short film at the time . Kubrick described his first effort at filmmaking as having been valuable since he believed himself to have been forced to do most of the work , and he later declared that the " best education in film is to make one " .
Inspired by this early success , Kubrick quit his job at Look and visited professional filmmakers in New York City , asking many detailed questions about the technical aspects of film @-@ making . He stated that he was given the confidence during this period to become a filmmaker because of the number of bad films he had seen , remarking , " I don 't know a goddamn thing about movies , but I know I can make a better film than that " . He began making Flying Padre ( 1951 ) , a film which documents Reverend Fred Stadtmueller , who travels some 4 @,@ 000 miles to visit his 11 churches . The film was originally going to be called " Sky Pilot " , a pun on the slang term for a priest . During the course of the film , the priest performs a burial service , confronts a boy bullying a girl , and makes an emergency flight to aid a sick mother and baby into an ambulance . Several of the views from and of the plane in Flying Padre are later echoed in 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) with the footage of the spacecraft , and a series of close @-@ ups on the faces of people attending the funeral were most likely inspired by Sergei Eisenstein 's Battleship Potemkin ( 1925 ) and Ivan the Terrible ( 1944 / 1958 ) .
Flying Padre was followed by The Seafarers ( 1953 ) , Kubrick 's first color film , which was shot for the Seafarers International Union in June 1953 . It has shots of ships , machinery , a canteen , and a union meeting . For the cafeteria scene in the film , Kubrick chose a long , sideways @-@ shooting dolly shot to establish the life of the seafarer 's community ; this shot is an early demonstration of a technique which would become a signature of his . The montage of speaker and audience echoes scenes from Eisenstein 's Strike ( 1925 ) and October ( 1928 ) . Day of the Fight , Flying Padre and The Seafarers constitute Kubrick 's only surviving documentary works , although some historians believe he made others .
= = = Early feature work ( 1953 – 55 ) = = =
After raising $ 1000 showing his short films to friends and family , Kubrick found the finances to begin making his first feature film , Fear and Desire ( 1953 ) , originally running with the title The Trap , written by his friend Howard Sackler . Kubrick 's uncle , Martin Perveler , a Los Angeles businessman , invested a further $ 9000 on condition that he be credited as executive producer of the film . Kubrick assembled several actors and a small crew totaling 14 people ( five actors , five crewmen , and four Mexicans to help transport the equipment ) and flew to the San Gabriel Mountains in California for a five @-@ week , low @-@ budget shoot . Later renamed The Shape of Fear before finally being named Fear and Desire , it is a fictional allegory about a team of soldiers who survive a plane crash and are caught behind enemy lines in a war . During the course of the film , one of the soldiers becomes infatuated with an attractive girl in the woods and binds her to a tree . This scene is noted for its close @-@ ups on the face of the actress . Kubrick had intended for Fear and Desire to be a silent picture in order to ensure low production costs ; the added sounds , effects , and music ultimately brought production costs to around $ 53 @,@ 000 , exceeding the budget . He was bailed out by producer Richard de Rochemont on the condition that he help in de Rochemont 's production of a five @-@ part television series about Abraham Lincoln on location in Hodgenville , Kentucky .
Fear and Desire garnered several positive reviews upon release , but was nonetheless a commercial failure . Critics such as the reviewer from The New York Times believed that Kubrick 's professionalism as a photographer shone through in the picture , and that he " artistically caught glimpses of the grotesque attitudes of death , the wolfishness of hungry men , as well as their bestiality , and in one scene , the wracking effect of lust on a pitifully juvenile soldier and the pinioned girl he is guarding " . Columbia University scholar Mark Van Doren was highly impressed by the scenes with the girl bound to the tree , remarking that it would live on as a " beautiful , terrifying and weird " sequence which illustrated Kubrick 's immense talent and guaranteed his future success . Kubrick himself later expressed embarrassment with Fear and Desire , however , and attempted over the years to keep prints of the film out of circulation .
Following Fear and Desire , Kubrick began working on ideas for a new boxing film . Due to the commercial failure of his first feature , Kubrick avoided asking for further investments , but commenced a film noir script with Howard O. Sackler . Originally under the title Kiss Me , Kill Me , and then The Nymph and the Maniac , Killer 's Kiss ( 1955 ) is a 67 @-@ minute film noir about a young heavyweight boxer 's involvement with a woman being abused by her criminal boss . Like Fear and Desire , it was privately funded by Kubrick 's family and friends , with some $ 40 @,@ 000 put forward from Bronx pharmacist Morris Bousse . Kubrick began shooting footage in Times Square , and frequently explored during the filming process , experimenting with cinematography and considering the use of unconventional angles and imagery . He initially chose to record the sound on location , but encountered difficulties with shadows from the microphone booms , restricting camera movement . His decision to drop the sound in favor of imagery was a costly one ; after 12 – 14 weeks shooting the picture , he spent some seven months and $ 35 @,@ 000 working on the sound . Alfred Hitchcock 's Blackmail ( 1929 ) directly influenced the film with the painting laughing at a character , and Martin Scorsese has , in turn , cited Kubrick 's innovative shooting angles and atmospheric shots in Killer 's Kiss as an influence on Raging Bull ( 1980 ) . Actress Irene Kane , the star of the film , observed : " Stanley 's a fascinating character . He thinks movies should move , with a minimum of dialogue , and he 's all for sex and sadism " . Killer 's Kiss met with limited commercial success and made very little money in comparison with its production budget of $ 75 @,@ 000 . Although critics have praised the film 's camerawork , its acting and story are generally considered mediocre .
= = = Hollywood success ( 1956 – 61 ) = = =
While playing chess in Washington Square , Kubrick met producer James B. Harris , who considered Kubrick to be " the most intelligent , most creative person I have ever come in contact with " , and the two formed the Harris @-@ Kubrick Pictures Corporation in 1955 . Harris purchased the rights to Lionel White 's novel Clean Break for $ 10 @,@ 000 and Kubrick wrote the script , but upon Kubrick 's suggestion , they hired film noir novelist Jim Thompson to write the dialog for the film — which later became The Killing ( 1956 ) — about a meticulously planned racetrack robbery gone wrong . The film starred Sterling Hayden , with whom Kubrick had been impressed in The Asphalt Jungle ( 1950 ) . Kubrick and Harris moved to Los Angeles from New York and signed with the Jaffe Agency to shoot the picture , which became Kubrick 's first full @-@ length feature film shot with a professional cast and crew . The Union in Hollywood stated that Kubrick would not be permitted to be both the director and the cinematographer of the movie , so veteran cinematographer Lucien Ballard was hired for the shooting . Kubrick agreed to waive his fee for the production , which was shot in just 24 days on a budget of $ 330 @,@ 000 . He clashed with Ballard during the shooting , and on one occasion Kubrick threatened to fire Ballard following a camera dispute , despite being only 27 years old at the time and 20 years Ballard 's junior . Hayden recalled that Kubrick was " cold and detached . Very mechanical , always confident . I 've worked with few directors who are that good " . The Killing failed to secure a proper release across the United States ; the film made little money , and was promoted only at the last minute , as a second feature to the Western movie Bandido ! ( 1956 ) . Several contemporary critics lauded the film , however , with a reviewer for TIME comparing its camerawork to that of Orson Welles . Today , critics generally consider The Killing to be among the best films of Kubrick 's early career ; its nonlinear narrative and clinical execution also had a major influence on later directors of crime films , including Quentin Tarantino . Dore Schary of Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer was highly impressed as well , and offered Kubrick and Harris $ 75 @,@ 000 to write , direct , and produce a film , which ultimately became Paths of Glory ( 1957 ) .
Paths of Glory , set during World War I , is based on Humphrey Cobb 's 1935 antiwar novel , which Kubrick had read while waiting in his father 's office . Schary of MGM was familiar with the novel , but stated that the company would not finance another war picture , given their backing of the anti @-@ war film The Red Badge of Courage ( 1951 ) . After Schary was fired by MGM in a major shake @-@ up , Kubrick and Harris managed to interest Kirk Douglas in playing Colonel Dax . The film , shot in Munich , from January 1957 , follows a French army unit ordered on an impossible mission , and follows with a war trial of Colonel Dax and his men for misconduct . For the battle scene , Kubrick meticulously lined up six cameras one after the other along the boundary of no @-@ man 's land , with each camera capturing a specific field and numbered , and gave each of the hundreds of extras a number for the zone in which they would die . Kubrick himself operated an Arriflex camera for the battle , zooming in on Douglas . Paths of Glory became Kubrick 's first significant commercial success , and established him as an up @-@ and @-@ coming young filmmaker . Critics praised the film 's unsentimental , spare , and unvarnished combat scenes and its raw , black @-@ and @-@ white cinematography . Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote : " The close , hard eye of Mr Kubrick 's sullen camera bores directly into the minds of scheming men and into the hearts of patient , frightened soldiers who have to accept orders to die " . Despite the praise , the Christmas release date was criticized , and the subject was a controversial one in Europe . The film was banned in France until 1974 for its " unflattering " depiction of the French military , and was censored by the Swiss Army until 1970 .
Marlon Brando contacted Kubrick , asking him to direct a film adaption of the Charles Neider western novel , The Authentic Death of Hendry Jones , featuring Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid . Brando was highly impressed with the director , remarking that " Stanley is unusually perceptive , and delicately attuned to people . He has an adroit intellect , and is a creative thinker — not a repeater , not a fact @-@ gatherer . He digests what he learns and brings to a new project an original point of view and a reserved passion " . The two worked on a script for six months , begun by a then unknown Sam Peckinpah . Many disputes broke out over the project , and in the end , Kubrick distanced himself from what would become One @-@ Eyed Jacks ( 1961 ) .
In February 1959 , Kubrick received a phone call from Kirk Douglas asking him to direct Spartacus ( 1960 ) , based on the true life story of the historical figure Spartacus and the events of the Third Servile War . Douglas had acquired the rights to the novel by Howard Fast and blacklisted screenwriter Dalton Trumbo began penning the script . It was produced by Douglas , who also starred as rebellious slave Spartacus , and cast Laurence Olivier as his foe , the Roman general and politician Marcus Licinius Crassus . Douglas hired Kubrick for a reported fee of $ 150 @,@ 000 to take over direction soon after he fired director Anthony Mann . Kubrick had , at 31 , already directed four feature films , and this became his largest by far , with a cast of over 10 @,@ 000 and a large budget of $ 6 million . At the time , this was the most expensive film ever made in America , and Kubrick became the youngest director in Hollywood history to helm an epic . It was the first time that Kubrick filmed using the anamorphic 35mm horizontal Super Technirama process to achieve ultra @-@ high definition , which allowed him to capture large panoramic scenes , including one with 8 @,@ 000 trained soldiers from Spain representing the Roman army . Disputes broke out during the filming . Kubrick complained about not having full creative control over the artistic aspects , insisting on improvizing extensively during the production . Kubrick and Douglas were also at odds over the script , with Kubrick angering Douglas when he cut all but two of his lines from the opening 30 minutes . Despite the on @-@ set troubles , Spartacus was a critical and commercial success , earning $ 14 @.@ 6 million at the box office in its first run . The film established Kubrick as a major director , receiving six Academy Award nominations and winning four ; it ultimately convinced him that if so much could be made of such a problematic production , he could achieve anything . Spartacus also marked , however , the end of the working relationship between Kubrick and Douglas .
= = = Collaboration with Peter Sellers ( 1962 – 64 ) = = =
Kubrick and Harris made a decision to film Kubrick 's next movie Lolita ( 1962 ) in England , due to clauses placed on the contract by producers Warner Bros. that gave them complete control over every aspect of the film , and the fact that the Eady plan permitted producers to write off the costs if 80 % of the crew were English . Instead , they signed a $ 1 million deal with Eliot Hyman 's Associated Artists Productions , and a clause which gave them the artistic freedom that they desired . Lolita , Kubrick 's first attempt at black comedy , was an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Vladimir Nabokov , the story of a middle @-@ aged college professor becoming infatuated with a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl . Stylistically , Lolita , starring Peter Sellers , James Mason , Shelley Winters , and Sue Lyon , was a transitional film for Kubrick , " marking the turning point from a naturalistic cinema ... to the surrealism of the later films " , according to film critic Gene Youngblood . Kubrick was deeply impressed by the chameleon @-@ like range of actor Peter Sellers and gave him one of his first opportunities to improvize wildly during shooting , while filming him with three cameras .
Lolita was shot over 88 days on a budget of $ 2 million at Elstree Studios , between October 1960 and March 1961 . Kubrick often clashed with Shelley Winters , whom he found " very difficult " and demanding , and nearly fired at one point . Because of its provocative story , Lolita was Kubrick 's first film to generate controversy ; he was ultimately forced to comply with censors and remove much of the erotic element of the relationship between Mason 's Humbert and Lyon 's Lolita which had been evident in Nabokov 's novel . The film was not a major critical or commercial success upon release , earning $ 3 @.@ 7 million at the box office on its opening run . Lolita has since become acclaimed by film critics . Social historian Stephen E. Kercher documented that the film " demonstrated that its director possessed a keen , satiric insight into the social landscape and sexual hang @-@ ups of cold war America " , while Jon Fortgang of Film4 wrote : " Lolita , with its acute mix of pathos and comedy , and Mason 's mellifluous delivery of Nabokov 's sparkling lines , remains the definitive depiction of tragic transgression " .
Kubrick 's next project was Dr. Strangelove or : How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb ( 1964 ) , another satirical black comedy . Kubrick became preoccupied with the issue of nuclear war as the Cold War unfolded in the 1950s , and even considered moving to Australia because he feared that New York City might be a likely target for the Russians . He studied over 40 military and political research books on the subject and eventually reached the conclusion that " nobody really knew anything and the whole situation was absurd " . After buying the rights to the novel Red Alert , Kubrick collaborated with its author , Peter George , on the script . It was originally written as a serious political thriller , but Kubrick decided that a " serious treatment " of the subject would not be believable , and thought that some of its most salient points would be fodder for comedy . Kubrick and George then reworked the script as a satire ( provisionally titled " The Delicate Balance of Terror " ) in which the plot of Red Alert was situated as a film @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film made by an alien intelligence , but this idea was also abandoned , and Kubrick decided to make the film as " an outrageous black comedy " . Just before filming began , Kubrick hired noted journalist and satirical author Terry Southern to transform the script into its final form , a black @-@ comedy , loaded with sexual innuendo , becoming a film which showed Kubrick 's talents as " unique kind of absurdist " according to the film scholar Abrams . Although Southern certainly made major contributions to final script , and was co @-@ credited ( above Peter George ) in the film 's opening titles , his perceived role in the writing later led to a public rift between Kubrick and Peter George , who subsequently complained in a letter to Life magazine that Southern 's intense but relatively brief ( November 16 to December 28 , 1962 ) involvement with the project was being given undue prominence in the media , while his own role as the author of the film 's source novel , and his ten @-@ month stint as the script 's co @-@ writer , were being downplayed - a perception Kubrick evidently did little to address .
Kubrick found that Dr. Strangelove , a $ 2 million production which employed what became the " first important visual effects crew in the world " , would be impossible to make in the U.S. for various technical and political reasons , forcing him to move production to England . It was shot in 15 weeks , ending in April 1963 , after which Kubrick spent eight months editing it . Peter Sellers again agreed to work with Kubrick , and ended up playing three different roles in the film . Upon release , the film stirred up much controversy and mixed opinions . The New York Times film critic Bosley Crowther worried that it was a " discredit and even contempt for our whole defense establishment ... the most shattering sick joke I 've ever come across " , while Robert Brustein of Out of This World in a February 1970 article called it a " juvenalian satire " . Kubrick responded to the criticism , stating : " A satirist is someone who has a very skeptical view of human nature , but who still has the optimism to make some sort of a joke out of it . However brutal that joke might be " . Today , the film is considered to be one of the sharpest comedy films ever made , and holds a near perfect 99 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 68 reviews as of August 2015 . It was voted the 39th @-@ greatest American film and third @-@ greatest comedy film of all time by the American Film Institute , and in 2010 , it was voted the sixth @-@ best comedy film of all time by The Guardian .
= = = Ground @-@ breaking cinema ( 1965 – 71 ) = = =
Kubrick spent five years developing his next film , 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) , having been highly impressed with science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke 's novel Childhood 's End , about a superior race of alien beings who assist mankind in eliminating their old selves . After meeting Clarke in New York City in April 1964 , Kubrick made the suggestion to work on his 1948 short story The Sentinel , about a tetrahedron which is found on the Moon which alerts aliens of mankind . That year , Clarke began writing the novel 2001 : A Space Odyssey , and the screenplay was written by Kubrick and Clarke in collaboration . The film 's theme , the birthing of one intelligence by another , is developed in two parallel intersecting stories on two very different times scales . One depicts transitions between various stages of man , from ape to " star child " , as man is reborn into a new existence , each step shepherded by an enigmatic alien intelligence seen only in its artifacts : a series of seemingly indestructible eons @-@ old black monoliths . In space , the enemy is a supercomputer known as HAL who runs the spaceship , a character which novelist Clancy Sigal described as being " far , far more human , more humorous and conceivably decent than anything else that may emerge from this far @-@ seeing enterprise " .
Kubrick spent a great deal of time researching the film , paying particular attention to accuracy and detail in what the future may look like . He was granted permission by NASA to observe the spacecraft being used in the Ranger 9 mission for accuracy . Filming commenced on December 29 , 1965 , with the excavation of the monolith on the moon , and footage was shot in Namib Desert in early 1967 , with the ape scenes completed in the summer of that year . The special effects team continued working diligently until the end of the year to complete the film , taking the cost to $ 10 @.@ 5 million . 2001 : A Space Odyssey was conceived as a Cinerama spectacle and was photographed in Super Panavision 70 , giving the viewer a " dazzling mix of imagination and science " through ground @-@ breaking effects , which earned Kubrick his only personal Oscar , an Academy Award for Visual Effects . Louise Sweeney of the Christian Science Monitor called the film the " ultimate trip " while praising one of the scenes where the viewer moves through space while witnessing a vibrant mix of lighting , color , and patterns . Kubrick said of the concept of the film in an interview with Rolling Stone : " On the deepest psychological level , the film 's plot symbolized the search for God , and finally postulates what is little less than a scientific definition of God . The film revolves around this metaphysical conception , and the realistic hardware and the documentary feelings about everything were necessary in order to undermine your built @-@ in resistance to the poetical concept " .
Upon release in 1968 , 2001 : A Space Odyssey was not an immediate hit among many critics , who faulted its lack of dialogue , slow pacing , and seemingly impenetrable storyline . The film appeared to defy genre convention , much unlike any science @-@ fiction movie before it , and clearly different from any of Kubrick 's earlier films or stories . Kubrick was particularly outraged by a scathing review from Pauline Kael , who called it " the biggest amateur movie of them all " , with Kubrick doing " really every dumb thing he ever wanted to do " . Despite the initial poor critical response , 2001 : A Space Odyssey gradually gained popularity and earned $ 31 million worldwide by the end of 1972 . Today , it is widely considered to be one of the greatest and most influential films ever made , and is a staple on All Time Top 10 lists . Baxter describes the film as " one of the most admired and discussed creations in the history of cinema " , and Steven Spielberg has referred to it as " the big bang of his film making generation " . For LoBrutto it " positioned Stanley Kubrick as a pure artist ranked among the masters of cinema " .
After completing 2001 : A Space Odyssey , Kubrick searched for a project that he could film quickly on a small budget . He settled on A Clockwork Orange ( 1971 ) at the end of 1969 , an exploration of violence and experimental rehabilitation by law enforcement authorities , based around the character of Alex ( portrayed by Malcolm McDowell ) . Kubrick had originally received a copy of Anthony Burgess 's novel of the same name from Terry Southern while they were working on Dr. Strangelove , but had rejected it on the grounds that Nadsat , a street language for young teenagers , was too difficult to comprehend . In 1969 , the decision to make a film about the degeneration of youth was a more timely one ; the New Hollywood movement was witnessing a great number of films that were centered around the sexuality and rebelliousness of young people , which no doubt influenced Kubrick in Baxter 's opinion . A Clockwork Orange was shot over the winter of 1970 @-@ 1 on a budget of £ 2 million . Kubrick abandoned his use of CinemaScope in the filming , deciding that the 1 @.@ 66 : 1 widescreen format was , in the words of Baxter , an " acceptable compromise between spectacle and intimacy " , and favored his " rigorously symmetrical framing " , which " increased the beauty of his compositions " . The film heavily features " pop erotica " of the period , including a giant white plastic set of male genitals , decor which Kubrick had intended to give it a " slightly futuristic " look . McDowell 's role in Lindsay Anderson 's if .... ( 1968 ) was crucial to his casting as Alex , and Kubrick professed that he probably would not have made the film if McDowell had been unavailable .
Because of its depiction of teenage violence , A Clockwork Orange became one of the most controversial films of the decade , and part of an ongoing debate about violence and its glorification in cinema . It received an X @-@ rated certificate upon release , just before Christmas in 1971 , though many critics saw much of the violence depicted in the film as satirical , and less violent than Straw Dogs , which had been released a month earlier . Kubrick personally pulled the film from release in the United Kingdom after receiving death threats following a series of copycat crimes based on the film ; it was thus completely unavailable legally in the UK until after Kubrick 's death , and not re @-@ released until 2000 . John Trevelyan , the censor of the film , personally considered A Clockwork Orange to be " perhaps the most brilliant piece of cinematic art I 've ever seen , and believed it to present an " intellectual argument rather than a sadistic spectacle " in its depiction of violence , but acknowledged that many would not agree . Ignoring the negative media hype over the film , A Clockwork Orange received four Academy Award nominations , for Best Picture , Best Director , Best Screenplay and Best Editing , and was named by the New York Film Critics Circle as the Best Film of 1971 . After William Friedkin won Best Director for The French Connection that year , he told the press : " Speaking personally , I think Stanley Kubrick is the best American film @-@ maker of the year . In fact , not just this year , but the best , period " .
= = = Period and horror filming ( 1972 – 80 ) = = =
Barry Lyndon ( 1975 ) is an adaptation of William Makepeace Thackeray 's The Luck of Barry Lyndon ( also known as Barry Lyndon ) , a picaresque novel about the adventures of an 18th @-@ century Irish rogue and social climber . John Calley of Warner Bros. agreed in 1972 to invest $ 2 @.@ 5 million into the film , on condition that Kubrick approach major Hollywood stars , to ensure it of success . Like previous films , Kubrick and his art department conducted an enormous amount of research , and he went from knowing very little about the 18th century at the start of the production to becoming an expert on it . Extensive photographs were taken of locations and artwork in particular , and paintings were meticulously replicated from works of the great masters of the period in the film . The film was shot on location in Ardmore , County Waterford , Ireland , beginning in the autumn of 1973 , at a cost of $ 11 million with a cast and crew of 170 . The decision to shoot in Ireland stemmed from the fact that it still retained many buildings from the 18th century period which England lacked . The production was problematic from the start , plagued with heavy rain and political strife involving Northern Ireland at the time . After Kubrick received death threats from the IRA in the New Year of 1974 due to the shooting scenes with English soldiers , he fled Ireland with his family on a ferry from Dún Laoghaire under an assumed identity , and filming resumed in England .
Baxter notes that Barry Lyndon was the film which made Kubrick notorious for paying scrupulous attention to detail , often demanding twenty or thirty retakes of the same scene to perfect his art . Often considered to be his most authentic @-@ looking picture , the cinematography and lighting techniques that Kubrick and cinematographer John Alcott used in Barry Lyndon were highly innovative . Most notably , interior scenes were shot with a specially adapted high @-@ speed f / 0 @.@ 7 Zeiss camera lens originally developed for NASA to be used in satellite photography . The lenses allowed many scenes to be lit only with candlelight , creating two @-@ dimensional , diffused @-@ light images reminiscent of 18th @-@ century paintings . Cinematographer Allen Daviau states that the method gives the audience a way of seeing the characters and scenes as they would have been seen by people at the time . Many of the fight scenes were shot with a hand @-@ held camera to produce a " sense of documentary realism and immediacy " .
Although Barry Lyndon found a great audience in France , it was a box office failure , grossing just $ 9 @.@ 5 million in the American market , not even close to the $ 30 million Warner Bros. needed to generate a profit . The pace and length of Barry Lyndon at three hours put off many American critics and audiences , but the film was nominated for seven Academy Awards and won four , including Best Art Direction , Best Cinematography , Best Costume Design , and Best Musical Score , more than any other Kubrick film . As with most of Kubrick 's films , Barry Lyndon 's reputation has grown through the years and it is now considered to be one of his best , particularly among filmmakers and critics . Numerous polls , such as Village Voice ( 1999 ) , Sight & Sound ( 2002 ) , and Time ( 2005 ) , have rated it as one of the greatest films ever made . As of August 2015 , it has as 96 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes , based on 52 reviews . Roger Ebert referred to it as " one of the most beautiful films ever made " , " certainly in every frame a Kubrick film : technically awesome , emotionally distant , remorseless in its doubt of human goodness . "
The Shining , released in 1980 , was adapted from the novel of the same name by bestselling horror writer Stephen King . The Shining was not the only horror film to which Kubrick had been linked ; he had turned down the directing of both The Exorcist ( 1973 ) and Exorcist II : The Heretic ( 1977 ) , despite once claiming in 1966 to a friend that he had long desired to " make the world 's scariest movie , involving a series of episodes that would play upon the nightmare fears of the audience " . The film stars Jack Nicholson as a writer who takes a job as a winter caretaker of a large and isolated hotel in the Rocky Mountains . He spends the winter there with his wife , played by Shelley Duvall , and their young son , who displays paranormal abilities . During their stay , they confront both Jack 's descent into madness and apparent supernatural horrors lurking in the hotel . Kubrick gave his actors freedom to extend the script , and even improvise on occasion , and as a result , Nicholson was responsible for the ' Here 's Johnny ! ' line and scene in which he 's sitting at the typewriter and unleashes his anger upon his wife . So determined to produce perfection was Kubrick , he often demanded up to 70 or 80 retakes of the same scene . The bar scene with the ghostly bartender was shot 36 times , while the kitchen scene between the characters of Danny ( Danny Lloyd ) and Halloran ( Scatman Crothers ) ran to 148 takes . The aerial shots of the Overlook Hotel were shot at Timberline Lodge on Mount Hood in Oregon , while the interiors of the hotel were shot at Elstree Studios in England between May 1978 and April 1979 . Cardboard models were made of all of the sets of the film , and the lighting of them was a massive undertaking , which took four months of electrical wiring . Kubrick made extensive use of the newly invented Steadicam , a weight @-@ balanced camera support , which allowed for smooth hand @-@ held camera movement in scenes where a conventional camera track was impractical . According to Garrett Brown , Steadicam 's inventor , it was the first picture to use its full potential .
Five days after release on May 23 , 1980 , Kubrick ordered the deletion of a final scene , in which the hotel manager Ullman ( Barry Nelson ) visits Wendy ( Shelley Duvall ) in hospital , believing it to have been unnecessary after witnessing the audience excitement in cinemas at the climax of the film . The Shining opened to strong box office takings , earning $ 1 million on the first weekend and earning $ 30 @.@ 9 million in America alone by the end of the year . The original critical response was mixed , and King himself detested the film and disliked Kubrick . Janet Maslin of The New York Times praised the " eerie way " in which Kubrick turned an " enormous building into something cramped and claustrophobic " , which would " undoubtedly amount to one of the screen 's scarier haunted houses " . The Shining is now considered to be a horror cult classic , and the American Film Institute has ranked it as the 27th greatest thriller film of all time .
= = = Later work and final years ( 1981 – 99 ) = = =
Kubrick met author Michael Herr through mutual friend David Cornwell ( novelist John le Carré ) in 1980 , and became interested in his book Dispatches , about the Vietnam War . Herr had recently written Martin Sheen 's narration for Apocalypse Now ( 1979 ) . Kubrick was also intrigued by Gustav Hasford 's Vietnam War novel The Short @-@ Timers . With the vision in mind to shoot what would become Full Metal Jacket ( 1987 ) , Kubrick began working with both Herr and Hasford separately on a script . He eventually found Hasford 's novel to be " brutally honest " and decided to shoot a film which closely follows the novel . All of the film was shot at a cost of $ 17 million within a 30 @-@ mile radius of his house between August 1985 and September 1986 , later than scheduled as Kubrick shut down production for five months following a near @-@ fatal accident with a jeep involving Lee Ermey . A derelict gasworks in Beckton in the London Docklands area posed as the ruined city of Huế , which makes the film visually very different from other Vietnam War films . Around 200 palm trees were imported via 40 @-@ foot trailers by road from North Africa , at a cost of £ 1000 a tree , and thousands of plastic plants were ordered from Hong Kong to provide foliage for the film . Kubrick explained he made the film look realistic by using natural light , and achieved a " newsreel effect " by making the Steadicam shots less steady , which reviewers and commentators thought contributed to the bleakness and seriousness of the film . According to critic Michel Ciment , the film contained some of Kubrick 's trademark characteristics , such as his selection of ironic music , portrayals of men being dehumanized , and attention to extreme detail to achieve realism . In a later scene where United States Marines patrol the ruins of an abandoned and totally destroyed city , the theme song to the Mickey Mouse Club is heard as a sardonic counterpoint . The film opened strongly in June 1987 , taking over $ 30 million in the first 50 days alone , but critically it was overshadowed by the success of Oliver Stone 's Platoon , released a year earlier . According to one review , notes co @-@ star Matthew Modine , " The first half of FMJ is brilliant . Then the film degenerates into a masterpiece . " Roger Ebert was not particularly impressed with it , awarding it a mediocre 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 . He concluded : " Stanley Kubrick 's Full Metal Jacket is more like a book of short stories than a novel " , a " strangely shapeless film from the man whose work usually imposes a ferociously consistent vision on his material " . Kubrick 's final film was Eyes Wide Shut ( 1999 ) , starring Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman as a Manhattan couple on a sexual odyssey . Tom Cruise portrays a doctor who witnesses a bizarre masked quasireligious orgiastic ritual at a country mansion , a discovery which later threatens his life . The story is based on Arthur Schnitzler 's 1926 Freudian novella Traumnovelle ( Dream Story in English ) , which Kubrick relocated from turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century Vienna to New York City in the 1990s . Kubrick said of the novel : " A difficult book to describe — what good book isn 't . It explores the sexual ambivalence of a happy marriage and tries to equate the importance of sexual dreams and might @-@ have @-@ beens with reality . All of Schnitzler 's work is psychologically brilliant " . Although Kubrick was almost 70 , he worked relentlessly for 15 months to get the film out by its planned release date of July 16 , 1999 . He commenced a script with Frederic Raphael , and worked 18 hours a day , all the while maintaining complete confidentiality about the film . Principal photography began on November 7 , 1996 , and ended in February 1998 . Eyes Wide Shut , like Lolita and A Clockwork Orange before it , faced censorship before release . Kubrick sent an unfinished preview copy to the stars and producers a few months before release , but his sudden death on March 7 , 1999 , came a few days after he finished editing . He never saw the final version released to the public , but he did see the preview of the film with Warner Bros. , Cruise , and Kidman , and had reportedly told Warner executive Julian Senior that it was " my best film ever " . Today , critical opinion of the film is mixed , and it is viewed less favorably than most of Kubrick 's films . Roger Ebert awarded it 3 @.@ 5 out 4 stars , comparing the structure to a thriller and writing that it is " like an erotic daydream about chances missed and opportunities avoided " , and thought that Kubrick 's use of lighting at Christmas made the film " all a little garish , like an urban sideshow . " Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post disliked the film , writing : " Its actually sad , rather than bad . It feels creaky , ancient , hopelessly out of touch , infatuated with the hot taboos of his youth and unable to connect with that twisty thing contemporary sexuality has become . "
= = = A.I. Artificial Intelligence and unrealized projects = = =
= = = = A.I. Artificial Intelligence = = = =
Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s , Kubrick collaborated with Brian Aldiss on an expansion of his short story " Super @-@ Toys Last All Summer Long " into a three @-@ act film . It was a futuristic fairy tale about a robot that resembles and behaves as a child , and his efforts to become a ' real boy ' in a manner similar to Pinocchio . Kubrick approached Spielberg in 1995 with the AI script with the possibility of Steven Spielberg directing it and Kubrick producing it . Kubrick reportedly held long telephone discussions with Spielberg regarding the film , and , according to Spielberg , at one point stated that the subject matter was closer to Spielberg 's sensibilities than his .
Following Kubrick 's death in 1999 , Spielberg took the various drafts and notes left by Kubrick and his writers and composed a new screenplay based on an earlier 90 @-@ page story treatment by Ian Watson written under Kubrick 's supervision and according to Kubrick 's specifications . In association with what remained of Kubrick 's production unit , he directed the movie A.I. Artificial Intelligence ( 2001 ) . which was produced by Kubrick 's longtime producer ( and brother @-@ in @-@ law ) Jan Harlan . Sets , costumes , and art direction were based on the works of conceptual artist Chris Baker , who had also done much of his work under Kubrick 's supervision .
Although Spielberg was able to function autonomously in Kubrick 's absence , he said he felt " inhibited to honor him , " and followed Kubrick 's visual schema with as much fidelity as he could , according to author Joseph McBride . Spielberg , who once referred to Kubrick as " the greatest master I ever served , " now with production underway , admitted , " I felt like I was being coached by a ghost . " The film was released in June 2001 . It contains a posthumous production credit for Stanley Kubrick at the beginning and the brief dedication " For Stanley Kubrick " at the end . John Williams 's score contains many allusions to pieces heard in other Kubrick films .
= = = = Napoleon = = = =
Following 2001 : A Space Odyssey , Kubrick originally planned to make a film about the life of the French emperor Napoleon . Fascinated by his life and own " self @-@ destruction " , Kubrick spent a great deal of time planning the film 's development , and had conducted about two years of extensive research into Napoleon 's life , reading several hundred books and gaining access to Napoleon 's personal memoirs and commentaries . He also tried to see every film ever made about Napoleon and found none of them appealing , including Abel Gance 's 1927 film which is generally considered to be a masterpiece , but for Kubrick , a " really terrible " movie . Lo Brutto states that Napoleon was an ideal subject for Kubrick , embracing the director 's " passion for control , power , obsession , strategy , and the military " , while Napoleon 's psychological intensity and depth , logistical genius and war , sex , and the evil nature of man were all ingredients which deeply appealed to Kubrick .
Kubrick drafted a screenplay in 1961 , and envisaged making a " grandiose " epic , with up to 40 @,@ 000 infantry and 10 @,@ 000 cavalry . He had intended hiring the armed forces of an entire country to make the film , as he considered Napoleonic battles to be " so beautiful , like vast lethal ballets " , with an " aesthetic brilliance that doesn 't require a military mind to appreciate " . He wanted them to be replicated as authentically as possible on screen . Kubrick had sent research teams to scout for locations across Europe , and commissioned screenwriter and director Andrew Birkin , one of his young assistants on 2001 , to the Isle of Elba , Austerlitz , and Waterloo , taking thousands of pictures for his later perusal . Kubrick approached numerous stars to play leading roles , including Audrey Hepburn for Empress Josephine , a part which she could not accept due to semiretirement . British actors David Hemmings and Ian Holm were considered for the lead role of Napoleon , before Jack Nicholson was cast . The film was well into preproduction and ready to begin filming in 1969 when MGM cancelled the project . Numerous reasons have been cited for the abandonment of the project , including its projected cost , a change of ownership at MGM , and the poor reception the 1970 Soviet film about Napoleon , Waterloo , received . In 2011 , Taschen published the book , Stanley Kubrick 's Napoleon : The Greatest Movie Never Made , a large volume compilation of literature and source documents from Kubrick , such as scene photo ideas and copies of letters Kubrick wrote and received . In March 2013 , Steven Spielberg , who previously collaborated with Kubrick on A.I. Artificial Intelligence and is a passionate admirer of his work , announced that he would be developing Napoleon as a TV miniseries based on Kubrick 's original screenplay .
= = = = Other projects = = = =
In the 1950s , Kubrick and Harris developed a sitcom starring Ernie Kovacs and a film adaption of the book I Stole $ 16 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , but nothing came of them . Tony Frewin , an assistant who worked with the director for a long period of time , revealed in a March 2013 Atlantic article : " He [ Kubrick ] was limitlessly interested in anything to do with Nazis and desperately wanted to make a film on the subject . " Kubrick had intended making a film about the life story of Dietrich Schulz @-@ Koehn , a Nazi officer who used the pen name " Dr. Jazz " to write reviews of German music scenes during the Nazi era . Kubrick had been given a copy of the Mike Zwerin book Swing Under the Nazis after he had finished production on Full Metal Jacket , the front cover of which featured a photograph of Schulz @-@ Koehn . A screenplay was never completed and Kubrick 's film adaptation plan was never initiated . The unfinished Aryan Papers , based on Louis Begley 's debut novel Wartimes Lies , was a factor in the abandonment of the project . Work on Aryan Papers depressed Kubrick enormously , and he eventually decided that Steven Spielberg 's Schindler 's List ( 1993 ) covered much of the same material .
According to biographer John Baxter , Kubrick had shown an interest in directing a pornographic film based on a satirical novel written by Terry Southern , entitled Blue Movie , about a director who makes Hollywood 's first big @-@ budget porn film . However , Baxter claims that Kubrick concluded that he did not have the patience or temperament to become involved in the porn industry , and Southern stated that Kubrick was " too ultra conservative " towards sexuality to have seriously gone ahead with it , but liked the idea . Kubrick was unable to direct a film of Umberto Eco 's Foucault 's Pendulum as Eco had given his publisher instructions to never sell the film rights to any of his books after his dissatisfaction with the film version of The Name of the Rose . Also , when the film rights to Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings were sold to United Artists , the Beatles approached Kubrick to direct them in a film based on the books , but Kubrick was unwilling to produce a film based on a very popular book . Director Peter Jackson has reported that Tolkien was against the involvement of the Beatles .
= = Career influences = =
Anyone who has ever been privileged to direct a film knows that , although it can be like trying to write War and Peace in a bumper car at an amusement park , when you finally get it right , there are not many joys in life that can equal the feeling .
As a young man , Kubrick was fascinated by the films of Soviet filmmakers such as Sergei Eisenstein and Vsevolod Pudovkin . Kubrick read Pudovkin 's seminal theoretical work , Film Technique , which argues that editing makes film a unique art form , and it needs to be employed to manipulate the medium to its fullest . Kubrick recommended this work to others for many years . Thomas Nelson describes this book as " the greatest influence of any single written work on the evolution of [ Kubrick 's ] private aesthetics " . Kubrick also found the ideas of Constantin Stanislavski to be essential to his understanding the basics of directing , and gave himself a crash course to learn his methods .
Kubrick 's family and many critics felt that his Jewish ancestry may have contributed to his worldview and aspects of his films . After his death , both his daughter and wife stated that although he was not religious , " he did not deny his Jewishness , not at all " . His daughter noted that he wanted to make a film about the Holocaust , the Aryan Papers , having spent years researching the subject . Most of Kubrick 's friends and early photography and film collaborators were Jewish , and his first two marriages were to daughters of recent Jewish immigrants from Europe . British screenwriter Frederic Raphael , who worked closely with Kubrick in his final years , believes that the originality of Kubrick 's films was partly because he " had a ( Jewish ? ) respect for scholars " . He declared that it was " absurd to try to understand Stanley Kubrick without reckoning on Jewishness as a fundamental aspect of his mentality " .
Walker notes that Kubrick was influenced by the tracking and " fluid camera " styles of director Max Ophüls , and used them in many of his films , including Paths of Glory and 2001 : A Space Odyssey . Kubrick noted how in Ophuls ' films " the camera went through every wall and every floor " . He once named Ophüls ' Le Plaisir ( 1952 ) as his favorite film . According to film historian John Wakeman , Ophüls himself learned the technique from director Anatole Litvak in the 1930s , when he was his assistant , and whose work was " replete with the camera trackings , pans and swoops which later became the trademark of Max Ophüls " . Geoffrey Cocks believes that Kubrick was also influenced by Ophüls ' stories of thwarted love and a preoccupation with predatory men , while Herr notes that Kubrick was deeply inspired by G. W. Pabst , who earlier tried , but was unable to adapt Schnitzler 's Traumnovelle , the basis of Eyes Wide Shut . Film critic Robert Kolker sees the influence of Welles ' moving camera shots on Kubrick 's style . LoBrutto notes that Kubrick identified with Welles and influenced the making of The Killing , with its " multiple points of view , extreme angles , and deep focus " . Kubrick also cited David Lynch 's Eraserhead ( 1977 ) as one of his favorite films and used it as a creative reference during the directing of The Shining .
= = Directing techniques = =
= = = Philosophy = = =
Kubrick 's films typically involve expressions of an inner struggle , examined from different perspectives . He was very careful not to present his own views of the meaning of his films and leave them open to interpretation . He explained in a 1960 interview with Robert Emmett Ginna : " One of the things I always find extremely difficult , when a picture 's finished , is when a writer or a film reviewer asks , ' Now , what is it that you were trying to say in that picture ? ' And without being thought too presumptuous for using this analogy , I like to remember what T. S. Eliot said to someone who had asked him — I believe it was The Waste Land — what he meant by the poem . He replied , ' I meant what I said ' . If I could have said it any differently , I would have " . Kubrick likened the understanding of his films to popular music , in that whatever the background or intellect of the individual , a Beatles record , for instance , can both be appreciated by the Alabama truck driver and the young Cambridge intellectual in the way that his films can because their " emotions and subconscious are far more similar than their intellects " . He believed that the subconscious emotional reaction evoked by audiences was far more powerful in the film medium than in any other traditional verbal form , and was one of the reasons why he often relied on long periods in his films without dialogue , placing emphasis on images and sound . In a Time magazine interview in 1975 , Kubrick further stated : " The essence of a dramatic form is to let an idea come over people without it being plainly stated . When you say something directly , it is simply not as potent as it is when you allow people to discover it for themselves . " He also said " Realism is probably the best way to dramatize argument and ideas . Fantasy may deal best with themes which lie primarily in the unconscious " .
Diane Johnson , who co @-@ wrote the screenplay for The Shining with Kubrick , notes that he " always said that it was better to adapt a book rather than write an original screenplay , and that you should choose a work that isn 't a masterpiece so you can improve on it . Which is what he 's always done , except with Lolita " . When deciding on a subject for a film , there were a number of aspects that he looked for , and he always made films which would " appeal to every sort of viewer , whatever their expectation of film " . According to his co @-@ producer Jan Harlan , Kubrick mostly " wanted to make films about things that mattered , that not only had form , but substance " . Kubrick himself believed that audiences quite often were attracted to " enigmas and allegories " and did not like films in which everything was spelled out clearly .
Although none of his features display graphic sex scenes , sexuality in Kubrick 's films is usually depicted outside matrimonial relationships in hostile situations . Baxter states that Kubrick explores the " furtive and violent side alleys of the sexual experience : voyeurism , domination , bondage and rape " in his films . He further points out that films like A Clockwork Orange are " powerfully homoerotic " , from Alex walking about his parents ' flat in his Y @-@ fronts , one eye being " made up with doll @-@ like false eyelashes " , to his innocent acceptance of the sexual advances of his post @-@ corrective adviser Deltroid ( Aubrey Morris ) . British critic Adrian Turner notes that Kubrick 's films appear to be " preoccupied with questions of universal and inherited evil " , and Malcolm McDowell referred to his humor as " black as coal " , questioning his outlook on humanity . Although a few of his pictures were obvious satires and black comedies , such as Lolita and Dr. Strangelove , many of his other films also contained less visible elements of satire or irony . His films are unpredictable , examining " the duality and contradictions that exist in all of us " . Ciment notes how Kubrick often tried to confound audience expectations by establishing radically different moods from one film to the next , remarking that he was almost " obsessed with contradicting himself , with making each work a critique of the previous one " . Kubrick stated himself that " there is no deliberate pattern to the stories that I have chosen to make into films . About the only factor at work each time is that I try not to repeat myself " . As a result , Kubrick was often misunderstood by critics , and only once did he have unanimously positive reviews upon the release of a film — for Paths of Glory .
= = = Writing and staging scenes = = =
Film author Patrick Webster considers Kubrick 's methods of writing and developing scenes to fit with the classical auteur theory of directing , allowing collaboration and improvization with the actors during filming . Malcolm McDowell recalled Kubrick 's collaborative emphasis during their discussions and his willingness to allow him to improvize a scene , stating that " there was a script and we followed it , but when it didn 't work he knew it , and we had to keep rehearsing endlessly until we were bored with it . " Once Kubrick was confident in the overall staging of a scene , and felt the actors were prepared , he would then develop the visual aspects , including camera and lighting placement . Walker believes that Kubrick was one of " very few film directors competent to instruct their lighting photographers in the precise effect they want . " Baxter believes that although American , Kubrick was heavily influenced by his ancestry and always possessed a European perspective to filmmaking , particularly the Austro @-@ Hungarian empire and his admiration for Johann Ophuls and Richard Strauss .
Gilbert Adair , writing in a review for Full Metal Jacket , commented that " Kubrick 's approach to language has always been of a reductive and uncompromisingly deterministic nature . He appears to view it as the exclusive product of environmental conditioning , only very marginally influenced by concepts of subjectivity and interiority , by all whims , shades and modulations of personal expression " . Johnson notes that although Kubrick was a " visual filmmaker , " he also loved words and was like a writer in his approach , very sensitive to the story itself , which he found unique . Before shooting began , Kubrick tried to have the script as complete as possible , but still allowed himself enough space to make changes during the actual filming , finding it " more profitable to avoid locking up any ideas about staging or camera or even dialogue prior to rehearsals " as he put it . Kubrick told Robert Emmett Ginna : " I think you have to view the entire problem of putting the story you want to tell up there on that light square . It begins with the selection of the property ; it continues through the creation of the story , the sets , the costumes , the photography and the acting . And when the picture is shot , it 's only partially finished . I think the cutting is just a continuation of directing a movie . I think the use of music effects , opticals and finally main titles are all part of telling the story . And I think the fragmentation of these jobs , by different people , is a very bad thing " . Kubrick also said : " I think that the best plot is no apparent plot . I like a slow start , the start that gets under the audience 's skin and involves them so that they can appreciate grace notes and soft tones and don 't have to be pounded over the head with plot points and suspense tools . "
= = = Directing = = =
Kubrick was notorious for demanding multiple takes during filming to perfect his art , and his relentless approach was often extremely demanding for his actors . Jack Nicholson remarked that Kubrick would often demand up to 50 takes of a scene . Nicole Kidman explains that the large number of takes he often required stopped actors from consciously thinking about technique , thereby helping them enter a " deeper place . " Kubrick 's high take ratio was considered by some critics as " irrational , " although he firmly believed that actors were at their best during the actual filming , as opposed to rehearsals , due to the sense of intense excitement that it generates . Kubrick explained : " Actors are essentially emotion @-@ producing instruments , and some are always tuned and ready while others will reach a fantastic pitch on one take and never equal it again , no matter how hard they try " ... " When you make a movie , it takes a few days just to get used to the crew , because it is like getting undressed in front of fifty people . Once you 're accustomed to them , the presence of even one other person on set is discordant and tends to produce self @-@ consciousness in the actors , and certainly in itself " . He also told biographer Michel Clement : " It 's invariably because the actors don 't know their lines , or don 't know them well enough . An actor can only do one thing at a time , and when he learned his lines only well enough to say them while he 's thinking about them , he will always have trouble as soon as he has to work on the emotions of the scene or find camera marks . In a strong emotional scene , it is always best to be able to shoot in complete takes to allow the actor a continuity of emotion , and it is rare for most actors to reach their peak more than once or twice . There are , occasionally , scenes which benefit from extra takes , but even then , I 'm not sure that the early takes aren 't just glorified rehearsals with the adding adrenaline of film running through the camera . "
Kubrick would devote his personal breaks to having lengthy discussions with actors . Among those who valued his attention was Tony Curtis , star of Spartacus , who said Kubrick was his favorite director , adding , " his greatest effectiveness was his one @-@ on @-@ one relationship with actors . " He further added , " Kubrick had his own approach to film @-@ making . He wanted to see the actor 's faces . He didn 't want cameras always in a wide shot twenty @-@ five feet away , he wanted close @-@ ups , he wanted to keep the camera moving . That was his style . " Similarly , Malcolm McDowell recalls the long discussions he had with Kubrick to help him develop his character in A Clockwork Orange , noting that on set he felt entirely uninhibited and free , which is what made Kubrick " such a great director . " Kubrick also allowed actors at times to improvize and to " break the rules " , particularly with Peter Sellers in Lolita , which became a turning point in his career as it allowed him to work creatively during the actual shooting , as opposed to the preproduction stage . During an interview , Ryan O 'Neal recalled Kubrick 's directing style : " God , he works you hard . He moves you , pushes you , helps you , gets cross with you , but above all he teaches you the value of a good director . Stanley brought out aspects of my personality and acting instincts that had been dormant ... My strong suspicion [ was ] that I was involved in something great " . He further added that working with Kubrick was " a stunning experience " and that he never recovered from working with somebody of such magnificence .
= = = Cinematography = = =
Kubrick credited the ease with which he photographed scenes to his early years as a photographer . He rarely added camera instructions in the script , preferring to handle that after a scene is created , as the visual part of film @-@ making came easiest to him . Even in deciding which props and settings would be used , Kubrick paid meticulous attention to detail and tried to collect as much background material as possible , functioning rather like what he described as " a detective " . Cinematographer John Alcott , who worked closely with Kubrick on four of his films , and won an Oscar for Best Cinematography on Barry Lyndon , remarked that Kubrick " questions everything " , and was involved in the technical aspects of film @-@ making including camera placement , scene composition , choice of lens , and even operating the camera which would usually be left to the cinematographer . Alcott considered Kubrick to be the " nearest thing to genius I 've ever worked with , with all the problems of a genius " .
Among Kubrick 's notable innovations in cinematography are his use of special effects , as in 2001 , where he used both slit @-@ scan photography and front @-@ screen projection , which won Kubrick his only Oscar for special effects . Some reviewers have described and illustrated with video clips , Kubrick 's use of " one @-@ point perspective " , which leads the viewer 's eye towards a central vanishing point . The technique relies on creating a complex visual symmetry using parallel lines in a scene which all converge on that single point , leading away from the viewer . Combined with camera motion it could produce an effect that one writer describes as " hypnotic and thrilling . " The Shining was among the first half @-@ dozen features to use the then @-@ revolutionary Steadicam ( after the 1976 films Bound for Glory , Marathon Man and Rocky ) . Kubrick used it to its fullest potential , which gave the audience smooth , stabilized , motion @-@ tracking by the camera . Kubrick described Steadicam as being like a " magic carpet " , allowing " fast , flowing , camera movements " in the maze in The Shining which would otherwise would have been impossible to accomplish .
Kubrick was among the first directors to use video assist during filming . At the time he began using it in 1966 , it was considered cutting @-@ edge technology , requiring him to build his own system . Having it in place during the filming of 2001 , he was able to view a video of a take immediately after it was filmed . On some films , such as Barry Lyndon , he used custom made zoom lenses , which allowed him to start a scene with a close @-@ up and slowly zoom out to capture the full panorama of scenery and to film long takes under changing outdoor lighting conditions by making aperture adjustments while the cameras rolled . LoBrutto notes that Kubrick 's technical knowledge about lenses " dazzled the manufacturer 's engineers , who found him to be unprecedented among contemporary filmmakers . " For Barry Lyndon he also used a specially adapted high @-@ speed ( f / 0 @.@ 7 ) Zeiss camera lens , originally developed for NASA , to shoot numerous scenes lit only with candlelight . Actor Steven Berkoff recalls that Kubrick wanted scenes to be shot using " pure candlelight , " and in doing so Kubrick " made a unique contribution to the art of filmmaking going back to painting ... You almost posed like for portraits . " LoBrutto notes that cinematographers all over the world wanted to know about Kubrick 's " magic lens " and that he became a " legend " among cameramen around the world .
= = = Editing and music = = =
Kubrick spent extensive hours editing , often working seven days a week , and more hours a day as he got closer to deadlines . For Kubrick , written dialogue was one element to be put in balance with mise en scène ( set arrangements ) , music , and especially , editing . Inspired by Pudovkin 's treatise on film editing , Kubrick realized that one could create a performance in the editing room and often " re @-@ direct " a film , and he remarked : " I love editing . I think I like it more than any other phase of filmmaking ... Editing is the only unique aspect of filmmaking which does not resemble any other art form — a point so important it cannot be overstressed ... It can make or break a film " . Biographer John Baxter stated that " Instead of finding the intellectual spine of a film in the script before starting work , Kubrick felt his way towards the final version of a film by shooting each scene from many angles and demanding scores of takes on each line . Then over months ... he arranged and rearranged the tens of thousands of scraps of film to fit a vision that really only began to emerge during editing " .
Kubrick 's attention to music was an aspect of what many referred to as his " perfectionism " and extreme attention to minute details , which his wife Christine attributed to an addiction to music . In his last six films , Kubrick usually chose music from existing sources , especially classical compositions . He preferred selecting recorded music over having it composed for a film , believing that no hired composer could do as well as the public domain classical composers . He also felt that building scenes from great music often created the " most memorable scenes " in the best films . In one instance , for a scene in Barry Lyndon which was written into the screenplay as merely , " Barry duels with Lord Bullingdon , " he spent forty @-@ two working days in the editing phase . During that period , he listened to what LoBrutto describes as " every available recording of seventeenth @-@ and eighteenth- century music , acquiring thousands of records to find Handel 's sarabande used to score the scene . " Jack Nicholson likewise observed his attention to music for his films , stating that Kubrick " listened constantly to music until he discovered something he felt was right or that excited him . "
Kubrick is credited with introducing Hungarian composer György Ligeti to a broad Western audience by including his music in 2001 , The Shining and Eyes Wide Shut . According to Baxter , the music in 2001 was " at the forefront of Kubrick 's mind " when he conceived the film . During earlier screening he played music by Mendelssohn and Vaughan Williams , and Kubrick and writer Clarke had listened to Carl Orff 's transcription of Carmina Burana , consisting of 13th century sacred and secular songs . Ligeti 's music employed the new style of micropolyphony , which used sustained dissonant chords that shift slowly over time , a style he originated . Its inclusion in the film became a " boon for the relatively unknown composer " partly because it was introduced alongside background by notable composers , Johann Strauss and Richard Strauss .
In addition to Ligeti , Kubrick also enjoyed a collaboration with composer Wendy Carlos , whose 1968 album Switched @-@ On — which re @-@ interpreted classical music through the use of a Moog synthesizer — caught the filmmaker 's attention . In 1971 , Carlos composed and recorded music for the soundtrack of A Clockwork Orange . Additional music not used in the film was released in 1972 as Wendy Carlos 's Clockwork Orange . Kubrick later collaborated with Carlos on The Shining ( 1980 ) . The opening of the film — in which the camera follows Jack Torrance 's yellow VW beetle through the mountains to the Overlook Hotel — employs Carlos ' eerie rendering of " Dies Irae " ( Day of Wrath ) from Hector Berlioz 's Symphonie Fantastique .
= = Personal life = =
Kubrick married his high @-@ school sweetheart Toba Metz , a keen caricaturist , on May 29 , 1948 , when he was nineteen years of age . They had attended Taft High School together and had lived in the same apartment block on Shakespeare Avenue . The couple lived together in Greenwich Village and divorced three years later in 1951 . He met his second wife , the Austrian @-@ born dancer and theatrical designer Ruth Sobotka , in 1952 . They lived together in New York 's East Village beginning in 1952 , got married in January 1955 and moved to Hollywood in July 1955 , where she played a brief part as a ballet dancer in Kubrick 's film , Killer 's Kiss ( 1955 ) . The following year she was art director for his film , The Killing ( 1956 ) . They divorced in 1957 . Kubrick lived with dancer and actress Valda Setterfield after the marriage broke down .
During the production of Paths of Glory in Munich in early 1957 , Kubrick met and romanced the German actress Christiane Harlan , who played a small though memorable role in the film . Kubrick married Harlan in 1958 , and the couple remained together 40 years , until his death in 1999 . Besides his stepdaughter , they had two daughters together : Anya Renata ( April 6 , 1959 – July 7 , 2009 ) and Vivian Vanessa ( born August 5 , 1960 ) . In 1959 they settled into a home at 316 South Camden Drive in Beverly Hills with Harlan 's daughter , Katherina , aged six . They also lived in New York , during which time Christiane studied art at the Art Students League of New York , later becoming an independent artist . The couple moved to the United Kingdom in 1961 to make Lolita , and Kubrick hired Peter Sellers to star in his next film , Dr. Strangelove , Sellers was unable to leave the UK , so Kubrick made Britain his permanent home thereafter . The move was quite convenient to Kubrick , since he shunned the Hollywood system and its publicity machine , and he and Christiane had become alarmed with the increase in violence in New York .
In 1965 the Kubricks bought Abbots Mead on Barnet Lane , just south of the Elstree / Borehamwood studio complex in England . Kubrick worked almost exclusively from this home for 14 years where , with some exceptions , he researched , invented special effects techniques , designed ultra @-@ low light lenses for specially modified cameras , pre @-@ produced , edited , post @-@ produced , advertised , distributed and carefully managed all aspects of four of his films . In 1978 , Kubrick moved into Childwickbury Manor in Hertfordshire , a mainly 18th century stately home , which was once owned by a wealthy racehorse owner , about 30 mi ( 50 km ) north of London and a 10 @-@ minute drive from his previous home at Abbotts Mead . His new home became a workplace for Kubrick and his wife , " a perfect family factory " as Christiane called it , and Kubrick converted the stables into extra production rooms besides ones within the home that he used for editing and storage .
A workaholic , Kubrick rarely took a vacation or left England during the forty years before he died . Biographer Vincent LoBrutto notes that Kubrick 's confined way of living and desire for privacy has led to spurious stories about his reclusiveness , similar to those of Greta Garbo , Howard Hughes , and J. D. Salinger . Michael Herr , Kubrick 's co @-@ screenwriter on Full Metal Jacket , who knew him well , considers his " reclusiveness " to be myth : " [ H ] e was in fact a complete failure as a recluse , unless you believe that a recluse is simply someone who seldom leaves his house . Stanley saw a lot of people ... he was one of the most gregarious men I ever knew , and it didn 't change anything that most of this conviviality went on over the phone . " Lo Brutto states that one of the reasons he acquired a reputation as a recluse was because he insisted in remaining near his home , but the reason for this was because for Kubrick there were only three places on the planet he could make high quality films with the necessary technical expertise and equipment : Los Angeles , New York or around London . He disliked living in Los Angeles , and had thought London a superior film production center to New York .
As a person , Kubrick was described by Norman Lloyd as " a very dark , sort of a glowering type who was very serious " . Marisa Berenson , who starred in Barry Lyndon fondly recalled : " There was great tenderness in him and he was passionate about his work . What was striking was his enormous intelligence , but he also had a great sense of humor . He was a very shy person and self @-@ protective , but he was filled with the thing that drove him twenty @-@ four hours of the day . " Kubrick was particularly fond of machines and technical equipment , to the point that his wife Christiane once stated that " Stanley would be happy with eight tape recorders and one pair of pants " . Although Kubrick had obtained a pilot 's license in August 1947 , some have claimed that he later developed a fear of flying , stemming from an incident in the early 1950s when a colleague had been killed in a plane crash . Kubrick had been sent the charred remains of his camera and notebooks which , according to Duncan , traumatized him for life . Kubrick also had a strong mistrust of doctors and medicine , especially those he did not know , and on one occasion he had a dentist from the Bronx flown to London to treat him .
= = = Death = = =
On March 7 , 1999 , four days after screening a final cut of Eyes Wide Shut for his family and the stars , Kubrick died in his sleep at the age of 70 , after suffering a massive heart attack . His funeral was held five days later at his home estate at Childwickbury Manor , with only close friends and family in attendance , totaling approximately 100 people . The media were kept a mile away outside the entrance gate . Alexander Walker , who attended the funeral , describes it as a " family farewell , ... almost like an English picnic , " with cellists , clarinetists and singers providing song and music from many of his favorite classical compositions . Kaddish , the Jewish prayer of mourning , was recited . A few of his obituaries mentioned his Jewish background . Among those who gave eulogies were Terry Semel , Jan Harlan , Steven Spielberg , Nicole Kidman and Tom Cruise . He was buried next to his favorite tree on the estate . In her book dedicated to Kubrick , his wife Christiane included one of his favorite quotations of Oscar Wilde : " The tragedy of old age is not that one is old , but that one is young . "
= = Legacy = =
Part of the New Hollywood film @-@ making wave , Kubrick 's films are considered by film historian Michel Ciment to be " among the most important contributions to world cinema in the twentieth century " , and he is frequently cited as one of the greatest and most influential directors in the history of cinema . Leading directors , including Martin Scorsese , Steven Spielberg , George Lucas , James Cameron , Woody Allen , Terry Gilliam , the Coen brothers , Ridley Scott , and George A. Romero , have cited Kubrick as a source of inspiration , and in the case of Spielberg , collaboration . On the DVD of Eyes Wide Shut , Steven Spielberg comments that the way Kubrick " tells a story is antithetical to the way we are accustomed to receiving stories " and that " nobody could shoot a picture better in history " . Writing in the introduction to a recent edition of Michel Ciment 's Kubrick , film director Martin Scorsese notes that most of Kubrick 's films were misunderstood and under @-@ appreciated when first released . Then came a dawning recognition that they were masterful works unlike any other films . Perhaps most notably , Orson Welles , one of Kubrick 's greatest personal influences and all @-@ time favorite directors , famously said that : " Among those whom I would call ' younger generation ' , Kubrick appears to me to be a giant . "
Kubrick continues to be cited as a major influence by many directors , including Christopher Nolan , Jack Thomas Smith , Todd Field , David Fincher , Guillermo del Toro , David Lynch , Lars von Trier , Tim Burton , Michael Mann , and Gaspar Noé . Many filmmakers imitate Kubrick 's inventive and unique use of camera movement and framing , as well as his use of music , notably Frank Darabont . Paul Thomas Anderson , in an interview with Entertainment Weekly , stated , " it 's so hard to do anything that doesn 't owe some kind of debt to what Stanley Kubrick did with music in movies . Inevitably , you 're going to end up doing something that he 's probably already done before . It can all seem like we 're falling behind whatever he came up with . "
In 2000 , BAFTA renamed their Britannia lifetime achievement award the " Stanley Kubrick Britannia Award " , joining the likes of D. W. Griffith , Laurence Olivier , Cecil B. DeMille , and Irving Thalberg , all of whom have annual awards named after them . Kubrick won this award in 1999 , and subsequent recipients have included George Lucas , Warren Beatty , Tom Cruise , Robert De Niro , Clint Eastwood , and Daniel Day @-@ Lewis . A number of people who worked with Kubrick on his films created the 2001 documentary Stanley Kubrick : A Life in Pictures , produced and directed by Kubrick 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Jan Harlan , who had executive produced Kubrick 's last four films . The film 's chapters each cover one of Kubrick 's films and Kubrick 's childhood is explored in the introductory section .
In 2009 , an exhibition of paintings and photos inspired by Kubrick 's films was held in Dublin , Ireland , entitled " Stanley Kubrick : Taming Light " . On October 30 , 2012 , an exhibition devoted to Kubrick opened at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art ( LACMA ) and concluded in June 2013 . Exhibits include a wide collection of documents , photographs and on @-@ set material assembled from 800 boxes of personal archives that were stored in Kubrick 's home @-@ workplace in the UK . A number of celebrities attended and spoke at the museum 's pre @-@ opening gala , including Steven Spielberg , Tom Hanks and Jack Nicholson , while Kubrick 's widow , Christiane , appeared at the pre @-@ gala press review . In October 2013 , the Brazil São Paulo International Film Festival paid tribute to Kubrick , staging an exhibit of his work and a retrospective of his films . The exhibit is also scheduled to open at the Toronto International Film Festival ( TIFF ) in late 2014 .
Kubrick is widely referenced in popular culture , and the TV series The Simpsons is said to contain more references to Kubrick films than any other pop culture phenomenon . When the Director 's Guild of Great Britain gave Kubrick a lifetime achievement award , they included a cut @-@ together sequence of all the homages from the show . Pop singer Lady Gaga 's concert shows have included the use of dialogue , costumes , and music from A Clockwork Orange . Several films have been made related to Kubrick 's life , including the mockumentary film Dark Side of the Moon ( 2002 ) , which is a parody of the pervasive conspiracy theory that Kubrick had been involved with the faked footage of the NASA moon landings during the filming of 2001 : A Space Odyssey , and Colour Me Kubrick ( 2005 ) , starring John Malkovich as Alan Conway , a con artist who had assumed Kubrick 's identity in the 1990s . Both films were authorized by Kubrick 's family . In the 2004 film The Life and Death of Peter Sellers , Kubrick was portrayed by Stanley Tucci , and documents their filming of Dr. Strangelove , rather than Lolita .
= = Filmography and awards = =
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= Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos =
The Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos are located in Santa Cruz department in eastern Bolivia . Six of these former missions ( all now secular municipalities ) collectively were designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1990 . Distinguished by a unique fusion of European and Amerindian cultural influences , the missions were founded as reductions or reducciones de indios by Jesuits in the 17th and 18th centuries to convert local tribes to Christianity .
The interior region bordering Spanish and Portuguese territories in South America was largely unexplored at the end of the 17th century . Dispatched by the Spanish Crown , Jesuits explored and founded eleven settlements in 76 years in the remote Chiquitania – then known as Chiquitos – on the frontier of Spanish America . They built churches ( templos ) in a unique and distinct style that combined elements of native and European architecture . The indigenous inhabitants of the missions were taught European music as a means of conversion . The missions were self @-@ sufficient , with thriving economies , and virtually autonomous from the Spanish crown .
After the expulsion of the Jesuit order from Spanish territories in 1767 , most Jesuit reductions in South America were abandoned and fell into ruins . The former Jesuit missions of Chiquitos are unique because these settlements and their associated culture have survived largely intact .
A large restoration project of the missionary churches began with the arrival of the former Swiss Jesuit and architect Hans Roth in 1972 . Since 1990 , these former Jesuit missions have experienced some measure of popularity , and have become a tourist destination . A popular biennial international musical festival put on by the nonprofit organization Asociación Pro Arte y Cultura along with other cultural activities within the mission towns , contribute to the popularity of these settlements .
= = Location = =
The six World Heritage Site settlements are located in the hot and semiarid lowlands of Santa Cruz Department of eastern Bolivia . They lie in an area near the Gran Chaco , east and northeast of Santa Cruz de la Sierra , between the Paraguay and Guapay rivers .
The westernmost missions are San Xavier ( also known as San Javier ) and Concepción , located in the province of Ñuflo de Chávez between the San Julián and Urugayito rivers . Santa Ana de Velasco , San Miguel de Velasco , and San Rafael de Velasco are located to the east , in José Miguel de Velasco province , near the Brazilian border . San José de Chiquitos is located in Chiquitos province , about 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) south of San Rafael .
Three other former Jesuit missions – San Juan Bautista ( now in ruins ) , Santo Corazón and Santiago de Chiquitos – which have not been named UNESCO heritage sites – lie east of San José de Chiquitos not far from the town of Roboré . The capital of José Miguel de Velasco Province , San Ignacio de Velasco was founded as a Jesuit mission but also is not a World Heritage Site as the current church is a reconstruction , not a restoration .
= = Name “ Chiquitos ” = =
Ñuflo de Cháves , a 16th @-@ century Spanish conquistador and founder of Santa Cruz " la Vieja " , introduced the name Chiquitos , or little ones . It referred to the small doors of the straw houses in which the indigenous population lived . Chiquitos has since been used incorrectly both to denote people of the largest ethnic group in the area ( correctly known as Chiquitano ) , and collectively to denote the more than 40 ethnic groups with different languages and cultures living in the region known as the [ Gran ] Chiquitania . Properly , “ Chiquitos ” refers only to either a modern @-@ day department of Bolivia , or the former region of Upper Peru ( now Bolivia ) that once encompassed all of the Chiquitania and parts of Mojos ( or Moxos ) and the Gran Chaco .
The current provincial division of Santa Cruz department does not follow the Jesuits ’ concept of a missionary area . The Chiquitania lies within five modern provinces : Ángel Sandoval , Germán Busch , José Miguel de Velasco , Ñuflo de Chávez and Chiquitos province .
= = History = =
In the 16th century , priests of different religious orders set out to evangelize the Americas , bringing Christianity to indigenous communities . Two of these missionary orders were the Franciscans and the Jesuits , both of which eventually arrived in the frontier town of Santa Cruz de la Sierra and then in the Chiquitania . The missionaries employed the strategy of gathering the often nomadic indigenous populations in larger communities called reductions in order to more effectively Christianize them . This policy sprang from the colonial legal view of the “ Indian ” as a minor , who had to be protected and guided by European missionaries so as not to succumb to sin . Reductions generally were construed as instruments to enable the natives adopt European lifestyles and values ; this was not the case in the Jesuit reductions , however , where the Jesuits allowed the inhabitants to retain many pre @-@ colonial cultural practices .
= = = Arrival in the Viceroyalty of Peru = = =
With the permission of King Philip II of Spain a group of Jesuits travelled to the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1568 , some 30 years after the arrival of the Franciscans , Dominicans , Augustinians and Mercedarians . The Jesuits established themselves in Lima in 1569 before moving east toward Paraguay ; in 1572 they reached the Audience of Charcas in modern @-@ day Bolivia . Because they were not allowed to establish settlements on the frontier they built chapter houses , churches and schools in pre @-@ existing settlements , such as La Paz , Potosí and La Plata ( present day Sucre ) .
In 1587 the first Jesuits , Fr . Diego Samaniego and Fr . Diego Martínez , arrived in Santa Cruz de la Sierra , located just south of where the future mission of San José de Chiquitos would be established . In 1592 the settlement had to be moved 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) west because of conflicts with natives , although the remains of the original town exist in the Santa Cruz la Vieja archaeological site . The Jesuits did not start missions in the valleys northeast of the cordillera until the 17th century . The two central areas for their activities were Moxos , situated in the department of Beni , and the Chiquitania ( then simply Chiquitos ) in the department of Santa Cruz de la Sierra . In 1682 , Fr . Cipriano Barace founded the first of the Jesuit reductions in Moxos , located at Loreto .
= = = The Jesuits in the Chiquitania = = =
While the mission towns in Paraguay flourished , the evangelization of the Guaraní proved difficult . With encouragement from Agustín Gutiérrez de Arce , the governor of Santa Cruz , the Jesuits focused their efforts on the Chiquitania , where the Christian doctrine was more readily accepted . Between 1691 and 1760 eleven missions were founded in the area ; however , fires , floods , plagues , famines and attacks by hostile tribes or slave traders caused many missions to be re @-@ established or rebuilt . The Chiquitos missions were spared large @-@ scale epidemics , unlike those in Paraguay , mainly because of their remote locations and the lack of transportation infrastructure .
The first Jesuit reduction in the Chiquitania was the mission of San Francisco Xavier , founded in 1691 by the Jesuit priest Fr . José de Arce . In September 1691 , de Arce and Br . Antonio de Rivas intended to meet seven other Jesuits at the Paraguay River to establish a connection between Paraguay and Chiquitos . However , the beginning of the rainy season brought bad weather , and Arce and his companion only got as far as the first native village . The local Piñoca tribe , who were suffering from a plague , begged Arce and Rivas to stay and promised to build a house and a church for the Jesuits , which were finished by the end of year . The mission was later moved a number of times until 1708 when it was established in its present location .
Ten more missions were founded in the Chiquitania by the Jesuits in three periods : the 1690s , the 1720s , and after 1748 . In the 1690s , five missions were established : San Rafael de Velasco ( 1696 ) , San José de Chiquitos ( 1698 ) , Concepción ( 1699 ) and San Juan Bautista ( 1699 ) . San Juan Bautista is not part of the World Heritage Site , and only the ruins of a stone tower survive near the present village of ( San Juan de ) Taperas .
The War of the Spanish Succession ( 1701 – 1714 ) caused a shortage of missionaries and instability in the reductions , so no new missions were built during this period . By 1718 San Rafael was the largest of the Chiquitos missions , and with 2 @,@ 615 inhabitants could not sustain a growing population . In 1721 the Jesuits Fr . Felipe Suárez and Fr . Francisco Hervás established a split @-@ off of the San Rafael mission , the mission of San Miguel de Velasco . To the south , San Ignacio de Zamucos was founded in 1724 but abandoned in 1745 ; today nothing remains of the mission .
A third period of mission foundations began in 1748 with the establishment of San Ignacio de Velasco , which was not declared a part of the World Heritage Site . The church is nonetheless a largely faithful 20th @-@ century reconstruction – as opposed to renovation ( a key criterion for inclusion in the World Heritage Site group ) – of the second Jesuit templo built in 1761 . In 1754 the Jesuits founded the mission of Santiago de Chiquitos . This church also is a reconstruction , dating from the early 20th century and likewise is not part of the World Heritage Site group . In 1755 the mission of Santa Ana de Velasco was founded by the Jesuit Julian Knogler ; it is the most authentic of the six World Heritage Site missions dating from the colonial period . The last mission in the Chiquitania to be established was founded by the Jesuits Fr . Antonio Gaspar and Fr . José Chueca as Santo Corazón in 1760 . However , nothing of the original settlement remains in the modern village .
The Jesuits in the Chiquitania had a secondary objective , which was to secure a more direct route to Asunción than the road then being used via Tucumán and Tarija to link the Chiquitania with the Jesuit missions in Paraguay . The missionaries in Chiquitos founded their settlements increasingly further east , towards the Paraguay River , while those south of Asunción moved closer to the Paraguay River by establishing their missions increasingly farther north , thereby avoiding the impassable Chaco region . Although Ñuflo de Chávez had attempted a route through the Chaco on an expedition as early as 1564 , subsequent Jesuit explorations from Chiquitos ( e.g. in 1690 , 1702 , 1703 , and 1705 ) were unsuccessful . The Jesuits were stopped by the hostile Payaguá and Guaycuru tribes , and by the impenetrable swamps of Jarayes . In 1715 , de Arce , the co @-@ founder of the first mission in San Xavier , set out from Asunción on the Paraguay River with the Flemish priest Fr . Bartolomé Blende . Payaguá warriors killed Blende during the journey , but de Arce struggled on to reach San Rafael de Velasco in the Chiquitania . On the return trip to Asunción he too was killed in Paraguay . Not until 1767 , when the missions had encroached sufficiently on the hostile region and just before the Jesuits were expelled from the New World , did Fr . José Sánchez Labrador manage to travel from Belén in Paraguay to Santo Corazón , the easternmost Chiquitos mission .
= = = Expulsion and recent development = = =
In 1750 as a result of the Treaty of Madrid seven missions in present @-@ day Rio Grande do Sul state in Brazil were transferred from Spanish to Portuguese control . The native Guaraní tribes were unhappy to see their lands turned over to Portugal ( their enemy for over a century ) and they rebelled against the decision , leading to the Guarani War . In Europe , where the Jesuits were under attack , they were accused of supporting the rebellion and perceived as defending the native peoples . In 1758 , the Jesuits were accused of a conspiracy to kill the king of Portugal , known as the Távora affair . All members of the Society of Jesus were evicted from Portuguese territories in 1759 , and from French territories in 1764 . In 1766 Jesuits were accused of causing Esquilache Riots in Madrid ; consequently in February 1767 , Charles III of Spain signed a royal decree with expulsion orders for all members of the Society of Jesus in Spanish territories .
From then on , spiritual and secular administration were to be strictly separated . At the time of the expulsion , 25 Jesuits served a Christianized population of at least 24 @,@ 000 , in the ten missions of the Chiquitania . The Chiquitos mission properties included 25 estancias ( ranches ) with 31 @,@ 700 cattle and 850 horses . Libraries across the settlements held 2 @,@ 094 volumes .
By September 1767 , all but four Jesuits had left the Chiquitania , and they went the following April . The Spanish considered it essential to maintain the settlements as a buffer against Portuguese expansion . The archbishop of Santa Cruz de la Sierra , Francisco Ramón Herboso , established a new system of government , very similar to that set up by the Jesuits . He stipulated that each mission be run by two secular ( parish ) priests , one to take care of the spiritual needs while the other was in charge of all other – political and economic – affairs of the mission administration . One change was that the Indians were allowed to trade . In practice , the shortage of clergy and the low quality of those appointed by the bishop – almost all of whom did not speak the language of the local peoples and in some cases had not been ordained – led to a rapid general decline of the missions . The priests also broke ethical and religious codes , appropriated the major part of the missions ' income and encouraged contraband trade with the Portuguese .
Within two years of the expulsion , the population in the Chiquitos missions dropped below 20 @,@ 000 . Despite the general decline of the settlements , however , the church buildings were maintained and , in some cases , extended by the towns ' inhabitants . The construction of the church in Santa Ana de Velasco falls into this period . Bernd Fischermann , an anthropologist who studied the Chiquitano , suggests three reasons that the Chiquitano preserved the heritage of the Jesuits even after their expulsion : the memory of their prosperity with the Jesuits ; the desire to appear as civilized Christians to mestizos and white people ; and to preserve the ethnicity that originated from a mix of various culturally distinct groups blended by an enforced common language and customs learned from the Jesuits .
In January 1790 , the Audiencia of Charcas ended the diocese ’ s mismanagement , and temporal affairs were delegated to civil administrators , with the hope of making the missions economically more successful . Sixty years after the expulsion of the Jesuits the churches remained active centers of worship , as the French naturalist Alcide d 'Orbigny reported during his mission to South America in 1830 and 1831 . Although much diminished economically and politically , the culture the Jesuits established was still evident . According to d 'Orbigny , the music at a Sunday mass in San Xavier was better than those he had heard in the richest cities of Bolivia . The population of the Chiquitania missions reached a low of around 15 @,@ 000 inhabitants in 1830 . In 1842 the Comte de Castelnau visited the area and , referring to the church in Santa Ana de Velasco , proclaimed : " This beautiful building , surrounded by gardens , presents one of the most impressive views imaginable . "
By 1851 , however , the reduction system of the missions had disappeared . Mestizos who had moved to the area in their quest for land began to outnumber the original indigenous population . Starting with the creation of the Province of José Miguel de Velasco in 1880 , the Chiquitania was split into five administrative divisions . With the rubber boom at the turn of the century , more settlers came to the areas and established large haciendas , moving the economic activities together with the native peoples out of the towns .
In 1931 , the spiritual administration of the missions was given to German @-@ speaking Franciscan missionaries . Ecclesiastical control moved back to the area with the creation of the Apostolic Vicariate of Chiquitos in San Ignacio in that year . As of 2016 , the churches not only serve the mestizo inhabitants of the villages but present spiritual centers for the few remaining indigenous peoples living in the periphery .
In 1972 , the Swiss architect and then @-@ Jesuit priest Hans Roth began an extensive restoration project of the missionary churches and many colonial buildings that were in ruins . These churches exist in their present form as a result of Roth 's effort , who worked on the restoration with a few colleagues and many local people until his death in 1999 . The restoration works have continued sporadically into the beginning of the 21st century under local leadership .
Six of the reductions were listed as part of the World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1990 . The churches of San Ignacio de Velasco , Santiago de Chiquitos and Santo Corazón have been reconstructed from scratch and are not part of the World Heritage Site . In San Juan Bautista only ruins remain . UNESCO listed the site under criteria IV and V , acknowledging the adaption of Christian religious architecture to the local environment and the unique architecture expressed in the wooden columns and banisters . Recently ICOMOS , the International Council on Monuments and Sites , warned that the traditional architectural ensemble that makes up the site has become vulnerable following agrarian reforms from 1953 which threatened the fragile socioeconomic infrastructure of the region . At the time of the nomination , the World Heritage Site was protected by the Pro Santa Cruz committee , Cordecruz , Plan Regulador de Santa Cruz , and the local mayoral offices of the mission towns .
= = World Heritage Missions = =
= = = San Xavier = = =
16 @.@ 2748 ° S 62 @.@ 5072 ° W / -16.2748 ; -62.5072
Initially established in 1691 , the mission of San Xavier was the first of the missions listed in the World Heritage Site . In 1696 , due to the incursion of Paulistas from Brazil in the east , the mission was relocated toward the San Miguel River . In 1698 , it was relocated closer to Santa Cruz , but in 1708 was moved away to protect the Indians from the Spaniards . The original inhabitants of San Xavier were the Piñoca tribe . The church was built between 1749 and 1752 by the Swiss Jesuit and architect Fr . Martin Schmid . The school and church , as well as other characteristics of residential architecture , are still visible today in the village . San Xavier was restored by Hans Roth between 1987 and 1993 .
= = = San Rafael de Velasco = = =
16 @.@ 7869 ° S 60 @.@ 6738 ° W / -16.7869 ; -60.6738
The mission of San Rafael de Velasco was the second mission built out of the six inscribed the World Heritage Site . Founded in 1695 by the Jesuits Fr . Juan Bautista Zea and Fr . Francisco Hervás , it was moved several times . The mission had to be moved in 1701 and 1705 because of epidemics in the region . In 1719 the mission was moved once more due to fire . Fr . Martin Schmid built the church between 1747 and 1749 , which has survived . San Rafael de Velasco was restored between 1972 and 1996 as part of Hans Roth 's restoration project .
= = = San José de Chiquitos = = =
17 @.@ 8456 ° S 60 @.@ 7405 ° W / -17.8456 ; -60.7405
Founded in 1698 by the Jesuits Fr . Felipe Suárez and Fr . Dionosio Ávila , the mission of San José de Chiquitos was the third mission built of those of the World Heritage Site . At first , the mission was inhabited by the Penoca tribe . The church was built between 1745 and 1760 by an unknown architect . It is built of stone , unlike other mission churches in the area which were built with local adobe and wood . The mission is one of four that remain in their original location . As of 2016 , a mortuary chapel ( 1740 ) , the church ( 1747 ) , a bell tower ( 1748 ) , a house for the priests ( colegio ) and workshops ( both 1754 ) still exist , and were renovated by Hans Roth 's restoration project between 1988 and 2003 . Restoration efforts continue .
= = = Concepción = = =
16 @.@ 1344 ° S 62 @.@ 024696 ° W / -16.1344 ; -62.024696
The fourth mission in the World Heritage Site , the mission of Concepción , was initially founded in 1699 by the Jesuit priests Fr . Francisco Lucas Caballero and Fr . Francisco Hervás . A nearby mission , San Ignacio de Boococas , was incorporated in 1708 . The mission was moved three times : in 1707 , 1708 and 1722 . The mission was inhabited by the Chiquitanos , the largest tribe in the region . The mission church was constructed between 1752 and 1756 , by Fr . Martin Schmid and Fr . Johann Messner . From 1975 to 1996 the mission was reconstructed as part of Hans Roth 's restoration project .
= = = San Miguel de Velasco = = =
16 @.@ 6986 ° S 60 @.@ 9681 ° W / -16.6986 ; -60.9681
The fifth mission in the World Heritage Site , that of San Miguel de Velasco , was established by the Jesuits Fr . Felipe Suarez and Fr . Francisco Hervás in 1721 . San Miguel was an offshoot of the mission of San Rafael de Velaso , where the population had grown too large . The mission church was built between 1752 and 1759 , probably by Fr . Johann Messner , a collaborator with or student of Fr . Martin Schmid . The church was restored by Hans Roth between 1979 and 1983 .
= = = Santa Ana de Velasco = = =
16 @.@ 5841 ° S 60 @.@ 6888 ° W / -16.5841 ; -60.6888
The mission of Santa Ana de Velasco was the final World Heritage Site @-@ inscribed mission to be established . It was founded by the Jesuit priest Fr . Julian Knogler in 1755 . The original native inhabitants of the missions were the Covareca and Curuminaca tribes . The mission church was designed after the expulsion of the Jesuits between 1770 and 1780 by an unknown architect and built entirely by the indigenous population . The complex , consisting of the church , bell tower , sacristy and a grassy plaza lined by houses , is considered to have the most fidelity to the original plan of the Jesuit reductions . Starting in 1989 and lasting until 2001 , the mission underwent partial restoration through the efforts of Hans Roth and his team .
= = Architecture = =
In their design of the reductions , the Jesuits were inspired by “ ideal cities “ as outlined in works such as Utopia and Arcadia , written respectively by the 16th @-@ century English philosophers Thomas More and Philip Sidney . The Jesuits had specific criteria for building sites : locations with plenty of wood for construction ; sufficient water for the population ; good soil for agriculture ; and safety from flooding during the rainy season . Although most of the missions in the Chiquitania were relocated at least once during the time of the Jesuits , four of ten towns remained at their original sites . Wood and adobe were the main materials used in the construction of the settlements .
= = = Mission layout = = =
The architecture and internal layout of these missions followed a scheme which was repeated later with some variations in the rest of the missionary reductions . In Chiquitos , the oldest mission , San Xavier , formed the basis for the organizational style , which consisted of a modular structure , the center formed by a wide rectangular square , with the church complex on one side and the houses of the inhabitants on the three remaining sides . The centralized organization of the Jesuits dictated a certain uniformity of measures and sizes . Despite being based on the same basic model , the towns of Chiquitos nonetheless show remarkable variations . For example , the orientation of the settlements toward the cardinal points differed and was determined by individual circumstances .
= = = Plaza = = =
The plaza was an almost square area varying in size from 124 by 148 metres ( 407 ft × 486 ft ) in the older towns of San Xavier and San Rafael de Velasco to 166 by 198 metres ( 545 ft × 650 ft ) in San Ignacio de Velasco . As they were used for religious and civil purposes , these were open spaces free of vegetation except a few palm trees surrounding a cross in the center of the plaza . The evergreen palm trees symbolizing eternal love , deliberately hearkened to Psalm 92 : 12 . Four chapels facing the central cross were placed at the corners of the square and were used in processions . Almost no remains exist of the chapels at the mission sites , as the plazas subsequently were redesigned to reflect the republican and mestizo lifestyle prevalent after the period of the Jesuits . Most have undergone recent expansion as well . Trees and shrubs were planted , and in some cases monuments were erected . Out of the original ten missions , only the plaza at Santa Ana de Velasco does not show major changes , consisting as it did in colonial times , of an open grassy space .
= = = Houses = = =
The houses of the natives had an elongated layout , and were arranged in parallel lines extending from the main square in three directions . Those facing the plaza were originally occupied by the chiefs of the indigenous tribes , and often were larger . The architecture of these houses was simple , consisting of large rooms ( 6x4 meters ) , walls up to 60 centimetres ( 2 ft ) thick , and a roof made of reed ( caña ) and wood ( cuchi ) that reached a height of 5 m ( 16 ft ) in the center . Double doors and open galleries provided protection from the elements . The latter have had a social function as meeting places up to the present day .
Over the last 150 years , this layout has been replaced by the usual Spanish colonial architecture of large square blocks with internal patios . Remnants of the initial design can still be seen in San Miguel de Velasco , San Rafael de Velasco and Santa Ana de Velasco , places that were not as much exposed to modernization as the other settlements .
= = = Church complex = = =
Along the fourth side of the plaza lay the religious , cultural and commercial centers of the towns . In addition to the church , which dominated the complex , there would have been a mortuary chapel , a tower and a colegio or " school " , connected by a wall along the side of the plaza . Behind the wall and away from the plaza would have been the patio with living quarters for the priests or visitors , rooms for town council matters , for music and storage , as well as workshops , which often were arranged around a second patio . Behind the buildings , a vegetable garden surrounded by a wall and a cemetery likely would have been found . The cemeteries and workshops have disappeared completely from the mission settlements , while the other elements of the church complex still survive to varying degrees . Two stone towers ( in San Juan Bautista and San José de Chiquitos ) and one of adobe ( in San Miguel de Velasco ) can be traced back to the time of the Jesuits . Others are of more recent construction , or the result of the conservation and restoration work spearheaded by Roth toward the end of the 20th century . Many of these are tall wooden constructions open on all sides . Of the Jesuit schools only those in San Xavier and Concepción are preserved entirely . Like the houses of the indigenous residents , the buildings of the church complex were single @-@ level ones .
= = = = Church = = = =
Once a settlement had been established , the missionaries , working with the native population , began to erect the church , which served as the educational , cultural and economic center of the town . The initial church in each mission ( except in Santa Ana de Velasco ) was temporary , essentially no more than a chapel and built as quickly as possible of local wood , unembellished save for a simple altar . The Jesuit masterpieces seen today general were erected several decades into the settlements ’ existence . Fr . Martin Schmid , Swiss priest and composer , was the architect for at least three of these missionary churches : San Xavier , San Rafael de Velasco , and Concepción . Schmid combined elements of Christian architecture with traditional local design to create a unique baroque @-@ mestizo style . Schmid placed a quotation from the Genesis 28 : 17 above the main entrance of each of the three churches . In San Xavier the quotation is in Spanish : CASA DE DIOS Y PUERTA DEL CIELO ; and in Latin at the other two churches : DOMUS DEI ET PORTA COELI , meaning The house of god and the gate of heaven .
The construction of the restored churches seen today falls in the period between 1745 and 1770 and is characterized by the use of locally available natural materials like wood , used in the carved columns , pulpits and sets of drawers . Artistic adornments were added even after the Jesuits ’ expulsion in 1767 , until around 1830 . Some of the altars are covered in gold . Often the walls of the mission churches were made of adobe , the same material that had been used for the houses of the natives . In San Rafael de Velasco and San Miguel de Velasco , mica also was used on the walls , giving them an iridescent effect . The construction of the church in San José de Chiquitos is an exception : inspired by an unknown baroque model , it has a stone façade . The only other example where stone was used on a grand scale is in the construction of San Juan Bautista , although only the ruins of a tower remain .
All of the churches consist of a wooden skeleton with columns , fixed in the ground , which provided stability to the building and supported the tile @-@ covered roof . The adobe walls were placed directly on the ground , virtually independent of the wooden construction , and had no supporting role . Porticos and a large porch roof provided protection from the heavy tropical rains . The floor was covered in tiles which , like those of the roof , were produced in local tile works . The churches have a barn @-@ like appearance , albeit of monumental size ( width : 16 – 20 metres ( 52 – 66 ft ) , length : 50 – 60 metres ( 160 – 200 ft ) height : 10 – 14 metres ( 33 – 46 ft ) ) with a capacity for more than 3 @,@ 000 people , with a wide structure and distinctive low @-@ hanging eaves . This style also is evident in the building method of native community houses .
The construction of the church required a major effort by the community and employed hundreds of indigenous carpenters . Fr . José Cardiet described the process :
All these buildings are made in a different way of those made in Europe : because the roof is built first and the walls afterwards . First large tree trunks are buried in the soil , these are worked by adz . Above these they place the beams and sills ; and above these the trusses and locks , tins and roof ; after that the foundations of stone are placed , and about 2 or 3 spans above the surface of the soil , and from here upwards they place the walls of adobe . The wooden trunks or pillars , which are called horcones , remain in the central part of the walls , carrying the complete weight of the roof and no weight on the walls . In the central naves and in the place where the wall will be placed , 9 feet deep holes are made , and with architectural machines they introduce the carved horcones in the form of columns . The 3 meters ( 9 feet ) stay inside the soil and are not carved , and keep part of the trees roots for greater strength , and these parts are burned so they may resist the humidity .
The walls were decorated with cornices , moldings , pilasters and at times blind arcades . First the walls were plastered entirely by a mix of mud , sand , lime and straw , both inside and outside . Paint in earth tones was applied over the lime whitewash , and ornaments were drawn , featuring elements from flora and fauna , as well as angels , saints and geometrical patterns . As noted above , in some cases mica was used to decorate the walls , columns and woodworks . Large oval " oeil @-@ de @-@ boeuf " windows , surrounded by relief petals , above the main doors are a characteristic feature .
The churches had three aisles , divided by wooden columns , often solomonic columns , carved with twisted fluting resembling those at St. Peter 's baldachin in St Peter 's , Rome . Until modern times , there were no pews so the congregation had to kneel or sit on the floor . A variety of fine pieces of art adorn the inside of the churches , notably their altars , which are sometimes covered in gold , silver or mica . Especially remarkable are the pulpits made of brightly painted wood and supported by carved sirens . The pulpit in the church of San Miguel de Velasco features motifs derived from local vegetation . Elements specific to the Chiquitos missions exist also in other decorations . The altars of the churches of San Xavier and Concepción include depictions of notable Jesuits together with indigenous peoples . There remain a handful of original sculptures in retablos often depicting Madonnas , the crucifixion , and saints , carved in wood and then painted . These sculptures exhibit a style unique to the Chiquitos region , differing from that of the reductions in Paraguay or the Bolivian highlands . The tradition of figure carving has been preserved to the present day in workshops where carvers make columns , finials and windows for new or restored churches or chapels in the area . In addition , carvers produce decorative angels and other figures for the tourist market .
= = = Restoration = = =
The missionary churches are the true architectural highlights of the area . Hans Roth initiated an important restoration project in these missionary churches in 1972 . In San Xavier , San Rafael de Velasco , San José de Chiquitos , Concepción , San Miguel de Velasco and Santa Ana de Velasco , these churches have undergone meticulous restoration . In the 1960s , the San Ignacio de Velasco church was replaced with modern construction ; in the 1990s , Hans Roth and his co @-@ workers brought the restoration as close as possible to the original edifices . In addition to the churches , Roth constructed more than a hundred new buildings , including schools and houses . He also founded museums and archives .
Roth researched and recovered the original techniques used to construct churches prior to the restorations . He installed new building infrastructure including saw mills , locksmith shops , and carpentry and repair shops , and trained local people in traditional crafts . European volunteers , non @-@ profit organizations , the Catholic Church , and the Bolivian Learning Institute ( IBA ) helped in the project .
Roth convinced the local inhabitants of the importance of the restoration works , which required a large labor force : typically 40 to 80 workers in towns with populations of 500 to 2 @,@ 000 were required for church restoration . The effort indicates the strength of and commitment to the unique shared heritage present in the towns . This restoration has resulted in a revival of local traditions and a qualified workforce .
= = Life in the mission towns = =
The reductions were self @-@ sufficient indigenous communities of 2 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 inhabitants , usually headed by two Jesuit priests and the cabildo ( town council and cacique ( tribal leader ) , who retained their functions and played the role of intermediaries between the native peoples and the Jesuits . However , the degree to which the Jesuits controlled the indigenous population for which they had responsibility and the degree to which they allowed indigenous culture to function is a matter of debate , and the social organization of the reductions have been variously described as jungle utopias on the one hand , to theocratic regimes of terror , the former description being much closer to the mark .
The Jesuits quickly learned the languages of their subjects , which eased the missionary work and contributed to the success of the missions . Although initially each mission were conceived as home to one specific tribe , numerous tribal families lived in the Chiquitania , and often were gathered in next to each other on the same mission . According to a report from 1745 , of the 14 @,@ 706 people living in the missions , 65 @.@ 5 % spoke Chiquitano , 11 % Arawak , 9 @.@ 1 % Otuquis , 7 @.@ 9 % Zamucos , 4 @.@ 4 % Chapacura and 2 @.@ 1 % Guaraní . It should , however , be understood that by this time most of the inhabitants of these missions spoke Chiquitano as a second language . Such ethnic diversity is unique among the Jesuit missions in America . Reflecting the view of the colonial powers , the Jesuit records only distinguished between Christian and non @-@ Christian Indios . Eventually Gorgotoqui , the formal name for language spoken by the Chiquitano tribe , became the lingua franca of the mission settlements , and the numerous tribes were culturally united in the Chiquitano ethnic group . By 1770 , within three years of the expulsion of the Jesuits , Spanish authorities instituted a new policy of forced " castilianization " or " Hispanicization " of the language , thereby causing the number of speakers of native languages to decline .
Many Indians who joined the missions were looking for protection from Portuguese slave traders or the encomienda system of the Spanish conquistadores . In the reductions , the natives were free men . The land in the missions was common property . After a marriage , individual plots were assigned to newly founded families . For the Jesuits , the goal was always the same : to create cities in harmony with the paradise where they had encountered the indigenous peoples .
Though the settlements were officially a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru through the Royal Audiencia of Charcas and of the diocese of Santa Cruz in church affairs , their remoteness made them effectively autonomous and self @-@ sufficient . As early as 1515 , the Franciscan friar Bartolomé de las Casas had initiated a " foreigner law " for the " ' Indian people ' " , and no white or black man , other than the Jesuits and authorities , was allowed to live in the missions . Merchants were allowed to stay for three days at most .
= = = Economy = = =
Traditionally most of the Chiquitos tribes practiced swidden agriculture , growing maize and yuca on a small scale . After contact with the Spanish , cocoa and rice also were cultivated . Hunting and fishing provided additional nutrition in the dry season . The Jesuits introduced cattle breeding .
In each settlement , one of the Jesuits was responsible for church matters , while another dealt with commercial affairs and the general well @-@ being of the community . As the Swiss priest , musician and architect Fr . Martin Schmid wrote in a 1744 letter from San Rafael :
„ ... the Missionary Priests ... are not only parish priests who have preach , hear confessions and govern souls , they are also responsible for the life and health of their parishioners and must provide all the things needed by their towns , because the soul cannot be saved if the body dies . Therefore , the missionaries are town counsellors and judges , doctors , bleeders , masons , carpenters , ironsmiths , locksmiths , shoemakers , tailors , millers , backers , cooks , shepherds , gardeners , painters , sculptors , turners , carriage makers , brick makers , potters , weavers , tanners , wax and candle makers , tinsmiths , and any artisans which may be required in a republic . “
The Jesuits administered labor , the introduction of new technologies , and the disposition of goods . They designated that each family receive all that was necessary to live . The Jesuits did not rely on donations , because by right the priests received a fixed income ( usually insufficient for their needs ) from the community to support their work . The thriving economy in the reductions enabled them to export surplus goods to all parts of Upper Peru , although ironically not to Paraguay – the region the Jesuits most wanted to reach . The income was used to pay royal tributes and to purchase goods not locally available , such as books , paper , and wine , from as far away as Europe . In the missions themselves money was not used . This laid the foundation of the belief that the Jesuits were guarding immense riches acquired through local labor . In reality the communities were economically successful but hardly constituted any important source of income for the Jesuit order .
All the inhabitants , including the young and elderly , were subject to a schedule of alternating work , religious practice , and rest . According to d 'Orbigny , the inhabitants of the Chiquitos missions enjoyed considerably more freedom than those in the Mojos missions . There was also less time spent practicing religion . The catechumens were instructed by the Jesuits in various arts . They learned very quickly and soon became proficient carpenters , painters , weavers , sculptors and artisans . Each settlement had its own set of craftsmen ; as a result , in addition to the caciques , a new social class of craftsmen and artisans emerged . This group and the rest of the population , who worked primarily in agriculture or cattle raising , were each represented by two alcaldes . Initially the main commercial products included honey , yerba maté , salt , tamarind , cotton , shoes , and leather . Later , artisans exported musical instruments , liturgical items , rosaries , and silverware .
= = = Music = = =
Music played a special part in all aspects of life and in the evangelization of the natives . Realizing the musical capacities of the Indians , the Jesuits sent important composers , choir directors , and manufacturers of musical instruments to South America . The most famous was probably the Italian baroque composer Domenico Zipoli , who worked in the reductions in Paraguay . Fr . Johann Mesner and Fr . Martin Schmid , two Jesuit missionaries with musical talent , went to the Chiquitania . Schmid in particular was responsible for this skill being developed to such a high degree that polyphonic choirs would perform , and whole orchestras would play Baroque operas on handmade instruments . He directed the production of violins , harps , flutes , and organs , and wrote and copied masses , operas , and motets . He built an organ with six stops in Potosí , disassembled it , transported it by mules over a distance of 1 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 620 mi ) on a difficult road to the remote mission of Santa Ana de Velasco , and re @-@ assembled it there from hand . It is still is use . The Jesuits used musical lessons as a first step to the Christianization of the natives .
As Schmid , who also acted as a composer , wrote in a 1744 letter from San Rafael de Velasco :
„ “ ... In all these towns the sound of my organs already can be heard . I made a pile of all kind of musical instruments and taught the Indians how to play them . Not a single day passes without the sound of songs in our churches ... and I sing , play the organ , the zither , the flute , the trumpet , the psalter and the lyre , in high mode and low mode . All these musical art forms , which I ignored partially , I am able to practice now and teach them to the children of the natives . Your Reverence would be able to observe here , how children which were torn away from the jungle just a year ago , together with their parents are able today to sing well and with an absolutely firm beat , they play the zither , lyre and the organ and dance with precise movements and rhythm , that they might compete with the Europeans themselves . We teach these people all these mundane things so they may get rid of their rude customs and resemble civilized persons , predisposed to accept Christianity . ”
= = = Today = = =
Some Jesuit institutions still exist in the Chiquitania . For example , the towns of San Rafael de Velasco , San Miguel de Velasco , Santa Ana de Velasco and San Ignacio de Velasco have functioning town councils ( cabildos ) , and the caciques and the sexton still retain their capacities . The majority of the population of the Chiquitania is staunchly Catholic ; the Chiquitano cosmovision is now only a dimly understood mythology for its inhabitants . Between 1992 and 2009 , the populations of San Xavier and especially Concepción tripled , and more than doubled in San Ignacio de Velasco , now the region ’ s fastest @-@ growing municipality . In other mission towns the population also increased , albeit on a smaller scale . As of 2011 , San José de Chiquitos , San Xavier and Concepción have around 10 @,@ 000 inhabitants each ; and San Ignacio de Velasco , the largest town in the Chiquitania , has about 35 @,@ 000 and is now boasts a campus of a national university . On the other hand , in Santa Ana de Velasco there are currently only a few hundred people . The remoter settlements of Santiago de Chiquitos and Santo Corazón are quite small as well . According to various sources , in Bolivia the number of ethnic Chiquitanos is between 30 @,@ 000 and 47 @,@ 000 of which less than 6 @,@ 000 – mainly elderly people – still speak the original language . Only a few hundred are monolingual in the Chiquitano language .
Economically , the area depends on agriculture . Maize , rice , yuca , cotton and heart of palm are produced and exported . Cattle ranching and the industrial processing of milk and cheese have been developed extensively in recent years . Crafts , often carved of wood using the same techniques as in colonial times , provide additional income . Since the launch of the Jesuit Mission Circuit – a marketing label to promote regional tourism – in 2005 , craftsmanship and tourism have been closely related .
The musical festivals and concerts held regularly in the Chiquitos formermission towns testify to the living heritage of this art form . Some of the original instruments and sculptures made by Fr . Martin Schmid and his apprentices survive in small museums in the mission towns , most notably in Concepción which also houses the music archive . In San Xavier , San Rafael de Velasco and Santa Ana de Velasco three original harps from the time of the Jesuits are preserved . The church in Santa Ana de Vealsco also houses the only original organ in Chiquitos , transported there from Potosí by mule , accompanied by Schmid in 1751 . More than a dozen orchestras and choirs brought together by the Sistema de Coros y Orquestas ( SICOR ) dot the area .
Since 1996 , the nonprofit institution Asociacion Pro Arte y Cultura ( APAC ) has organized the biennial Festival Internacional de Musica Renacentista y Barroca Americana .
Starting in 1975 , restoration work on the church ( now cathedral ) of Concepción unearthed more than 5 @,@ 000 musical scores from the 17th and 18th centuries . Later another 6 @,@ 000 scores were found in Moxos and several thousand additionally in San Xavier . Some of these works have been interpreted at the 2006 and 2008 festivals . The statistics of these festivals over the years is as follows :
The festival is carried out in the designated Plazas Misionales ( among other places ) , usually housed in churches and also in the main plaza of Santa Cruz . In one event , orchestras of various countries compete against each other . One of the local orchestras , Orquesta Urubicha , is made up of people native to the ex @-@ missions who use instruments which they build themselves according to plans left by the Jesuit missionaries .
= = Tourism = =
Shortly after the start of the restoration effort , the potential for tourism in the missions was assessed in a report published by UNESCO in 1977 .
To promote the missions as a tourist destination , travel agencies , chambers of commerce and industry , the towns ' mayors , native communities and other institutions organized the Lanzamiento mundial del Destino Turístico " Chiquitos " , Misiones Jesuíticas de Bolivia , a five @-@ day tourist event lasting from March 23 – 27 , 2006 . Journalists and international tour operators were shown the important tourist attractions , and introduced to the culture through visits to museums , local workshops , various concerts , native dances , high masses , processions , crafts festivals , and local cuisine . The organisers ’ goal initially was to raise the number of tourists from 25 @,@ 000 to 1 million per year over a ten @-@ year period , which would have represented US $ 400 million of income . Subsequently , in the face of lack of support from the Bolivian government and the downturn of the national and local economies , a more modest goal of attracting between 200 @,@ 000 and 250 @,@ 000 people per annum was established .
Tourism is now an important source of income for the region , amounting in Concepción Municipio alone to US $ 296 @,@ 140 , or 7 @.@ 2 % of the annual gross production . An additional US $ 40 @,@ 000 or 1 % comes from crafts . According to a report published by the " Coordinadora Interinstitucional de la Provincia Velasco " in 2007 , 17 @,@ 381 people visited San Ignacio de Velasco , the largest town in the region , as tourists in 2006 . About 30 % of them came from outside of Bolivia . The main attraction for tourists are the nearby missions of San Miguel de Velasco , San Rafael de Velasco and Santa Ana de Velasco . Tourism to San Ignacio de Velasco generated 7 @,@ 821 @,@ 450 Bolivianos in income in 2006 . Tourism income is ostensibly translated to improvements in the infrastructure , although there has been criticism that earmarked funds do not always reach their intended destinations . Other than cultural tourism to the missionary circuit and musical festivals , the region offers many natural attractions like rivers , lagoons , hot springs , caves and waterfalls , although there is no infrastructure to support tourism in this regard .
= = Cultural references = =
Many elements of the early days of the Jesuit missions are shown in the movie The Mission , although the movie attempts to depict life in the Guaraní missions of Paraguay , not those of the Chiquitos missions , which were considerably more culturally expressive . The events around the expulsion of the Jesuits ( the Extrañamiento ) are depicted in Fritz Hochwälder 's play Das heilige Experiment ( The Strong are Lonely ) . Both are set in Paraguay . It has been suggested that Das heilige Experiment sparked interest in the 20th century among scholars in the forgotten Jesuit missions .
= = = Historic accounts = = =
Of the primary sources , i.e. , those composed by the Jesuits themselves during the years 1691 through 1767 , those that have been extensively researched ( many as yet have not been thoroughly examined ) are few . The most useful is the monumental Historia general de la Compañía de Jesús en la Provincia del Perú : Crónica anómina de 1600 que trata del establecimiento y misiones de la Compañía de Jesús en los países de habla española en la América meridional , vol . II , edited by Francisco Mateos ( Madrid : Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas , 1944 ) . Also of importance is the unedited archive of correspondence from the Jesuits of Paraguay from the years 1690 @-@ 1718 . Collectively known as “ Cartas a los Provinciales de la Provincia del Paraguay 1690 @-@ 1718 , ” these manuscripts are housed in the Jesuit Archives of Argentina in Buenos Aires , which also contain the invaluable annals of the Paraguay Province of the Company of Jesus , covering the years 1689 @-@ 1762 . The German edition of Fr . Julián Knogler ’ s Inhalt einer Beschreibung der Missionen deren Chiquiten , Archivum Historicum Societatis Jesu , 39 / 78 ( Rome : Company of Jesus , 1970 ) is indispensable , as is his account Relato sobre el país y la nación de los Chiquitos en las Indias Occidentales o América del Sud y en la misiones en su territorio , for a condensed version of which , see Werner Hoffman , Las misiones jesuíticas entre los chiquitanos ( Buenos Aires : Fundación para la Educación , la Ciencia y la Cultura , 1979 ) . Fr . Juan de Montenegro ’ s Breve noticia de las missiones , peregrinaciones apostólicas , trabajos , sudor , y sangre vertida , en obsequio de la fe , de el venerable padre Augustín Castañares , de la Compañía de Jesús , insigne missionero de la provincia del Paraguay , en las missiones de Chiquitos , Zamucos , y ultimamente en la missión de los infieles Mataguayos , ( Madrid : Manuel Fernández , Impresor del Supremo Consejo de la Inquisición , de la Reverenda Cámara Apostólica , y del Convento de las Señoras de la Encarnación , en la Caba Baxa , 1746 ) and Fr . Juan Patricio Fernández ’ s Relación historial de las misiones de los indios , que llaman chiquitos , que están a cargo de los padres de la Compañía de Jesús de la provincia del Paraguay ( Madrid : Manuel Fernández , Impresor de Libros , 1726 ) are also valuable . There are other primary sources as yet unexamined , the majority of which are archived in Cochabamba , Sucre , and Tarija ( in Bolivia ) ; Buenos Aires , Córdoba , and Tucumán ( in Argentina ) ; Asunción ( Paraguay ) ; Madrid ; and Rome .
Castelnau , Francis . Expédition dans les parties centrales de l 'Amérique du Sud , de Rio de Janeiro à Lima : et de Lima au Para ( in French ) .
Demersay , L. Alfred ( 1860 ) . Histoire physique , économique et politique du Paraguay et des établissements des Jésuites . ( in French ) 1 . Paris : Librairie de L. Hachette .
Demersay , L. Alfred ( 1864 ) . Histoire physique , économique et politique du Paraguay et des établissements des Jésuites . ( in French ) 2 . Paris : Librairie de L. Hachette .
Fernandez , Juan Patricio ( 1895 ) . Relacion Historial de Las Misiones de Indios Chiquitos que en el Paraguay tienen los padres de la Compañia de Jesús . Colección de libros raros ó curiosos que tratan de América ( in Spanish ) 1 . Madrid : Victoriano Suárez .
Fernandez , Juan Patricio ( 1896 ) . Relacion Historial de Las Misiones de Indios Chiquitos que en el Paraguay tienen los padres de la Compañia de Jesús ( in Spanish ) 2 . Asunción del Paraguay : A. de Uribe y Compañia .
Ibagnez , Bernardo ( 1774 ) . Jesuitisches Reich in Paraguay : durch Originaldocumente der Gesellschaft Jesu bewiesen von dem aus dem Jesuiterorden verstoßenen Pater Ibagnez ( in German ) . Cölln : Peter Marteau .
References to many others are found in the extensive bibliography offered by Roberto Tomichá Charupá , OFM , in La Primera Evangelización en las Reducciones de Chiquitos , Bolivia ( 1691 @-@ 1767 ) , pp. 669 – 714 .
= = = Modern books = = =
Bösl , Antonio Eduardo ( 1987 ) . Una Joya en la selva boliviana ( in Spanish ) . Zarautz , Spain : Itxaropena . ISBN 978 @-@ 84 @-@ 7086 @-@ 212 @-@ 0 .
Cisneros , Jaime ( 1998 ) . Misiones Jesuíticas ( in Spanish ) ( 2nd ed . ) . La Paz : Industrias Offset Color S.R.L.
Groesbeck , Geoffrey A.P. ( 2007 ) . A Brief History of the Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos ( PDF ) . Springfield , IL : University of Illinois . ISSN 2156 @-@ 5163 .
Groesbeck , Geoffrey A.P. ( 2012 ) . Evanescence and Permanence : Toward an Accurate Understanding of the Legacy of the Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos .
Groesbeck , Geoffrey A.P. ( 2012 ) . The Long Silence : The Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos after the Extrañamiento .
Molina Barbery , Placido ; Alcides Parejas ; Ramón Gutiérrez Rodrigo ; Bernd Fischermann ; Virgilio Suárez ; Hans Roth ; Stefan Fellner ; Eckart Kühne ; Pedro Querejazu ; Leonardo Waisman ; Irma Ruiz ; Bernardo Huseby ( 1995 ) . Pedro Querejazu , ed . Las misiones jesuíticas de Chiquitos ( in Spanish ) . La Paz , Bolivia : Fundación Banco Hipotecario Nacional , Línea Editorial , La Papelera. p . 718 .
Parejas Moreno , Alcides ( 2004 ) . Chiquitos : a look at its history . Milton Whitaker ( trans . ) , Ana Luisa Arce de Terceros ( trans . ) . Santa Cruz de la Sierra : Asociación Pro Arte y Cultura. p . 93 . ISBN 99905 @-@ 0 @-@ 802 @-@ X.
Tomichá Charupá , Roberto ( 2002 ) . La Primera Evangelización en las Reducciones de Chiquitos , Bolivia ( 1691 @-@ 1767 ) ( in Spanish ) . Cochabamba : Editorial Verbo Divino. p . 740 . ISBN 978 @-@ 99905 @-@ 1 @-@ 009 @-@ 6 .
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= Unforgiven ( 2006 ) =
Unforgiven ( 2006 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on September 17 , 2006 , at the Air Canada Centre in Toronto , Ontario . It was the eighth annual Unforgiven event . The show 's seven matches showcased prominent WWE wrestlers , who acted out the franchise 's stories in and out of the ring . The event starred talent from the Raw brand .
The main event was a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match for the WWE Championship between Edge and John Cena , which Cena won after retrieving the belt suspended above the ring . One of the predominant matches on the card was D @-@ Generation X ( Triple H and Shawn Michaels ) versus The Big Show , Vince and Shane McMahon in a Handicap Hell in a Cell match . Triple H and Michaels won the match after Triple H pinned Vince following a sledgehammer shot to his back . Another primary match on the undercard was Lita versus Trish Stratus for the WWE Women 's Championship in what was Stratus ' final match of her full @-@ time wrestling career . Stratus won the match after forcing Lita to submit to the sharpshooter , thus becoming a record setting seven time WWE Women 's Champion .
As many of the existing feuds ended following the event , some did not . Notably , Jeff Hardy continued to feud with Johnny Nitro , facing off against him for the WWE Intercontinental Championship throughout September . The feud between D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) and The McMahons ended after the event , as DX began an angle with Edge and Randy Orton . Following his win against Edge , Cena began an angle with Kevin Federline , which started the proceeding month at Cyber Sunday and lasted throughout the year .
= = Background = =
The event featured seven professional wrestling matches with different wrestlers involved in pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots and storylines . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or fan favorites as they followed a series of tension @-@ building events , which culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches . All wrestlers belonged to the Raw brand – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a different program , the other being SmackDown ! .
The main feud heading into Unforgiven was between Edge and John Cena over the WWE Championship . The two were evenly matched , with one victory each . Cena defeated Edge by disqualification at Saturday Night 's Main Event , and Edge had beaten Cena at SummerSlam to retain his championship . On the edition of August 21 , 2006 of Raw , Lita , Edge 's girlfriend , threw Cena 's customized belt , which had a spinning center plate of the WWE logo , into the Long Island Sound . Afterwards , Edge proclaimed that it was the end of the " Cena era " in his life . Edge went on to unveil a new version of the belt , which had a spinning center plate of his " Rated @-@ R Superstar " logo . Later in the evening , Edge had a match with the returning Jeff Hardy ; however , the match ended in a no @-@ contest after Cena interfered and attacked Edge . After the match , the two fought outside the arena , and Cena tossed Edge into the Long Island Sound . On the edition of August 28 , 2006 of Raw , Edge demanded that Shane McMahon , who was in charge of Raw that night , fire Cena for his actions the week before . Cena , however , interrupted and told Edge that if he got another WWE Championship match and lost , he would sign a contract with SmackDown ! and leave Edge 's life . Edge agreed , but on the condition that he decided when , where , and what type of match it would be . After Cena defeated Chris Masters later that night , Edge hit Cena with a chair , a ladder , and later put him through a table . Following his attack , Edge told Cena that the match was going to be a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match at Unforgiven in his hometown of Toronto .
The other main match on the card was D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) ( Triple H and Shawn Michaels ) versus The McMahons ( Vince and Shane ) and The Big Show in a Hell in a Cell match . At SummerSlam , DX defeated The McMahons in a tag team match . On the edition of August 21 , 2006 of Raw , as part of the storyline , DX vandalized the WWE headquarters and Vince McMahon 's personal jet plane and limousine . On the edition of August 28 of Raw , The McMahons viciously attacked DX after their 3 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap match with their SummerSlam opponents , Mr. Kennedy , Finlay and William Regal . But before Vince and Shane proceeded to attack DX , Big Show attacked DX , giving the advantage to The McMahons . Moments after the assault , Vince booked a match at Unforgiven , where he teamed up with Shane and Big Show to take on DX in a 3 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap Hell in a Cell match .
One of the main undercard matches was between Lita and Trish Stratus for the WWE Women 's Championship . Lita engaged herself in a feud with Trish Stratus , after Lita and Edge interrupted Stratus ' title match with Mickie James . Lita and Edge then went on to attack Stratus ' , only to involve Carlito , who was in an on @-@ screen relationship with Stratus , to brawl with Lita and Edge . A scheduled tag team match between Lita and Edge versus Stratus and Carlito occurred , in which Edge and Lita were the winners . On the edition of August 28 , 2006 of Raw , Lita revealed that Stratus would retire following Unforgiven , which was later confirmed by Stratus . On the edition of September 4 of Raw , Stratus challenged Lita to a match at Unforgiven for the WWE Women 's title , for her retirement match , in which Lita accepted .
= = Event = =
The event unofficially began with a dark match between Super Crazy and Shelton Benjamin . Crazy pinned Benjamin for the win .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match was between Jeff Hardy and Johnny Nitro for the Intercontinental Championship . In the start of the match , Hardy gained the advantage over Nitro by countering his attacks . Hardy performed the Swanton Bomb , but Nitro put his foot on the rope to break a pinfall attempt by Hardy . Melina , however , hit Hardy with her boot , giving the upper hand to Nitro as he pinned Hardy and retained the title .
The match that followed was between Kane and Umaga . The match was taken to the outside of the ring . Kane performed a clothesline on Umaga into the crowd for a double countout called by the referee . The third match was for the World Tag Team Championship between the Spirit Squad ( Kenny and Mikey ) and The Highlanders. back and forth action was seen by both teams . The members of the Squad , who were at ringside , interfered in the match and gave the upper hand to their teammates , as Mikey was able to pin Rory after a Facebuster , thus able to retain the World Tag Team Championship .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The Hell in a Cell match between Shane , Vince McMahon , and the Big Show versus Triple H and Shawn Michaels ( DX ) was next . At first , DX was able to get the upper hand over the McMahons and Big Show . Back and forth action took place between the teams . During the match , Triple H wrapped a chair around Shane 's neck , which followed with Michaels hitting an elbow drop onto the chair , which resulted in Shane being injured . Michaels proceeded to perform Sweet Chin Music on Big Show . DX then pulled Big Show 's trunks down and shoved Vince 's head up Big Show 's buttocks . DX won the match , after Michaels performed Sweet Chin Music , which was followed by Triple H hitting McMahon over the back with a sledgehammer and covering him for the win .
The next singles match was between Trish Stratus and Lita for the WWE Women 's Championship . Stratus gained control early in the match , but Lita took it from her after she threw Stratus from the top rope . Stratus won the match after she locked in the Sharpshooter on Lita , who submitted to the move , and Stratus became Women 's Champion for the last time in her career . The sixth match was between Randy Orton and Carlito . As the match came to a start , Carlito spat on Orton and momentarily was followed by a dropkick . Mid @-@ way in the match , Carlito springboard moonsaulted from each side of the ring . His elbow caught Orton in the mouth on the second moonsault causing Orton to bleed from the mouth . After back and forth action , Carlito attempted an aerial maneuver , only to be countered into a mid @-@ air RKO . Orton then pinned Carlito for the win .
The final match of the night was for the WWE Championship between Edge and John Cena in a TLC match . At the start of the match , Cena took the advantage over Edge . Edge , however , countered Cena 's moves with a neckbreaker . The match saw Cena sandwich Edge in a ladder , as he applied the STFU hold on Edge , to which Edge tapped out . At one point , Cena began to climb the ladder , as he was moments away from retrieving the title , Lita , who interfered on behalf of Edge , tipped the ladder over , making Cena fall off the ladder and crash through a table at ringside . Lita 's interference was short , as Cena would later recover , and as Edge was climbing the ladder , Lita hits Cena with a steel chair to the back , only for him to inadvertently fall towards and push the ladder , making Edge fall off the ladder and crash through a table at ringside . Lita was then promptly dispatched by Cena , who performed an FU on her . Cena then began to make his way up the ladder , as did Edge when he re @-@ entered the ring . The two exchanged right @-@ hands , until Cena lifted Edge for the FU and dropped Edge through two tables that were stacked together by Cena . Cena then grabbed the belt down from the loop and became champion for the third time .
= = Aftermath = =
On the edition of October 2 , 2006 of Raw , John Cena was scheduled to defend the WWE Championship against Edge in a Steel Cage match , after Edge invoked his rematch clause for the title . Cena defeated Edge to retain the title , as he was able to perform an FU for the win , and thus ended the feud between the two . Edge , however , would begin a feud with DX , after Edge blamed DX for costing him the title match against Cena , due to interference from DX the previous week . The following week , Edge used an edition of The Cutting Edge to join forces with Randy Orton to form a team and began a feud against DX . Edge cited Randy Orton 's lack of success after being kicked out of Evolution by Triple H and DX 's " stale " antics " taking up TV time " as reasons to join forces . The duo dubbed themselves Rated @-@ RKO . At Cyber Sunday , Edge and Orton became the first team to finally defeat DX since their reunion in June .
Kane and Umaga continued their feud , as both individuals interfered in one another 's matches . On the edition of October 9 , 2006 of Raw , Kane and Umaga were scheduled in a " Loser Leaves Raw match " ; Umaga defeated Kane and sent him to the SmackDown ! brand . Despite their separation into different brands , Umaga and Kane had one final match at Cyber Sunday . Umaga won again , after fans selected him to be Umaga 's opponent instead of Chris Benoit and The Sandman . The angle between Johnny Nitro and Jeff Hardy continued , as the two were involved in another Intercontinental Championship match where Nitro retained the title . Nitro , however , lost the title to Hardy , on the edition of October 2 of Raw .
The WWE Women 's Championship was vacated on September 18 , 2006 , following Trish Stratus ' win at Unforgiven . On the edition of September 25 of Raw , a Women 's title tournament began , and the first match was won by Lita , after she defeated Candice Michelle . The second tournament match was a Lingerie match between Mickie James and Victoria , which James won . On the edition of October 9 of Raw , Melina defeated Torrie Wilson in a Lumberjill match to advance in the tournament match . The following week , Maria won a Fatal Four @-@ Way Bra and Panties match against Victoria , Candice Michelle , and Torrie Wilson to advance to the semi @-@ finals . On the edition of October 23 of Raw , James defeated Melina to advance in the semi @-@ finals . The following week on Raw , Lita advanced in the tournament , after she defeated Maria . At Cyber Sunday , Lita and Mickie James advanced to the seventh match of the tournament . Lita won the vacant Women 's title , after she pinned James with a Swinging snap DDT .
John Cena was placed in an inter @-@ brand angle to determine the " Champion of Champions " – or who was the most dominant champion in WWE 's three brands . Cena , King Booker ( SmackDown ! ' s World Heavyweight Champion ) , and Big Show ( ECW 's World Champion ) engaged in a feud leading to a triple threat match at Cyber Sunday in November ; viewers chose which championship would be placed on the line . At the same time , Cena became involved in a storyline with non @-@ wrestler Kevin Federline when he began appearing on Raw with Johnny Nitro and Melina . After getting into a worked physical altercation with Federline on Raw , Federline helped King Booker retain his title at Cyber Sunday in the Triple Threat match by hitting Cena with the World Heavyweight Title belt .
= = Reception = =
The event received mostly positive reviews from critics . Writing for Canadian Online Explorer , Brian Elliott stated that the event was " a card of averages , with nothing excellent and little poor " . He rated the overall event 7 out 10 stars . The main event between Edge and John Cena for the WWE Championship was rated 9 out of 10 stars , the Hell in a Cell match was rated 9 and a half out of 10 with the Sun saying it was an extreme bloodbath that lived up to its hype , the World Tag Team Championship between the Spirit Squad and the Highlanders was rated a 5 out of 10 stars , and the Intercontinental Championship match between Johnny Nitro and Jeff Hardy was rated a 7 out of 10 stars .
= = Results = =
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= Typhoon Mamie ( 1985 ) =
Typhoon Mamie was the worst tropical cyclone to affect China in 26 years . Originating from an area of disturbed weather near the Philippines in mid @-@ August 1985 , the system gradually became better organized , and was upgraded into a tropical storm early on August 16 . It continued to deepen , and late on August 17 , Mamie attained typhoon intensity . Around this time , Typhoon Mamie reached its peak intensity of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , which it maintained for 12 hours . After making landfall in Shanghai , the storm steadily weakened . However , after turning north and crossing the Shanghai Peninsula and the Yellow Sea , Mamie made a second landfall near Yantai as a tropical storm . After turning northwest and re @-@ entering the Yellow Sea , Mamie moved ashore for the third and final time near Dairen . On August 21 , Mamie dissipated inland over northeastern China .
Due to both Mamie and Nelson , widespread flooding was reported across much of northern China , with 19 rivers overflowing . The typhoon forced around 1 @,@ 000 factories to temporarily close , and toppled approximately 6 @.@ 5 million trees . Moreover , about 8 @,@ 000 homes were flooded and 120 @,@ 000 houses received damage Nearly 1 million people were directly affected by the typhoon . The typhoon killed more than 120 @,@ 000 animals and sank more than 200 boats . Overall , 17 fatalities occurred and 165 were injured . Losses totaled $ 172 million ( 1985 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
Typhoon Mamie originated from the southwesterly monsoonal flow near the Philippines . The monsoon flow was situated near Tropical Storm Lee , which was situated east of Taiwan at that time . At 0000 UTC on August 14 , banding features were noted via satellite imagery . The system was first monitored by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) at 0600 UTC on August 14 ; the JTWC noted that the chances of significant development were poor . Throughout the day , the system became better organized while turning north and at 1800 UTC that day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started watching the disturbance . Early on August 15 , the JTWC remarked that the storm had a " fair " chance at potential development . As such , Hurricane Hunter aircraft was requested . Following an increase in banding features and outflow , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) was issued by the JTWC that afternoon . Thereafter , the cyclone began to strengthen as interaction with Tropical Storm Lee diminished . At 2300 UTC on August 15 , the aircraft discovered a closed low @-@ level circulation , as well as tropical storm @-@ force winds . Based on this , both agencies designated the system as Tropical Storm Mamie early on August 16 .
On August 16 , the tropical storm began to turn northwest in response to the strengthening of a subtropical ridge north of Mamie and a westward @-@ moving mid @-@ latitude cyclone . At 0000 UTC on August 17 , the JTWC classified Mamie as a typhoon while the JMA reported winds of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) , a severe tropical storm . Around midday , the JTWC estimated winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane on the United States @-@ based Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . However , the aforementioned ridge was not strong enough to prevent the storm from turning north @-@ northwest on August 17 . That evening , the JMA upgraded Mamie to typhoon status . Simultaneously , the JMA estimated peak winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , and a minimum barometric pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . According to the JMA , the typhoon held on to peak intensity for 12 hours while moving onshore near Shanghai on August 18 . Mamie only gradually weakened overland , but according to the JMA , the storm 's winds had decreased to 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) midday on August 18 . Typhoon Mamie moved offshore at 0200 UTC on August 19 ; subsequently , the JTWC estimated winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) while the JMA estimated winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . After crossing the Shanghai Peninsula , Mamie entered the Yellow Sea while turning north along the western periphery of a subtropical ridge , and at 0600 UTC , struck Yantai as a minimal tropical storm . Following a turn towards the northwest , Tropical Storm Mamie briefly emerged into the Yellow Sea before making a third and final landfall just west of Dairen at noon . At the time of landfall , both the JMA and the JTWC reported winds of 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) . Due to interaction with the mountainous terrain of China , Mamie began to dissipate over land , and by 0000 UTC on August 20 , the JTWC ceased watching the cyclone . The JMA followed suit 42 hours later .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
Roughly 24 hours prior to Mamie 's third landfall , all ships were warned in the port of Dalian to evacuate ; however , 152 ships stayed at the port . Shortly after making landfall , Mamie was considered the worst storm to affect northeastern China in 26 years . The nation was already inundated by significant flooding earlier in the summer of 1985 , especially from Typhoon Nelson .
After making landfall , Typhoon Mamie dropped 420 mm ( 17 in ) of rain in Liaoning , where the storm flooded 300 @,@ 000 ha ( 741 @,@ 315 acres ) of farmland . Due to a combination of Mamie and previous flooding , 19 rivers overflowed . The typhoon forced 1 @,@ 000 factories to temporarily close , and toppled about 6 @.@ 5 million trees . Over 8 @,@ 000 dwellings were flooded . More than 3 @,@ 000 residents were evacuated in the Jilin province . At least 36 @,@ 400 villagers necessitated rescue . Nearly 1 million individuals were directly affected by the typhoon . Elsewhere , in Yantai , the typhoon killed more than 120 @,@ 000 animals , damaged 120 @,@ 000 homes , and sank more than 200 boats . Waves up to 8 m ( 26 ft ) in height pounded the Bohai Bay shoreline , forcing more than 200 ships to be evacuated . Cables securing an oil rig were snapped . One person died while trying to fasten steel products on a ship . In all , 17 people perished and 165 were injured due to Mamie . Loses totaled $ 172 million .
After the passage of Typhoon Mamie , more than 800 @,@ 000 civilians and 9 @,@ 000 soldiers were organized in order to protect reservoirs from flooding . By August 28 , 150 @,@ 000 civilians and 10 @,@ 000 soldiers were fighting against flooding along the Liao River on a daily basis . Additionally , local military forces were called in to assist relief workers . The government organized buses and boats to carry flood victims . Some schools were used as shelter while restaurants and hospitals sent food and medicine .
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= Oppenheimer security hearing =
The Oppenheimer security hearing was a 1954 proceeding by the United States Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) that explored the background , actions , and associations of J. Robert Oppenheimer , the American scientist who had headed the Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II , where he played a key part in the Manhattan Project that developed the atomic bomb . The hearing resulted in Oppenheimer 's Q clearance being revoked . This marked the end of his formal relationship with the government of the United States , and generated considerable controversy regarding whether the treatment of Oppenheimer was fair , or whether it was an expression of anti @-@ Communist McCarthyism .
Doubts about Oppenheimer 's loyalty dated back to the 1930s , when he was a member of numerous Communist front organizations , and was associated with Communist Party USA members , including his wife and his brother . These associations were known to Army Counter @-@ intelligence at the time he was made director of the Los Alamos Laboratory in 1942 , and chairman of the influential General Advisory Committee of the AEC in 1947 . In this capacity Oppenheimer became involved in bureaucratic conflict between the Army and Air Force over the types of nuclear weapons the country required , technical conflict between the scientists over the feasibility of the hydrogen bomb , and personal conflict with AEC commissioner Lewis Strauss .
The proceedings were initiated after Oppenheimer refused to voluntarily give up his security clearance while working as an atomic weapons consultant for the government , under a contract due to expire at the end of June 1954 . Several of his colleagues testified at the hearings . As a result of the two to one decision of the hearing 's three judges , he was stripped of his security clearance one day before his consultant contract was due to expire . The panel found that he was loyal and discreet with atomic secrets , but did not recommend that his security clearance be reinstated .
The loss of his security clearance ended Oppenheimer 's role in government and policy . He became an academic exile , cut off from his former career and the world he had helped to create . The reputations of those who had testified against Oppenheimer were tarnished as well , and Oppenheimer 's reputation was later partly rehabilitated by Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson . The brief period when scientists were hailed as heroes uniquely qualified to comment on public policy was ended , and scientists working within the government were on notice that dissent was no longer tolerated .
= = Background = =
= = = Robert Oppenheimer = = =
Before World War II , J. Robert Oppenheimer had been professor of physics at the University of California , Berkeley . The scion of a wealthy New York family , he was a graduate of Harvard University , and had studied in Europe at the University of Cambridge in England , the University of Göttingen in Germany ( where he had earned his doctorate in physics under the supervision of Max Born at the age of 23 ) , and the University of Leiden in the Netherlands . As one of the few American physicists with a deep understanding of the new field of quantum mechanics , he was hired by the University of California in 1929 .
As a theoretical physicist , Oppenheimer had considerable achievements . In a 1930 paper on the Dirac equation , he had predicted the existence of the positron . A 1938 paper co @-@ written with Robert Serber explored the properties of white dwarf stars . This was followed by one co @-@ written with one of his students , George Volkoff , in which they demonstrated that there was a limit , the so @-@ called Tolman @-@ Oppenheimer @-@ Volkoff limit , to the mass of stars beyond which they would not remain stable as neutron stars and would undergo gravitational collapse . In 1939 , with another of his students , Hartland Snyder , he went further and predicted the existence of what are today known as black holes . It would be decades before the significance of this was appreciated .
Still , Oppenheimer was not well known before the war , and certainly not as renowned as his friend and colleague Ernest O. Lawrence , who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1939 for his invention of the cyclotron . But as an experimental physicist , Lawrence had come to rely on Oppenheimer , and it was Lawrence who brought Oppenheimer into the effort to develop an atomic bomb , which became known as the Manhattan Project . Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , who became director of the Manhattan Project on September 8 , 1942 , met Oppenheimer at Berkeley , where Oppenheimer briefed Groves on his work on the " Super " ( thermonuclear ) bomb . Oppenheimer told Groves on October 8 that the Manhattan Project needed a dedicated weapons development laboratory . Groves agreed , and after a second meeting with Oppenheimer on a train on October 15 , decided that Oppenheimer was the man he needed to head what became the Los Alamos Laboratory , despite Oppenheimer 's lack of a Nobel Prize or administrative experience .
The end of the war in the wake of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki made scientists into heroes . Oppenheimer became a celebrity , with his face gracing front pages of newspapers and the covers of magazines . Life magazine described him as " one of the most famous men in the world , one of the most admired , quoted , photographed , consulted , glorified , well @-@ nigh deified as the fabulous and fascinating archetype of a brand new kind of hero , the hero of science and intellect , originator and living symbol of the new atomic age . "
= = = Chevalier incident = = =
Many of Oppenheimer 's associates in the years before World War II were Communist Party USA members . They included his wife Kitty , whose first husband Joe Dallet had been killed fighting with the Lincoln Battalion in the Spanish Civil War ; his brother Frank Oppenheimer and Frank 's wife Jackie ; and his girlfriend Jean Tatlock . One of his Communist associates was a colleague at the University of California , an assistant professor of French literature named Haakon Chevalier . The two had met during a rally for Spanish Loyalists , and had co @-@ founded a branch of the American Federation of Teachers at Berkeley known as Local 349 . The Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) had opened a file on Oppenheimer in March 1941 , after he had attended a December 1940 meeting at Chevalier 's home that was also attended by the Communist Party 's California state secretary William Schneiderman and its treasurer Isaac Folkoff , both of whom were targets of FBI surveillance and wiretaps . Agents had recorded the license plate of Oppenheimer 's car . The FBI noted that Oppenheimer was on the Executive Committee of the American Civil Liberties Union , which it considered a Communist front . Shortly thereafter , the FBI added Oppenheimer to its Custodial Detention Index , for arrest in case of national emergency .
In January or February 1943 , Chevalier had a brief conversation with Oppenheimer in the kitchen of his home . Chevalier told Oppenheimer that there was a scientist , George Eltenton , who could transmit information of a technical nature to the Soviet Union . Oppenheimer rejected the overture , but failed to report it until August 1943 , when he volunteered to Manhattan Project security officers that three men at Berkeley had been solicited for nuclear secrets on behalf of the Soviet Union , by a person he did not know who worked for Shell Oil , and who had Communist connections . He gave that person 's name as George Eltenton . When pressed on the issue in later interviews at Los Alamos in December 1943 with Groves , who promised to keep the identity of the three men from the FBI , Oppenheimer identified the contact who had approached him as Chevalier , and told Groves that only one person had been approached : his brother Frank . Groves considered Oppenheimer too important to the ultimate Allied goals of building atomic bombs and winning the war to oust him over this suspicious behavior . He ordered that Oppenheimer be given a security clearance " without delay , irrespective of the information which you have concerning Mr. Oppenheimer . He is absolutely essential to the project . "
Oppenheimer was interviewed by the FBI on September 5 , 1946 . He related the " Chevalier incident " , and he gave contradictory and equivocating statements , telling government agents that only he had been approached , by Chevalier , who at the time had supposedly said that he had a potential conduit through Eltenton for information which could be passed to the Soviets . Oppenheimer claimed to have invented the other contacts to conceal the identity of Chevalier , whose identity he believed would be immediately apparent if he named only one contact , but whom he believed to be innocent of any disloyalty . The 1943 fabrication and the shifting nature of his accounts figured prominently in the 1954 inquiry .
The McMahon Act that established the Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) required all employees holding wartime security clearances issued by the Manhattan Project to be investigated by the FBI and re @-@ certified . This provision had come in the wake of the February 16 , 1946 , defection of Igor Gouzenko in Canada , and the subsequent arrest of 22 people . President Harry S. Truman appointed Oppenheimer to the AEC General Advisory Committee ( GAC ) on December 10 , 1946 , so the FBI interviewed two dozen of Oppenheimer 's associates , including Robert Bacher , Ernest Lawrence , Enrico Fermi and Robert Gordon Sproul . Groves and the Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson supplied written statements supporting Oppenheimer . AEC chairman David Lilienthal and Vannevar Bush discussed the matter with Truman 's sympathetic aide Clark Clifford at the White House . They found John Lansdale , Jr. particularly persuasive ; he had interrogated Oppenheimer over the Chevalier incident in 1943 , and strongly supported him . On August 11 , 1947 , they unanimously voted to grant Oppenheimer a Q clearance . At the first meeting of the GAC on January 3 , 1947 , Oppenheimer was unanimously elected its chairman .
= = = Postwar conflicts = = =
The FBI was willing to furnish Oppenheimer 's political enemies with incriminating evidence about Communist ties . These included Lewis Strauss , an AEC commissioner who resented Oppenheimer for his humiliation before Congress regarding opposition to the export of radioactive isotopes to other nations , which Strauss believed had military applications . As GAC chairman , Oppenheimer was called before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy ( JCAE ) over the issue in June 1949 . The other four AEC commissioners had opposed Strauss , so he had gone to the JCAE in an attempt to get the decision overturned . The result was a stunning humiliation for the thin @-@ skinned Strauss . Oppenheimer testified that :
No one can force me to say that you cannot use these isotopes for atomic energy . You can use a shovel for atomic energy , in fact you do . You can use a bottle of beer for atomic energy , in fact you do . But to get some perspective , the fact is that during the war and after the war these materials played no significant part , and in my knowledge , no part at all ... My own rating of the importance of isotopes in this broad sense is that they are far less important than electronic devices but far more important than , let us say , vitamins , somewhere in between .
This came on the heels of controversies about whether some of Oppenheimer 's students , including David Bohm , Ross Lomanitz and Bernard Peters , had been Communists at the time they had worked with him at Berkeley . Oppenheimer was called to testify in front of the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee , where he admitted that he had associations with the Communist Party in the 1930s , and named some of his students as being Communists or closely associated with them . Bohm and Peters eventually left the country , while Lomanitz was forced to work as a laborer . Frank Oppenheimer was fired from his university position , and could not find work in physics for a decade . He and his wife Jackie became cattle ranchers in Colorado . Their reputations were rehabilitated in 1959 , and they founded the San Francisco Exploratorium in 1969 .
David Kaiser noted that :
These dozen or so theoretical physicists surely came under fire for many reasons ; with hindsight their troubles appear almost overdetermined . Most were Jewish ; several had been active in labor organizing before or during the war ; a few had flirted with the Communist Party in their youth ; many were active in other leftwing political organizations after the war . Perhaps most important , however , they had close and long @-@ standing ties with Robert Oppenheimer ...
From 1949 to 1953 , Oppenheimer had also found himself in the middle of a controversy over the development of the " Super " . In 1949 , the Soviet Union detonated an atomic bomb . This came as a shock to many Americans , and it fell to Oppenheimer to check the evidence and confirm that the explosion had taken place . In response , Strauss recommended that the United States retain nuclear superiority by developing the " Super " . This had been under consideration at Los Alamos for several years . Brigadier General James McCormack told the AEC commissioners that while thermonuclear weapons could potentially be thousands of times as powerful as fission weapons , as of 1949 there was no design that worked , and no certainty that a practical bomb could be built if there was one . He cautioned that the " Super " would probably require large amounts of tritium , which could only be acquired by diverting the AEC 's nuclear reactors from plutonium production .
Strauss found allies in Lawrence and Edward Teller , who had headed the " Super " group at Los Alamos during the war . When the matter was referred to the GAC , it unanimously voted against a crash program to develop the " Super " . Without a workable design , it seemed foolish to divert resources from atomic bombs . Nor was there an obvious military need . Despite this , Truman authorized the crash program on January 31 , 1950 . Teller , Fermi , John von Neumann , and Stan Ulam struggled to find a working design , and in February 1951 , Ulam and Teller finally devised one . After reviewing the design and data gathered by the Operation Greenhouse tests in May 1951 , Oppenheimer 's attitude completely changed , and he became convinced that the " New Super " was practical . Teller left Los Alamos to help found , with Lawrence , a second weapons laboratory , the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , in 1952 .
Thermonuclear " strategic weapons " ( military targets and city @-@ destroyers ) delivered by long @-@ range jet bombers would necessarily be under control of the relatively new United States Air Force . By contrast , Oppenheimer pushed for smaller " tactical " nuclear weapons which would be more useful in a limited theater against enemy troops , and which would be under control of the Army . These two branches of the service fought for control of nuclear weapons , often allied with different political parties . The Air Force , with Teller pushing its program , gained ascendency in the Republican @-@ controlled government , after the election of Dwight D. Eisenhower as president in 1952 .
= = = Claims made in the Borden letter = = =
In November 1953 , J. Edgar Hoover was sent a letter concerning Oppenheimer by William Liscum Borden , former executive director of Congress ' Joint Atomic Energy Committee . In the letter , Borden stated his opinion " based upon years of study , of the available classified evidence , that more probably than not J. Robert Oppenheimer is an agent of the Soviet Union . " The letter was based upon the government 's massive investigative dossier on Oppenheimer , which had included " eleven years ' minute surveillance of the scientist 's life . " His office and home had been bugged , his telephone tapped and his mail opened .
Borden 's letter stated as follows :
This opinion considers the following factors , among others .
1 . The evidence indicating that as of April 1942 : ( a ) He was contributing substantial monthly sums to the Communist Party ; ( b ) His ties with communism had survived the Nazi @-@ Soviet Pact and the Soviet attack upon Finland ; ( c ) His wife and younger brother were Communists ; ( d ) He had no close friends except Communists ; ( e ) He had at least one Communist mistress ; ( f ) He belonged only to Communist organizations , apart from professional affiliations ; ( g ) The people whom he recruited into the early wartime Berkeley atom project were exclusively Communists ; ( h ) He had been instrumental in securing recruits for the Communist Party , and ( i ) He was in frequent contact with Soviet Espionage agents .
2 . The evidence indicating that : ( a ) In May 1942 , he either stopped contributing funds to the Communist Party or else made his contributions though a new channel not yet discovered ; ( b ) In April 1943 his name was formally submitted for security clearance ; ( c ) He himself was aware at the time that his name had been so submitted and ( d ) He thereafter repeatedly gave false information to General Groves , Manhattan District , and the FBI concerning the 1939 – April 1942 period .
3 . The evidence indicating that : ( a ) He was responsible for employing a number of Communists , some of them not technical , at wartime Los Alamos ; ( b ) He selected one such individual to write the official Los Alamos history ; ( c ) He was a vigorous supporter of the H @-@ bomb program until August 6 , 1945 , ( Hiroshima ) , on which day he personally urged each senior individual working in this field to desist ; and ( d ) He was an enthusiastic sponsor of the A @-@ bomb program until the war ended , when he immediately and outspokenly advocated the Los Alamos Laboratory be disbanded .
4 . The evidence indicating that : ( a ) He was remarkably instrumental in influencing the military authorities and the Atomic Energy Commission essentially to suspend H @-@ bomb development from mid @-@ 1946 through January 31 , 1950 [ the date of President Truman 's public announcement that the United States , in answer to the new Soviet atomic bomb , would seek to build an H @-@ bomb ] ( b ) He has worked tirelessly , from January 31 , 1950 , onward to retard the United States H @-@ bomb program ; ( c ) He has used his potent influence against every postwar effort to expand capacity for producing A @-@ bomb material ; ( d ) He has used his potent influence against every postwar effort directed at obtaining larger supplies of uranium raw material ; and ( e ) He has used his potent influence against every major postwar effort toward atomic power development , including the nuclear @-@ powered submarine and aircraft programs as well as industrial power projects .
The letter also pointed out that Oppenheimer had worked against development of the hydrogen bomb , and had worked against postwar atomic energy development , including nuclear power plants and nuclear submarines . The letter concluded :
1 . Between 1939 and mid @-@ 1942 , more probably than not , J. Robert Oppenheimer was a sufficiently hardened Communist that he either volunteered espionage information to the Soviets or complied with a request for such information . ( This includes the possibility that when he singled out the weapons aspect of atomic development as his personal speciality , he was acting under Soviet instructions . ) 2 . More probably than not , he has since been functioning as an espionage agent ; and 3 . More probably than not , he has since acted under a Soviet directive in influencing United States military , atomic energy , intelligence , and diplomatic policy .
The contents of the letter were not new , and some had been known when Oppenheimer was first cleared for atomic war work . Yet that information had not prompted anyone to seek his removal from government service . Despite the lack of new evidence , Eisenhower ordered that a " blank wall " be placed between Oppenheimer and the nation 's atomic secrets .
= = Hearing = =
= = = Board composition and procedures = = =
On December 21 , 1953 , Oppenheimer was told by Lewis Strauss that his security file had been subject to two recent re @-@ evaluations because of new screening criteria , and because a former government official had drawn attention to Oppenheimer 's record . Strauss said that his clearance had been suspended , pending resolution of a series of charges outlined in a letter , and discussed his resigning . Given only a day to decide , and after consulting with his lawyers , Oppenheimer chose not to resign , and requested a hearing instead . The charges were outlined in a letter from Kenneth D. Nichols , general manager of the AEC . Pending resolution of the charges , Oppenheimer 's security clearance was suspended . Oppenheimer told Strauss that some of what was in Nichols ' letter was correct , some incorrect .
The hearing was held at a temporary building near the Washington Monument housing offices of the AEC . It began on April 12 , 1954 , and lasted four weeks . The AEC was represented by Roger Robb , an experienced prosecutor in Washington , and Arthur Rolander , while Oppenheimer 's legal team was headed by Lloyd K. Garrison , a prominent New York attorney . The chairman of the Personnel Security Board was Gordon Gray , president of the University of North Carolina . The other members of the hearing panel were Thomas Alfred Morgan , a retired industrialist , and Ward V. Evans , chairman of the chemistry department at Northwestern University .
The hearing was not open to the public and initially was not publicized . At the commencement of the hearing , Gray stated the hearing was " strictly confidential " , and pledged that no information related to the hearing would be released . Contrary to this assurance , a few weeks after the conclusion of the hearing a verbatim transcript of the hearing was released by the AEC . Oppenheimer and Garrison also breached the confidentiality of the hearing , by communicating with New York Times journalist James Reston , who wrote an article on the hearing that appeared on the second day of the hearing .
Garrison applied for an emergency security clearance prior to the hearing , as one had been granted to Robb , but no clearance was granted during the course of the hearing , which meant that Oppenheimer 's attorneys had no access to the secrets that Robb was able to see . On at least three occasions , Garrison and his co @-@ counsel were barred from the hearing room for security reasons , leaving Oppenheimer unrepresented , in violation of AEC regulations . During the course of the hearing , Robb repeatedly cross @-@ examined Oppenheimer 's witnesses utilizing top @-@ secret documents unavailable to Oppenheimer 's lawyers . He often read aloud from those documents , despite their secret status .
The AEC 's former general counsel Joseph Volpe had urged Oppenheimer to retain a tough litigator as his attorney ; Garrison 's demeanor was gentle and cordial , but Robb was adversarial . Garrison voluntarily provided the board and Robb with a list of his witnesses , but Robb refused to extend the same courtesy . This gave Robb a clear advantage in his cross @-@ examination of Oppenheimer 's witnesses . One observer commented that Robb " did not treat Oppenheimer as a witness in his own case , but as a person charged with high treason . "
Members of the hearing panel met with Robb prior to the hearing to review the contents of Oppenheimer 's FBI file . The 1946 Administrative Procedure Act included a legal principle known as " the exclusivity of the record " or the " blank pad rule " . This meant that a hearing could only consider information that had been formally presented under the established rules of evidence . However , while the act applied to the courts and to administrative hearings held by agencies like the Federal Trade Commission and Federal Communications Commission , it did not apply to the AEC . Garrison asked for the opportunity to review the file with the panel , but this was rejected .
= = = Scope of testimony = = =
As outlined in the 3 @,@ 500 @-@ word Nichols letter , the hearing focused on 24 allegations , 23 of which dealt with Oppenheimer 's Communist and left @-@ wing affiliations between 1938 and 1946 , including his delayed and false reporting of the Chevalier incident to authorities . The twenty @-@ fourth charge related to his opposition to the hydrogen bomb . By including the hydrogen bomb , the AEC changed the character of the hearing , by opening up an inquiry into his activities as a postwar government adviser .
Oppenheimer testified for a total of 27 hours . His demeanor was far different than it had been in his previous interrogations , such as his appearance before the House Un @-@ American Activities . Under cross @-@ examination by Robb , who had access to top @-@ secret information such as surveillance recordings , Oppenheimer was " often anguished , sometimes surprisingly inarticulate , frequently apologetic about his past and even self @-@ castigating . "
One of the key elements in this hearing was Oppenheimer 's earliest testimony about Eltenton 's approach to various Los Alamos scientists , a story that Oppenheimer confessed he had fabricated to protect his friend Chevalier . Unknown to Oppenheimer , both versions were recorded during his interrogations of a decade before , and he was surprised on the witness stand with transcripts that he had no chance to review . Under questioning by Robb , he admitted that he had lied to Boris Pash , an Army counterintelligence officer , concerning the approach from Chevalier . Asked why he had fabricated a story that three people had been approached for espionage , Oppenheimer responded , " Because I was an idiot . "
Much of the questioning of Oppenheimer concerned his role in the hiring for Los Alamos of his former students Ross Lomanitz and Joseph Weinberg , both members of the Communist Party . The questions probed into Oppenheimer 's private life , including his affair with Jean Tatlock , a Communist with whom he stayed the night while he was married . Lansdale had concluded at the time that his interest in Tatlock was romantic rather than political . Nonetheless , this innocuous affair may have played more heavily in the minds of the review panel .
Groves , testifying as a witness for the AEC and against Oppenheimer , reaffirmed his decision to hire Oppenheimer . Groves said that Oppenheimer 's refusal to report Chevalier was " the typical American school boy attitude that there is something wicked about telling on a friend . " Under questioning from Robb , Groves said that under the security criteria in effect in 1954 , he " would not clear Dr. Oppenheimer today . "
The official position of the Air Force was to support the suspension of the security clearance , which was given during testimony by its chief scientist , David T. Griggs . Although his testimony was not pivotal in the decision , many physicists viewed Griggs as the " Judas who had betrayed their god " , the brilliant theoretical physicist who led the successful wartime development of the atomic bomb .
Many top scientists , as well as government and military figures , testified on Oppenheimer 's behalf . Among them were Fermi , Isidor Isaac Rabi , Hans Bethe , John J. McCloy , James B. Conant and Bush , as well as two former AEC chairmen and three former commissioners . Also testifying on behalf of Oppenheimer was Lansdale , who was involved in the Army 's surveillance and investigation of Oppenheimer during the war . Lansdale , a lawyer , was not intimidated by Robb . He testified that Oppenheimer was not a Communist , and that he was " loyal and discreet " . Ernest Lawrence said he was unable to testify at the hearing because of illness . On April 26 , Lawrence suffered his most severe colitis attack yet . The next day , Lawrence called Lewis Strauss and told him that his brother , a doctor , had ordered him to return home and that he would not be testifying . Lawrence suffered with colitis until his death during colostomy surgery , on August 27 , 1958 .
Edward Teller was opposed to the hearing , feeling it was improper to subject Oppenheimer to a security trial , but was torn by longstanding grievances against him . He was called by Robb to testify against Oppenheimer , and shortly before he appeared Robb showed Teller a dossier of items unfavorable to Oppenheimer . Teller testified that he considered Oppenheimer loyal , but that " in a great number of cases , I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act – I understand that Dr. Oppenheimer acted – in a way which for me was exceedingly hard to understand . I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated . To this extent I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better , and therefore trust more . " Asked whether Oppenheimer should be granted a security clearance , Teller said that " if it is a question of wisdom or judgement , as demonstrated by actions since 1945 , then I would say one would be wiser not to grant clearance . " This led to outrage by many in the scientific community and Teller 's ostracism and virtual expulsion from academic science .
= = The board 's decision = =
Oppenheimer 's clearance was revoked by a 2 – 1 vote of the panel . Gray and Morgan voted in favor , Evans against . The board rendered its decision on May 27 , 1954 , in a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ word letter to Nichols . It found that 20 of the 24 charges were either true or substantially true . The board found that while he had been opposed to the bomb and that his lack of enthusiasm for it had affected the attitude of other scientists , he had not actively discouraged scientists from working on the H @-@ bomb , as had been alleged in Nichols ' letter . It found that " there is no evidence that he was a member of the [ Communist ] party in the strict sense of the word , " and concluded that he is a " loyal citizen " . It said that he " had a high degree of discretion , reflecting an unusual ability to keep to himself vital secrets , " but that he had " a tendency to be coerced , or at least influenced in conduct , for a period of years . "
The board found that Oppenheimer 's association with Chevalier " is not the kind of thing that our security system permits on the part of one who customarily has access to information of the highest classification " , and concluded that " Oppenheimer 's continuing conduct reflects a serious disregard for the requirements of the security system , " that he was susceptible " to influence which could have serious implications for the security interests of the country , " that his attitude toward the H @-@ bomb program raised doubt about whether his future participation " would be consistent with the best interests of security , " and that Oppenheimer had been " less than candid in several instances " in his testimony . The majority therefore did not recommend that his security clearance be reinstated .
In a brief dissent , Evans argued that Oppenheimer 's security clearance should be reinstated . He pointed out that most of the AEC charges had been in the hands of the AEC when it cleared Oppenheimer in 1947 , and that " to deny him clearance now for what he was cleared for in 1947 , when we must know he is less of security risk now than he was then , seems to be hardly the procedure to be adopted in a free country . " Evans said that his association with Chevalier did not indicate disloyalty , and that he did not hinder development of the H @-@ bomb . Evans said he personally thought that " our failure to clear Dr. Oppenheimer will be black mark on the escutcheon of our country , " and expressed concern about the effect an improper decision might have on the country 's scientific development .
= = = Nichols findings and AEC decision = = =
In a harshly worded memorandum to the AEC on June 12 , 1954 , Nichols recommended that Oppenheimer 's security clearance not be reinstated . In five " security findings " , Nichols said that Oppenheimer was " a Communist in every sense except that he did not carry a party card , " and that the Chevalier incident indicated that Oppenheimer " is not reliable or trustworthy " , and that his misstatements might have represented criminal conduct . He said that Oppenheimer 's " obstruction and disregard for security " showed " a consistent disregard of a reasonable security system . " The Nichols memorandum was not made public nor provided to Oppenheimer 's lawyers , who were not allowed to appear before the AEC .
On June 29 , 1954 , the AEC upheld the findings of the Personnel Security Board , with five commissioners voting in favor and one opposed . The decision was rendered 32 hours before Oppenheimer 's consultant contract , and with it the need for a clearance , was due to expire . In his majority opinion , Strauss said that Oppenheimer had displayed " fundamental character defects " . He said that Oppenheimer " in his associations had repeatedly exhibited a willful disregard of the normal and proper obligations of security , " and that he " has defaulted not once but many times upon the obligations that should and must be willingly borne by citizens in the national service . "
Despite the promise of confidentiality , the AEC released an edited transcript of the hearing in June 1954 , after press publicity of the hearing . The unredacted transcripts were released in 2012 .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
The loss of his security clearance ended Oppenheimer 's role in government and policy . Although he was not fired from his job at the Institute for Advanced Study , as he had feared he might be , he became an academic exile , cut off from his former career and the world he had helped to create . He gave public lectures , and spent several months of each year on the small island of Saint John in the Caribbean . Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin considered the Oppenheimer case " a defeat for American liberalism " . Summing up the fallout from the case , they wrote that :
In a few years after World War II , scientists had been regarded as a new class of intellectuals , members of a public @-@ policy priesthood who might legitimately offer expertise not only as scientists but as public philosophers . With Oppenheimer 's defrocking , scientists knew that in the future they would serve the state only as experts only on narrow scientific issues . As sociologist Daniel Bell later observed , Oppenheimer 's ordeal signified that the postwar " messianic role of the scientists " was now at an end . Scientists working within the system could not dissent from government policy , as Oppenheimer had done by writing his 1953 Foreign Affairs essay , and still expect to serve on government advisory boards . The trial thus represented a watershed in the relations of the scientist to the government . The narrowest version of how American scientists should serve their country had triumphed .
Oppenheimer was seen by many in the scientific community as a martyr to McCarthyism , a modern Galileo or Socrates , an intellectual and progressive unjustly attacked by warmongering enemies , symbolic of the shift of scientific creativity from academia into the military . Patrick McGrath noted that " Scientists and administrators such as Edward Teller , Lewis Strauss and Ernest Lawrence , with their full @-@ throated militarism and anti @-@ communism pushed American scientists and their institutions toward a nearly complete and subservient devotion to American military interests . " Scientists continued to work for the AEC , but they no longer trusted it .
Loyalty and security tests spread through the federal government . At these inquiries , federal employees were asked questions such as :
Is it proper to mix white and Negro blood plasma ?
There is a suspicion in your record that you are in sympathy with the underprivileged . Is that true ?
What were your feelings at that time concerning race equality ?
Have you ever made statements about the " downtrodden masses " and " underprivileged people " ?
Strauss , Teller , Borden , and Robb would never escape the public identification of them with the case . In a 1962 television interview , Eric F. Goldman asked Teller whether he favored restoring Oppenheimer 's security clearance . Teller was struck dumb , unable to find an answer . The question was deleted from the version that was aired , but the news got out and made headlines . President John F. Kennedy decided that the time had come to rehabilitate Oppenheimer . Teller nominated Oppenheimer for the 1963 Enrico Fermi Award . The nomination was unanimously approved by the GAC and AEC , and announced on April 5 , 1963 . On November 22 , the White House confirmed that Kennedy would personally present the award , but he was assassinated later that day . The award was presented by President Lyndon B. Johnson instead . Oppenheimer died of cancer on February 18 , 1967 .
Wernher von Braun summed up his opinion about the matter with a quip to a Congressional committee : " In England , Oppenheimer would have been knighted . "
= = = Recent allegations = = =
Time magazine literary critic Richard Lacayo , in a 2005 review of two new books about Oppenheimer , said of the hearing : " As an effort to prove that he had been a party member , much less one involved in espionage , the inquest was a failure . Its real purpose was larger , however : to punish the most prominent American critic of the U.S. move from atomic weapons to the much more lethal hydrogen bomb . " After the hearing , Lacayo said , " Oppenheimer would never again feel comfortable as a public advocate for a sane nuclear policy . "
Cornell University historian Richard Polenberg noted that Oppenheimer testified about the left @-@ wing behavior of his colleagues and speculated that if his clearance had not been stripped , he would have been remembered as someone who had " named names " to save his own reputation . In a book Brotherhood of the Bomb : The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer , Ernest Lawrence , and Edward Teller ( 2002 ) , Gregg Herken , a senior historian at the Smithsonian Institution , contended , based on newly discovered documentation , that Oppenheimer was a member of the Communist Party .
In a seminar at the Woodrow Wilson Institute on May 20 , 2009 , and based on an extensive analysis of the Vassiliev notebooks taken from the KGB archives , John Earl Haynes , Harvey Klehr , and Alexander Vassiliev concluded that Oppenheimer never was involved in espionage for the Soviets . The KGB tried repeatedly to recruit him , but were never successful . Allegations that he had spied for the Soviets are unsupported , and in some instances , contradicted by voluminous KGB and Venona documentation released after the fall of the Soviet Union . In addition , he had several persons removed from the Manhattan project who had sympathies to the Soviet Union .
= = = Dramatizations = = =
Most popular depictions of Oppenheimer view his security struggles as a confrontation between right @-@ wing militarists ( symbolized by Edward Teller ) and left @-@ wing intellectuals ( symbolized by Oppenheimer ) over the moral question of weapons of mass destruction . Many historians have contested this as an oversimplification .
The hearing was dramatized in a 1964 play by German playwright Heinar Kipphardt , In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer . Oppenheimer objected to the play , threatening suit and decrying " improvisations which were contrary to history and to the nature of the people involved " , including its portrayal of him as viewing the bomb as a " work of the devil " . His letter to Kipphardt said , " You may well have forgotten Guernica , Dachau , Coventry , Belsen , Warsaw , Dresden and Tokyo . I have not . " Of his security hearing , he said , " The whole damn thing was a farce , and these people are trying to make a tragedy out of it . "
In a response , Kipphardt offered to make corrections but defended the play , which premiered on Broadway in June 1968 , with Joseph Wiseman in the Oppenheimer role . New York Times theater critic Clive Barnes called it an " angry play and a partisan play " that sided with Oppenheimer but portrayed the scientist as a " tragic fool and genius " .
The hearing also figured prominently in the 1980 BBC TV movie Oppenheimer , with Sam Waterston as the title character and David Suchet as Edward Teller .
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= Winfield Scott Hancock =
Winfield Scott Hancock ( February 14 , 1824 – February 9 , 1886 ) was a career U.S. Army officer and the Democratic nominee for President of the United States in 1880 . He served with distinction in the Army for four decades , including service in the Mexican @-@ American War and as a Union general in the American Civil War . Known to his Army colleagues as " Hancock the Superb " , he was noted in particular for his personal leadership at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863 . One military historian wrote , " No other Union general at Gettysburg dominated men by the sheer force of their presence more completely than Hancock . " As another wrote , " his tactical skill had won him the quick admiration of adversaries who had come to know him as the ' Thunderbolt of the Army of the Potomac ' . " His military service continued after the Civil War , as Hancock participated in the military Reconstruction of the South and the Army 's presence at the Western frontier .
Hancock 's reputation as a war hero at Gettysburg , combined with his status as a Unionist and supporter of states ' rights , made him a potential presidential candidate . His noted integrity was a counterpoint to the corruption of the era , for as President Rutherford B. Hayes said , " ... [ i ] f , when we make up our estimate of a public man , conspicuous both as a soldier and in civil life , we are to think first and chiefly of his manhood , his integrity , his purity , his singleness of purpose , and his unselfish devotion to duty , we can truthfully say of Hancock that he was through and through pure gold . " When the Democrats nominated him for President in 1880 , he ran a strong campaign , but was narrowly defeated by Republican James A. Garfield .
= = Early life and family = =
Winfield Scott Hancock and his identical twin brother Hilary Baker Hancock were born on February 14 , 1824 , in Montgomery Square , Pennsylvania , a hamlet just northwest of Philadelphia in present @-@ day Montgomery Township . The twins were the sons of Benjamin Franklin Hancock and Elizabeth Hoxworth Hancock . Winfield was named after Winfield Scott , a prominent general in the War of 1812 .
The Hancock and Hoxworth families had lived in Montgomery County for several generations , and were of English , Scottish and Welsh descent . Benjamin Hancock was a schoolteacher when his sons were born . A few years after their birth , he moved the family to Norristown , the county seat , and began to practice law . Benjamin was also a deacon in the Baptist church and participated in municipal government ( as an avowed Democrat ) .
Hancock was at first educated at Norristown Academy , but removed to the public schools when the first one opened in Norristown in the late 1830s . In 1840 , Joseph Fornance , the local Congressman , nominated Hancock to the United States Military Academy at West Point . Hancock 's progress at West Point was average . He graduated 18th in his class of 25 in 1844 , and he was assigned to the infantry .
= = Starting a military career = =
= = = Mexican War = = =
Hancock was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 6th U.S. Infantry regiment , and initially was stationed in Indian Territory in the Red River Valley . The region was quiet at the time , and Hancock 's time there was uneventful . Upon the outbreak of war with Mexico in 1846 , Hancock worked to secure himself a place at the front . Initially assigned to recruiting duties in Kentucky , he proved so adept at signing up soldiers that his superiors were reluctant to release him from his post . By July 1847 , however , Hancock was permitted to join his regiment in Puebla , Mexico , where they made up a part of the army led by his namesake , General Winfield Scott .
Scott 's army moved farther inland from Puebla unopposed and attacked Mexico City from the south . During that campaign in 1847 , Hancock first encountered battle at Contreras and Churubusco . He was appointed a brevet first lieutenant for gallant and meritorious service in those actions . Hancock was wounded in the knee at Churubusco and developed a fever . Although he was well enough to join his regiment at Molino del Rey , fever kept Hancock from participating in the final breakthrough to Mexico City , something he would regret for the rest of his life . After the final victory , Hancock remained in Mexico with the 6th Infantry until the treaty of peace was signed in 1848 .
= = = Marriage and peacetime = = =
Hancock served in a number of assignments as an army quartermaster and adjutant , mostly in Fort Snelling , Minnesota and St. Louis , Missouri . It was in St. Louis that he met Almira ( " Allie " ) Russell and they married on January 24 , 1850 . Allie gave birth to two children , Russell in 1850 and Ada in 1857 , but both children died before their parents . Hancock was promoted to captain in 1855 and assigned to Fort Myers , Florida . Hancock 's young family accompanied him to his new posting , where Allie Hancock was the only woman on the post .
Hancock 's tour in Florida coincided with the end of the Third Seminole War . His duties were primarily those of a quartermaster , and he did not see action in that campaign . As the situation in Florida began to settle down , Hancock was reassigned to Fort Leavenworth , Kansas . He served in the West during the partisan warfare of " Bleeding Kansas " , and in the Utah Territory , where the 6th Infantry arrived after the Utah War . Following the resolution of that conflict , Hancock was stationed in southern California in November 1858 . He remained there , joined by Allie and the children , until the Civil War broke out in 1861 , serving as a captain and assistant quartermaster under future Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston . In California , Hancock became friendly with a number of southern officers , most significantly Lewis A. Armistead of Virginia . At the outbreak of the Civil War , Armistead and the other southerners left to join the Confederate States Army , while Hancock remained in the service of the United States .
= = Civil War = =
= = = Joining the Army of the Potomac = = =
Hancock returned east to assume quartermaster duties for the rapidly growing Union Army , but was quickly promoted to brigadier general on September 23 , 1861 , and given an infantry brigade to command in the division of Brig. Gen. William F. " Baldy " Smith , Army of the Potomac . He earned his " Superb " nickname in the Peninsula Campaign , in 1862 , by leading a critical counterattack in the Battle of Williamsburg ; army commander Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan telegraphed to Washington that " Hancock was superb today " and the appellation stuck . McClellan did not follow through on Hancock 's initiative , however , and Confederate forces were allowed to withdraw unmolested .
In the Battle of Antietam , Hancock assumed command of the 1st Division , II Corps , following the mortal wounding of Maj. Gen. Israel B. Richardson in the horrific fighting at " Bloody Lane . " Hancock and his staff made a dramatic entrance to the battlefield , galloping between his troops and the enemy , parallel to the Sunken Road . His men assumed that Hancock would order counterattacks against the exhausted Confederates , but he carried orders from McClellan to hold his position . He was promoted to major general of volunteers on November 29 , 1862 . He led his division in the disastrous attack on Marye 's Heights in the Battle of Fredericksburg the following month and was wounded in the abdomen . At the Battle of Chancellorsville , his division covered Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker 's withdrawal and Hancock was wounded again . His corps commander , Maj. Gen. Darius N. Couch , transferred out of the Army of the Potomac in protest of actions Hooker took in the battle and Hancock assumed command of II Corps , which he would lead until shortly before the war 's end .
= = = Gettysburg = = =
Hancock 's most famous service was as a new corps commander at the Battle of Gettysburg , July 1 to 3 , 1863 . After his friend , Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds , was killed early on July 1 , Maj. Gen. George G. Meade , the new commander of the Army of the Potomac , sent Hancock ahead to take command of the units on the field and assess the situation . Hancock thus was in temporary command of the " left wing " of the army , consisting of the I , II , III , and XI Corps . This demonstrated Meade 's high confidence in him , because Hancock was not the most senior Union officer at Gettysburg at the time . Hancock and the more senior XI Corps commander , Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard , argued briefly about this command arrangement , but Hancock prevailed and he organized the Union defenses on Cemetery Hill as more numerous Confederate forces drove the I and XI Corps back through the town . He had the authority from Meade to withdraw the forces , so he was responsible for the decision to stand and fight at Gettysburg . At the conclusion of the day 's action , Maj. Gen. Henry Warner Slocum arrived on the field and assumed command until Gen. Meade arrived after midnight .
On July 2 , Hancock 's II Corps was positioned on Cemetery Ridge , roughly in the center of the Union line , while Confederate General Robert E. Lee launched assaults on both ends of the line . On the Union left , Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's assault smashed the III Corps and Hancock sent in his 1st Division , under Brig. Gen. John C. Caldwell , to reinforce the Union in the Wheatfield . As Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill 's corps continued the attack toward the Union center , Hancock rallied the defenses and rushed units to the critical spots . First , he issued the Third Brigade of his Third Division under Colonel George Willard into the fray to stop the advance of Confederate Brigadier General William Barksdale 's Brigade . In one famous incident , he sacrificed a regiment , the 1st Minnesota Volunteer Infantry Regiment , by ordering it to advance and charge a Confederate brigade four times its size , causing the Minnesotans to suffer 87 % casualties . While costly to the regiment , this heroic sacrifice bought time to organize the defensive line and saved the day for the Union army . Following the action toward his right , he met the 13th Vermont Volunteer Infantry Regiment , a First Corps unit which had come from Cemetery Hill to help quell the crisis . Hancock sent them out to recover some artillery pieces Confederates had taken and were pulling away . The Vermonters were successful . Having stabilized his line , he turned his attention to the sound of fighting on East Cemetery Hill . There , with darkness falling , Confederates from Major General Jubal Early 's Division had gotten into Union batteries and were fighting the cannoneers hand @-@ to @-@ hand . Hancock sent the First Brigade of his Third Division , under Colonel Samuel S. Carroll , to the fighting . The brigade was crucial in flushing the enemy out of the batteries and dispatching them back down the face of East Cemetery Hill .
On July 3 , Hancock continued in his position on Cemetery Ridge and thus bore the brunt of Pickett 's Charge . During the massive Confederate artillery bombardment that preceded the infantry assault , Hancock was prominent on horseback in reviewing and encouraging his troops . When one of his subordinates protested , " General , the corps commander ought not to risk his life that way , " Hancock is said to have replied , " There are times when a corps commander 's life does not count . " During the infantry assault , his old friend , now Brig. Gen. Lewis A. Armistead , leading a brigade in Maj. Gen. George Pickett 's division , was wounded and died two days later . Hancock could not meet with his friend because he had just been wounded himself , a severe wound caused by a bullet striking the pommel of his saddle , entering his inner right thigh along with wood fragments and a large bent nail . Helped from his horse by aides , and with a tourniquet applied to stanch the bleeding , he removed the saddle nail himself and , mistaking its source , remarked wryly , " They must be hard up for ammunition when they throw such shot as that . " News of Armistead 's mortal wounding was brought to Hancock by a member of his staff , Captain Henry H. Bingham . Despite his pain , Hancock refused evacuation to the rear until the battle was resolved . He had been an inspiration for his troops throughout the three @-@ day battle . Hancock later received the thanks of the U.S. Congress for " ... his gallant , meritorious and conspicuous share in that great and decisive victory . "
= = = Virginia and the end of the war = = =
Hancock suffered from the effects of his Gettysburg wound for the rest of the war . After recuperating in Norristown , he performed recruiting services over the winter and returned in the spring to field command of the II Corps for Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant 's 1864 Overland Campaign , but he never regained full mobility and his former youthful energy . Nevertheless , he performed well at the Battle of the Wilderness and commanded a critical breakthrough assault of the Mule Shoe at the " Bloody Angle " in the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House on May 12 , shattering the Confederate defenders in his front , including the Stonewall Brigade . His corps suffered enormous losses during a futile assault Grant ordered at Cold Harbor .
After Grant 's army slipped past Lee 's army to cross the James River , Hancock found himself in a position from which he might have ended the war . His corps arrived to support William Farrar Smith 's assaults on the lightly held Petersburg defensive lines , but he deferred to Smith 's advice because Smith knew the ground and had been on the field all day , and no significant assaults were made before the Confederate lines were reinforced . One of the great opportunities of the war was lost . After his corps participated in the assaults at Deep Bottom , Hancock was promoted to brigadier general in the regular army , effective August 12 , 1864 .
Hancock 's only significant military defeat occurred during the Siege of Petersburg . His II Corps moved south of the city , along the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad , tearing up track . On August 25 , Confederate Maj. Gen. Henry Heth attacked and overran the faulty Union position at Reams 's Station , shattering the II Corps , capturing many prisoners . Despite a later victory at Hatcher 's Run , the humiliation of Reams 's Station contributed , along with the lingering effects of his Gettysburg wound , to his decision to give up field command in November . He left the II Corps after a year in which it had suffered over 40 @,@ 000 casualties , but had achieved significant military victories . His next assignment was to command the ceremonial First Veteran Corps . He performed more recruiting , commanded the Middle Department , and relieved Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan in command of forces in the now @-@ quiet Shenandoah Valley . He was promoted to brevet major general in the regular army for his service at Spotsylvania , effective March 13 , 1865 .
= = Post @-@ war military service = =
= = = Execution of Lincoln assassination conspirators = = =
At the close of the war , Hancock was assigned to supervise the execution of the Lincoln assassination conspirators . Lincoln had been assassinated on April 14 , 1865 , and by May 9 of that year , a military commission had been convened to try the accused . The actual assassin , John Wilkes Booth , was already dead , but the trial of his co @-@ conspirators proceeded quickly , resulting in convictions . President Andrew Johnson ordered the executions to be carried out on July 7 . Although he was reluctant to execute some of the less @-@ culpable conspirators , especially Mary Surratt , Hancock carried out his orders , later writing that " every soldier was bound to act as I did under similar circumstances . "
= = = Service on the Plains = = =
After the executions , Hancock was assigned command of the newly organized Middle Military Department , headquartered in Baltimore . In 1866 , on Grant 's recommendation , Hancock was promoted to major general and was transferred , later that year , to command of the military Department of the Missouri , which included the states of Missouri , Kansas , Colorado , and New Mexico . Hancock reported to Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , and took up his new posting . Soon after arriving , he was assigned by General Sherman to lead an expedition to negotiate with the Cheyenne and Sioux , with whom relations had worsened since the Sand Creek massacre . The negotiations got off to a bad start , and after Hancock ordered the burning of an abandoned Cheyenne village in central Kansas , relations became worse than when the expedition had started . There was little loss of life on either side , but the mission could not be called a success .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
Hancock 's time in the West was brief . President Johnson , unhappy with the way Republican generals were governing the South under Reconstruction , sought replacements for them . The general who offended Johnson the most was Philip Sheridan , and Johnson soon ordered General Grant to switch the assignments of Hancock and Sheridan , believing that Hancock , a Democrat , would govern in a style more to Johnson 's liking . Although neither man was pleased with the change , Sheridan reported to Fort Leavenworth and Hancock to New Orleans .
Hancock 's new assignment found him in charge of the Fifth Military District , covering Texas and Louisiana . Almost immediately upon arriving , Hancock ingratiated himself with the white conservative population by issuing his General Order Number 40 of November 29 , 1867 . In that order , written while traveling to New Orleans , Hancock expressed sentiments in support of President Johnson 's policies , writing that if the residents of the district conducted themselves peacefully and the civilian officials perform their duties , then " the military power should cease to lead , and the civil administration resume its natural and rightful dominion . " The order continued :
The great principles of American liberty are still the lawful inheritance of this people , and ever should be . The right of trial by jury , the habeas corpus , the liberty of the press , the freedom of speech , the natural rights of persons and the rights of property must be preserved . Free institutions , while they are essential to the prosperity and happiness of the people , always furnish the strongest inducements to peace and order .
Hancock 's order encouraged white Democrats across the South who hoped to return to civilian government more quickly , but discomforted blacks and Republicans in the South who feared a return to the antebellum ways of conservative white dominance .
Hancock 's General Order Number 40 was quickly condemned by Republicans in Washington , especially by the Radicals , while President Johnson wholeheartedly approved . Heedless of the situation in Washington , Hancock soon put his words into action , refusing local Republican politicians ' requests to use his power to overturn elections and court verdicts , while also letting it be known that open insurrection would be suppressed . Hancock 's popularity within the Democratic party grew to the extent that he was considered a potential presidential nominee for that party in the 1868 election . Although Hancock collected a significant number of delegates at the 1868 convention , his presidential possibilities went unfulfilled . Even so , he was henceforth identified as a rare breed in politics : one who believed in the Democratic Party 's principles of states ' rights and limited government , but whose anti @-@ secessionist sentiment was unimpeachable .
= = = Return to the Plains = = =
Following General Grant 's 1868 presidential victory , the Republicans were firmly in charge in Washington . As a result , Hancock found himself transferred , this time away from the sensitive assignment of reconstructing the South and into the relative backwater that was the Department of Dakota . The Department covered Minnesota , Montana , and the Dakotas . As in his previous Western command , Hancock began with a conference of the Indian chiefs , but this time was more successful in establishing a peaceful intent . Relations worsened in 1870 , however , as an army expedition committed a massacre against the Blackfeet . Relations with the Sioux also became contentious as a result of white encroachment into the Black Hills , in violation of the Treaty of Fort Laramie . Still , war was averted , for the time being , and most of Hancock 's command was peaceful .
It was during this tour that Hancock had the opportunity to contribute to the creation of Yellowstone National Park . In August 1870 , he ordered the 2nd Cavalry at Fort Ellis to provide a military escort for General Henry D. Washburn 's planned exploration of the Yellowstone Region . The expedition , which was a major impetus in creating the park , became known as the Washburn @-@ Langford @-@ Doane Expedition . Hancock 's order led to the assignment of Lt. Gustavus Cheyney Doane and a troop of 5 cavalrymen from Fort Ellis to escort the expedition . In 1871 , Captain John W. Barlow during his exploration of the Yellowstone region formally named a summit on what would become the southern boundary of the park Mount Hancock to honor the general 's decision to provide the escort .
= = = Command in the East and political ambitions = = =
In 1872 , General Meade died , leaving Hancock the army 's senior major general . This entitled him to a more prominent command , and President Grant , still desirous to keep Hancock from a Southern post , assigned him command of the Division of the Atlantic , headquartered at Fort Columbus on Governors Island , in New York City . The vast department covered the settled northeast area of the country and was militarily uneventful with the exception of the army 's involvement in the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 . When railroad workers went on strike to protest wage cuts , the nation 's transportation system was paralyzed . The governors of Pennsylvania , West Virginia , and Maryland asked President Hayes to call in federal troops to re @-@ open the railways . Once federal troops entered the cities , most of the strikers melted away , but there were some violent clashes .
All the while Hancock was posted in New York , he did his best to keep his political ambitions alive . He received some votes at the Democrats ' 1876 convention , but was never a serious contender as New York governor Samuel J. Tilden swept the field on the second ballot . The Republican candidate , Rutherford B. Hayes , won the election , and Hancock refocused his ambition on 1880 . The electoral crisis of 1876 and the subsequent end to Reconstruction in 1877 convinced many observers that the election of 1880 would give the Democrats their best chance at victory in a generation .
= = Election of 1880 = =
= = = Democratic convention = = =
Hancock 's name had been proposed several times for the Democratic nomination for president , but he never captured a majority of delegates . In 1880 , however , Hancock 's chances improved . President Hayes had promised not to run for a second term , and the previous Democratic nominee , Tilden , declined to run again due to poor health . Hancock faced several competitors for the nomination , including Thomas A. Hendricks , Allen G. Thurman , Stephen Johnson Field , and Thomas F. Bayard . Hancock 's neutrality on the monetary question , and his lingering support in the South ( owing to his General Order Number 40 ) meant that Hancock , more than any other candidate , had nationwide support . When the Democratic convention assembled in Cincinnati in June 1880 , Hancock led on the first ballot , but did not have a majority . By the second ballot , Hancock received the requisite two @-@ thirds , and William Hayden English of Indiana was chosen as his running mate .
= = = Campaign against Garfield = = =
The Republicans nominated James A. Garfield , a Congressman from Ohio and a skillful politician . Hancock and the Democrats expected to carry the Solid South , but needed to add a few of the Northern states to their total to win the election . The practical differences between the parties were few , and the Republicans were reluctant to attack Hancock personally because of his heroic reputation . The one policy difference the Republicans were able to exploit was a statement in the Democratic platform endorsing " a tariff for revenue only . " Garfield 's campaigners used this statement to paint the Democrats as unsympathetic to the plight of industrial laborers , a group that would benefit by a high protective tariff . The tariff issue cut Democratic support in industrialized Northern states , which were essential in establishing a Democratic majority . In the end , the Democrats and Hancock failed to carry any of the Northern states they had targeted , with the exception of New Jersey . Hancock lost the election to Garfield . Garfield polled only 39 @,@ 213 more votes than Hancock , the popular vote being 4 @,@ 453 @,@ 295 for Garfield and 4 @,@ 414 @,@ 082 for Hancock . The electoral count , however , had a much larger spread : Garfield polled 214 electoral votes and Hancock only 155 .
= = Later life = =
Hancock took his electoral defeat in stride and attended Garfield 's inauguration . Following the election , Hancock carried on as commander of the Division of the Atlantic . He was elected president of the National Rifle Association in 1881 , explaining that " The object of the NRA is to increase the military strength of the country by making skill in the use of arms as prevalent as it was in the days of the Revolution . " Hancock was a Charter Director and the first president of the Military Service Institution of the United States from 1878 until his death in 1886 . He was commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States veterans organization from 1879 until his death in 1886 . He was the author of Reports of Major General W. S. Hancock upon Indian Affairs , published in 1867 . Hancock 's last major public appearance was to preside over the funeral of President Grant in 1885 , although he also made a less publicized trip that year to Gettysburg .
Hancock died in 1886 at Governors Island , still in command of the Military Division of the Atlantic , the victim of an infected carbuncle , complicated by diabetes . He is buried in Montgomery Cemetery in West Norriton Township , Montgomery County , Pennsylvania , near Norristown , Pennsylvania . Although he outlived both of his children , he was survived by the three grandchildren fathered by his son , Russell . Hancock 's wife , Almira , published Reminiscences of Winfield Scott Hancock in 1887 .
In 1893 , Republican General Francis A. Walker wrote , " Although I did not vote for General Hancock , I am strongly disposed to believe that one of the best things the nation has lost in recent years has been the example and the influence of that chivalric , stately , and splendid gentleman in the White House . Perhaps much which both parties now recognize as having been unfortunate and mischievous during the past thirteen years would have been avoided had General Hancock been elected . "
= = Legacy = =
Winfield Scott Hancock is memorialized in a number of statues :
An equestrian statue on East Cemetery Hill on the Gettysburg Battlefield .
A portrait statue as part of the Pennsylvania Memorial at Gettysburg .
An alto @-@ relievo representing Hancock 's wounding during Pickett 's Charge , on the New York State Monument at Gettysburg .
An equestrian statue located at Pennsylvania Avenue and 7th Street , NW in Washington , D.C.
An equestrian statue atop the Smith Memorial Arch in Fairmount Park , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania .
A monumental bronze bust in Hancock Square , New York City , by sculptor James Wilson Alexander MacDonald .
The original Winfield Scott Hancock Elementary School , located at Arch and East Spruce Streets in Norristown , Pennsylvania , was built in 1895 in memory of the General who grew up not far from the site . It was replaced in 1962 by a new building still in use by the Norristown Area School District only a few blocks away at Arch and Summit Streets , which is also named after General Hancock . The original 1895 building still stands and is used by a community non @-@ profit organization .
Hancock 's portrait adorns U.S. currency on the $ 2 Silver Certificate series of 1886 . Approximately 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 500 of these bills survive today in numismatic collections . Hancock 's bill is ranked number 73 on a list of " 100 Greatest American Currency Notes " .
= = Popular media = =
Hancock was an important character in the historical novels about the Civil War by the Shaara family : The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara and Gods and Generals and The Last Full Measure by Jeffrey Shaara . In the films Gettysburg ( 1993 ) and Gods and Generals ( 2003 ) , based on the first two of these novels , Hancock is portrayed by Brian Mallon and is depicted in both films in a very favorable light . A number of scenes in the novel Gods and Generals that depict Hancock and his friend Lewis Armistead in Southern California before the war have been omitted from the film . Hancock 's Washington D.C. equestrian statue is featured in the opening to the Netflix series House of Cards .
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= Colley Cibber =
Colley Cibber ( 6 November 1671 – 11 December 1757 ) was an English actor @-@ manager , playwright and Poet Laureate . His colourful memoir Apology for the Life of Colley Cibber ( 1740 ) describes his life in a personal , anecdotal and even rambling style . He wrote 25 plays for his own company at Drury Lane , half of which were adapted from various sources , which led Robert Lowe and Alexander Pope , among others , to criticise his " miserable mutilation " of " crucified Molière [ and ] hapless Shakespeare " . He regarded himself as first and foremost an actor and had great popular success in comical fop parts , while as a tragic actor he was persistent but much ridiculed . Cibber 's brash , extroverted personality did not sit well with his contemporaries , and he was frequently accused of tasteless theatrical productions , shady business methods , and a social and political opportunism that was thought to have gained him the laureateship over far better poets . He rose to ignominious fame when he became the chief target , the head Dunce , of Alexander Pope 's satirical poem The Dunciad .
Cibber 's poetical work was derided in his time , and has been remembered only for being poor . His importance in British theatre history rests on his being one of the first in a long line of actor @-@ managers , on the interest of two of his comedies as documents of evolving early 18th @-@ century taste and ideology , and on the value of his autobiography as a historical source .
= = Life = =
Cibber was born in Southampton Street , in Bloomsbury , London . He was the eldest child of Caius Gabriel Cibber , a distinguished sculptor originally from Denmark . His mother , Jane née Colley , came from a family of gentry from Glaston , Rutland . He was educated at the King 's School , Grantham , from 1682 until the age of 16 , but failed to win a place at Winchester College , which had been founded by his maternal ancestor William of Wykeham . In 1688 , he joined the service of his father 's patron , Lord Devonshire , who was one of the prime supporters of the Glorious Revolution . After the revolution , and at a loose end in London , he was attracted to the stage and in 1690 began work as an actor in Thomas Betterton 's United Company at the Drury Lane Theatre . " Poor , at odds with his parents , and entering the theatrical world at a time when players were losing their power to businessmen @-@ managers " , on 6 May 1693 Cibber married Katherine Shore , the daughter of Matthias Shore , sergeant @-@ trumpeter to the King , despite his poor prospects and insecure , socially inferior job .
Cibber and Katherine had 12 children between 1694 and 1713 . Six died in infancy , and most of the surviving children received short shrift in his will . Catherine , the eldest surviving daughter , married Colonel James Brown and seems to have been the dutiful one who looked after Cibber in old age following his wife 's death in 1734 . She was duly rewarded at his death with most of his estate . His middle daughters , Anne and Elizabeth , went into business . Anne had a shop that sold fine wares and foods , and married John Boultby . Elizabeth had a restaurant near Gray 's Inn , and married firstly Dawson Brett , and secondly ( after Brett 's death ) Joseph Marples . His only son to reach adulthood , Theophilus , became an actor at Drury Lane , and was an embarrassment to his father because of his scandalous private life . His other son to survive infancy , James , died in or after 1717 before reaching adulthood . Colley 's youngest daughter Charlotte followed in her father 's theatrical footsteps , but she fell out with him and her sister Catherine , and she was cut off by the family .
After an inauspicious start as an actor , Cibber eventually became a popular comedian , wrote and adapted many plays , and rose to become one of the newly empowered businessmen @-@ managers . He took over the management of Drury Lane in 1710 and took a highly commercial , if not artistically successful , line in the job . In 1730 , he was made Poet Laureate , an appointment which attracted widespread scorn , particularly from Alexander Pope and other Tory satirists . Off @-@ stage , he was a keen gambler , and was one of the investors in the South Sea Company .
In the last two decades of his life , Cibber remained prominent in society , and summered in Georgian spas such as Tunbridge , Scarborough and Bath . He was friendly with the writer Samuel Richardson , the actress Margaret Woffington and the memoirist – poet Laetitia Pilkington . Aged 73 in 1745 , he made his last appearance on the stage as Pandulph in his own " deservedly unsuccessful " Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John . In 1750 , he fell seriously ill and recommended his friend and protégé Henry Jones as the next Poet Laureate . Cibber recovered and Jones passed into obscurity . Cibber died suddenly at his house in Berkeley Square , London , in December 1757 , leaving small pecuniary legacies to four of his five surviving children , £ 1 @,@ 000 each ( the equivalent of approximately £ 180 @,@ 000 in 2011 ) to his granddaughters Jane and Elizabeth ( the daughters of Theophilus ) , and the residue of his estate to his eldest daughter Catherine . He was buried on 18 December , probably at the Grosvenor Chapel on South Audley Street .
= = Autobiography = =
Cibber 's colourful autobiography , An Apology for the Life of Colley Cibber ( 1740 ) , was chatty , meandering , anecdotal , vain and occasionally inaccurate . At the time of writing the word " apology " meant an apologia , a statement in defence of one 's actions rather than a statement of regret for having transgressed .
The text virtually ignores his wife and family , but Cibber wrote in detail about his time in the theatre , especially his early years as a young actor at Drury Lane in the 1690s , giving a vivid account of the cut @-@ throat theatre company rivalries and chicanery of the time , as well as providing pen portraits of the actors he knew . The Apology is vain and self @-@ serving , as both his contemporaries and later commentators have pointed out , but it also serves as Cibber 's rebuttal to his harshest critics , especially Pope . For the early part of Cibber 's career , it is unreliable in respect of chronology and other hard facts , understandably , since it was written 50 years after the events , apparently without the help of a journal or notes . Nevertheless , it is an invaluable source for all aspects of the early 18th @-@ century theatre in London , for which documentation is otherwise scanty . Because he worked with many actors from the early days of Restoration theatre , such as Thomas Betterton and Elizabeth Barry at the end of their careers , and lived to see David Garrick perform , he is a bridge between the earlier mannered and later more naturalistic styles of performance .
The Apology was a popular work and gave Cibber a good return . Its self @-@ complacency , however , infuriated some of his contemporaries , notably Pope , but even the usually critical Samuel Johnson had to admit that it was " very entertaining and very well done " . It went through four editions in his lifetime , and more after his death , and generations of readers have found it an amusing and engaging read , projecting an author always " happy in his own good opinion , the best of all others ; teeming with animal spirits , and uniting the self @-@ sufficiency of youth with the garrulity of age . "
= = Actor = =
Cibber began his career as an actor at Drury Lane in 1690 , and had little success for several years . " The first Thing that enters into the Head of a young Actor " , he wrote in his autobiography half a century later , " is that of being a Hero : In this Ambition I was soon snubb 'd by the Insufficiency of my Voice ; to which might be added an uninform 'd meagre Person ... with a dismal pale Complexion . Under these Disadvantages , I had but a melancholy Prospect of ever playing a Lover with Mrs. Bracegirdle , which I had flatter 'd my Hopes that my Youth might one Day have recommended me to . " At this time the London stage was in something of a slump after the glories of the early Restoration period . The King 's and Duke 's companies had merged into a monopoly , leaving actors in a weak negotiating position and much at the mercy of the dictatorial manager Christopher Rich . When the senior actors rebelled and established a cooperative company of their own in 1695 , Cibber — " wisely " , as the Biographical Dictionary of Actors puts it — stayed with the remnants of the old company , " where the competition was less keen " . After five years , he had still not seen significant success in his chosen profession , and there had been no heroic parts and no love scenes . However , the return of two @-@ company rivalry created a sudden demand for new plays , and Cibber seized this opportunity to launch his career by writing a comedy with a big , flamboyant part for himself to play . He scored a double triumph : his comedy Love 's Last Shift , or The Fool in Fashion ( 1696 ) was a great success , and his own uninhibited performance as the Frenchified fop Sir Novelty Fashion ( " a coxcomb that loves to be the first in all foppery " ) delighted the audiences . His name was made , both as playwright and as comedian .
Later in life , when Cibber himself had the last word in casting at Drury Lane , he wrote , or patched together , several tragedies that were tailored to fit his continuing hankering after playing " a Hero " . However , his performances of such parts never pleased audiences , which wanted to see him typecast as an affected fop , a kind of character that fitted both his private reputation as a vain man , his exaggerated , mannered style of acting , and his habit of ad libbing . His most famous part for the rest of his career remained that of Lord Foppington in The Relapse , a sequel to Cibber 's own Love 's Last Shift but written by John Vanbrugh , first performed in 1696 with Cibber reprising his performance as Sir Novelty Fashion in the newly ennobled guise of Lord Foppington . Pope mentions the audience jubilation that greeted the small @-@ framed Cibber donning Lord Foppington 's enormous wig , which would be ceremoniously carried on stage in its own sedan chair . Vanbrugh reputedly wrote the part of Lord Foppington deliberately " to suit the eccentricities of Cibber 's acting style " .
His tragic efforts , however , were consistently ridiculed by contemporaries : when Cibber in the role of Richard III made love to Lady Anne , the Grub Street Journal wrote , " he looks like a pickpocket , with his shrugs and grimaces , that has more a design on her purse than her heart " . Cibber was on the stage in every year but two ( 1727 and 1731 ) between his debut in 1690 and his retirement in 1732 , playing more than 100 parts in all in nearly 3 @,@ 000 documented performances . After he had sold his interest in Drury Lane in 1733 and was a wealthy man in his sixties , he returned to the stage occasionally to play the classic fop parts of Restoration comedy for which audiences appreciated him . His Lord Foppington in Vanbrugh 's The Relapse , Sir Courtly Nice in John Crowne 's Sir Courtly Nice , and Sir Fopling Flutter in George Etherege 's Man of Mode were legendary . Critic John Hill in his 1775 work The actor , or , A treatise on the art of playing , described Cibber as " the best Lord Foppington who ever appeared , was in real life ( with all due respect be it spoken by one who loves him ) something of the coxcomb " . These were the kind of comic parts where Cibber 's affectation and mannerism were desirable . In 1738 – 39 , he played Shallow in Shakespeare 's Henry IV , Part 2 to critical acclaim , but his Richard III ( in his own version of the play ) was not well received . In the middle of the play , he whispered to fellow actor Benjamin Victor that he wanted to go home , perhaps realising he was too old for the part and its physical demands . Cibber also essayed tragic parts in plays by Shakespeare , Ben Jonson , John Dryden and others , but with less success . By the end of his acting career , audiences were being entranced by the innovatively naturalistic acting of the rising star David Garrick , who made his London debut in the title part in a production of Cibber 's adaptation of Richard III in 1741 . He returned to the stage for a final time in 1745 as Cardinal Pandulph in his play Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John .
= = Playwright = =
= = = Love 's Last Shift = = =
Cibber 's comedy Love 's Last Shift ( 1696 ) is an early herald of a massive shift in audience taste , away from the intellectualism and sexual frankness of Restoration comedy and towards the conservative certainties and gender @-@ role backlash of exemplary or sentimental comedy . According to Paul Parnell , Love 's Last Shift illustrates Cibber 's opportunism at a moment in time before the change was assured : fearless of self @-@ contradiction , he puts something for everybody into his first play , combining the old outspokenness with the new preachiness .
The central action of Love 's Last Shift is a celebration of the power of a good woman , Amanda , to reform a rakish husband , Loveless , by means of sweet patience and a daring bed @-@ trick . She masquerades as a prostitute and seduces Loveless without being recognised , and then confronts him with logical argument . Since he enjoyed the night with her while taking her for a stranger , a wife can be as good in bed as an illicit mistress . Loveless is convinced and stricken , and a rich choreography of mutual kneelings , risings and prostrations follows , generated by Loveless ' penitence and Amanda 's " submissive eloquence " . The première audience is said to have wept at this climactic scene . The play was a great box @-@ office success and was for a time the talk of the town , in both a positive and a negative sense . Some contemporaries regarded it as moving and amusing , others as a sentimental tear @-@ jerker , incongruously interspersed with sexually explicit Restoration comedy jokes and semi @-@ nude bedroom scenes .
Love 's Last Shift is today read mainly to gain a perspective on Vanbrugh 's sequel The Relapse , which has by contrast remained a stage favourite . Modern scholars often endorse the criticism that was levelled at Love 's Last Shift from the first , namely that it is a blatantly commercial combination of sex scenes and drawn @-@ out sentimental reconciliations . Cibber 's follow @-@ up comedy Woman 's Wit ( 1697 ) was produced under hasty and unpropitious circumstances and had no discernible theme ; Cibber , not usually shy about any of his plays , even elided its name in the Apology . It was followed by the equally unsuccessful tragedy Xerxes ( 1699 ) . Cibber reused parts of Woman 's Wit for The School Boy ( 1702 ) .
= = = Richard III = = =
Perhaps partly because of the failure of his previous two plays , Cibber 's next effort was an adaptation of Shakespeare 's Richard III . Neither Cibber 's adaptations nor his own original plays have stood the test of time , and hardly any of them have been staged or reprinted after the early 18th century , but his popular adaptation of Richard III remained the standard stage version for 150 years . The American actor George Berrell wrote in the 1870s that Richard III was :
a hodge @-@ podge concocted by Colley Cibber , who cut and transposed the original version , and added to it speeches from four or five other of Shakespeare 's plays , and several really fine speeches of his own . The speech to Buckingham : " I tell thee , coz , I 've lately had two spiders crawling o 'er my startled hopes " — the well @-@ known line " Off with his head ! So much for Buckingham ! " the speech ending with " Conscience , avaunt ! Richard 's himself again ! " — and other lines of power and effect were written by Cibber , who , with all due respect to the ' divine bard , ' improved upon the original , for acting purposes .
Richard III was followed by another adaptation , the comedy , Love Makes a Man , which was constructed by splicing together two plays by John Fletcher : The Elder Brother and The Custom of the Country . Cibber 's confidence was apparently restored by the success of the two plays , and he returned to more original writing .
= = = The Careless Husband = = =
The comedy The Careless Husband ( 1704 ) , generally considered to be Cibber 's best play , is another example of the retrieval of a straying husband by means of outstanding wifely tact , this time in a more domestic and genteel register . The easy @-@ going Sir Charles Easy is chronically unfaithful to his wife , seducing both ladies of quality and his own female servants with insouciant charm . The turning point of the action , known as " the Steinkirk scene " , comes when his wife finds him and a maidservant asleep together in a chair , " as close an approximation to actual adultery as could be presented on the 18th @-@ century stage " . His periwig has fallen off , an obvious suggestion of intimacy and abandon , and an opening for Lady Easy 's tact . Soliloquizing to herself about how sad it would be if he caught cold , she " takes a Steinkirk off her Neck , and lays it gently on his Head " ( V.i.21 ) . ( A " steinkirk " was a loosely tied lace collar or scarf , named after the way the officers wore their cravats at the Battle of Steenkirk in 1692 . ) She steals away , Sir Charles wakes , notices the steinkirk on his head , marvels that his wife did not wake him and make a scene , and realises how wonderful she is . The Easys go on to have a reconciliation scene which is much more low @-@ keyed and tasteful than that in Love 's Last Shift , without kneelings and risings , and with Lady Easy shrinking with feminine delicacy from the coarse subjects that Amanda had broached without blinking . Paul Parnell has analysed the manipulative nature of Lady Easy 's lines in this exchange , showing how they are directed towards the sentimentalist 's goal of " ecstatic self @-@ approval " .
The Careless Husband was a great success on the stage and remained a repertory play throughout the 18th century . Although it has now joined Love 's Last Shift as a forgotten curiosity , it kept a respectable critical reputation into the 20th century , coming in for serious discussion both as an interesting example of doublethink , and as somewhat morally or emotionally insightful . In 1929 , the well @-@ known critic F. W. Bateson described the play 's psychology as " mature " , " plausible " , " subtle " , " natural " , and " affecting " .
= = = Other plays = = =
The Lady 's Last Stake ( 1707 ) is a rather bad @-@ tempered reply to critics of Lady Easy 's wifely patience in The Careless Husband . It was coldly received , and its main interest lies in the glimpse the prologue gives of angry reactions to The Careless Husband , of which we would otherwise have known nothing ( since all contemporary published reviews of The Careless Husband approve and endorse its message ) . Some , says Cibber sarcastically in the prologue , seem to think Lady Easy ought rather to have strangled her husband with her steinkirk :
Yet some there are , who still arraign the Play ,
At her tame Temper shock 'd , as who should say —
The Price , for a dull Husband , was too much to pay ,
Had he been strangled sleeping , Who shou 'd hurt ye ?
When so provok 'd — Revenge had been a Virtue .
Many of Cibber 's plays , listed below , were hastily cobbled together from borrowings . Alexander Pope said Cibber 's drastic adaptations and patchwork plays were stolen from " crucified Molière " and " hapless Shakespeare " . The Double Gallant ( 1707 ) was constructed from Burnaby 's The Reformed Wife and The Lady 's Visiting Day , and Centlivre 's Love at a Venture . In the words of Leonard R. N. Ashley , Cibber took " what he could use from these old failures " to cook up " a palatable hash out of unpromising leftovers " . The Comical Lovers ( 1707 ) was based on Dryden 's Marriage à la Mode . The Rival Fools ( 1709 ) was based on Fletcher 's Wit at Several Weapons . He rewrote Corneille 's Le Cid with a happy ending as Ximena in 1712 . The Provoked Husband ( 1728 ) was an unfinished fragment by John Vanbrugh that Cibber reworked and completed to great commercial success .
The Nonjuror ( 1717 ) was adapted from Molière 's Tartuffe , and features a Papist spy as a villain . Written just two years after the Jacobite Rising of 1715 , it was an obvious propaganda piece directed against Roman Catholics . The Refusal ( 1721 ) was based on Molière 's Les Femmes Savantes . Cibber 's last play , Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John was " a miserable mutilation of Shakespeare 's King John " . Heavily politicised , it caused such a storm of ridicule during its 1736 rehearsal that Cibber withdrew it . During the Jacobite Rising of 1745 , when the nation was again in fear of a Popish pretender , it was finally acted , and this time accepted for patriotic reasons .
= = Manager = =
Cibber 's career as both actor and theatre manager is important in the history of the British stage because he was one of the first in a long and illustrious line of actor @-@ managers that would include such luminaries as Garrick , Henry Irving , and Herbert Beerbohm Tree . Rising from actor at Drury Lane to advisor to the manager Christopher Rich , Cibber worked himself by degrees into a position to take over the company , first taking many of its players — including Thomas Doggett , Robert Wilks , and Anne Oldfield — to form a new company at the Queen 's Theatre in the Haymarket . The three actors squeezed out the previous owners in a series of lengthy and complex manoeuvres , but after Rich 's letters patent were revoked , Cibber , Doggett and Wilks were able to buy the company outright and return to the Theatre Royal by 1711 . After a few stormy years of power @-@ struggle between the prudent Doggett and the extravagant Wilks , Doggett was replaced by the upcoming actor Barton Booth and Cibber became in practice sole manager of Drury Lane . He set a pattern for the line of more charismatic and successful actors that were to succeed him in this combination of roles . His near @-@ contemporary Garrick , as well as the 19th @-@ century actor @-@ managers Irving and Tree , would later structure their careers , writing , and manager identity around their own striking stage personalities . Cibber 's forte as actor @-@ manager was , by contrast , the manager side . He was a clever , innovative , and unscrupulous businessman who retained all his life a love of appearing on the stage . His triumph was that he rose to a position where , in consequence of his sole power over production and casting at Drury Lane , London audiences had to put up with him as an actor . Cibber 's one significant mistake as a theatre manager was to pass over John Gay 's The Beggar 's Opera , which became an outstanding success for John Rich 's theatre at Lincoln 's Inn Fields . When Cibber attempted to mimic Gay 's success with his own ballad @-@ opera — Love in a Riddle ( 1729 ) — it was shouted down by the audience and Cibber cancelled its run . He rescued its comic subplot as Damon and Phillida .
Cibber had learned from the bad example of Christopher Rich to be a careful and approachable employer for his actors , and was not unpopular with them ; however , he made enemies in the literary world because of the power he wielded over authors . Plays he considered non @-@ commercial were rejected or ruthlessly reworked . Many were outraged by his sharp business methods , which may be exemplified by the characteristic way he abdicated as manager in the mid @-@ 1730s . In 1732 , Booth sold his share to John Highmore , and Wilks ' share fell into the hands of John Ellys after Wilks ' death . Cibber leased his share in the company to his scapegrace son Theophilus for 442 pounds , but when Theophilus fell out with the other managers , they approached Cibber senior and offered to buy out his share . Without consulting Theophilus , Cibber sold his share for more than 3 @,@ 000 pounds to the other managers , who promptly gave Theophilus his notice . According to one story , Cibber encouraged his son to lead the actors in a walkout and set up for themselves in the Haymarket , rendering worthless the commodity he had sold . On behalf of his son , Cibber applied for a letters patent to perform at the Haymarket , but it was refused by the Lord Chamberlain , who was " disgusted at Cibber 's conduct " . The Drury Lane managers attempted to shut down the rival Haymarket players by conspiring in the arrest of the lead actor , John Harper , on a charge of vagrancy , but the charge did not hold , and the attempt pushed public opinion to Theophilus ' side . The Drury Lane managers were defeated , and Theophilus regained control of the company on his own terms .
= = Poet = =
Cibber 's appointment as Poet Laureate in December 1730 was widely assumed to be a political rather than artistic honour , and a reward for his untiring support of the Whigs , the party of Prime Minister Robert Walpole . Most of the leading writers , such as Jonathan Swift , Alexander Pope , and Henry Fielding , were excluded from contention for the laureateship because they were Tories . Cibber 's verses had few admirers even in his own time , and Cibber acknowledged cheerfully that he did not think much of them . His 30 birthday odes for the royal family and other duty pieces incumbent on him as Poet Laureate came in for particular scorn , and these offerings would regularly be followed by a flurry of anonymous parodies , some of which Cibber claimed in his Apology to have written himself . In the 20th century , D. B. Wyndham @-@ Lewis and Charles Lee considered some of Cibber 's laureate poems funny enough to be included in their classic " anthology of bad verse " , The Stuffed Owl ( 1930 ) . However , Cibber was at least as distinguished as his immediate four predecessors , three of whom were also playwrights rather than poets .
= = Dunce = =
= = = Pamphlet wars = = =
From the beginning of the 18th century , when Cibber first rose to be Rich 's right @-@ hand man at Drury Lane , his perceived opportunism and brash , thick @-@ skinned personality gave rise to many barbs in print , especially against his patchwork plays . The early attacks were mostly anonymous , but Daniel Defoe and Tom Brown are suggested as potential authors . Later , Jonathan Swift , John Dennis and Henry Fielding all lambasted Cibber in print . The most famous conflict Cibber had was with Alexander Pope .
Pope 's animosity began in 1717 when he helped John Arbuthnot and John Gay write a farce , Three Hours After Marriage , in which one of the characters , " Plotwell " was modelled on Cibber . Notwithstanding , Cibber put the play on at Drury Lane with himself playing the part of Plotwell , but the play was not well received . During the staging of a different play , Cibber introduced jokes at the expense of Three Hours After Marriage , while Pope was in the audience . Pope was infuriated , as was Gay who got into a physical fight with Cibber on a subsequent visit to the theatre . Pope published a pamphlet satirising Cibber , and continued his literary assault for the next 25 years .
In the first version of his landmark literary satire Dunciad ( 1728 ) , Pope referred contemptuously to Cibber 's " past , vamp 'd , future , old , reviv 'd , new " plays , produced with " less human genius than God gives an ape " . Cibber 's elevation to laureateship in 1730 further inflamed Pope against him . Cibber was selected for political reasons , as he was a supporter of the Whig government of Robert Walpole , while Pope was a Tory . The selection of Cibber for this honour was widely seen as especially cynical coming at a time when Pope , Gay , Thomson , Ambrose Philips , and Edward Young were all in their prime . As one epigram of the time put it :
In merry old England it once was a rule ,
The King had his Poet , and also his Fool :
But now we 're so frugal , I 'd have you to know it ,
That Cibber can serve both for Fool and for Poet . "
Pope , mortified by the elevation of Cibber to laureateship and incredulous at what he held to be the vainglory of his Apology ( 1740 ) , attacked Cibber extensively in his poetry .
Cibber replied mostly with good humour to Pope 's aspersions ( " some of which are in conspicuously bad taste " , as Lowe points out ) , until 1742 when he responded in kind in " A Letter from Mr. Cibber , to Mr. Pope , inquiring into the motives that might induce him in his Satyrical Works , to be so frequently fond of Mr. Cibber 's name " . In this pamphlet , Cibber 's most effective ammunition came from a reference in Pope 's Epistle to Arbuthnot ( 1735 ) to Cibber 's " whore " , which gave Cibber a pretext for retorting in kind with a scandalous anecdote about Pope in a brothel . " I must own " , wrote Cibber , " that I believe I know more of your whoring than you do of mine ; because I don 't recollect that ever I made you the least Confidence of my Amours , though I have been very near an Eye @-@ Witness of Yours . " Since Pope was around four and a half feet tall and hunchbacked due to a tubercular infection of the spine he contracted when young , Cibber regarded the prospect of Pope with a woman as something humorous , and he speaks mockingly of the " little @-@ tiny manhood " of Pope . For once the laughers were on Cibber 's side , and the story " raised a universal shout of merriment at Pope 's expense " . Pope made no direct reply , but took one of the most famous revenges in literary history . In the revised Dunciad that appeared in 1743 , he changed his hero , the King of Dunces , from Lewis Theobald to Colley Cibber .
= = = King of Dunces = = =
The derogatory allusions to Cibber in consecutive versions of Pope 's mock @-@ heroic Dunciad , from 1728 to 1743 , became more elaborate as the conflict between the two men escalated , until , in the final version of the poem , Pope crowned Cibber King of Dunces . From being merely one symptom of the artistic decay of Britain , he was transformed into the demigod of stupidity , the true son of the goddess Dulness . Apart from the personal quarrel , Pope had reasons of literary appropriateness for letting Cibber take the place of his first choice of King , Lewis Theobald . Theobald , who had embarrassed Pope by contrasting Pope 's impressionistic Shakespeare edition ( 1725 ) with Theobald 's own scholarly edition ( 1726 ) , also wrote Whig propaganda for hire , as well as dramatic productions which were to Pope abominations for their mixing of tragedy and comedy and for their " low " pantomime and opera . However , Cibber was an even better King in these respects , more high @-@ profile both as a political opportunist and as the powerful manager of Drury Lane , and with the crowning circumstance that his political allegiances and theatrical successes had gained him the laureateship . To Pope this made him an epitome of all that was wrong with British letters . Pope explains in the " Hyper @-@ critics of Ricardus Aristarchus " prefatory to the 1743 Dunciad that Cibber is the perfect hero for a mock @-@ heroic parody , since his Apology exhibits every trait necessary for the inversion of an epic hero . An epic hero must have wisdom , courage , and chivalric love , says Pope , and the perfect hero for an anti @-@ epic therefore should have vanity , impudence , and debauchery . As wisdom , courage , and love combine to create magnanimity in a hero , so vanity , impudence , and debauchery combine to make buffoonery for the satiric hero . His revisions , however , were considered too hasty by later critics who pointed out inconsistent passages that damaged his own poem for the sake of personal vindictiveness .
Writing about the degradation of taste brought on by theatrical effects , Pope quotes Cibber 's own confessio in the Apology :
Of that Succession of monstrous Medlies that have so long infested the Stage , and which arose upon one another alternately , at both Houses [ London 's two playhouses , Cibber 's Drury Lane and John Rich 's domain Lincoln 's Inn 's Fields ] ... If I am ask 'd ( after my condemning these Fooleries myself ) how I came to assent or continue my Share of Expence to them ? I have no better Excuse for my Error than confessing it . I did it against my Conscience ! and had not Virtue enough to starve .
Pope 's notes call Cibber a hypocrite , and in general the attacks on Cibber are conducted in the notes added to the Dunciad , and not in the body of the poem . As hero of the Dunciad , Cibber merely watches the events of Book II , dreams Book III , and sleeps through Book IV .
Once Pope struck , Cibber became an easy target for other satirists . He was attacked as the epitome of morally and aesthetically bad writing , largely for the sins of his autobiography . In the Apology , Cibber speaks daringly in the first person and in his own praise . Although the major figures of the day were jealous of their fame , self @-@ promotion of such an overt sort was shocking , and Cibber offended Christian humility as well as gentlemanly modesty . Additionally , Cibber consistently fails to see fault in his own character , praises his vices , and makes no apology for his misdeeds ; so it was not merely the fact of the autobiography , but the manner of it that shocked contemporaries . His diffuse and chatty writing style , conventional in poetry and sometimes incoherent in prose , was bound to look even worse in contrast to stylists like Pope . Henry Fielding satirically tried Cibber for murder of the English language in the 17 May 1740 issue of The Champion . The Tory wits were altogether so successful in their satire of Cibber that the historical image of the man himself was almost obliterated , and it was as the King of Dunces that he came down to posterity .
= = Plays = =
The plays below were produced at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , unless otherwise stated . The dates given are of first known performance .
Love 's Last Shift ( Comedy , January 1696 )
Woman 's Wit ( Comedy , 1697 )
Xerxes ( Tragedy , Lincoln 's Inn Fields , 1699 )
The Tragical History of King Richard III ( Tragedy , 1699 )
Love Makes a Man ( Comedy , December 1700 )
The School Boy ( Comedy , advertised for 24 October 1702 )
She Would and She Would Not ( Comedy , 26 November 1702 )
The Careless Husband ( Comedy , 7 December 1704 )
Perolla and Izadora ( Tragedy , 3 December 1705 )
The Comical Lovers ( Comedy , Haymarket , 4 February 1707 )
The Double Gallant ( Comedy , Haymarket , 1 November 1707 )
The Lady 's Last Stake ( Comedy , Haymarket , 13 December 1707 )
The Rival Fools ( Comedy , 11 January 1709 )
The Rival Queans ( Comical @-@ Tragedy , Haymarket , 29 June 1710 ) , a parody of Nathaniel Lee 's The Rival Queens .
Ximena ( Tragedy , 28 November 1712 )
Venus and Adonis ( Masque , 12 March 1715 )
Myrtillo ( Pastoral , 5 November 1715 )
The Non @-@ Juror ( Comedy , 6 December 1717 )
The Refusal ( Comedy , 14 February 1721 )
Cæsar in Egypt ( Tragedy , 9 December 1724 )
The Provoked Husband ( with Vanbrugh , comedy , 10 January 1728 )
Love in a Riddle ( Pastoral , 7 January 1729 )
Damon and Phillida ( Pastoral Farce , Haymarket , 16 August 1729 )
Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John ( Tragedy , Covent Garden , 15 February 1745 )
Bulls and Bears , a farce performed at Drury Lane on 2 December 1715 , was attributed to Cibber but was never published . The Dramatic Works of Colley Cibber , Esq . ( London , 1777 ) includes a play called Flora , or Hob in the Well , but it is not by Cibber . Hob , or the Country Wake . A Farce . By Mr. Doggett was attributed to Cibber by William Chetwood in his General History of the Stage ( 1749 ) , but John Genest in Some Account of the English Stage ( 1832 ) thought it was by Thomas Doggett . Other plays attributed to Cibber but probably not by him include Cinna 's Conspiracy , performed at Drury Lane on 19 February 1713 , and The Temple of Dullness of 1745 .
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= New York State Route 345 =
New York State Route 345 ( NY 345 ) is a state highway located entirely within St. Lawrence County in the North Country of New York in the United States . It is a north – south route connecting the towns of Waddington and Potsdam by way of the town of Madrid . The southern terminus of NY 345 is at an intersection with U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) in the village of Potsdam . Its northern terminus is at a junction with NY 37 in the village of Waddington by the St. Lawrence River .
NY 345 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; however , it originally followed a different alignment south of the hamlet of Madrid . At the time , what is now NY 345 between Madrid and Potsdam was part of NY 56A . The NY 56A designation was eliminated in 1980 . NY 345 was realigned two years later to follow old NY 56A to Potsdam as a result of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and St. Lawrence County . Ownership and maintenance of NY 345 's original routing south of Madrid was transferred from the state to the county and the village of Canton as part of the exchange .
= = Route description = =
NY 345 begins at an intersection with US 11 in the village of Potsdam , just north of Clarkson University . The route heads northwestward on Pine Street and Madrid Avenue as a village @-@ maintained , state @-@ numbered highway , crossing the CSX Transportation @-@ owned St. Lawrence Subdivision by way of a grade crossing as it heads through a commercial and residential area . It exits the village shortly afterward , at which point the route becomes maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation . It heads northwestward on a linear path through the town of Potsdam , passing through mostly undeveloped areas comprising open fields and forests . NY 345 curves slightly northward at Burnham Corners before crossing Trout Brook and entering the town of Madrid , where it traverses the New York and Ogdensburg Railway by way of a grade crossing just outside the hamlet of Madrid .
The highway continues into the community , where the route becomes Bridge Street and intersects NY 310 on the eastern bank of the Grasse River . It continues across the river to Main Street , at which point NY 345 turns to the northeast and follows Main Street out of the hamlet . North of Madrid , NY 345 curves back to the northwest as it enters another rural area . It passes by the isolated Madrid – Waddington Central School just before crossing into the town of Waddington . The rural surroundings continue to the village of Waddington , where the amount of development along the route increases after the highway crosses Sucker Brook south of the village center . NY 345 ends shortly afterward at an intersection with NY 37 in the village center near the southern bank of the St. Lawrence River .
= = History = =
When NY 345 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it began at US 11 in Canton . From there , NY 345 followed modern County Route 27 ( CR 27 ) and CR 14 north to Madrid , where it joined its modern alignment north to Waddington . At the same time , the current alignment of NY 345 from modern NY 310 in Madrid to Potsdam was designated as the southern half of NY 56A . The short piece of Bridge Street not part of NY 56A in Madrid was a state @-@ maintained reference route .
On April 10 , 1980 , the NY 56A designation was deleted . The portion of former NY 56A from Madrid to Potsdam , as well as the state @-@ maintained Bridge Street connector , became part of a rerouted NY 345 on September 1 , 1982 , as a result of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and St. Lawrence County . As part of the swap , the pre @-@ 1982 routing of NY 345 between the Canton village line and Bridge Street in Madrid was turned over to the county while the portion of former NY 345 within Canton was transferred to the village .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in St. Lawrence County .
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= Surtsey =
Surtsey ( " Surtr 's island " in Icelandic , pronounced ˈsʏr ̥ tsei ) is a volcanic island located in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago off the southern coast of Iceland . At 63 @.@ 303 ° N 20 @.@ 605 ° W / 63 @.@ 303 ; -20.605 , Surtsey is the southernmost point of Iceland . It was formed in a volcanic eruption which began 130 metres ( 426 ft ) below sea level , and reached the surface on 14 November 1963 . The eruption lasted until 5 June 1967 , when the island reached its maximum size of 2 @.@ 7 km2 ( 1 @.@ 0 sq mi ) . Since then , wave erosion has caused the island to steadily diminish in size : as of 2012 , its surface area was 1 @.@ 3 km2 ( 0 @.@ 50 sq mi ) . The most recent survey ( 2007 ) shows the island 's maximum elevation at 155 m ( 509 ft ) above sea level .
The new island was named after Surtr , a fire jötunn or giant from Norse mythology . It was intensively studied by volcanologists during its eruption , and afterwards by botanists and other biologists as life forms gradually colonised the originally barren island . The undersea vents that produced Surtsey are part of the Vestmannaeyjar submarine volcanic system , part of the fissure of the sea floor called the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge . Vestmannaeyjar also produced the famous eruption of Eldfell on the island of Heimaey in 1973 . The eruption that created Surtsey also created a few other small islands along this volcanic chain , such as Jólnir and unnamed other peaks . Most of these eroded away fairly quickly .
= = Geology = =
= = = Formation = = =
The eruption was unexpected , and almost certainly began some days before it became apparent at the surface . The sea floor at the eruption site is 130 metres ( 426 ft ) below sea level , and at this depth volcanic emissions and explosions would be suppressed , quenched and dissipated by the water pressure and density . Gradually , as repeated flows built up a mound of material that approached sea level , the explosions could no longer be contained , and activity broke the surface .
The first noticeable indications of volcanic activity were recorded at the seismic station in Kirkjubæjarklaustur , Iceland from 6 to 8 November , which detected weak tremors emanating from an epicentre approximately west @-@ south @-@ west at a distance of 140 km ( 87 mi ) , the location of Surtsey . Another station in Reykjavík recorded even weaker tremors for ten hours on 12 November at an undetermined location , when seismic activity ceased until 21 November . That same day , people in the coastal town of Vík 80 km ( 50 mi ) away noticed a smell of hydrogen sulphide . On 13 November , a fishing vessel in search of herring , equipped with sensitive thermometers , noted sea temperatures 3 @.@ 2 km ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) SW of the eruption center were 2 @.@ 4 ° C ( 4 @.@ 3 ° F ) higher than surrounding waters .
= = = = Eruption at the surface = = = =
At 07 : 15 UTC on 14 November 1963 , the cook of Ísleifur II , a trawler sailing these same waters spotted a rising column of dark smoke southwest of the boat . The captain thought it might have been a boat on fire , and ordered the vessel to investigate . Instead , they encountered explosive eruptions giving off black columns of ash , indicating that a volcanic eruption had begun to penetrate the surface of the sea . By 11 : 00 the same day , the eruption column had reached several kilometres in height . At first the eruptions took place at three separate vents along a northeast by southwest trending fissure , but by the afternoon the separate eruption columns had merged into one along the erupting fissure . Over the next week , explosions were continuous , and after just a few days the new island , formed mainly of scoria , measured over 500 metres ( 1640 ft ) in length and had reached a height of 45 metres ( 147 ft ) .
As the eruptions continued , they became concentrated at one vent along the fissure and began to build the island into a more circular shape . By 24 November , the island measured about 900 metres by 650 metres ( 2950 by 2130 ft ) . The violent explosions caused by the meeting of lava and sea water meant that the island consisted of a loose pile of volcanic rock ( scoria ) , which was eroded rapidly by North Atlantic storms during the winter . However , eruptions more than kept pace with wave erosion , and by February 1964 , the island had a maximum diameter of over 1300 metres ( 4265 ft ) .
The explosive phreatomagmatic eruptions caused by the easy access of water to the erupting vents threw rocks up to a kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) away from the island , and sent ash clouds as high as 10 km ( 6 mi ) up into the atmosphere . The loose pile of unconsolidated tephra would quickly have been washed away had the supply of fresh magma dwindled , and large clouds of dust were often seen blowing away from the island during this stage of the eruption .
The new island was named after the fire jötunn Surtur from Norse mythology ( Surts is the genitive case of Surtur , plus -ey , island ) . Three French journalists representing the magazine Paris Match notably landed there on 6 December 1963 , staying for about 15 minutes before violent explosions encouraged them to leave . The journalists jokingly claimed French sovereignty over the island , but Iceland quickly asserted that the new island belonged to it .
= = = = Permanent island = = = =
By early 1964 , though , the continuing eruptions had built the island to such a size that sea water could no longer easily reach the vents , and the volcanic activity became much less explosive . Instead , lava fountains and flows became the main form of activity . These resulted in a hard cap of extremely erosion @-@ resistant rock being laid down on top of much of the loose volcanic pile , which prevented the island from being washed away rapidly . Effusive eruptions continued until 1965 , by which time the island had a surface area of 2 @.@ 5 km2 ( 0 @.@ 97 sq mi ) .
On 28 December 1963 , submarine activity 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) to the northeast of Surtsey caused the formation of a ridge 100 m ( 328 ft ) high on the sea floor . This seamount was named Surtla , but never reached sea level . Eruptions at Surtla ended on 6 January 1964 , and it has since been eroded from its minimum depth of 23 m ( 75 ft ) to 47 m ( 154 ft ) below sea level .
= = = = Subsequent volcanic activity = = = =
In 1965 , the activity on the main island diminished , but at the end of May that year an eruption began at a vent 0 @.@ 6 km ( 0 @.@ 37 mi ) off the northern shore . By 28 May , an island had appeared , and was named Syrtlingur ( Little Surtsey ) . The new island was washed away during early June , but reappeared on 14 June . Eruptions at Syrtlingur were much smaller in scale than those that had built Surtsey , with the average rate of emission of volcanic materials being about a tenth of the rate at the main vent . Activity was short @-@ lived , continuing until the beginning of October 1965 , by which time the islet had an area of 0 @.@ 15 km2 ( 0 @.@ 058 sq mi ) . Once the eruptions had ceased , wave erosion rapidly wore the island away , and it disappeared beneath the waves on 24 October .
During December 1965 , more submarine activity occurred 0 @.@ 9 km ( 0 @.@ 56 mi ) southwest of Surtsey , and another island was formed . It was named Jólnir , and over the following eight months it appeared and disappeared several times , as wave erosion and volcanic activity alternated in dominance . Activity at Jólnir was much weaker than the activity at the main vent , and even weaker than that seen at Syrtlingur , but the island eventually grew to a maximum size of 70 m ( 230 ft ) in height , covering an area of 0 @.@ 3 km2 ( 0 @.@ 12 sq mi ) , during July and early August 1966 . Like Syrtlingur , though , after activity ceased on 8 August 1966 , it was rapidly eroded , and dropped below sea level during October 1966 .
Effusive eruptions on the main island returned on 19 August 1966 , with fresh lava flows giving it further resistance to erosion . The eruption rate diminished steadily , though , and on 5 June 1967 , the eruption ended . The volcano has been dormant ever since . The total volume of lava emitted during the three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year eruption was about one cubic kilometre ( 0 @.@ 24 cu mi ) , and the island 's highest point was 174 metres ( 570 ft ) above sea level at that time .
Since the end of the eruption , erosion has seen the island diminish in size . A large area on the southeast side has been eroded away completely , while a sand spit called Norðurtangi ( north point ) has grown on the north side of the island . It is estimated that about 0 @.@ 024 km3 ( 0 @.@ 0058 cu mi ) of material has been lost due to erosion — this represents about a quarter of the original above @-@ sea @-@ level volume of the island . Its maximum elevation has diminished to 155 m ( 509 ft ) .
= = = Recent development = = =
Following the end of the eruption , scientists established a grid of benchmarks against which they measured the change in the shape of the island . In the 20 years following the end of the eruption , measurements revealed that the island was steadily subsiding and had lost about one metre in height . The rate of subsidence was initially about 20 cm ( 8 in ) per year but slowed to 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) a year by the 1990s . It had several causes : settling of the loose tephra forming the bulk of the volcano , compaction of sea floor sediments underlying the island , and downward warping of the lithosphere due to the weight of the volcano .
The typical pattern of volcanism in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago is for each eruption site to see just a single eruption , and so the island is unlikely to be enlarged in the future by further eruptions . The heavy seas around the island have been eroding it ever since the island appeared , and since the end of the eruption almost half its original area has been lost . The island currently loses about 1 @.@ 0 hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) of its surface area each year .
= = = Future = = =
This island is unlikely to disappear entirely in the near future . The eroded area consisted mostly of loose tephra , easily washed away . Most of the remaining area is capped by hard lava flows , which are much more resistant to erosion . In addition , complex chemical reactions within the loose tephra within the island have gradually formed highly erosion resistant tuff material , in a process known as palagonitization . On Surtsey this process has happened quite rapidly , due to high temperatures not far below the surface .
Estimates of how long Surtsey will survive are based on the rate of erosion seen up to the present day . Assuming that the current rate does not change , the island will be mostly at or below sea level by 2100 . However , the rate of erosion is likely to slow as the tougher core of the island is exposed : an assessment assuming that the rate of erosion will slow exponentially suggests that the island will survive for many centuries . An idea of what it will look like in the future is given by the other small islands in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago , which formed in the same way as Surtsey several thousand years ago , and have eroded away substantially since they were formed .
= = Biology = =
= = = Settlement of life = = =
A classic site for the study of biocolonisation from founder populations that arrive from outside ( allochthonous ) , Surtsey was declared a nature reserve in 1965 , while the eruption was still in active progress . Today only a few scientists are permitted to land on Surtsey ; the only way anyone else can see it closely is from a small plane . This allows the natural ecological succession for the island to proceed without outside interference . In 2008 , UNESCO declared the island a World Heritage Site , in recognition of its great scientific value .
= = = = Plant life = = = =
In the spring of 1965 , the first vascular plant was found growing on the northern shore of Surtsey , mosses became visible in 1967 , and lichens were first found on the Surtsey lava in 1970 . Plant colonisation on Surtsey has been closely studied , the vascular plants in particular as they have been of far greater significance than mosses , lichens and fungi in the development of vegetation .
Mosses and lichens now cover much of the island . During the island 's first 20 years , 20 species of plants were observed at one time or another , but only 10 became established in the nutrient @-@ poor sandy soil . As birds began nesting on the island , soil conditions improved , and more vascular plant species were able to survive . In 1998 , the first bush was found on the island — a tea @-@ leaved willow ( Salix phylicifolia ) , which can grow to heights of up to 4 metres ( 13 ft ) . By 2008 , 69 species of plant had been found on Surtsey , of which about 30 had become established . This compares to the approximately 490 species found on mainland Iceland . More species continue to arrive , at a typical rate of roughly 2 – 5 new species per year .
= = = = Birds = = = =
The expansion of bird life on the island has both relied on and helped to advance the spread of plant life . Birds use the plants for nesting material , but also continue to assist in the spreading of seeds , and fertilize the soil with their guano . Birds first began nesting on Surtsey three years after the eruptions ended , with fulmar and guillemot the first species to set up home . Twelve species are now regularly found on the island .
A gull colony has been present since 1984 , although gulls were seen briefly on the shores of the new island only weeks after it first appeared . The gull colony has been particularly important in developing the plant life on Surtsey , and the gulls have had much more of an impact on plant colonisation than other breeding species due to their abundance . An expedition in 2004 found the first evidence of nesting Atlantic puffins , which are extremely common in the rest of the archipelago .
As well as providing a home for some species of birds , Surtsey has also been used as a stopping @-@ off point for migrating birds , particularly those en @-@ route between Europe and Iceland . Species that have been seen briefly on the island include whooper swans , various species of geese , and common ravens . Although Surtsey lies to the west of the main migration routes to Iceland , it has become a more common stopping point as its vegetation has improved . In 2008 , the 14th bird species was detected with the discovery of a common raven 's nest .
According to a 30 May 2009 report , a golden plover was nesting on the island with four eggs .
= = = = Marine life = = = =
Soon after the island 's formation , seals were seen around the island . They soon began basking there , particularly on the northern spit , which grew as the waves eroded the island . Seals were found to be breeding on the island in 1983 , and a group of up to 70 made the island their breeding spot . Grey seals are more common on the island than harbour seals , but both are now well established . The presence of seals attracts orcas , which are frequently seen in the waters around the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago and now frequent the waters around Surtsey .
On the submarine portion of the island , many marine species are found . Starfish are abundant , as are sea urchins and limpets . The rocks are covered in algae , and seaweed covers much of the submarine slopes of the volcano , with its densest cover between 10 and 20 metres ( 33 to 66 ft ) below sea level .
= = = = Other life = = = =
Insects arrived on Surtsey soon after its formation , and were first detected in 1964 . The original arrivals were flying insects , carried to the island by winds and their own power . Some were believed to have been blown across from as far away as mainland Europe . Later insect life arrived on floating driftwood , and both live animals and carcasses washed up on the island . When a large , grass @-@ covered tussock was washed ashore in 1974 , scientists took half of it for analysis and discovered 663 land invertebrates , mostly mites and springtails , the great majority of which had survived the crossing .
The establishment of insect life provided some food for birds , and birds in turn helped many species to become established on the island . The bodies of dead birds provide sustenance for carnivorous insects , while the fertilisation of the soil and resulting promotion of plant life provides a viable habitat for herbivorous insects .
Some higher forms of land life are now colonising the soil of Surtsey . The first earthworm was found in a soil sample in 1993 , probably carried over from Heimaey by a bird . However , the next year earthworms were not found . Slugs were found in 1998 , and appeared to be similar to varieties found in the southern Icelandic mainland . Spiders and beetles have also become established .
= = Human impact = =
The only other significant human impact is a small prefabricated hut which is used by researchers while staying on the island . The hut includes a few bunk beds and a solar power source to drive an emergency radio and other key electronics . All visitors check themselves and belongings to ensure no seeds are accidentally introduced by humans to this ecosystem . It is believed that some young boys tried to introduce potatoes , which were promptly dug up once discovered . An improperly handled human defecation resulted in a tomato plant taking root which was also destroyed . In 2009 a weather station for weather observations and a webcam were installed on Surtsey .
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= Mr. Monk and the Candidate =
" Mr. Monk and the Candidate " is the two @-@ part pilot episode of the American comedy @-@ drama detective television series Monk . It introduces the character of Adrian Monk ( Tony Shalhoub ) , a private detective with obsessive – compulsive disorder and multiple phobias , and his assistant Sharona Fleming ( Bitty Schram ) , as well as police officers Leland Stottlemeyer ( Ted Levine ) and Randy Disher ( Jason Gray @-@ Stanford ) . In this episode , Monk investigates an assassination attempt on a mayoral candidate .
First envisioned in 1998 , Monk went through development hell due to difficulties to find an actor to the main role . After successfully casting Shalhoub , the series ' first episode was shot in Vancouver , British Columbia in 2001 . " Mr. Monk and the Candidate " was written by Andy Breckman and directed by Dean Parisot . When the episode first aired in the United States on the USA Network on July 12 , 2002 , it was watched by 4 @.@ 8 million viewers . The episode was generally well received by critics , with most of the praise regarding Shalhoub 's performance as the title character .
= = Plot = =
In the past , Adrian Monk ( Tony Shalhoub ) was a San Francisco Police Department 's investigator , but the death of his wife , Trudy , led him to develop depression , obsessive – compulsive disorder and multiple phobias . Now , as a private detective , Monk investigates the murder of Nicole Vasquez ( Michelle Addison ) . Later , a shooting occurs during a campaign rally , resulting in the bodyguard of mayoral candidate Warren St. Claire ( Michael Hogan ) getting killed . The incumbent mayor orders Captain Stottlemeyer ( Ted Levine ) to bring Monk in on the case , and , as Monk 's former supervisor , reluctantly , he does .
Monk meets St. Claire , his wife Miranda ( Gail O 'Grady ) , and their advisor Gavin Lloyd ( Ben Bass ) , and walks to the site where assassination attempt occurred . He discovers Vasquez was a volunteer for the St. Claire 's campaign . When he goes to St. Claire campaign headquarters and questions a volunteer about Vasquez , that volunteer later dies under suspicious circumstances , enhancing Monk 's suspicion about a link between the Vasquez and St. Claire cases .
Monk 's assistant Sharona Fleming ( Bitty Schram ) suspects that St. Claire 's wife Miranda was the person who ordered her husband 's assassination . Sharona 's theory is supported by the fact that St. Claire is worth $ 150 million , but Monk thinks about other hypotheses , including one in which Miranda is having an affair with one of St. Claire 's assistants . Things become clearer in Monk 's mind when he watches a news report on the assassination attempt . Monk regroups everyone at the place of the campaign rally to recreate what happened that day .
He explains that the assassin was not hired to kill Warren St. Claire , but to kill the bodyguard instead . When Vasquez had discovered that Lloyd was embezzling campaign funds , he approached the bodyguard about murdering Vasquez . As the bodyguard refused to carry out the murder , Lloyd had him killed . To prove his theory , Monk shows a photograph of Lloyd looking at the direction of the shooter just after the shots were fired . Monk proves that Lloyd 's sight line was obstructed , and that the gunshot 's echo would have masked the direction of the shot . As such , it was impossible that Lloyd could have known where the shots were coming from unless he already knew where the gunman would be .
= = Production = =
Monk was originally envisioned as an Inspector Clouseau type of show by an American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) executive . Learning about it , co @-@ creator David Hoberman came up with the idea of a detective with obsessive – compulsive disorder in 1998 . This was inspired by his own bout with self @-@ diagnosed obsessive – compulsive disorder . Initially , Michael Richards was considered , but ABC and Touchstone ( now ABC Studios ) worried that the audience would typecast him for more comedic roles after his previous work as Cosmo Kramer on the sitcom series Seinfeld . Hoberman revealed that the casting sessions were " depressing " . USA Network 's executive vice president Jeff Wachtel stated that looking for the right actor to portray Monk was " casting hell " . After two years of search , the producers still had not found an actor to play the part .
As distributors of the show , ABC and Touchstone , could not find a lead actor , it entered in development hell . This situation remained until Jackie Lyons , a former ABC 's executive who joined USA , recommended Monk to her boss , Wachtel . Trying to change USA 's reputation of " a muscles @-@ and @-@ mayhem " network , Wachtel and then USA president Doug Herzog , decided to charge on Monk , " a cerebral series " . Watchel wanted to cast Tony Shalhoub , " someone who could bring the humor and passion of Monk to life " , as Monk . Shalhoub initially was not interested , but after his manager 's insistence and the fact the pilot director was Dean Parisot , he accepted . Parisot declared , " The pilot was a strong collaboration between myself , David Hoberman , Andy Breckman and Tony Shalhoub . "
Sharona 's character was originally written as an African @-@ American , but Bitty Schram , who " had this great maternal thing crossed with an East Coast @-@ type " , according to Shalhoub , was cast instead . Ted Levine was cast in an audition in Vancouver , British Columbia as " the main cop " . Jason Gray @-@ Stanford accepted to work on it when he became aware of Shalhoub and Parisot 's involvement . He originally auditioned for the role of deputy mayor and , as he was not cast , Parisot invited him to read for Disher . Gray @-@ Stanford agreed as he became excited to try for the role of Levine 's sidekick . The pilot , originally developed as a TV film , was written by Breckman and filmed in the fall of 2001 in Vancouver . Originally shot in 35 mm film , it was changed to Super 16mm for budget reasons when USA acquired it .
= = Reception = =
" Mr. Monk and the Candidate " was first broadcast in the United States on the USA Network at 9 pm EST on July 12 , 2002 . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was viewed by an estimated number of 4 @.@ 8 million viewers with a 3 @.@ 5 household rating . This rating made it the highest rated program on cable television that night . Although Judith S. Gillies , writing for Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette , pointed it debuted in a period when other networks offer less competition , Broadcasting & Cable 's writer Allison Romano said the numbers were " impressive " .
Traylor Howard , who replaced Schram as Monk 's assistant in the middle of the third season , elected it as her favorite episode along with " Mr. Monk vs. the Cobra " . In The Futon Critic 's Brian Ford Sullivan ranking of the fifty best episodes of 2002 , it was placed 17th . David Bianculli , a writer for New York Daily News , said the pilot " not only establishes the character of Monk , it establishes the perfect tone for the show , a delicate but deft blend of wry humor and tender drama . " United Feature Syndicate 's critic Kevin McDonough praised the " whimsical " direction , and added " Monk is not easy to love , but shines as a funny and fresh alternative to summer reruns . " It was also called " fresh and funny " by Entertainment Weekly 's Bruce Fretts , and a " invigorating " " fresh spring breeze in the middle of summer " by The Washington Post 's Tom Shales . Variety 's Phil Gallo praised the " breezy gait of the storytelling , the nicely explained quirks of a brilliant mind and Tony Shalhoub 's sterling characterization " in his review . Tom Gliatto , a People 's critic , declared " This is probably not a clinically accurate portrayal of an OCD sufferer , but Shalhoub 's gentle earnestness keeps it from being gimmicky . " San Francisco Chronicle 's Tim Goodman praised how OCD was used " creatively from humor to sadness . " Chris Hicks of Deseret News declared , " this pilot episode is good enough to be a theatrical film ; in fact , it 's better than most features — funny , warm , character @-@ driven and loaded with hilarious vignettes . "
Ethan Alter of Media Life stated " [ t ] here is one funny scene in the pilot " , while criticizing the writing and direction . He also said the plot is unveiled in a " plodding , visually dull " way , especially when Shalhoub is not present . However , Alter wrote Monk is " far from a bad show " , calling Shalhoub " the best thing " about it . David Zurawik , in a review for the The Baltimore Sun , said the major problem of it is trying to combine comedy and drama with detective fiction . Zurawik , however , praised Breckman and Shaulhoub who " combine to deliver one of the most weirdly appealing television sleuths since Richard Belzer 's Detective John Munch of Homicide : Life on the Street . " Anita Gates from The New York Times declared , " There is a breakthrough of sorts in this episode , and it 's disappointing in its predictability " . Shalhoub " is not the only reason to watch " Monk , according to Gates who praised the series for a joke " that even Six Feet Under might hesitate to do . " Although said " Story @-@ wise , there 's nothing in Monk that makes the show terribly different " from other shows of the genre , Rob Owen of Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette praised Shalhoub 's portrayal of Monk as well as Monk itself , calling him " welcome addition to TV 's eccentric sleuths " .
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= Mike Hudema =
Micheal George Henry ( Mike ) Hudema is a Canadian activist who has worked for advocacy organizations including Greenpeace , Global Exchange , the University of Alberta Students ' Union , and the Ruckus Society . He is best known for his work opposing the development of the Alberta tar sands and reliance on fossil fuels in general , but has also engaged in civil liberties and student activism . He is also the published author of a book on direct action tactics .
= = Background = =
Mike Hudema was born in Medicine Hat , Alberta in 1976 from Ukrainian and English origin parents and attended Crescent Heights High School . He graduated from the University of Alberta with a bachelor of education , majoring in drama , and a bachelor of law degree , specializing in labour and environmental law . During his university career , he went on an exchange to southern India , which he credits with awakening him politically . During the exchange , he recalls seeing 20 @,@ 000 people " getting together to debate the village budget for the next year " , and says that the contrast between that and the models of representative democracy in use in Canada affected him and shaped his views on political involvement .
= = Environmental activism = =
Hudema is best known as an environmental activist . He protested the opening of the Cheviot mine near Hinton , Alberta in 2004 by setting up a mock open pit mine on the lawn of Deputy Prime Minister Anne McLellan 's constituency office . He has also opposed the harvesting of Alberta 's boreal forest , and in 2004 followed logging executives down the Athabasca River as the executives took a boat trip as part of a logging conference .
In 2005 , Hudema was hired as the Freedom From Oil Director for Global Exchange , and relocated from Edmonton to San Francisco . In this capacity , he helped lead the " Jumpstart Ford " campaign ( a joint initiative between Global Exchange , the Rainforest Action Network , and the Ruckus Society ) which pressured Ford Motors to eliminate tailpipe emissions from its vehicles by 2020 . The campaign was later expanded to include all automakers , and renamed " Freedom From Oil " . As part of this campaign , Hudema interrupted General Motors CEO Richard Wagoner at the keynote address of a Los Angeles automotive show and asked him to sign a commitment to make General Motors vehicles the most fuel efficient in the world by 2010 ( Wagoner refused to sign , saying that his " speech spoke for itself " ) .
In 2006 , Hudema implored Canadians to " save hockey " by fighting climate change , which he called " the biggest threat to hockey since the NHL labor talks " .
In July 2007 , Hudema returned to Edmonton to work as the Climate and Energy Campaigner for Greenpeace Canada at its newly opened Edmonton office , which was created to lobby for an end to the Alberta oil sands , which Hudema called " one of the dirtiest , oiliest projects in the world " . In this capacity , he ambushed Premier Ed Stelmach several times during the 2008 provincial election . He also made headlines after the election when he and two other Greenpeace volunteers lowered a banner - reading " $ telmach , the best premier oil money can buy " - behind Stelmach at a fundraising dinner .
In January 2008 , he was briefly banned from the University of Alberta campus after he and a group of fellow radical cheerleaders performed a number of anti @-@ fossil fuels musical routines at an on @-@ campus Shell Canada recruiting session . After a meeting with the head of the university 's campus security service , the ban was reduced to probation .
In September 2009 , Hudema and 24 other Greenpeace activists occupied two tar sands heavy haulers and one shovel in Shell 's Albian Sands . The action shut down the entire mine for a short period and a portion of the mine for over 30 hours . The action proceeded two other actions by Greenpeace in the tar sands region . The first was at Suncor 's Millennium project , and the second at Shell 's upgrading facility in Fort Saskatchewan . The actions prompted comments from then Premier Ed Stelmach about whether terrorism charges should be used to prosecute such activities .
In December 2009 , Hudema and Greenpeace made headlines again when they scaled Canada 's Parliament buildings and unfurled several banners with messages to Canada 's Prime Minister Stephen Harper and then Liberal Leader Michael Ignatiaff .
In September 2011 , Hudema helped organize the largest climate @-@ related civil disobedience action in Canadian history when more than 200 people risked arrest on Parliament Hill by crossing a police line set @-@ up to bar public entry into the building .
October 2012 saw Hudema in Victoria where he helped craft another mass action this time against tar sands pipelines namely Enbridge Northern Gateway and Kindermorgan TransCanada . The action saw thousands descend on the BC legislature building many willing to risk arrest to stop the pipelines .
Hudema has been given several accolades for his work . In 2013 he was named ' Edmontonian of the Year ' by online blogsite GigCity . Alberta Venture named him one of their ' Top 50 : Most Influential People ' in 2014 . The Edmonton Journal named Hudema one of their ' Power 30 ' and the Globe and Mail named him one of nine people to leave their mark on the oil sands .
Hudema is a " climb trainer " for the Ruckus Society , and has held activist training camps which teach aspiring activists skills ranging from climbing to blockades .
= = = Criticism = = =
Hudema 's actions at the General Motors car show were described as " stupid " by automotive journalist Mike Magda .
= = Student activism = =
In 2002 , Hudema was elected president of the University of Alberta Students ' Union , defeating six opponents ( two of whom were , as " joke candidates " , ineligible to win ) after campaigning on a more militant approach to tuition and on increased interaction between the Students ' Union 's elected officials and its members . His candidacy came after his activities as a member of the Student Worker Action Group , which had been critical of the previous president 's more moderate approach to opposing tuition increases , including efforts to support the reduction of tuition increases , rather than insisting on their elimination .
As president , Hudema opposed the university administration 's proposed tuition increase , and particularly the portion of the increase that would see students in some programs pay more than those in others . Despite his opposition , the basic increase was approved as proposed , and two of the three program @-@ based differentials were also approved . He also opposed the extension of degree granting powers ( which were only granted to universities at the time ) to colleges , advocated against the inclusion of education in the General Agreement on Trade in Services and Free Trade Agreement of the Americas , and unsuccessfully lobbied the City of Edmonton to stop assessing property taxes on university residences . He expanded the Students ' Union 's involvement in environmental issues - creating a Students ' Union environmental office , spearheading an energy audit of the Students ' Union 's building , passing an ethical buying and purchasing policy , helping to open a Women 's Centre on campus , and founding a car pool registry . He also created the Revolutionary Speaker Series ; the speakers that Hudema brought to the series included consumer candidate and American presidential candidate Ralph Nader , environmentalist David Suzuki , author Inga Musico , and Palestinian activist Younis al Khatib .
Despite claiming at the end of his term that he would stay out of the limelight in student politics , Hudema was vocally critical of Mat Brechtel , his successor , for what he claimed was excessive compromise on tuition @-@ related issues . He also helped create a new university course on citizenship and activism , which he suggested should become mandatory for all undergraduate students .
= = = Criticism = = =
Hudema was criticized during his time as president for being too focused on tuition and for fostering an adversarial relationship with the university administration . He was also criticized for politicizing historically apolitical events , opposing an increase in law school tuition despite support for the increase from the law students ' association , and for using the campus food bank to make political points . His support for the " U @-@ Pass " , a proposed discounted transit pass that would be mandatory for all students , was also controversial .
= = Civil liberties activism = =
In 2001 , Hudema was spokesperson of a group of about twenty people who staged a sit @-@ in at the constituency office of Justice Minister Anne McLellan to protest the government 's proposed anti @-@ terrorism and security laws , which Hudema claimed would " greatly impinge on civil liberties in Canada . " The group " evicted " McLellan from her office - moving her furniture to the front lawn - changed her sign to read " Minister of In @-@ Justice " , held community workshops and forums in the area , and set up a hot tub with a banner that read " these bills put us all in hot water " . After four days , Hudema and the rest of the protesters were removed by police and charged with trespassing .
= = Democracy activism = =
During the 2000 Canadian federal election , Hudema was part of a group calling itself the Edible Ballot Society , the members of which ate their ballots ( Hudema stir @-@ fried his ) as a protest against what they saw as a lack of true democracy and a system that only asked for individuals ' participation once every four years . He was charged , along with other members of the EBS , with " unlawfully and willfully altering , defacing or destroying a ballot or the initials of the Deputy Returning Officer signed on a ballot contrary to section 167 ( 2 ) ( a ) of the Canada Elections Act thereby committing an offence under subsection 489 ( 3 ) ( e ) " . The charges were eventually dropped .
In March 2004 , Hudema said that he was unsure whether he was going to vote in the 2004 federal election , saying that he went " back and forth " on the question of whether it was more useful to perform a " theatrical " stunt to draw attention to problems with the electoral system or to work to get progressive candidates elected .
= = Other activism = =
Hudema was critical of the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq , which he called " an occupation by a rogue state " . He has also attributed the invasion to North America 's " addiction to oil " .
Hudema opposes most trade liberalization , and protested at both the Free Trade Agreement of the Americas negotiations in Quebec City with the theatre troupe FUNK ( Fighting Unaccountable Naughty Korporations ) in 2001 and the G8 summit in Kananaskis in 2002 .
During the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , Hudema travelled to China to participate in protests in favour of Tibetan independence . In what he alleges was a pre @-@ emptive move , Chinese authorities entered the apartment he was sharing with fellow activists and expelled him from the country .
= = Writing and journalism = =
Hudema is the author of An Action a Day Keeps Global Capitalism Away ( ISBN 1896357903 ) , which was published in 2004 . It is described as " fifty @-@ two tried and tested actions , one for every week--an action guide for the 21st century . "
Hudema was featured in the 2011 Canadian documentary Peace Out where he discussed impacts of Alberta 's Athabasca oil sands .
He is also co @-@ founder and former co @-@ host and co @-@ producer of Rise Up : Radio Free Edmonton , a current affairs show on CJSR , the University of Alberta 's campus @-@ community radio station .
= = Electoral politics = =
Hudema ran in the 2001 Alberta election as a candidate for the Alberta New Democrats in the riding of Edmonton Meadowlark . He finished third of four candidates with 5 @.@ 1 % of the vote , well behind winner Bob Maskell of the Progressive Conservatives and incumbent Karen Leibovici of the Alberta Liberal Party .
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= Lithium ( Nirvana song ) =
" Lithium " is a song by American rock band Nirvana . Written by frontman Kurt Cobain , the song is about a man who turns to religion amid thoughts of suicide . Nirvana first recorded " Lithium " in 1990 but then re @-@ recorded the song the following year for the group 's second album Nevermind ( 1991 ) .
Released as the third single from Nevermind in July 1992 , " Lithium " peaked at number 64 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 11 on the UK Singles Chart . The accompanying music video , directed by Kevin Kerslake , is a montage of concert footage .
= = Background and recording = =
Nirvana singer / guitarist Kurt Cobain described " Lithium " as " one of those songs I actually did finish while trying to write it instead of taking pieces of my poetry and other things . " Nirvana recorded " Lithium " with producer Butch Vig at Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin during April 1990 . The material recorded at Smart Studios was intended for the group 's second album for the independent record label Sub Pop . The book Classic Rock Albums : Nevermind ( 1998 ) stated that observers considered the session for " Lithium " as a key event in the developing rift between Cobain and drummer Chad Channing . Cobain was dissatisfied with Channing 's drumming as their musical styles were inconsistent . Cobain told Channing to perform the drum arrangement he had devised for the song . According to Vig , Cobain overexerted his voice while recording vocals for " Lithium , " which forced the band to halt recording . The songs from these sessions were placed on a demo tape and circulated within the music industry , generating interest in the group among major record labels .
After signing to DGC Records , Nirvana reconvened with Vig in May 1991 to work on its major label debut , Nevermind , at Sound City Studios in Van Nuys , California . Between the sessions , bassist Krist Novoselic simplified the bassline ; he said , " I enriched the bass @-@ playing a little more but that was about all that we changed . " The recording session for " Lithium " was one of the most arduous for Vig and the group at Sound City . The band repeatedly sped up while recording the song , so Vig resorted to using a click track to maintain a consistent tempo . The producer suggested that new drummer Dave Grohl use simpler fills and patterns for the song , which resulted in a satisfactory instrumental take . Cobain 's guitar track was more difficult to record . " Kurt wanted to be able to play the guitar very . . . not methodical — it needed to have this space , " Vig recalled . " It had to be relaxed . " Every time Cobain sped up , Vig called for another take . During the first day of recording the song , Cobain became so frustrated at the slow progress that the band instead began playing an instrumental jam it had been working on . Vig recorded the jam , later titled " Endless , Nameless , " and it was inserted as a hidden track at the end of Nevermind .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Lithium " is representative of the musical style Nirvana had developed during work on Nevermind , alternating between quiet and loud sections . In the song , Cobain fingers chord shapes on his guitar but varies between playing single notes and double stops on the instrument , giving the track a loose feel .
Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad described the song 's title as a reference to Karl Marx 's statement that religion is the " opiate of the masses . " Cobain said the song is about a man who , after the death of his girlfriend , turns to religion " as a last resort to keep himself alive . To keep him from suicide . " While Cobain said the narrative of " Lithium " was fictional , he said , " I did infuse some of my personal experiences , like breaking up with girlfriends and having bad relationships . " Cobain acknowledged that the song was possibly inspired in part by the time he spent living with his friend Jesse Reed and his born @-@ again Christian parents . He explained to Azerrad , " I 've always felt that some people should have religion in their lives [ . . . ] That 's fine . If it 's going to save someone , it 's okay . And the person in [ ' Lithium ' ] needed it . "
= = Release and reception = =
" Lithium " was released as the third single from Nevermind on July 13 , 1992 . Featuring a cover photo by Cobain , the single contained a sonogram of the musician 's then @-@ unborn child Frances Bean Cobain , as well as full lyrics for all the songs on Nevermind . Cassette , CD , 12 @-@ inch vinyl , and British 12 @-@ inch vinyl picture disc editions included " Curmudgeon " and a live version of " Been a Son " ( performed on Halloween the previous year ) as B @-@ sides . The British 7 @-@ inch and cassette featured only " Curmudgeon " as an extra track , while the UK CD release added a cover of the Wipers ' " D @-@ 7 " recorded for BBC Radio 1 disc jockey John Peel 's program in 1990 .
In the United States , the single charted at number 64 on the Billboard Hot 100 single chart . " Lithium " peaked at number 16 and 25 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock Tracks airplay charts , respectively . The song was tied at number 20 with singles by Ministry , Lisa Stansfield , and Utah Saints in the 1992 Village Voice Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . In 2012 , NME ranked Lithium at number 52 on its list of the " 100 Best Tracks Of The ' 90s " in 2012 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Lithium " was the second Nirvana video directed by Kevin Kerslake . Cobain originally wanted the video to feature an animated story about a girl named Prego who discovers some eggs that hatch . When Cobain and Kerslake discovered the animation would take four months to produce , they instead created a film collage of Nirvana performing in concert . Among the concert footage used was material from the trio 's 1991 Halloween performance and scenes from the film 1991 : The Year Punk Broke ( 1992 ) . Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad commented , " Although [ the video ] was enlivened by Kerslake 's neat trick of using more violent footage during the quiet parts of the song and vice versa , it was something of a disappointment from a band and a song that promised so much . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Kurt Cobain , except where noted .
US 12 @-@ inch , cassette , CD , and UK 12 @-@ inch vinyl picture disc
" Lithium " – 4 : 16
" Been a Son " ( live - Seattle - 31 @.@ 10 @.@ 1991 ) – 2 : 14
" Curmudgeon " – 2 : 58
UK 7 @-@ inch vinyl and cassette
" Lithium " – 4 : 16
" Curmudgeon " – 2 : 58
UK CD
" Lithium " – 4 : 16
" Been a Son " ( live ) – 2 : 14
" Curmudgeon " – 2 : 58
" D @-@ 7 " ( John Peel Radio Session ) ( Greg Sage ) – 3 : 45
= = Charts = =
= = Accolades = =
Ranked number 20 in Kerrang ! magazines " 100 Greatest Rock Tracks Ever ! " ( 1999 ) .
= = Personnel = =
Kurt Cobain : vocals , guitar
Krist Novoselic : bass guitar
Dave Grohl : drums
Butch Vig : recording and mixing engineer , producer
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= The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five =
The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five is a 1980 science fiction novel by Doris Lessing . It is the second book in her five @-@ book Canopus in Argos series , the first being Shikasta ( 1979 ) . It was first published in the United States in January 1980 by Alfred A. Knopf , and in the United Kingdom in May 1980 by Jonathan Cape .
The novel takes place in three of six metaphysical Zones that encircle the planet Shikasta ( an allegorical Earth ) , and concerns two ordained marriages that link the patriarchal and militaristic Zone Four with the matriarchal and egalitarian Zone Three , and the tribal and barbaric Zone Five . The story is told from the point of view of the matriarchal utopian Zone Three , and is about gender conflict and the breaking down of barriers between the sexes . Lessing called the Canopus in Argos series " space fiction " , but The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five is generally referred to as feminist science fiction .
In the mid @-@ 1960s Lessing had become interested in Sufism , an Islamic belief system , and she used many Sufi concepts in the Canopus in Argos series . In The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five , the zones are said to correspond to Sufism 's different levels of consciousness , and symbolise the " Sufi ladder to enlightenment " . Lessing was criticised for abandoning her traditional fiction and switching to science fiction with spiritual and mystical themes . Notwithstanding this criticism , The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five was generally well received by critics , with some reviewers calling it one Lessing 's best works on the topic of gender conflict .
The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five was also adapted as an opera by composer Philip Glass with story @-@ libretto by Lessing , and premiered in Heidelberg , Germany in May 1997 . The US premiere was performed in Chicago in June 2001 .
= = Zones = =
First described in the opening book of the series , Shikasta , six metaphysical Zones ( akin to cosmological planes ) encircle the planet Shikasta ( an allegorical Earth ) . These " concentric shells " ( numbered One to Six ) each represent different " levels of spiritual being . " Shikasta only deals with Zone Six , the innermost and least pure of the Zones , which is " a kind of purgatory in which humans wait out the time between incarnations on earth " .
In The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five , Lessing describes some of the higher Zones in this " spiritual landscape " as self @-@ contained " countries " , each with their own " societies " that have evolved independently of the others over time . Adjacent Zones in the sequence border each other , from Zone Six ( the lowest ) up to Zone One ( the highest and purest ) , each with " increasingly mountainous topography . "
Crossing the frontiers from one Zone to another is possible , but generally avoided as straying too close to the border leaves one feeling ill @-@ at @-@ ease and sometimes even physically sick . For those who need to move into another Zone , special shields are provided for protection against the debilitating effects of the foreign atmosphere ( both physical and ideological ) .
= = Plot = =
The story opens when the Providers , the invisible and unidentified rulers of all the Zones , order Al • Ith , queen of the peaceful paradise of Zone Three , to marry Ben Ata , king of the militarised and repressive Zone Four . Al • Ith is repulsed by the idea of consorting with a barbarian , and Ben Ata does not want a righteous queen disturbing his military campaigns . Nevertheless , Al • Ith descends to Zone Four and they reluctantly marry . Ben Ata is not used to the company of women he cannot control , and Al • Ith has difficulty relating to this ill @-@ bred man , but in time they grow accustomed to each other and gain new insights into each other 's Zones . Al • Ith is appalled that all of Zone Four 's wealth goes into its huge armies , leaving the rest of its population poor and underdeveloped ; Ben Ata is astounded that Zone Three has no army at all .
The marriage bears a son , Arusi , future heir to the two Zones . Some of the women of Zone Four , led by Dabeeb , step in to help Al • Ith . Suppressed and downtrodden , these women relish being in the presence of the queen of Zone Three . But soon after the birth of Arusi , the Providers order Al • Ith to return to Zone Three without her son , and Ben Ata to marry Vahshi , queen of the primitive Zone Five . Al • Ith and Ben Ata have grown fond of each other , and are devastated by this news .
In Zone Three , Al • Ith finds that her people have forgotten her , and her sister , Murti • has taken over as queen . Disturbed by the changes she sees in Al • Ith , Murti • exiles her to the frontier of Zone Two . Al • Ith , drawn by its allure , tries to enter Zone Two , but finds an unworldly and inhospitable place and is told by invisible people that it is not her time yet . At the frontier of Zone Five , Ben Ata reluctantly marries Vahshi , a tribal leader of a band of nomads who terrorise the inhabitants of her zone . But Ben Ata 's marriage to Al • Ith has changed him , and he disbands most of his armies in Zone Four , sending the soldiers home to rebuild their towns and villages and uplift their communities . He also slowly wins over Vahshi 's confidence and persuades her to stop plundering Zone Five .
When Arusi is old enough to travel , Dabeeb and her band of women decide to take him to Zone Three to see Al • Ith . This cross @-@ border excursion is not ordered by the Providers , and Ben Ata has grave misgivings about their decision . In Zone Three the women are shocked to find the deposed Al • Ith working in a stable near Zone Two . While Al • Ith is pleased to see her son , she too has misgivings about Dabeeb 's action . The bumptious women 's travels through Zone Three evoke feelings of xenophobia in the locals .
After five years of silence , the Providers instruct Ben Ata to go and see Al • Ith in Zone Three . At the border , he is surprised to find a band of youths armed with crude makeshift weapons blocking his way . Clearly they want no more incursions from Zone Four . Ben Ata returns with a large army and enters Zone Three unchallenged . He is not well received , but finds Al • Ith with a small band of followers who have moved to the frontier of Zone Two to be close to her . Ben Ata and Al • Ith reunite ; he tells her of the reforms he has introduced in Zone Four and his taming of the " wild one " from Zone Five .
One day Al • Ith enters Zone Two and does not return . But the changes set in motion by the two marriages are now evident everywhere . The frontiers between Zones Three , Four and Five are open , and people and knowledge are flowing between them . Previously stagnant , the three Zones are now filled with enquiry , inspiration and renewal .
= = Background = =
When Lessing published Shikasta in 1979 , the first book in her Canopus in Argos series , it represented a major shift of focus for the author . In her earlier books , Lessing had established a name for herself as a writer of realistic fiction ; in Shikasta she introduced her readers to the spiritual and mystical themes in Sufism . In the mid @-@ 1960s Lessing had become interested in Sufism , an Islamic belief system , after reading The Sufis by Idries Shah . She described The Sufis as " the most surprising book [ she ] had read " , and said it " changed [ her ] life " . Lessing later met Shah , who became " a good friend [ and ] teacher " . In the early 1970s Lessing began writing " inner space " fiction , which included the novels Briefing for a Descent into Hell ( 1971 ) and Memoirs of a Survivor ( 1974 ) , and in the late 1970s she turned to science fiction when she wrote Shikasta , in which she used many Sufi concepts . Shikasta was intended to be a " single self @-@ contained book " , but as Lessing 's fictional universe developed , she found she had ideas for more than just one book , and ended up writing a series of five .
Lessing 's switch to science fiction was not well received by all . By the late 1970s Lessing was considered " one of the most honest , intelligent and engaged writers of the day " , and Western readers unfamiliar with Sufism were dismayed that Lessing had abandoned her " rational worldview " . George Stade of The New York Times complained that " our Grand Mistress of lumpen realism has gone religious on us " . The reaction of reviewers and readers to the first two books in the series , Shikasta and The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five , prompted Lessing to write in the Preface to the third book in the series , The Sirian Experiments ( 1980 ) :
I would so like it if reviewers and readers could see this series , Canopus in Argos : Archive , as a framework that enables me to tell ( I hope ) a beguiling tale or two ; to put questions , both to myself and to others ; to explore ideas and sociological possibilities .
Further criticism of the Canopus series followed , which included this comment by New York Times critic John Leonard : " One of the many sins for which the 20th century will be held accountable is that it has discouraged Mrs. Lessing . [ ... ] She now propagandizes on behalf of our insignificance in the cosmic razzmatazz . " Lessing replied by saying : " What they didn 't realize was that in science fiction is some of the best social fiction of our time . I also admire the classic sort of science fiction , like Blood Music , by Greg Bear . He 's a great writer . " Lessing said in 1983 that she would like to write stories about red and white dwarves , space rockets powered by anti @-@ gravity , and charmed and coloured quarks , " [ b ] ut we can 't all be physicists " .
In an interview published in 1996 , Lessing spoke passionately of The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five : " Something happened when I wrote the book . I hit some other level . And is it a legend or a myth or a fairy tale or a fantasy ? That isn 't the word for what I ’ ve written , I think . You see , only I could have written The Golden Notebook , but I think Anon wrote this other book . " Lessing considered Marriages one of her better books , and said , " this book goes down into me pretty deep ... it will never happen again " .
= = Genre and themes = =
The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five is told largely from the point of view of the matriarchal utopian Zone Three , which places the novel in the category of feminist utopias or feminist science fiction . The Canopus in Argos series in general falls under the banner of soft science fiction , or " space fiction " as Lessing called it , due to its focus on characterisation and social and cultural issues , and the de @-@ emphasis of science and technology . Comparative literature professor Robert Alter suggested that this kind of writing belongs to a genre that literary critic Northrop Frye called the " anatomy " , which is " a combination of fantasy and morality " . Author Gore Vidal placed Lessing 's " science fiction " " somewhere between John Milton and L. Ron Hubbard " .
The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five differs from the other books in the Canopus in Argos series in that it reads like a fable and is set in a metaphysical , or " psychic " space , outside the rest of the series ' " normal " space / time universe . The story concerns two ordained marriages that link the patriarchal and militaristic Zone Four with the matriarchal and egalitarian Zone Three , and the tribal and barbaric Zone Five . It focuses on , what Time magazine reviewer Paul Gray calls , the " struggles between men and women and the dimensions of sex and love " . Literary critic Diana Sheets says that the book is about overcoming gender differences and opening up new possibilities . She argues that the premise of the story is that " cosmic order is ideally realized when men and women cross the gender divide and attempt genuine communication — sexually , emotionally , [ ... ] thereby setting the preconditions for the attainment of enlightened consciousness . "
The marriages were ordained by the Providers because the zones had stagnated and the birth rate of both humans and animals had fallen . Lessing does not identify the Providers , but some reviewers and critics have assumed that they are the Canopeans from the benevolent galactic empire Canopus , introduced in the first book of the series , Shikasta . Author Thelma J. Shinn says that , as in Shikasta , Lessing 's " pessimistic view of human capabilities still keeps control in a benevolent power rather than in the hands of the individual " . But after a push in the right direction , the individual triumphs : Al • Ith and Ben Ata initiate changes in both their own and their neighbouring zones .
Literature academic Jayne Ashleigh Glover says that while Zone Three on the surface appears to be a feminist utopia , Lessing shows that it is far from idyllic . The story narrators , the Chroniclers of Zone Three , question their zone 's behaviour and attitudes , and warn of the dangers of stagnation . Al • Ith , upon returning to Zone Three , is shunned by its inhabitants for failing to attend to their zone 's needs , and Zone Three 's stasis manifests itself in xenophobia when Al • Ith brings back new perspectives , followed by visitors from Zone Four .
Glover sees Al • Ith , Ben Ata and Vahshi as allegories for their respective zones , and the marriages between them as marriages between the zones , as stated by the title of the book . Author Müge Galin says that Al • Ith functions according to the nature of Zone Three rather than as an individual . Galin also argues that the six zones correspond to Sufism 's different levels of consciousness . Both Al • Ith and Ben Ata are able to experience other levels of consciousness when they travel to each other 's zones , but Al • Ith can perceive and experience the neighbouring zone far deeper than Ben Ata because she is from a higher zone / level of consciousness . Galin says that on the " Sufi ladder to enlightenment " , those on higher rungs must pull up those on lower rungs . Thus Al • Ith can only move to Zone Two after she has pulled Ben Ata up to Zone Three .
= = Reception = =
In a review of The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five in Time magazine , Paul Gray described the novel as " part fertility myth , part comedy of manners " . Gray said that Lessing often wrote about gender conflict , but " never with more sweetness , compassion and wisdom " as she has in this novel . Writing in HuffPost Culture , University of Bristol academic Tom Sperlinger called the book " a legend " and listed it amongst his " Five Doris Lessing Books to Read " . Critic John Leonard in a review in The New York Times called The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five " an act of magic " , and " a remarkable recovery " from Shikasta , which Leonard called a " disaster " .
British writer Graham Sleight in a review of the Canopus in Argos series in Locus magazine said The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five comes closest to Ursula K. Le Guin 's works in the way that both Lessing and Le Guin scrutinise societies . Sleight compared The Marriages to Le Guin 's The Dispossessed , saying that each revolves around conflicts between differing worldviews , namely the Zones in The Marriages , and Anarres and Urras in The Dispossessed .
Kirkus Reviews said that Lessing often tackled the subject of sexual politics , but The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five is her " most humane and loving variation on the theme " . While the review was critical of Lessing 's prose style , saying its " gracelessness [ ... ] has never been more conspicuous " , and called her descriptions of the Zone Four war economy " a silly cartoon sketch " , it said that " there is a sweetness and generosity about this work not quite like anything she has done " .
= = Adaptations = =
The Marriages Between Zones Three , Four and Five was adapted for the opera in 1997 by composer Philip Glass with story @-@ libretto by Doris Lessing . The two @-@ act opera for orchestra , chorus and soloists first premiered in Heidelberg , Germany in May 1997 under the direction of Thomas Kalb ( music ) and Birgitta Trommler ( stage ) . Lessing said that for the opera she expanded her allegory about gender relations : " There was room for two festivals : a woman 's festival and a marriage festival . There are a lot of lyrics not in the novel . " The libretto was translated by Saskia M. Wesnigk into German . The first US premiere was in June 2001 at the Merle Reskin Theatre in Chicago , Illinois , and was directed by Harry Silverstein .
The German premiere was not well received by the press , and Chicago Tribune music critic John von Rhein found faults in the US production . He said that the novel " falls flat as music theater " , there is " no compelling dramatic narrative " , and the music " drifts along innocuously " . Von Rhein also complained that " score breaks no new stylistic ground , nor does it define the characters dramatically " .
In 1986 , Glass adapted another book from the Canopus in Argos series , The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 , into a three @-@ act opera with story @-@ libretto by Lessing . It premiered in Houston , Texas in July 1988 .
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= Bosa of York =
Bosa ( died c . 705 ) was an Anglo @-@ Saxon Bishop of York during the 7th and early 8th centuries . He was educated at Whitby Abbey , where he became a monk . Following Wilfrid 's removal from York in 678 the diocese was divided into three , leaving a greatly reduced see of York , to which Bosa was appointed bishop . He was himself removed in 687 and replaced by Wilfrid , but in 691 Wilfrid was once more ejected and Bosa returned to the see . He died in about 705 , and subsequently appears as a saint in an 8th @-@ century liturgical calendar .
= = Life = =
Bosa was a Northumbrian , educated at Whitby Abbey under the abbess Hilda . He subsequently joined the monastery as a monk , and became one of five men educated at Whitby who went on to become bishops .
In 678 , after Wilfrid was removed from the bishopric of York and banished from Northumbria , the diocese of York was divided into three . Bosa was appointed to the now greatly reduced diocese of York , which included the sub @-@ kingdom of Deira , thanks to the support of King Ecgfrith of Northumbria and Theodore of Tarsus , the Archbishop of Canterbury . Bosa was consecrated in his cathedral at York in 678 by Theodore , but Wilfrid declared that he was unable to work with Bosa because he did not consider him to be a member of the Catholic Church . Bosa 's episcopate lasted nine years , but with Wilfrid back in favour , in 687 Bosa was removed just as his predecessor had been . He returned to York in 691 , after Wilfrid was once again expelled . While bishop , Bosa introduced a communal life for the clergy of the cathedral , and set up a continuous liturgy in the cathedral .
= = Death and legacy = =
The date of Bosa 's death is unknown ; he was still alive in 704 but must have died before 706 , when his successor was named . His successor at York was John of Beverley , the Bishop of Hexham . A contemporary writer , Bede , praised Bosa as a man of " singular merit and sanctity " . Bede also praised Bosa 's humility . Bosa was also responsible for the early education of Acca , later Bishop of Hexham , who grew up in his household .
Bosa appears as a saint in an 8th @-@ century liturgical calendar from York , the only sign that he was venerated as a saint before the Norman Conquest of England . The 16th @-@ century English antiquary John Leland included Bosa in his list of saint 's resting places in England , giving it as York . Bosa 's feast day is 9 March .
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= Colross =
Colross , ( also historically known as Belle Air and Grasshopper Hall ) , is a Georgian mansion in Princeton , New Jersey ; it was built as the center of an estate in the Old Town neighborhood of Alexandria , Virginia . Colross is currently the administration building of Princeton Day School . The Colross property originally occupied the entire 1100 block of Oronoco Street ; Alexandria merchant John Potts developed it as a plantation and began building the mansion in 1799 – 1800 . In 1803 , Jonathan Swift — also an Alexandria merchant and a city councilman — purchased the property and during his ownership continued constructing the mansion . After Swift 's death in 1824 , Colross was purcheased by Thomson Francis Mason ( 1785 – 1838 ) , son of Thomson Mason ( 1759 – 1820 ) and grandson of Founding Father George Mason ( 1725 – 1792 ) of Gunston Hall . Mason served as a judge of the Criminal Court of the District of Columbia and as mayor of Alexandria . During his ownership , Mason made Colross his chief homestead ; he substantially modified and added to the mansion . After successive ownerships , the area around Colross became heavily industrialized . The mansion was bought by John Munn in 1929 ; between that year and 1932 it was transported brick @-@ by @-@ brick to Princeton , where in 1958 it was sold to Princeton Day School , which uses it as a school administration building housing its admission and advancement offices .
The Colross mansion is a two @-@ story , brick , Georgian @-@ style structure that features an architectural plan similar to those of Mount Vernon and Woodlawn , and was originally flanked by two wings . The front entrance is covered by a spacious Neoclassical portico supported by wooden doric columns . The roof is topped by a balustraded deck and is further embellished by three Dormer windows .
Following the 2005 purchase of the original Colross site by a real estate development company , an archaeological excavation was undertaken between March and June that year at the behest of the city of Alexandria . Archaeologists uncovered an underground domed brick cistern and evidence of slave outbuildings , in addition to the foundations of the estate 's peripheral walls and several ancillary structures . The excavation of the Colross site resulted in 79 condominium buyers abandoning their purchase agreements because of the delay in construction of a luxury Monarch Condominium project .
Colross served as the venue for several significant Mason family events , including the wedding ceremonies of Thomson Francis Mason 's daughters Sarah Elizabeth Mason ( 1819 – 1907 ) and Virginia Mason ( 1830 – 1919 ) . According to local tradition , two children in the Mason family died on the property and were interred in the estate 's burial vault . Successive owners of the Colross estate claimed it was haunted by the deceased Mason children .
= = History = =
= = = Virginia = = =
The land on which Colross was first located was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary , a land grant that Charles II of England awarded to seven of his supporters in 1649 and renewed by an official patent in 1688 . One of these seven supporters , Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper , acquired the entire area in 1681 ; his grandson , Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , inherited it in 1719 .
John Potts , a prominent Alexandria merchant , developed the Colross property as a plantation . He began building a brick mansion on the property between 1799 and 1800 . Potts encountered financial difficulties and placed the unfinished mansion on the market in 1801 . In December 1803 , Jonathan Swift , a merchant and Freemason , bought the property for $ 9 @,@ 000 . Swift purchased Colross for his bride , Anne Roberdeau , daughter of Brigadier General Daniel Roberdeau ( 1727 – 1795 ) . Some sources say Swift 's wife reportedly named the estate Belle Air ; according to other sources , Swift referred to his estate as both " Belle Air " and " Grasshopper Hall " . Swift presided over Alexandria City Council from 1822 through 1823 . His wife , two daughters , and three sons lived with him at the mansion . As Alexandria expanded , Colross evolved from a rural plantation into an urban estate . Between 1791 and 1847 , the city of Alexandria was a part of Alexandria County within the District of Columbia . Swift continued to construct the mansion . After his death in 1824 , the estate transferred to the ownership of Lee Massey Alexander and his sister , Mrs. Chapman . The Alexander family owned the estate for a brief period ; they renamed it " Colross " .
Colross was then purchased by Thomson Francis Mason ( 1785 – 1838 ) , a prominent jurist , lawyer , councilman , judge of the Criminal Court of the District of Columbia , and mayor of Alexandria between 1827 and 1830 . Mason was the eldest son of Thomson Mason ( 1759 – 1820 ) , and was the grandson of U.S. Founding Father George Mason ( 1725 – 1792 ) of Gunston Hall . According to Mason 's daughter Virginia Mason Davidge , her father won Colross " at a game of cards " from Lee Massey Alexander . Mason used Colross as his chief homestead and made substantial modifications and additions to it . Mason built a 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high brick wall around the exterior of the Colross property . Around the same time Mason acquired Colross , he built Huntley in Fairfax County , Virginia as a rural retreat and summer villa . Mason 's son , Arthur " Pen " Pendleton Mason ( 1835 – 1893 ) , later inherited the Colross estate . Pen Mason was married to Mary Ellen Campbell , a daughter of John Archibald Campbell ( 1811 – 1889 ) , an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States . Orlando B. Willcox , who later served as a Union Army general , visited Colross on several occasions around 1851 ; he described it as a " fine house and ground and the chief residence of the Masons of Alexandria , much frequented by officers of the army " . Willcox also remarked on the " hospitality and civility of the head of the house " , Pen Mason 's mother , Elizabeth " Betsey " Clapham Price ( 1802 – 1873 ) .
During the American Civil War , Colross was seized by Union authorities . According to local tradition and to Alexandria resident Julian Taylor , at least two Union deserters were executed with their backs against the estate 's high brick exterior wall . In addition , a " famous ' bounty jumper ' " by the name of Downey was also shot and killed against the wall after being captured by his own soldiers . Local traditions also tell of the ghost of a soldier who haunts the former location of the estate 's brick perimeter wall .
William Albert Smoot , a lumber merchant and coal businessman , purchased Colross from the Mason family and lived there with his family between 1885 and 1917 . Smoot 's wife was a member of the Alexander family , and was therefore a descendant of the estate 's former owners . While there , the Smoots ' daughter Betty wrote , " the grounds included a whole square block and were enclosed with an ancient brick wall ten feet in height " . The Smoots ' son William Albert later served as mayor of Alexandria from 1922 to 1930 .
The parents of Cornell University professor and activist Alice Cook ( 1903 – 1998 ) lived at the then @-@ dilapidated Colross with her father 's superior from the Southern Railway . Her father worked for the railroad 's bookkeeping department . Cook spent her early childhood at the house . In c . 1913 , when Cook was about ten , her mother took her to Colross for a visit . She remarked that Colross " had no gaslights , and running water only in the kitchen " , and that the house " stood in the midst of railroad tracks " . Cook also said the house 's adjacent stables still had horses , the " elegant plaster ceilings " remained intact , and " great oak doors " still stood within the house 's main doorway behind the white columns of the front portico .
In 1917 , another lumber merchant , William Hoge , acquired ownership of the mansion . Under similar circumstances to those of nearby Abingdon , properties surrounding Colross underwent industrialization with the construction of a warehouse complex and ancillary industrial buildings associated with Alexandria Hay & Grain . The mansion at Colross became a storage facility within a lumber yard operated by another planing mill owner . In 1927 , the mansion and the adjacent warehouses were substantially damaged by a tornado , making the mansion uninhabitable .
= = = New Jersey = = =
Between 1929 and 1932 , John Munn purchased the mansion , dismantled it , and shipped the structure brick @-@ by @-@ brick to Princeton , New Jersey , where it was restored . Following Munn 's death in 1956 , Colross was purchased by Dr. Geoffrey W. Rake . After Rake died in 1958 , Colross was sold to Princeton Day School . The mansion became the school 's administrative building , which it remains to this day . As of 2015 , Colross houses the admission and advancement offices of Princeton Day School , and serves as a venue for the institution 's events .
In Alexandria , the mansion 's remaining brick foundation was buried beneath a slab of reinforced concrete for over 50 years . After the mansion 's relocation , its site was the location — among other structures — of a large 50 @-@ truck garage , Andy 's Car Wash , a Dominion Virginia Power substation , and the Hennage Creative Printers facility .
= = Architecture = =
The mansion at Colross was built in the Georgian architectural style between 1799 and 1800 . It is a two @-@ story brick house featuring a rectangular architectural plan , which was originally flanked by two wings . Colross features wide halls and spacious rooms . One wing housed facilities for the estate 's service staff ; the other wing served as a carriage shed . Colross ' architectural plan is similar to that of nearby estates Mount Vernon and Woodlawn , and is an example of the country house style of American colonial architecture common in Maryland and Virginia . It has been described as the " largest and most beautiful mansion ever erected in Alexandria " . The Colross property originally occupied the entire 1100 block of Oronoco Street . The grounds of the estate also contained ancillary outbuildings .
The exterior brick walls of the mansion are laid in a Flemish bond pattern , exhibiting a " well proportioned width " of mortar joint between the bricks . Two sets of double inside chimneys extend above the roofline on each side of the mansion 's main structure . The front façade of the mansion 's main structure , which originally faced Oronoco Street in Alexandria , is five bays wide and contains the house 's front entrance at the first floor 's center bay . The front entrance is covered by a spacious Neoclassical architecture style portico , which is supported by two sets of double wooden doric columns at the front and engaged columns on the brick façade . The portico 's frieze is subordinated to the architrave . The mansion 's front door is topped by a leaded fanlight in the shape of a segmented arch . Leaded sidelights flank both sides of the main doorway . All of the mansion 's windows feature colonial @-@ style lintels .
The mansion 's roof is covered by gray slate and is further embellished with three dormer windows facing from the home 's front façade . The roof is topped by a balustraded deck . Similar moulding contours were used at varying scales throughout the mansion 's exterior construction . The mansion 's cornice is composed of ornamented moldings .
To the north of the mansion was a garden , which was purportedly well known for its boxwoods , lilacs , and roses . The garden remained through the ownership of the Smoot family . A winding path led from the mansion to a large burial vault , which was closed by a great iron lock . According to members of the Smoot family , the lock to the burial vault would " never stay locked more than three days " at a time . A vase of urn stood in the front lawn of the mansion ; according to tradition this marked the location where Pocahontas was baptized . The urn remained in its location throughout the American Civil War and was later acquired by the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities .
= = Archeological excavation = =
The former Colross land tract on the 1100 block of Oronoco Street , which is bounded by North Fayette , Oronoco , Henry , and Pendleton streets , was purchased in 2003 by Diamond Properties , a real estate development company with plans to build a mixed @-@ use mid @-@ rise luxury condominium project called Monarch Condominium . In 2005 , Alexandria 's Archaeological Protection Code requirement forced Diamond Properties to halt its construction to allow for an archaeological excavation of the Colross site . The excavation occurred between March and June 2005 , as mandated by the city of Alexandria . Diamond Properties paid R. Christopher Goodwin & Associates Inc . , a cultural resource management firm , approximately $ 100 @,@ 000 to explore the site for historical artifacts and to ensure all burial plots had been removed .
While only a few artifacts were recovered , historians said the dig offered a clearer view of early 19th @-@ century life at Colross . Discoveries included an underground domed brick cistern that served as a water purification system and evidence that slaves lived in outbuildings on the Colross estate . Archaeologists also discovered the mansion 's original basement floor , which was laid in a herringbone bond . Evidence of the estate 's exterior walls , the foundations of the smokehouse , stables , and a burial vault were also unearthed . In the northwestern portion of the property , what is thought to have been the foundation of a rectangular burial vault was found . No burial remains were discovered . All interments were presumably removed in the early 20th century . Thomson Francis Mason was originally interred at the Colross graveyard in 1838 , as were two of his daughters . Subsequent residents had their remains reinterred at Christ Church Episcopal Cemetery in Alexandria . According to the Alexandria Economic Development Partnership , the delay in construiction caused 79 condominium buyers to abandon their purchases .
= = Significant Mason family events = =
The Colross estate was the location for several significant events involving the Mason family . Sarah Elizabeth Mason ( 1819 – 1907 ) , a daughter of Thomson Francis Mason and his wife Elizabeth Clapham Price , married St. George Tucker Campbell at Colross on November 17 , 1841 . Virginia Mason ( 1830 – 1919 ) , another daughter of Thomson and Elizabeth married William Hathorn Stewart Davidge at Colross on February 1 , 1853 . Colross was also the venue for the funeral of Mrs. Virginia King , wife of Dr. Benjamin King , on December 31 , 1850 . Mrs. King was a sister of Mrs. Judge Mason .
According to local tradition , two small Mason children , William and Ann , were playing in the estate 's yard when a storm arrived . William took shelter in the estate 's chicken coop but the wind toppled the structure , killing him . Soon after William 's death , his sister Ann drowned in a bathtub at Colross . Both children were interred in the estate 's burial vault in the garden . Successive residents at Colross , including members of the Smoot family , claimed the estate was haunted by the deceased Mason children ; they reported hearing children " giggling , singing , and talking " , and witnessed apparitions of children in pre @-@ Civil War attire .
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= Political career of John C. Breckinridge =
The political career of John C. Breckinridge included service in the state government of Kentucky , the United States federal government , and the government of the Confederate States of America . In 1857 , at 36 years old , he was inaugurated as James Buchanan 's vice president , and remains the youngest person to ever hold the office . Four years later , he ran as the presidential candidate of a dissident group of Southern Democrats , but lost the election to the Republican candidate , Abraham Lincoln .
A member of the Breckinridge political family , in 1849 John C. Breckinridge became the first Democrat to represent Fayette County in the Kentucky House of Representatives , and in 1851 , he was the first Democrat to represent Kentucky 's 8th congressional district in over 20 years . A champion of strict constructionism , states ' rights , and popular sovereignty , he supported Stephen A. Douglas 's Kansas – Nebraska Act as a means of addressing slavery in the territories acquired by the U.S. in the Mexican – American War . Considering his re @-@ election to the House of Representatives unlikely in 1854 , he returned to private life and his legal practice . He was nominated for vice president at the 1856 Democratic National Convention , and although he and Buchanan won the election , he enjoyed little influence in Buchanan 's administration .
In 1859 , the Kentucky General Assembly elected Breckinridge to a U.S. Senate term that would begin in 1861 . In the 1860 presidential contest , he captured the electoral votes of most of the Southern states , but finished a distant second among four candidates . Lincoln 's election as president prompted the secession of the Southern states to form the Confederate States of America . Though Breckinridge sympathized with the Southern cause , in the Senate he worked futilely to reunite the states peacefully . After the Confederates fired on Fort Sumter , beginning the Civil War , he opposed allocating resources for Lincoln to fight the Confederacy . Fearing arrest after Kentucky sided with the Union , he fled to the Confederacy , joined the Confederate States Army , and was subsequently expelled from the Senate . He served in the Confederate Army from October 1861 to February 1865 , when Confederate President Jefferson Davis appointed him Confederate States Secretary of War . Concluding that the Confederate cause was hopeless , he encouraged Davis to negotiate a national surrender . Davis 's capture in April , 1865 ended the war , and Breckinridge fled to Cuba , then Great Britain , and finally Canada , remaining in exile until President Andrew Johnson 's offer of amnesty in 1868 . Returning to Kentucky , he refused all requests to resume his political career and died of complications related to war injuries in 1875 .
= = Formative years = =
Historian James C. Klotter has speculated that , had John C. Breckinridge 's father , Cabell , lived , he would have steered his son to the Whig Party and the Union , rather than the Democratic Party and the Confederacy , but the Kentucky Secretary of State and former Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives died of a fever on September 1 , 1823 , months before his son 's third birthday . Burdened with her husband 's debts , widow Mary Breckinridge and her children moved to her in @-@ laws ' home near Lexington , Kentucky , where John C. Breckinridge 's grandmother taught him the political philosophies of his late grandfather , U.S. Attorney General John Breckinridge . John Breckinridge believed the federal government was created by , and subject to , the co @-@ equal governments of the states . As a state representative , he introduced the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 and 1799 , which denounced the Alien and Sedition Acts and asserted that states could nullify them and other federal laws that they deemed unconstitutional . A strict constructionist , he held that the federal government could only exercise powers explicitly given to it in the Constitution .
Most of the Breckinridges were Whigs , but John Breckinridge 's posthumous influence inclined his grandson toward the Democratic Party . Additionally , John C. Breckinridge 's friend and law partner , Thomas W. Bullock , was from a Democratic family . In 1842 , Bullock told Breckinridge that by the time they opened their practice in Burlington , Iowa , " you were two @-@ thirds of a Democrat " ; living in heavily Democratic Iowa Territory further distanced him from Whiggery . He wrote weekly editorials in the Democratic Iowa Territorial Gazette and Advisor , and in February 1843 , he was named to the Des Moines County Democratic committee . A letter from Breckinridge 's brother @-@ in @-@ law related that , when Breckinridge 's uncle William learned that his nephew had " become loco @-@ foco " , he said , " I felt as I would have done if I had heard that my daughter had been dishonored . " On a visit to Kentucky in 1843 , Breckinridge met and married Mary Cyrene Burch , ending his time in Iowa .
= = Views on slavery = =
Slavery issues dominated Breckinridge 's political career , although historians disagree about Breckinridge 's views . In Breckinridge : Statesman , Soldier , Symbol , William C. Davis argues that , by adulthood , Breckinridge regarded slavery as evil ; his entry in the 2002 Encyclopedia of World Biography records that he advocated voluntary emancipation . In Proud Kentuckian : John C. Breckinridge 1821 – 1875 , Frank Heck disagrees , citing Breckinridge 's consistent advocacy for slavery protections , beginning with his opposition to emancipationist candidates — including his uncle , Robert Jefferson Breckinridge — in the state elections of 1849 .
= = = Early influences = = =
See also John C. Breckinridge : Early life
Breckinridge 's grandfather , John , owned slaves , believing it was a necessary evil in an agrarian economy . He hoped for gradual emancipation but did not believe the federal government was empowered to effect it ; Davis wrote that this became " family doctrine " . As a U.S. Senator , John Breckinridge insisted that decisions about slavery in Louisiana Territory be left to its future inhabitants , essentially the " popular sovereignty " advocated by John C. Breckinridge prior to the Civil War . John C. Breckinridge 's father , Cabell , embraced gradual emancipation and opposed government interference with slavery , but Cabell 's brother Robert , a Presbyterian minister , became an abolitionist , concluding that slavery was morally wrong . Davis recorded that all the Breckinridges were pleased when the General Assembly refused to repeal the ban on importing slaves to Kentucky in 1833 .
John C. Breckinridge encountered conflicting influences as an undergraduate at Centre College and in law school at Transylvania University . Centre President John C. Young , Breckinridge 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , believed in states ' rights and gradual emancipation , as did George Robertson , one of Breckinridge 's instructors at Transylvania , but James G. Birney , father of Breckinridge 's friend and Centre classmate William Birney , was an abolitionist . In an 1841 letter to Robert Breckinridge , who became his surrogate father after Cabell Breckinridge 's death , John C. Breckinridge wrote that only " ignorant , foolish men " feared abolition . In an Independence Day address in Frankfort later that year , he decried the " unlawful dominion over the bodies ... of men " . An acquaintance believed that Breckinridge 's move to Iowa Territory was motivated , in part , by the fact that it was a free territory under the Missouri Compromise .
After returning to Kentucky , Breckinridge became friends with abolitionists Cassius Marcellus Clay , Garrett Davis , and Orville H. Browning . He represented freedmen in court and loaned them money . He was a Freemason and member of the First Presbyterian Church , both of which opposed slavery . Nevertheless , because blacks were educationally and socially disadvantaged in the South , Breckinridge concluded that " the interests of both races in the Commonwealth would be promoted by the continuance of their present relations " . He supported the new state constitution adopted in 1850 , which forbade the immigration of freedmen to Kentucky and required emancipated slaves to be expelled from the state . Believing it was best to relocate freedmen to the African colony of Liberia , he supported the Kentucky branch of the American Colonization Society . The 1850 Census showed that Breckinridge owned five slaves , aged 11 to 36 . Heck recorded that his slaves were well @-@ treated but noted that this was not unusual and proved nothing about his views on slavery .
= = = Moderate reputation = = =
Because Breckinridge defended both the Union and slavery in the General Assembly , he was considered a moderate early in his political career . In June 1864 , Pennsylvania 's John W. Forney opined that Breckinridge had been " in no sense an extremist " when elected to Congress in 1851 . Of his early encounters with Breckinridge , Forney wrote : " If he had a conscientious feeling , it was hatred of slavery , and both of us , ' Democrats ' as we were , frequently confessed that it was a sinful and an anti @-@ Democratic institution , and that the day would come when it must be peaceably or forcibly removed . " Heck discounts this statement , pointing out that Forney was editor of a pro @-@ Union newspaper and Breckinridge a Confederate general at the time it was published . As late as the 1856 presidential election , some alleged that Breckinridge was an abolitionist .
By the time he began his political career , Breckinridge had concluded that slavery was more a constitutional issue than a moral one . Slaves were property , and the Constitution did not empower the federal government to interfere with property rights . From Breckinridge 's constructionist viewpoint , allowing Congress to legislate emancipation without constitutional sanction would lead to " unlimited dominion over the territories , excluding the people of the slave states from emigrating thither with their property " . As a private citizen , he supported the slavery protections in the Kentucky Constitution of 1850 and denounced the Wilmot Proviso , which would have forbidden slavery in territory acquired in the Mexican – American War . As a state legislator , he declared slavery a " wholly local and domestic " matter , to be decided separately by the residents of each state and territory . Because Washington , D.C. , was a federal entity and the federal government could not interfere with property rights , he concluded that forced emancipation there was unconstitutional . As a congressman , he insisted on Congress 's " perfect non @-@ intervention " with slavery in the territories . Debating the 1854 Kansas – Nebraska Act , he explained , " The right to establish [ slavery in a territory by government sanction ] involves the correlative right to prohibit ; and , denying both , I would vote for neither . "
= = = Later views = = =
Davis notes that Breckinridge 's December 21 , 1859 , address to the state legislature marked a change in his public statements about slavery . He decried the Republicans ' desire for " negro equality " , his first public indication that he may have believed blacks were biologically inferior to whites . He declared that the Dred Scott decision showed that federal courts afforded adequate protection for slave property , but advocated a federal slave code if future courts failed to enforce those protections ; this marked a departure from his previous doctrine of " perfect non @-@ interference " . Asserting that John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry proved Republicans intended to force abolition on the South , he predicted " resistance [ to the Republican agenda ] in some form is inevitable " . He still urged the Assembly against secession — " God forbid that the step shall ever be taken ! " — but his discussion of growing sectional conflict bothered some , including his uncle Robert .
Klotter wrote that Breckinridge 's sale of a female slave and her six @-@ week @-@ old child in November 1857 probably ended his days as a slaveholder . Slaves were not listed among his assets in the 1860 Census , but Heck noted that he had little need for slaves at that time , since he was living in Lexington 's Phoenix Hotel after returning to Kentucky from his term as vice president . Some slavery advocates refused to support him in the 1860 presidential race because he was not a slaveholder . Klotter noted that Breckinridge fared better in rural areas of the South , where there were fewer slaveholders ; in urban areas where the slave population was higher , he lost to Constitutional Unionist candidate John Bell , who owned 166 slaves . William C. Davis recorded that , in most of the South , the combined votes for Bell and Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas exceeded those cast for Breckinridge .
After losing the election to Abraham Lincoln , Breckinridge worked for adoption of the Crittenden Compromise — authored by fellow Kentuckian John J. Crittenden — as a means of preserving the Union . Breckinridge believed the Crittenden proposal — restoring the Missouri Compromise line as the separator between slave and free territory in exchange for stricter enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 and federal non @-@ interference with slavery in the territories and Washington , D.C. — was the most extreme proposal to which the South would agree . Ultimately , the compromise was rejected and the Civil War soon followed .
= = Early political career = =
A supporter of the annexation of Texas and " manifest destiny " , Breckinridge campaigned for James K. Polk in the 1844 presidential election , prompting a relative to observe that he was " making himself very conspicuous here by making flaming loco foco speeches at the Barbecues " . He decided against running for Scott County clerk after his law partner complained that he spent too much time in politics . In 1845 , he declined to seek election to the U.S. House of Representatives from the Eighth District but campaigned for Alexander Keith Marshall , his party 's unsuccessful nominee . He supported Zachary Taylor for the presidency in mid @-@ 1847 but endorsed the Democratic ticket of Lewis Cass and William O. Butler after Taylor became a Whig in 1848 .
= = = Kentucky House of Representatives = = =
In October 1849 , Kentucky voters called for a constitutional convention . Emancipationists , including Breckinridge 's uncles William and Robert , his brother @-@ in @-@ law John C. Young , and his friend Cassius Marcellus Clay , nominated " friends of emancipation " to seek election to the convention and the state legislature In response , Breckinridge , who opposed " impairing [ slavery protections ] in any form " , was nominated by a bipartisan pro @-@ slavery convention for one of Fayette County 's two seats in the Kentucky House of Representatives . With 1 @,@ 481 votes , 400 more than any of his opponents , Breckinridge became the first Democrat elected to the state legislature from Fayette County , which was heavily Whig .
When the House convened in December 1849 , a member from Mercer County nominated Breckinridge for Speaker against two Whigs . After receiving 39 votes — 8 short of a majority — on the first three ballots , he withdrew , and the position went to Whig Thomas Reilly . Assigned to the committees on the Judiciary and Federal Relations , Breckinridge functioned as the Democratic floor leader during the session . Davis wrote that his most important work during the session was bank reform .
Breckinridge 's first speech favored allowing the Kentucky Colonization Society to use the House chamber ; later , he advocated directing Congress to establish an African freedmen colony , and to meet the costs of transporting settlers there . Funding internal improvements was traditionally a Whig stance , but Breckinridge advocated conducting a state geologic survey , making the Kentucky River more navigable , chartering a turnpike , incorporating a steamboat company , and funding the Kentucky Lunatic Asylum . As a reward for supporting these projects , he presided over the approval of the Louisville and Bowling Green Railroad 's charter and was appointed director of the asylum .
Resolutions outlining Kentucky 's views on the proposed Compromise of 1850 were referred to the Committee on Federal Relations . The committee 's Whig majority favored one calling the compromise a " fair , equitable , and just basis " for dealing with slavery in the territories and urging Congress not to interfere with slavery there or in Washington , D.C. Feeling this left open the issue of Congress 's ability to legislate emancipation , Breckinridge asserted in a competing resolution that Congress could not establish or abolish slavery in states or territories . Both resolutions , and several passed by the state Senate , were laid on the table without being adopted .
Breckinridge left the session on March 4 , 1850 , three days before its adjournment , to tend to John Milton Breckinridge , his infant son who had fallen ill ; he died on March 18 . To distract from his grief , he campaigned for ratification of the new constitution , objecting only to its difficult amendment process . He declined renomination , citing concerns " of a private and imperative nature " . Davis wrote that the problem was money , since his absence from Lexington had hurt his legal practice , but his son 's death was also a factor .
= = U.S. House of Representatives = =
At an October 17 , 1850 , barbecue celebrating the Compromise of 1850 , Breckinridge toasted its author , Whig Party founder Henry Clay . Clay reciprocated by praising Breckinridge 's grandfather and father , expressing hope that Breckinridge would use his talents to serve his country , then embracing him . Some observers believed that Clay was endorsing Breckinridge for higher office , and Whig newspapers began referring to him as " a sort of half @-@ way Whig " and implying that he voted for Taylor in 1848 .
= = = First term ( 1851 – 1853 ) = = =
Delegates to the Democrats ' January 1851 state convention nominated Breckinridge to represent Kentucky 's Eighth District in the U.S. House of Representatives . Called the " Ashland district " because it contained Clay 's Ashland estate and much of the area he once represented , Whigs typically won there by 600 to 1 @,@ 000 votes . A Democrat had not represented it since 1828 , and in the previous election no Democrat had sought the office . Breckinridge 's opponent , Leslie Combs , was a popular War of 1812 veteran and former state legislator . As they campaigned together , Breckinridge 's eloquence contrasted with Combs ' plainspoken style . Holding that " free thought needed free trade " , Breckinridge opposed Whig protective tariffs . He only favored federal funding of internal improvements " of a national character " . Carrying only three of seven counties , but bolstered by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin in Owen County , Breckinridge garnered 54 % of the vote , winning the election by a margin of 537 .
Considered for Speaker of the House , Breckinridge believed his election unlikely and refused to run against fellow Kentuckian Linn Boyd . Boyd was elected , and despite Breckinridge 's gesture , assigned him to the lightly @-@ regarded Foreign Affairs Committee . Breckinridge resisted United States Democratic Review editor George Nicholas Sanders ' efforts to recruit him to the Young America movement . Like Young Americans , Breckinridge favored westward expansion and free trade , but he disagreed with the movement 's support of European revolutions and its disdain for older statesmen . On March 4 , 1852 , Breckinridge made his first speech in the House , defending presidential aspirant William Butler against charges by Florida 's Edward Carrington Cabell , a Young American and distant cousin , that Butler secretly sympathized with the Free Soilers . He denounced Sanders for his vitriolic attacks on Butler and for calling all likely Democratic presidential candidates except Stephen Douglas " old fogies " .
The speech made Breckinridge a target of Whigs , Young Americans , and Douglas supporters . Humphrey Marshall , a Kentucky Whig who supported incumbent President Millard Fillmore , attacked Breckinridge for claiming Fillmore had not fully disclosed his views on slavery . Illinois ' William Alexander Richardson , a Douglas backer , tried to distance Douglas from Sanders ' attacks on Butler , but Breckinridge showed that Douglas endorsed the Democratic Review a month after it printed its first anti @-@ Butler article . Finally , Breckinridge 's cousin , California 's Edward C. Marshall , charged that Butler would name Breckinridge Attorney General in exchange for his support and revived the charge that Breckinridge broke party ranks , supporting Zachary Taylor for president . Breckinridge ably defended himself , but Sanders continued to attack him and Butler , claiming Butler would name Breckinridge as his running mate , even though Breckinridge was too young to qualify as vice president .
After his maiden speech , Breckinridge took a more active role in the House . In debate with Ohio 's Joshua Reed Giddings , he defended the Fugitive Slave Law 's constitutionality and criticized Giddings for hindering the return of fugitive slaves . He opposed Tennessee Congressman Andrew Johnson 's Homestead Bill , fearing it would create more territories that excluded slavery . Although generally opposed to funding local improvements , he supported the repair of two Potomac River bridges to avoid higher costs later . Other minor stands included supporting measures to benefit his district 's hemp farmers , voting against giving the president ten more appointments to the U.S. Naval Academy , and opposing funds for a sculpture of George Washington because the sculptor proposed depicting Washington in a toga .
Beginning in April , Breckinridge made daily visits to an ailing Henry Clay . Clay died June 29 , 1852 , and Breckinridge garnered nationwide praise and enhanced popularity in Kentucky after eulogizing Clay in the House . Days later , he spoke in opposition to increasing a subsidy to the Collins Line for carrying trans @-@ Atlantic mail , noting that Collins profited by carrying passengers and cargo on mail ships . In wartime , the government could commandeer and retrofit Collins 's steamboats as warships , but Breckinridge cited Commodore Matthew C. Perry 's opinion that they would be useless in war . Finally , he showed Cornelius Vanderbilt 's written statement promising to build a fleet of mail ships at his expense and carry the mail for $ 4 million less than Collins . Despite this , the House approved the subsidy increase .
= = = Second term ( 1853 – 1855 ) = = =
With Butler 's chances for the presidential nomination waning , Breckinridge convinced the Kentucky delegation to the 1852 Democratic National Convention not to nominate Butler until later balloting when he might become a compromise candidate . He urged restraint when Lewis Cass 's support dropped sharply on the twentieth ballot , but Kentucky 's delegates would wait no longer ; on the next ballot , they nominated Butler , but he failed to gain support . After Franklin Pierce , Breckinridge 's second choice , was nominated , Breckinridge tried , unsuccessfully , to recruit Douglas to Pierce 's cause . Pierce lost by 3 @,@ 200 votes in Kentucky — one of four states won by Winfield Scott — but was elected to the presidency , and appointed Breckinridge governor of Washington Territory in recognition of his efforts . Unsure of his re @-@ election chances in Kentucky , Breckinridge had sought the appointment , but after John J. Crittenden , rumored to be his challenger , was elected to the Senate in 1853 , he decided to decline it and run for re @-@ election .
= = = = Election = = = =
The Whigs chose Attorney General James Harlan to oppose Breckinridge , but he withdrew in March when some party factions opposed him . Robert P. Letcher , a former governor who had not lost in 14 elections , was the Whigs ' second choice . Letcher was an able campaigner who combined oratory and anecdotes to entertain and energize an audience . Breckinridge focused on issues in their first debate , comparing the Whig Tariff of 1842 to the Democrats ' lower Walker tariff , which increased trade and yielded more tax revenue . Instead of answering Breckinridge 's points , Letcher appealed to party loyalty , claiming Breckinridge would misrepresent the district " because he is a Democrat " . Letcher appealed to Whigs " to protect the grave of Mr. [ Henry ] Clay from the impious tread of Democracy " , but Breckinridge pointed to his friendly relations with Clay , remarking that Clay 's will did not mandate that " his ashes be exhumed " and " thrown into the scale to influence the result of the present Congressional contest " .
Cassius Clay , Letcher 's political enemy , backed Breckinridge despite their differences on slavery . Citing Clay 's support and the abolitionism of Breckinridge 's uncle Robert , Letcher charged that Breckinridge was an abolitionist . In answer , Breckinridge quoted newspaper accounts and sworn testimony , provided by John L. Robinson , of a speech Letcher made in Indiana for Zachary Taylor in 1848 . In the speech , made alongside Thomas Metcalfe , another former Whig governor of Kentucky , Letcher predicted that the Kentucky Constitution then being drafted would provide for gradual emancipation , declaring , " It is only the ultra men in the extreme South who desire the extension of slavery . "
When Letcher confessed doubts about his election chances , Whigs began fundraising outside the district , using the money to buy votes or pay Breckinridge supporters not to vote . Breckinridge estimated that the donations , which came from as far away as New York and included contributions from the Collins Line , totaled $ 30 @,@ 000 ; Whig George Robertson believed it closer to $ 100 @,@ 000 . Washington , D.C. , banker William Wilson Corcoran contributed $ 1 @,@ 000 to Breckinridge , who raised a few thousand dollars . Out of 12 @,@ 538 votes cast , Breckinridge won by 526 . He received 71 % of the vote in Owen County , which recorded 123 more votes than registered voters . Grateful for the county 's support , he nicknamed his son , John Witherspoon Breckinridge , " Owen " .
= = = = Service = = = =
Of 234 representatives in the House , Breckinridge was one of 80 re @-@ elected to the Thirty @-@ third Congress . His relative seniority , and Pierce 's election , increased his influence . He was rumored to have Pierce 's backing for Speaker of the House , but he again deferred to Boyd ; Maryland 's Augustus R. Sollers spoiled Boyd 's unanimous election by voting for Breckinridge . Still not given a committee chairmanship , he was assigned to the Ways and Means Committee , where he secured passage of a bill to cover overspending in fiscal year 1853 – 1854 ; it was the only time in his career that he solely managed a bill . His attempts to increase Kentucky 's allocation in a rivers and harbors bill were unsuccessful but popular with his Whig constituents .
In January 1854 , Douglas introduced the Kansas – Nebraska Act to organize the Nebraska Territory . Southerners had thwarted his previous attempts to organize the territory because Nebraska lay north of parallel 36 ° 30 ' north , the line separating slave and free territory under the Missouri Compromise . They feared that the territory would be organized into new free states that would vote against the South on slavery issues . The Kansas – Nebraska Act allowed the territory 's settlers to decide whether or not to permit slavery , an implicit repeal of the Missouri Compromise . Kentucky Senator Archibald Dixon 's amendment to make the repeal explicit angered northern Democrats , but Breckinridge believed it would move the slavery issue from national to local politics , and he urged Pierce to support it . Breckinridge wrote to his uncle Robert that he " had more to do than any man here , in putting [ the Act ] in its present shape " , but Heck notes that few extant records support this claim . The repeal amendment made the act more palatable to the South ; only 9 of 58 Southern congressmen voted against it . No Northern Whigs voted for the measure , but 44 of 86 Northern Democrats voted in the affirmative , enough to pass it . The Senate quickly concurred , and Pierce signed the act into law on May 30 , 1854 .
During the debate on the bill , New York 's Francis B. Cutting demanded that Breckinridge retract or explain a statement he had made , which Breckinridge understood as a challenge to duel . Under the code duello , the challenged party selected the weapons and the distance between combatants ; Breckinridge chose rifles at 60 paces and suggested the duel be held in Silver Spring , Maryland , on his friend , Francis Preston Blair 's estate . Cutting had not meant his remark as a challenge , but insisted that he was now challenged and selected pistols at 10 paces . While their representatives tried to clarify matters , Breckinridge and Cutting made amends , averting the duel . Had it taken place , Breckinridge could have been removed from the House ; the 1850 Kentucky Constitution prevented duelists from holding office .
In the second session of the 33rd Congress , Breckinridge acted as spokesman for Ways and Means Committee bills , including a bill to assume and pay the debts Texas incurred prior to its annexation . Breckinridge 's friends , W. W. Corcoran and Jesse D. Bright , were two of Texas 's major creditors . The bill , which was approved , paid only those debts related to powers Texas surrendered to Congress upon annexation . Breckinridge was disappointed that the House defeated a measure to pay the Sioux $ 12 @,@ 000 owed them for the 1839 purchase of an island in the Mississippi River ; the debt was never paid . Another increase in the subsidy to the Collins Line passed over his opposition , but Pierce vetoed it .
= = = Retirement from the House = = =
In February 1854 , the General Assembly 's Whig majority gerrymandered the Eighth District , removing over 500 Democratic voters and replacing them with several hundred Whig voters by removing Owen and Jessamine counties from the district and adding Harrison and Nicholas counties to it . The cooperation of the Know Nothing Party — a relatively new nativist political entity — with the faltering Whigs further hindered Breckinridge 's re @-@ election chances . With his family again in financial straits , his wife wanted him to retire from national politics .
Pierre Soulé , the U.S. Minister to Spain , resigned in December 1854 after being unable to negotiate the annexation of Cuba and angering the Spanish by drafting the Ostend Manifesto , which called for the U.S. to take Cuba by force . Pierce nominated Breckinridge to fill the vacancy , but did not tell him until just before the Senate 's January 16 confirmation vote . After consulting Secretary of State William L. Marcy , Breckinridge concluded that the salary was insufficient and Soulé had so damaged Spanish relations that he would be unable to accomplish anything significant . In a February 8 , 1855 , letter to Pierce , he cited reasons " of a private and domestic nature " for declining the nomination . On March 17 , 1855 , he announced he would retire from the House .
Breckinridge and Minnesota Territory 's Henry Mower Rice were among the speculators who invested in land near present @-@ day Superior , Wisconsin . Rice disliked Minnesota 's territorial governor , Willis A. Gorman , and petitioned Pierce to replace him with Breckinridge . Pierce twice investigated Gorman , but found no grounds to remove him from office . Breckinridge fell ill when traveling to view his investments in mid @-@ 1855 and was unable to campaign in the state elections . Know Nothings captured every state office and six congressional districts — including the Eighth District — and Breckinridge sent regrets to friends in Washington , D.C. , promising to take a more active role in the 1856 campaigns .
= = U.S. vice president = =
Two Kentuckians — Breckinridge 's friend , Governor Lazarus W. Powell and his enemy , Linn Boyd — were potential Democratic presidential nominees in 1856 . Breckinridge — a delegate to the national convention and designated as a presidential elector — favored Pierce 's re @-@ election but convinced the state Democratic convention to leave the delegates free to support any candidate the party coalesced behind . To a New Yorker who proposed that Breckinridge 's nomination could unite the party , he replied " Humbug " .
= = = Election = = =
Pierce was unable to secure the nomination at the national convention , so Breckinridge switched his support to Stephen Douglas , but the combination of Pierce and Douglas supporters did not prevent James Buchanan 's nomination . After Douglas 's floor manager , William Richardson , suggested that nominating Breckinridge for vice president would help Buchanan secure the support of erstwhile Douglas backers in the general election , Louisiana 's J. L. Lewis nominated him . Breckinridge declined in deference to Linn Boyd but received 51 votes on the first ballot , behind Mississippi 's John A. Quitman with 59 , but ahead of third @-@ place Boyd , who garnered 33 . On the second ballot , Breckinridge received overwhelming support , and opposition delegates changed their votes to make his nomination unanimous .
The election was between Buchanan and Republican John C. Frémont in the north and between Buchanan and Millard Fillmore , nominated by a pro @-@ slavery faction of the Know Nothings , in the South . Tennessee Governor Andrew Johnson and Congressional Globe editor John C. Rives promoted the possibility that Douglas and Pierce supporters would back Fillmore in the Southern states , denying Buchanan a majority in the Electoral College and throwing the election to the House of Representatives . There , Buchanan 's opponents would prevent a vote , and the Senate 's choice for vice president — certain to be Breckinridge — would become president . There is no evidence that Breckinridge countenanced this scheme . Defying contemporary political convention , Breckinridge spoke frequently during the campaign , stressing Democratic fidelity to the constitution and charging that the Republican emancipationist agenda would tear the country apart . His appearances in the critical state of Pennsylvania helped allay Buchanan 's fears that Breckinridge desired to throw the election to the House . " Buck and Breck " won the election with 174 electoral votes to Frémont 's 114 and Fillmore 's 8 , and Democrats carried Kentucky for the first time since 1828 . Thirty @-@ six at the time of his inauguration on March 4 , 1857 , Breckinridge remains the youngest vice president in U.S. history .
= = = Service = = =
When Breckinridge asked to meet with Buchanan shortly after the inauguration , Buchanan told him to come to the White House and ask to see the hostess , Harriet Lane . Offended , Breckinridge refused to do so ; Buchanan 's friends later explained that asking to see Lane was a secret instruction to take a guest to the president . Buchanan apologized for the misunderstanding , but the event portended a poor relationship between the two men . Resentful of Breckinridge 's support for both Pierce and Douglas , Buchanan allowed him little influence in the administration . Breckinridge 's recommendation that former Whigs and Kentuckians — Powell , in particular — be included in Buchanan 's cabinet went unheeded . Kentuckians James B. Clay and Cassius M. Clay were offered diplomatic missions to Berlin and Peru , respectively , but both declined . Buchanan often asked Breckinridge to receive and entertain foreign dignitaries , but in 1858 , Breckinridge declined Buchanan 's request that he resign and take the again @-@ vacant position as U.S. Minister to Spain . The only private meeting between the two occurred near the end of Buchanan 's term , when the president summoned Breckinridge to get his advice on whether to issue a proclamation declaring a day of " Humiliation and Prayer " over the divided state of the nation ; Breckinridge affirmed that Buchanan should make the proclamation .
As vice president , Breckinridge was tasked with presiding over the debates of the Senate . In an early address to that body , he promised , " It shall be my constant aim , gentlemen of the Senate , to exhibit at all times , to every member of this body , the courtesy and impartiality which are due to the representatives of equal States . " Historian Lowell H. Harrison wrote that , while Breckinridge fulfilled his promise to the satisfaction of most , acting as moderator limited his participation in debate . Five tie @-@ breaking votes provided a means of expressing his views . Economic motivations explained two — forcing an immediate vote on a codfishing tariff and limiting military pensions to $ 50 per month ( $ 1367 @.@ 5 in present @-@ day currency ) . A third cleared the floor for a vote on Douglas 's motion to admit Oregon to the Union , and a fourth defeated Johnson 's Homestead Bill . The final vote effected a wording change in a resolution forbidding constitutional amendments that empowered Congress to interfere with property rights . The Senate 's move from the Old Senate Chamber to a more spacious one on January 4 , 1859 , provided another opportunity . Afforded the chance to make the last address in the old chamber , Breckinridge encouraged compromise and unity among the states to resolve sectional conflicts .
Despite irregularities in the approval of the Lecompton Constitution by Kansas voters , Breckinridge agreed with Buchanan that it was legitimate , but he kept his position secret , and some believed he agreed with his friend , Stephen Douglas , that Lecompton was invalid . Breckinridge 's absence from the Senate during debate on admitting Kansas to the Union under Lecompton seemed to confirm this , but his leave — to take his wife from Baton Rouge , Louisiana , where she was recovering from an illness , to Washington , D.C. — had been planned for months . The death of his grandmother , Polly Breckinridge , prompted him to leave earlier than planned . During his absence , both houses of Congress voted to re @-@ submit the Lecompton Constitution to Kansas voters for approval . On resubmission , it was overwhelmingly rejected .
By January 1859 , friends knew Breckinridge desired the U.S. Senate seat of John J. Crittenden , whose term expired on March 3 , 1861 . The General Assembly would elect Crittenden 's successor in December 1859 , so Breckinridge 's election would not affect any presidential aspirations he might harbor . Democrats chose Breckinridge 's friend Beriah Magoffin over Linn Boyd as their gubernatorial nominee , bolstering Breckinridge 's chances for the senatorship , the presidency , or both . Boyd was expected to be Breckinridge 's chief opponent for the Senate , but he withdrew on November 28 , citing ill health , and died three weeks later . The Democratic majority in the General Assembly elected Breckinridge to succeed Crittenden by a vote of 81 to 53 over Joshua Fry Bell , who Magoffin had defeated for the governorship in August .
After Minnesota 's admission to the Union in May 1858 , opponents accused Breckinridge of rigging a random draw so that his friend , Henry Rice , would get the longer of the state 's two Senate terms . Senate Secretary Asbury Dickins blunted the charges , averring that he alone handled the instruments used in the drawing . Republican Senator Solomon Foot closed a special session of the Thirty @-@ sixth Congress in March 1859 by offering a resolution praising Breckinridge for his impartiality ; after the session , the Republican @-@ leaning New York Times noted that while the star of the Buchanan administration " falls lower every hour in prestige and political consequence , the star of the Vice President rises higher " .
= = Presidential election of 1860 = =
Breckinridge 's lukewarm support for Douglas in his 1858 senatorial re @-@ election bid against Abraham Lincoln convinced Douglas that Breckinridge would seek the Democratic presidential nomination , but in a January 1860 letter to his uncle , Breckinridge averred he was " firmly resolved not to " . Douglas 's political enemies supported Breckinridge , and Buchanan reluctantly dispensed patronage to Breckinridge allies , further alienating Douglas . After Breckinridge left open the possibility of supporting a federal slave code in 1859 , Douglas wrote to Robert Toombs that he would support his enemy and fellow Georgian Alexander H. Stephens for the nomination over Breckinridge , although he would vote for Breckinridge over any Republican in the general election .
= = = Nomination = = =
Breckinridge asked James Clay to protect his interests at the 1860 Democratic National Convention in Charleston , South Carolina . Clay , Lazarus Powell , William Preston , Henry Cornelius Burnett , and James B. Beck desired to nominate Breckinridge for president , but in a compromise with Kentucky 's Douglas backers , the delegation went to Charleston committed to former Treasury Secretary James Guthrie of Louisville . Fifty Southern Democrats , upset at the convention 's refusal to include slavery protection in the party 's platform , walked out of the convention ; the remaining delegates decided that nominations required a two @-@ thirds majority of the original 303 delegates . For 35 ballots , Douglas ran well ahead of Guthrie but short of the needed majority . Arkansas 's lone remaining delegate nominated Breckinridge , but Beck asked that the nomination be withdrawn because Breckinridge refused to compete with Guthrie . Twenty @-@ one more ballots were cast , but the convention remained deadlocked . On May 3 , the convention adjourned until June 18 in Baltimore , Maryland .
Breckinridge 's communication with his supporters between the meetings indicated greater willingness to become a candidate , but he instructed Clay to nominate him only if his support exceeded Guthrie 's . Many believed that Buchanan supported Breckinridge , but Breckinridge wrote to Beck that " The President is not for me except as a last necessity , that is to say not until his help will not be worth a damn . " After a majority of the delegates , most of them Douglas supporters , voted to replace Alabama and Louisiana 's walk @-@ out delegates with new , pro @-@ Douglas men in Baltimore , Virginia 's delegation led another walk @-@ out of Southern Democrats and Buchanan @-@ controlled delegates from the northeast and Pacific coast ; 105 delegates , including 10 of Kentucky 's 24 , left , and the remainder nominated Douglas . The walk @-@ outs held a rival nominating convention , styled the National Democratic Convention , at the Maryland Institute in Baltimore . At that convention on June 23 , Massachusetts ' George B. Loring nominated Breckinridge for president , and he received 81 of the 105 votes cast , the remainder going to Daniel S. Dickinson of New York . Oregon 's Joseph Lane was nominated for vice @-@ president .
Breckinridge told Beck he would not accept the nomination because it would split the Democrats and ensure the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln . On June 25 , Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis proposed that Breckinridge should accept the nomination ; his strength in the South would convince Douglas that his own candidacy was futile . Breckinridge , Douglas , and Constitutional Unionist John Bell would withdraw , and Democrats could nominate a compromise candidate . Breckinridge accepted the nomination , but maintained that he had not sought it and that he had been nominated " against my expressed wishes " . Davis 's compromise plan failed when Douglas refused to withdraw , believing his supporters would vote for Lincoln rather than a compromise candidate .
= = = Election = = =
The election effectively pitted Lincoln against Douglas in the North and Breckinridge against Bell in the South . Far from expectant of victory , Breckinridge told Davis 's wife , Varina , " I trust I have the courage to lead a forlorn hope . " Caleb Cushing oversaw the publication of several Breckinridge campaign documents , including a campaign biography and copies of his speeches on the occasion of the Senate 's move to a new chamber and his election to the Senate . After making a few short speeches during stops between Washington , D.C. and Lexington , Breckinridge stated that , consistent with contemporary custom , he would make no more speeches until after the election , but the results of an August 1860 special election to replace the deceased clerk of the Kentucky Court of Appeals convinced him that his candidacy could be faltering . He had expressed confidence that the Democratic candidate for the clerkship would win , and " nothing short of a defeat by 6 @,@ 000 or 8 @,@ 000 would alarm me for November " . Constitutional Unionist Leslie Combs won by 23 @,@ 000 votes , prompting Breckinridge to make a full @-@ length campaign speech in Lexington on September 5 , 1860 .
Breckinridge 's three @-@ hour speech was primarily defensive ; his moderate tone was designed to win votes in the north but risked losing Southern support to Bell . He denied charges that he had supported Zachary Taylor over Lewis Cass in 1848 , that he had sided with abolitionists in 1849 , and that he had sought John Brown 's pardon for the Harpers Ferry raid . Reminding the audience that Douglas wanted the Supreme Court to decide the issue of slavery in the territories , he pointed out that Douglas then denounced the Dred Scott ruling and laid out a means for territorial legislatures to circumvent it . Breckinridge supported the legitimacy of secession but insisted it was not the solution to the country 's sectional disagreements . In answer to Douglas 's charge that there was not " a disunionist in America who is not a Breckinridge man " , he challenged the assembled crowd " to point out an act , to disclose an utterance , to reveal a thought of mine hostile to the constitution and union of the States " . He warned that Lincoln 's insistence on emancipation made him the real disunionist .
Breckinridge finished third in the popular vote with 849 @,@ 781 votes to Lincoln 's 1 @,@ 866 @,@ 452 , Douglas 's 1 @,@ 379 @,@ 957 , and Bell 's 588 @,@ 879 . He carried 12 of the 15 Southern states and the border states of Maryland , Delaware and North Carolina but lost his home state to Bell . His greatest support in the Deep South came from areas that opposed secession . Davis pointed out that only Breckinridge garnered nearly equal support from the Deep South , the border states , and the free states of the North . His 72 electoral votes bested Bell 's 59 and Douglas 's 12 , but Lincoln received 180 , enough to win the election .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Three weeks after the election , Breckinridge returned to Washington , D.C. , to preside over the Senate 's lame duck session . Lazarus Powell , now a senator , proposed a resolution creating a committee of thirteen members to respond to the portion of Buchanan 's address regarding the disturbed condition of the country . Breckinridge appointed the members of the committee which , in Heck 's opinion , formed " an able committee , representing every major faction " . John J. Crittenden proposed a compromise by which slavery would be forbidden in territories north of parallel 36 ° 30 ′ north — the demarcation line used in the Missouri Compromise — and permitted south of it , but the committee 's five Republicans rejected the proposal . On December 31 , the committee reported that it could come to no agreement . Writing to Magoffin on January 6 , Breckinridge complained that the Republicans were " rejecting everything , proposing nothing " and " pursuing a policy which ... threatens to plunge the country into ... civil war " .
One of Breckinridge 's final acts as vice @-@ president was announcing the vote of the Electoral College to a joint session of Congress on February 13 , 1861 . Rumors abounded that he would tamper with the vote to prevent Lincoln 's election . Knowing that some legislators planned to attend the session armed , Breckinridge asked Winfield Scott to post guards in and around the chambers . One legislator raised a point of order , requesting that the guards be ejected , but Breckinridge refused to sustain it ; the electoral vote proceeded , and Breckinridge announced Lincoln 's election as president . After Lincoln 's arrival in Washington , D.C. , on February 24 , Breckinridge visited him at the Willard Hotel . After making a valedictory address on March 4 , he swore in Hannibal Hamlin as his successor as vice president ; Hamlin then swore in Breckinridge and the other incoming senators .
= = U.S. Senate = =
Because Republicans controlled neither house of Congress , nor the Supreme Court , Breckinridge did not believe Lincoln 's election was a mandate for secession . Ignoring James Murray Mason 's contention that no Southerner should serve in Lincoln 's cabinet , Breckinridge supported the appointment of Virginian Montgomery Blair as Postmaster General . He also voted against a resolution to remove the names of the senators from seceded states from the Senate roll .
Working for a compromise that might yet save the Union , Breckinridge opposed a proposal by Ohio 's Clement Vallandigham that the border states unite to form a " middle confederacy " that would place a buffer between the U.S. and the seceded states , nor did Breckinridge desire to see Kentucky as the southernmost state in a northern confederacy ; its position south of the Ohio River left it too vulnerable to the southern confederacy should war occur . Urging that federal troops be withdrawn from the seceded states , he insisted " their presence can accomplish no good , but will certainly produce incalculable mischief " . He warned that , unless Republicans made some concessions , Kentucky and the other border states would also secede .
When the legislative session ended on March 28 , Breckinridge returned to Kentucky and addressed the state legislature on April 2 , 1861 . He urged the General Assembly to push for federal adoption of the Crittenden Compromise and advocated calling a border states convention which would draft a compromise proposal and submit it to the Northern and Southern states for adoption . Asserting that the states were coequal and free to choose their own course , he maintained that , if the border states convention failed , Kentucky should call a sovereignty convention and join the Confederacy as a last resort .
The Battle of Fort Sumter , which began the Civil War , occurred days later , before the border states convention could be held . Magoffin called a special legislative session on May 6 , and the legislature authorized creation of a six @-@ man commission to decide the state 's course in the war . Breckinridge , Magoffin , and Richard Hawes were the states ' rights delegates to the conference , while Crittenden , Archibald Dixon , and Samuel S. Nicholas represented the Unionist position . The delegates were only able to agree on a policy of armed neutrality , which Breckinridge believed impractical and ultimately untenable , but preferable to more drastic actions . In special elections held June 20 , 1861 , Unionists won 9 of Kentucky 's 10 House seats , and in the August 5 state elections , Unionists gained majorities in both houses of the state legislature .
When the Senate convened for a special session on July 4 , 1861 , Breckinridge stood almost alone in opposition to the war . Labeled a traitor , he was removed from the Committee on Military Affairs . He demanded to know what authority Lincoln had to blockade Southern ports or suspend the writ of habeas corpus . He reminded his fellow senators that Congress had not approved a declaration of war and maintained that Lincoln 's enlistment of men and expenditure of funds for the war effort were unconstitutional . If the Union could be persuaded not to attack the Confederacy , he predicted that " all those sentiments of common interest and feeling ... might lead to a political reunion founded upon consent " . On August 1 , he declared that if Kentucky supported Lincoln 's prosecution of the war , " she will be represented by some other man on the floor of this Senate . " Asked by Oregon 's Edward Dickinson Baker how he would handle the secession crisis , he responded , " I would prefer to see these States all reunited upon true constitutional principles to any other object that could be offered me in life ... But I infinitely prefer to see a peaceful separation of these States , than to see endless , aimless , devastating war , at the end of which I see the grave of public liberty and of personal freedom . "
In early September , Confederate and Union forces entered Kentucky , ending her neutrality . On September 18 , Unionists shut down the pro @-@ Southern Louisville Courier newspaper and arrested former governor Charles S. Morehead , who was suspected of having Confederate sympathies . Learning that Colonel Thomas E. Bramlette was under orders to arrest him , Breckinridge fled to Prestonsburg , Kentucky , where he was joined by Confederate sympathizers George W. Johnson , George Baird Hodge , William E. Simms , and William Preston . The group continued to Abingdon , Virginia , where they took a train to Confederate @-@ held Bowling Green , Kentucky .
On October 2 , 1861 , the Kentucky General Assembly passed a resolution declaring that neither of the state 's U.S. Senators — Breckinridge and Powell — represented the will of the state 's citizens and requesting that both resign . Governor Magoffin refused to endorse the resolution , preventing its enforcement . Writing from Bowling Green on October 8 , Breckinridge declared , " I exchange with proud satisfaction a term of six years in the Senate of the United States for the musket of a soldier . " Later that month , he was part of a convention in Confederate @-@ controlled Russellville , Kentucky , that denounced the Unionist legislature as not representing the will of most Kentuckians and called for a sovereignty convention to be held in that city on November 18 . Breckinridge , George W. Johnson , and Humphrey Marshall were named to the planning committee , but Breckinridge did not attend the convention , which created a provisional Confederate government for Kentucky . On November 6 , Breckinridge was indicted for treason in a federal court in Frankfort . The Senate passed a resolution formally expelling him on December 2 , 1861 ; Powell was the only member to vote against the resolution , claiming that Breckinridge 's statement of October 8 amounted to a resignation , rendering the resolution unnecessary .
= = Confederate Secretary of War = =
Breckinridge served in the Confederate Army from November 2 , 1861 , until early 1865 . In mid @-@ January 1865 , Confederate President Jefferson Davis summoned Breckinridge to the Confederate capital at Richmond , Virginia , and rumors followed that Davis would appoint Breckinridge Confederate States Secretary of War , replacing James A. Seddon . Breckinridge arrived in Richmond on January 17 , and some time in the next two weeks , Davis offered him the appointment . Breckinridge made his acceptance conditional upon the removal of Lucius B. Northrop from his office as Confederate Commissary General . Most Confederate officers regarded Northrop as inept , but Davis had long defended him . Davis relented on January 30 , allowing Seddon to replace Northrop with Breckinridge 's friend , Eli Metcalfe Bruce , on an interim basis ; Breckinridge accepted Davis 's appointment the next day .
Some Confederate congressmen were believed to oppose Breckinridge because he had waited so long to join the Confederacy , but his nomination was confirmed unanimously on February 6 , 1865 . At 44 years old , he was the youngest person to serve in the Confederate president 's cabinet . Klotter called Breckinridge " perhaps the most effective of those who held that office " , but Harrison wrote that " no one could have done much with the War Department at that late date " . While his predecessors had largely served Davis 's interests , Breckinridge functioned independently , assigning officers , recommending promotions , and consulting on strategy with Confederate generals .
Breckinridge 's first act as secretary was to meet with assistant secretary John Archibald Campbell , who had opposed Breckinridge 's nomination , believing he would focus on a select few of the department 's bureaus and ignore the rest . During their conference , Campbell expressed his desire to retain his post , and Breckinridge agreed , delegating many of the day @-@ to @-@ day details of the department 's operation to him . Breckinridge recommended that Davis appoint Isaac M. St. John , head of the Confederate Nitre and Mining Bureau , as permanent commissary general . Davis made the appointment on February 15 , and the flow of supplies to Confederate armies improved under St. John . With Confederate ranks plagued by desertion , Breckinridge instituted a draft ; when this proved ineffective , he negotiated the resumption of prisoner exchanges with the Union in order to replenish the Confederates ' depleted manpower .
By late February , Breckinridge had concluded that the Confederate cause was hopeless . He opposed the use of guerilla warfare by Confederate forces and urged a national surrender . Meeting with Confederate senators from Virginia , Kentucky , Missouri , and Texas , he urged , " This has been a magnificent epic . In God 's name let it not terminate in a farce . " In April , with Union forces approaching Richmond , Breckinridge organized the escape of the other cabinet officials to Danville , Virginia . Afterward , he ordered the burning of the bridges over the James River and ensured the destruction of buildings and supplies that might aid the enemy . During the surrender of the city , he helped preserve the Confederate government and military records housed there .
After a brief rendezvous with Robert E. Lee 's retreating forces at Farmville , Virginia , Breckinridge moved south to Greensboro , North Carolina , where he , Naval Secretary Stephen Mallory , and Postmaster General John Henninger Reagan joined Generals Joseph E. Johnston and P. G. T. Beauregard to urge surrender . Davis and Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin initially resisted , but eventually asked Major General William T. Sherman to parley . Johnston and Breckinridge negotiated terms with Sherman , but President Andrew Johnson ( who had assumed the presidency on Lincoln 's assassination on April 15 ) rejected them as too generous . On Davis ' orders , Breckinridge told Johnston to meet Richard Taylor in Alabama , but Johnston , believing his men would refuse to fight any longer , surrendered to Sherman on similar terms to those offered to Lee at Appomattox .
After the failed negotiations , Confederate Attorney General George Davis and Confederate Treasury Secretary George Trenholm resigned . The rest of the Confederate cabinet — escorted by over 2 @,@ 000 cavalrymen under Basil W. Duke and Breckinridge 's nephew William Campbell Preston Breckinridge — traveled southwest to meet Taylor at Mobile . Believing that the Confederate cause was not yet lost , Davis convened a council of war on May 2 in Abbeville , South Carolina , but the cavalry commanders told him that the only cause for which their men would fight was to aid Davis 's escape from the country . Informed that gold and silver coins and bullion from the Confederate treasury were at the train depot in Abbeville , Breckinridge ordered Duke to load it onto wagons and guard it as they continued southward . En route to Washington , Georgia , some members of the cabinet 's escort threatened to take their back salaries by force . Breckinridge had intended to wait until their arrival to make the payments , but to avoid mutiny , he dispersed some of the funds immediately . Two brigades deserted immediately after being paid ; the rest continued to Washington , where the remaining funds were deposited in a local bank .
Discharging most of the remaining escort , Breckinridge left Washington with a small party on May 5 , hoping to distract federal forces from the fleeing Confederate president . Between Washington and Woodstock , the party was overtaken by Union forces under Lieutenant Colonel Andrew K. Campbell ; Breckinridge ordered his nephew to surrender while he , his sons Cabell and Clifton , James B. Clay , Jr . , and a few others fled into the nearby woods . At Sandersville , he sent Clay and Clifton home , announcing that he and the rest of his companions would proceed to Madison , Florida . On May 11 , they reached Milltown , Georgia , where Breckinridge expected to rendezvous with Davis , but on May 14 , he learned of Davis 's capture days earlier .
= = Later life = =
Besides marking the end of the Confederacy and the war , Davis 's capture left Breckinridge as the highest @-@ ranking former Confederate still at large . Fearing arrest , he fled to Cuba , Great Britain , and Canada , where he lived in exile . Andrew Johnson issued a proclamation of amnesty for all former Confederates in December 1868 , and Breckinridge returned home the following March . Friends and government officials , including President Ulysses S. Grant , urged him to return to politics , but he declared himself " an extinct volcano " and never sought public office again . He died of complications from war @-@ related injuries on May 17 , 1875 .
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= Mmm Papi =
" Mmm Papi " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Britney Spears . The song was written by Spears and Nicole Morier , while additional writing and song production were done by Canadian band Let 's Go to War , whose members are Henry Walter , Adrien Gough and Peter @-@ John Kerr , for Spears ' sixth studio album , Circus ( 2008 ) . " Mmm Papi " is noted for having a Latin pop influence , similar to Madonna 's " La Isla Bonita " ( 1987 ) . The lyrics of the song tell about a woman who has an attraction to a man , longing for him to come and take her away .
" Mmm Papi " received generally unfavorable reviews from contemporary critics . Many said the song represents Spears ' trouble with men , and speculated that its lyrics deal to either her father James Spears or paparazzi Adnan Ghalib . The speculations were later denied by co @-@ writer Morier . The song was also compared to Rosemary Clooney 's " Come On @-@ a My House " ( 1951 ) . Despite not being released as a single , " Mmm Papi " managed to peak at number ninety @-@ four on Billboard Pop 100 , due to moderate airplay on mainstream top 40 radio stations , singles sales , and digital downloads .
= = Background = =
It was confirmed in 2008 that Spears was in the process of recording her sixth studio album . Spears manager Larry Rudolph confirmed the singer would spend " her summer in the recording studio " to work on it . Despite no official album confirmation at the time , Rudolph revealed they were happy with her progress and that she had been working with a range of producers , such as Sean Garrett , Guy Sigsworth , Danja and Bloodshy & Avant . " Mmm Papi " was written by Spears and Nicole Morier during Summer and Spring of 2008 . Among the songs they worked on were " Mmm Papi " , " Rock Me In " and " Whiplash " . Both wanted to do something that Spears had not done before . " Mmm Papi " and " Rock Me In " were included in Spears ' sixth studio album , Circus ( 2008 ) ; however , " Whiplash " failed to make the cut . Morier explained , " There ’ s a couple songs we started that were great ideas but just incomplete . Maybe we ’ ll hear them with fresh ears someday and put them out , but I usually just like to start anew . "
Additional writing and song production were done by Canadian band Let 's Go to War , whose members are Henry Walter , Adrien Gough and Peter @-@ John Kerr . In an interview with The Canadian Press , Walter revealed they first sent several demos to Jive Records for Circus . After selecting it , Spears ' management required several changes to the song , making " Mmm Papi " " substantially different from what was submitted . " Walter revealed they had no contact with the singer for the song production , and considered " Mmm Papi " as " something different for Britney " and " a fun track and is not trying to be anything it 's not . " Spears recorded her vocals for the song in 2008 at Train Tracks Studios and Conway Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California , with Walter and Eric Eylands . Guitar was provided by Chris Worthy , and audio mixing was done by Tony Maserati .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Mmm Papi " is a latin pop song that lasts for three minutes and twenty @-@ two seconds . The song has dancehall elements and a 1960s go @-@ go vibe , and incorporates into its melody handclaps and a rock guitar . Anna Dimond of TV Guide perceived influences of Madonna 's " La Isla Bonita " ( 1987 ) in the song , and called it an " ode to the tropical life ( and perhaps its masculine fruits ) " . It has been suggested that its lyrics deal with either her father Jamie Spears or paparazzi Adnan Ghalib . However , this was denied by Morier , who said " the song is definitely not about Adnan and in the whole time I worked with [ Spears ] last spring and summer I never once saw that guy . " Morier described " Mmm Papi " as a fun upbeat song , while saying the title " came out of [ the line ] Mmm Papa Luv U. "
= = Critical reception = =
" Mmm Papi " received generally unfavorable reviews from contemporary critics . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian said the track was fun , but panned for appearing on Circus to " revisit the Lolita persona of ... Baby One More Time " . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly said the song " giddily sets [ Spears ] littlest @-@ girl voice against a guitar right out of 1960s go @-@ go rock . " John Murphy of musicOMH said that " any indication of her chat @-@ up lines [ in " Mmm Papi " ] may explain her recent trouble with men , " while Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone said the singer " shows she has psychodrama to spare on [ the song ] , " and considered it " a go @-@ go romp with daddy issues . " Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine commented , " the jaw @-@ dropping " Mmm Papi " is the nexus of cock @-@ hungriness . " Chris Richards of The Washington Post said the song " tries to replicate the strutting come @-@ ons of " Toxic " , but quickly goes rancid as Spears indulges in some of the most cloying singing of her career , " while Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times compared its style to Rosemary Clooney 's " Come On @-@ a My House " ( 1951 ) . Powers also said Spears have " a fairly horrific pan @-@ Latin accent " in the song .
Jim DeRogatis of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times criticized " Mmm Papi " as the " most disturbing [ song ] of [ Circus ] . " Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun called " Mmm Papi " " an attempt at Gwen Stefani 's new wave sound that doesn 't work . " Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star called it " awful , " along with " My Baby " , and a " baby @-@ talk horror . " Poppy Cosyns of The Sun criticized the song 's lyrics , deeming it as " bizarre lyrics which reference [ Spears ] love / hate father @-@ daughter turmoil . " Pete Paphides of The Times said " Mmm Papi " " couldn 't be less sexy if Christine Hamilton were singing them , " while a review by The Independent said the song portrays " the former Mouseketeer as some kind of robotic nymphomaniac doll – groaning and grunting " let 's make out " with the chilly distance of a future @-@ sex cyborg unit . " Darryl Sterdan of Jam ! gave " Mmm Papi " a positive review , saying , " between the hip @-@ swivelling groove , the twangy guitar , the surfy organ lines and the silly vocals , this might be the most enjoyable cut on the disc . Pure fun . " Despite not being released as a single , " Mmm Papi " did manage to peak at number ninety @-@ four on Billboard Pop 100 , on the week of December 10 , 2008 , due to moderate airplay on mainstream top 40 radio stations , singles sales , and digital downloads .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " Mmm Papi " are adapted from Circus liner notes .
Technical
Recorded at Train Tracks Studios in Los Angeles , California .
Additional recording at Conway Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California .
Mixed for Two Chord Music , Inc. at Canaan Road Studios and Looking Glass Studios in New York City , New York .
Personnel
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= Trondheim Airport , Værnes =
Trondheim Airport , Værnes ( Norwegian : Trondheim lufthavn , Værnes ; IATA : TRD , ICAO : ENVA ) is an international airport serving Trondheim , a city and municipality in Sør @-@ Trøndelag county , Norway . The airport is located in Værnes , a village in the municipality of Stjørdal in Nord @-@ Trøndelag county , 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) east of Trondheim . Operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor , it shares facilities with Værnes Air Station of the Royal Norwegian Air Force . In 2014 , the airport had 4 @,@ 416 @,@ 681 passengers and 60 @,@ 934 air movements , making it the fourth @-@ busiest in the country . The airport has two terminals ; A dates from 1994 and is used for domestic traffic , while B is the renovated former main terminal from 1982 , and is used for international traffic . The airport features a main east – west 2 @,@ 999 @-@ metre ( 9 @,@ 839 ft ) runway , a disused northwest – southeast 1 @,@ 472 @-@ metre ( 4 @,@ 829 ft ) runway , an integrated railway station and an airport hotel .
The main airlines at the airport are Scandinavian Airlines ( SAS ) , Norwegian Air Shuttle and Widerøe , for all of which Værnes is a focus city . The main route is the service to Oslo , operated by both SAS and Norwegian , which is the tenth @-@ busiest route in Europe . Both airlines operate services also using Boeing 737 aircraft to Bergen , Bodø and Tromsø ; SAS has some additional domestic services while Norwegian has a number of low @-@ frequency international services . Widerøe operates regional Dash 8 aircraft to six airports in Helgeland , in addition to Sandefjord . Krohn Air provides services to Molde . Daily international services to Copenhagen is provided by SAS and to Amsterdam is provided by KLM . The airport also serves charter services , mainly to the Mediterranean . In total , it connects to 17 domestic and 21 international destinations , as well as 18 charter destinations .
Værnes was taken into use by the Royal Norwegian Army in 1887 . The first flight was made in 1914 , and aerodrome facilities were gradually installed . The first main installations , including three concrete runways , were built during World War II by Luftwaffe . After the war , the Air Force Pilot School moved to Værnes , although in 1954 most of the other air force activities for Central Norway were moved to Ørland Main Air Station . Civilian aviation started in 1951 , when half a barracks was taken into use as a terminal , with the whole building being utilized from 1958 . Jet aircraft started serving Værnes from 1963 , and the second terminal opened in 1965 . The third ( the current international Terminal B ) was opened in 1982 , and the fourth , Terminal A , was opened in 1994 , along with the train station . From 1956 to 2004 , Braathens was one of the largest airlines at the airport .
= = Facilities = =
Trondheim Airport is a joint military and civilian airport located in the municipality of Stjørdal in Nord @-@ Trøndelag , with the northern part of the airport bordering the town of Stjørdalshalsen . To the west , the airport borders the Trondheimsfjord , and to the south the Stjørdal River . Combining the functions as an international , domestic and regional airport , it is located 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) east of Trondheim . Most of the airport area is owned by the Norwegian Ministry of Defence , although the civilian facilities and the air traffic control are owned and operated by Avinor , a subsidiary of the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications .
= = = Terminals = = =
The civilian sector consists of two terminals — A and B — which combined are 20 @,@ 000 square metres ( 220 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , of which 13 @,@ 500 square metres ( 145 @,@ 000 sq ft ) is passenger facilities . Terminal A is used for domestic traffic , while Terminal B is used for international services . Both terminals have their own check @-@ in facilities , but the check @-@ in for scheduled international services is done from Terminal A. It is possible to walk between the two terminals both within and outside the secure area . The terminal contains an array of stores and dining places ; these include a book store , convenience stores ( including Narvesen and 7 @-@ Eleven ) , clothing , crafts and cosmetics ; diners , restaurants and pubs ; and a 560 square metres ( 6 @,@ 000 sq ft ) duty @-@ free store . The airport also has three automatic teller machines and a Radisson Blu hotel with 180 rooms and 11 conference rooms . Rica operates another hotel , the 400 @-@ room Rica Hell Hotel , within walking distance of the airport . The airport administration is located in Terminal B , while the administration for airlines and handling agents is located in annexes of Terminal A.
The terminal has stands for 18 aircraft , of which seven at Terminal A have jetbridges . Two stands ( one at each terminal ) is size code D ( large enough for an Airbus A330 or a Boeing 757 ) , while 11 are for size category C ( large enough for an Airbus A320 or Boeing 737 ) . Fourteen of the stands are large enough for commercial traffic . Domestic jets normally use the seven jetbridge stands ( gates 31 – 37 ) , while the two non @-@ bridged gates at Terminal A ( gates 38 – 39 ) are used for domestic regional aircraft . International flights all use the five non @-@ bridged gates at Terminal B. The Air Force has six stands for military freight planes up to the size of a Lockheed C @-@ 5 Galaxy ( code F ) , although one is permanently used for deicing .
= = = Cargo , general aviation and VIP = = =
Southeast of Terminal B is a collection of hangars and facilities belonging to various airlines . The largest is a 2 @,@ 750 square metres ( 29 @,@ 600 sq ft ) hangar belonging to Scandinavian Airlines , dating from 1979 , and a 1 @,@ 440 square metres ( 15 @,@ 500 sq ft ) hangar from 1992 which is used by SAS Cargo . The airline also has two smaller buildings , at 200 and 300 square metres ( 2 @,@ 200 and 3 @,@ 200 sq ft ) . This area contains the main gate , which is also used for VIP passengers . There are six additional hangars , used by Helitrans ( 780 and 1 @,@ 650 square metres or 8 @,@ 400 and 17 @,@ 800 square feet ) , built in 1984 and 1991 , a 500 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 5 @,@ 400 sq ft ) hangar belonging to Auticon , a 300 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 200 sq ft ) hangar belonging to Hilmar Tollefsen and two smaller hangars , one of which belongs to Værnes flyklubb . Værnes handles the largest amount of general aviation in Central Norway , including executive jets .
= = = Runway and air control = = =
The main runway is 2 @,@ 999 metres ( 9 @,@ 839 ft ) long , and runs east – west at 09 / 27 . It is 45 metres ( 148 ft ) wide , plus shoulders of 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) on each side . The runway is equipped with instrument landing system category 1 . The main radar , a combined primary and secondary , is placed at Vennafjell , 9 nautical miles ( 17 km ; 10 mi ) south of the airport . Other radars are located at Kopparen , Tronfjell and Gråkallen . The taxiway runs the parallel the full length of the main runway . It is 23 metres ( 75 ft ) wide , with 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) wide shoulders on each side . The center @-@ distance between the runway and taxiway is 184 metres ( 604 ft ) , allowing simultaneous use by code E aircraft ( such as Boeing 747 ) . Værnes has a theoretical capacity of 40 air movements per hour , but this is reduced during bad weather , so the airport has a registered capacity of 25 .
The airport also has a diagonal runway , which runs 14 / 32 , roughly northwest – southeast . It is 1 @,@ 035 metres ( 3 @,@ 396 ft ) long , plus end section of 293 metres ( 961 ft ) on Runway 14 and 126 metres ( 413 ft ) on Runway 32 . The runway is closed for traffic , in part because of bad asphalt quality . The current control tower is 55 metres ( 180 ft ) tall and dates from 2005 .
= = = Military = = =
Værnes Air Station is one of two air stations in Central Norway , the other being Ørland Main Air Station . There are no aircraft permanently stationed at Værnes , but the station serves the Home Guard , including its training center and the headquarters of the Trøndelag District ( HV @-@ 12 ) . Most of the military installations are located on the north side of the runway , although some are also located on the south side , to the east of the civilian terminal . Værnes also serves as a storage base for the United States Armed Forces as part of the Marine Corps Preposition Program Norway . The military owns the runways and taxiways , but these are operated by Avinor . Three to four hundred military aircraft are handled at the air station each year . The military installations contain places for up to six aircraft of the size of a C @-@ 5 Galaxy and barracks to house 1 @,@ 200 soldiers . The Ring Road connects the northern to the southern installations and passes the main runway on the east side .
= = History = =
= = = Military establishment = = =
Værnes is first recorded in the 10th century as the seat for one of eight chieftains in Trøndelag . The first military activity in the area was as a base for leidang . After the Viking Age , the farm at Værnes was taken over by the king and became the seat of the vogt . From 1671 , the farm was owned by a series of military officers and public servants . In 1887 , the farm was bought by the Royal Norwegian Army and converted to a camp . The first aircraft to use Værnes was a military Farman MF.7 Longhorn , which took off on 26 March 1914 . It was part of the plan to establish the Norwegian Army Air Service , for which Værnes was chosen as the initial station for Central Norway . Radio equipment was installed in 1919 and the first hangar was built in 1920 . By 1922 , the grass field serving as runway has become insufficient for newer planes , both in terms of length and level , but an extension was not performed until 1925 . In 1927 , parliament passed legislation to move the division to Rinnleiret from 1930 , but this was later annulled . With the delivery of Fokker aircraft in 1930 , the runway was again upgraded and extended .
Værnes was surrendered to Luftwaffe on 9 April 1940 , during the German occupation of Norway . On 24 April 350 civilians started construction at Værnes , and within a few days 2 @,@ 000 people were hired . On 28 April , a new 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) wooden runway was completed . The expansion was part of the plans for Festung Norwegen and was used as a bomber base for attacks on Northern Norway . By May , there were 200 aircraft stationed at Værnes . During the war , particularly in April 1940 , the airport was subject to several bombings from the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . In June , work was started to clear the forests near the airport , and graves from the Viking Age were found . Construction was halted for several weeks while German and Norwegian archaeologists conducted research . In July , work started on building concrete runways , and by 1942 all three runways were finished . The east – west was made 1 @,@ 620 metres ( 5 @,@ 310 ft ) long , the north – south was made 1 @,@ 300 metres ( 4 @,@ 300 ft ) while the northwest – southeast was made 1 @,@ 275 metres ( 4 @,@ 183 ft ) long . A number of taxiways were also constructed and a branch line of the railway was built to the hangars . By 1945 , Luftwaffe had built about 100 buildings at Værnes . The land expropriated was estimated at between 1 @.@ 6 and 3 @.@ 0 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 62 and 1 @.@ 16 sq mi ) . Luftwaffe had also finished the control tower that had been under construction since 1939 .
After the war ended , the airport was initial taken over by the Royal Air Force , but they soon withdrew leaving the Norwegian military in charge . Numerous squadrons , including 332 , 331 and 337 were stationed at Værnes in the post @-@ war years . In 1952 , the pilot school was moved to Værnes , but in 1954 Ørland Main Air Station became the main air force base in Central Norway , and the majority of the armed air forces ( with the exception of the school ) moved to Ørland .
= = = Previous airports = = =
Civilian aviation in Trøndelag started in 1937 , when Norwegian Air Lines ( DNL ) started seaplane services from Ilsvika and Jonsvannet in Trondheim . These were terminated during World War II , but taken up again by the Royal Air Force and the Royal Norwegian Air Force during the summer of 1945 . They were terminated in November due to the weather and RAF 's withdrawal . The following year , DNL started services again , this time from Hommelvik . During winter , the route was not operated . The service was operated with a Short Sandringham flying boat to Oslo and Northern Norway , and a Junkers Ju @-@ 52 to Western Norway . The southbound and northbound Sandringhams and the Junkers all met at Hummelvik to exchange passengers . There was only room for two planes at the quay , so the third aircraft had to be anchored in the fjord . In 1947 , the airport had 3 @,@ 500 passengers . On 2 October 1948 , the Bukkene Bruse Accident occurred , where a Sandringham aircraft crashed during landing , killing 19 people . In 1949 , a reserve airport was built at Skogn , and people were transported from Hommelvik to Skogn along the Nordland Line in case the reserve airport was used . DNL became part of Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) in 1951 — the last year it used Hommelvik . Vestlandske Luftfartsselskap continued to use Hommelvik for some more year . Braathens SAFE started their route from Oslo Airport , Fornebu via Hamar Airport , Stafsberg and Røros Airport on 18 August 1953 . However , they chose to operate their de Havilland Herons from Trondheim Airport , Lade , just a few kilometers outside of the city center , in days with clear weather . Braathens SAFE moved all services to Værnes in 1956 .
= = = Civilian establishment = = =
After World War II , there was only general aviation at Værnes , organized by two clubs , Værnes flyklubb and NTH flyklubb . From 1 August 1946 to 31 July 1947 , there were 1 @,@ 221 take @-@ offs from Værnes , mostly during the summer . During parts of 1946 and 1947 , the airport was used as a pasture for sheep . The first scheduled service was introduced with a Douglas DC @-@ 3 operated to Oslo by DNL during the winter of 19467 – 48 . While there were initially many customers , the lack of sufficient deicing caused low regularity and fewer customers through the season . The route was not reopened the following year .
The air traffic control at Værnes was established in 1946 , after the air force had sent personnel to the United Kingdom for training . The Telecommunications Administration took over the responsibility for the radio installations , and the responsibility for the meteorological services became the responsibility of the Norwegian Meteorological Institute . Trondheim Air Traffic Control Center was also established to monitor all air space over Central Norway . In 1955 , a glass dome was built on top of the control tower , giving a much better view of the air field .
Prior to World War II , Heimdal had been proposed as a location for the primary airport for Trondheim . Construction had started with drainage and ground works , but this work was interrupted by the war . Because of the large investments made to Værnes by Luftwaffe , a commission was established in 1947 to look into if Værnes or Lade instead should be selected . The commission was unanimous in recommending Værnes , highlighting that the airport was of a sufficient size to handle all civilian and military needs in the foreseeable future , and emphasized the proximity to the railway and highway . However , the commission recommended that Heimdal and Lade be kept as possibilities for future expansion . When the issue was discussed in Parliament , several members of the Standing Committee on Transport and Communications focused on the long distance to Trondheim , but the low investment needs ( stipulated to NOK 1 @.@ 3 million for necessary navigation and air control investments ) convinced parliament , who passed legislation in favor of Værnes on 10 June 1952 .
In 1956 , NATO approved the plans for Værnes to be financed through its infrastructure investment plan , after rejecting proposals for Heimdal . The costs were estimated at NOK 27 @.@ 4 million and would allow the runway to be extended to support jet aircraft . Such an extension had already been done at Ørland Main Air Station , but NATO wanted to have two military air station of such dimensions in Central Norway . The east – west runway was to be extended to 2 @,@ 400 metres ( 7 @,@ 900 ft ) ; initial proposals had called for the extension to occur on the east side , but the Ministry of Defence instead wanted the expansion of the fjord @-@ side to reduce expropriation costs . This called for a complex civil engineering program , as the railway and highway would have to pass under the runway in tunnels and an artificial island would have to be built in the fjord and the mouth of the Stjørdal River be diverted .
SAS moved its seaplane services to Værnes in 1952 , and two @-@ year later started flying the route from Oslo Airport , Fornebu via Trondheim to Bodø Airport using Saab 90 Scandia aircraft . The first terminal was half a 100 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 100 sq ft ) barracks located beside a military hangar . In 1956 , Braathens SAFE moved its services from Lade to Værnes , making the terminal too small for the needs . The whole barracks was taken into use in 1958 , doubling the area . Braathens SAFE initially served flights to Trondheim from Oslo Airport , Fornebu with stop @-@ overs at Hamar Airport , Stafsberg , and from 1957 at Røros Airport , using de Havilland Heron aircraft . Concession for the route from Bergen via the new Ålesund Airport , Vigra to Trondheim was granted to Braathens SAFE from 1958 . Braathens SAFE then also started using Fokker F @-@ 27 turboprops , at first on the Oslo @-@ route , but later also on the West Coast route . When they were taken fully into use , the service to Hamar was terminated .
In 1957 , parliament started a new process to consider Heimdal as the primary airport , in part because the airlines and the Civil Aviation Administration stated that they felt Værnes was insufficient . However , higher costs — due to bad ground conditions and existing infrastructure at Værnes , valuated at NOK 150 million — caused parliament to support Værnes . Construction of the new runway therefore commenced in January 1959 , with the work subcontracted to Selmer . First the artificial peninsula was built , then the delta of the Stjørdal River was moved , before a tunnel was built around the highway and railway . Finally , the runway could be built on top , and construction completed on 21 October 1961 . In 1963 , the airport had 115 @,@ 000 passengers , increasing to 195 @,@ 000 the following year . That year , SAS started using the Sud Aviation Caravelle jet aircraft on their route .
Parliament passed legislation for the construction of a new 2 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 22 @,@ 000 sq ft ) terminal in 1964 , which opened on 5 December 1965 @.@ the following year , Widerøe started a seaplane route from Værnes to Namsos , Rørvik , Brønnøysund , Sandnessjøen , Mo i Rana and Bodø . To serve the seaplanes , a quay was established at Hell . On 1 July 1968 , four airports in Helgeland opened : Namsos Airport , Høknesøra , Brønnøysund Airport , Brønnøy , Sandnessjøen Airport , Stokka and Mo i Rana Airport , Røssvoll . These were served by Widerøe with the land planes de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otter . From 1 April 1967 , Braathens SAFE was permitted to extend their West Coast service north to Bodø and Tromsø . Starting in 1969 , Braathens introduced Boeing 737 @-@ 200 jet aircraft on the Oslo services and Fokker F @-@ 28 jet aircraft on the West Coast services . In 1975 , a third control tower was built , located right in front of ( the yet to be built ) Terminal A.
In 1976 , charter planes started operating to Trondheim , after a barracks was rebuilt to facilitate a border control . Several plans for a lager terminal were made , but these were delayed . In the late 1970s , the tarmac was expanded and a new taxiway built . Braathens SAFE opened a new 2 @,@ 750 square metres ( 29 @,@ 600 sq ft ) hangar in 1979 . The third terminal opened as an extension of the old one in May 1982 . It was 5 @,@ 500 square metres ( 59 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and the old terminal was converted to a cafeteria . Due to a heavy increase in traffic , the new terminal quickly became too small . During 1985 and 1986 , a major overhaul of the main runway was made ; it was dismantled and a new foundation and surface was laid . A number of new military buildings were constructed , along with six stands for large cargo aircraft and a new fuel system . In 1988 , smaller adjustments , including new washrooms and longer baggage belts , were installed at the terminal . From 1986 , Braathens SAFE retired its Fokker F @-@ 28 , and the West Coast route to Molde was subcontracted to Busy Bee , who started to serve Værnes with their Fokker F @-@ 27 , and later Fokker 50 , aircraft . In 1992 , SAS Cargo built a 1 @,@ 440 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 15 @,@ 500 sq ft ) facility . After Busy Bee 's bankruptcy , the regional services were taken over by Norwegian Air Shuttle from 22 January 1993 .
= = = Fourth terminal and deregulation = = =
The fourth and current domestic terminal was opened on 15 November 1994 . With 15 @,@ 000 square metres ( 160 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of floor space it had seven gates , of which five had jetbridges . The two remaining gates were fitted with jetbridges in July 2012 . Værnes became the first airport in the Nordic Countries with a train station in the terminal , when Trondheim Airport Station opened . In March 1996 , the old terminal was named Terminal B and all international flights were moved there . A new taxiway , which extended the full length of the runway , was opened in 1999 , after more artificial land has been created and a second tunnel built for the highway and railway .
Oslo Airport , Gardermoen opened on 8 October 1998 , replacing the congested Fornebu . For the first time , an airline could receive sufficient landing slots to challenge SAS and Braathens on domestic routes . The low @-@ cost carrier Color Air was established , and started flights from Oslo to Trondheim using Boeing 737 @-@ 300 aircraft . SAS and Braathens also saw the opportunity to increase the frequency on the route , and the three airlines between them introduced 39 daily flights . This made the route the fourth @-@ busiest in Europe in terms of the number of aircraft . During this period , there were 84 daily departures to all destinations from Værnes . Color Air filed for bankruptcy on 27 September 1999 , ending a price war which had cost the airlines NOK 3 billion .
By April 2000 , the number of services by the main airlines was reduced to less than the level before the opening of Gardermoen , with 75 daily departures . Braathens had 33 daily departures , SAS had 22 and Widerøe had 20 . Of Braathens ' services , 14 were to Oslo , 15 to cities on the West Coast ( of which four were operated by Norwegian Air Shuttle ) and four were to Bodø , Harstad / Narvik and Tromsø . SAS operated 15 daily flights to Oslo , while eight were operated to Bodø , Harstad / Narvik and Tromsø . One flight was to their main hub in Copenhagen . This was the last year that SAS used DC @-@ 9s to Trondheim , phasing in Boeing 737 Next Generation aircraft , supplemented by occasional MD @-@ 80s . Widerøe had 15 daily flights to STOLports in Helgeland , and five flights to Sandefjord .
In 2002 , SAS acquired Braathens , and the two companies coordinated their routes . All flights from Trondheim to Oslo @-@ Gardermoen were taken over by SAS , who increased to 23 departures per day in each direction . This included a 30 @-@ minute headway from 06 : 30 to 09 : 30 and from 15 : 30 to 19 : 00 . This made the route Trondheim – Oslo the busiest in the country . The routes northwards were taken over by Braathens , who increased to six daily trips to Bodø with connections northwards . The daily trip with Braathens to Harstad / Narvik was replaced by a two round trips with SAS Commuter . Braathens retained the routes to the West Coast , with two flights to Ålesund and seven to Bergen . In addition , Norwegian Air Shuttle continued with two flights to Molde . In 2004 , SAS and Braathens merged to form SAS Braathens . The airline changed its name back to Scandinavian Airlines in 2007 .
From 1 September 2002 , Norwegian Air Shuttle converted from a regional airline to a low @-@ cost carrier and started competing on the route to Oslo . From 5 May 2003 , Norwegian started a daily domestic service to Tromsø , from 17 April 2004 , they introduced two weekly services to Prague , Czech Republic , and from 26 June to Dubrovnik , Croatia . From 30 October , Norwegian introduced one weekly flight to Murcia , Spain , from 4 November , they introduced five weekly services to London Stansted Airport , United Kingdom . In 2005 , Terminal B received a major upgrade , increasing the passenger area with 1 @,@ 000 square metres ( 11 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The airport was also rebuilt to 100 % security control . The terminal received a new border control for flights to countries outside the Schengen Area and a duty @-@ free store for both departing and arriving passengers . A new 55 @-@ metre ( 180 ft ) tall control tower was also built .
From 7 January 2006 , Norwegian started a seasonal winter service to Salzburg , Austria ; from 7 May 2006 , they introduced one weekly service to Nice , France ; On 1 April 2008 , they started two weekly round trips to Warsaw , Poland ; and from 1 June 2008 , Norwegian introduced one daily evening flight to Bodø and Tromsø . In 2009 , a new indoor parking lot opened , with a capacity of 1 @,@ 200 cars . It replaced a site with 225 parking places and cost NOK 125 million . The same year saw the opening of the Radisson Blu hotel , costing NOK 220 million , and a new fire station for NOK 80 million . From 31 October 2009 , Norwegian started a weekly service to Las Palmas , Spain . On 31 January 2010 , SAS operated its last service to Molde . To compensate , the Molde @-@ based Krohn Air was established to start flights between Værnes and Molde Airport , Årø on 3 February , using Dornier 328 aircraft operated by Sun Air of Scandinavia .
On 22 February 2010 , Nextjet commenced two daily round trips to Åre Östersund Airport and Stockholm @-@ Bromma Airport in Sweden . From 28 March 2010 , Norwegian moved its three weekly services to London from Stansted to London Gatwick Airport . From 10 June to 30 August 2010 , Icelandair will operate two weekly services to their hub Keflavík International Airport using Boeing 757 aircraft .
= = Future = =
In a master plan from 2006 , Avinor has identified several key development issues to increase the capacity of the airport . For Terminal A , the plans call to keep the existing structure , and gradually expand it westwards , eventually passing over the railway on a culvert . Along the area between the railway and the highway , a south pier is planned to be constructed , with the inside facing immediately towards the railway and the outside having aircraft stands . In the short term , this is planned with six stands for regional aircraft , with a single @-@ story building . The remaining stands currently used for regional aircraft will then be converted to international gates . While Avinor states that there is need for an expansion of Terminal B , no concrete solution has been found , in part because of the lack of space in the area , although this can partially be fixed by removing the general aviation from the area .
At both ends of the runway , the taxiway ends 150 metres ( 490 ft ) from the start of the runway , forcing aircraft which need the full length to backtrack . An extension of the taxiways would help with this problem . Both at Terminal A and B , there will be a need for double taxiways . This will result in insufficient space for general aviation at its current location , and this has been proposed moved eastwards past the military installations . Several airlines , in particular Helitrans , has indicated need for more space . Proposals have been made to establish a heliport to allow flight to oil platforms on the Norwegian continental shelf . The military has suggested to fill in a large section of the river delta at the west end of the runway , and move some of the cargo and helicopter operations there , but environmental concerns have been raised by among others Avinor . The cost of establishing access to the artificial land is also high . By 2050 , there may be need for a second , parallel runway to meet demand , and initial plans call for a 1 @,@ 199 metres ( 3 @,@ 934 ft ) runway which would be used by general aviation , regional airlines and helicopters .
Between 2009 and 2011 , Avinor is extending the runway with 150 metres ( 490 ft ) into the fjord . The masses used for this are coming from the construction of the nearby Gevingåsen Tunnel on the Nordland Line , which will help shorten the travel time of the airport rail link to Trondheim and increase frequency . Once finished , the line may be electrified . Plans have been launched to construct a high @-@ speed railway from Trondheim to Steinkjer , which would allow a high @-@ speed connection to Trondheim Central Station in 13 minutes . This may be part of a project to build a high @-@ speed , which could cannibalize ridership from the airport . Work has commenced on building the E6 northwards to a four @-@ lane highway 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) from Værnes past Stjørdal . This is scheduled for completion in 2013 .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
= = = Overview = = =
Scandinavian Airlines is the airline with the most domestic services to Trondheim . The main route is to its hub at Oslo ; additional services are operated to Bergen , Bodø , Stavanger , Tromsø and Ålesund , all with Boeing 737 and ATR 72 aircraft . Internationally , it provides a weekly flight to Alicante , Spain , 5 times weekly to Stockholm and daily flights to its hub in Copenhagen . Norwegian Air Shuttle is a low @-@ cost airline which operates the main domestic services to Oslo , Bergen , Harstad / Narvik and Tromsø , using Boeing 737 aircraft . It provides a range of international flights . Most operate only a few times a week . Norwegian flies to eleven European destinations in seven countries .
Widerøe is a regional airline and was subsidiary of SAS . It uses Dash 8 Q400 aircraft to operate to Sandefjord . Northwards , Widerøe uses Trondheim Airport as a hub to serve six airports in Nord @-@ Trøndelag and Helgeand on public service obligation contracts with the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications . KLM operates three daily flights to its hub at Amsterdam by its regional subsidiary KLM Cityhopper using Embraer 190 aircraft . The airport is also served by numerous charter airlines .
Ground handling is provided by Røros Flyservice , SAS Ground Services and Spirit Air Cargo Handling .
= = = Scheduled = = =
^ a Widerøe 's flight to Copenhagen makes a stop in Sandefjord or Kristiansand before continuing , making the first leg of the flight domestic . This is why it flies from terminal A and not B.
= = = Charter = = =
= = Statistics = =
Trondheim Airport is the only primary airport in Trøndelag , and has a catchment area of 310 @,@ 000 people , including most of Nord @-@ Trøndelag and Sør @-@ Trøndelag . For international flights , the catchment area is slightly larger , and includes part of Nordmøre , Helgeland , and Jämtland in Sweden . In 2009 , Trondheim Airport served 3 @,@ 926 @,@ 461 passengers , 4 @,@ 898 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 821 long tons ; 5 @,@ 399 short tons ) of cargo and 57 @,@ 912 aircraft movements , down from 2008 . The airport ranks fourth in Norway , after Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , Bergen Airport , Flesland and Stavanger Airport , Sola . The busiest route is to Oslo , which was the busiest domestic route and the tenth @-@ busiest route within the European Economic Area in 2008 .
= = Ground transport = =
= = = Rail = = =
Rail transport is offered from Trondheim Airport Station . The platform is about 190 metres ( 620 ft ) from the check @-@ in at the terminal , and the station is 33 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 20 @.@ 5 mi ) from Trondheim Central Station . There is no manned ticket sale , but a vending machine for tickets is located in the airport terminal .
The Norwegian State Railways operates both commuter and express trains to and from Trondheim Airport . In each direction , there are three daily express trains , one to Mo i Rana and two to Bodø . One of the Bodø @-@ trains is a night train . Travel time to Mo i Rana is 6 hours and travel time to Bodø is 9 hours and 5 minutes . The Mo i Rana @-@ service is operated with Class 93 trains , while the Bodø @-@ services are operated with Di 4 @-@ hauled trains .
The Trøndelag Commuter Rail offers hourly services in each direction : northbound to Steinkjer and southbound to Trondheim and Lerkendal . During peak hours , the frequency is doubled . Travel time to Trondheim is 38 minutes and to Lerkendal 51 minutes . Northwards , travel time to Levanger is 48 minutes , to Verdal 1 @-@ hour and 2 minutes , and to Steinkjer 1 @-@ hour and 26 minutes . The commuter rail is operated with Class 92 trains .
Trains from Östersund , Sweden ( Meråker Line / Central Line ) stop at Hell station , where passengers can change trains or walk 1 @.@ 5 km ( 1 mile ) to the airport terminal .
= = = Road = = =
The airport is located along European Route E6 and E14 . The airports connects to Norwegian National Road 705 via a roundabout , which again connects with the E6 in a grade @-@ separated intersection 300 metres ( 980 ft ) away . The E6 run concurrently northwards in an aircraft bridge under the runway ; southwards the E6 run as a two @-@ lane motorway as a toll road past Trondheim . The E14 diverts from the E6 at Stjørdal , 2 km north of the airport . The airport has 3 @,@ 000 paid parking places , operated by Europark , both indoor and outdoor . Car rental is available , as are taxis .
Nettbuss operates the Flybussen Airport Express Coaches four to six times hourly ( every 10 minutes during rush hours ) .to Downtown Trondheim , stopping at major hotels , Trondheim Central Station and the Munkegata Terminal . Unibuss operates the competing Værnesekspressen . Nettbuss operates city and regional buses to Selbu and Oppdal from the bus stop at Hell Center — five minutes walk from the airport . TrønderBilene operates NOR @-@ WAY Bussekspress coaches to Namsos . Rica Hell Hotel operates a shuttle bus from the terminal to the hotel , although the hotel is within walking distance ( 800 m / 2500 ft ) .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
Braathens SAFE Flight 139 occurred on 21 June 1985 , when a Boeing 737 @-@ 200 from Braathens SAFE en route from Værnes to Oslo Airport , Fornebu was hijacked by a drunk student who demanded to talk to the prime minister and minister of justice . The plane landed at Fornebu , and the hijacker eventually surrendered his gun in exchange for more beer . No @-@ one was injured in the incident .
On 23 February 1987 , a Douglas DC @-@ 9 from Scandinavian Airlines landing at Værnes en route from Bodø Airport was written off after a hard landing on the runway . This was caused by a high sink rate caused by the pilot interrupting the landing checklist and forgetting to arm the spoilers . No @-@ one was killed in the accident .
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= Party ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Party " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé for her fourth studio album , 4 ( 2011 ) . It features guest vocals from American rapper André 3000 and uncredited vocals from Kanye West , and was released by Columbia Records as the fourth single from 4 on August 30 , 2011 . The song was written by Kanye West , Jeff Bhasker , Beyoncé , Dexter Mills , Douglas Davis and Ricky Walters and produced by Beyoncé and West and co @-@ produced by Bhasker . A midtempo R & B song , " Party " exhibits elements of the 1980s funk and soul music , and samples the 1985 song " La Di Da Di " . It recalls the work of New Edition and Prince , among others . Built on a 808 @-@ retro beat , multi @-@ tracked harmonies , and a smooth groove , the song 's instrumentation includes slow @-@ bouncing synthesizers , keyboard tones , and drums . Lyrically , " Party " gives ode to political themes such as feminism and sexual empowerment . In his rap verses , André 3000 references milk and gets philosophical about his own career . " Party " was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 54th Grammy Awards .
" Party " was acclaimed by contemporary music critics , who praised André 3000 's verses , as well as the production handled by West and Beyoncé 's emphatic , yet sensual vocals . Following the release of 4 , " Party " charted at number 19 on the South Korea Gaon International Singles Chart . It debuted on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart in July 2011 , and peaked at number 2 on the chart for three consecutive weeks . The song reached number 50 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart based on radio support . " Party " was part of Beyoncé 's set list for her 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé and the Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live residency shows .
= = Background and development = =
" Party " was written by Kanye West , Jeff Bhasker , Beyoncé , André Lauren Benjamin , Dexter Mills , Douglas Davis and Ricky Walters . Production was handled by Beyoncé , West , and Bhasker . " Party " was the first song on which Beyoncé worked for her @-@ then upcoming album , 4 . In May 2010 , Jordan Young aka DJ Swivel started working with Beyoncé at Rock The Mic Studio in New York City . They initially recorded the beginning stages of " Party " to see what kind of a working relationship might form . Young was introduced to Beyoncé by Omar Grant , who was an A & R at Epic Records and used to work with Destiny 's Child . Beyoncé was satisfied with Young 's work and commended him for being " a fast engineer " . Beyoncé then decided to give him the opportunity to work with her through the whole production and recording processes of her album .
She later told Gabriel Alvarez of Complex magazine that she was very happy and keen to work with Kanye West who handled the production of " Party " . This was because West 's single " Runaway " ( 2010 ) drove her to the edge of tears the first time she heard . She further said : " The fact that he 's belting out his pain , his confusion , and his anger , with no pre @-@ written lyrics , was so moving . He 's singing his heart out for five minutes . He is so vulnerable . I love when an artist can be so honest . " On May 25 , 2011 , it was revealed by Rap @-@ Up that American rapper André 3000 , who had been keeping his features to a minimum in recent years , would appear as a featuring artist on fifth song featured on the track @-@ listing of Beyoncé 's then fourth upcoming studio album , 4 . This was the only collaboration present on the final track @-@ list of the record . Later on June 4 , 2011 , it was revealed that " Party " samples " La Di Da Di " ( 1985 ) as performed by Doug E. Fresh and the Get Fresh Crew featuring MC Ricky D. , and written by Douglas Davis and Ricky Walters . The original record contains the lyrics , " La di da di , we like to party " , which the songwriters included on " Party " .
On June 6 , 2011 , " Party " leaked on the internet followed by the whole album , three weeks prior to its official release date , which was scheduled for June 28 , 2011 . Speaking of his collaboration with Beyoncé , André 3000 said : " I 've always felt Beyoncé was one of the best performers of our time , so to collaborate with her was an honor and a pleasure . " " Party " was added to United States urban contemporary radio by Columbia Records on August 30 , 2011 .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Party " is a mid @-@ paced R & B song that exhibits elements of funk and soul music . It is written in the key of B ♭ major and set in common time with the sequence of Cm7 – Dm7 – F7 ( sus ) – G9 ( sus ) – Cm7 – Dm7 . According to David Amidon of PopMatters , the song 's music " is largely reminiscent of late 1980s diva histrionics " ; it is built on scooping and gliding multi @-@ tracked 1990 girl @-@ ground harmonies , midtempo bounces , a 808 @-@ retro beat and a 1980s @-@ style smooth hip hop groove . The instrumentation of " Party " consists of slow @-@ bouncing synthesizers , bubbly keyboard tones , and a drum machine .
Gil Kaufman of MTV News commented that the synthesizers and drum machine used in " Party " create a groove reminiscent of " a New Jack Swing seduction . " Jon Caramainca of The New York Times wrote that the production of " Party " recalls the early work of New Edition . James Reed of The Boston Globe commented that its music arrangement sounds like a parody by The Lonely Island or Flight of the Conchords . Roberts Randall of the Los Angeles Times found that " Party " sounds like a half @-@ speed remix of a Human League song , and Kevin O 'Donnell of Spin magazine found the song to be reminiscent of Prince in his 1980s prime . Priya Elan of NME commented that " Party " is the first indication that 4 was influenced by the likes of Teena Marie .
Lyrically , " Party " features Beyoncé as the female protagonist " in the mood for some loving " as she references to a get @-@ together for two persons . West rhymes about " swag sauce " and " swagu " in the introductory lines , " You a bad girl , your friends bad too / You got the swag sauce , you 're drippin ' Swagu " , before passing the torch to Beyoncé , who begins to sing the first verse slowly and steadily , " I may be young but I 'm ready / To give you all my love / I told my girls you can get it / Don 't slow it down , just let it go / So in love / I 'll give it all away / Just don 't tell nobody tomorrow " . In the chorus lines , she harmonizes over the sample from " La Di Da Di " , " Cause tonight 's the night that I give you everything / Music knocking until the morning light / ' Cause we like to party " . In the second verse , Beyoncé belts out " in a thick stack of smooth , layered vocals " . After chanting the chorus for a second time , André 3000 surfaces around the 2 : 15 mark with " some very naughty references " to milk on the verses he raps , " ... another homeboy , that nigga named Cheese / Fuck wit ' me baby , I make it milk ' til it drip down yo ' knees " , before switching gears altogether and getting philosophical about his own career , " Kiddo say he looks up to me , this just makes me feel old / Never thought that we could become someone else 's hero / Man , we were just in the food court eating our gyros " , and finally adopting a " multi @-@ syllabic tongue twister " to rap some of the finishing lines . The song runs out with Beyoncé reiterating the lines , " Cause we like to party , hey , hey , hey , hey , hey " , and West then reprises the opening lines .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received acclaim by critics . Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone appreciated André 3000 's performance and the song itself , writing : " André 3000 is sharp and effortlessly charismatic on his rapped verse , but the real attraction here is the track itself . " Similarly , David Amidon of PopMatters commented that the song features " one of those rare ' look how effortless rapping is for me ' . " This was echoed by Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media , who wrote that " [ 4 's ] carefree retro sensibility pops up on three more highlights , including ' Party ' , which combines a pitch @-@ perfect André 3000 guest verse , a Slick Rick sample , [ ... ] while its bounce provides prime summer barbecue background . " Rich Juzwiak of The Village Voice was also positive : " ' Party ' sounds right out of The SOS Band 's catalog ( its plodding tempo is the only thing that lets you know she isn 't quoting a particularly poetic , desperately meth @-@ seeking craigslist m4m ad [ ... ] ) " . Jon Caramainca of The New York Times wrote that Beyoncé sings the song " in her best impression of naughtiness . " Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound praised the minimal production and simplistic lyrics of " Party " further describing the song as being as " simple as a Beyoncé song gets : a low @-@ key , synth @-@ y beat paired with inspired vocals by Beyoncé and a killer , fluid verse by Mr. Benjamin [ André 3000 ] . "
Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun called " Party " the most throwaway moment on 4 . Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly wrote that " the promisingly named ' Party ' [ ... ] turns out to be a slow @-@ jam invitation to an after @-@ work mixer with light refreshments . " Chicago Sun @-@ Times 's Thomas Conner complimented the harmonies " scooping , gliding multi @-@ tracked harmonies that almost make moot the idea of a Destiny 's reunion . " Gil Kaufman of MTV News was also positive , writing that " [ ... ] unlike the at @-@ points frantic ' Run the World ( Girls ) ' [ Party ] takes its time , lyrically and musically , with Beyoncé luxuriating over her vocals and singing about the beauty of nice and slow . " Describing " Party " as " a proudly retro slice of R & B " , James Reed of The Boston Globe wrote that the song is " an irresistible summer jam that I haven 't been able to stop humming for a week straight . " Jim Farber of Daily News echoed Reed 's sentiments , writing that " Party " would surely be " a top @-@ down anthem for months to come . " Similarly , Joanne Dorken of MTV UK described " Party " as a " dance @-@ floor filler ... with that Sasha Fierce edge " , before adding that is bound to be a " monster hit " and is a " stand out tune on the album " . Ricky Schweitzer of One Thirty BPM also applauded " Party " , writing :
The majority of 4 consists of mid @-@ tempo pieces , but unlike the filler that might have occupied this pacing on previous albums , many of this album ’ s greatest strengths lie in this realm . Perhaps best exemplifying this spirit is the André 3000 and Kanye West assisted , ' Party ' in which Beyoncé relaxes into a beat that , while not be easy to grind to , still works perfectly as a party anthem . Beyoncé reminds us that a party is not only meant for dancing . It is a place where you go to enjoy the company of others and oftentimes , that involves real human conversation and interaction . Echoing this sentiment , André ’ s verse is tranquilized from his customarily rapid @-@ fire delivery to a drawl more reminiscent of Lil ’ Wayne than his traditional work with Outkast . ' Party ' like much of 4 , is a conversation , and André 3000 wants to be heard .
However , Matthew Horton of BBC Online viewed " Party " as one of the " less successful interruptions " on 4 . Similarly , Embling of Tiny Mix Tapes gave the song a mixed review , writing : " [ ... ] the less said about the phrase ' swag goo ' the better ; ' Party ' , the song on which those unfortunate words appear — Kanye West providing that unfortunate pun — is otherwise wonderful , but yet some errors are too grievous to forgive . " Andy Kellman from Allmusic stated , " [ ... ] What 's most surprising is that a song titled ' Party ' quickly settles into a low @-@ watt groove and remains there . " Bill Lamb from About.com added , " Kanye West and Andre 3000 provide interesting vocal color for ' Party ' but the song itself is just a variant on the ' this is my night to be bad ' theme . " A negative review came from Al Shipley of The Village Voice who wrote that " Party " and " Best Thing I Never Had " were " among the album 's worst and most unrepresentative songs " .
On The Village Voice 's year @-@ end Pazz & Jop singles list , " Party " was ranked at number 177 and 439 in 2011 and 2012 respectively . The writers of Rap @-@ Up included the song at number 8 on their list of 10 Best Songs of 2011 . " Party " was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 54th Grammy Awards , which was held on February 12 , 2012 , but lost to Kanye West 's " All of the Lights " . At the 2013 ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Awards " Party " was one of the songs to win in the category for Award @-@ Winning R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs .
= = Chart performance = =
Without being released as a single , the album version " Party " debuted at number 29 on the South Korea Gaon International Singles Chart for the week ending July 2 , 2011 , selling 17 @,@ 460 digital downloads . The following week , it sold 17 @,@ 995 downloads , which enabled it to ascend to number 19 where it peaked . The album version also debuted at number 90 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart issue dated July 21 , 2011 . The following week , " Party " moved to number 72 on the chart , and one week later , it climbed to number 57 . For the week ending September 10 , 2011 , " Party " moved from number 55 to number 50 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . 31 US urban radios added " Party " to the playlist for the week ending October 1 , 2011 . As a result , " Party " was the most played song on US urban radios , gaining 517 spins in seven days , as reported by the Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems ( BDS ) urban airplay chart issued dated October 8 , 2011 . Subsequently , the song received the airplay greatest gainer title and moved from number 33 to number 20 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The following week , " Party " debuted at number 71 on the US Radio Songs chart and subsequently moved to number 16 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
For the week ending October 1 , 2011 , the album version of " Party " debuted at number 25 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . After two weeks , it ascended from number 11 to number 4 on the chart . For the week ending October 22 , 2011 , " Party " debuted at number 95 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . It also moved to number 9 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , receiving the airplay gainer title for the second non @-@ consecutive time . " Party " escalated to number 87 on the Hot 100 chart and to number 7 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart issued dated October 29 , 2011 . For the same week ending , Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems reported that " Party " was the most played song on Urban radios for the second non @-@ consecutive time , gaining 464 spins in seven days . It ascended to number 5 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and to number 75 on the Hot 100 chart for the week ending November 5 , 2011 . " Party " surged to number 57 on the Hot 100 , climbing 18 places , for the week ending November 12 , 2011 . For the week ending November 19 , 2011 , it further ascended to 54 on the Hot 100 chart and moved from number 5 to number 4 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
For the week ending November 26 , 2011 , " Party " remained at number 54 on the Hot 100 chart and climbed to number 2 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The following , Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems reported that " Party " reached the top spot of the BDS Urban National airplay chart , having amassed 4862 spins , which transitioned into 31 @.@ 288 million listener impressions . It later peaked at number 50 on the Hot 100 chart and maintained its high point of number 2 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart for four consecutive weeks .
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé performed the song live for first time on August 14 , 2011 during her 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé in Roseland Ballroom , New York City . Wearing a gold dress , she performed the song in front of 3 @,@ 500 people and she was backed by her all @-@ female band and her backing singers , called the " Mamas " . Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine commented that " [ Beyoncé ] slow @-@ winded to ' Party ' as the crowd swayed their arms back and forth and stretched out the ' y ' to every other verse . " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone said that the live performance of " Party " was " beatific and lovely . "
Jon Caramanica of The New York Times , who apparently had not received " Party " positively while reviewing 4 , however wrote that " [ Beyoncé ] is an outrageously nimble entertainer , enough so that it compensated for this album ’ s awkward or halfhearted choices : the too @-@ goofy Kanye West hook on ' Party ' . " Yolanda Sangweni of Essence magazine stated that " on songs like ' Rather Die Young ' and ' Party ' , [ Beyoncé ] reminds us her vocal chops are what got her here . " Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly stated that " Party " was among the several highlights of the show . Jocelyn Vena of MTV News concluded that " it was [ Beyoncé 's ] ability to throw a party during faster jams like ' Party ' , ' Countdown ' , ' End of Time ' and ' Run the World ( Girls ) ' that put on full display her range as a performer , dancing and singing live the entire night . " During the ITV special A Night With Beyoncé which aired on December 4 in the United Kingdom , Beyoncé performed " Party " to a selected crowd of fans .
In May 2012 , Beyoncé performed " Party " during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . Rebecca Thomas of MTV News described the performance , " For one of our favorite numbers , ' Party , ' the 4 singer donned full @-@ on showgirl regalia in a heady rendition that saw confetti coming from the roof and dice @-@ shaped beach balls being tossed through the crowd as dancers in large feathered headdresses magically turned up in the aisles . " Both , Maura Johnston of The Village Voice and Tris McCall of New Jersey On @-@ Line noted that the confetti should have been dropped during the first or the last song . Dan DeLuca of The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote that " Party " was one of the " beat @-@ savvy booty @-@ shaking workouts " performed during the show .
Party is on the setlist of Beyoncé 's Formation World Tour ( As of May 30th )
= = Cover versions = =
On October 11 , 2011 , English singer – songwriter Eliza Doolittle posted a video of herself covering " Party " , on her official website and other online media . In January 2012 , American rapper Common sang a freestyle rap over the instrumental of Beyoncé 's " Party " adding the lyrics , " We can put it all together / You know the weather / Me and Jasmine we can find forever " . In February 2012 , American band Chairlift and Kool A.D. covered the song on Triple J 's Like a Version series .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for the album version of " Party " are adapted from 4 liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Remix featuring J. Cole = =
" Party " was officially remixed with vocals from American rapper J. Cole , replacing those of André 3000 . The verses of André 3000 were supplanted by those from Cole ; all other elements of the remix are identical to the original . His rap is much shorter than that of André 3000 . In his verse , Cole thanks God and Ice Cube for Friday , references Sade and Petey Pablo and name @-@ drops the Bugatti brand . Cole revealed that he was originally supposed to appear on the album version and that Beyoncé later enlisted him to appear on the official " Party " remix . It was released worldwide as a digital download on October 24 , 2011 as a single .
Critics complimented the remix , stating that anyone could sound good over the beat of the mid @-@ tempo R & B song . An accompanying music video for " Party " was shot in New Jersey and was directed by Beyoncé . Cole replaced André 3000 in the clip , which takes viewers back to an old @-@ school backyard celebration full of colorful bikinis , freestyle dancing and a few cameo appearances , including sister Solange Knowles and former Destiny 's Child bandmate Kelly Rowland . Music critics generally praised the retro @-@ themed visuals , further commending the fact that she proves she can " bring a party " without elaborate choreography , high fashion or cinematic elements .
= = = Development and release = = =
It was reported on October 8 , 2011 that Cole would feature on the official remix of " Party " . It premiered online on October 21 , 2011 and its cover art was unveiled the same day . The remix of " Party " was released as a digital download on October 24 , 2011 ; as a single it was released in the United States and several other European countries . It was not made available for purchase in Oceania and Germany , among others . Cole 's verse , which replaces André 3000 's from the original , is much shorter ; all other elements of the remix are identical to the original . In his verse , Cole thanks God and Ice Cube for Friday , references Sade and Petey Pablo and name @-@ drops the Bugatti brand .
During an interview with WWKX ( 106 @.@ 3 MHz FM " Hot 106 " ) Rise & Grind Morning Show , Cole revealed that he was originally supposed to appear on the album version and that Beyoncé later enlisted him when she was ready to release " Party " as a single . He also explained why his verse was cut short and recalled his " unforgettable " experience of working with Beyoncé :
You know how many verses I did for that song . I did a version of that before her album [ 4 ] even came out . I did two verses . I love these verses too , but they ended up going with André 's verse and André killed it . [ ... ] Then [ Beyoncé ] reached out to me and she wanted me to get on the remix . I did two more verses . Out of the second set that I did , she picked the first verse . But my second verse , I just gotta say for the record … It was just too long , I think she was looking for something shorter and more to the point . [ ... ] It 's just a blessing to even be able to work with [ Beyoncé ] . I 'm on my defensive rapper , like yo man . When you follow in André 's 3000 's shoes , you 're expected to really go in . Just the fact to even be on the song with her and shoot the video with her and just be in her presence . She 's such a hard working , incredible artist . I ’ ll never forget that day we shot the video , I 'll never forget being able to be on that song , and hopefully we got more as time goes on . [ ... ] .
= = = Reception = = =
Andrew Martin of Prefix Magazine complimented the remix stating : " [ The remix ] might replace André 3000 's typically great guest feature with one from J. Cole , but hey , anyone can sound good over this beat . And not only that , but Cole 's vocals , however brief , are a welcome complement . " Making reference to its music video , Entertainment Weekly 's Erin Strecker commented : " I 'm assuming it was shot mid @-@ summer , which is when this really should have been put out . Releasing this track at the end of October seems like an odd choice , as the video involves a grillout and trailer @-@ park pool party that would have sparkled mid @-@ July . " The remix was nominated in the category for Best Collaboration at the 2012 BET Awards . For the week ending November 5 , 2011 , " Party " debuted at number two on the South Korean International Singles Chart , selling 85 @,@ 143 digital downloads . It became the seventy third best @-@ selling single in South Korea in 2011 .
= = = Music video = = =
= = = = Filming and release = = = =
The music video for " Party " was directed by Beyoncé and Alan Ferguson . As reported by Rap @-@ Up , Beyoncé filmed the clip in the Oakdale Mobile Home Park in South Brunswick Township , New Jersey , on August 2 , 2011 . The video shoot called for multiple flashy fashions , a red muscle car , and colorfully dressed dancers . Solange Knowles , Beyoncé 's younger sister , and Kelly Rowland , former Destiny 's Child member , both made cameos . Rowland elaborated a bit about her role in the video in an interview with NeonLimelight : " I 'm just doing a cameo . We just had a really good time [ ... ] While filming the video , we noticed that we were doing certain stuff that we used to do as kids . We kinda felt a little goofy for a second , so we stopped . But we just had a good time . " . Model Shaun Ross also makes a cameo in the video .
As the video utilizes the remix featuring Cole , André 3000 did not appear in the clip ; Cole , who replaced him , shot his cameo on October 7 , 2011 ; Beyoncé also came to the set that day to film extra scenes with Cole . A 32 @-@ second preview of the music video was shown on BET 's 106 & Park on October 24 , 2011 . The retro @-@ themed visuals showed Beyoncé throwing a backyard bash with her friends . Sporting bikinis , girls , including rapper Dai Burger , were basking in the sun and splashing in the pool as Beyoncé 's sister Solange was working the turntables . Cole swept through in his blue Bugatti to join the old school festivities . Although it was reported that the full music video would premiere on October 25 , 2011 , it premiered on October 26 during an episode of 106 & Park and on Beyoncé 's Vevo account . " Party " is the sixth video released from 4 .
On November 22 , 2011 , the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of the video was posted online . In the footage , her stylist said that the inspiration for the video was " trailer @-@ trash , ghetto fabulous , out @-@ there , [ and ] edgy . " During the footage Beyoncé said " I like this video . It 's no choreography , no pressure . All I have to do is party and have a good time . " She also revealed that the video is supposed to reflect her simplistic childhood , adding : " Growing up , I had really amazing parents and I had a great childhood . We went from nicer homes to being in apartments with our lights cutting off . It didn 't matter where we were ' cause we had love and we had so much fun . It 's great when you don 't have as much how you improvise and you have more fun . "
= = = = Synopsis = = = =
Summed up by James Dinh of MTV News , " [ The music video for ] ' Party ' takes viewers back to an old @-@ school backyard celebration full of colorful bikinis , freestyle dancing and a few familiar faces . Throughout the video , [ Beyoncé ] lets loose , playing a sort of party host . If she is not lounging in beach chairs , she is dancing among her friends or mowing the lawn . " The clip is centered around a trailer park hood and a subsequent soiree . It starts with a dog barking behind a fencing , followed by multiple intercut scenery , which includes two men engaged in a conversation , a woman leaning against a car , a little girl riding a bicycle and a saucepan caught in fire . Then , Beyoncé appears , dressed in bright colored as well as flashy garments , sporting neon @-@ colored oval shaped nails , and bright @-@ colored lipstick . She is cooking in a skillet while one of her neighbors drinks from a hose . As she sings , looking into the camera , she highlights and plays with her hair . The action shifts from the double wide to a sunny summer backyard barbecue , where Beyoncé and her friends dance as Solange is deejaying . This is followed by scenes of Beyoncé , floating in an above ground pool while singing and entertaining her guests . She is wearing a pink one @-@ piece swimsuit , dropping earrings and her hair looks crimped . Other girls bask in the sun and splash in the pool as Solange works the turntables .
Once outside the pool , Beyoncé , now in a ruffled blue and white bikini , is sitting on a chaise longue and eating a lollipop . Beyoncé then shifts to another chaise longue where she relaxes with a bowl of snack food in her hand . Now wearing sunglasses , a black butterfly turban , and a furry green vest , Beyoncé lounges on a plastic chair around an inflatable pool toys next to lawn flamingos and beer bottle @-@ filled kiddie pools . As she sings , she throws some snack food towards the camera . Cole arrives in a blue Bugatti to rap his verse in the parking lot . In a different scene , he sits on the bumper of a truck with Beyoncé on his left hand @-@ side . They swing by the festivities once they hit the hotel room for a little after @-@ hours . Later , Beyoncé is seen doing a retouch of her make up , sitting on the toilet . Kelly Rowland and Beyoncé are then shown , propped up against a red muscle car . Beyoncé sports a big bird style , yellow feather coat while Rowland wears a short dark @-@ red dress , and they are both seen smiling and dancing . Beyoncé then mows the lawn and the video ends when Rowland and Beyoncé smiling into the camera .
= = = = Reception = = = =
Marc Hogan of Spin magazine wrote that the video for " Party " , isn 't " Beyoncé 's best video recently " adding that it had a lot of competition . A writer of Daily Mirror compared the set in the video with American series Baywatch and described Beyoncé 's look as " sexy " . Laura Schreffler of Daily Mail concluded that " one very big thing is noticeably missing " in the video , referring to Beyoncé 's pregnancy . However , Schreffler praised her look and outfits which were getting " racier and racier " . Amanda Dobbins of New York magazine wrote that Beyoncé " host [ s ] a trailer @-@ park fiesta in crazy technicolor fur getups and still look [ s ] amazing . " Matt Donnelly of Los Angeles Times concluded : " In a glorious mess of fanny packs , headpieces , blender drinks , dice @-@ throwing and dance circles , Beyonce reminds us that even without elaborate choreography , high fashion or cinematic elements she brings one heck of a party . " That was somehow echoed by Entertainment Weekly 's Erin Strecker who wrote that " Beyoncé isn 't dancing this time around . Instead , she 's strutting her stuff with neon makeup and costumes straight out of the Day @-@ Glo ' 90s . " Nakisha Williams of BET praised the " flashy looks Beyoncé chose to get her ' Party ' on " . Sarah Anne Hughes of The Washington Post praised the " pretty glamorous trailer park affair " and the party in the video saying that it 's a " party you wish you were invited to . " A writer of VH1 found a " delectable , candy @-@ colored , bling @-@ adorned party scene " with " retro @-@ ghetto fab outfits " and a very simple throughline .
Marina Galperina of AOL 's The Boombox said " from her neon nails , scintillating bathing suits , sequined mini @-@ dresses , big hair , bright make @-@ up to the sexy shimmying of her still slim physique , all eyes are on Beyonce as she serenades a promise to ' give it all away , just don 't tell nobody tomorrow . ' " Jenna Gregory of Marie Claire wrote that Beyoncé shows an " amazing bod in parely @-@ there clothes which you definitely wouldn 't find in the maternity section . " Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound found a 1980s vibe similar to the song 's sound , adding that the only thing the " family affair is missing is Jay @-@ Z wearing sunscreen on his nose and a shirt from Tommy Bahama . " Ted Maider of the same publication , noted that Beyoncé " adds some luster to the rusty surroundings , shining through as the beautiful pop icon that she has become . It just goes to show it doesn 't matter where Beyonce is , or where her music is playing , she can turn any spot into a rager . " A writer of OK ! said that Beyoncé " don [ s ] an unbelievable amount of cool oufits , all of which we need in our lives . " Rap @-@ Up commented " Summer may be over , but Beyoncé gives us another reason to celebrate with the vibrant video " adding " This is one party you won 't want to miss . " Andrew Martin of Prefix Magazine described " Party " ' s video as a " fittingly shindig @-@ centric affair . " Jessica Misener of The Huffington Post praised the fashion used in the video saying that Beyoncé had a lot of " chic looks " . Another writer of the same publication praised the decision to make a simple party set . He further described the video as " a gorgeous boast of her beauty as well as a helpful reminder that , even in these down economic times , one can party like a rock star . " At the 2012 BET Awards , Beyoncé and Alan Ferguson won in the category for Video Director of the Year after they collaborated on the music video for " Party " .
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Release history = = =
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= Ron & Tammy : Part Two =
" Ron & Tammy : Part Two " ( sometimes referred to as " Ron and Tammy II " ) is the fourth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 34th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 10 , 2011 . In the episode , Tom tries to make Ron jealous by dating Ron 's ex @-@ wife Tammy , causing the two to resume their unhealthy relationship . Meanwhile , Leslie and Ben ask the police to provide security for the harvest festival , and April is assigned to be Chris 's secretary .
Written by Emily Kapnek and directed by Tucker Gates , the episode is considered a sequel to the second season episode " Ron and Tammy " . Megan Mullally , the real @-@ life wife of actor Nick Offerman , reprises her role as Tammy . Mullally and Offerman were permitted a great deal of improvisation during their scenes . " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " also features guest appearances by Eric Pierpoint as Pawnee Police Chief Trumple and Jama Williamson in the last of several guest performances as Tom 's ex @-@ wife , Wendy .
When the episode first broadcast , NBC ran a commercial advertising " April and Andy 's wedding registry " on the official Parks and Recreation website . Although apparently a mistake intended to refer to Ron and Tammy 's registry , some commentators suggested it could be indicative of future events in the series . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " was seen by 5 @.@ 03 million household viewers , a slight increase from the previous episode , " Time Capsule " . It received critical acclaim , with several commentators praising the repairing of Ron and Tammy , as well as Nick Offerman 's performance .
= = Plot = =
Ron 's ( Nick Offerman ) ex @-@ wife Tammy ( Megan Mullally ) continues her efforts to sabotage his life , but the normally susceptible Ron easily resists her seductions because he is now in a solid relationship with Tom 's ( Aziz Ansari ) ex @-@ wife Wendy ( Jama Williamson ) , much to Tom 's jealousy . Later , however , Wendy and Ron break up after she announces she is moving back to Canada . Meanwhile , Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) and the parks department throw a party for the Pawnee police department , where they hope to ask them to provide security for the upcoming Harvest Festival . During the party , Ben ( Adam Scott ) awkwardly fails to get Chief Trumple 's ( Eric Pierpoint ) favor . Tom , unaware of Ron and Wendy 's breakup , arrives at the party with Tammy to make him jealous . After bickering loudly , Ron and Tammy both decide to leave the party together to talk and try to make amends . However , a night filled with drunken sex and mayhem ensues , ending with the two getting remarried and ending up in jail .
After getting Ron released , the parks department holds an intervention for him about Tammy , even playing a previously recorded tape of Ron warning himself to stay away from her . Ron ignores the warnings and prepares to take Tammy to his cabin for a sex @-@ filled honeymoon after her bridal shower . Leslie blames Tom for the dilemma and , although he initially claims to be unfazed , Tom later arrives at the bridal shower to stop Ron from going on the honeymoon . He reveals the whole marriage is a ploy by Tammy to once again make him miserable . Tammy attacks and mercilessly beats Tom , prompting Ron to remember what a monster she truly is and dump her . He literally carries Tom away , and the two later make amends . Despite the bad impression he made the day before , Ben asks Trumple for the Harvest Festival favor . The chief unconditionally agrees out of respect for Leslie , who he said always helps everyone , and because Leslie once dated his friend Dave ( Louis C.K. ) . Ben seems relieved Leslie and Dave are no longer together , and he later asks Leslie out to eat .
In the B story , April ( Aubrey Plaza ) is working as Chris ' ( Rob Lowe ) assistant until he goes back to Indianapolis . April 's cynical personality clashes with Chris ' relentless optimism and happiness . In an attempt to get fired , April purposely neglects to tell Ann ( Rashida Jones ) that Chris cannot make a lunch date . When Ann arrives to confront Chris , she quickly realizes April 's ploy . Ann reveals she is very happy dating Chris , and would even probably move with him to Indianapolis if asked . Andy ( Chris Pratt ) , who is still trying to win back April 's affections , gives Chris an obviously forged letter from the FBI claiming April must immediately return to the parks department . Chris sees through the ruse and tells April she can go back , but that remaining his assistant may provide her career opportunities . He invites her to return with him to Indianapolis and she seems interested , leaving both Ann and Andy stunned and jealous .
= = Production = =
" Ron & Tammy : Part Two " , sometimes informally referred to as " Ron and Tammy II " , was written by Parks consulting producer Emily Kapnek and directed by Tucker Gates , who has previously directed episodes of The Office , another comedy series created by Parks co @-@ creator Greg Daniels . Like all of the first six third season episodes , it was written and filmed almost immediately after the second season ended as part of an early shooting schedule needed to accommodate Amy Poehler 's pregnancy . However , although finished early in anticipation of a September 2010 release date , Parks was ultimately placed on hiatus until early 2011 , many months after production on " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " was finished . The episode is considered a sequel to the second season episode " Ron and Tammy " , which introduced the character of Ron Swanson 's ex @-@ wife , Tammy , and their unhealthy relationship with each other . Megan Mullally , the real @-@ life wife of actor Nick Offerman , reprises her role as Tammy . " Ron and Tammy " was one of the most well @-@ received episodes of the second season , so the writers immediately started contemplating ways to bring the character back .
Offerman said he worked well with Mullally , and that the two both enjoy " pushing the envelope and testing our boundaries , both of physical ability and good taste " . He jokingly said of filming the episode :
" They tell me it 's quite something . I honestly don 't remember much of what took place during the filming of that episode because it was like a crazy peyote fever dream . I remember there was lots of howling , and I came away very sore and scarred . Parts of my anatomy were alarmingly chafed . They say it turned out well . I 'm excited to see it . "
Offerman and Mullally were allowed to improvise a great deal during filming . The episode features a montage of various clips showing how Ron and Tammy gradually go from fighting with each other to getting married over the course of a particularly wild night . Long sequences of footage were shot — including Ron and Tammy loudly arguing on the sidewalk and the two making out atop a police car — but little more than a few seconds ultimately made the final episode . Offerman said it took about a half hour for the hair department to give him his cornrows haircut . He said he enjoyed the process , saying it " felt like a stiff head massage " .
Mullally said Tammy is expected to appear again in future episodes : " It seems like it 's sort of a once a season @-@ ish kind of event . When Tammy shows up , it pretty much brings Ron to a screeching halt . " Mullally and Parks co @-@ star Adam Scott also starred together in the Starz comedy series Party Down . " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " featured the last of several guest performances of Jama Williamson as Wendy , who revealed she was returning to her home country of Canada to care for her aging parents . Pawnee Police Chief Trumple was portrayed by Eric Pierpoint , who has played several police officers throughout his career , including an alien police officer in the science fiction series Alien Nation and a police chief in the superhero drama series The Cape .
Immediately after " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " first aired on February 10 , 2011 , NBC ran a commercial advertising " April and Andy 's wedding registry " on the official Parks and Recreation website . This seemed inconsistent with the show 's storyline because , although April and Andy had previously expressed romantic interest in each other , the two had separated and were not yet reconciled at the time of the episode . Shortly after the episode aired , HitFix television reviewer Alan Sepinwall wrote that the commercial mistakenly used the wrong names and was actually referring to Ron and Tammy 's wedding registry , which was mentioned in " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " and was indeed featured on the Parks and Recreation website . However , while images of both April and Andy were featured in the commercial , Tammy herself was not , and some commentators suggested the error could be indicative of future events in the series . Andy and April eventually did marry in the episode " Andy and April 's Fancy Party " . Afterward , Parks co @-@ creator Michael Schur admitted the commercial was intended to run with that episode , but ran with " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " due to an error by NBC employees :
" In an effort to undo the spoiler , we publicly stated , in a number of interviews , that NBC had just accidentally gotten the character names wrong , and that there was no upcoming Andy @-@ April wedding . We sincerely hope that fans of the show are cool with us gently lying to them , in an effort to maintain the surprise nuptials as much as we could . Now if you 'll excuse us , we have to go shoot the season finale surprise Jerry @-@ Donna wedding scene . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " was seen by an estimated 5 @.@ 03 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with an overall 3 @.@ 0 rating / 5 share , and a 2 @.@ 5 rating / 7 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . It marked a slight increase in viewership compared to the previous episode , " Time Capsule " . The night " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " was broadcast , Parks and Recreation was outperformed in its timeslot by the CBS crime drama series CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , which was seen by 12 @.@ 78 million households ; the ABC medical drama series Grey 's Anatomy , which was seen by 10 @.@ 4 million household viewers ; and the Fox comedy @-@ drama series Bones , which was seen by 9 @.@ 5 million households .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Ron & Tammy : Part Two " received highly positive reviews , with several commentators praising the repairing of Ron and Tammy , Nick Offerman 's performance and , in particular , the line in which Ron explains how part of his mustache became shaved off : " It rubbed off ... from friction . " Entertainment Weekly writer Hillary Busis said she feared Megan Mullally could not live up to her performance in " Ron and Tammy " , but she said the follow @-@ up episode " gave Parks and Rec fans everything they could hope for and more " . Busis also praised the pairing of the enthusiastic Chris and the apathetic April . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix enjoyed that the script did not simply rehash the original " Ron and Tammy " story , but instead played it well off the Tom , Wendy and Ron love triangle . Sepinwall also praised the Chris / April pairing and the fact that Adam Scott got to do more than play his usual straight man role . He added that he hoped each season would have a Ron and Tammy @-@ centric episode , but limit it to once a year in the style of Cheers Bar Wars episodes .
The A.V. Club writer Steve Heisler said the episode was " just about as good as it gets " , with several great moments revolving around Nick Offerman 's deadpan comedic delivery . Heisler also said making the police department part of the script was a good way to better flesh out Pawnee and its townspeople . New York magazine writer Steve Kandell praised the performances of Offerman and Aubrey Plaza , and referred to Tammy as Pawnee 's equivalent of Sideshow Bob in The Simpsons ' Springfield . Kandell also liked that the episode " had heart " because the Tammy subplot was resolved by Ron standing up for Tom . TV Squad writer Joel Keller said the episode did not reach the level of the original " Ron and Tammy " , but that " it still had more than enough funny , cringeworthy and downright gross moments to be very satisfying " . He declared Mullally " one of the best sitcom creations this side of Colonel Flagg on M * A * S * H " . The Atlantic writer Scott Meslow praised Ron Swanson as the show 's " breakout character " , and said " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " was so good that he hoped for another sequel episode in the next season .
Rick Porter of Zap2it said the episode featured several great scenes between Ron and Tammy and called it a " tour de force " for Nick Offerman , but also appreciated that the episode featured strong moments outside that main plotline . He called it the best comedic showcase for Adam Scott so far in the season , and praised both the pairing of April and Chris , and the way that subplot led to Ann 's confusion about her future with Chris . Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com said the subplot with April and Chris demonstrated how Parks often succeeds in pairing two characters that often seem to have little connection to each other . Sundermann also enjoyed how Ben 's awkwardness around the police chief illustrated how " the show is becoming more and more clear on who understands and fits in Pawnee , versus who doesn 't " . TV Fanatic writer Matt Richenthal said the dynamic between Ron and Tammy worked well not only due to their real @-@ life relationship , but also because of the balance between " the couple 's over @-@ the @-@ top antics and the heart it showed in other areas " . Richenthal also complimented the performance of Chris Pratt as the " sweet , well @-@ intentioned , air @-@ headed Andy " .
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= United States Senate election in Ohio , 1898 =
On January 12 , 1898 , the Ohio General Assembly met in joint convention to elect a United States Senator . The incumbent , Mark Hanna , had been appointed by Governor Asa Bushnell on March 5 , 1897 , to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of John Sherman to become Secretary of State to President ( and former Ohio governor ) William McKinley . Hanna 's appointment was only good until the legislature met and made its own choice . The legislature elected Hanna over his fellow Republican , Cleveland Mayor Robert McKisson , both for the remainder of Sherman 's original term ( expiring in 1899 ) and for a full six @-@ year term to conclude in 1905 .
Hanna , a wealthy industrialist , had successfully managed McKinley 's 1896 presidential campaign . The Ohio Republican Party was bitterly divided between the faction led by McKinley , Hanna and Sherman , and one led by Ohio 's other senator , Joseph B. Foraker . Bushnell was a Foraker ally , and it was only under pressure from McKinley and others that he agreed to appoint Hanna to fill Sherman 's Senate seat . After Hanna gained the appointment , Republican legislators kept their majority in the November 1897 election , apparently ensuring Hanna 's election once the new body met in January 1898 . However , before the legislative session , the Democrats allied with a number of Republicans , mostly from the Foraker faction , hoping to take control of the legislature and defeat Hanna .
The coalition was successful in taking control of both houses of the legislature ; with the Senate election to be held just over a week later , intense politicking took place . Some lawmakers went into hiding for fear they would be pressured by the other side . The coalition decided on McKisson as their candidate the day before the balloting began . Three Republican state representatives who had voted with the Democrats to organize the legislature switched sides and voted for Hanna , who triumphed with a bare majority in both the short and long term elections . Bribery was alleged ; legislative leaders complained to the United States Senate , which took no action against Hanna . McKisson lost a re @-@ election bid as mayor in 1899 ; Hanna remained a powerful figure in the Senate until his death in 1904 .
= = Background and appointment of Hanna = =
The members of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 , in drafting the Constitution , empowered state legislatures , not the people , to choose United States Senators . Federal law prescribed that the senatorial election was to take place beginning on the second Tuesday after the legislature which would be in place when the senatorial term expired first met and chose officers . On the designated day , balloting for senator would take place in each of the two chambers of the legislature . If a majority of each house voted for the same candidate , then at the joint convention held the following day at noon , the candidate would be declared elected . Otherwise , there would be a roll @-@ call vote of all legislators , with a majority of those present needed to elect . If a vacancy occurred when the legislature was not in session , the governor could make a temporary appointment to serve until lawmakers convened .
Beginning in about 1888 , there were rival factions seeking control of the Republican Party of Ohio . In 1896 , one faction was led by Senator John Sherman , former governor William McKinley , and McKinley 's political manager , Cleveland industrialist Mark Hanna . The other grouping was led by former governor Joseph Foraker , who had the support of Ohio 's current governor , Asa S. Bushnell . A truce was reached for the 1896 election campaign whereby McKinley 's supporters would vote for Foraker in the Ohio Legislature 's January 1896 senatorial election , while Foraker would support McKinley 's presidential ambitions . Foraker was elected and in June , the senator @-@ elect placed McKinley 's name in nomination at the 1896 Republican National Convention . In the November election , McKinley defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan to win the presidency ; Hanna served as his campaign manager and chief fundraiser . The industrialist raised millions for McKinley 's campaign but was bitterly attacked by Democratic newspapers for allegedly trying to buy the presidency , with McKinley as his easily dominated agent . In the 1896 election , the issue of the nation 's monetary standard was a major issue , with McKinley advocating the gold standard , while Bryan favored " free silver " , that is , to inflate the money supply by accepting all silver presented to the government and returning the bullion to the depositor in the form of coin , even though the silver in a dollar coin was worth only about half that .
After the election , McKinley offered Hanna the post of Postmaster General , which he turned down , hoping to become a senator if Sherman ( whose term was to expire in 1899 ) was appointed to the Cabinet . McKinley did not believe the rumors , which proved accurate , that the 73 @-@ year @-@ old Sherman 's mental faculties were failing , and offered him the position of Secretary of State on January 4 , 1897 . Sherman 's acceptance meant that , once he resigned , one of Ohio 's Senate seats would be in the gift of Bushnell , with the appointee to serve until the legislature reconvened in January 1898 .
Foraker was astonished when he learned that Hanna was seeking the Senate seat , not knowing that the industrialist had political ambitions . He felt that Hanna 's campaign activities did not qualify him for legislative service . Hanna and his allies applied considerable pressure on the governor , though initially McKinley did not participate .
Bushnell did not want to appoint Hanna , and offered the seat to Congressman Theodore Burton , a member of neither faction , who turned it down . Historian Wilbur Jones speculates that the seat was refused because of Burton 's unwillingness to alienate Hanna 's supporters , an action which might sacrifice a career in the House of Representatives for the sake of a few months in the Senate . The governor considered other options , such as arranging to get the position himself or calling a special session of the legislature and have them elect a new senator . However , Bushnell eventually decided that appointing someone else was not worth risking the wrath of the new presidential administration , and of Hanna ( who was chairman of the Republican National Committee ) . In late February 1897 , McKinley sent a personal emissary , his old friend Judge William R. Day , to Bushnell , and the governor yielded . Hanna was given his commission by Governor Bushnell in the lobby of Washington 's Arlington Hotel on the morning of March 5 , 1897 .
Hanna 's associates alleged that Bushnell had delayed the appointment of Hanna so that Foraker could be Ohio 's senior senator . Herbert Croly , in his biography of Hanna , agreed , and McKinley biographer H. Wayne Morgan also states that Bushnell delayed Hanna 's commission for this reason . Hanna biographer William Horner considers this motive possible . In his memoirs , Foraker denied this , stating that Sherman had not resigned from the Senate until the afternoon of March 4 , 1897 ( the date on which the president and Congress were sworn in ) so that Sherman could formally introduce Foraker to the Senate . Sherman , according to Foraker , was also unwilling to resign until he had been confirmed as Secretary of State , which took place on the afternoon of March 4 . Foraker noted that he had been senator @-@ elect since his selection by the legislature in January 1896 " and there was no vacancy for which Mr. Hanna could be qualified , except only that to be created by the retirement of Mr. Sherman , and Mr. Sherman refused to retire until I was sworn and in my seat " .
= = 1897 state legislative campaign = =
Hanna obtained endorsement for election as senator by the 1897 Republican state convention during June in Toledo , and by local conventions in 84 of Ohio 's 88 counties . Republicans expressed little opposition to Hanna 's candidacy for senator prior to the November state elections , at which Ohioans elected a governor , other statewide officials , and a legislature . There was much national interest in the legislative campaign , which was seen as a rematch of 1896 and a forerunner of the 1900 presidential campaign , and as a referendum on Mark Hanna . President McKinley both campaigned on Hanna 's behalf in Ohio and recruited speakers for him ; for the Democrats , Bryan was the leading orator . Democrats hoped that by gaining a majority in the legislature and frustrating Hanna 's election bid , they could claim a reversal of the voters ' verdict in the 1896 presidential race , and exact revenge on the man who had helped orchestrate their defeat . While the question of whether Hanna should continue in the Senate was central to the campaign , also discussed was whether McKinley 's policies , including the Dingley Tariff , had brought prosperity , as well as the issue of free silver versus the gold standard . The Democrats , as was their custom , did not endorse a specific candidate for Senate , but Cincinnati publisher John R. McLean was widely spoken of as the party 's rival for Hanna 's seat until strategists decided that his wealth and business background did not provide adequate contrast to Hanna , and McLean was forced into the background .
During the campaign , William Randolph Hearst 's New York Journal renewed the savage attacks on Hanna which had marked the 1896 presidential campaign ; Hanna was depicted as a bloated plutocrat , frequently trampling a skull marked " Labor " and dominating a shrunken , childlike McKinley . Foraker was not prominent in support of Hanna ; he did endorse his junior colleague in mid @-@ September , and made several speeches soon after the announcement , but thereafter maintained a public silence which would continue until after the vote for senator by the newly elected legislature in January 1898 .
Hanna made speeches across the state , much to the curiosity of Ohioans , who had heard a great deal about him for his activities on behalf of McKinley , but who did not know him well . He had rarely been called upon to make public addresses . McKinley recommended his personal technique of thoroughly laying out a speech in advance , but Hanna found it did not work well for him . Instead , he preferred to compose a brief introduction and then speak extemporaneously , not always even being certain of what topics he would address . According to his biographer , Herbert Croly , the informality of Hanna 's speeches won over many in his audience , and he became known as a very effective public speaker . According to Philip Warken in his thesis on the 1898 Senate election , " The campaign probably worked to Hanna 's advantage . The shadowy figure in the background took on shape and form , the candidate 's public appearances tending to break down [ Davenport 's ] popular but distorted image of him . " When Democrats attacked Hanna , who had considerable financial interests in industry , as a " labor crusher " , he gave speeches inviting listeners to ask his workers whether they were well treated . Subsequently , several union leaders and workmen 's committees confirmed that they had no complaint against Hanna .
In the November election , 62 Republicans and 47 Democrats were elected to the Ohio House of Representatives , while in the Ohio Senate there were 18 Democrats , 17 Republicans , and 1 Independent Republican elected . This meant a majority of 15 for the Republicans on joint ballot , ample , it was thought , to secure Hanna 's election .
= = Senate election = =
= = = Political turmoil = = =
The first public inkling that there might still be a serious contest for Hanna 's Senate seat came the day after the November vote , when Governor Bushnell declared that the party 's majority in the legislature was sufficient to elect a Republican as senator , but refrained from mentioning Hanna by name . Newspapers took note of the fact that while Bushnell had won a second term by 28 @,@ 000 votes in the election , the balloting for the legislature had gone Republican by only 9 @,@ 000 . Soon after the election , a number of Republicans announced that they intended to ally with the Democrats and defeat Hanna .
Croly lists Bushnell , Cleveland Mayor Robert McKisson , and former Republican state chairman Charles L. Kurtz as among those involved in what he called a conspiracy against Hanna . Kurtz had been defeated in his re @-@ election bid to the chairmanship by Hanna forces at the 1897 Republican state convention , while McKisson had unsuccessfully sought Hanna 's support in his first election run in 1895 , and according to Hanna biographer William T. Horner , held a grudge as a result . Hanna had also opposed his re @-@ election in the municipal elections held in early 1897 , speaking highly of McKisson 's opponent to a reporter , and asking the reporter whether it was true that McKisson had secured renomination as mayor through fraud . Despite poor treatment by the Hanna campaign — McKisson had been relegated to obscure rallies , except when called upon to introduce the candidate at a huge Cleveland event , and the Hanna supporters had sought to remove McKisson men from election positions — McKisson had publicly supported Hanna for senator , making several speeches on the night before election day urging Republicans to vote the straight party ticket . Nevertheless , sample ballots were sent to Cleveland voters , telling them how best to cast their ballots so as to minimize Hanna 's chances , and Warken speculated that these had to come from McKisson , as the only person with motive and opportunity .
Charles Dick , then Hanna 's aide and later his successor as senator , recounted , " The opposition developed immediately after the election . I might say the plotting , so far as the bolters were concerned , began before the election ... The fifteen majority melted away . " According to Horner , " as men elected to the Ohio legislature who were pledged to support Hanna continued to turn up opposing him ... the chances of Hanna retaining his seat began to look rather grim " . Kurtz disavowed the Toledo convention 's endorsement of Hanna , describing the gathering as controlled by the senator 's paid agents . He stated his case against Hanna : " The returns of the recent election show that he is not wanted by the party . The days of Mr. Hanna 's bossism are over . The people here are against him , and that settles it . "
Several of the men who opposed Hanna came from Cleveland and elsewhere in Cuyahoga County , where Mayor McKisson was influential . The situation in Cincinnati 's Hamilton County ( home to Foraker ) was complicated by the fact that the Republican legislators from there had run on a fusion ticket with the Democrats in order to defeat the local Republican bosses . These men were " Silver Republicans " , as was the Independent Republican elected from Cincinnati , supporting " free silver " in opposition to McKinley , and had not pledged during the campaign to vote for Hanna if elected .
Foraker was not actively involved in the controversy , and in the sole interview he gave , said he was doing his best to keep out of it . Nevertheless , most of Hanna 's Republican opponents were from Foraker 's wing of the party . Ohio 's senior senator did , however , state his belief that Hanna would have a difficult time being elected . When asked by Hanna supporters to intercede with the insurgents , Foraker responded , " I will not antagonize lifetime friends for Hanna , " and that Hanna was " not honorable enough " to go to Bushnell and Kurtz and work out a solution .
The new legislature convened in Columbus on Monday , January 3 , 1898 . In the state House of Representatives , nine anti @-@ Hanna Republicans aligned with the Democrats , electing one of the nine as Speaker . In the state Senate , an anti @-@ Hanna Republican did not initially attend , allowing the Democrats to organize the chamber and elect one of their own as president of the body . The various legislative offices were divided between the Democrats and the insurgent Republicans . Democratic forces in the Ohio Senate were boosted when the absent Republican appeared and voted with them . A margin of three in the House and two in the Senate translated into a likely margin of five against Hanna on the senatorial vote , meaning that three legislators would have to switch sides for him to retain his position .
= = = Contest in Columbus = = =
After the combine 's success in the legislature , the Hanna @-@ controlled Republican state committee called on local activists to come to Columbus . A rally took place on the day of Governor Bushnell 's second inauguration , and many in the streets booed him . Much of the indignation focused on Bushnell as the only statewide official linked with the insurgents . Meetings were held across the state and petitions circulated , for the most part supporting Hanna and denouncing Bushnell , Kurtz , and McKisson . Croly described the scene in the days leading up to the vote for senator :
Columbus came to resemble a mediaeval city given over to an angry feud between armed partisans . Everybody was worked up to a high pitch of excitement and resentment . Blows were exchanged in the hotels and on the streets . There were threats of assassination . Timid men feared to go out after dark . Certain members of the Legislature were supplied with body @-@ guards . Many of them never left their rooms . Detectives and spies , who were trying to track down various stories of bribery and corruption , were scattered everywhere .
Hanna 's forces went to great lengths to pick up the votes he needed for his election . According to Croly , they received word that state Representative John Griffith of Union County was under constant guard at the Great Southern Hotel , but was considering switching to Hanna 's side . Hanna operatives aided his escape , and he was kept with his wife at Hanna headquarters at the Neil House until the vote . However , Warken related that Griffith " seemed to align himself with the group that talked to him last " , repeatedly changing his position and eventually supporting Hanna . Hanna supporters sought to persuade other coalition Republicans to return to the fold — by one account , a Cleveland Republican tearfully refused , stating that if he voted for Hanna , McKisson would cut him off as a supplier of brick pavers to the city . President McKinley did his best to help Hanna , sending a letter to one Republican whose vote was doubtful , delivered by a soldier .
On January 9 , newspapers printed allegations that Hanna had arranged to bribe John Otis , one of the Silver Republicans from Cincinnati . Otis alleged that he was offered $ 10 @,@ 000 and was actually paid $ 1 @,@ 750 . The individual said to have offered the money , a New Yorker named Henry H. Boyce , had met with Hanna adviser Estes Rathbone at least twice . Boyce denied trying to bribe Otis , though he did admit to giving a retainer payment to Otis 's lawyer , and fled the state when the matter became public . Hanna denied any involvement . His opponents hoped that the incident would preface his defeat , while his supporters feared the story would prompt a public outcry . Croly and Horner agree that the allegations had little impact on public opinion .
The legislative leaders had not settled on a candidate to stand against Hanna , and discussions continued until January 10 , a day before the houses would vote . Democrats had tentatively agreed to vote for a Republican for senator , but were unwilling to consider a supporter of the gold standard . They considered giving a " complimentary " vote ( that is , to honor the recipient ) to Cincinnati publisher John R. McLean , a Democrat , before switching to a Republican . There being no requirement that the same person be elected for both the short and long Senate terms , Democrats also tried to negotiate for one of their party to be elected at least for the short term expiring in 1899 . Under the latter scenario , Governor Bushnell was proposed in the long term election , but Bushnell was unwilling to support silver . At last , McKisson was decided on by the insurgents for both the short and long terms . The plan was announced on January 10 , together with a statement from McKisson , which he soon disavowed : that though he would if elected remain in name a Republican , he would support the 1896 pro @-@ silver " Chicago Platform " of Bryan and his Democrats .
Ultimately , the contest came down to the votes of two Cincinnati Silver Republicans . The Hanna campaign at last secured the votes of both men ; Croly related that one of them , Charles F. Droste , had initially sought to advance the candidacy of a free silver Republican , Col. Jeptha Garrard of Cincinnati , and when it was clear that no one else supported Garrard , agreed to give Hanna his vote . Warken deemed the combine 's failure to support Garrard " the greatest blunder of the anti @-@ Hanna coalition . If they had pushed the Colonel 's candidacy they might have secured the support of the free silver men among the Cincinnati fusionists " . After the vote , McKisson rejected such criticisms : the combine would never have held together to vote for a silver @-@ supporting candidate . A contemporary account calls the men 's decision to support Hanna " unexplained " , and that " each of these Cincinnati members had been offered the Senatorship if he would withdraw from Mr. Hanna . Whether this offer could have been made good or not is doubtful " .
The balloting in the separate chambers of the legislature took place on January 11 , 1898 . In the Ohio House , Hanna received 56 votes to 49 for McKisson , with Columbus Congressman John J. Lentz , state Representative Aquila Wiley and former congressman Adoniram J. Warner receiving one each . The vote was the same for the short and the long term . Hanna 's 56 votes were all from Republicans ; McKisson received the ballots of 43 Democrats and six Republicans . The other three votes were cast by Democrats unwilling to support a Republican . One Democratic representative was absent due to illness on both days of the voting . In the Senate , there were identical votes for short and long term . McKisson received the votes of 18 Democrats and one Republican , while Hanna won the vote of 16 Republicans and the one Independent Republican . The split between the two houses meant that there would be a roll @-@ call vote of the two houses in joint convention the following day . Nevertheless , if Hanna held all 73 votes cast for him , he would be elected .
According to Alfred Henry Lewis of Hearst 's Journal , writing on January 12 , " The opposition to Hanna was utterly disorganized by the history of yesterday , and practically speaking , went into joint session today somewhat like a routed army might take up some battle it could not avoid . " The 73 men pledged to Hanna went to the State House together under the protection of Hanna adherents . Croly related : " Armed guards were stationed at every important point . The State House was filled with desperate and determined men . " In the joint convention , held in the House Chamber , the journals of the two houses were read , detailing the tallies from the previous day . The clerks of the two houses then called the rolls . The only votes to change were those which had gone to Warner and Wiley ; both were switched to McKisson . Representative Aquila Wiley was the last person to vote ; with Hanna having already received the 73 ballots he needed for election , Wiley maintained his vote for Lentz . The final tally , both for the short and long term was Hanna 73 , McKisson 70 , and Lentz 1 . Before the joint convention adjourned , Hanna appeared before it , thanking the legislators for his election . He stated , " I doubly thank you because under the circumstances it comes to me as an assurance of your confidence " .
= = Aftermath = =
Newspaper reaction to the result was generally along partisan lines . The Cincinnati Commercial Tribune , a Republican paper , stated of Hanna , " And this is the man against whom has been waged a war than which political history furnishes none more venomous , vicious , and relentlessly vituperative . It is a disgraceful story , known of all men . " The Blade , another Republican paper , agreed , writing , " The fight against Mr. Hanna was the most malignantly traitorous contest ever waged in the political annals of Ohio . " The Cincinnati Enquirer , a Silver Democratic paper , argued , " The Republican contingent which stuck to the last against Hanna has made a record which the victorious faction might well envy ... Their fight was ... against the chairman of the national committee and all its forces and resources ; against the president of the United States , with his tremendous party influence and more influential patronage . Against all this they have cut down the man who a year ago was , next to the president , the leading Republican of the United States , to a pitiful majority of one in his ambition to be elected to the Senate , and that obtained under circumstances not creditable to him . They chased him so hard that he dare not stop to have the gravest charges investigated . " Hearst 's New York Journal noted , " And so it is to be ' Senator Hanna ' for seven years . Well , the senatorship can add nothing to its holder 's power for evil . As long as Hanna has his money he can control senatorships , whether he occupies them or not . Perhaps it is best to have him in the open . "
McKisson " had recognized that to lose the fight meant political death " . In June 1898 , McKisson and his Cuyahoga County delegation were excluded from the Republican state convention in favor of a Hanna @-@ backed delegation . Hanna forces had lost at the county level , but , alleging irregularities , had met and sent a rival delegation . McKisson ran for a third term as mayor in 1899 . He survived a bitter battle in the Republican primary , but was defeated in the general election , leading to a decade of dominance by the Democrats in Cleveland . McKisson returned to his career as an attorney , continuing to practice law in Cleveland until his death in 1915 at age 52 .
Both houses of the legislature voted to form committees to investigate alleged bribery in the result , though most Republicans abstained from voting on the resolutions . The House committee investigation ended inconclusively . The Ohio Senate committee declined to allow Hanna 's attorney to participate in the proceedings . Relying on legal advice , Hanna refused to testify and asked supporters not to cooperate . The state Senate committee reported that an attempt to bribe Otis had been made by an unknown agent of Hanna ; three Hanna aides , including Charles Dick , were implicated . The report was sent to the US Senate in May 1898 , which referred it to the Committee on Privileges and Elections . The Republican majority of the committee reported in February 1899 that while it accepted that an attempt had been made to bribe Otis , the matter had been known before the vote , Otis had voted for McKisson anyway , and that there was no evidence linking Hanna to the attempt . The report did mildly admonish Hanna and his associates for not cooperating with the Ohio Senate committee . Democrats on the Privileges and Elections Committee urged further investigation , but the US Senate ordered the committee 's report to be printed , and took no further action . Hanna remained a power in the Senate until his death in 1904 .
The extent to which money or patronage affected the outcome of the election is unclear . Congressman Burton stated , " I never saw any evidence of the use of money in Columbus and don 't believe that any money was used corruptly . " In an interview after Hanna 's death , James Rudolph Garfield , son of the late president and floor leader of the Hanna forces in the Ohio Senate , recalled that the senator " had been asked to shut his eyes to some things . But he declined to do it . " However , Garfield also noted , " I have never been sure as to what some of the men who called themselves Senator Hanna 's friends really did do . " Croly believed that Hanna did not personally authorize bribes of legislators , but concedes that Hanna 's supporters " may have been willing to spend money in Mr. Hanna 's interest and without his knowledge . " The biographer suggested , " If Mr. Hanna had himself planned to purchase the vote of John C. Otis , it is reasonable to believe that the business would have been better managed . " Horner believes it impossible to ascertain if corruption took place , but if Hanna bribed legislators , it was because it was a common practice on both sides . He notes of Hanna , " his career as a senator continued , but accusations of wrongdoing remain a part of his legacy well over a century later . " Public dismay at what was seen as a corrupt means of choosing federal lawmakers was a major factor in the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913 , which took the privilege of electing senators out of state legislators ' hands and gave it to the people .
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= Jacques Plante =
Joseph Jacques Omer Plante ( French pronunciation : [ ʒɑk plɑ ̃ t ] ; January 17 , 1929 – February 27 , 1986 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender . During a career lasting from 1947 to 1975 , he was considered to be one of the most important innovators in hockey . He played for the Montreal Canadiens from 1953 to 1963 ; during his tenure , the team won the Stanley Cup six times , including five consecutive wins .
Plante retired in 1965 but was persuaded to return to the National Hockey League to play for the expansion St. Louis Blues in 1968 . He was later traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs in 1970 and to the Boston Bruins in 1973 . He joined the World Hockey Association as coach and general manager for the Quebec Nordiques in 1973 – 74 . He then played goal for the Edmonton Oilers in 1974 – 75 , ending his professional career with that team .
Plante was the first NHL goaltender to wear a goaltender mask in regulation play on a regular basis . He developed and tested many versions of the mask ( including the forerunner of today 's mask / helmet combination ) with the assistance of other experts . Plante was the first NHL goaltender to regularly play the puck outside his crease in support of his team 's defencemen , and he often instructed his teammates from behind the play . Plante was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1978 , was chosen as the goaltender of the Canadiens ' " dream team " in 1985 , and was inducted into the Quebec Sports Pantheon in 1994 . The Montreal Canadiens retired Plante 's jersey , # 1 , the following year .
= = Early life = =
Plante was born on a farm near Notre @-@ Dame @-@ du @-@ Mont @-@ Carmel , in Mauricie , Quebec , the first of 11 children born to Palma and Xavier Plante . The family moved to Shawinigan Falls , where his father worked in one of the local factories . In 1932 , Plante began to play hockey , skateless and with a tennis ball , using a goaltender 's hockey stick his father had carved from a tree root . When he was five years old , Plante fell off a ladder and broke his hand . The fracture failed to heal properly and affected his playing style during his early hockey career ; he underwent successful corrective surgery as an adult . Plante suffered from asthma starting in early childhood . This prevented him from skating for extended periods so he gravitated to playing goaltender . As his playing progressed , Jacques received his first regulation goaltender 's stick for Christmas of 1936 . His father made Plante 's first pads by stuffing potato sacks and reinforcing them with wooden panels . As a child , Plante played hockey outdoors in the bitterly cold Quebec winters . His mother taught him how to knit his own tuques to protect him from the cold . Plante continued knitting and embroidering throughout his life and wore his hand @-@ knitted tuques while playing and practicing until entering the National Hockey League ( NHL ) .
Plante 's first foray into organized hockey came at age 12 . He was watching his school 's team practice , when the coach ordered the goaltender off the ice after a heated argument over his play , and Plante asked to replace him . The coach permitted him to play since there was no other available goaltender ; it was quickly apparent that Plante could hold his own , despite the other players being many years older than he was . He impressed the coach and stayed on as the team 's number one goaltender .
Two years later , Plante was playing for five different teams - the local factory team , and teams in the midget , juvenile , junior and intermediate categories . Plante demanded a salary from the factory team 's coach after his father told him that the other players were being paid because they were company employees . The coach paid Plante 50 cents per game to retain him and maintain the team 's popularity . Afterwards , Plante began to receive various offers from other teams ; he was offered $ 80 per week — a considerable sum in those days — to play for a team in England , and a similar offer to play for the Providence Reds of the American Hockey League . Plante passed them up because his parents wanted him to finish high school . He graduated with top honours in 1947 . Upon graduation , he took a job as a clerk in a Shawinigan factory . A few weeks later , the Quebec Citadels offered Plante $ 85 per week to play for them ; he accepted , marking the beginning of his professional career .
His nickname was " Jake the Snake " .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Jacques joined the Quebec Citadelles in 1947 . It was while playing for the Citadelles that Plante started to play the puck outside his crease . He developed this technique when he recognized that the team 's defense was performing poorly . Fans found Plante 's unconventional playing style to be exciting , but it angered his managers . They believed that a goaltender should stay in net and let his players recover the puck . Plante had come to the conclusion that as long as he was in control of the puck , the opponents could not shoot it at him - this is now standard practice for goaltenders . The same season , the Citadelles beat the Montreal Junior Canadiens in the league finals , with Plante being named most valuable player on his team . The Montreal Canadiens ' general manager , Frank J. Selke , became interested in acquiring Plante as a member of the team . In 1948 , Plante received an invitation to the Canadiens ' training camp . On August 17 , 1949 , Selke offered Plante a contract with the Canadiens ' organization . Plante played for Montreal 's affiliate Royal Montreal Hockey Club , earning $ 4 @,@ 500 for the season , and an extra $ 500 for practicing with the Canadiens .
In 1949 , he married Jacqueline Gagné ; they had two sons , Michel and Richard .
In January 1953 , Plante was called up to play for the Canadiens . Bill Durnan , the goaltender who played for Montreal when Plante first began , had retired , and Gerry McNeil — their top goaltender — had fractured his jaw . Plante played for three games , but in that short time , he generated controversy . Coach Dick Irvin , Sr. did not wish his players to stand out by any addition to their regular uniforms . Plante always wore one of his tuques while playing hockey , and after an argument with Irvin , all of Plante 's tuques had vanished from the Montreal locker room . Even without his good luck charm , Plante gave up only four goals in the three games he played , all of them wins .
Later during the 1952 – 53 NHL season , Plante played in the playoffs against the Chicago Black Hawks . He won his first playoff game with a shutout . Montreal won that series and eventually the Stanley Cup . Plante 's name was engraved on the Cup for the first time .
At the beginning of 1953 , McNeil was still the starting goaltender for the Canadiens . Selke assigned Plante to the Buffalo Bisons of the AHL so fans in the United States would get to know him . Plante was instantly successful ; Fred Hunt , the general manager of the Bisons , told Kenny Reardon , Montreal 's recruiting manager , that , " he 's [ Plante ] the biggest attraction since the good old days of Terry Sawchuk . "
= = = Montreal Canadiens = = =
By the end of the 1953 – 54 NHL season , Plante was well @-@ entrenched within the NHL . In the spring of 1954 , he underwent surgery to correct his left hand , which he had broken in his childhood . He could not move the hand well enough to catch high shots and compensated by using the rest of his body . The operation was successful .
On February 12 , 1954 , Plante was called up to the Canadiens and established himself as their starting goaltender - he did not return to the minor leagues for many years . Plante was the Canadiens ' number one goaltender at the beginning of the 1954 – 55 NHL season . On March 13 , 1955 , with only four games left in the season , an on @-@ ice brawl resulted in the suspension of Montreal 's leading scorer , Maurice Richard , for the rest of the season and the playoffs . Four nights later , playing in Montreal in front of an angry crowd , Plante was witness to the riot that followed . It began at the Forum by angry hockey game spectators and spread along Montreal 's Ste . Catherine Street , causing injuries to police and fans and extensive damage to businesses and property . The Canadiens subsequently lost to the Detroit Red Wings in the finals .
For the 1955 – 56 season , Plante was the unchallenged starting goaltender of the Canadiens ; Gerry McNeil had not played the previous season and was sent to the Montreal Royals . Charlie Hodge , Plante 's backup the previous season , was sent to a Canadiens ' farm team in Seattle . Later that season , Montreal won the Stanley Cup — the first of what would be five consecutive Stanley Cup championship seasons . The next season , Plante missed most of November because of chronic bronchitis , a consequence of the asthma that had affected him since childhood . During the 1957 – 58 NHL season , the Canadiens won their third straight Stanley Cup despite injuries to Plante and other members of the team . Plante 's asthma was getting worse . He sustained a concussion with just a few weeks left in the season and missed three games of the playoffs . In the sixth game of the Stanley Cup finals , Plante 's asthma was making him dizzy , and he was having difficulty concentrating ; he collapsed at the end of the game after teammate Doug Harvey scored the series @-@ winning goal . The Canadiens went on to win the Stanley Cup again at the close of the 1958 – 59 season .
= = = = Mask = = = =
During the 1959 – 60 NHL season , Plante wore a goaltender mask for the first time in a regular season game . Although Plante had used his mask in practice since 1956 after missing 13 games because of sinusitis , head coach Toe Blake did not permit him to wear it during regulation play . However , on November 1 , 1959 , Plante 's nose was broken when he was hit by a shot fired by Andy Bathgate three minutes into a game against the New York Rangers , and he was taken to the dressing room for stitches . When he returned , he was wearing the crude home @-@ made goaltender mask that he had been using in practices . Blake was livid , but he had no other goaltender to call upon and Plante refused to return to the goal unless he wore the mask . Blake agreed on the condition that Plante discard the mask when the cut healed . The Canadiens won the game 3 – 1 . During the following days Plante refused to discard the mask , and as the Canadiens continued to win , Blake was less vocal about it . The unbeaten streak stretched to 18 games . Plante did not wear the mask , at Blake 's request , against Detroit on March 8 , 1960 ; the Canadiens lost 3 – 0 , and the mask returned for good the next night . That year the Canadiens won their fifth straight Stanley Cup , which was Plante 's last .
Plante subsequently designed his own and other goaltenders ' masks . He was not the first NHL goaltender known to wear a face mask . Montreal Maroons ' Clint Benedict wore a crude leather version in 1929 to protect a broken nose , but Plante introduced the mask as everyday equipment , and it is now mandatory equipment for goaltenders .
= = = Trade to New York and first retirement = = =
Hampered by terrible pain in his left knee during the 1960 – 61 NHL season , Plante was sent down to the minor league Montreal Royals . Torn cartilage was found in his knee , and the knee was surgically repaired during the summer of 1961 . The next season Plante became only the fourth goaltender to win the Hart Memorial Trophy - he also won the Vezina Trophy for the sixth time . The 1962 – 63 season was unsettling for Plante . His asthma had worsened , and he missed most of the early season . His relationship with his coach , Toe Blake , continued to deteriorate because of Plante 's persistent health problems . Later , Plante was at the center of a major controversy when he claimed that net sizes in the NHL were not uniform , thus giving a statistical advantage to goaltenders playing for the Chicago Black Hawks , Boston Bruins , and New York Rangers . His claim was later confirmed as the result of a manufacturing error .
After the Canadiens were eliminated for the third straight year in the first playoff round during the spring of 1963 , there was mounting pressure for change from their fans and media . Growing tension between Plante and Blake because of Plante 's inconsistent work ethic and demeanor caused Blake to declare that for the 1963 – 64 season either he or Plante must go . On June 4 , 1963 , Plante was traded to the New York Rangers , with Phil Goyette and Don Marshall in exchange for Gump Worsley , Dave Balon , Leon Rochefort , and Len Ronson . Plante played for the Rangers for one full season and part of a second . He retired in 1965 while playing for the minor @-@ league Baltimore Clippers of the American Hockey League . His wife was ill at the time , and he required surgery on his right knee .
Upon retirement , Plante took a job with Molson as a sales representative but remained active in the NHL . In 1965 , Scotty Bowman asked Plante to play for the Montreal Jr . Canadiens in a game against the Soviet National Team . Honoured to represent his country , Plante agreed , and after receiving permission from both the Rangers ( who owned his rights ) and Molson , he began practicing . The Canadiens won 2 – 1 , and Plante was named first star of the game .
= = = Comeback to professional hockey = = =
At the beginning of the 1967 – 68 NHL season , Plante received a call from his ex @-@ teammate Bert Olmstead seeking some help coaching the expansion Oakland Seals . Plante coached mainly by example , and after the three @-@ week training camp he returned home to Montreal . Plante also played an exhibition game with the Seals . Rumours swirled that Plante was planning a comeback .
In June 1968 , Plante was drafted by the St. Louis Blues and signed for $ 35 @,@ 000 for the 1968 – 69 season . In his first season with the Blues , Plante split the goaltending duties with Glenn Hall . He won the Vezina Trophy that season for the seventh time , surpassing Bill Durnan 's record . While playing for the Blues in the 1969 – 70 playoffs against the Boston Bruins , a shot fired by Fred Stanfield and redirected by Phil Esposito hit Plante in the forehead , knocking him out and breaking his fibreglass mask . The first thing Plante said after he regained consciousness at the hospital was that the mask saved his life . That game proved to be his last for the Blues , and he was traded in the summer of 1970 to the Toronto Maple Leafs . He led the NHL with the lowest goals against average ( GAA ) during his first season with the Maple Leafs . At season 's end , he was named to the NHL 's second All @-@ Star team , his seventh such honour . He continued to play for the Leafs until he was traded to the Boston Bruins late in the 1972 – 73 season , recording a shutout against the Black Hawks in his debut for the Bruins . He played eight regular season and two playoff games for the Bruins to finish that season , his last in the NHL .
Plante accepted a $ 10 million , 10 @-@ year contract to become coach and general manager of the Quebec Nordiques of the World Hockey Association in 1973 . He was highly dissatisfied with his and the team 's performance and resigned at the end of the 1973 – 74 season . Coming out of retirement once more , Plante played 31 games for the Edmonton Oilers of the WHA in the 1974 – 75 season . Plante retired during the Oilers ' training camp in 1975 – 76 after receiving news that his youngest son had died .
= = Hockey analysis and coaching = =
Plante had a well @-@ earned reputation for his ability to analyse the game of hockey . He began shouting directions to his teammates during games in his first stint in the minor leagues ( the goaltender usually has the best view of the game ) . He kept extensive notes on opposing players and teams throughout his career . He made his debut in the broadcasting booth during his first retirement in the 1960s as a colour commentator for broadcasts of Quebec Junior League games alongside Danny Gallivan of Hockey Night in Canada fame . Radio Canada , the French language branch of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation , brought Plante aboard as on @-@ air analyst for its television broadcasts of the 1972 Summit Series between the national team of the Soviet Union and a Canadian team made up of professional players from the NHL . Plante was one of the few North American analysts who dissented from the widely held belief in the superiority of the Canadian team .
Plante also wrote extensively on hockey . He wrote hockey columns starting early in his career and was published in La Voix de Shawinigan , Le Samedi , and Sport Magazine . He alienated local reporters by writing a column for the local paper during his time as coach of the Quebec Nordiques . His seminal work , Goaltending , was published in 1972 in English , with the French edition ( entitled Devant le filet ) published in 1973 . In his book , Plante outlined a program of goaltender development that included off @-@ ice exercises , choice of equipment , styles of play , and game @-@ day preparation . He also advised on best coaching methods for both young and advanced goaltenders . His book remained popular with coaches and players and was reprinted in both French and English in 1997 , 25 years after it was first published .
Starting in 1967 , Plante was one of the instructors at École moderne de hockey , a summer hockey school for young players . His reputation as a teacher spread , and he traveled to Sweden in 1972 at the invitation of the Swedish Hockey Federation , teaching the top goaltenders in the country and their coaches and trainers . During his first and second retirements , Plante also coached goaltenders and consulted for several NHL teams , including the Oakland Seals , Philadelphia Flyers , Montreal Canadiens and St. Louis Blues .
= = Retirement and death = =
Plante finally retired from hockey in 1975 , after the death of his youngest son . He moved to Switzerland with his second wife , Raymonde Udrisard , but remained active on the North American hockey scene as an analyst , adviser and goaltender trainer . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1978 . In the fall of 1985 , Plante was diagnosed with terminal stomach cancer . He died in a Geneva hospital in February 1986 and was buried in Sierre , Switzerland . When his coffin was carried from the church following the funeral mass , it passed under an arch of hockey sticks held high by a team of young hockey players from Quebec , visiting Switzerland for a tournament .
= = Legacy = =
Plante was one of the first goaltenders to skate behind the net to stop the puck . He also was one of the first to raise his arm on an icing call to let his defencemen know what was happening . He perfected a stand @-@ up , positional style , cutting down the angles ; he became one of the first goaltenders to write a how @-@ to book about the position . He was a pioneer of stickhandling the puck ; before that time , goaltenders passively stood in the net and simply deflected pucks to defencemen or backchecking forwards .
Plante was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1978 , and into the Quebec Sports Pantheon in 1994 . His jersey , # 1 , was retired in 1995 by the Montreal Canadiens . The Jacques Plante Memorial Trophy was established in his honor as an award to the top goaltender in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League . The Jacques Plante Trophy was established in Switzerland after Plante 's death ; it is given out annually to the top Swiss goaltender . The main arena in Shawinigan the town he grew up in , was renamed to Aréna Jacques Plante .
Plante was selected by Sports Illustrated magazine to its 1991 all @-@ time All @-@ Star team .
His injury and subsequent donning of a mask was depicted in an installment of Canada 's Heritage Minute series .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Post season = = =
= = = Coaching statistics = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
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= Maryland Route 235 =
Maryland Route 235 ( MD 235 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known as Three Notch Road , the state highway runs 30 @.@ 63 miles ( 49 @.@ 29 km ) between its southern intersection with MD 5 in Ridge and its northern intersection with MD 5 near Mechanicsville . While the southern part of the state highway is a quiet rural road , the northern part of MD 235 is a four- to six @-@ lane divided highway connecting Naval Air Station Patuxent River ( NAS Patuxent River ) and the Washington , D.C. , metro area in conjunction with MD 5 . Three Notch Road has been the main highway between northern St. Mary 's County and Point Lookout since the colonial era . The highway was reconstructed as the modern MD 235 between 1923 and 1938 . The state highway was then completely rebuilt during World War II to serve the recently established NAS Patuxent River . Between 1960 and 1985 , MD 235 was converted into a four @-@ lane divided highway to the west and north of the military base . In the face of increasing activity at the base , the highway adjacent to NAS Patuxent River was expanded to six lanes in the early 2000s .
= = Route description = =
MD 235 begins at an intersection with MD 5 ( Point Lookout Road ) in Ridge . The state highway heads north as a two @-@ lane road that passes through the community of Dameron and to the west of The Elms Wildlife Management Area . MD 235 meets the eastern end of MD 489 ( Park Hall Road ) , a connector between MD 235 and MD 5 , east of Park Hall Estates . The state highway passes a section of old alignment , Poplar Ridge Road , on the east , then curves northwest and intersects MD 712 ( Forest Park Road ) and Hermanville Road in the hamlet of Hermanville at the southern edge of NAS Patuxent River . MD 235 expands to a four @-@ lane road with center turn lane and the highway runs along the western edge of the military base . The state highway intersects MD 246 ( Great Mills Road ) , which serves the main gate of NAS Patuxent River , in the center of Lexington Park .
MD 235 continues northwest along the boundary of NAS Patuxent River as a six @-@ lane divided highway . Beyond Pegg Road , which heads east to another entrance to the military base , the highway leaves the vicinity of the naval air station . MD 235 continues into California , where the highway meets the northern end of MD 237 ( Chancellors Run Road ) . A short distance to the north , MD 235 intersects MD 4 , which heads west as St. Andrew 's Church Road and east as Patuxent Beach Road toward the Governor Thomas Johnson Bridge over the Patuxent River to Calvert County . Beyond MD 4 , the highway reduces to a four @-@ lane divided highway and passes to the east of St. Mary 's County Regional Airport . The first of several sections of old alignment , ( Mervell Dean Road ) , splits to the north ; the northern portion of the old highway is MD 944 . MD 235 continues past Clarks Landing Road , which is unsigned MD 944C , before it receives the northern end of MD 944 a little south of the main road 's intersection with MD 245 ( Hollywood Road / Sotterley Road ) in Hollywood .
MD 235 receives Old Three Notch Road as it leaves Hollywood , then it parallels another of its former courses , Clover Hill Road , as the highway passes through Hillville . Beyond the intersection with MD 472 ( North Sandgates Road ) , MD 235 passes through Oakville , where another old alignment , Oakville Road , splits to the north before the main road intersects MD 247 ( Loveville Road ) . Mt . Zion Church Road , yet another old alignment , splits to the north in the hamlet of Laurel Grove before MD 235 intersects the eastern terminus of MD 6 ( New Market – Turner Road ) and Morganza – Turner Road in Oraville . The final old alignment of MD 235 , Harpers Corner Road , splits to the west shortly before the state highway reaches its northern terminus at MD 5 near Mechanicsville . MD 5 heads southwest as two @-@ lane Point Lookout Road toward Leonardtown . Northbound MD 5 continues straight on the divided highway as Three Notch Road toward Charlotte Hall and Waldorf .
MD 235 is part of the main National Highway System from MD 246 in Lexington Park to its northern junction with MD 5 in Mechanicsville . The highway is also a National Highway System principal arterial between MD 712 and MD 246 in Lexington Park .
= = History = =
MD 235 follows the path of what was the first major long @-@ distance highway in St. Mary 's County , the Patuxent Main Road . The road , established by 1692 , connected Point Lookout and northern St. Mary 's County along the drainage divide between the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay . The Patuxent Main Road later became known as the Three Notch Road based on a 1704 law that stated " three notches of equal distance marked on the trees indicated a road leading to a ferry . " The whereabouts of the ferry to which this road led are unknown . After 200 years of little improvement , reconstruction of the Three Notch Road by the Maryland State Roads Commission began in 1923 when the highway was rebuilt as a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide gravel road from MD 5 near Mechanicsville south to MD 472 in Oakville . The gravel road was extended south from Oakville 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to Friendship School Road in 1924 .
Construction on Three Notch Road resumed in 1926 when two sections were placed under construction . A 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) segment of gravel highway was constructed south from MD 246 in Jarboesville ( now Lexington Park ) toward Hermanville in 1926 and 1927 . The northern segment of MD 235 was extended to Hillville in 1928 and to Hollywood in 1929 . The southern gravel section of the highway was extended 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south to Hermanville in 1930 . Also in 1930 , construction on the 6 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) gap between Hollywood and Jarboesville began and a new segment of MD 235 was started from Ridge north 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to Dameron . The Ridge – Dameron segment was completed in 1932 and the gravel highway from Hollywood to Jarboesville was finished in 1933 . The gravel section constructed from Ridge reached Bay Forest Road by 1935 and Hermanville in 1938 , completing MD 235 .
Immediately after the beginning of U.S. involvement in World War II , the U.S. Navy made plans to construct a naval air station on the Cedar Point peninsula near Jarboesville . MD 235 was marked for an upgrade from MD 5 to Jarboesville both to connect the new military installation with Washington and to allow the road to handle the heavy military traffic that would travel the highway during the military base 's construction and operations . The highway was under construction by the end of 1942 . The highway 's gravel surface was widened as a first layer and surface treated in autumn 1943 to help heavy traffic during the winter . In spring 1944 the first layer was scarified and the top 4 inches ( 10 cm ) were mixed with asphalt to form a base . This base was covered with a 2 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) wearing surface of bituminous concrete . MD 235 was also reconstructed in this manner from Jarboesville to Hermanville in 1944 and 1945 ; included in that project was the construction of MD 712 to provide a modern highway to the naval air station 's South Gate . During the reconstruction of MD 235 , the highway was relocated in many places between Mechanicsville and Hollywood to remove substandard curves and avoid grade crossings with the southern extension of the Washington , Brandywine and Point Lookout Railroad that the U.S. Navy constructed contemporaneously to provide a rail link to the military base . Many of the bypassed stretches of highway — which included Harpers Corner Road in Oraville , Mount Zion Church Road in Laurel Grove , Oakville Road in Oakville , Clover Hill Road in Hillville , Old Three Notch Road in Hollywood , and the southernmost portion of Mervell Dean Road — were designated as sections of MD 722 .
The next major project along MD 235 was the reconstruction of the 1930s gravel highway between Ridge and Hermanville . Construction began in 1957 from Hermanville and was completed south to Park Hall in 1959 , with the remainder of the highway completed around 1960 . MD 235 was relocated between Park Hall and Hermanville , leaving behind Poplar Ridge Road as an old alignment . Also in 1960 , the state highway was expanded to a divided highway from Hermanville to Lexington Park . MD 235 was widened to a divided highway from Hollywood to Hillville in 1968 , from Mechanicsville to Oakville in 1969 , and from MD 246 in Lexington Park to Town Creek Drive in California in 1973 . Two sections of divided highway were completed in 1982 : from Town Creek Drive to just north of the newly constructed MD 4 intersection in California ; and from Oakville to Hillville . The final segment of MD 235 between Hermanville and Mechanicsville to be expanded to a divided highway was completed from California to Hollywood in 1985 . The portion of the state highway from just north of St. Mary 's County Regional Airport to just south of MD 245 in Hollywood was relocated to the west along the right @-@ of @-@ way of the Washington , Brandywine and Point Lookout Railroad , which had earlier been abandoned . The bypassed highway was renamed as a northward extension of Mervell Dean Road and designated MD 944 .
MD 235 was widened in Lexington Park and California between 2000 and 2004 due to increased activity at the military base and its supporting industries . The state highway was widened to six lanes from north of Pegg Road to Town Creek Drive in 2000 and from Town Creek Drive to just north of MD 4 in 2001 . Expansion to six lanes occurred from FDR Boulevard to north of Pegg Road in 2003 . The final section of widening occurred in 2004 when the six @-@ lane section was extended south from FDR Boulevard to MD 246 . MD 235 between MD 712 and MD 246 was transformed from a four @-@ lane divided highway to a five @-@ lane road with center turn lane in 2004 as well .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in St. Mary 's County .
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= Columbia University =
Columbia University ( officially Columbia University in the City of New York ) is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan , New York City . It was established in 1754 as King 's College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain . Columbia is the oldest college in New York and the fifth chartered institution of higher learning in the country , making it one of nine colonial colleges founded before the Declaration of Independence . After the American Revolutionary War , King 's College briefly became a state entity , and was renamed Columbia College in 1784 . A 1787 charter placed the institution under a private board of trustees before it was renamed Columbia University in 1896 when the campus was moved from Madison Avenue to its current location in Morningside Heights occupying 32 acres ( 13 ha ) of land . Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities , and was the first school in the United States to grant the M.D. degree .
The university is organized into twenty schools , including Columbia College , the School of Engineering and Applied Science , and the School of General Studies . The university also has global research outposts in Amman , Beijing , Istanbul , Paris , Mumbai , Rio de Janeiro , Santiago , Asunción and Nairobi . It has affiliations with several other institutions nearby , including Teachers College , Barnard College , and Union Theological Seminary , with joint undergraduate programs available through the Jewish Theological Seminary of America , University College London , Sciences Po , and the Juilliard School .
Columbia annually administers the Pulitzer Prize . Notable alumni and former students ( counting those from King 's College ) include five Founding Fathers of the United States ; nine Justices of the United States Supreme Court ; 20 living billionaires ; 29 Academy Award winners ; and 29 heads of state , including three United States Presidents . Additionally , 104 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students , researchers , faculty , or staff . Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Pulitzer Prize winning alumni and former students , with over 100 recipients as of 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = King 's College ( 1754 – 1784 ) = = =
Discussions regarding the founding of a college in the Province of New York began as early as 1704 , at which time Colonel Lewis Morris wrote to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts , the missionary arm of the Church of England , persuading the society that New York City was an ideal community in which to establish a college ; however , not until the founding of Princeton University across the Hudson River in New Jersey did the City of New York seriously consider founding a college . In 1746 an act was passed by the general assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college . In 1751 , the assembly appointed a commission of ten New York residents , seven of whom were members of the Church of England , to direct the funds accrued by the state lottery towards the foundation of a college .
Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the college 's first president , Dr. Samuel Johnson . Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the college 's first class , which consisted of a mere eight students . Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church , located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan . The college was officially founded on October 31 , 1754 , as King 's College by royal charter of King George II , making it the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York and the fifth oldest in the United States .
In 1763 , Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper , a graduate of The Queen 's College , Oxford , and an ardent Tory . In the charged political climate of the American Revolution , his chief opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777 , Alexander Hamilton . The American Revolutionary War broke out in 1776 , and was catastrophic for the operation of King 's College , which suspended instruction for eight years beginning in 1776 with the arrival of the Continental Army . The suspension continued through the military occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783 . The college 's library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a military hospital first by American and then British forces . Loyalists were forced to abandon their King 's College in New York , which was seized by the rebels and renamed Columbia College . The Loyalists , led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor , Nova Scotia , where they founded King 's Collegiate School .
= = = Columbia College ( 1784 – 1896 ) = = =
After the Revolution , the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality , promising to make whatever changes to the school 's charter the state might demand . The Legislature agreed to assist the college , and on May 1 , 1784 , it passed " an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called King 's College . " The Act created a Board of Regents to oversee the resuscitation of King 's College , and , in an effort to demonstrate its support for the new Republic , the Legislature stipulated that " the College within the City of New York heretofore called King 's College be forever hereafter called and known by the name of Columbia College , " a reference to Columbia , an alternative name for America . The Regents finally became aware of the college 's defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee , which was headed by John Jay and Alexander Hamilton . In April of that same year , a new charter was adopted for the college , still in use today , granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees .
On May 21 , 1787 , William Samuel Johnson , the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson , was unanimously elected President of Columbia College . Prior to serving at the university , Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention . For a period in the 1790s , with New York City as the federal and state capital and the country under successive Federalist governments , a revived Columbia thrived under the auspices of Federalists such as Hamilton and Jay . Both President George Washington and Vice President John Adams attended the college 's commencement on May 6 , 1789 , as a tribute of honor to the many alumni of the school who had been involved in the American Revolution .
The college 's enrollment , structure , and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century , with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned . In 1857 , the college moved from Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue , where it remained for the next forty years . During the last half of the 19th century , under the leadership of President F.A.P. Barnard , the institution rapidly assumed the shape of a modern university . By this time , the college 's investments in New York real estate became a primary source of steady income for the school , mainly owing to the city 's expanding population .
= = = Columbia University ( 1896 – present ) = = =
In 1896 , the trustees officially authorized the use of yet another new name , Columbia University , and today the institution is officially known as " Columbia University in the City of New York . " At the same time , university president Seth Low moved the campus again , from 49th Street to its present location , a more spacious campus in the developing neighborhood of Morningside Heights . Under the leadership of Low 's successor , Nicholas Murray Butler , who served for over four decades , Columbia rapidly became the nation 's major institution for research , setting the " multiversity " model that later universities would adopt .
Research into the atom by faculty members John R. Dunning , I. I. Rabi , Enrico Fermi and Polykarp Kusch placed Columbia 's Physics Department in the international spotlight in the 1940s after the first nuclear pile was built to start what became the Manhattan Project . In 1947 , to meet the needs of GIs returning from World War II , University Extension was reorganized as an undergraduate college and designated the Columbia University School of General Studies .
During the 1960s Columbia experienced large @-@ scale student activism , which reached a climax in the spring of 1968 when hundreds of students occupied buildings on campus . The incident forced the resignation of Columbia 's President , Grayson Kirk and the establishment of the University Senate .
Though several schools within the university had admitted women for years , Columbia College first admitted women in the fall of 1983 , after a decade of failed negotiations with Barnard College , the all @-@ female institution affiliated with the university , to merge the two schools . Barnard College still remains affiliated with Columbia , and all Barnard graduates are issued diplomas authorized by both Columbia University and Barnard College .
= = Campus = =
Along with NYU and the Catholic Church , Columbia University is one of the top 3 largest landowners in New York City .
= = = Morningside Heights = = =
The majority of Columbia 's graduate and undergraduate studies are conducted in Morningside Heights on Seth Low 's late @-@ 19th century vision of a university campus where all disciplines could be taught in one location . The campus was designed along Beaux @-@ Arts principles by architects McKim , Mead , and White . Columbia 's main campus occupies more than six city blocks , or 32 acres ( 13 ha ) , in Morningside Heights , New York City , a neighborhood that contains a number of academic institutions . The university owns over 7 @,@ 800 apartments in Morningside Heights , housing faculty , graduate students , and staff . Almost two dozen undergraduate dormitories ( purpose @-@ built or converted ) are located on campus or in Morningside Heights . Columbia University has an extensive underground tunnel system more than a century old , with the oldest portions predating the present campus . Some of these remain accessible to the public , while others have been cordoned off .
The Nicholas Murray Butler Library , commonly known simply as Butler Library , is the largest single library in the Columbia University Library System , and is one of the largest buildings on the campus . Proposed as " South Hall " by the university 's former President Nicholas Murray Butler as expansion plans for Low Memorial Library stalled , the new library was funded by Edward Harkness , benefactor of Yale 's residential college system , and designed by his favorite architect , James Gamble Rogers . It was completed in 1934 and renamed for Butler in 1946 . The library design is neo @-@ classical in style . Its facade features an arcade of columns in the Ionic order above which are inscribed the names of great writers , philosophers , and thinkers , most of whom are read by students engaged in the Core Curriculum of Columbia College . As of 2012 , Columbia 's library system includes over 11 @.@ 9 million volumes , making it the eighth largest library system and fifth largest collegiate library system in the United States . It has also been ranked among the United States ' most beautiful libraries .
Several buildings on the Morningside Heights campus are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Low Memorial Library , a National Historic Landmark and the centerpiece of the campus , is listed for its architectural significance . Philosophy Hall is listed as the site of the invention of FM radio . Also listed is Pupin Hall , another National Historic Landmark , which houses the physics and astronomy departments . Here the first experiments on the fission of uranium were conducted by Enrico Fermi . The uranium atom was split there ten days after the world 's first atom @-@ splitting in Copenhagen , Denmark .
A statue by sculptor Daniel Chester French called Alma Mater is centered on the front steps of Low Memorial Library . McKim , Mead & White invited French to build the sculpture in order to harmonize with the larger composition of the court and library in the center of the campus . Draped in an academic gown , the female figure of Alma Mater wears a crown of laurels and sits on a throne . The scroll @-@ like arms of the throne end in lamps , representing sapientia and doctrina . A book signifying knowledge , balances on her lap , and an owl , the attribute of wisdom , is hidden in the folds of her gown . Her right hand holds a scepter composed of four sprays of wheat , terminating with a crown of King 's College which refers to Columbia 's origin as a Royalist institution in 1754 . A local actress named Mary Lawton was said to have posed for parts of the sculpture . The statue was dedicated on September 23 , 1903 , as a gift of Mr. & Mrs. Robert Goelet , and was originally covered in golden leaf . During the Columbia University protests of 1968 a bomb damaged the sculpture , but it has since been repaired . The small hidden owl on the sculpture is also the subject of many Columbia legends , the main legend being that the first student in the freshmen class to find the hidden owl on the statue will be valedictorian , and that any subsequent Columbia male who finds it will marry a Barnard student , given that Barnard is a women 's college .
" The Steps " , alternatively known as " Low Steps " or the " Urban Beach " , are a popular meeting area for Columbia students . The term refers to the long series of granite steps leading from the lower part of campus ( South Field ) to its upper terrace . With a design inspired by the City Beautiful movement , the steps of Low Library provides Columbia University and Barnard College students , faculty , and staff with a comfortable outdoor platform and space for informal gatherings , events , and ceremonies . McKim 's classical facade epitomizes late 19th century new @-@ classical designs , with its columns and portico marking the entrance to an important structure . On warm days when the weather is favorable , the Low Steps often become a popular gathering place for students to sunbathe , eat lunch , or play frisbee .
= = = Other campuses = = =
In April 2007 , the university purchased more than two @-@ thirds of a 17 acres ( 6 @.@ 9 ha ) site for a new campus in Manhattanville , an industrial neighborhood to the north of the Morningside Heights campus . Stretching from 125th Street to 133rd Street , the new campus will house buildings for Columbia 's Business School , School of International and Public Affairs , and the Jerome L. Greene Center for Mind , Brain , and Behavior , where research will occur on neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson 's and Alzheimer 's . The $ 7 billion expansion plan includes demolishing all buildings , except three that are historically significant , eliminating the existing light industry and storage warehouses , and relocating tenants in 132 apartments . Replacing these buildings will be 6 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 square feet ( 630 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space for the university . Community activist groups in West Harlem fought the expansion for reasons ranging from property protection and fair exchange for land , to residents ' rights . Subsequent public hearings drew neighborhood opposition . Most recently , as of December 2008 , the State of New York 's Empire State Development Corporation approved use of eminent domain , which , through declaration of Manhattanville 's " blighted " status , gives governmental bodies the right to appropriate private property for public use . On May 20 , 2009 , the New York State Public Authorities Control Board approved the Manhanttanville expansion plan and the first buildings are under construction .
New York @-@ Presbyterian Hospital is affiliated with the medical schools of both Columbia University and Cornell University . According to U.S. News & World Report 's " America 's Best Hospitals 2009 " , it is ranked sixth overall and third among university hospitals . Columbia 's medical school has a strategic partnership with New York State Psychiatric Institute , and is affiliated with 19 other hospitals in the U.S. and four hospitals overseas . Health @-@ related schools are located at the Columbia University Medical Center , a 20 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) campus located in the neighborhood of Washington Heights , fifty blocks uptown . Other teaching hospitals affiliated with Columbia through the New York @-@ Presbyterian network include the Payne Whitney Clinic in Manhattan , and the Payne Whitney Westchester , a psychiatric institute located in White Plains , New York . On the northern tip of Manhattan island ( in the neighborhood of Inwood ) , Columbia owns 26 @-@ acre ( 11 ha ) Baker Field , which includes the Lawrence A. Wien Stadium as well as facilities for field sports , outdoor track , and tennis . There is a third campus on the west bank of the Hudson River , the 157 @-@ acre ( 64 ha ) Lamont @-@ Doherty Earth Observatory and Earth Institute in Palisades , New York . A fourth is the 60 @-@ acre ( 24 ha ) Nevis Laboratories in Irvington , New York for the study of particle and motion physics . A satellite site in Paris , France holds classes at Reid Hall .
= = = Sustainability = = =
In 2006 , the university established the Office of Environmental Stewardship to initiate , coordinate and implement programs to reduce the university 's environmental footprint . The U.S. Green Building Council selected the university 's Manhattanville plan for the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) Neighborhood Design pilot program . The plan commits to incorporating smart growth , new urbanism and " green " building design principles . Columbia is one of the 2030 Challenge Partners , a group of nine universities in the city of New York that have pledged to reduce their greenhouse emissions by 30 % within the next ten years . Columbia University adopts LEED standards for all new construction and major renovations . The University requires a minimum of Silver , but through its design and review process seeks to achieve higher levels . This is especially challenging for lab and research buildings with their intensive energy use ; however , the university also uses lab design guidelines that seek to maximize energy efficiency while protecting the safety of researchers .
Every Thursday and Sunday of the month , Columbia hosts a greenmarket where local farmers can sell their produce to residents of the city . In addition , from April to November Hodgson 's farm , a local New York gardening center , joins the market bringing a large selection of plants and blooming flowers . The market is one of the many operated at different points throughout the city by the non @-@ profit group GrowNYC . Dining services at Columbia spends 36 percent of its food budget on local products , in addition to serving sustainably harvested seafood and fair trade coffee on campus . Columbia has been rated " B + " by the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card for its environmental and sustainability initiatives .
= = Academics = =
= = = Undergraduate admissions and financial aid = = =
Columbia University received 36 @,@ 292 applications for its undergraduate class of 2020 ( entering 2016 ) . In early decision , 620 out of 3 @,@ 520 applicants were admitted , for an acceptance rate of 17 @.@ 61 % . In regular decision , 1 @,@ 573 out of 32 @,@ 772 applicants were admitted , for an acceptance rate of 4 @.@ 79 % . In total , 2 @,@ 193 out of 36 @,@ 292 applicants were admitted for an overall acceptance rate of 6 @.@ 04 % , making Columbia the third most selective college in the United States by admission rate behind Stanford and Harvard . The undergraduate yield rate for the class of 2019 was 63 @.@ 2 % . According to the 2012 college selectivity ranking by U.S. News & World Report , which factors admission and yield rates among other criteria , Columbia was tied with Yale , Caltech and MIT as the most selective colleges in the country . Columbia is a racially diverse school , with approximately 52 % of all students identifying themselves as persons of color . Additionally , 50 % of all undergraduates received grants from Columbia . The average grant size awarded to these students is $ 46 @,@ 516 . In 2015 @-@ 2016 , annual undergraduate tuition at Columbia was $ 50 @,@ 526 with a total cost of attendance of $ 65 @,@ 860 ( including room and board ) .
On April 11 , 2007 , Columbia University announced a $ 400m to $ 600m donation from media billionaire alumnus John Kluge to be used exclusively for undergraduate financial aid . The donation is among the largest single gifts to higher education . Its exact value will depend on the eventual value of Kluge 's estate at the time of his death ; however , the generous donation has helped change financial aid policy at Columbia . Annual gifts , fund @-@ raising , and an increase in spending from the university 's endowment have allowed Columbia to extend generous financial aid packages to qualifying students . As of 2008 , undergraduates from families with incomes as high as $ 60 @,@ 000 a year will have the projected cost of attending the university , including room , board , and academic fees , fully paid for by the university . That same year , the university ended loans for incoming and current students who were on financial aid , replacing loans that were traditionally part of aid packages with grants from the university . However , this does not apply to international students , transfer students , visiting students , or students in the School of General Studies . In the fall of 2010 , admission to Columbia 's undergraduate colleges Columbia College and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science ( also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering ) began accepting the Common Application . The policy change made Columbia one of the last major academic institutions and the last Ivy League university to switch to the Common Application .
Scholarships are also given to undergraduate students by the admissions committee . Designations include John W. Kluge Scholars , John Jay Scholars , C. Prescott Davis Scholars , Global Scholars , Egleston Scholars , and Science Research Fellows . Named scholars are selected by the admission committee from first @-@ year applicants . According to Columbia , the first four designated scholars " distinguish themselves for their remarkable academic and personal achievements , dynamism , intellectual curiosity , the originality and independence of their thinking , and the diversity that stems from their different cultures and their varied educational experiences . "
= = = Organization = = =
Columbia University is an independent , privately supported , nonsectarian institution of higher education . Its official corporate name is " The Trustees of Columbia University in the City of New York . " The university 's first Charter was granted in 1754 by King George II ; however , its modern Charter was first enacted in 1787 and last amended in 1810 by the New York State Legislature . The university is governed by 24 Trustees , customarily including the President , who serves ex officio . The Trustees themselves are responsible for choosing their successors . Six of the 24 are nominated from a pool of candidates recommended by the Columbia Alumni Association . Another six are nominated by the Board in consultation with the Executive Committee of the University Senate . The remaining 12 , including the President , are nominated by the Trustees themselves through their internal processes . The term of office for Trustees is six years . Generally , they serve for no more than two consecutive terms . The Trustees appoint the President and other senior administrative officers of the university , and review and confirm faculty appointments as required . They determine the university 's financial and investment policies , authorize the budget , supervise the endowment , direct the management of the university 's real estate and other assets , and otherwise oversee the administration and management of the university .
The University Senate was established by the Trustees after a university @-@ wide referendum in 1969 . It succeeded to the powers of the University Council , which was created in 1890 as a body of faculty , deans , and other administrators to regulate inter @-@ Faculty affairs and consider issues of university @-@ wide concern . The University Senate is a unicameral body consisting of 107 members drawn from all constituencies of the university . These include the president of the university , the Provost , the Deans of Columbia College and the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences , all who serve ex officio , and five additional representatives , appointed by the President , from the university 's administration . The President serves as the Senate 's presiding officer . The Senate is charged with reviewing the educational policies , physical development , budget , and external relations of the university . It oversees the welfare and academic freedom of the faculty and the welfare of students .
The President of Columbia University , who is selected by the Trustees in consultation with the Executive Committee of the University Senate and who serves at the Trustees ' pleasure , is the chief executive officer of the university . Assisting the President in administering the University are the Provost , the Senior Executive Vice President , the Executive Vice President for Health and Biomedical Sciences , several other vice presidents , the General Counsel , the Secretary of the University , and the deans of the Faculties , all of whom are appointed by the Trustees on the nomination of the President and serve at their pleasure . Lee C. Bollinger became the 19th President of Columbia University on June 1 , 2002 . A prominent advocate of affirmative action , he played a leading role in the twin Supreme Court cases — Grutter v Bollinger and Gratz v Bollinger — that upheld and clarified the importance of diversity as a compelling justification for affirmative action in higher education . A leading First Amendment scholar , he is widely published on freedom of speech and press , and serves on the faculty of Columbia Law School .
Columbia has three official undergraduate colleges : Columbia College ( CC ) , the liberal arts college offering the Bachelor of Arts degree , the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science ( also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering ) is the engineering and applied science school offering the Bachelor of Science degree , and The School of General Studies ( GS ) , the liberal arts college offering the Bachelor of Arts degree to non @-@ traditional students undertaking full- or part @-@ time study . The university is affiliated with Teachers College , Barnard College , and Union Theological Seminary , all located nearby in Morningside Heights . Joint undergraduate programs are available through the Jewish Theological Seminary of America as well as through the Juilliard School . Affiliated institutions – Barnard College , Teachers College , and Union Theological Seminary – are also Faculties of the university . One affiliated institution — Teachers College — is likewise an academic department of the university .
= = = Research and rankings = = =
Columbia was the first North American site where the uranium atom was split . It was the birthplace of FM radio and the laser . The MPEG @-@ 2 algorithm of transmitting high quality audio and video over limited bandwidth was developed by Dimitris Anastassiou , a Columbia professor of electrical engineering . Biologist Martin Chalfie was the first to introduce the use of Green Fluorescent Protein ( GFP ) in labeling cells in intact organisms . Other inventions and products related to Columbia include Sequential Lateral Solidification ( SLS ) technology for making LCDs , System Management Arts ( SMARTS ) , Session Initiation Protocol ( SIP ) ( which is used for audio , video , chat , instant messaging and whiteboarding ) , pharmacopeia , Macromodel ( software for computational chemistry ) , a new and better recipe for glass concrete , Blue LEDs , and Beamprop ( used in photonics ) . Columbia scientists have been credited with about 175 new inventions in the health sciences each year . More than 30 pharmaceutical products based on discoveries and inventions made at Columbia are on the market today . These include Remicade ( for arthritis ) , Reopro ( for blood clot complications ) , Xalatan ( for glaucoma ) , Benefix , Latanoprost ( a glaucoma treatment ) , shoulder prosthesis , homocysteine ( testing for cardiovascular disease ) , and Zolinza ( for cancer therapy ) . Columbia Technology Ventures ( formerly Science and Technology Ventures ) , as of 2008 , manages some 600 patents and more than 250 active license agreements . Patent @-@ related deals earned Columbia more than $ 230 million in the 2006 fiscal year , according to the university , more than any university in the world .
Columbia University was ranked 4th overall among U.S. national universities for 2016 by U.S. News & World Report . Individual colleges and schools were also nationally ranked by U.S. News & World Report for its 2016 edition . The Columbia Law School was ranked tied for 4th , the Mailman School of Public Health 5th , the School of Social Work 5th , the Teachers College ( Columbia Graduate School of Education ) 7th , the Columbia Business School 8th , the College of Physicians and Surgeons tied for 8th for research ( and tied for 52nd for primary care ) , the Graduate School of Arts 10th , the School of Nursing tied for 11th , and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science ( graduate ) was ranked 14th .
In 2015 , Columbia was ranked 8th in the world by Academic Ranking of World Universities , 22nd in the world by QS World University Rankings , and 15th globally by Times Higher Education World University Rankings in the world .
Rankings by other organizations include the Graduate School of Architecture , Planning and Preservation # 2 , and its Graduate School of Journalism # 1 .
Between 1996 and 2008 , 18 Columbia affiliates have won Nobel Prizes , of whom nine are faculty members while one is an adjunct senior research scientist ( Daniel Tsui ) and the other a Global Fellow ( Kofi Annan ) . Columbia faculty awarded the Nobel Prize include Richard Axel , Martin Chalfie , Eric Kandel , Tsung @-@ Dao Lee , Robert Mundell , Orhan Pamuk , Edmund S. Phelps , Joseph Stiglitz , and Horst L. Stormer . Other awards and honors won by faculty include 30 MacArthur Foundation Award winners , 4 National Medal of Science recipients , 43 National Academy of Sciences Award winners , 20 National Academy of Engineering Award winners , 38 Institute of Medicine of the National Academies Award recipients and 143 American Academy of Arts and Sciences Award winners .
In 2015 , Columbia University was ranked the first in the state by average professor salaries . In 2011 , the Mines ParisTech : Professional Ranking World Universities ranked Columbia 3rd best university for forming CEOs in the US and 12th worldwide .
= = Student life = =
= = = Students = = =
In fall 2014 , Columbia University 's student population was 29 @,@ 870 ( 8 @,@ 559 students in undergraduate programs and 21 @,@ 311 in postgraduate programs ) , with 39 % of the student population identifying themselves as a minority and 28 % born outside of the United States . Twenty @-@ six percent of students at Columbia have family incomes below $ 60 @,@ 000 , making it one of the most socioeconomically diverse top @-@ tier colleges . Sixteen percent of students at Columbia receive Federal Pell Grants , which mostly go to students whose family incomes are below $ 40 @,@ 000 . Fifteen percent of students are the first member of their family to attend a four @-@ year college .
On @-@ campus housing is guaranteed for all four years as an undergraduate . Columbia College and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science ( also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering ) share housing in the on @-@ campus residence halls . First @-@ year students usually live in one of the large residence halls situated around South Lawn : Hartley Hall , Wallach Hall ( originally Livingston Hall ) , John Jay Hall , Furnald Hall or Carman Hall . Upperclassmen participate in a room selection process , wherein students can pick to live in a mix of either corridor- or apartment @-@ style housing with their friends . The Columbia University School of General Studies and graduate schools have their own apartment @-@ style housing in the surrounding neighborhood .
Columbia University is home to many fraternities , sororities , and co @-@ educational Greek organizations . Approximately 10 – 15 % of undergraduate students are associated with Greek life . There has been a Greek presence on campus since the establishment in 1836 of the Delta Chapter of Alpha Delta Phi . The InterGreek Council is the self @-@ governing student organization that provides guidelines and support to its member organizations within each of the three councils at Columbia , the Interfraternity Council , Panhellenic Council , and Multicultural Greek Council . The three council presidents bring their affiliated chapters together once a month to meet as one Greek community . The InterGreek Council meetings provide opportunity for member organizations to learn from each other , work together and advocate for community needs .
= = = = Publications = = = =
Columbia University is home to a rich diversity of undergraduate , graduate , and professional publications . The Columbia Daily Spectator is the nation 's second @-@ oldest student newspaper ; and The Blue and White , a monthly literary magazine established in 1890 , has recently begun to delve into campus life and local politics in print and on its daily blog , dubbed the Bwog .
Political publications include The Current , a journal of politics , culture and Jewish Affairs ; the Columbia Political Review , the multi @-@ partisan political magazine of the Columbia Political Union ; and AdHoc , which denotes itself as the " progressive " campus magazine and deals largely with local political issues and arts events .
Arts and literary publications include the Columbia Review , the nation 's oldest college literary magazine ; Columbia , a nationally regarded literary journal ; the Columbia Journal of Literary Criticism ; and The Mobius Strip , an online arts and literary magazine . Inside New York is an annual guidebook to New York City , written , edited , and published by Columbia undergraduates . Through a distribution agreement with Columbia University Press , the book is sold at major retailers and independent bookstores .
Columbia is home to numerous undergraduate academic publications . The Journal of Politics & Society , is a journal of undergraduate research in the social sciences , published and distributed nationally by the Helvidius Group ; Publius is an undergraduate journal of politics established in 2008 and published biannually ; the Columbia East Asia Review allows undergraduates throughout the world to publish original work on China , Japan , Korea , Tibet , and Vietnam and is supported by the Weatherhead East Asian Institute ; and The Birch , is an undergraduate journal of Eastern European and Eurasian culture that is the first national student @-@ run journal of its kind ; the Columbia Political Review , the undergraduate magazine on politics operated by the Columbia Political Union ; the Columbia Economics Review , the undergraduate economic journal on research and policy supported by the Columbia Economics Department ; and the Columbia Science Review is a science magazine that prints general interest articles , faculty profiles , and student research papers .
The Fed a triweekly satire and investigative newspaper , and the Jester of Columbia , the newly ( and frequently ) revived campus humor magazine both inject humor into local life . Other publications include The Columbian , the undergraduate colleges ' annually published yearbook the Gadfly , a biannual journal of popular philosophy produced by undergraduates ; and Rhapsody in Blue , an undergraduate urban studies magazine . Professional journals published by academic departments at Columbia University include Current Musicology and The Journal of Philosophy . During the spring semester , graduate students in the Journalism School publish The Bronx Beat , a bi @-@ weekly newspaper covering the South Bronx . Teachers College publishes the Teachers College Record , a journal of research , analysis , and commentary in the field of education , published continuously since 1900 .
Founded in 1961 under the auspices of Columbia University 's Graduate School of Journalism , Columbia Journalism Review ( CJR ) examines day @-@ to @-@ day press performance as well as the forces that affect that performance . The magazine is published six times a year , and offers a reporting , analysis , criticism , and commentary . CJR.org , its web site , delivers real @-@ time criticism and reporting , giving CJR a presence in the ongoing conversation about the media .
= = = = Broadcasting = = = =
Columbia is home to two pioneers in undergraduate campus radio broadcasting , WKCR @-@ FM and CTV . WKCR , the student run radio station that broadcasts to the Tri @-@ State area , claims to be the oldest FM radio station in the world , owing to the university 's affiliation with Major Edwin Armstrong . The station went operational on July 18 , 1939 , from a 400 @-@ foot antenna tower in Alpine , New Jersey , broadcasting the very first FM transmission in the world . Initially , WKCR wasn 't a radio station , but an organization concerned with the technology of radio communications . As membership grew , however , the nascent club turned its efforts to broadcasting . Armstrong helped the students in their early efforts , donating a microphone and turntables when they designed their first makeshift studio in a dorm room . The station has its studios on the second floor of Alfred Lerner Hall on the Morningside campus with its main transmitter tower at 4 Times Square in Midtown Manhattan . Columbia Television ( CTV ) is the nation 's second oldest Student television station and home of CTV News , a weekly live news program produced by undergraduate students .
= = = = Debate and Model UN = = = =
The Philolexian Society is a literary and debating club founded in 1802 , making it the oldest student group at Columbia , as well as the third oldest collegiate literary society in the country . The society annually administers the Joyce Kilmer Bad Poetry Contest . The Columbia Parliamentary Debate Team competes in tournaments around the country as part of the American Parliamentary Debate Association , and hosts both high school and college tournaments on Columbia 's campus , as well as public debates on issues affecting the university .
The Columbia International Relations Council and Association ( CIRCA ) , oversees Columbia 's Model United Nations activities . CIRCA hosts college and high school Model UN conferences , hosts speakers influential in international politics to speak on campus , trains students from underprivileged schools in New York in Model UN and oversees a competitive team , which travels to colleges around the country and to an international conference every year . The competitive team consistently wins best and outstanding delegation awards and is considered one of the top teams in the country .
= = = Technology and entrepreneurship = = =
The Columbia University Organization of Rising Entrepreneurs ( CORE ) was founded in 1999 . The student @-@ run group aims to foster entrepreneurship on campus . Each year CORE hosts dozens of events , including talks , # StartupColumbia , a conference and venture competition for $ 250 @,@ 000 , and Ignite @ CU , a weekend for undergrads interested in design , engineering , and entrepreneurship . Notable speakers include Peter Thiel , Jack Dorsey , Alexis Ohanian , Drew Houston , and Mark Cuban . By 2006 , CORE had awarded graduate and undergraduate students over $ 100 @,@ 000 in seed capital .
CampusNetwork , an on @-@ campus social networking site called Campus Network that preceded Facebook , was created and popularized by Columbia engineering student Adam Goldberg in 2003 . Mark Zuckerberg later asked Goldberg to join him in Palo Alto to work on Facebook , but Goldberg declined the offer . The Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science offers a minor in Technical Entrepreneurship through its Center for Technology , Innovation , and Community Engagement . SEAS ' entrepreneurship activities focus on community building initiatives in New York and worldwide , made possible through partners such as Microsoft Corporation .
Columbia is a top supplier of young engineering entrepreneurs for New York City . Over the past 20 years , graduates of Columbia established over 100 technology companies . Mayor Bloomberg has provided over $ 6 @.@ 7 million towards entrepreneurial programs that partner with Columbia and other universities in New York . Professor Chris Wiggins of the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science is working in conjunction with Professors Evan Korth of New York University and Hilary Mason , chief scientist at bit.ly to facilitate the growth of student tech @-@ startups in an effort to transform a traditionally financially centered New York City into the next Silicon Valley . Their website , hackny.org , is a gathering ground of ideas and discussions for New York 's young entrepreneurial community , the Silicon Alley .
On June 14 , 2010 , Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg launched the NYC Media Lab to promote innovations in New York 's media industry . Situated in the Polytechnic Institute of New York University , the lab is a consortium of Columbia University , New York University , and New York City Economic Development Corporation acting to connect companies with universities in new technology research . The Lab is modeled after similar ones at MIT and Stanford . A $ 250 @,@ 000 grant from the New York City Economic Development Corporation was used to establish the NYC Media Lab . Each year , the lab will host a range of roundtable discussions between the private sector and academic institutions . It will support research projects on topics of content format , next @-@ generation search technologies , computer animation for film and gaming , emerging marketing techniques , and new devices development . The lab will also create a media research and development database . Columbia University will coordinate the long @-@ term direction of the media lab as well as the involvement of its faculty and those of other universities .
= = = Athletics = = =
A member institution of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) in Division I FCS , Columbia fields varsity teams in 29 sports and is a member of the Ivy League . The football Lions play home games at the 17 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Robert K. Kraft Field at Lawrence A. Wien Stadium . One hundred blocks north of the main campus at Morningside Heights , the Baker Athletics Complex also includes facilities for baseball , softball , soccer , lacrosse , field hockey , tennis , track and rowing , as well as the new Campbell Sports Center opened in January 2013 . The basketball , fencing , swimming & diving , volleyball and wrestling programs are based at the Dodge Physical Fitness Center on the main campus .
Columbia University athletics has a long history , with many accomplishments in athletic fields . In 1870 , Columbia played against Rutgers University in the second football game in the history of the sport . Eight years later , Columbia crew won the famed Henley Royal Regatta in the first @-@ ever defeat for an English crew rowing in English waters . In 1900 , Olympian and Columbia College student Maxie Long set the first official world record in the 400 meters with a time of 47 @.@ 8 seconds . In 1983 , Columbia men 's soccer went 18 @-@ 0 and was ranked first in the nation , but lost to Indiana 1 @-@ 0 in double overtime in the NCAA championship game ; nevertheless , the team went further toward the NCAA title than any Ivy League soccer team in history . The football program unfortunately is best known for its record of futility set during the 1980s : between 1983 and 1988 , the team lost 44 games in a row , which is still the record for the NCAA Football Championship Subdivision . The streak was broken on October 8 , 1988 , with a 16 @-@ 13 victory over archrival Princeton University . That was the Lions ' first victory at Wien Stadium , which had been opened during the losing streak and was already four years old . A new tradition has developed with the Liberty Cup . The Liberty Cup is awarded annually to the winner of the football game between Fordham and Columbia Universities , two of the only three NCAA Division I football teams in New York City . The tradition began in 2002 , a year after the Fordham @-@ Columbia game was postponed due to the September 11 attacks .
Former students include Baseball Hall of Famers Lou Gehrig and Eddie Collins , football Hall of Famer Sid Luckman , Marcellus Wiley , and world champion women 's weightlifter Karyn Marshall . On May 17 , 1939 , fledgling NBC broadcast a doubleheader between the Columbia Lions and the Princeton Tigers at Columbia 's Baker Field , making it the first televised regular athletic event in history .
= = = World Leaders Forum = = =
Established in 2003 by university president Lee C. Bollinger , the World Leaders Forum at Columbia University provides the opportunity for undergraduate and graduate students alike to listen to world leaders in government , religion , industry , finance , and academia . The World Leaders Forum is a year @-@ around event series that strives to provide a platform for uninhibited speech among nations and cultures , while educating students about problems and progress around the globe .
All Columbia undergraduates and graduates as well as students of Barnard College and other Columbia affiliated schools can register to participate in the World Leaders Forum using their student IDs . Even for individuals who do not have the privilege to attend the event live , they can watch the forum via online videos on Columbia University 's website .
Past forum speakers include former President of the United States Bill Clinton , the Prime Minister of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee , Former President of Ghana John Agyekum Kufuor , President of Afghanistan Hamid Karzai , Prime Minister of Russia Vladimir Putin , President of the Republic of Mozambique Joaquim Alberto Chissano , President of the Republic of Bolivia Carlos Diego Mesa Gisbert , President of the Republic of Romania Ion Iliescu , President of the Republic of Latvia Vaira Vīķe @-@ Freiberga , the first female President of Finland Tarja Halonen , President Yudhoyono of Indonesia , President Pervez Musharraf of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan , Iraq President Jalal Talabani , the 14th Dalai Lama , President of the Islamic Republic of Iran Mahmoud Ahmadinejad , financier George Soros , Mayor of New York City Michael R. Bloomberg , President Václav Klaus of the Czech Republic , President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner of Argentina , former Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations Kofi Annan , and Al Gore .
= = = Other = = =
The Columbia University Orchestra was founded by composer Edward MacDowell in 1896 , and is the oldest continually operating university orchestra in the United States . Undergraduate student composers at Columbia may choose to become involved with Columbia New Music , which sponsors concerts of music written by undergraduate students from all of Columbia 's schools .
There are a number of performing arts groups at Columbia dedicated to producing student theater , including the Columbia Players , King 's Crown Shakespeare Troupe ( KCST ) , Columbia Musical Theater Society ( CMTS ) , NOMADS ( New and Original Material Authored and Directed by Students ) , LateNite Theatre , Columbia University Performing Arts League ( CUPAL ) , Black Theatre Ensemble ( BTE ) , sketch comedy group Chowdah , and improvisational troupes Alfred and Fruit Paunch . The Columbia University Marching Band tells jokes during the campus tradition of Orgo Night .
The Columbia Queer Alliance is the central Columbia student organization that represents the lesbian , gay , transgender , and questioning student population . It is the oldest gay student organization in the world , founded as the Student Homophile League in 1967 by students including lifelong activist Stephen Donaldson . Columbia University campus military groups include the U.S. Military Veterans of Columbia University and Advocates for Columbia ROTC . In the 2005 – 06 academic year , the Columbia Military Society , Columbia 's student group for ROTC cadets and Marine officer candidates , was renamed the Hamilton Society for " students who aspire to serve their nation through the military in the tradition of Alexander Hamilton " .
The university also houses an independent nonprofit organization , Community Impact , which strives to serve disadvantaged people in the Harlem , Washington Heights , and Morningside Heights communities . From its earliest inception as a single service initiative formed in 1981 by Columbia University undergraduates , Community Impact has grown into Columbia University 's largest student service organization . CI provides food , clothing , shelter , education , job training , and companionship for residents in its surrounding communities . CI consists of a dedicated corps of about 950 Columbia University student volunteers participating in 25 community service programs , which serve more than 8 @,@ 000 people each year .
= = Student activism = =
= = = Protests of 1968 = = =
Students initiated a major demonstration in 1968 over two main issues . The first was Columbia 's proposed gymnasium in neighboring Morningside Park ; this was seen by the protesters to be an act of aggression aimed at the black residents of neighboring Harlem . A second issue was the Columbia administration 's failure to resign its institutional membership in the Pentagon 's weapons research think @-@ tank , the Institute for Defense Analyses ( IDA ) . Students barricaded themselves inside Low Library , Hamilton Hall , and several other university buildings during the protests , and New York City police were called onto the campus to arrest or forcibly remove the students .
The protests achieved two of their stated goals . Columbia disaffiliated from the IDA and scrapped the plans for the controversial gym , building a subterranean physical fitness center under the north end of campus instead . A popular myth states that the gym 's plans were eventually used by Princeton University for the expansion of its athletic facilities , but as Jadwin Gymnasium was already 50 % complete by 1966 ( when the Columbia gym was announced ) this was clearly not correct . At least 30 Columbia students were suspended by the administration as a result of the protests . Many of the Class of ' 68 walked out of their graduation and held a countercommencement on Low Plaza with a picnic following at Morningside Park , the place where the protests began . The protests hurt Columbia financially as many potential students chose to attend other universities and some alumni refused to donate money to the school . Allan Bloom , a professor of philosophy at the University of Chicago , believed that the protest efforts at Columbia were responsible for pushing higher education further toward the liberal left . As a result of the protests , Bloom stated , " American universities were no longer places of intellectual and academic debate , but rather places of ' political correctness ' and liberalism . "
= = = Protests against racism and apartheid = = =
Further student protests , including hunger strike and more barricades of Hamilton Hall and the Business School during the late 1970s and early 1980s , were aimed at convincing the university trustees to divest all of the university 's investments in companies that were seen as active or tacit supporters of the apartheid regime in South Africa . A notable upsurge in the protests occurred in 1978 , when following a celebration of the tenth anniversary of the student uprising in 1968 , students marched and rallied in protest of university investments in South Africa . The Committee Against Investment in South Africa ( CAISA ) and numerous student groups including the Socialist Action Committee , the Black Student Organization and the Gay Students group joined together and succeeded in pressing for the first partial divestment of a U.S. university .
The initial ( and partial ) Columbia divestment , focused largely on bonds and financial institutions directly involved with the South African regime . It followed a year @-@ long campaign first initiated by students who had worked together to block the appointment of former United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger to an endowed chair at the university in 1977 .
Broadly backed by student groups and many faculty members the Committee Against Investment in South Africa held teach @-@ ins and demonstrations through the year focused on the trustees ties to the corporations doing business with South Africa . Trustee meetings were picketed and interrupted by demonstrations culminating in May 1978 in the takeover of the Graduate School of Business .
= = = Ahmadinejad speech controversy = = =
The School of International and Public Affairs extends invitations to heads of state and heads of government who come to New York City for the opening of the fall session of the United Nations General Assembly . In 2007 , Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was one of those invited to speak on campus . Ahmadinejad accepted his invitation and spoke on September 24 , 2007 , as part of Columbia University 's World Leaders Forum . The invitation proved to be highly controversial . Hundreds of demonstrators swarmed the campus on September 24 and the speech itself was televised worldwide . University President Lee C. Bollinger tried to allay the controversy by letting Ahmadenijad speak , but with a negative introduction ( given personally by Bollinger ) . This did not mollify those who were displeased with the fact that the Iranian leader had been invited onto the campus . Columbia students , though , turned out en masse to listen to the speech on the South Lawn . An estimated 2 @,@ 500 undergraduates and graduates came out for the historic occasion .
During his speech , Ahmadinejad criticized Israel 's policies towards the Palestinians ; called for research on the historical accuracy of the Holocaust ; raised questions as to who initiated the 9 / 11 attacks ; defended Iran 's nuclear power program , criticizing the UN 's policy of sanctions on his country ; and attacked U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East . In response to a question about Iran 's treatment of women and homosexuals , he asserted that women are respected in Iran and that " In Iran , we don 't have homosexuals like in your country ... In Iran , we do not have this phenomenon . I don 't know who told you this . " The latter statement drew laughter from the audience . The Manhattan District Attorney 's Office accused Columbia of accepting grant money from the Alavi Foundation to support faculty " sympathetic " to Iran 's Islamic republic .
= = = ROTC controversy = = =
Beginning in 1969 , during the Vietnam War , the university did not allow the U.S. military to have Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( ROTC ) programs on campus , though Columbia students could participate in ROTC programs at other local colleges and universities . At a forum at the university during the 2008 presidential election campaign , both John McCain and Barack Obama said that the university should consider reinstating ROTC on campus . After the debate , the President of the University , Lee C. Bollinger , stated that he did not favor reinstating Columbia 's ROTC program , because of the military 's anti @-@ gay policies . In November 2008 , Columbia 's undergraduate student body held a referendum on the question of whether or not to invite ROTC back to campus , and the students who voted were almost evenly divided on the issue . ROTC lost the vote ( which would not have been binding on the administration , and did not include graduate students , faculty , or alumni ) by a fraction of a percentage point . In April 2010 during Admiral Mike Mullen 's address at Columbia , President Lee C. Bollinger stated that the ROTC would be readmitted to campus if the admiral 's plans for revoking the don 't ask , don 't tell policy were successful . In February 2011 during one of three town @-@ hall meetings on the ROTC ban , former Army staff sergeant Anthony Maschek , a Purple Heart recipient for injuries sustained during his service in Iraq , was booed and hissed at by some students during his speech promoting the idea of allowing the ROTC on campus . In April 2011 the Columbia University Senate voted to welcome the ROTC program back on campus . Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus and Columbia University President Lee C. Bollinger signed an agreement to reinstate Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps ( NROTC ) program at Columbia for the first time in more than 40 years on May 26 , 2011 . The agreement was signed at a ceremony on board the USS Iwo Jima , docked in New York for the Navy 's annual Fleet Week .
= = Traditions = =
= = = Orgo Night = = =
On the day before the Organic Chemistry exam — which is often on the first day of finals — at precisely the stroke of midnight , the Columbia University Marching Band occupies Butler Library to distract diligent students from studying . After a forty @-@ five minutes or so of jokes and music , the procession then moves out to the lawn in front of Hartley , Wallach and John Jay residence halls to entertain the residents there . The band then plays at other locations around Morningside Heights , including the residential quadrangle of Barnard College , where students of the all @-@ women 's school , in mock @-@ consternation , rain trash – including notes and course packets – and water balloons upon them from their dormitories above . The band tends to close their Orgo Night performances before Furnald Hall , known among students as the more studious and reportedly " anti @-@ social " residence hall , where the underclassmen in the band serenade the graduating seniors with an entertaining , though vulgar , mock @-@ hymn to Columbia , composed of quips that poke fun at the stereotypes about the Columbia student body .
= = = Tree @-@ Lighting and Yule Log ceremonies = = =
The campus Tree @-@ Lighting Ceremony was inaugurated in 1998 . It celebrates the illumination of the medium @-@ sized trees lining College Walk in front of Kent and Hamilton Halls on the east end and Dodge and Journalism Halls on the west , just before finals week in early December . The lights remain on until February 28 . Students meet at the sun @-@ dial for free hot chocolate , performances by a cappella groups , and speeches by the university president and a guest .
Immediately following the College Walk festivities is one of Columbia 's older holiday traditions , the lighting of the Yule Log . The Christmas ceremony dates to a period prior to the American Revolutionary War , but lapsed before being revived by University President Nicholas Murray Butler in the early 20th century . A troop of students dressed as Continental Army soldiers carry the eponymous log from the sun @-@ dial to the lounge of John Jay Hall , where it is lit amid the singing of seasonal carols . The Christmas ceremony is accompanied by a reading of A Visit From St. Nicholas by Clement Clarke Moore and Yes , Virginia , There is a Santa Claus by Francis Pharcellus Church .
= = = The Varsity Show = = =
The Varsity Show is an annual musical written by and for students and was established in 1894 , making it one of Columbia 's oldest traditions . Past writers and directors have included Columbians Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein , Lorenz Hart , I.A.L. Diamond , and Herman Wouk . The show has one of the largest operating budgets of all university events .
= = Notable people = =
As of 2011 , Columbia alumni included three United States Presidents , 26 foreign Heads of State , nine Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States ( including three Chief Justices ) and 39 Nobel winners . As of 2011 , alumni also have received more than 35 National Book Awards and 123 Pulitzer Prizes . Today , two United States Senators and 16 Chief Executives of Fortune 500 companies hold Columbia degrees , as do three of the 25 richest Americans and 20 living billionaires . Attendees of King 's College , Columbia 's predecessor , included five Founding Fathers .
Former U.S. Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin Delano Roosevelt attended the law school . Other more recent political figures educated at Columbia include U.S President Barack Obama , Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Ruth Bader Ginsburg , former U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright , former chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank Alan Greenspan , U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder , and U.S. Solicitor General Donald Verrilli Jr . Dwight D. Eisenhower served as the thirteenth president of Columbia University from 1948 to 1953 . The university has also educated 26 foreign heads of state , including President of Georgia Mikheil Saakashvili , President of East Timor Jose Ramos Horta , President of Estonia Toomas Hendrik Ilves and other historical figures such as Wellington Koo , Radovan Karadžić , Gaston Eyskens , and T. V. Soong . The author of India 's constitution and Dalit leader Dr. B. R. Ambedkar was also an alumnus of Columbia .
Alumni of Columbia have occupied top positions in Wall Street and the rest of the business world . Notable members of the Astor family attended Columbia , while some recent business graduates include investor Warren Buffett , former CEO of PBS and NBC Larry Grossman , and chairman of Wal @-@ Mart S. Robson Walton . CEO 's of top Fortune 500 companies include James P. Gorman of Morgan Stanley , Robert J. Stevens of Lockheed Martin , Philippe Dauman of Viacom , Ursula Burns of Xerox , and Vikram Pandit of Citigroup . Notable labor organizer and women 's educator Louise Leonard McLaren received her degree of Master of Arts from Columbia .
In science and technology , Columbia alumni include : founder of IBM Herman Hollerith ; inventor of FM radio Edwin Armstrong ; Francis Mechner ; integral in development of the nuclear submarine Hyman Rickover ; founder of Google China Kai @-@ Fu Lee ; scientists Stephen Jay Gould , Robert Millikan , Helium – neon laser inventor Ali Javan and Mihajlo Pupin ; chief @-@ engineer of the New York City Subway , William Barclay Parsons ; philosophers Irwin Edman and Robert Nozick ; economist Milton Friedman ; and psychologist Harriet Babcock .
Many Columbia alumni have gone on to renowned careers in the arts , such as the composers Richard Rodgers , Oscar Hammerstein II , Lorenz Hart , and Art Garfunkel . Four United States Poet Laureates received their degrees from Columbia . Columbia alumni have made an indelible mark in the field of American poetry and literature , with such people as Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg , pioneers of the Beat Generation , and Langston Hughes , a seminal figure in the Harlem Renaissance , all having attended the university . Other notable writers who attended Columbia include authors Isaac Asimov , J.D. Salinger , Upton Sinclair , and the journalist Hunter S. Thompson , primarily known for his works in the American magazine Rolling Stone .
University alumni have also been very prominent in the film industry , with 28 alumni and former students winning a combined 39 Academy Awards ( as of 2011 ) , second in the world only to New York University ( NYU ) . Some notable Columbia alumni that have gone on to work in film include directors Sidney Lumet ( 12 Angry Men ) and Kathryn Bigelow ( The Hurt Locker ) , screenwriters Howard Koch ( Casablanca ) and Joseph L. Mankiewicz ( All About Eve ) , and actors James Cagney and Ed Harris .
Notable Columbia University alumni include :
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= Victoria Louise @-@ class cruiser =
The Victoria Louise class of protected cruisers was the last class of ships of that type built for the German Imperial Navy . The class design introduced the combined clipper and ram bow and the blocky sides that typified later German armoured cruisers . The class comprised five vessels , Victoria Louise , the lead ship , Hertha , Freya , Vineta , and Hansa . The ships were laid down in 1895 – 1896 , and were launched in 1897 – 1898 and commissioned into the fleet over the following year .
The first three ships were 110 @.@ 60 meters ( 362 ft 10 in ) long and displaced 6 @,@ 491 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 388 long tons ) at combat load ; Vineta and Hansa were a slightly modified design . They were 110 @.@ 50 m ( 362 ft 6 in ) long and displaced 6 @,@ 705 t ( 6 @,@ 599 long tons ) at full load . All five ships were armed with a main battery of two 21 @-@ centimeter ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns and eight 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns . The first three ships had a top speed of 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) ; the last two were slightly slower , at 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) . Problems with the Niclausse boilers installed on Freya prompted the Navy to standardize boiler types in future warships .
The ships of the class served in various units in the German fleet , including on the America Station , in the East Asia Squadron , and with the home fleet . Hertha and Hansa participated in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900 , and Vineta was involved in the Venezuela Crisis of 1902 – 1903 . All five ships were modernized between 1905 and 1911 , after which they served as training ships for naval cadets . They were mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group at the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but were quickly withdrawn from front @-@ line service . They served in various secondary roles for the rest of the war . After the end of the conflict , Victoria Louise was converted into a merchant ship , but was broken up in 1923 . The other four ships were scrapped in 1920 – 1921 .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The first three ships of the Victoria Louise class — Victoria Louise , Hertha , and Freya — were 109 @.@ 10 meters ( 357 ft 11 in ) long at the waterline and 110 @.@ 60 m ( 362 ft 10 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 17 @.@ 40 m ( 57 ft 1 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 58 m ( 21 ft 7 in ) forward and 6 @.@ 93 m ( 22 ft 9 in ) . These ships displaced 5 @,@ 660 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 570 long tons ) as designed and 6 @,@ 491 t ( 6 @,@ 388 long tons ) at full combat load . Vineta and Hansa had slightly different dimensions ; they were 109 @.@ 80 m ( 360 ft 3 in ) long at the waterline and 110 @.@ 50 m ( 362 ft 6 in ) overall . Their beam was 17 @.@ 60 m ( 57 ft 9 in ) and drew 7 @.@ 08 m ( 23 ft 3 in ) forward and 7 @.@ 34 m ( 24 ft 1 in ) aft . Their displacement was also higher than the first three ships , at 5 @,@ 885 t ( 5 @,@ 792 long tons ) as designed and 6 @,@ 705 t ( 6 @,@ 599 long tons ) at combat load .
The ships ' hulls were constructed with longitudinal and transverse steel frames ; a single layer of wood planks were used for the hull . A later of Muntz metal sheathing extended up to 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) above the waterline to protect against fouling of the hull . This sheathing was later removed from Victoria Louise , Hertha , and Freya . The hull was divided into twelve watertight compartments , which were later reduced to eleven , with the exception of Freya . The hull also incorporated a double bottom that extended for 60 percent of the length of the hull . The ships ' design set a precedent for later armored cruisers , with large , bulky sides and a combined clipper bow and ram .
The ships ' standard crew was 31 officers and 446 enlisted men , with an additional 9 officers and 41 enlisted while serving as a second command flagship . After their reconstruction into training ships , the crew was substantially enlarged to incorporate the trainees , with 26 officers and 658 sailors , 75 of whom were naval cadets and 300 others were cabin boys . The ships carried a number of smaller boats , including three picket boats , one launch , one pinnace , two cutters , two yawls , and three dinghies . After their modernization , the boats were significantly revised ; the number of picket boats was reduced to one , a barge and a launch were added , the dinghies were removed , and five more cutters were added .
The ships were good sea boats ; they had an easy motion and were dry as a result of their high forecastles . They had a tendency to pitch when steaming downwind , however , and made severe leeway in heavy winds because of their large superstructures . They were difficult to maneuver without the center shaft engaged . They lost only around ten percent speed in a head sea or with the rudder hard over . In addition , as the lower coal bunkers were emptied , the ships became increasingly unstable ; with empty bunkers , the ships could heel over as much as fifteen degrees in a hard turn . The modernization of the ships between 1905 and 1911 rectified this problem . They had a transverse metacentric height of .56 to .73 m ( 1 ft 10 in to 2 ft 5 in ) . As built , the ships were very hot , and ventilation had to be improved before they were commissioned .
= = = Machinery = = =
The propulsion system of all five ships consisted of three vertical 4 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines built by AG Vulcan . Steam was provided by twelve coal @-@ fired boilers from different manufacturers , with the exception of Hansa . Victoria Louise and Vineta had boilers from Dürr AG , Freya had Niclausse boilers , and Hertha had Belleville boilers . Hansa was equipped with eighteen transverse Belleville boilers . The Niclausse boilers in Freya proved to be particularly troublesome , which led the Navy to use only Schulz @-@ Thornycroft or Marine @-@ type boilers in future vessels . In the modernizations between 1905 and 1911 , the ships were re @-@ equipped with transverse Marine @-@ type boilers . The ships originally had three funnels , but after their refits , the boilers were trunked into two funnels .
The ships ' engines were rated at 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) top speed of 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) for the first three ships and 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) for the last two vessels . As built , the ships carried up to 950 t ( 930 long tons ; 1 @,@ 050 short tons ) of coal , which gave them a cruising range of 3 @,@ 412 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 319 km ; 3 @,@ 926 mi ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The more efficient Marine @-@ type boilers installed in 1905 – 1911 increased cruising range to 3 @,@ 840 nmi ( 7 @,@ 110 km ; 4 @,@ 420 mi ) at the same speed . Victoria Louise and Hertha were equipped with four electricity generators with a combined output of 224 to 271 kilowatts ( 300 to 363 hp ) at 110 Volts ; the last three ships had three generators with a total output of 169 to 183 kW ( 227 to 245 hp ) at 110 V. Steering was controlled by a single large rudder .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships ' primary armament consisted of two 21 cm SK L / 40 guns in single gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The guns were supplied with 58 rounds of ammunition each . They had a range of 16 @,@ 300 m ( 53 @,@ 500 ft ) . Eight 15 cm SK L / 40 guns rounded out the offensive gun armament . Four of these guns were mounted in turrets amidships and the other four were placed in casemates . These guns had a range of 13 @,@ 700 m ( 44 @,@ 900 ft ) . Two of the 15 cm guns were removed in the refit .
The ships also carried ten 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns , and an eleventh was added during the modernization . Three longer @-@ barreled 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 35 guns were also added at that time . The gun armament was rounded out by ten machine guns , which were removed during the refit . The ships were also equipped with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes , two launchers were mounted on the broadside and the third was in the bow , all below the waterline . In 1916 , all of the ships of the class were disarmed , with the exception of Freya , which was re @-@ equipped with a single 15 cm gun , four 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns , and fourteen 8 @.@ 8 cm guns of both the L / 30 and L / 35 versions , for use as a gunnery training ship .
Armor protection for the ships was composed of Krupp steel . The main deck was 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick with 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick slopes . The forward conning tower had 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick roof . The aft conning tower was given only splinter protection , with just 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) thick sides . The 21 cm and 15 cm gun turrets had 100 mm thick sides and 30 mm thick roofs . The casemate guns were also given 100 mm worth of armor protection . The ships were also equipped with cork cofferdams .
= = Construction = =
Victoria Louise was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1895 , under construction number 116 . She was launched on 29 March 1897 and was commissioned into the fleet on 20 February 1899 . She cost the Imperial government 10 @,@ 714 @,@ 000 gold marks . Construction of Hertha began in 1895 at the AG Vulcan dockyard in Stettin , under construction number 233 . She was launched on 14 April 1897 and was commissioned on 23 July 1898 , the first ship of the class to enter service . Her construction cost 9 @,@ 932 @,@ 000 marks . The keel @-@ laying of Freya followed in 1895 at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig . She was launched on 27 April 1897 and was commissioned on 20 October 1898 , at the cost of 11 @,@ 094 @,@ 000 marks .
Vineta was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig in 1896 . She was launched on 9 December 1897 and was commissioned into the fleet on 13 September 1899 . She cost 10 @,@ 714 @,@ 000 marks . Hansa , the last ship of the class , was laid down in 1896 at AG Vulcan under construction number 235 . She was launched on 12 March 1898 and was commissioned on 20 April 1899 , at the cost of 10 @,@ 270 @,@ 000 marks . Victoria Louise and Hansa were rebuilt at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel in 1906 – 1908 and 1907 – 1909 , respectively . The other three ships were modernized at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig : Hertha in 1906 – 1908 , Freya in 1905 – 1907 , and Vineta in 1909 – 1911 . Freya was again modified at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig in 1911 – 1913 , and Hansa was rebuilt in 1915 at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel .
= = Service history = =
= = = Victoria Louise = = =
Victoria Louise served with the fleet for the first seven years of her career . During this time , she represented Germany during the funeral of Queen Victoria in 1901 . In 1906 , she was modernized and after 1908 , used as a training ship for naval cadets . In 1909 , she visited the United States , and at the outbreak of World War I , was mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group . She was attacked unsuccessfully by the British submarine HMS E1 in October 1914 , and at the end of the year she was withdrawn from service . She was used as a minelayer and barracks ship based in Danzig for the rest of the war . Victoria Louise was sold in 1919 and converted into a freighter the following year , though she served in this capacity until 1923 , when she was broken up for scrap .
= = = Hertha = = =
Hertha served abroad in the German East Asia Squadron for the first six years of her career ; she served briefly as the Squadron flagship in 1900 . She contributed a landing party to the force that captured the Taku Forts during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 . After returning to Germany in 1905 , she was modernized and used as a training ship in 1908 , following the completion of the refit . She conducted a series of training cruises , and several notable officers served aboard the ship as cadets , including Karl Dönitz and Ernst Lindemann . At the outbreak of World War I , Hertha was mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group , but served in front @-@ line duty only briefly . She was used as a barracks ship after 1915 , and ultimately sold for scrapping in 1920 .
= = = Freya = = =
Freya served in the German fleet for the initial years of her career , unlike her sister ships , all of which served abroad on foreign stations . As a result , she led a fairly uneventful career in the fleet . After a modernization in 1905 – 1907 , Freya was used as a school ship for cadets , one of whom was Günther Lütjens . While visiting Canada in 1908 , she accidentally rammed and sank a Canadian schooner , killing nine sailors . At the outbreak of World War I , Freya was mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group , but served in front @-@ line duty only briefly . She was used as a barracks ship after 1915 , and ultimately sold for scrapping in 1921 .
= = = Vineta = = =
Vineta served abroad in the American Station for the first several years of her career . While on station in the Americas , she participated in the Venezuela Crisis of 1902 – 1903 and bombarded several Venezuelan fortresses . She returned to Germany in 1905 and was used as a torpedo training ship in 1908 . She was modernized in 1909 – 1911 , after which she was used as a school ship for naval cadets . In November 1912 , she participated in an international naval protest of the First Balkan War . At the outbreak of World War I , Vineta was mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group like her sisters , but served in front @-@ line duty only briefly . She was used as a barracks ship after 1915 , and ultimately sold for scrapping in 1920 .
= = = Hansa = = =
Hansa served abroad in the East Asia Squadron for the first six years of her career . Along with Hertha , she contributed a landing party to the force that captured the Taku Forts during the Boxer Rebellion . In August 1904 , she participated in the internment of the Russian battleship Tsesarevich after the Battle of the Yellow Sea during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . After returning to Germany in 1906 , she was modernized and used as a training ship in 1909 , following the completion of the refit . At the outbreak of World War I , Hansa was mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group , but served in front @-@ line duty only briefly . She was used as a barracks ship after 1915 , and ultimately sold for scrapping in 1920 .
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= Pride & Prejudice ( 2005 film ) =
Pride & Prejudice is a 2005 British romantic drama directed by Joe Wright and based on Jane Austen 's novel of the same name , published in 1813 . The film depicts five sisters from an English family of landed gentry as they deal with issues of marriage , morality and misconceptions . Keira Knightley stars in the lead role of Elizabeth Bennet , while Matthew Macfadyen plays her romantic interest Mr Darcy . Produced by Working Title Films in association with StudioCanal , the film was released on 16 September 2005 in the United Kingdom and Ireland and on 11 November in the United States .
Screenwriter Deborah Moggach initially attempted to make her script as faithful to the novel as possible , writing from Elizabeth 's perspective while preserving much of the original dialogue . Wright , who was directing his first feature film , encouraged greater deviation from the text , including changing the dynamics within the Bennet family . Wright and Moggach set the film in an earlier period and avoided depicting a " perfectly clean Regency world " , presenting instead a " muddy hem version " of the time . It was shot entirely on location in England on a 15 @-@ week schedule . Wright found casting difficult due to past performances of particular characters . The filmmakers had to balance who they thought was best for each role with the studio 's desire for stars . Knightley was well @-@ known in part from her work in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series , while Macfadyen had no international name recognition .
The film 's themes emphasise realism , romanticism and family . It was marketed to a younger , mainstream audience ; promotional items noted that it came from the producers of 2001 's romantic comedy Bridget Jones 's Diary before acknowledging its provenance as an Austen novel . Pride & Prejudice earned a worldwide gross of approximately $ 121 million , which was considered a commercial success . Pride & Prejudice earned a rating of 82 % from review aggregator Metacritic , labeling it universally acclaimed . It earned four nominations at the 78th Academy Awards , including a Best Actress nomination for Knightley . Austen scholars have opined that Wright 's work created a new hybrid genre by blending traditional traits of the heritage film with " youth @-@ oriented filmmaking techniques " .
= = Plot = =
During the late 18th century , the Bennet family , consisting of Mr. and Mrs. Bennet and their five daughters — Jane , Elizabeth , Mary , Kitty and Lydia — live in comparative financial independence as gentry on a working farm in rural England . As Longbourn is destinhomed to be inherited by Mr. Bennet 's cousin , Mr. Collins , Mrs. Bennet is anxious to marry off her five daughters before Mr. Bennet dies . Wealthy bachelor Charles Bingley has recently moved into Netherfield , a large , nearby estate . He is introduced to local society at an assembly ball , along with his haughty sister Caroline and reserved friend , Mr. Darcy , who " owns half of Derbyshire . " Bingley is enchanted with the gentle and beautiful Jane , while Elizabeth takes an instant dislike to Darcy after he coldly rebuffs her attempts at conversation and she overhears him insult her . When Jane becomes sick on a visit to Netherfield , Elizabeth goes to stay with her , verbally sparring with Caroline and Darcy .
Later the Bennets are visited by Mr. Collins , a pompous clergyman who talks of little but his patroness , Lady Catherine de Bourgh . After learning from Mrs. Bennet that Jane is expected to become engaged soon , Collins decides to pursue Elizabeth . Meanwhile , the handsome and charming Lieutenant Wickham of the newly @-@ arrived militia captures the girls ' attention ; he wins Elizabeth 's sympathy by telling her that Darcy had cheated him of his inheritance . At a ball at Netherfield , Elizabeth , startled by Darcy 's abrupt appearance and request , accepts a dance with him , but vows to her best friend Charlotte Lucas that she has " sworn to loathe him for all eternity . " During the dance , she attacks him with witty sarcasm and Darcy responds in kind . At the same ball , Charlotte expresses concern to Elizabeth that Jane 's behaviour to Mr. Bingley is too reserved and that Bingley may not realise she loves him . The next day , at Longbourn , Collins proposes to Elizabeth , but she declines . When Bingley unexpectedly returns to London , Elizabeth dispatches a heartbroken Jane to the city to stay with their aunt and uncle , the Gardiners , in hopes of re @-@ establishing contact between Jane and Bingley . Later , Elizabeth is appalled to learn that Charlotte will marry Collins to gain financial security and avoid remaining a spinster .
Months later , Elizabeth visits the newly @-@ wed Mr. and Mrs. Collins at Rosings , Lady Catherine 's manor estate ; they are invited to dine there , and meet Darcy and Colonel Fitzwilliam , who it transpires are Lady Catherine 's nephews . Here Darcy shows greater interest in Elizabeth , especially when she replies to Lady Catherine 's jabs with spirited wit . The next day , not realizing that Jane is Elizabeth 's sister , Colonel Fitzwilliam lets slip to Elizabeth that Darcy had separated Bingley from Jane . Distraught , she flees outside , but Darcy chooses that moment to track her down and propose marriage . He claims that he loves her " most ardently , " despite her " lower rank . " Elizabeth refuses him , citing his treatment of Jane and Bingley and of Wickham ; they argue fiercely , with Darcy explaining that he had been convinced that Jane did not return Bingley 's love . Darcy leaves angry and heartbroken . He finds Elizabeth later and presents her with a letter , which alleges Wickham is a gambler who demanded and received cash in lieu of the position intended for him by Darcy 's father . It is further claimed that upon being refused more money , Wickham had attempted to elope with Darcy 's 15 @-@ year @-@ old sister , Georgiana , in order to obtain her £ 30 @,@ 000 inheritance , but abandoned her upon learning that he would never receive the money .
The Gardiners take Elizabeth on a trip to the Peak District and visit Darcy 's estate , Pemberley , believing that he is away travelling . Elizabeth is stunned by its wealth and beauty and hears nothing but good things about Darcy from his housekeeper . There , she accidentally runs into Darcy , who has arrived home early . He invites her and the Gardiners to meet his sister . His manners have softened considerably and Georgiana takes an instant liking to Elizabeth . When Elizabeth learns that her immature and flirtatious youngest sister Lydia has run away with Wickham , she tearfully blurts out the news to Darcy and the Gardiners before returning home . Her family expects social ruin for having a disgraced daughter , but they are soon relieved to hear that Mr. Gardiner had discovered the pair in London and that they had married . Lydia later reveals to Elizabeth that Darcy had found them and had paid for the marriage .
When Bingley and Darcy return to Netherfield , Jane accepts Bingley 's proposal . The same evening , Lady Catherine unexpectedly visits Elizabeth and insists that she renounce Darcy , as he is supposedly engaged to her own daughter , Anne . Elizabeth refuses and , unable to sleep , walks on the moor at dawn . There , she meets Darcy , also unable to sleep after hearing of his aunt 's behaviour . He admits his continued love and Elizabeth accepts his proposal . Mr. Bennet gives his consent after Elizabeth assures him of her love for Darcy . In the U.S. release of the film , an additional last scene shows the newlyweds outside of Pemberley showing affection for each other .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and adaptation = = =
As with several recent Jane Austen adaptations , Pride & Prejudice was an Anglo @-@ American collaboration , between British studio Working Title Films ( in association with French company StudioCanal ) and its American parent company Universal Studios . Working Title at the time was known for mainstream productions like Bridget Jones 's Diary and Love Actually that drew international audiences , rather than films in the historical drama genre . Its co @-@ chairman Tim Bevan explained that the studio wanted to " bring Austen 's original story , concentrating on Lizzie , back in all its glory to the big screen for audiences everywhere to enjoy " . Given a " relatively inexpensive " budget of £ 22 million ( $ 28 million ) , the film was expected to excel at the box office , particularly based on the commercial successes of Romeo + Juliet ( 1996 ) and Shakespeare in Love ( 1998 ) as well as the resurgence of interest in Austen 's works .
Given little instruction from the studio , screenwriter Deborah Moggach spent over two years adapting Pride and Prejudice for film . She had sole discretion with the early script , and eventually wrote approximately ten drafts . Realising it held " a perfect three @-@ act structure " , Moggach attempted to be as faithful to the original novel as possible , calling it " so beautifully shaped as a story – the ultimate romance about two people who think they hate each other but who are really passionately in love . I felt , ' If it 's not broken , don 't fix it . ' " While she could not reproduce the novel 's " fiercely wonderful dialogue in its entirety " , she attempted to keep much of it .
Moggach 's first script was closest to Austen 's book , but later versions trimmed extraneous storylines and characters . Moggach initially wrote all scenes from Elizabeth 's point of view in keeping with the novel ; she later set a few scenes from the male perspective , such as when Bingley practices his marriage proposal , in order to " show Darcy and Bingley being close " and to indicate Darcy was a " human being instead of being stuck up " . Small details were inserted that acknowledged wider events outside of the characters ' circle , such as those then occurring in France . While Moggach is the only screenwriter credited for the film , playwright Lee Hall also made early additions to the script .
Television director Joe Wright was hired in early 2004 , making Pride & Prejudice his directional feature film debut . He was considered a surprising choice for a film in the romance drama genre due to his past work with social realism . Wright 's body of work had impressed the producers , who were looking for a fresh perspective ; they sent him a script despite the fact that Wright had not read the novel . He commented that at the time , " I didn 't know if I was really all that interested ; I thought I was a little bit more mainstream than this , a bit more edgy . But then I read the script and I was surprised I was very moved by it " . He next read the novel , which he called " an amazing piece of character observation and it really seemed like the first piece of British Realism . It felt like it was a true story ; had a lot of truth in it about understanding how to love other people , understanding how to overcome prejudices , understanding the things that separate us from other people ... things like that . "
The only adaptation of Pride and Prejudice Wright had seen was the 1940 production , which was the last time the novel had been adapted into a feature film . The director purposely did not watch the other productions , both out of fear he would inadvertently steal ideas and because he wanted to be as original as possible . He did , however , watch other period films , including Ang Lee 's Sense and Sensibility , Roger Michell 's Persuasion , and John Schlesinger 's Far from the Madding Crowd ; Wright cited this last film as the greatest influence on his own adaptation , calling it " very real and very honest – and it is quite romantic as well " . In trying to create an atmosphere of charged flirtation , the director also gained inspiration from teen romance films such as Sixteen Candles and The Breakfast Club .
Wright 's hire occurred while Moggach was on her third draft . Despite her desire to work closely with Austen 's dialogue , Wright made an effort to not " be too reverential to [ it ] . I don 't believe people spoke like that then ; it 's not natural . " While a few scenes , such as the discussion over accomplished women , aligned closely with the author 's original dialogue , many others " substituted instead a mixture of modern idiom and archaic @-@ sounding sentence structure " . One alteration concerned politeness ; Wright noted that while Austen 's work had characters waiting before speaking , he believed that " particularly in big families of girls , everyone tends to speak over each other , finishing each other 's sentences , etc . So I felt that the Bennet family 's conversations would be overlapping like that . " Sense and Sensibility actress and screenwriter Emma Thompson aided in script development , though she opted to be uncredited . She advised the nervous director about adapting Austen for the screen and made dialogue recommendations , such as with parts of the Collins @-@ Charlotte storyline .
Citing the year Austen first wrote a draft of the novel , Wright and Moggach changed the period setting from 1813 ( the novel 's publication date ) to the late eighteenth century ; this decision was partly because Wright wanted to highlight the differences within an England influenced by the French Revolution , as he was fascinated that it had " caused an atmosphere among the British aristocracy of fear " . Additionally , Wright chose the earlier period because he hated dresses with an empire silhouette , which were popular in the later period . The decision helped make the film visually distinct from other recent Austen adaptations . In comparison to the popular 1995 BBC version , which featured Colin Firth and Jennifer Ehle , producer Paul Webster desired to make an adaptation that " doesn 't conform to the television drama stereotypes of a perfect clean Regency world " . Wright and Moggach opted for a " muddy hem version " of Longbourn , presenting a more rural setting than in previous adaptations out of a desire to depict the Bennets in " very close proximity to their rural life " and to emphasise their relative poverty . While the degree of poverty was criticised by some critics , Wright felt that the " mess adds to the drama of the predicament that the family were in " , and helps contrast the Bennets , Darcys , and Bingleys .
= = = Casting = = =
Wright found casting of the film to be difficult because he was very particular about " the types of people [ he ] wanted to work with " . While interviewing to direct , he insisted that the actors match the ages of the characters in the novel . Wright specifically cast actors that had rapport on and off screen , and insisted that they partake in three weeks of rehearsal in improvisation workshops . Wright also had to balance who he thought was best for each role with what the producers wanted – mainly a big name attraction . Though Wright had not initially pictured someone as attractive as English actress Keira Knightley for the lead role of Elizabeth Bennet , he cast her after realising that the actress " is really a tomboy [ and ] has a lively mind and a great sense of humour " . Knightley at the time was known for Bend It Like Beckham and the Pirates of the Caribbean film series . She had been an Austen fan since age 7 , but initially feared taking the role out of apprehension that she would be doing " an absolute copy of Jennifer Ehle 's performance " , which she deeply admired . Knightley believed Elizabeth is " what you aspire to be : she 's funny , she 's witty and intelligent . She 's a fully rounded and very much loved character . " For the period , the actress studied etiquette , history and dancing but ran into trouble when she acquired a short haircut while preparing for her role in the bounty hunter film Domino .
Webster found the casting of Darcy especially hard due to the character 's iconic status and because " Colin Firth cast a very long shadow " as the 1995 Darcy . Wright later commented that his choice of Knightley allowed him to cast comparative unknown Matthew Macfadyen , something that would have been impossible had he chosen a less well @-@ known actress for Elizabeth Bennet . Macfadyen at the time was known for his role in the British television spy series Spooks , but had no recognition internationally . A fan of the actor 's television work , Wright called Macfadyen " a proper manly man ... I didn 't want a pretty boy kind of actor . His properties were the ones I felt I needed [ for Darcy ] . Matthew 's a great big hunk of a guy . " Macfadyen did not read the novel before filming , preferring to rely solely on the script .
According to Wright , Rosamund Pike was cast as the eldest sister " because [ he ] knew she wasn 't going to play her as a nice , simple person . Jane has a real interior world , she has her heart broken . " Despite being Pike 's ex @-@ boyfriend , Simon Woods was cast as her romantic interest Mr Bingley . The other three Bennet sisters were played by Talulah Riley , Carey Mulligan , and Jena Malone , the only American actress among them . Wright believed Malone to have a " pretty faultless English accent " . Mulligan heard about the casting call at a dinner hosted by Julian Fellowes , to whom she had written a letter after failing to get into drama school ; she won the part after three auditions . Tamzin Merchant appears as Georgiana Darcy ; she was hired despite having no previous acting experience after she wrote a letter to the casting director . In addition to Merchant , Pride & Prejudice was the feature film debut of both Mulligan and Riley .
Donald Sutherland reminded Wright of his own father and was cast as the Bennet patriarch ; Wright thought the actor possessed the " strength to handle those six women " . Brenda Blethyn was hired to play Mrs Bennet , whom Moggach believed to be the unsung heroine of the film ; Wright explained that it was " a tricky part [ to fill ] , as she can be very annoying ; you want to stop her chattering and shrieking . But Brenda has the humour and the heart to show the amount of love and care Mrs Bennet has for her daughters . " Wright convinced veteran actress Judi Dench to join the cast as Lady Catherine de Bourgh by writing her a letter that read " I love it when you play a bitch . Please come and be a bitch for me . " Dench had only one week available to shoot her scenes , forcing Wright to make them his first days of filming .
= = = Costume design = = =
Known for her BAFTA award @-@ winning work on the 2004 film Vera Drake , Jacqueline Durran was hired as the costume designer . She and Wright approached his film " as a difficult thing to tackle " because of their desire to distinguish it from the television adaptation . Due to Wright 's dislike of the high waistline , Durran focused on later eighteenth century fashions that often included a corseted , natural waistline rather than an empire silhouette ( which became popular after the 1790s ) . A generational divide was established : the older characters dress in mid @-@ eighteenth century fashions while the young wear " a sort of proto @-@ Regency style of hair and dress " . Mrs Bennet was of the older generation , and her dresses appeared to have been mended .
Durran 's costumes also helped emphasise social rank among the different characters ; Caroline Bingley for instance is introduced in an empire silhouetted dress , clothing that would have then been at the height of fashion . During her interview , Durran opined that all the women wear white at the Netherfield Ball due to its contemporary popularity , an idea that Wright credits as his reason for hiring her . All of the costumes were handmade , as clothing was at the time . However , costumes and hairstyles were adjusted to appeal to contemporary audiences , sacrificing historical accuracy .
To help differentiate the Bennet sisters , Durran viewed Elizabeth as the " tomboy " , clothing her in earthy colours because of her love of the countryside . For the other sisters , Durran remarked , " Jane was the most refined and yet it 's still all a bit slapdash and homemade , because the Bennets have no money . One of the main things Joe wanted was for the whole thing to have a provincial feel . Mary is the bluestocking : serious and practical . And then Lydia and Kitty are a bit Tweedledum and Tweedledee in a kind of teenage way . I tried to make it so that they 'd be sort of mirror images . If one 's wearing a green dress , the other will wear a green jacket ; so you always have a visual asymmetry between the two . " In contrast to the 1940 film , the 2005 production displayed the Bennet sisters in worn @-@ down but comfortable dresses that allowed the actors better moveability .
Mr Darcy 's costume went through a series of phases . Durran noted :
" The first time we see him he 's at Meriton [ sic ] , where he has a very stiffly tailored jacket on and he 's quite contained and rigid . He stays in that rigid form for the first part of the film . By the time we get to the proposal that goes wrong in the rain , we move to a similar cut , but a much softer fabric . And then later he 's got a completely different cut of coat , not interlined and he wears it undone . The nth degree is him walking through the mist in the morning , completely undressed by 18th @-@ century standards . It 's absolutely unlikely , but then Lizzie 's in her nightie , so what can you say ? "
= = = Filming = = =
Moggach believed the novel was very filmable , " despite it containing no description and being a very unvisual book " . To Wright , many other period films had relied on paintings for inspiration rather than photographs , causing them to appear unreal . He thus used " Austen 's prose [ to give him ] many visual references for the people in the story " , including using close @-@ up shots of various characters . The filmmakers also changed several scenes to more romantic locales than those in the book . For instance , in the film , Darcy first proposes outdoors in a rainstorm at a building with neoclassical architecture ; in the book , this scene takes place inside a parsonage . In the film , his second proposal occurs on the misty moors as dawn breaks ; in the book , he and Elizabeth are walking down a country lane in broad daylight . Wright has acknowledged that " there are a lot of period film clichés ; some of them are in the film and some are not , but for me it was important to question them " .
During script development , the crew spent four to five months scouting locations , creating a " constant going back and forth between script and location " . The film was shot entirely on location within England on an 11 @-@ week schedule during the 2004 summer . Co @-@ producer Paul Webster noted that " it is quite unusual for a movie this size to be shot entirely on location . Part of Joe [ Wright ] ' s idea was to try to create a reality which allows the actors to relax and feel at one with their environment . " Working under production designer Sarah Greenwood and set decorator Katie Spencer , the crew filmed on seven estates in six different counties . Because " nothing exists in the United Kingdom that is untouched by the twenty @-@ first century " , many of the sites required substantial work to make them suitable for filming . Visual effects company Double Negative digitally restored several locations to make them contemporaneous ; they eradicated weeds , enhanced gold plating on window frames , and removed anachronisms such as gravel driveways and electricity pylons . Double Negative also developed the typeface used for the film 's title sequence .
Production staff selected particularly grand @-@ looking residences to better convey the wealth and power of certain characters . Locations included Chatsworth House in Derbyshire , the largest privately held country house in England . Chatsworth and Wilton House in Salisbury stood in for Pemberley . After a search of various sites in England , the moated manor house Groombridge Place in Kent was chosen for Longbourn . Location manager Adam Richards believed Groombridge had an " immense charm " that was " untouched by post @-@ 17th Century development " . Reflecting Wright 's choice of realism , Groombridge 's interior was designed to be " shabby chic " . Representing Netherfield Park was the late @-@ 18th century site Basildon Park in Berkshire , leading it to close for seven weeks to allow time for filming . Burghley House in Cambridgeshire stood in for Rosings , while the adjacent town of Stamford served as Meryton . Other locations included Haddon Hall ( for The Inn at Lambton ) , the Temple of Apollo and Palladian Bridge of Stourhead ( for the Gardens of Rosings ) , Hunsford ( for Collins ' parsonage and church ) and Peak District ( for Elizabeth and the Gardiners ' tour ) . The first dance scenes were shot on a set in a potato warehouse in Lincolnshire with the employment of local townspeople as extras ; this was the only set the crew built that was not already in existence .
= = = Music = = =
Italian composer Dario Marianelli wrote the film score , the first of his four collaborations with Wright . Their relationship began when Paul Webster , who had worked with Marianelli on the 2001 film The Warrior , introduced him to Wright . In their first conversation , Marianelli and Wright discussed the early piano sonatas of Ludwig van Beethoven , which " became a point of reference " and " starting point " for the original score . In addition to Beethoven , pieces such as " Meryton Townhall " and " The Militia Marches In " ( featuring the flute ) were inspired by the film 's period , with the intention that they could conceivably have been heard during that time . " Meryton Townhall " and " Another Dance " contained actual dance cues that were fitting for the late eighteenth century . According to music critic William Ruhlmann , Marianelli 's score had a " strong Romantic flavour to accompany the familiar romantic plot " .
Multiple scenes feature actors playing pianos , forcing Marianelli to complete several of the pieces before filming began . According to him , " Those pieces already contained the seeds of what I developed later on into the score , when I abandoned historical correctness for a more intimate and emotional treatment of the story " . Marianelli was not present when the actors played his music due to the birth of his second daughter . The soundtrack featured French pianist Jean @-@ Yves Thibaudet , whom Wright considered one of the greatest piano players in the world . Thibaudet was accompanied by the English Chamber Orchestra . The soundtrack ultimately contained seventeen instrumental tracks of music organised in a different way from the film .
= = = Editing = = =
In contrast to the five @-@ hour BBC adaptation , Wright compressed his film into two hours and nine minutes of screen time . He remarked that the film is " obviously about Elizabeth and Darcy , following them and anything that detracts or diverts you from that story is what you have to cut " . Some of the most notable changes from the original book include time compression of several major sequences , including the departure of Wickham and the militia , Elizabeth 's visit to Rosings Park and Hunsford Parsonage , Elizabeth 's visit to Pemberley , Lydia 's elopement and subsequent crisis ; the elimination of several supporting characters , including Mr and Mrs Hurst , Mr and Mrs Phillips , Lady and Maria Lucas , Mrs Younge , several of Lydia 's friends ( including Colonel and Mrs Forster ) and various military officers and townspeople ; and the elimination of several sections in which characters reflect or converse on events that have recently occurred — for example , Elizabeth 's chapter @-@ long change of mind after reading Darcy 's letter .
Moggach and Wright debated how to end the film , but knew they did not want to have a wedding scene " because we didn 't want Elizabeth to come off as the girl who became a queen at this lavish wedding , or for it to be corny " . Shortly before the North American release , the film was modified to include a final scene ( not in the novel ) of the married Darcys enjoying a romantic evening and passionate kiss at Pemberley in an attempt to attract sentimental viewers ; this became a source of complaint for the Jane Austen Society of North America ( JASNA ) . After watching a preview of the film before its wide release , former JASNA president Elsa Solender commented , " It has nothing at all of Jane Austen in it , is inconsistent with the first two @-@ thirds of the film , insults the audience with its banality and ought to be cut before release " . It had been removed from the British version after preview audiences found it unintentionally humorous ; however , later audiences complained that they were excluded from viewing this version , causing the film to be re @-@ released in the UK and Ireland 10 weeks after the original UK premiere date . The original British version ended with Mr Bennet 's blessing upon Elizabeth and Darcy 's union , thus circumventing the last chapter in the novel , which summarises the lives of the Darcys and the other main characters over the next several years .
= = Major themes and analysis = =
= = = Romanticism and realism = = =
Film , literary , and Austen scholars noted the appearance of romance and romanticism within Pride & Prejudice , especially in comparison to previous adaptations . Sarah Ailwood marked the film as " an essentially Romantic interpretation of Austen 's novel " , citing as evidence Wright 's attention to nature as a means to " position Elizabeth and Darcy as Romantic figures ... Wright 's Pride & Prejudice takes as its central focus Austen 's concern with exploring the nature of the Romantic self and the possibilities for women and men to achieve individual self @-@ fulfillment within an oppressive patriarchal social and economic order . " Likewise , Catherine Stewart @-@ Beer of Oxford Brookes University called Elizabeth 's presence on the Derbyshire cliff a " stunning , magical evocation of Wright 's strong stylistic brand of Postmodern Romanticism " , but found this less like Austen and more reminiscent of Emily Brontë 's Wuthering Heights . In her analysis , University of Provence scholar Lydia Martin concluded that the " Romantic bias of the film is shown through the shifts in the characters ' relationships , the soundtrack and the treatment of landscape " .
Realism is a prominent aspect of the film , a theme confirmed by Wright in interviews as well as the DVD audio commentary . In a 2007 article , Ursinus College film studies professor Carole Dole argued that Pride & Prejudice is " a hybrid that embraces both an irreverent realism to which younger audiences are accustomed ( and which reflects the director 's realist aesthetic ) and the classic heritage film 's reverence for country houses , attractive landscapes and authentic period detail " . Such " irreverent realism " included the depiction of Longbourn as a working farm complete with chickens , cattle and pigs ; as Dole explains , " The agricultural realities of 1790s England are equally evident in the enclosed yard with barn and hay where Lizzie twirls barefoot over the mud on a rope swing " . Referring to recent adaptations such as 1999 's gritty Mansfield Park , Dole cited Pride & Prejudice as evidence that the heritage film is still around but has " been transformed into a more flexible genre " . Jessica Durgan agreed with this assessment , writing that the film " simultaneously reject [ s ] and embrac [ es ] heritage to attract a larger audience " .
= = = Family = = =
Raised with three sisters , Moggach was particularly interested in the story 's family dynamics . Brock University professor Barbara K. Seeber believed that in contrast to the novel , the 2005 adaptation emphasises the familial over the romantic . Evidence of this can be seen in how Pride & Prejudice " significantly recast the Bennet family , in particular its patriarch , presenting Mr Bennet as a sensitive and kind father whose role in the family 's misfortunes is continually downplayed . " Seeber further observed that the film is " the first to present Mrs Bennet in a sympathetic light " , with Mr Bennet displayed as " an attentive husband as well as a loving father . "
Stewart @-@ Beer and Austen scholar Sally B. Palmer noted alterations within the depiction of the Bennet family ; Stewart @-@ Beer remarked that while their family home " might be chaotic , in this version it is , at heart , a happy home — much happier and much less dysfunctional , than Austen 's original version of Longbourn ... For one , Mr and Mrs Bennet actually seem to like each other , even love each other , a characterisation which is a far cry from the source text . " Producer Paul Webster acknowledged the familial theme in the DVD featurette " A Bennet Family Portrait " , remarking " Yes , it 's a great love story between Elizabeth Bennet and Fitzwilliam Darcy , but underpinning it all is the kind of love that runs this family . "
= = = Depiction of Elizabeth Bennet = = =
Wright intended for the film to be " as subjective as possible " in being from Elizabeth 's perspective ; the audience first glimpses Darcy when she does . This focus on Elizabeth features some dramatic changes from the novel . Knightley 's Elizabeth has an " increasingly aloof and emotionally distant " relationship with her family . Evidence of this can be seen with Elizabeth 's gradual alienation from Jane as the film progresses ; this is in contrast to the book , where Elizabeth confides more of her feelings to Jane after difficult events . Wright wanted to create a " real " relationship between the two sisters and have them grow apart , as he thought the book depicted them as too " syrupy . " Moggach 's intent was for Elizabeth to " keep secrets to herself . They are a great burden to her ... As she keeps all this to herself , we feel for her more and more . The truest comedy , I believe , is born from pain . "
In her " feisty , impassioned " interactions with Darcy and " rebellious refusal to ' perform ' " for Lady Catherine , Stewart @-@ Beer sees Knightley 's depiction as " far removed from Austen 's original Elizabeth , who has a greater sense of grounded maturity , even though both Elizabeths have an occasional inclination to fluster , fun and giggles . " According to George Washington University professor Laurie Kaplan , while Wright 's focus on Elizabeth is consistent with the novel , the screenplay removed her line of self @-@ recognition : " Till this moment , I never knew myself " . Kaplan characterises the sentence as Elizabeth 's " most important " , and believes its deletion " violates not only the spirit and the essence of Austen 's story but the viewer 's expectations as well . "
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
After a string of Jane Austen semi @-@ adaptions in the late 1990s and early 2000s , Pride & Prejudice was positioned to take audiences " back into the world of period drama and what many saw as a more authentic version of Austen . " While the novel was known to audiences , the large number of related productions required the film to distinguish itself . It was marketed to attract mainstream , young viewers , with one observer referring to it as " the ultimate chick @-@ flick romance " and " more commercial than previous big @-@ screen Austen adaptations . " Another wrote that it brings " millennial girlhood to the megaplex ... If Ehle 's Lizzie is every forty- , or fifty @-@ something 's favorite independent , even ' mature , ' Austen heroine , Knightley is every twenty @-@ something 's sexpot good girl . " An ampersand replaced the word " and " in the film title , similar to the 1996 postmodern film Romeo + Juliet .
Already a star at the time of release , Knightley 's appearance in the film was emphasised by featuring her in all promotional materials ( similar to Colin Firth 's prominent appearance in the 1995 adaptation ) . Several commentators likened the main poster of Pride & Prejudice to that of 1995 's Sense and Sensibility , which was seen as an attempt to attract the same demographic . Advertising noted that the film came " from the producers of Bridget Jones 's Diary " , a 2001 romantic comedy film , before mentioning Austen . Leading up to the release , fans were allowed to download pictures and screensavers online , which emphasised the differences between Pride & Prejudice and previous adaptations . Lydia Martin wrote that in contrast to past Pride and Prejudice productions , marketing materials downplayed the " suggested antagonism between the heroes " in favour of highlighting a " romantic relationship " , as can be seen with the positioning of the characters as well as with the tagline , " Sometimes the last person on earth you want to be with is the one you can 't be without . "
= = = Box office = = =
On 11 September 2005 , Pride & Prejudice premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival as a special Gala Presentation . The film was released in cinemas on 16 September in the United Kingdom and Ireland . It achieved the number one spot in its first week , earning £ 2 @.@ 5 million ( $ 4 @.@ 6 million ) while playing on 397 screens . The film stayed at the top for two more weeks , earning by then a total of over £ 9 million at the UK box office . It was featured on 412 screens at its widest domestic release .
On 11 November 2005 , the film debuted in the United States with an opening weekend of $ 2 @.@ 9 million on 215 screens . Two weeks later , it played on 1 @,@ 299 screens and box office returns increased to $ 7 @.@ 2 million ; the film left cinemas the week of 24 February 2006 with a total US gross of $ 38 @,@ 405 @,@ 088 . Jack Foley , the president of distribution of Focus Features , the film 's US distributor , attributed Pride & Prejudice 's success in America to Austen 's appeal to " the boomer market " and its status as a known " brand " .
Pride & Prejudice was released in an additional fifty @-@ nine countries between September 2005 and May 2006 by United International Pictures . With a worldwide gross of $ 121 @,@ 147 @,@ 947 , it was the 72nd highest grossing film of 2005 in the US and was the 41st highest internationally .
= = = Home media = = =
In the US and UK , Universal Studios Home Entertainment released the standard VHS and DVD in February 2006 for both widescreen and fullframe ; attached bonus features included audio commentary by director Joe Wright , a look into Austen 's life and the ending scene of Elizabeth and Darcy kissing . On 13 November 2007 , Universal released the deluxe edition DVD to coincide with the theatrical arrival of Wright 's 2007 film Atonement . The deluxe edition included both widescreen and fullscreen features , the original soundtrack CD , a collectible book and booklet , as well as a number of special features not included in the original DVD . In the US , a Blu @-@ ray version of the film was released by Universal on 26 January 2010 , which also contained bonus features .
= = Reception = =
Pride & Prejudice was only the second faithful film version after " the famed , but oddly flawed , black @-@ and @-@ white 1940 adaptation , starring Greer Garson and Laurence Olivier " , and until 2005 , The Times considered the 1995 television adaptation " so dominant , so universally adored , [ that ] it has lingered in the public consciousness as a cinematic standard . " Wright 's film consequently met with some initial scepticism from fans , especially in relation to plot changes and casting choices . Comparing six major adaptations of Pride and Prejudice in 2005 , The Daily Mirror gave the only top marks of 9 out of 10 to the 1995 serial and the 2005 film , leaving the other adaptations behind with six or fewer points . The film received a " certified fresh " approval rating of 85 % , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 7 out of 10 , according to review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes . The website 's consensus reads : " Sure , it 's another adaptation of cinema 's fave Jane Austen novel , but key performances and a modern filmmaking sensibility make this familiar period piece fresh and enjoyable . " Metacritic reported an average score of 82 out of 100 , based on 37 reviews and classified the film as " universally acclaimed " .
Critics claimed the film 's time constraints did not capture the depth and complexity of the television serials and called Wright 's adaptation " obviously [ not as ] daring or revisionist " as the serial . JASNA president Joan Klingel Ray preferred the young age of Knightley and Macfadyen , saying that Jennifer Ehle had formerly been " a little too ' heavy ' for the role . " Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian , while praising Knightley for an outstanding performance " which lifts the whole movie " , considered the casting of the leads " arguably a little more callow than Firth and Ehle . " He does add that " Only a snob , a curmudgeon , or someone with necrophiliac loyalty to the 1995 BBC version with Colin Firth and Jennifer Ehle could fail to enjoy [ Knightley 's ] performance . " At the time , BBC film critic Stella Papamichael considered it Knightley 's " best performance yet . " Critics were divided about Macfadyen 's portrayal of Darcy , expressing pleasant surprise , dislike for his lack of gradual emotional shift as in the novel , and praise for his matching the insecure and sensitive personality of the book character better than Firth .
Critics also drew attention to other aspects of the film . Writing for The Sydney Morning Herald , Sandra Hall criticised Wright 's attention to realism for being " careless with the customs and conventions that were part of the fabric of Austen 's world . " In another review , Time Out magazine lamented the absence of Austen 's " brilliant sense of irony " , remarking that the film 's " romantic melodrama 's played up at the expense of her razor @-@ sharp wit . " More positively , Derek Elley of Variety magazine praised Wright and Moggach for " extracting the youthful essence " of the novel while also " providing a richly detailed setting " under Greenwood and Durran 's supervision . Equally pleased with the film was the San Francisco Chronicle 's Ruthe Stein , who wrote that Wright made a " spectacular feature film debut " that is " creatively reimagined and sublimely entertaining " . Claudia Puig of USA Today called it " a stellar adaptation , bewitching the viewer completely and incandescently with an exquisite blend of emotion and wit . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Impact and legacy = =
Wright 's adaptation failed to have the same cultural impact as the 1995 serial and has since attracted sharply @-@ divided opinions . However , even three years after the release , Knightley was still associated with Elizabeth Bennet among a generation of young viewers who had not seen the 1995 production . Given the varied opinions about the film , JASNA published an edited special issue of its online journal Persuasions On @-@ Line in 2007 with the collaboration of nineteen Austen scholars from six countries ; the intent was to foster discussion and stimulate scholarly analysis . JASNA had done this only once before , for the 1996 film Emma .
Pride & Prejudice impacted later productions in the costume drama and heritage film genres . Literary critics protested that Wright 's adaptation effectively " popularized Austen 's celebrated romance and brought her novel to the screen as an easy visual read for an undemanding mainstream audience . " Carole Dole noted that the film 's success " only made it more likely that future adaptations of Austen will feature , if not necessarily mud , then at least youthful and market @-@ tested performers and youth @-@ oriented filmmaking techniques balanced with the visual pleasures of the heritage film . " She cited Anne Hathaway in the 2007 film Becoming Jane as an example . Jessica Durgan added that Pride & Prejudice conceived a new hybrid genre by rejecting the visual cues of the heritage film , which attracted " youth and mainstream audiences without alienating the majority of heritage fans . "
Production of Pride & Prejudice began Wright 's relationship with Working Title Films , the first of four collaborations . Many members of the film 's cast and crew joined Wright in his later directorial efforts . For his adaptation of Atonement , which he viewed as " a direct reaction to Pride & Prejudice " , Wright hired Knightley , Blethyn , Marianelli , Thibaudet , Greenwood , and Durran . Atonement employed themes similar to Austen 's , including the notion of a young writer living in " an isolated English country house " who " mixes up desires and fantasies , truths and fiction . " Wright 's 2009 film The Soloist included Hollander , Malone , and Marianelli , while Hollander was also featured in Hanna ( 2011 ) . Wright 's 2012 adaptation of Anna Karenina features Knightley , Macfadyen , Marianelli , Durran , and Greenwood and is produced by Bevan , Eric Fellner , and Webster .
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = Essays and journals = = = =
= = = = Interviews = = = =
= = = = Newspaper and magazine articles = = = =
= = = = Online = = = =
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= Michael the Brave =
Michael the Brave ( Romanian : Mihai Viteazu ( l ) pronounced [ miˈhaj viˈte ̯ azu ( l ) ] or Mihai Bravu pronounced [ miˈhaj ˈbravu ] , Hungarian : Vitéz Mihály ; 1558 – 9 August 1601 ) was the Prince of Wallachia ( as Michael II , 1593 – 1601 ) , and of Moldavia ( 1600 ) . He is regarded as one of Romania 's greatest national heroes .
His rule over Wallachia began in the autumn of 1593 . Two years later , war with the Ottomans began , a conflict in which the Prince fought the Battle of Călugăreni , considered one of the most important battles of his reign . Although the Wallachians emerged victorious from the battle , Michael was forced to retreat with his troops and wait for aid from his allies , Prince Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania and Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II . The war continued until a peace finally emerged in January 1597 , but this lasted for only a year and a half . Peace was again reached in late 1599 , when Michael was unable to continue the war due to lack of support from his allies .
In 1599 , Michael won the Battle of Şelimbăr and soon entered Alba Iulia , becoming the imperial governor ( i.e. de facto ruler ) of Transylvania . A few months later , Michael 's troops invaded Moldavia and reached its capital , Iaşi . The Moldavian leader Ieremia Movilă fled to Poland and Michael was declared Prince of Moldavia . Michael kept the control of all three provinces for less than a year before the nobles of Transylvania and certain boyars in Moldavia and Wallachia rose against him in a series of revolts . Thereafter , Michael allied with the Imperial General Giorgio Basta and defeated an uprising of the Hungarian nobility at Gurăslău in Transylvania . Immediately after this victory , Rudolf ordered the assassination of Michael , an action carried out on 9 August 1601 by Basta 's men .
= = Early life = =
Michael was born under the family name of Pătraşcu . In 1601 , during a stay in Prague , he was portrayed by the painter Aegidius Sadeler , who mentioned on the portrait the words aetatis XLIII ( " in the 43rd year of life " ) , which indicates 1558 as the year of Michael 's birth . Very little is known about his childhood and early years as an adult . He is argued by most historians to have been the illegitimate son of Wallachian Prince Pătraşcu cel Bun , ( Pătrașcu the Good ) of the Drăculeşti branch of the House of Basarab , while others believe he merely invented his descent in order to justify his rule . His mother was Theodora Kantakouzene , a member of the Kantakouzenoi , a noble family present in Wallachia and Moldavia , and allegedly descended from the Byzantine Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos .
Michael 's political rise was quite spectacular , as he became the Ban of Mehedinţi in 1588 , stolnic at the court of Mihnea Turcitul by the end of 1588 , and Ban of Craiova in 1593 – during the rule of Alexandru cel Rău . The latter had him swear before 12 boyars that he was not of princely descent . Still , in May 1593 conflict did break out between Alexandru and Michael , who was forced to flee to Transylvania . He was accompanied by his half @-@ brother Radu Florescu , Radu Buzescu and several other supporters . After spending two weeks at the court of Sigismund Báthory , he left for Constantinople , where with help from his cousin Andronikos Kantakouzenos ( the eldest son of Michael " Şeytanoğlu " Kantakouzenos ) and Patriarch Jeremiah II he negotiated Ottoman support for his accession to the Wallachian throne . He was supported by the English ambassador in the Ottoman capital , Edward Barton , and aided by a loan of 200 @,@ 000 florins . Michael was invested Prince by Sultan Murad III in September 1593 and started his effective rule on 11 October . He was considered a traitor as he had been forced to purchase the title of Domnitor ( ruler ) .
= = Wallachia = =
Not long after Michael became Prince of Wallachia , he turned against the Ottoman Empire . The next year he joined the Christian alliance of European powers formed by Pope Clement VIII against the Turks , and signed treaties with his neighbours : Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania , Aron Tiranul of Moldavia and the Holy Roman Emperor , Rudolf II ( see Holy League of Pope Clement VIII ) . He started a campaign against the Turks in the autumn of 1594 , conquering several citadels near the Danube , including Giurgiu , Brăila , Hârşova , and Silistra , while his Moldavian allies defeated the Turks in Iaşi and other parts of Moldavia . Mihai continued his attacks deep within the Ottoman Empire , taking the forts of Nicopolis , Ribnic , and Chilia and even reaching as far as Adrianople . At one point his forces were only 24 kilometers from Constantinople .
In 1595 , Sigismund Báthory staged an elaborate plot and had Aaron the Tyrant , voivode of Moldavia , removed from power . István Jósika ( Báthory 's chancellor and an ethnic Romanian ) masterminded the operation . Ştefan Răzvan arrested Aron on charges of treason on the night of 24 April ( 5 May ) and sent him to the Transylvanian capital at Alba Iulia ( Gyulafehérvár ) with his family and treasure . Aron would die poisoned by the end of May in the castle of Vinc . Sigismund was forced to justify his actions before the European powers , since Aron had played an active role in the anti @-@ Ottoman coalition . Later on , in the same city of Alba Iulia , Wallachian boyars signed a treaty with Sigismund on Michael 's behalf . From the point of view of Wallachian internal politics , the Treaty of Alba Iulia officialized what could be called a boyar regime , reinforcing the already important political power of the noble elite . According to the treaty , a council of 12 great boyars was to take part alongside the voivode in the executive rule of the country .
Boyars could no longer be executed without the knowledge and approval of the Transylvanian Prince and , if convicted for treason , their fortunes could no longer be confiscated . Apparently Michael was displeased with the final form of the treaty negotiated by his envoys , but was forced to comply . Prince Michael said in a conversation with the Polish envoy Lubieniecki : ... they did not proceed as stated in their instructions but as their own good required and obtained privileges for themselves . He would try to avoid the obligations imposed on him for the rest of his reign .
During his reign , Michael relied heavily on the loyalty and support of a group of Oltenian lords , the most important of whom were Buzescu Brothers ( Romanian : Fraţii Buzeşti ) and his own relatives on his mother 's side , the Cantacuzinos . He consequently protected their interests throughout his reign ; for example , he passed a law binding serfs to lands owned by aristocrats . From the standpoint of religious jurisdiction , the Treaty of Alba Iulia had another important consequence : it placed all the Eastern Orthodox bishops in Transylvania under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Seat of Târgovişte .
During this period , the Ottoman army , based in Ruse , was preparing to cross the Danube and undertake a major attack . Michael was quickly forced to retreat and the Ottoman forces started to cross the Danube on 4 August 1595 . As his army was outnumbered , Michael avoided carrying the battle in open field , and decided to give battle on a marshy field located near the village of Călugăreni on the Neajlov river . The Battle of Călugăreni started on 13 August and Michael defeated the Ottoman army led by Sinan Pasha . Despite the victory , he retreated to his winter camp in Stoieneşti because he had too few troops to mount a full @-@ scale war against the remaining Ottoman forces . He subsequently joined forces with Sigismund Báthory 's 40 @,@ 000 @-@ man army ( led by István Bocskay ) and counterattacked the Ottomans , freeing the towns of Târgovişte ( 8 October ) , Bucharest ( 12 October ) and Brăila , temporarily removing Wallachia from Ottoman suzerainty .
The fight against the Ottomans continued in 1596 when Michael made several incursions south of the Danube at Vidin , Pleven , Nicopolis , and Babadag , where he was assisted by the local Bulgarians during the First Tarnovo Uprising .
During late 1596 , Michael was faced with an unexpected attack from the Tatars , who had destroyed the towns of Bucharest and Buzău . By the time Michael gathered his army to counterattack , the Tatars had speedily retreated and so no battle was fought . Michael was determined to continue the war against the Ottomans , but he was prevented because he lacked support from Sigismund Báthory and Rudolf II . On 7 January 1597 Hasan Pasha declared the independence of Wallachia under Michael 's rule , but Michael knew that this was only an attempt to divert him from preparing for another future attack . Michael again requested Rudolf II 's support and Rudolf finally agreed to send financial assistance to the Wallachian ruler . On 9 June 1598 a formal treaty was reached between Michael and Rudolf II . According to the treaty , the Austrian ruler would give Wallachia sufficient money to maintain a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ man army , as well as armaments and supplies . Shortly after the treaty was signed , the war with the Ottomans resumed and Michael besieged Nicopolis on 10 September 1598 and took control of Vidin . The war with the Ottomans continued until 26 June 1599 , when Michael , lacking the resources and support to continue prosecuting the war , signed a peace treaty .
= = Transylvania = =
In April 1598 , Sigismund resigned as Prince of Transylvania in favor of the Holy Roman Emperor , Rudolf II ( who was also the King of Hungary ) ; reversed his decision in October 1598 ; and then resigned again in favor of Cardinal Andrew Báthory , his cousin . Báthory had strong ties to the Polish chancellor and hetman Jan Zamoyski and placed Transylvania under the influence of the King of Poland , Sigismund III Vasa . He was also a trusted ally of the new Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă , one of Michael 's greatest enemies . Movilă had deposed Ştefan Rǎzvan with the help of Polish hetman Jan Zamoyski in August 1595 .
Having to face this new threat , Michael asked Emperor Rudolf to become the sovereign of Wallachia . On 25 September ( 5 October ) Báthory issued an ultimatum demanding that Michael abandon his throne . Michael decided to attack Andrew Cardinal Báthory immediately to prevent invasion . He would later describe the events :
I rose with my country , my children , taking my wife and everything I had and with my army [ marched into Transylvania ] so that the foe should not crush me here .
He left Târgovişte on 2 October , and 9 by October he had reached Prejmer in southern Transylvania , where he met envoys from the city of Braşov . Sparing the city , he moved on to Cârţa where he joined forces with the Székelys .
On 18 October Michael won a decisive victory against the army of prince @-@ cardinal Andrew Báthory at the Battle of Şelimbăr , giving him control of Transylvania . As he retreated from the battle , Andrew Báthory was killed by anti @-@ Báthory Székely on 3 November near Sândominic and Michael gave him a princely burial in the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Alba Iulia . With his enemy dead , Michael entered the Transylvanian capital at Alba Iulia and received the keys to the fortress from Bishop Demeter Naprágyi , later depicted as a seminal event in Romanian historiography . Historian István Szamosközy , keeper of the Archives at the time , recorded the event in great detail . He also wrote that two days before the Diet met on 10 October , Transylvanian nobles elected Michael the voivode as Prince of Transylvania . As the Diet was assembled , Michael demanded that the estates swear loyalty to Emperor Rudolf , then to himself and thirdly to his son . Even if he was recognized by the Transylvanian diet as only imperial governor subject to the Holy Roman Emperor , he was nonetheless ruler of Transylvania .
In Transylvania Michael used the following signature on official documents : Michael Valachiae Transalpinae Woivoda , Sacrae Caesareae Regiae Majestatis Consiliarius per Transylvaniam Locumtenens , cis transylvaniam partium eius super exercitu Generalis Capitaneus " . ( " Michael , voivode of Wallachia , the councillor of His Majesty the Emperor and the King , his deputy in Transylvania and General Captain of his troops from Transylvania . " )
When Michael entered Transylvania , he did not immediately free or grant rights to the Romanian inhabitants , who were primarily peasants but , nevertheless , constituted a significant proportion of the population ( see estimations ) . Michael demonstrated his support by upholding the Union of the Three Nations , which recognized only the traditional rights and privileges of the Hungarians Székelys and Saxons , but he didn 't recognize the rights of the Romanians . There is no evidence that Michael wanted Transylvania 's Romanians to play a political role . Indeed , while he brought some of his Wallachian aides to Transylvania , he also invited some Székelys and other Transylvanian Hungarians to assist in the administration of Wallachia , where he wished to transplant Transylvania 's far more advanced feudal system .
Michael began negotiating with the Emperor over his official position in Transylvania . The latter wanted the principality under direct Imperial rule with Michael acting as governor . The Wallachian voivode , on the other hand , wanted the title of Prince of Transylvania for himself and equally claimed the Partium region . Michael was , nevertheless , willing to acknowledge Habsburg overlordship .
= = Moldavia = =
The Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă had been an old enemy of Michael , having incited Andrew Báthory to send Michael the ultimatum demanding his abdication . His brother , Simion Movilă , claimed the Wallachian throne for himself and had used the title of Voivode since 1595 . Aware of the threat the Movilăs represented , Michael had created the Banate of Buzău and Brăila in July 1598 and the new ban was charged of keeping an alert eye on Moldavian , Tatar and Cossack moves , although Michael had been planning a Moldavian campaign for several years .
On 28 February Michael met with Polish envoys in Braşov . He was willing to recognise the Polish King as his sovereign in exchange for the crown of Moldavia and the recognition of his male heirs ' hereditary right over the three principalities , Transylvania , Moldavia and Wallachia . This did not significantly delay his attack however ; on 14 April 1600 Michael 's troops entered Moldavia on multiple routes , the Prince himself leading the main thrust to Trotuş and Roman . He reached the capital of Iaşi on 6 May . The garrison surrendered the citadel the next day and Michael 's forces caught up with the fleeing Ieremia Movilă , who was saved from being captured only by the sacrifice of his rear @-@ guard . Movilă took refuge in the castle of Khotyn together with his family , a handful of faithful boyars and the former Transylvanian Prince , Sigismund Báthory . The Moldavian soldiers in the castle deserted , leaving a small Polish contingent as sole defenders . Under the cover of dark , sometime before 11 June , Movilă managed to sneak out of the walls and across the Dniester to hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski 's camp .
Neighboring states were alarmed by this upsetting of the balance of power , especially the Hungarian nobility in Transylvania , who rose against Michael in rebellion . With the help of Basta , they defeated Michael at the Battle of Mirăslău , forcing the prince to leave Transylvania together with his remaining loyal troops . A Polish army led by Jan Zamoyski drove the Wallachians from Moldavia and defeated Michael at Năieni , Ceptura , and Bucov ( Battle of the Teleajăn River ) . The Polish army also entered eastern Wallachia and established Simion Movilă as ruler . Forces loyal to Michael remained only in Oltenia .
= = Last victory and the assassination = =
Michael asked again for assistance from Emperor Rudolf during a visit in Prague between 23 February and 5 March 1601 , which was granted when the emperor heard that General Giorgio Basta had lost control of Transylvania to the Hungarian nobility led by Sigismund Báthory , who accepted Ottoman protection . Meanwhile , forces loyal to Michael in Wallachia led by his son , Nicolae Pătraşcu , drove Simion Movilă out of Moldavia and prepared to reenter Transylvania . Michael , allied with Basta , defeated the Hungarian army in Battle of Guruslău . A few days later Basta , who sought to control Transylvania himself , executed the assassination of Michael by the order of the Habsburgian Emperor ; it took place near Câmpia Turzii on 9 August 1601 . According to Romanian historian Constantin C. Giurescu :
= = = Seal of Michael the Brave = = =
The seal comprises the coats of arms of Moldavia , Wallachia , and Transylvania : in the middle , on a shield the Moldavian urus , above Wallachian eagle between sun and moon holding cross in beak , below Transylvanian coat of arms : two meeting , standing lions supporting a sword , treading on seven mountains . The Moldavian shield is held by two crowned figures .
There are two inscriptions on the seal . First , circular , in Slavonic using Romanian Cyrillic alphabet " IO MIHAILI UGROVLAHISCOI VOEVOD ARDEALSCOI MOLD ZEMLI " , meaning " Io Michael Wallachian Voivode of Transylvanian and Moldavian Lands " . Second , placed along a circular arc separating the Wallachian coat from the rest of the heraldic composition , " I ML BJE MLRDIE " , could be translated " Through The Very Grace of God " .
= = Legacy = =
The rule of Michael the Brave , with its break with Ottoman rule , tense relations with other European powers and the leadership of the three states , was considered in later periods as the precursor of a modern Romania , a thesis which was argued with noted intensity by Nicolae Bălcescu . This theory became a point of reference for nationalists , as well as a catalyst for various Romanian forces to achieve a single Romanian state . To Romanian Romantic nationalists , he was regarded as one of Romania 's greatest national heroes .
The prince , who managed for a short time in 1600 to rule the three territories that were to be united some three centuries later in modern Romania , begins to be perceived as a unifier only towards the middle of the 19th century . Such an interpretation is completely lacking in the historiography of the 17th @-@ century chroniclers , and even in that of the Transylvanian School around 1800 . What they emphasized , apart from the exceptional personality of Michael himself , were the idea of Christendom and his close relations with Emperor Rudolf . The conqueror 's ambition is likewise frequently cited as a motivation for his action , occupying in the interpretative schema the place which was later to be occupied by the Romanian idea .
In the writings of the Moldavian chronicler Miron Costin , Michael the Brave appears in the role of conqueror of Transylvania and Moldavia , " the cause of much spilling of blood among Christians " , and not even highly appreciated by his own Wallachians : " The Wallachians became tired of the warful rule of Voivode Mihai " .
The perspective of the Wallachians themselves is to be found in The History of the Princes of Wallachia , attributed to the chronicler Radu Popescu ( 1655 – 1729 ) , which bundles together all Michael 's adversaries without distinction . Romanians and foreigners alike : " He subjected the Turks , the Moldavians , and the Hungarians to his rule , as if they were his asses . " The picturesque flavor of the expression serves only to confirm the absence of any Romanian idea .
Samuil Micu , a member of the Transylvanian School said in his work Short Explanation of the History of the Romanians ( written in the 1790s ) : " In the year 1593 , Michael , who is called the Brave , succeeded to the lordship of Wallachia . He was a great warrior , who fought the Turks and defeated the Transylvanians . And he took Transylvania and gave it to Emperor Rudolf " .
Petre P. Panaitescu states that in Mihai 's time , the concept of the Romanian nation and the desire for unification did not yet exist . A. D. Xenopol firmly states the absence of any national element in Michael 's politics , holding that Michael 's lack of desire to join the principalities ' administrations proved his actions were not motivated by any such concept .
Mihai Viteazul , a commune in Cluj County , was named after Michael the Brave . Michael is also commemorated by the monks of the Athonite Simonopetra Monastery for his great contributions in the form of land and money to rebuilding the monastery which had been destroyed by a fire .
Mihai Viteazul , a film by Sergiu Nicolaescu , a famous Romanian film director , is a representation of the life of the Wallachian ruler and his will to unite the three Romanian principalities ( Wallachia , Moldavia , and Transylvania ) in one country .
The Order of Michael the Brave , Romania 's highest military decoration , was named after Michael .
Mihai Viteazul name and portrait appear on at least 2 Romanian coins : 5 Lei 1991 which only 3 pieces of this type were minted and the coin was not entered into circulation , and on 100 Lei which circulated through the 1990s .
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= Andrea Corr =
Andrea Jane Corr MBE ( born 17 May 1974 ) is an Irish musician , songwriter , and actress . Corr debuted in 1990 as the lead singer of the Celtic folk rock and pop rock group The Corrs along with her three elder siblings Caroline , Sharon , and Jim . Aside from singing lead vocals Corr plays the tin whistle , the ukulele , and the piano .
With the others , Corr has released six studio albums , two compilation albums , one remix album and two live albums . Andrea has also pursuing a solo career , releasing her debut album , Ten Feet High , in 2007 . The album moved away from the sound of the Corrs and features a dance @-@ pop sound . Her next album , released on 30 May 2011 , was entirely made up of covers of songs that were important to her when younger .
Andrea is involved in charitable activities . She has played charity concerts to raise money for the Pavarotti & Friends Liberian Children 's Village , Freeman Hospital in Newcastle upon Tyne , England , the victims of the Omagh bombing in Northern Ireland and The Prince 's Trust in 2004 . She is an ambassador for the Nelson Mandela 's " 46664 " campaign , raising awareness towards AIDS in Africa . During the Edinburgh Live 8 on 2 July 2005 The Corrs performed " When the Stars Go Blue " alongside Bono to promote the Make Poverty History campaign . Along with her siblings , she was appointed an honorary M.B.E. in 2005 by Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain for her contribution to music and charity .
= = Early years = =
Andrea Corr was born to Gerry Corr , a manager of the payroll department of the Irish Electricity Supply Board ( the E.S.B. ) , and his wife , Jean , a housewife . She is the youngest of the four Corr children . The family was raised in Dundalk , Ireland . Gerry and Jean had their own band , Sound Affair , which played songs by ABBA and The Eagles in local pubs in Dundalk where they would often bring along their children .
With the encouragement of her parents , Andrea took up the tin whistle and was taught the piano by her father . Throughout their teenage years , she and her siblings would often practice in Jim 's bedroom at a house he had rented . Andrea sang lead vocals , Sharon played the violin and both Caroline and Jim played keyboards . Andrea took part in school plays at her school , Dundalk 's Dun Lughaidh convent .
= = Career = =
= = = The Corrs = = =
In 1990 she and her siblings formed a quartet called The Corrs . Their career launched in 1991 when they auditioned for the film The Commitments in which Andrea gained a speaking role as Sharon Rabbitte . John Hughes noticed the quartet when they auditioned for the movie , and agreed to become their manager . The Corrs signed with Atlantic Records in 1995 and travelled to North America to record their debut album Forgiven , Not Forgotten . The album featured six instrumental selections among its Celtic @-@ influenced tracks . When released , it was successful in Ireland , Australia , Japan , and Spain . The album reached platinum status in the United Kingdom and Australia , and quadruple platinum in Ireland , which made it one of the most popular debuts by an Irish group .
Following on from the success of their debut album , they released Talk on Corners and In Blue in 1997 and 2000 respectively . Originally Talk on Corners met with lukewarm success , until a remix version was released , when it topped the charts in many countries , and reached platinum status in the United Kingdom and Australia . In Blue moved towards mainstream pop , placing heavy emphasis on electronic synthesisers . It was successful , and was No. 1 in its first sales week in the UK , Ireland , Australia , Germany , Switzerland , and Austria and debuted at No. 2 in France and Norway . It climbed to the top position during its second week in Sweden and Spain .
During the production of In Blue , their mother , Jean , died while waiting for a lung transplant in the Freeman Hospital in Newcastle , Britain . She was laid to rest at St. Patrick 's cemetery in Dundalk . Bono , Larry Mullen , Brian Kennedy and Paul Brady were among the attendees . " No More Cry " , written by Andrea and Caroline Corr for the album , was dedicated to their father hoping to help with his grief .
In 2003 , Andrea recorded " Time Enough For Tears " , a song written by Bono and Gavin Friday for the film In America . This track was featured on The Corrs ' 2004 album Borrowed Heaven . Borrowed Heaven was dedicated to their late mother , Jean , and their father , Gerry . The band also dedicated their 2005 tribute album Home to their deceased mother . The band covered many traditional Irish songs taken from their mother 's songbook to commemorate their 15 years as a band .
In an interview with Chris Evans in June 2015 , Andrea confirmed that The Corrs were working on a new album and would play the BBC Radio 2 ' Live in Hyde Park ' festival . Their sixth studio album , White Light , was released on 27 November 2015 , and was accompanied by a world tour .
= = = Solo career = = =
While her siblings were on hiatus to raise their families , Andrea launched a solo career . She released her first album , Ten Feet High , on 25 June 2007 . It was produced by Nellee Hooper , who has worked with Gwen Stefani and Madonna ; Bono was an executive producer . Her first single , " Shame on You " was an up @-@ tempo pop song about men and women going to war and leaving behind partners they may never see again . It received positive reviews from music critics ; IndieLondon described the song as a " slick package " that was " polished , well produced and with a message that 's difficult to ignore " . Losing Today 's David Adair gave the song a strong review , writing that Corr 's vocals were " crisp and uplifting " . Liverpool 's Daily Post gave the song a three @-@ star rating , commenting that it was " deceptively upbeat " , which masked its " heavier message about conscription and war " .
On 10 April 2009 Andrea announced on Claudia Winkleman 's BBC Radio 2 show that she would be releasing a second album of old songs and covers . She spoke of her disappointment and how ' gutted ' she had been when her 2007 album Ten Feet High had failed to gain commercial success . She also spoke at length of her experiences while acting in the play Dancing at Lughnasa and how it has given her hope for upcoming projects , including a second solo album of ' old songs ' :
I loved the play ; I saw its original production when I was a teenager so I really worked hard on it and tried to dispel any prejudices that might be there . I 'm sensitive about the idea of a singer @-@ turned @-@ actress , it could give across the impression that a celebrity gets bored and goes " hey , what 'll I do " and that 's really not where I 'm coming from , I 'm very passionate about this and I have been for a lot of years .
It 's a totally different experience , this is the real thing . Fortunately everybody ( in the play ) is incredibly talented ( and ) really lovely people too and it has been an incredible learning experience for me . It 's not my responsibility to draw ( the audience ) in , I just have to play the character . The way I would perform songs was always about the lyrics and always about trying to speak to everybody and make them watch and believe what I 'm saying and I suppose I 'm essentially doing that here but I 'm not looking at the audience I 'm obviously looking at the other actors . I 'm really happy to do this . I feel rejuvenated by it , I feel excited again . You 're very much alive , you 're very much in the moment , so I feel I 'm really living . After I released my solo record I felt really disappointed , I believed in the record I made but if you don 't have the back @-@ up of your record company investing and marketing it . It 's a really tough job and because I wrote the whole thing I really believed in this record , as did Nellee Hooper , I was jaded and disappointed . Last year I decided I 'm not doing music until I 'm excited again , then this came along and also I did end up making another record which I 'll release at some point . It 's just being mastered , it 's a lovely album ; I didn 't write this one , this is old songs and I have to sort out my situation- I don 't want the same problem as before .
I think everybody 's enjoyed doing their own thing . Sharon and Caroline are young mothers , they have young children . Our mother and father were really were great parents and they hope to be as good a mother as mine , but Sharon 's making her own record and will hopefully release it at some point . But we ( the band ) never finished , we 'll keep it open.'
In late January 2011 , her new album was announced for " early summer " , and a downloadable MP3 of her cover of John Lennon 's Number 9 Dream was made available to subscribers . Lifelines was released on 30 May . In the summer of 2012 , she re @-@ recorded the track " Pale Blue Eyes " ( which had first appeared on her album " Lifelines " ) with German electronic musician Christopher von Deylen , better known under his alias Schiller . It was released in Germany on 5 October on the Schiller album Sonne .
= = = Acting = = =
Andrea Corr entered the film industry in 1991 with Alan Parker 's film , The Commitments where she had a speaking part as Sharon Rabbitte . In 1996 , Parker was directing the film version of the rock opera Evita which starred Madonna . He was so keen on having Andrea in the film that he cast her as Juan Peron 's mistress . Corr provided the singing voice for Kayley in Warner Brothers ' first fully animated film , 1998 's The Quest for Camelot .
Corr resumed her acting career in 2003 where she was cast as Anne in The Boys from County Clare . The film was not a commercial success , but she won the Film Discovery Jury Award for Best Actress in the US Comedy Arts Festival and was nominated for Best Actress in the IFTA Awards . During the Corrs ' hiatus she was featured in the 2005 film The Bridge and the 2006 film Broken Thread . Corr appeared as Christina in the play Dancing at Lughnasa staged at The Old Vic theatre in London from February until May 2009 .
She played the title role in Jane Eyre by Alan Stanford at the Gate Theatre in Dublin which opened on 9 November 2010 .
= = Charitable activities = =
Andrea Corr and her siblings have played charity concerts to raise money for the Pavarotti & Friends Liberian Children 's Village , Freeman Hospital in Newcastle , the victims of the Omagh bombing in Northern Ireland , and The Prince 's Trust in 2004 . They are also ambassadors for the Nelson Mandela 's " 46664 " campaign , where they performed live to raise awareness towards AIDS in Africa . During the Edinburgh Live 8 on 2 July 2005 The Corrs performed " When the Stars Go Blue " alongside Bono to promote the Make Poverty History campaign . In recognition for their charity performances , The Corrs were made Honorary Members of the Order of the British Empire in 2005 by Queen Elizabeth II .
Corr also partook in a tribute single to the late member of The Dubliners , Ronnie Drew . Called " The Ballad of Ronnie Drew . " The song was released on 19 February 2008 and was performed by a number of famous Irish musicians . This included members of U2 , Sinéad O 'Connor Christy Dignam of Aslan , Robert Hunter of the Grateful Dead , who wrote the song , Kíla , Christy Moore , Moya Brennan , Shane MacGowan , Bob Geldof , Damien Dempsey , Gavin Friday , Iona Green , Jerry Fish , Paul Brady , Paddy Casey , Mick Pyro , Mundy , Chris de Burgh , Ronan Keating , Jack L , Eleanor Shanley , Mary Black , Declan O 'Rourke , Mary Coughlan , Joe Elliott of Def Leppard The Dubliners themselves and The Chieftains . The single was written to originally include Ronnie himself but was changed to be a tribute to him as his health was declining . Proceeds from sale of the single went to The Irish Cancer Society at the request of Drew himself . The song was performed live on The Late Late Show aired by RTE Entertainment on 22 February with Ronnie Drew in attendance as an audience member , and entered the Irish Single Charts at No. 2 .
On 10 October 2010 , Corr , amongst others , contributed to the Kirsty MacColl tribute concert held at Shepherd 's Bush Empire to commemorate MacColl 's birthday and raise money for charity . She also wrote and sang the song ' Oh Brother ' on the album ' Music of Ireland – Welcome Home.'
On 30 November 2012 , Corr lent her support to Kate Winslet 's Golden Hat Foundation together with Tim Janis , Sarah McLachlan , Loreena McKennitt , Hayley Westenra , performing on " The American Christmas Carol " concert in Carnegie Hall .
= = Personal life = =
Corr is married to Brett Desmond , son of billionaire Dermot Desmond . They married in St Joseph 's Church in Milltown Malbay , County Clare , Ireland on 21 August 2009 .
Sharon Corr and Caroline Corr sang " No Frontiers " at the wedding , and Damien Dempsey , Sharon Shannon and Seamus Begley also performed on stage in the church , as did Corr herself . In November 2011 , Corr 's first pregnancy was announced . Corr gave birth to daughter Jean on 28 April 2012 , and son Brett Jr. on 4 January 2014 .
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Filmography = =
= = Stage roles = =
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= Sheet Harbour , Nova Scotia =
Sheet Harbour is a rural community on the Eastern Shore of Nova Scotia , Canada . It is part of the Halifax Regional Municipality and lies along the Marine Drive on Trunk 7 approximately 117 kilometres ( 73 mi ) northeast of Halifax . Sheet Harbour is the commercial , employment and educational hub for around 5 @,@ 500 people . The community is located along the shores of Sheet Harbour , which has two arms : the Northwest Arm and the Northeast Arm . Two rivers flow into the harbour : West River into the Northwest Arm , and East River into the Northeast Arm . Little West River , a minor river , also flows into the Northwest Arm . The Grand Lake , a large lake west of Sheet Harbour , empties into the Atlantic Ocean , via the Little West River . Adjacent to the community is the Sheet Harbour Industrial Port , an important regional deep @-@ water port . The majority of the land was granted in 1773 and the colony was established in 1784 . Forestry was prominent in Sheet Harbour during its early years . The first sulphide pulp mill in the Dominion of Canada was constructed along the East River in 1885 . However , it was closed in 1891 , due to the high prices of importing sulphide . Another pulp mill was constructed beside the West River Falls in 1925 , but it was destroyed by Hurricane Beth in August 1971 . The community today relies on forestry , fishing and tourism .
Trunk 7 runs directly through Sheet Harbour . Route 224 and Route 374 both have junctions in Sheet Harbour . A new bridge was built across the Northeast Arm . It was named the East River Bridge , after its predecessor . Construction started in September 2014 and it was opened on 17 December 2015 , with a bridge walk to commemorate the event . Sheet Harbour has a hospital , named Eastern Shore Memorial Hospital ( ESMH ) , which is connected to Harbourview Lodge . The community is located about ten minutes northeast of Taylor Head Provincial Park . Sheet Harbour has two schools : Sheet Harbour Consolidated School ( SHCS ) and Duncan MacMillan High School ( DMHS ) . There is a plan currently proposed by the Halifax Regional School Board to replace the four schools in the Sheet Harbour area , one of which is defunct , with one P @-@ 12 school . Tom McInnis , a former Conservative Party politician and member of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly from 1978 @-@ 1993 , resides in Sheet Harbour .
= = Location = =
Sheet Harbour is a small rural community located on the Eastern Shore of Nova Scotia , in the eastern area of the Halifax Regional Municipality . It is the major community in the area as it is the commercial , employment and educational hub for about 5 @,@ 500 people . Sheet Harbour is located slightly more northward compared to other coastal communities in the area , due to the shape of the harbour . The population of Census Tract 2050154 @.@ 00 , which includes Sheet Harbour and a large amount of land around Sheet Harbour 's land borders , is 3 @,@ 478 as of the 2011 Canadian Census . Census tracts are small subdivisions of land that are used by Statistics Canada that usually have a population of 2 @,@ 500 to 8 @,@ 000 . Each census tract has a numerical designation . The population of the community of Sheet Harbour is about 800 . Immediately west of Sheet Harbour is Sheet Harbour 36 , a small Mi 'kmaq reserve .
= = Topography = =
The community of Sheet Harbour is located along the shores of Sheet Harbour , a saltwater harbour , which has two arms : The Northwest Arm and the Northeast Arm .
The western and the wider arm is referred to as the Northwest Arm , while the eastern arm is known as the Northeast Arm . The two arms connect just below Church Point , southeast of where West River meets the Northwest Arm . The harbour continues southeast @-@ ward , then southward toward the Atlantic Ocean . The Northwest Arm extends northwest until it meets the mouth of West River at the West River Falls . The Northeast Arm extends north , then curves northeast under the East River Bridge , until it meets the mouth of the East River . There is a very small island in the arm , named Hen Island .
The harbour from Church Point , where the two arms meet , to the Atlantic Ocean is referred to as Sheet Harbour . It is wider than either arm . It is approximately 11 @-@ 15 metres ( 36 @-@ 49 ft ) deep at low tide . It gradually widens as it flows southward the Atlantic Ocean . After Church Point , it flows southeast @-@ ward past the Sheet Harbour Industrial Port and west of the small community of Watt Section . It then curves and flows southwest @-@ ward to southward toward the Atlantic .
The area around Sheet Harbour is heavily forested and rich in lakes . The coastline is also very rocky and eroded by the Atlantic Ocean , as is typical with most of the Eastern Shore . Sheet Harbour has average tides of about 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 to 5 ft ) .
= = Rivers = =
Two major rivers , one minor river and several small streams empty into the harbour . West River flows into the Northwest Arm , and East River empties into the Northeast Arm .
= = = Northwest Arm = = =
West River , formally West River Sheet Harbour , begins near the Musquodoboit Valley . The main branch of the river , named West River Main , is 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) long . The river has two secondary branches , the Killag River , which is 27 kilometres ( 17 mi ) long , and Little River , which is 16 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 3 mi ) long . Several smaller streams flow into the river as it progresses southeast @-@ ward toward Sheet Harbour . Lake Alma flows into West River via Little River . A while downstream , the river flows into Sheet Harbour Lake . Sheet Harbour Lake ends just before the West River Bridge , where Trunk 7 passes over the West River , just before the West River Falls . The falls carry water from 22 metres ( 72 ft ) elevation down to sea level . The river then empties into the Northwest Arm . The river area has been deforested and is prone to flash @-@ flooding .
Sheet Harbour was the first community in North America to use a lime doser , which sprays limestone in to the water , to lower acid rain levels , starting in September 2005 in the West River . It was successful in stabilizing the pH of the river at 5 @.@ 5 , a healthy level for salmon and other aquatic life .
The Grand Lake , a large lake west of Sheet Harbour , also empties into the Northwest Arm via West Lake and Little West River in West Sheet Harbour . The river empties into West Cove , then into the Northwest Arm .
= = = Northeast Arm = = =
East River , formally East River Sheet Harbour , is the other main river that discharges into Sheet Harbour . It flows through the Marshall Flowage , a large flowage , then past the Ruth Falls Power Plant , a hydropower generating station . It narrows back into a river for a short while , then flows into the head of the Northeast Arm .
= = History = =
Almost all of the present land area of Sheet Harbour was granted in 1773 , and the settlement was established around 1784 , by Loyalist refugees and British veterans of the American Revolution and became a prosperous centre for the lumber industry . The Mi 'kmaq name for the settlement was Weijooik , which translates to " flowing wildly " . Sheet Harbour was named " Port North " on the Royal Navy Chart that was published in 1778 . The settlement was called Port North until 1807 . Alternate names for the settlement were Campbelltown and Manchester . Campbelltown would have been named after Lord William Campbell , who was a Captain General as well as a Governor @-@ in @-@ Chief in 1776 – 1773 . It was decided that " Port North " was not descriptive enough , so the name was changed to Sheet Harbour , starting in 1818 because of a white , flat rock that looks like a sheet , named Sheet Rock ; the rock is located at the entrance of the harbour . Sheet Harbour was known as Cambell Town for about two decades , after which this name fell into disuse and became known by its present name .
Around 1863 , a sawmill was built at the tide head of the East River Sheet Harbour , by Demming and McFarlane , a lumber company . However , they did not succeed financially , and they dissolved a few years later .
In October 1885 , the Halifax Wood Fibre Company built the first sulphide pulp mill in Canada , which at the time was the Dominion of Canada , at East River , Sheet Harbour . Since the discovery of the sulphite process happened earlier in 1866 , the news had traveled to William Chisholm , who was a lumber manufacturer in Halifax . He decided to try the sulphite method out for himself at the head of the East River . He had 60 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 @,@ 281 hectares , or 242 km2 ) of woodland on the Sheet Harbour rivers . The mill closed in January 1891 , due to the high costs of importing sulphide from the United States . The cookhouse which was used at the mill was bought by the residents of Watt Section and was floated down the harbour to the community .
In 1922 , a ground @-@ wood pulp mill , owned by the American Pulp and Wrapping Paper Co. of Albany , began operation on the West River at the head of the Northwest Arm of Sheet Harbour . They had purchased it from Rhodes and Currie , the previous owners who were a lumber company . It produced its first ground @-@ wood pulp on October 5 , 1925 . It remained in operation until it was destroyed by Hurricane Beth in August 1971 .
A steel arch bridge was built in the 1950s over the Northeast Arm . It was named the East River Bridge . It was replaced by a new bridge in December 2015 .
= = Industry = =
The economy of Sheet Harbour is primarily based on fishery and forestry , as well as tourism , to a lesser extent .
Sheet Harbour has a Chamber of Commerce . The SHCOC was formed more than 75 years ago , in 1935 , and were formerly known as the Sheet Harbour Board of Trade . They comprise 25 of the businesses in Sheet Harbour and they also operate a Visitor Information Centre at the MacPhee House , situated on the site of the ground @-@ wood pulp mill just east of the West River Bridge , where Trunk 7 crosses the West River at the entrance to Sheet Harbour . There is a community museum at the MacPhee House and they have a collection interpreting " Life before plastic " .
In the 1990s , the Government of Nova Scotia built a common user deep water dock and industrial park just west of Sheet Harbour , named the Sheet Harbour Industrial Port . It was purchased by and is currently operated by the Halifax Port Authority . It currently ships wood chips for the pulp industry and imports wind turbine segments , which are then transported across Nova Scotia and to the rest of North America . The port was used to service the Sable Offshore Energy Project with natural gas pipes processed at coating plant therefore making them suitable for placement on the ocean floor . The port is the closest marine terminal to the fields , at a distance of 240 kilometres ( 150 mi ) . It is also approximately 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) west of the Great Circle Route , a major shipping lane between North America and Europe . The docking area is 152 metres ( 499 ft ) long and 36 @.@ 5 metres ( 120 ft ) wide . It also has 10 @.@ 3 metres ( 34 ft ) of draft , which is connected to a concrete pad .
= = Transportation = =
The community is situated at the junction of Route 374 and Route 224 with Trunk 7 . The community has sidewalks that run from West River Bridge to East River Bridge , through the main part of Sheet Harbour . They were opened in 2010 , and cost $ 2 @,@ 895 @,@ 040 ( US $ 2 @,@ 204 @,@ 569 @.@ 46 ) .
= = = 2014 – 15 East River Bridge replacement = = =
A new bridge was built across the Northeast Arm from September 2014 to December 2015 , to replace the East River Bridge .
The bridge was built because the previous bridge , built in 1956 , was nearing the end of its life span . The Nova Scotia Government had proposed minor repairs , but it was decided by the N.S. Government that an entirely new bridge would be more cost @-@ effective . The new bridge was designed , unlike its predecessor , without large , overhead steel arches , because it would have been twice as costly to build . The new bridge was constructed on the same site as the old bridge 's predecessor which was constructed just south of the East River Bridge in 1907 .
The bridge cost $ 19 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( US $ 14 @,@ 671 @,@ 644 ) to build and construction began in September 2014 . The contractor , Dexter Construction , poured 2 @,@ 260 cubic metres ( 79 @,@ 811 cubic feet ) of concrete over 650 @,@ 000 kg ( 1 @,@ 430 @,@ 000 lb ) of rebar . The new bridge relies on two pillars set in the granite below the Northeast Arm . When it was near completion in December 2015 , a deck , along with railings and sidewalks , were laid .
Construction was completed and the bridge was opened on 17 December 2015 to pedestrians and opened the next day to traffic .
There were also a few road modifications on the Sheet Harbour side of the bridge as a result of the new bridge . Trunk 7 was aligned with what was Riverside Drive , which is now nonexistent . Church Point Road and Pool Road were slightly modified . The access road to Sheet Harbour Consolidated School and Duncan MacMillan High School was slightly modified . Sprott Lane , a minor loop , was extended along a part of the old Trunk 7 for a few households .
Shortly after the new bridge was opened , the old East River Bridge was closed and is currently being demolished as of July 2016 . Demolition is expected to be complete in mid @-@ late 2016 .
= = Amenities = =
Sheet Harbour has a Home Hardware store an NSLC liquor store a post office , run by Canada Post , a public library , which is owned and operated by Halifax Public Libraries , a convenience store , a small park , a takeout , a police station , which is run by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police , a fire station , and three churches . Sheet Harbour also has a Ground Search and Rescue . Sheet Harbour also hosts one apartment building , two gas stations , operated by Irving Oil and Wilson Fuel , who run the Wilsons Gas Stops chain of gas stations , respectively , a Foodland grocery store and two banks , operated by Scotiabank and Credit Union respectively . The Sheet Harbour Industrial Port is located five minutes west of Sheet Harbour . It is run by the Halifax Port Authority . Sheet Harbour has two motels : Fairwinds Motel and Restaurant and the Sheet Harbour Motel . There is a campground located along the East River , named East River Lodge Campground and Trailer Park .
Eastern Shore Cartage serves Sheet Harbour and its surroundings . Watts Wind Energy , Inc. built a wind turbine in Watt Section , a small community immediately east of Sheet Harbour , in 2010 . It was the outcome of favourable wind data that was obtained by a meteorological tower near what would be the site of the wind turbine . It was constructed and was producing power by October 2011 . It produces about 1 @.@ 5 MW of power and powers approximately 375 households . It stands 85 metres ( 279 ft ) tall .
Every August , the " Seaside Festival " is hosted by the local Lions Club .
The 2610 Royal Canadian Army Cadet Corps is based in Sheet Harbour . They were originally formed on 1 October 1957 , but were disbanded on 31 December 1973 . Twelve years later , the corps was reformed on 1 February 1985 and is still active today . They have earned fame by winning the Strathcona cup five times . The Strathcona cup is an award given to the best performing cadet corps in Nova Scotia .
Eastern Shore Memorial Hospital is a hospital located in Sheet Harbour . Construction began in 1947 , and was opened on May 24 , 1949 . It is owned and operated by the Capital District Health Authority , which amalgamated in to the Nova Scotia Health Authority in 2015 . It has sixteen beds for patients . There is a cenotaph and gardens in front of the site where Duncan MacMillan Nursing Home ( DMNH ) once stood . The hospital offers quite a few services . It is connected to Harbourview Lodge , a nursing home , by a corridor . Harbourview Lodge was built in 2011 to replace DMNH , which was nearing the end of its life span .
Just ten minutes west of Sheet Harbour on Trunk 7 in Spry Bay is Taylor Head Provincial Park . It has two beaches . The entire park is located on a peninsula which juts out into the Atlantic Ocean . Hunting and firearms are forbidden in the park . The park contains over 22 km ( 14 mi ) of hiking trails , and over a kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi . ) of beach . The park is open from May – October each year . Near , but outside of the park , is the Spry Bay Campground . It is also located in Spry Bay . Also in Spry Bay is a Dept. of Transportation and Public Works , owned and operated by the Nova Scotia Government .
= = = Education = = =
There are two schools in Sheet Harbour : Sheet Harbour Consolidated School ( SHCS ) and Duncan MacMillan High School ( DMHS ) .
SHCS is a feeder school of DMHS . When students graduate from SHCS , they move on to DMHS . In 2015 , there was 95 students enrolled in the school . The school offers Canadian French . SHCS teaches grades primary through six . The school was built in 1957 .
DMHS is the only high school in the Sheet Harbour area . Consequently , it has three feeder schools : SHCS and Lakefront Consolidated School ( LCS ) , which is located in Tangier , and Eastern Consolidated School ( ECS ) , which is located in Moser River . But , as of 2016 , ECS is closed , due to zero student enrollment . The school offers Integrated French for all grades . DMHS teaches grades seven through 12 . There was 174 students enrolled in the school in 2015 . The school was built in 1963 .
Since early 2013 , a plan has been in the works for the Halifax Regional School Board to close and possibly demolish all three of the DMHS feeder schools and replace them with a larger , more modern grade primary @-@ 12 school somewhere in Sheet Harbour . This new school would teach about 350 students and would serve a large area around Sheet Harbour . On 26 April 2016 , the site for the project was chosen . The new school will be built on the site that Duncan MacMillan High School occupies . A school steering team will be established thereafter and will cooperate with work with the design team for the new school , the Halifax Regional School Board and two government departments ; the Department of Transportation and Infrastructure Renewal and the Department of Education and Early Childhood Development for the design and planning phases .
= = Notable residents = =
Tom McInnis , former Conservative Party politician and member of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly from 1978 @-@ 1993
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= Delaware Route 23 =
Delaware Route 23 ( DE 23 ) is a 14 @.@ 76 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 23 @.@ 75 km ) state highway in Sussex County , Delaware . Its southern terminus is at Massey 's Landing in Long Neck , near the confluence of Rehoboth Bay and Indian River Bay and its northern terminus is at the Five Points intersection , where it ends at U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) , DE 1 , and DE 404 . From the southern terminus , route runs west through residential areas of Long Neck before heading north through rural areas with some development . DE 23 is concurrent with DE 5 between the DE 24 intersection in Long Neck and Fairmount . It is also concurrent with DE 24 Alternate ( DE 24 Alt . ) between Hollymount and the DE 1D intersection in Five Points . The road originally existed as an unnumbered road except along the DE 5 concurrency , becoming fully paved by 1970 . The DE 23 designation was assigned by 1994 .
= = Route description = =
DE 23 begins at a boat ramp parking lot at Massey 's Landing in Long Neck , near the confluence of the Rehoboth Bay and the Indian River Bay . From here , the route heads west on two @-@ lane undivided Long Neck Road , passing through a mix of residential areas and marshland between Rehoboth Bay to the north and Indian River Bay to the south . The road winds west through homes , commercial development , and a few farms . Farther west , DE 23 comes to an intersection with DE 5 / DE 24 . At this intersection , the name changes to Indian Mission Road , and DE 23 begins a concurrency with DE 5 . The two routes head northwest through a mix of farmland and woodland with some housing subdivisions .
In Fairmount , DE 5 splits to the northwest and DE 23 continues north on Beaver Dam Road . In Hollymount , DE 23 intersects DE 24 Alt. and forms a concurrency with that route , with the road curving northeast . In Five Points , DE 23 intersects DE 1D and turns to the north , with DE 1D / DE 24 Alt. continuing straight and curving to the southeast . A short distance later , DE 23 intersects US 9 / DE 404 and turns east @-@ northeast to join those two routes on the four @-@ lane divided Lewes Georgetown Highway . DE 23 reaches its northern terminus at an intersection with DE 1 , at which point DE 404 also ends and US 9 turns east to join DE 1 . Past this intersection , the road becomes US 9 Business ( US 9 Bus . ) .
DE 23 has a total length of 14 @.@ 76 mi ( 23 @.@ 75 km ) . The route has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 13 @,@ 167 vehicles at the northern terminus at DE 1 to a low of 1 @,@ 671 vehicles at the south end of the DE 24 Alt. concurrency . The small portion of DE 23 that is concurrent with US 9 / DE 404 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 23 existed as an unimproved county road . The portion of the present route that is concurrent with DE 5 was upgraded to a state highway by 1931 and became a part of DE 5 by 1938 . By 1970 , the road was paved . DE 23 was assigned onto its current alignment by 1994 . DE 24 Alternate was designated to run along DE 23 between Hollymount Road and Plantation Road by 2006 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
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= Lord of the Flies ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Lord of the Flies " is the fifth episode of the ninth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , and the show 's 187th episode overall . It first premiered on the Fox network in the United States on December 16 , 2001 , and was subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on BBC Two . The episode was written by Thomas Schnauz , and was directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the mythology , or overarching fictional history , of The X @-@ Files . " Lord of the Flies " earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 2 , and was watched by 9 @.@ 9 million viewers . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics , with many critical of the episode 's reliance on humor .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , an amateur stunt performer is killed while performing a daring act for a local cable reality show , Scully , Doggett and Reyes discover that the culprit was apparently a swarm of killer flies hidden in the victim 's brain .
" Lord of the Flies " marked a return of comedic episodes to the series . Due to this , Patrick had issues with his acting because , initially , he felt the entry was too foolish . The aggressiveness of flies in the episode was inspired by the actual habits of Australian blow flies . The episode 's title , " Lord of the Flies " , is an English translation for the name of the semitic demon Beelzebub , and may be a reference to the classic novel Lord of the Flies by William Golding . In addition , the episode makes several references to musician Syd Barrett , the original singer and guitarist for Pink Floyd .
= = Plot = =
A group of teenagers , led by " Sky Commander Winky " ( Aaron Paul ) , film one of their friends , nicknamed " Cap 'n Dare " ( played by Branden Williams ) , doing stunts for a cable TV show called Dumbass . The last stunt of which involves a ramp @-@ jump in a shopping cart . During the stunt , Dare veers off and falls out of the cart and is found dead after part of his skull collapses . The local coroner calls in John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) to investigate the death . During the autopsy , flies erupt from Dare 's eye sockets . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) examines the body and finds that the insects had fed on Dare 's brain to such a degree that it simply collapsed .
At a local high school , Winky and his brother film a memorial service for Dare , much to the annoyance of his girlfriend Natalie . The teens harass Dylan Lokensgard , the son of the principal and a social outcast . Doggett and Reyes arrive at the school to talk to Winky . During their interview , body lice mysteriously attack him and bite " Dumbass " into his flesh . While watching the Dumbass recordings , Doggett notices that Dylan was at each of the stunts and decides to question him . While the two agents talk to Dylan , his mother appears and tries to stop the questioning . During the proceedings , Dylan becomes covered in flies ; subsequently , Reyes starts to believe that Dylan is behind the attack . The agents take a tissue soaked with Dylan 's sweat back for Scully to analyze . The results show that Dylan 's body fluids contain a high number of insect pheromones .
That night , Natalie sneaks into Dylan 's house . When they kiss , something apparently cuts her mouth , causing her to leave in tears . Dare 's friends , who believe Dylan is responsible for his death , pull up moments later and abduct him . During the drive , an insect like protrusion comes out of Dylan 's mouth and sprays webbing everywhere , causing the car to flip and crash . Doggett and Reyes arrive at the scene , and are told that Dylan chewed his way out the back window . Meanwhile , Scully and a bug specialist search Dylan 's home . Scully leaves to help Reyes find the teenager while the specialist stays behind ; the specialist is subsequently attacked by Dylan 's mother .
Reyes tracks down Natalie , but Reyes is attacked and cocooned by Dylan . Dylan 's mother approaches him , and tells him that he is not like other kids and never will be . Doggett arrives at the girl 's home and finds Reyes and Natalie alive . Dylan and his mother , however , are nowhere to be found . A subsequent search of the Lokensgard home reveals other bodies , including the bug specialist , cocooned but survived , and Dylan 's father , who supposedly ran off years earlier . After leaving with his mother , Dylan sends Natalie one last message in the form of fireflies : " I love you . "
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Thomas Schnauz , and was directed by Kim Manners . It was Schnauz 's first writing credit , and Manner 's second directing credit for the season . The episode marked a return of " the comedy episode " for the series . According to Matt Hurwitz and Chris Knowles in their book The Complete X @-@ Files , the episode " revisit [ s ] [ the ] themes of genetic grafting experiments from ' Travelers ' in a humorous context . " Series co @-@ star Robert Patrick had a difficult time with the episode ; he later explained , " I couldn 't deal with some of the material . As an actor , I found some of it to be a little silly . " Accordingly , Manners helped Patrick traverse the script , an action that helped him achieve the desired delivery for his lines .
A few of the flies on the dead body of " Cap 'n Dare " were real , but the rest were created via CGI , according to special effects supervisors John Wash . The eye of the body was opened by a cable . Hank Harris , the boy who played Dylan , wore a suit made of rubber for the swarming scene . 30 @,@ 000 live flies were then " dumped " onto him during filming . The opening for the episode was filmed at Cheviot Hills Park in Los Angeles . The site had previously been used for various shots in the sixth season episode " The Unnatural " and the eighth season episode " Three Words " . Garfield High School in Sherman Oaks , California , stood in for Grant High School . During filming breaks , Robert Patrick spent his time listening to his brother Richard Patrick 's industrial rock band , Filter .
The aggressiveness of flies in the episode was inspired by the actual habits of Australian blow flies . The episode 's title , " Lord of the Flies " , is an English translation for the name of the semitic demon Beelzebub . The name was also used as the title for 1954 novel of the same name by British author William Golding . The episode makes several references to Syd Barrett . Barrett was the original singer , songwriter , and lead guitarist for British band Pink Floyd . Two of his songs , " No Good Trying " and " Terrapin " , are featured in the episode .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Lord of the Flies " first premiered on the Fox network in the United States on December 16 , 2001 . " Lord of the Flies " earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 2 , meaning that it was seen by 6 @.@ 2 % of the nation 's estimated households and was viewed by 6 @.@ 54 million households , and 9 @.@ 9 million viewers . " Lord of the Flies " was the 51st most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending December 16 . The episode eventually aired on BBC Two in the United Kingdom on December 1 , 2002 .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Jessica Morgan of Television Without Pity gave the episode a " C " grade rating . She derided the show 's need to place The X @-@ Files logo in the teaser , but ultimately concluded that the episode was a " decent [ one ] to recap " . John Keegan from Critical Myth wrote that the episode " ranks right in the mediocre range " and awarded it a 5 out of 10 . He noted , " Overall , this episode did very little for me . I ’ m sure that the writing staff could have come up with something better than a bad sixth season plot when the idea of a humorous ninth season episode came to the table . Is there any hope that there might be a truly memorable episode where Doggett is allowed to be amused ? " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two argued that the entry was trying to " be a ' Rain King ' or a ' Terms of Endearment ' and would like to recapture the sweet and charming feel of those early Season Six experiments . " However , they noted that because the show was in a different stage — Mulder and Scully were no longer the focus of the show 's attention — that " the same style falls flat on its face " . Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson complained that " The X @-@ Files is draining the trough of teenage angst again " . M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , felt that the teaser " intrigues for a moment " , but that the competing elements of " quirky humour , body horror and teen love story quickly sink this disappointing outing . "
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= Hurricane Alex ( 2010 ) =
Hurricane Alex was a rare June hurricane and the first tropical cyclone to develop in the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season . Originating from an area of disturbed weather on June 25 , 2010 , it slowly developed in the western Caribbean Sea and struck Belize as a strong tropical storm . After entering the Gulf of Mexico , Alex became very large and encountered conditions favorable for gradual development . Early on June 30 , the cyclone attained hurricane status as it approached northeastern Mexico , the first June hurricane in the Atlantic basin since Hurricane Allison in 1995 , and the storm rapidly intensified just off the coast of Tamaulipas . Alex came ashore near Soto la Marina as a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale .
Alex caused the deaths of at least 51 people along its path , and produced over $ 1 @.@ 8 billion ( 2010 USD ) in damage . The precursor of the hurricane produced substantial rainfall across the Greater Antilles , causing one death in the Dominican Republic . Fourteen people were killed in Central America as a result of flooding during the first landfall of Alex . In Mexico , the storm 's outer rainbands killed three people in Acapulco , one person in Oaxaca , and another in Chiapas . At its final landfall , Alex caused at least fifteen deaths in Nuevo León , eight in Coahuila , six in Guanajuato , and one in both Tamaulipas and San Luis Potosí ; an additional twenty persons were reported missing .
Alex triggered widespread power outages throughout northeastern Mexico and southern Texas . Damage was most evident in the Monterrey metropolitan area , which faced what Nuevo León governor Rodrigo Medina de la Cruz described as , " the worst weather phenomenon in its history . " Following Alex 's final landfall , a state of emergency was declared for most of Nuevo León , portions of Tamaulipas , and Texas . Widespread flooding from the storm affected 500 @,@ 000 people throughout northeast Mexico , and ruined over 200 @,@ 000 hectares ( 500 @,@ 000 acres ) of crops in the region , equivalent to 11 % of the region 's total farmland .
= = Meteorological history = =
The weather system from which Hurricane Alex developed was first discernible as a disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) on June 17 , 2010 . Over the next few days , most of its associated thunderstorm activity was embedded within the ITCZ . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) first mentioned it as a candidate for tropical cyclone formation on June 20 , while it was crossing the Windward Islands into the southeastern Caribbean Sea ; at the time , some upper @-@ level wind shear was present , leading to conditions only marginally favorable for development . The system moved through the Caribbean , and on June 21 , it developed to the extent that the NHC assessed a 50 % chance of development into a tropical depression within 48 hours . The next day , however , the feature deteriorated as thunderstorm activity spread across the Greater Antilles , although the upper @-@ level regime remained favorable for eventual redevelopment .
On June 24 , a low @-@ level circulation had gradually become better established to the south of Jamaica , although it was displaced from its poorly organized convection . By 1800 UTC , a surface low @-@ pressure area had formed about 105 miles ( 165 km ) to the northeast of Cabo Gracias a Dios , Nicaragua , but due to a lack of persistent thunderstorm activity , it was not yet considered a tropical cyclone . Later that day , convection increased over the center of circulation , and atmospheric pressures dropped across the region . Late on June 25 , Hurricane Hunters verified the development of a surface low pressure area , which , combined with the increase of thunderstorm activity , indicated the system was a tropical depression . Accordingly , the cyclone was classified as Tropical Depression One at 2200 UTC , while located about 345 miles ( 555 km ) to the east @-@ southeast of Chetumal , Quintana Roo . After the end of the hurricane season , the National Hurricane Center revised their analysis and estimated that the system had actually become a tropical depression at around 1800 UTC . At the time of its formation , the depression was moving to the west @-@ northwest , steered by a high pressure system over the northern Gulf of Mexico . An anticyclone positioned over the storm created an environment of minimal wind shear , and the depression quickly intensified . At 0900 UTC on June 26 , it obtained tropical storm status and was given the name Alex .
As Tropical Storm Alex progressed through the western Caribbean Sea towards the Yucatán Peninsula , it developed a large field of clouds accompanied by well @-@ established outflow throughout its circulation . Its inner structure was initially disorganized , although by late on June 26 , it became better defined . At about 2100 UTC , as the tropical storm approached the Belize coast , a Hurricane Hunters flight reported winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) ; early on June 27 , Alex made landfall just north of Belize City at this intensity . Upon moving ashore , an area of convection increased over the center , and the convection initially became better defined as it crossed the Yucatán Peninsula . While most tropical cyclones weaken and become disorganized after landfall , Alex seemed to become stronger when viewed on radar and satellite imagery — the National Hurricane Center noted in one of its forecast discussions that the cyclone 's structure more closely resembled a hurricane than a deteriorating storm . Still , after enough time over land , convective activity markedly decreased , and Alex weakened to tropical depression status as it approached the peninsula 's western coastline . Late on June 27 , the depression emerged into the Gulf of Mexico with a large overall convective structure but little thunderstorm activity near the center due to the interaction with land .
When Alex was still located over the Yucatán Peninsula , the NHC remarked upon the potential for significant strengthening . Because of low wind shear and very warm water temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico , the possibility existed that Alex could intensify into a major hurricane — a Category 3 storm on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale — before its next landfall . Early on June 28 , thunderstorm activity had reformed over the center , and the depression re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm . For the next day , the combination of dry air , increasing wind shear and slightly cooler water temperatures prevented significant convection from developing over the center . At the same time , Alex was moving slowly off the northwest coast of the Yucatán Peninsula , and the environment 's conditions became more favorable for intensification as the tropical storm tracked away from the coast . The circulation envelope of Alex remained very large , and by June 29 , the storm 's rainbands covered the entire western half of the Gulf of Mexico ; rainfall was reported along the Texas and Louisiana coasts , even while the center was still several hundred miles offshore . The tropical storm continued to strengthen , and based on reports from Hurricane Hunters , it is estimated that Alex attained hurricane status at 0300 UTC on June 30 , about 255 miles ( 415 km ) southeast of Brownsville , Texas .
Upon becoming a hurricane , Alex was located in a moist , low shear environment , which led to steady intensification on June 30 . The pressure continued to fall — a sign of an intensifying cyclone — with a more rapid drop occurring that afternoon and evening . The hurricane strengthened into a Category 2 storm late on June 30 as it approached the northeastern Mexican coast . At 0200 UTC on July 1 , Alex made landfall at peak strength , with maximum sustained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , gusts of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) and an unusually low central pressure of 947 millibars ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) in the municipality of Soto la Marina in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas . After the storm , the National Hurricane Center revised the landfall intensity estimate , showing Alex was even stronger when it struck the Mexican coast , with sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a central pressure of 946 millibars ( 27 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Several hours after moving ashore , the storm weakened to Category 1 status , and its structure began to deteriorate . However , deep convection persisted around the center . By 1200 UTC , Alex had weakened into a tropical storm ; by 0000 UTC July 2 , the Sierra Madre Oriental disrupted Alex 's core , causing the storm to weaken into a tropical depression and dissipate over San Luis Potosí . However , the interaction with the mountain range caused orographic lift on the eastern side of the storm after the center of circulation had ceased to exist , producing torrential rainfall throughout northern and central Mexico . Following the dissipation of Alex , divergence at the 200 mb atmospheric pressure level ( approximately at 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) of altitude ) , a ridge of high pressure located over southern Texas , and Alex 's residual moisture interacted to produce intense convection over Nuevo León , Tamaulipas and Coahuila for the next 72 hours .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
Immediately after the storm formed on June 25 , a tropical storm warning was issued for the entire east coast of Quintana Roo on Mexico 's Yucatán Peninsula . Shortly thereafter , the tropical storm warning was extended to include the east coast of Belize . Late on June 25 , the Government of Honduras issued a tropical storm warning for the islands of Roatan , Guanaja and Utila . A tropical storm watch was also issued from Limón to the border with Guatemala .
= = = Western Gulf Coast = = =
As Alex neared hurricane strength on the evening of June 28 , a hurricane warning was issued for the coast of Texas south of Baffin Bay to the mouth of the Rio Grande . The Mexican government also issued a hurricane warning from the Rio Grande south to La Cruz . A tropical storm warning was posted for coastal Texas from Baffin Bay northward to Port O 'Connor . Governor of Texas Rick Perry declared a state of disaster in 19 counties and ordered the deployment of Texas Military Forces personnel ( including 80 citizen @-@ soldiers of the Texas State Guard Medical Brigade ) to the Rio Grande Valley . President Barack Obama also declared a state of emergency , freeing federal funds for 25 counties in Texas .
On June 29 , authorities began evacuations of residents of coastal areas in the Tamaulipas municipalities of Soto la Marina , Matamoros and San Fernando municipalities . On June 30 , the state 's civil defense agency and education secretary announced that schools would be closed throughout the state during the storm . Thirteen shelters were opened in Reynosa , twenty @-@ two in Matamoros , and ten in San Fernando ; a total of 3 @,@ 000 people sought protection from the storm in the three municipalities . Throughout the state , 20 @,@ 000 people were asked to evacuate to safer areas . Nuevo León schools were also ordered to be closed for at least 24 hours ; the Universidad Regiomontana , Universidad de Monterrey and Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León followed suit . In Monterrey , mandatory evacuations alongside the Santa Catarina River were ordered , as well as the evacuation of 5 @,@ 000 families in the highlands of the city . Throughout the state , a total of 90 shelters were opened . Coahuila did not close its schools , expecting Alex to reach the state as a tropical depression or weaker , but asked its schools to not take attendance .
Prior to Alex making landfall , the Brownsville , Texas National Weather Service issued a flood watch for the southernmost region of the state . The storm was expected to produce heavy rainfall for up to 18 hours , which had the potential to cause significant flooding in poor drainage areas , especially those flooded by Hurricane Dolly in 2008 . Officials opened hurricane shelters , and voluntary evacuations were put into place for South Padre Island ; at least 1 @,@ 000 people sought shelter in Cameron and Hidalgo counties .
= = Impact = =
= = = Caribbean and Central America = = =
The tropical wave from which Alex developed produced rainfall across the Greater Antilles in the central Caribbean Sea . In the Dominican Republic , the rainfall triggered flooding that prompted the evacuations of over 3 @,@ 000 people , mostly due to swollen rivers . In the capital city of Santo Domingo , 160 houses were flooded , and one person was killed by the storm ; one additional person was reported missing . In nearby San Juan de la Maguana , more than 500 homes were inundated . In neighboring Haiti , minor flooding was reported in Gonaïves . The Jamaica Meteorological Service issued a flash flood warning for its entire island in response to the tropical wave producing thunderstorms across the nation .
Fourteen people were killed in Central America as a result of flooding related to Alex : six in Nicaragua , six in El Salvador , and two in Guatemala . In El Salvador , the national chapter of the Red Cross evacuated over 150 families from La Paz and Sonsonate departments . The El Salvador government reported nine injuries , and 5 @,@ 000 people in the country evacuated their residences ; the majority of the evacuees was temporarily relocated to 55 shelters . Alex inflicted damage to 349 homes , 31 schools and 10 bridges , and 27 highways were compromised or blocked . In Guatemala , 350 homes and eight highways were damaged , affecting 9 @,@ 000 people ; 2 @,@ 000 sought shelter in the country . A landslide was reported in a village in Santa Lucía Utatlán , along with flooding in Flores . Corn , bean , and potato crops were damaged in Suchitepéquez , San Marcos and Jutiapa departments . The National Emergency Management Organization of Belize reported that property damage in the country was minimal .
= = = Gulf of Mexico = = =
According to the Mexican government , Alex stopped the production of 420 @,@ 000 barrels ( 67 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil per day from the Gulf of Mexico , which corresponds to a quarter of the country 's total oil production . Pemex evacuated 66 personnel from oil rigs offshore of Tamaulipas and Veracruz , Petrobras evacuated its oil rig in the Gulf , while Royal Dutch Shell evacuated 930 personnel from its rigs in the area . In total , six rigs and 69 production platforms faced evacuations , causing 21 % of U.S. Gulf oil output and 14 % of U.S. Gulf natural @-@ gas flows to remain offline .
The storm was expected to impact operations regarding the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill , with both containment and cleanup operations being affected by repercussions from the storm ( such as wave action and wind direction ) . Although Alex stayed relatively away from the site , the storm caused BP to delay plans to increase oil capture from the leak by a week . Tarballs from the spill as large as apples washed onshore around Grand Isle , as well as other parts of Louisiana , Alabama and Florida , from high storm tides created by the hurricane .
= = = Southern Mexico = = =
In Chiapas , one person from Guatemala died and four others were injured when their bus rolled over as it traveled over a damaged highway . The state 's civil defense system reported that 984 families from 17 municipalities were evacuated to shelters , and that Alex 's torrential rainfall also produced 23 landslides in six counties of the state . On June 30 , a mudslide knocked down a tree onto a 115 @-@ kV transmission line near El Vergel , causing 82 cities and towns in the municipalities of Villaflores and Villa Corzo to lose power ; 32 @,@ 000 residents were left without electricity from this outage alone . Power was restored the same evening . In Yucatán , a boat carrying seven passengers capsized ; all were eventually rescued . In Campeche , 937 dwellings suffered minor damage as a result of the storm .
Prior to its second landfall , Alex caused one death in the state of Oaxaca when a wall collapsed on a dwelling in San Juan Chapultepec , killing the woman who was sleeping inside . Near San Francisco Ixhuatán , the Ostuta river breached its banks , flooding 1 @,@ 000 homes . Farther upstream , in Reforma de Pineda , over 100 families were affected by the river 's rise , which flooded their homes with 3 @.@ 3 ft ( 1 m ) of water . Overall , 3 @,@ 500 families were affected by the storm in the state .
The outer rainbands of Alex caused three deaths in Acapulco , Guerrero , after a retaining wall collapsed over the occupants of an improvised shack in a vacant lot . The investigation that followed found that the wall had been built without structural enforcements , and that the torrential rainfall had weakened the wall 's foundation .
= = = Northeastern Mexico = = =
The storm 's most significant effect in the region was excessive rainfall , which was reported throughout the region . In Tamaulipas , between 3 @.@ 829 to 12 @.@ 421 in ( 97 @.@ 25 to 315 @.@ 5 mm ) of precipitation were reported at weather stations statewide . In Nuevo León , an average of 9 @.@ 5 in ( 242 mm ) of rain was reported statewide up to July 1 . The pluviometer at Estanzuela reported that a total of 35 in ( 890 mm ) of rainfall were recorded ; in Arroyo Seco , in San Pedro Garza García , a total of 23 @.@ 1 in ( 588 mm ) of precipitation was recorded between June 29 and 6 a.m. on July 1 . Other rainfall stations in Monterrey recorded between 14 @.@ 163 in ( 359 @.@ 75 mm ) and 24 @.@ 4 in ( 619 mm ) of rain , while Santa Catarina recorded 23 @.@ 297 in ( 591 @.@ 75 mm ) of precipitation . The Comisión Nacional del Agua ( CNA ) noted that the storm rainfall totals greatly exceed the totals produced by Hurricane Gilbert in 1988 , which only produced 11 in ( 280 mm ) of rain in the city .
The historic rainfall caused several dams to fill throughout northeast Mexico . In Nuevo León , due to the heavy rainfall , CNA also began water discharges of 25 @,@ 200 cubic feet per second ( 713 m3 / s ) from the La Boca Dam in Santiago , 58 @,@ 200 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 648 m3 / s ) from Cerro Prieto in Linares , and 109 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 3 @,@ 080 m3 / s ) from Cuchillo Dam in China ; the dams were at 98 % , 114 % , and 124 % of operating maximum capacity , respectively . Cuchillo Dam saw water inflows of 145 @,@ 400 cu ft / s ( 4 @,@ 118 m3 / s ) . The water releases from these dams raised a state of alert in Tamaulipas , which was slated to receive the discharged water . In Coahuila , the rainfall caused La Fragua Dam to release 35 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) of water into the Rio Grande , and Amistad Dam to reach 119 % of normal operating capacity . In the case of the latter dam , the excess storage in Amistad Lake sparked fears of flooding in downstream municipalities , although the possibility of overtopping of the dam was discarded by the Mexican section of the International Boundary and Water Commission . However , contingency plans were put in place to prepare for the crest of the Sabinas River , a tributary of the Rio Grande , and the subsequent crest on the Rio Grande itself , which was expected to carry at least 140 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 4 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) due to additional inflows from other tributaries . At one point , the Rio Grande was clocked at 195 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 5 @,@ 530 m3 / s ) due to its many flooded tributaries . The river 's rise forced the evacuation of 40 families in Piedras Negras , and required the closure of the Gateway to the Americas International Bridge and Colombia – Solidarity International Bridge between Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas and Laredo , Texas on July 8 . The bridges were expected to be closed until at least July 10 . The rise of the Escondido River forced the evacuation of 1 @,@ 000 families in Villa de Fuente , as the river rose to carry 23 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 650 m3 / s ) through the town .
The rainfall also caused Venustiano Carranza Dam in Coahuila to fill completely ; the large water pressure in the dam forced the dam 's gates shut , and cranes were employed to open them . The rest of the gates were unable to be opened due to lack of electrical power , sparking fears of a potential dam overtopping or rupture . The municipality of Anáhuac in Nuevo León was evacuated after reports early on July 6 that the dam had overtopped ; Anáhuac 's municipal president stated that the flood could cause the " total destruction " of the city . On July 7 , as water releases from the dam were increased to 120 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 3 @,@ 300 m3 / s ) , the town was reported to be 9 @.@ 8 ft ( 3 m ) underwater , with more discharge expected . Personnel from the Mexican Army and the city 's prison population were evacuated from Anáhuac that same day . In San Luis Potosí , the rainfall from Alex was beneficial , as it caused increases in dam water levels of up to 20 % in very dry areas .
= = = = Tamaulipas = = = =
Along the coast , 13 ft ( 4 m ) waves were reported when the storm came ashore . Following the hurricane 's landfall in Tamaulipas , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old man was rescued from a storm drain . 60 @,@ 000 people in San Fernando lost power , as did all of Ciudad Victoria , the capital of the state . Throughout the state , 256 @,@ 000 people were left without electricity . Heavy winds and rainfall knocked down billboards and trees in the capital , but no injuries were reported in the city . The storm dropped 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of rainfall in Matamoros , flooding 120 colonias , and leaving six of the 120 underwater . About 400 neighborhoods of Matamoros , comprising 80 % of the city , were flooded . Some areas of the city were under 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water , forcing 4 @,@ 000 people to shelters . In Reynosa , 80 colonias were flooded , and 15 trees were uprooted ; in Río Bravo , seven neighborhoods were flooded . In Nuevo Laredo , three young persons were rescued from a flooded arroyo . The San Fernando River also breached its banks , flooding communities in San Fernando and Méndez . The overflow of the Rio Grande following water discharges from Nuevo León isolated two communities in Miguel Alemán . One death was reported in the state on July 7 when a man died while trying to cross a flooded river .
Throughout the state , the storm and resultant floods damaged at least 6 @,@ 000 homes , 202 schools , and 500 businesses . Additionally , 28 roadways and bridges were damaged , and left over 193 @,@ 000 power consumers lost electric service . Property damage was placed at $ 1 @.@ 084 billion ( 2010 MXN ; 83 @.@ 8 million USD ) in the 19 municipalities of the state that were declared federal disaster areas .
= = = = Nuevo León = = = =
In Nuevo León , fifteen people were confirmed to have died : one bricklayer who died after a housing unit under construction collapsed on top of him ; two men and a woman who died after their vehicle rolled over and crashed into a semi @-@ trailer truck due to the intense rainfall ; a 25 @-@ year @-@ old who was swept away by swift currents and pinned against a fence ; an elderly man who died after a wall toppled over him , a woman who died after a large boulder from a rock slide fell on her home , and a young man who fell onto the Arroyo Topo Chico . Eight more bodies were found after floodwaters began receding , although one is believed to have been washed away from a cemetery . Twenty people in Nuevo León were reported missing .
According to the Comisión Federal de Electricidad , 4 @,@ 000 customers lost electric power in the Monterrey metropolitan area , as did 61 @,@ 000 people statewide . 18 wells lost power , leaving 110 @,@ 000 without water service in the municipalities of Santa Catarina and García . Heavy flooding occurred along the Santa Catarina River in Monterrey , normally a dry river bed that flows into the Rio Grande , causing it to reach a record flow of 88 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 2 @,@ 500 m3 / s ) . The flooded stream washed away multiple parked vehicles , a popular flea market , and sport facilities built within a riverside greenway . The Santa Catarina River also destroyed about 45 kilometres ( 28 mi ) of Monterrey 's main arterial streets . Multiple washouts caused the closure of the divided highway between Monterrey and Saltillo , Coahuila . In San Nicolás de los Garza , the Arroyo Topo Chico exceeded its banks , forcing multiple street closures . An explosion and fire occurred on a bridge in the Guadalupe municipality when a transformer fell on an old gas pipe . No injuries were reported due to the fire . In Linares , the rainfall from Alex 's remnants caused a wing of the municipal townhouse , which was built in 1896 , to collapse . The building was listed as a protected historic building . A bridge on the Pilón River collapsed in Montemorelos , rupturing a 24 @-@ inch oil pipeline in the process . However , the valves on both ends of the pipeline section were closed , minimizing the leak over the river , and the leak was not expected to adversely impact drinking water supplies in El Cuchillo Dam . Hurricane Alex affected the infrastructure of 1 @,@ 077 schools in the state , 60 of which were severely damaged and 552 held intermediate damage . Nationwide disruption in Internet connection and cell phone services was caused by damage to optical fibers , backbone nodes and telephonic central stations in Monterrey . Additionally , Telefónica reported damage to its network in Monterrey and Saltillo , causing intermittent unavailability of telecommunication services . Preliminary estimates of the damage in the state rose to $ 10 billion ( 2010 MXN ; $ 762 million USD ) ; final damage estimates released on August 5 totaled $ 16 @.@ 9 billion ( 2010 MXN ; 1 @.@ 35 billion USD ) statewide .
= = = = Coahuila = = = =
In Coahuila , rainfall from Alex 's remnants caused a small dam in an ejido in Castaños to overtop , forcing the evacuation of 50 people in the municipality 's seat . The ensuing flood rose 3 @.@ 3 ft ( 1 m ) and damaged 15 homes . The coal @-@ producing region of the state was left isolated after the Álamos River broke its banks . Hundreds of residents in Nueva Rosita and Sabinas were evacuated ; in the latter case , the Sabinas River flooded to become 980 ft ( 300 m ) in width , causing 400 – 500 homes to go underwater . Some bridges on Mexican Federal Highway 57 were covered in water . Thousands of citizens in Ciudad Acuña were evacuated when the Arroyo Las Vacas flooded after 40 in ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) of rain fell on nearby mountain ranges . The flood damaged 1 @,@ 000 homes , damaging urban infrastructure , power , water and telecommunication services ; 500 people sought refuge in shelters . The loss of power caused 40 maquiladoras to suspend their activities , stopping 16 @,@ 000 workers . The rainfall caused damage in 15 municipalities of Coahuila , affecting 10 @,@ 000 people , and causing at least $ 1 billion ( 2010 MXN ; $ 76 million USD ) in damage in the state .
= = = United States = = =
In southern Texas , the feeder bands on the northern side of the hurricane began producing tropical @-@ storm @-@ force winds throughout Cameron , Willacy and Kenedy Counties starting on June 30 . The highest reported sustained wind was of 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) at the southeast tip of Port Isabel . The strongest gust occurred over the Queen Isabella Causeway , where a wind speed of 66 mph ( 106 km / h ) was measured . Sustained winds of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) and gusts of 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) were measured in Bayview .
The feeder bands also produced heavy rainfall , leading to flooding on South Padre Island . A storm surge of 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) was reported on the island , causing moderate beach erosion . However , more significant damage was avoided as the bulk of the 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) storm tide hit South Padre and Port Isabel at low tide . Nine tornadoes were confirmed to have touched down in the state in association with the storm , one of which overturned a mobile home . Other tornadoes caused mainly minimal damages to trees and shrubbery . About 9 @,@ 000 customers lost power throughout Texas .
Large amounts of precipitation fell throughout the Lower Rio Grande Valley , with 6 to 9 inches ( 150 to 230 mm ) of rainfall recorded throughout the region . Brownsville Airport had 6 @.@ 80 inches ( 173 mm ) of precipitation in a 36 @-@ hour period . The 5 @.@ 86 inches ( 149 mm ) of rain that fell alone on June 30 broke the daily rainfall record of 3 @.@ 80 inches ( 97 mm ) from 1995 . McAllen , Texas , measured 6 @.@ 66 inches ( 169 mm ) of rain on June 30 , which now constitutes the city 's wettest June day on record . In Houston , more rain fell on the first two days of July than the average rainfall for the entire month of July . Some parts of the city received nearly 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of rain over three days , causing scattered street flooding .
Flooding caused by the rainfall from the remnants of Alex caused the Rio Grande at Foster Ranch , in far western Texas , to exceed 31 ft ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) , well above the flood stage at 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) and the record stage at 25 @.@ 9 ft ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) . Combined with the rainfall produced by Tropical Depression Two , the Rio Grande was under flood conditions for much of the month of July . About $ 10 million ( 2010 USD ) of agricultural damage was reported in Hidalgo County from Alex .
= = Aftermath and records = =
= = = Government response = = =
Following the storm 's final landfall , Mexico 's Secretariat of National Defense deployed 800 troops to Nuevo León and Tamaulipas under Plan DN @-@ III @-@ E to help aid operations . The troops enforced mandatory evacuations of 3 @,@ 337 residents of San Fernando and Soto la Marina in Tamaulipas . Throughout Nuevo León , 60 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from their homes . In Tamaulipas , 263 @,@ 000 people were affected by Hurricane Alex , and 2 @,@ 260 homes were flooded . In Coahuila , 80 @,@ 000 were affected by Alex 's remnants , leaving 30 % of the municipalities of the state without communication with the outside world . 20 @,@ 000 were considered total losses , most of them in Sabinas . Approximately 500 @,@ 000 people were affected by floods throughout northeastern Mexico .
The Secretaría de Gobernación declared a state of emergency in 21 of Nuevo León 's 51 municipalities , freeing federal disaster funds for use in aid operations . An additional 10 municipalities were placed under the state of emergency on July 8 . A similar declaration was made for 8 municipalities in Oaxaca , and for 14 municipalities in Tamaulipas ; the state of emergency in Tamaulipas was later expanded to 30 municipalities . Mexican President Felipe Calderón requested adding resources to the federal disaster fund , as the $ 3 billion ( 2010 MXN ; $ 235 million USD ) it held would not be sufficient to face the damage in Coahuila , Nuevo León and Tamaulipas . In the months following the storm , a total of $ 4 @.@ 8 billion ( 2010 MXN ; $ 375 million USD ) was released by the federal and state governments to aid in the reconstruction of the disaster areas in Nuevo León and Tamaulipas . In Texas , Governor Rick Perry activated the state 's search and rescue capabilities in Laredo and San Antonio . This activation was due to the flooding on the Rio Grande Valley , which was expected to worsen due to the approach of Tropical Depression Two to the area affected by Alex .
Even after its dissipation , Alex continued causing deaths throughout Mexico , particularly due to flooding . One death was reported in Tamaulipas and another one in San Luis Potosí ; another six were reported to have died in Guanajuato as a result of Alex . In Coahuila , eight people died after a plane crashed while surveying the water discharges from dams in the state ; the Coahuila secretary of public works and the municipal president of Piedras Negras were among the victims .
= = = Infrastructure = = =
The storm caused severe devastation in Nuevo León , and in particular throughout the Monterrey metropolitan area . State governor Rodrigo Medina de la Cruz noted that the city of Monterrey had " collapsed due to the worst weather phenomenon in its history . " In the municipality of Santa Catarina alone , 50 @,@ 000 people were affected , with property damage being estimated at $ 1 @.@ 2 billion ( 2010 MXN ; 93 @.@ 5 million USD ) . Residents from three colonias in García had to be permanently relocated as 800 homes were destroyed ; the storm caused $ 900 million ( 2010 MXN ; 70 million USD ) in damage in the municipality . The flooding Santa Catarina River destroyed four bridges in Monterrey ; at least 60 bridges were damaged statewide . Governor Medina also announced on July 3 the allocation of $ 1 @.@ 4 billion ( 2010 MXN ; $ 107 million USD ) for repairs to Monterrey 's arterial streets . Municipalities in the metropolitan area used contraflow during part of the day to re @-@ establish traffic in sections where the arterial streets bordering the Santa Catarina River were damaged only in one direction . The repairs to Monterrey 's main roadways were estimated to take up to three months to complete .
Railway traffic throughout the state was paralyzed , as some train bridges collapsed , and extensive damage was found in the track ballast in multiple rail lines . Kansas City Southern Railway reported it expected a net loss of five cents per share on its annual earnings due to the stoppage affecting its Mexican subsidiary . The company later reported a drop of $ 33 million ( 2010 USD ) in revenue due to hurricane damage . The damage to the railway infrastructure caused automotive part shortages throughout North America . General Motors was forced to cancel shifts at plants in Michigan , Missouri and Kansas . Ford also idled production in its Oakville , Ontario assembly plant , and suffered two @-@ week delays in U.S. deliveries of its Fiesta model due to the rail track damage . The damage to the road system paralyzed a route used by 40 % of the trade between the United States and Mexico , as 22 @,@ 000 trucks were stalled after damage to the Nuevo Laredo – Monterrey highway .
Alex destroyed the potable water infrastructure in portions of Nuevo León , causing widespread shortages of water . The damage to the water infrastructure was described as being of " unexpected magnitude , " with 160 @,@ 000 left without water a week after the storm made landfall . The standing water left following the rainfall caused concern of outbreaks of various diseases , including cholera . Consequently , the population was warned to boil or otherwise disinfect water to prevent disease . In areas where the storm 's impact made it difficult to boil water due to the unavailability of gas or stoves , 70 @,@ 000 jars with colloidal silver were distributed . Additionally , laboratory testing of refuse coming from individuals with gastrointestinary illnesses commenced as a precaution to identify outbreaks of cholera and other diseases , and over 82 @,@ 000 vaccines were applied throughout the region . Following the storm 's passage , PROFECO announced fines of up to $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( 2010 MXN ; $ 191 @,@ 000 USD ) to merchants guilty of price gouging when selling bottled water . This occurred after the agency received complaints of 1500 % markups when compared to bottled water 's pre @-@ storm price . On July 7 , the agency announced it had applied sanctions to 20 businesses who were found overcharging for bottled water .
= = = Economic and environmental effects = = =
According to estimates from the Mexican Secretariat of Agriculture , Livestock , Rural Development , Fisheries and Food ( SAGARPA ) , 504 @,@ 000 acres ( 203 @,@ 800 ha ) of farmland were damaged as a result from Alex in northeastern Mexico , corresponding to 11 % of the total farmland in Tamaulipas , Nuevo León and Coahuila . Most of the agricultural damage occurred in Tamaulipas , where 270 @,@ 000 acres ( 110 @,@ 000 ha ) of sorghum and 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 80 @,@ 000 ha ) of maize were damaged , corresponding to 15 @.@ 6 % of the entirety of the state 's farmland , and 76 % of the state 's maize crop ; 1 @,@ 700 acres ( 700 ha ) of grapefruit and limes were also damaged , corresponding to 15 % of the state 's citrus production . Two thousand heads of cattle were also lost in Nuevo Laredo . In Nuevo León and Coahuila , most of the damage was to animal husbandry ; in Nuevo León , 3 @,@ 645 heads of cattle , 3 @,@ 580 goats , 7 @,@ 265 sheep and 194 horses were lost , while in Coahuila , 3 @,@ 709 goats , 258 cattle and 56 sheep were killed .
The storm also affected commerce throughout the region . The Mexican Secretariat of Economy calculated that Alex affected 2 @,@ 500 small and medium enterprises in Nuevo León , 500 in Tamaulipas , and 500 – 700 in Coahuila . In Monterrey , the local chapter of the Confederation of National Chambers of Commerce reported that in the first two days after Hurricane Alex affected the city , businesses in the city lost $ 750 million ( 2010 MXN ; 58 million USD ) . Overall , the lost business due to Alex is expected to total about $ 2 billion ( 2010 MXN ; 156 million USD ) .
As floodwaters receded from the Pesquería River in Escobedo , Nuevo León , the remnants of a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old mammoth were discovered by local residents . It is believed that the remains were carried from the state of Coahuila to Escobedo by the floodwaters . The remnants were identified and dated by personnel from the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia .
= = = Meteorological records = = =
Alex was the first Atlantic hurricane in the month of June since Hurricane Allison in 1995 , and the strongest in terms of wind speed since Hurricane Alma in 1966 . Its barometric pressure recording of 946 mbar ( 27 @.@ 96 inches ) is the most intense from any Atlantic hurricane in June , although Hurricane Audrey in 1957 ties this intensity . Alex is thus tied for the most intense June Atlantic hurricane on record overall . However , as Audrey 's pressure was estimated , Audrey 's actual pressure might be as low as 925 mbar .
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= Roman Lyashenko =
Roman Yurievich Lyashenko ( May 1 , 1979 – July 7 , 2003 ) was a Russian ice hockey player . He played professionally in North America for the Dallas Stars and New York Rangers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , and also spent time with affiliate teams in the American Hockey League ( Utah Grizzlies and Hartford Wolfpack ) and the now @-@ defunct International Hockey League ( Michigan K @-@ Wings ) . Lyashenko also played professionally in Russia for Yaroslavl Torpedo before joining the Stars . He was drafted by the Stars in the second round ( 52nd overall ) of the 1997 NHL Entry Draft .
Lyashenko represented Russia internationally at both the junior and senior levels , capturing three medals ( gold , silver and bronze ) at the World Junior Championships and a silver medal at the World Championships . Lyashenko committed suicide while on vacation with his family on July 7 , 2003 .
= = Playing career = =
Lyashenko spent three seasons playing with Yaroslavl Torpedo in his home country of Russia . In 130 games , he recorded 22 goals and 22 assists for 44 points . While playing with Yaroslavl , he was selected in the second round ( 52nd overall ) of the 1997 NHL Entry Draft by the Dallas Stars . Leading up to the draft , scouts described him as a defensive forward with good character and leadership skills . He was considered an atypical Russian prospect due to his attention to defensive play . One source had him ranked as a first round prospect . He signed with the Stars in July 1999 .
Lyashenko made his NHL debut with the Dallas Stars during the 1999 – 2000 season , seeing action in 58 games , while recording six goals and six assists . He also spent time with the Stars ' International Hockey League ( IHL ) affiliate Michigan K @-@ Wings , notching five points in nine games . During his rookie season in the NHL , Lyashenko played center on the Stars second line , earning praise from coach Ken Hitchcock , " His game has risen beyond his years . He 's 20 years old in age only . He looks like a real good fit for us . " The Stars went to the Stanley Cup Finals that season , but lost to the New Jersey Devils . In the Stars ' first round playoff series against the Edmonton Oilers , Lyashenko scored the winning goal in the first game of the series . During the 2000 Western Conference final against the Colorado Avalanche , Lyashenko scored the series clinching goal in game seven . Lyashenko played in 16 playoff games for the Stars . During the playoffs in his rookie season , Hitchcock was happy with Lyashenko 's play , saying , " He 's an exceptional defensive player -- his offensive skills have improved as the season 's gone on . "
During the 2000 – 2001 season , Lyashenko again split time between the Stars and the Utah Grizzlies , who were the Stars ' new IHL affiliate . At the end of the season , Lyashenko had played 60 games with the Stars and recorded nine points . At the IHL level , he played in six games and had one assist . Lyashenko was popular with his teammates in Dallas , at one point his teammates lobbied Hitchcock to get him more playing time .
On March 12 , 2002 , Lyashenko and Martin Rucinsky were traded to the New York Rangers for Manny Malhotra and Barrett Heisten . During the 2001 – 2002 season , Lyashenko played for four different teams , the Stars and Rangers at the NHL level as well as the IHL 's Grizzlies , and the Hartford Wolfpack of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . In his last season of professional hockey , Lyashenko played two games with the Rangers , and 71 with the Wolfpack . He put up the best numbers of his career in North America , with 23 goals and 35 assists . He played in the 2003 AHL All @-@ Star Game , despite having asked for a release midway through the season to return to Russia . The request was denied by the Rangers , but his agent , Todd Diamond , said there were other teams interested in the forward 's services ; " Several teams were interested in him because they knew he wasn 't a fourth @-@ line guy . "
= = International play = =
Lyashenko represented Russia internationally at both the junior and senior levels . His first experience with Russia 's junior team was at the 1997 World Junior Championships , recording three points in six games as Russia defeated the Czech Republic for the bronze medal . At the 1998 World Junior championships , Lyashenko again represented Russia , as the team captured a silver medal . In seven games at the tournament , he recorded three assists . Lyashenko captained Russia 's team at the 1999 World Junior Championships , which were held in Winnipeg . The Russian team captured the gold medal , defeating Canada in overtime . Lyashenko scored three goals and added two assists in seven games . With the gold medal , Lyashenko and teammate Mikhail Donika became the only two players to win a medal of each colour ( gold , silver and bronze ) at the World Junior Ice Hockey Championships .
Lyashenko played in a single tournament at the senior international level , representing Russia at the 2002 World Championships . He left his AHL team , the Hartford Wolf Pack , during their playoff run to join Russia at the tournament . Wolf Pack general manager Al Coates was disappointed to lose Lyashenko from his club , but understood the decision : " Everyone wants to play for his country , and he shouldn 't be portrayed as a bad guy . He 's a good guy and a good player . " In nine games , he recorded two assists and 14 penalty minutes . Russia captured a silver medal at the tournament .
= = Death = =
While on vacation in Antalya , Turkey with his mother and sister , Lyashenko was found dead in his hotel room on July 7 , 2003 . His death was initially reported to be a suicide . Reports by Turkish police confirmed this , stating that Lyashenko had left a suicide note and attempted to cut his arms and wrists before hanging himself . A Turkish police officer , speaking anonymously , said that Lyashenko apologized for killing himself in the note . New York Rangers general manager Glen Sather said of Lyashenko , " Roman was a quality individual who had a positive impact on everyone he touched , both on and off the ice . " Dallas Stars general manager Doug Armstrong expressed similar sentiments : " Roman was a quality young man who we were privileged to have in our organization for three years . " Lyashenko was buried in Yaroslavl on July 12 , 2003 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International play = = =
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= Presidential Council ( Benin ) =
The Presidential Council ( French : Conseil Présidentiel ) was a triumvirate system of government in the Republic of Dahomey ( present @-@ day Benin ) from 7 May 1970 until 26 October 1972 . The Presidential Council included Hubert Maga ( former president from 1960 @-@ 1963 ) , Justin Ahomadégbé @-@ Tomêtin ( former prime minister from 1964 @-@ 1965 ) , and Sourou @-@ Migan Apithy ( former president from 1964 @-@ 1965 ) as equal members of a council which held all legislative and executive power in the state of Dahomey .
Following independence from France , the Republic of Dahomey saw a division of the country between different political / ethnic parties with one party representing the northern part of the country , one party representing the former Kingdom of Dahomey in the southwest , and one party representing Porto @-@ Novo in the southeast . The result was a highly unstable system of governance with the leaders of each of these different parties struggling with each other for power . Hubert Maga from the north was deposed in a military coup in 1963 which eventually appointed Apithy from Porto @-@ Novo and Ahomadégbé from the former kingdom of Dahomey as the divided rulers of the country . Ahomadégbé was eventually able to gain the support of Maga to gain the upper hand over Apithy and become the leader in the country only to be deposed two days later by the military . Five years of political instability , including multiple other military coups and a failed election eventually resulted in the 1970 Presidential election which largely divided the country and , when there was violence , the military annulled the results . In the political crisis that resulted , the military was able to get the three main candidates , Maga , Ahomadégbé , and Apithy to agree to form a Presidential Council with all three holding all executive and legislative authority .
In the charter of the Presidential Council , each of the three leaders would sit on a Presidential Council which would be tasked with approving all major policy decisions of the country . At the same time , each would get two years as the President of the country able to implement many of the ongoing tasks of managing the military and civil service in the country . The various ministerial positions would be divided between the three leaders ; however , the Ministry of the Interior and the Minister of the Army would be appointed by the sitting president . It was decided that Maga would be the first President from 1970 until 1972 , followed by Ahomadégbé until 1974 , and then Apithy until 1976 . One peaceful transition occurred with Hubert Maga giving power to Justin Ahomadégbé @-@ Tomêtin on 7 May 1972 . However , stalled politics ensued with Maga and Apithy working to undermine Ahomadégbé 's ability to govern and the Presidential Council was ended on 26 October 1972 when a military coup led by Mathieu Kérékou assumed power and ruled the country until 1991 .
= = Background = =
The colony of French Dahomey was created as a part of French West Africa in 1904 . The colony was constructed of two coastal kingdoms with a long history of antagonism with one another ( Dahomey and Porto @-@ Novo ) with a large area to the north controlled by a variety of mostly Mahi and Bariba peoples .
After World War II , the colonies of French West Africa began a 15 year process towards independence . French Dahomey , like many other colonies , saw domestic political parties emerge in the mid @-@ 1950s . However , in contrast to many of the other colonies , political parties in French Dahomey did not become predominant through the whole colony , but largely adhered to the precolonial regions . In the northern part of the country , the Groupement Ethnique du Nord and then the Rassemblement Démocratique du Dahomé led by Hubert Maga were the most dominant party . In the area that was formerly the kingdom of Dahomey , the Union Démocratique du Dahomé led by Justin Ahomadégbé @-@ Tomêtin became the most powerful party . And in Porto @-@ Novo , the Parti des Nationialistes Dahoméens led by Sourou @-@ Migan Apithy was the major party . Although there were some efforts by the various parties to become predominant throughout the colony , the division of the colony into three distinct spheres for the different parties had largely solidified by 1957 . Apithy was the major political leader in the colony , being elected twice to the French National Assembly in 1946 and 1951 . Maga was also elected in 1951 as the colony 's second representative to the National Assembly .
Apithy won the 1958 election in the colony to select the Premier who would guide the country to independence and lead until the first elections .
= = = Musical chairs ( 1960 @-@ 1965 ) = = =
Following independence in 1960 , Dahomey had its first elections in December . As a result of Fon ethnic identification with Ahomadégbé and perceived corruption and ineffectiveness of the Apithy administration , Ahomadégbé made large gains in the Porto @-@ Novo region traditionally aligned with Apithy . Apithy responded to this by making a parliamentary alliance with Maga which made Maga the first President of Dahomey and made Apithy the first Minister of Finance and then later the Vice President . To consolidate his power , Maga promoted a number of allies and people from the north through the new positions in the country 's civil service . In addition , he tried to weaken his ally 's political power by appointing Apithy to be the Ambassador of France while he was still the Vice President . Unfortunately giving political positions and channeling money to the north caused severe budgetary problems in the country which eventually led Maga to freeze wages for public employees leading to a general strike by unionists and students in October 1963 . On 28 October , Christophe Soglo , the Army Chief of Staff , removed Maga from power and created a new system of government with Apithy being appointed the head of state and Ahomadégbé the head of government . However , the division between these roles and the responsibilities between the two leaders was not clearly defined . During the 1963 coup , Maga and many of his inner circle were arrested and tried for mismanagement of public funds .
In the new arrangement , Apithy and Ahomadégbéd wrestled constantly with one another for power . Seeing an opportunity to become the primary political power in the government , Ahomadégbé released Maga from prison and the coalition between the two leaders named Ahomadégbé the provisional president of the legislature on 27 November 1965 . Soglo grew increasingly concerned with the situation and believed that Ahomadégbé was forming an alliance with Soglo 's second in command ( Colonel Philippe Aho , who was a Fon like Ahomadégbé ) . The result was that Soglo suspended the constitution and removed Ahomadégbé from power on 29 November . Following the 1965 coup , Apithy , Ahomadégbé , and Maga all went into exile in France . Soglo ruled for two years until union strikes and dissatisfaction within the ranks of the military led to the 17 December 1967 coup where two junior military officers , Maurice Kouandété and Mathieu Kérékou , overthrew Soglo and sent him into exile in France . Following the removal of Soglo from power , the military decided to transition to a civilian government and appointed Colonel Alphonse Alley , Soglo 's chief of staff , as the provisional president until such a transition could occur . A new constitution was prepared and approved in a vote by 92 % of the population in March 1968 .
In the elections which followed to elect a civilian president , all former presidents , prime ministers , and ministers were prohibited from running . This excluded Apithy , Ahomadégbé , Maga , and former foreign minister Émile Derlin Zinsou from running for the position . Apithy , Ahomadégbé , and Maga declared a general boycott of the election which proved highly successful with only 33 % of the eligible voters casting ballots . With such low turnout , the military invalidated the election results and , after consulting with unions and other activists in the country , the military selected Zinsou as the new president .
With the appointment of Zinsou as a civilian leader of the country , Apithy , Ahomadégbé , and Maga tried to return to the country but were informed that their plane would be shot down if they entered Dahomey airspace ; they instead flew to neighboring Togo . Zinsou , who had a history of advocacy against the policies of the military , quickly drew the ire of the military leaders by pursuing a host of policies without consultation with them . In addition , to control continued deficits , Zinsou instituted a number of austerity measures and as a result alienated unions and the urban population . The result was that on 10 December 1969 , Zinsou was taken into custody by military officers organized by Kouandété and Zinsou was sent to a remote military garrison near Natitingou . Following the coup , Kouandété found that he did not have the support to rule throughout the entire military , and so instead Paul @-@ Emile de Souza ( the director of military affairs for Zinsou 's government ) was named the provisional head of state as the head of a three person Military directorate ( with Kouandété and Colonel Benoît Sinzogan holding the other seats ) . The military directorate decided to release Zinsou and hold new presidential elections in 1970 without the restrictions of the 1968 elections , thus allowing Apithy , Ahomadégbé , and Maga to run .
= = = 1970 Election = = =
The 1970 election included all of the civilian leaders of the country since independence with Apithy , Ahomadégbé , Maga , and Zinsou running against one another . The military decided to hold the elections on a staggered schedule with different areas of the country voting on different dates . This staggering meant that each of the candidates strategically tried to gain votes in later voting regions based upon the earlier results : bribery and irregularities in the election were rampant . Just before voting began in the final region of Atakora , which was a stronghold for Maga , Ahomadégbé supporters instigated violence to undercut the turnout for Maga in the region . Maga would have won the presidency if he had earned the most votes in Atakora , but instead of allowing the vote to go forward , de Souza suspended the election and immediately called on all sides to come to an agreement forming the next government .
The situation became quite tense with each of the sides making threats and refusing to meet with each other . Maga threatened that the north would secede if his victory was not validated , and Apithy threatened that his base of Porto @-@ Novo would join with Nigeria . Ethnic tensions increased with these threats and with mass migration of people back to their traditional ethnic territories . Many inside the country considered Dahomey to be close to civil war .
On 16 April 1970 , Ahomadégbé and Maga met in the town of Savé , under French pressure , and agreed to the notion of a single party controlling government with a rotating presidency . Apithy did not attend the meeting and rejected the proposal , suggesting to the military that they instead pick one of their own to be the next president . The military leaders rejected this proposal and endorsed the shared presidency idea . Apithy then agreed to participate in the Presidential Council . Zinsou , with only 3 % of the vote , was ignored in the discussions and left the country for France . Historian Samuel Decalo commented that although coups and crises were regular in the country 's short history , " the April 1970 crisis was the most ominous Dahomey had ever faced . "
= = The triumvirate = =
To reduce the tension throughout the country , all three candidates accepted the military governing council 's resolution ( written closely with Maga ) , which stipulated that starting in May 1970 , each of the three main candidates would be part of a Presidential Council that would hold all legislative and executive power in the government and decide on all major policy issues . The charter of the Council established that one member of the council would serve as the head of state for two @-@ year periods before rotating to other members until all three leaders had held the position of president . The individual president would govern some of the affairs of the state , managing the civil service , military and bureaucracy . However , policy decisions would be set by unanimous decision of the entire Presidential Council , and if a unanimous decision could not be reached , a vote of the majority could pass policies . Ministry posts in the country would be divided evenly between the three members of the council with each one appointing four ministers , and the sitting president would have the power to appoint the Minister of the Military and the Minister of the Interior . Each individual also pledged not to abuse their control of the military to try and remain in power after the two @-@ year period had ended . Under the chairmanship of de Souza , the military was largely stabilized in its leadership and returned to the barracks .
On 7 May 1970 , Maga became the head of state and began governing the country . Although unions and the military had agreed to the agreement and all three candidates supported it , there remained tension between the various powers in the new arrangement . In order to appease unions , Maga promised that public service union salaries would be immune from any budget cuts . Although there were forces in the military opposed to the government , many of the coup leaders of the 1960s had largely left the country or withdrawn from politics . The relationship between the three leaders remained tense , but a Maga @-@ Ahomadégbé alliance against Apithy on a number of issues kept the triumvirate functioning during Maga 's tenure . With unions largely docile , the high ranks of the military committed to the council , and the members of the council waiting for their turns to govern , domestic and foreign policy were able to come to the fore in 1971 ( the first year without a major political crisis in the government since 1966 ) . Although some small policies were began , the council passed few policies and largely simply " froze the status quo . "
Various development attempts dominated the domestic agenda during Maga 's administration . Unlike many other countries in Africa at the time , this did not involve nationalizing many of the industries in the country . Instead the country sought to expand its foreign tourism sector and oil exploration along the coast . The country , using French and German investment , began a series of projects to create resorts and tourist potential along the coast of the country . Union Oil had begun oil exploration off the coast of the country in the 1960s but had withdrawn in the chaos of 1970 . Maga was able to secure a new contract with Shell Oil to begin a 9 @-@ year exploration deal in 1971 . The agreement with the unions and other investments within the country were largely financed through a significant loan from the French government . However , at the same time , the three members of the council were provided significant personal wealth through the arrangement . Each was provided significant funds to spend on their presidential residences , payment for a many members of a personal staff , and given identical Mercedes @-@ Benz W108s . Trade from the country increased by 14 % during the Presidential Council although large trade and budget deficits remained .
On foreign policy , the Republic of Dahomey split with France and other African countries on the issues of China and South Africa . On the recognition of China , Dahomey broke with France and sided with the United States in voting against the recognition of Communist China in the United Nations . On the issue of South Africa , Dahomey was one of five countries to walk out of discussions in the Union of African States on opening contact with the apartheid regime in South Africa . Dahomey supported opening contact and trade relations with the regime , unlike much of the rest of the African states , and abstained on the final vote .
Military tension increased with a mutiny in the Ouidah barracks on 28 January 1972 by young officers demanding the removal of de Souza from his position at the head of the military . This coup was ended when Maga sent two military officers to discuss with the mutineers and made them some agreements which have never bee disclosed . This was followed on 23 March with a double coup attempt ( two simultaneous coups organized by two different factions within the military ) which only resulted in an attempted assassination attempt against de Souza who was slightly injured in the attack . The leaders of the two different factions ( one faction led by Kouandété and one led by supporters of Zinsou ) , included 20 different officers and many civilians . Many were tried and six were sentenced to death , including Kouandété , although he was never executed by Maga or Ahomadégbé for fear of a hostile military reaction .
With the scheduled transfer of power from Maga to Ahomadégbé on 7 May 1972 , there were rumors throughout the country that the transfer would not occur ( often rumored that troops loyal to Maga would march south and prevent the transfer ) . Maga had promoted many northerners through the civil service and military ranks and many of them saw Ahomadégbé as a threat to these new positions . However , all three members stood together for the ceremony and power was transferred from Maga to Ahomadégbé . Maga declared the Presidential Council to be " one of the most beneficial institutions " because it allowed the country to heal . The alliance between Maga and Ahomadégbé which had allowed Maga to govern the country quickly broke apart , and instead Maga and Apithy made an alliance which kept Maga 's associates in their ministerial positions and prevented Ahomadégbé from effectively governing . The only major policy effort pushed by Ahomadégbé was the declaration to create a single political party from the various regional political parties which would be the only party allowed when the Presidential Council would end , although in practice the divisions between the parties largely remained . The tensions between the three members reportedly became their most tense with the planned visit of French President Georges Pompidou in November .
After almost 6 months in power , a military coup was started on 26 October 1972 which removed Ahomadégbé from power and ended the Presidential Council . Major Kerekou , a protege of Kouandété , led the first armor company of the military to break into a Presidential Council meeting , where he declared the end of the Presidential Council . Kerekou announced the coup on national radio by saying that the " three headed figure [ was ] truly a monster " beset by " congenital deficiency ... notorious inefficiency and ... unpardonable incompetence . " Similarly to the coup in 1963 , the military intervention was viewed favorably by much of the population of the country . Kouandété was released from prison and Kerekou named himself the new head of state appointing military officers to the various ministerial posts . All the senior military officers were discharged from their positions . An alleged counter @-@ coup led in May 1973 by Colonel Alley was suppressed by Kerekou and Alley was sentenced to 20 years in prison . The members of the Presidential Council and other prominent political figures were arrested and imprisoned or placed under house arrest until 1981 . After they were released from house arrest in 1981 , Apithy , Ahomadégbé , and Maga all moved to Paris . Following the coup , Kerekou proceeded to rule the country as a military dictator until 1991 .
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= Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots =
Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots is the official expansion pack to the real @-@ time strategy video game Rise of Nations . The game is the second in a series of Rise of Nations games by Big Huge Games . Thrones and Patriots had its premiere release for Microsoft Windows on April 27 , 2004 in North America . It was ported to and released for Mac OS X in November 2004 . Rise of Nations : Extended Edition was released on Steam on June 12 , 2014 and includes both the original game and Thrones and Patriots with updated graphics and Steamworks integration for multiplayer .
Thrones and Patriots expanded on a variety of features in the original game , such as new monuments ( called " Wonders " ) , nations , governments , and campaigns . Gameplay still remains similar to Rise of Nations , with its wide span of ages and players still manage and expand their nations at the macro and micro levels . However , Thrones and Patriots has campaigns which offer more turn @-@ based strategy features than the original and the ability to make decisions outside of combat . Up to eight players can play in multiplayer matches , with artificial intelligence being able to fill slots at the server host 's choice .
Tim Train , executive producer of Thrones and Patriots , stated that various features were added to the game in an attempt to balance gameplay , including the addition of armed caravans and merchants . IGN claimed that Thrones and Patriots is " a great game [ which ] gets better , " in reference to its predecessor Rise of Nations and other critical reviews also praised many features of the game , though some noted deficiencies . Thrones and Patriots has received a compilation score of 87 @.@ 86 % and 88 % on Game Rankings and Metacritic respectively .
= = Gameplay = =
Within Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots players control various units during battles , including land , sea , and aerial units . Units used during gameplay include slingers , musketeers , tanks , large Persian war elephants , aircraft carriers , and nuclear missiles . Players progress in different ways in Thrones and Patriots by using various means including espionage , political strategy , technology races and population growth . The gameplay takes place from ancient history to modern times . Players are able to lead their nations at the macro and micro levels , and build their nation up and expand it throughout the game .
Thrones and Patriots added six new nations to the original Rise of Nations game . The ' New World ' situation playable in the game was enhanced by the introduction of the European nation — the Dutch . Three North American nations were added , the Americans , referring to the ex @-@ colonial civilization , and two Native American nations were added , which were the Lakota and the Iroquois . Two Asian nations , the Indians and the Persians , were introduced . The other nation to be added was the Dutch . New Wonders were made available for building , such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon , the Forbidden City , and the Red Fort .
New features of the game were added to the new nations , for instance the Lakota , which is unable to build farms to generate food , instead receive a constant food supply for each of their citizens , scouts , and cavalry units . They can make buildings in any region that is not possessed by their enemy , can raze buildings quickly , receiving a full refund . Additionally , they receive resources when enemy resources are destroyed .
= = = Campaigns = = =
Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots added four new " Conquer the World " campaigns : Alexander the Great , Napoleon , the New World , and the Cold War . The Alexander the Great campaign allows the player to choose whether or not to raze or incorporate conquered territories . A player 's decision to raze may cause the rest of the enemies to either fight harder , or question their casus belli and ally with you . The Napoleon campaign challenges the player to conquer Europe in a limited amount of time , with diplomacy , alliances , conquest , and bribing with land . Players must have intuitive leadership in this campaign because faulty decisions by the player can force themselves , that is to say , Napoleon , into exile . The New World campaign allows the player to choose either the Americans , a European power , or a Native American tribe . If the player chooses to lead the Americans , they must pay taxes to Great Britain , until they declare independence . The map of a battle incorporates the region 's environment , for example large forests in the Pacific Northwest . The Cold War introduces the ability to fire nuclear missiles in the main map and initiate espionage missions . Armies can also move anywhere in their nation 's territory without using up a turn.Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots ' campaigns now offer more turn @-@ based strategy into the game rather than real @-@ time strategy being the only gameplay aspect .
= = = Governments = = =
Once the player builds the Senate building , he or she may choose a government " upgrade " of either a Despotism or a Republic , each giving the player a different permanent gameplay bonus . Each government has a different " Patriot " , effectively a stronger version of the " General " unit with different bonuses , depending on which government is chosen . They are used during combat to assist players in battle . A player can only have one Patriot unit at a time . When a Patriot unit is killed , a new one is automatically created in the Senate afterwards .
After reaching the Gunpowder Age , the player may choose to upgrade to either a Monarchy or a Democracy , each with its own different permanent gameplay bonus , and then after reaching the Industrial Age , the player may upgrade again , to either Capitalism or Socialism . The previous gameplay bonuses remain , allowing players to select the most appropriate combination of benefits as the game evolves .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Rise of Nations features a highly customizable multiplayer mode . Up to eight players can play in a game with a variety of modes to choose from , with AI filling spots at the server host 's choice . GameSpy Technologies had hosted matchmaking and other servers for multiplayer games played online through their dedicated server until December 2012 . A new feature that was introduced into the game was the ability to use homemade scripts in online play . The scripts are able to be made in the built in script editor , and came with a pre @-@ made script that disallowed missile silos .
= = Development = =
Microsoft Game Studios and Big Huge Games announced the development of the expansion pack for Rise of Nations , Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots , on November 21 , 2003 . By December 16 of that year , the game 's development was about 70 % complete . A website was launched for the game on February 13 , 2004 , which contained information , screenshots , and other details about the expansion pack .
Big Huge Games added multiple new features to the game during its development , in an attempt to fix issues with the original version . In an interview with GameSpot , executive producer Tim Train explained the development of the expansion pack . He stated how some nations were previously either too weak or too strong , and so features were added to balance gameplay . One way they did this is armed caravans and merchants were added to the Dutch nation , in order to weaken raids initiated by other players who rush their opponent . He said Big Huge Games brought in professional players in order to get suggestions on how to improve the game .
The expansion pack Thrones and Patriots was released for Microsoft Windows in North America on April 27 , 2004 , and subsequently in Europe on May 21 , 2004 . NPD sales figures for May , the first full month of Thrones and Patriots release in the United States , showed it as fourth in PC sales for the month , with its predecessor needed for the expansion pack going from twelfth in sales in April to fifth in sales in May . By October 27 , 2004 , combined sales of Thrones and Patriots and the base game Rise of Nations had passed one million copies worldwide . On October 28 , 2004 , Rise of Nations : Gold Edition was released for Microsoft Windows . The new product included both the original Rise of Nations and Thrones and Patriots . In November 2004 , a port of Rise of Nations : Gold Edition was released for Mac OS X. It was published by MacSoft Games and developed by both Big Huge Games and Westlake Interactive .
In December 2012 , official servers for Thrones and Patriots were shut down by GameSpy Technologies , which made it difficult for multiplayer matches to be played officially online . Programs like GameRanger could be used to continue playing multiplayer games online without the usage of official game servers .
The rights to the assets and intellectual property of Rise of Nations , Thrones and Patriots , and Rise of Legends and the Big Huge Games trademark were sold in the bankruptcy auction of 38 Studios to Microsoft Studios on December 11 , 2013 . Gross proceeds of the auction totaled $ 320 @,@ 000 .
Rise of Nations : Extended Edition is a re @-@ release of the main game and the expansion on Steam that was released on June 12 , 2014 . Graphical changes to the game include updated textures , lighting and water . Other changes to the game include Steamworks integration which will add cloud saves , Steam Trading Cards , achievements , Twitch integration and multiplayer with Elo ranked matches to the game . Extended Edition is developed by SkyBox Labs .
= = = Modding = = =
Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots retains the support of a loyal fanbase as of June 2012 , which continues to produce a variety of mods for the game . The game can be modified in many aspects by enthusiasts , including the addition of new units , nations , buildings , scenarios , conquer the world campaigns and scripts . The modding community has been supported by the release of various packs by Big Huge Games , including the 3dsmax5 exporter plugin , and a detailed guide on the scenario editor and creating scripts . Modifications released so far by the community have encompassed themes such as the Second World War , Vietnam War , a hypothetical Third World War , Medieval combat and Roman era warfare . While a variety of modding communities came into existence after the game 's release , most sources assert that the most popular remains Rise of Nations Heaven .
= = Reception = =
Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots has received a compilation score of 88 % on both Game Rankings and Metacritic . In its review , IGN claimed that Thrones and Patriots is " a great game [ which ] gets better , " in reference to its predecessor Rise of Nations . 1UP.com stated that the game is what expansion packs should try to mimic . Game Informer declared that Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots is " one of the essential pieces of any strategy gamer ’ s collection . " GameSpot commented that the game is a terrific experience and it not only provides exceptional content , but that it also improves an already good game .
In the expansion pack , many insignificant changes were introduced to complement the existing game structure , rather than radically alter it , and critics considered the continuing of the original game format to be good . GameSpy claimed that , even with all of Thrones and Patriots ' additions , the framework of the game still feels excellent . However , IGN declared that the developers only added many features into the game " in the hopes that it would seem coherent , " rather than actually giving the game a " central theme . "
Both IGN and GameSpot claimed the game 's government mechanics were similar to those of the game series Civilization . However , GameSpy stated the game 's artificial intelligence for " managing the individual movements of units and citizens ... [ was ] strategically brain dead . " Their review explained that the wide range of upgrades , units , and technology research in different buildings requires micromanagement and the use of hotkeys , especially during online play . The review stated that the game had biased gameplay times in single @-@ player with different nations , such as Lakota having very limited use , and Americans having a massive amount of playtime .
GameSpot stated that the multiplayer functionality of Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots had some lag , even when on a local network . 1UP.com reported problems with crashes in both the single and multiplayer modes of Thrones and Patriots .
In awarding Rise of Nations : Thrones and Patriots " Best Expansion Pack " of 2004 , IGN acclaimed the additions of more playable nations and new government mechanics that Rise of Nations didn 't have , and the new " Conquer the World " campaigns .
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= Worcester Castle =
Worcester Castle was a Norman fortification built between 1068 and 1069 in Worcester , England by Urse d 'Abetot on behalf of William the Conqueror . The castle had a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey design and was located on the south side of the old Anglo @-@ Saxon city , cutting into the grounds of Worcester Cathedral . Royal castles were owned by the king and maintained on his behalf by an appointed constable . At Worcester that role was passed down through the local Beauchamp family on a hereditary basis , giving them permanent control of the castle and considerable power within the city . The castle played an important part in the wars of the 12th and early 13th century , including the Anarchy and the First Barons ' War .
In 1217 , Henry III 's government decided to break the power of the Beauchamps and reduce the ongoing military threat posed by the castle by returning much of the castle 's bailey to the cathedral . Without an intact bailey the castle was no longer valuable militarily , although it played a small part in the Second Barons ' War in the 1260s . A gaol had been built in the castle by the early 13th century and the castle continued to be used as Worcestershire 's county gaol until the 19th century , when a new prison was built on the north side of Worcester and the old site completely redeveloped . Today nothing remains of Worcester Castle with the exception of Edgar 's Tower , a cathedral gatehouse built on the former entrance to the castle .
= = History = =
= = = 11th century = = =
Worcester Castle was built after the Norman conquest of England in the Anglo @-@ Saxon city of Worcester . The castle was constructed between 1068 and 1069 on the orders of William the Conqueror as part of a wave of royal castle building in major Roman or Anglo @-@ Saxon towns across England . Constructed in timber , the castle had a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey design , with a bailey to the north and south of the motte . The top of the motte was later recorded as being around 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter . The castle was defensively well situated on the eastern bank of the River Severn in the south @-@ west corner of the borough , taking advantage of the old burh walls and ditches . Urse d 'Abetot was appointed as the sheriff of Worcester and the constable of the new castle .
Worcester was an urban castle , built within an existing settlement . Many such castles required the clearance of local properties , but unusually at Worcester Castle the ditch of the outer bailey cut through part of Worcester Cathedral 's cemetery . It is unclear whether the cemetery was still in use at that time , but the desecration resulted in Ealdred , the Archbishop of York , with extensive interests in Worcester , complaining about the seizure of the land and formally cursing Urse .
= = = 12th – 13th centuries = = =
Worcester remained a royal castle , but within a few years the post of sheriff and that of constable became hereditary in the Beauchamp family , the successors to Urse d 'Abitot . Urse 's son , Roger , inherited them , followed by Walter de Beauchamp , who married Urse 's daughter , and William de Beauchamp . The castle was effectively run by the Beauchamps , largely independent of the king . Despite controlling Worcester , the Beauchamps preferred to use Elmley Castle , 12 miles ( 20 k ) away , as their main residence . In 1113 Worcester was attacked by Welsh raiders , who broke into the outer bailey of the castle and set fire to the buildings there ; the timber castle was destroyed and had to be rebuilt , again in wood .
In the late 1130s a period of civil war – the Anarchy – broke out in England , in which the rival factions of King Stephen and the Empress Matilda contested the kingdom ; Worcestershire proved to be a key battleground in the war . The first attack on Worcester itself occurred in late 1139 , when an Angevin army from Gloucestershire assaulted the city ; after an attempt to take the castle on the south side of the city , the Gloucester forces entered from the north , looting and burning the city . As a result , Walter de Beauchamp chose to side with Matilda . Worcester became a base for Stephen 's forces for a period , with Stephen replacing Walter as the constable with Waleron de Beaumont , before the city and castle were reclaimed for the Empress by Robert of Gloucester . In response , Stephen first stormed and burnt the city in 1148 , and then attacked it again in 1150 , shortly before the end of the conflict . Two neighbouring siege castles were built by Stephen as part of these operations , designed to contain Worcester Castle itself , one at Henwick Hill the other at Red Hill . After the conflict , Walter was finally reaffirmed as the constable of Worcester Castle by Henry II , the Empress 's son .
By the end of the 13th century , William de Beauchamp – the grandson of Walter de Beauchamp – controlled the castle on behalf of the king . In the 12th century there was a trend in England for stone castles to replace their earth and timber counterparts , and in 1204 King John ordered the sheriff of Worcester to rebuild the gatehouse " which is now of timber , with good and fine stone " . John 's work cost £ 25 , and was one of a number of repairs and improvements during the period : £ 12 was spent maintaining the castle in 1183 , for example , while in 1192 £ 5 4s was spent on the internal buildings and in 1203 work on the stables came to £ 6 3s .
Civil war broke out again in England in 1215 between forces loyal to King John and rebel barons , supported in due course by Prince Louis of France . John annexed the castle in 1214 and William sided with the rebels in 1216 . King John responded by sending forces to attack the castle and successfully retook it . Despite John 's death , the war continued until forces loyal to John 's young son , Henry III , finally achieved victory over the rebels in 1217 .
Meanwhile , the 11th century dispute over the cathedral graveyard had continued unabated and in 1217 Henry III 's government decided to announce that the disputed land would be granted to the cathedral . A panel met to agree exactly how the land should be divided , concluding that the division should run straight across the bailey ; the far side was returned to the cathedral , making the remainder of the castle unusable from a military perspective . Henry thus ingratiated himself with the church and broke the power of the Beauchamps in the city by crippling their local fortress .
The castle nevertheless continued in use for a time , partially because the Worcestershire County gaol was situated in the outer bailey ; the earliest record of this gaol is from 1221 , when a porter was recorded as being employed as a gaoler . The gaol appears to have been built of wood during the medieval period . Escapees remained a problem ; some were recorded during the 1220s , and during Second Barons ' War , Worcester was captured and all the prisoners released . Later in the same war , Henry III was imprisoned there for a period by Simon de Montfort . The castle was also used as one of the locations for the Worcestershire county court and election of local officials .
= = = 14th – 19th centuries = = =
The sheriffs of Worcestershire continued to control the castle as constables , and the property passed along hereditary lines from the Beauchamps to the Earls of Warwick until Richard Neville , also known as the " Kingmaker " , died during the Wars of the Roses in 1471 . The victorious Edward IV divided up the various estates that Neville had owned and gave the castle to his son , severing the link between Worcester and the earldom of Warwick . The final constables were appointed during the 1540s , after which the practice of appointing constables ceased altogether . The castle 's walls were quarried for stone , the motte was used to keep animals on and only the sheriff 's county gaol remained intact . The antiquarian John Leland recorded in the 1540s that the castle was " now clean down " , and that the motte was still of an impressive size but heavily overgrown . A gatehouse known as Edgar 's Tower was built by the cathedral on the site of the earlier castle gatehouse , to control access to the former bailey .
In 1628 the castle site was granted by the Crown to Giles Clutterbuck ; the local gentry complained , leading to a legal case in which the county successfully reclaimed the site . In 1642 England descended into a period of civil war between the Royalist supporters of Charles I and the supporters of Parliament . Worcester 's city walls were refortified and a sconce , or small fort , was built on top of the motte of Worcester Castle .
The castle continued to be used as the county gaol after the war and in 1653 a new gaol , built from stone and brick , was constructed in the castle grounds . In the 1770s the prison reformer John Howard inspected the gaol and was very critical of the facility . In particular he complained about the castle 's underground dungeon , accessed down a flight of 26 steps ; the room was circular , 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) across , and guarded by an iron grill . Worcester conducted extensive work after the report at a cost of £ 3 @,@ 431 ( £ 364 @,@ 000 at 2009 prices ) , and by 1788 the prison had 18 new cells for men and two for women , in addition to the dungeon and the sick @-@ rooms . Nevertheless it was housing 74 inmates at the time of Howard 's inspection , with two prisoners routinely sharing each cell , sleeping together on the floor . Like other prisons of the time , Worcester Castle was run as a private enterprise , in this case by a local butcher , who was paid £ 150 a year ( £ 15 @,@ 400 ) to run the facility . The prison was known to suffer from outbreaks of gaol fever , which claimed the life of a local doctor who visited the facility .
A new county gaol was built in 1814 , at a cost of £ 20 @,@ 000 ( £ 1.1m ) with a more modern system of radiating wings ; this was constructed on the north side of Worcester where the local street was named " Castle Street " as a result . The Dean and Chapter of Worcester Cathedral acquired the old gaol in 1823 . The outer bailey of the castle became known as the College Green ; the College Green was accessed through Edgar 's Tower . The motte was slowly demolished between 1823 and 1846 .
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= Spider @-@ Man ( Miles Morales ) =
Miles Morales is a fictional superhero who appears in comic books published by Marvel Comics , as one of the characters who goes by the identity of Spider @-@ Man . The character was created by writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist Sara Pichelli , with Bendis and Marvel editor @-@ in @-@ chief Axel Alonso drawing inspiration from both U.S. President Barack Obama and American actor Donald Glover .
Miles Morales first appeared in Ultimate Fallout # 4 ( August 2011 ) , following the death of Peter Parker . A teenager of Black Hispanic descent , Miles is the second Spider @-@ Man to appear in Ultimate Marvel , an imprint with a separate continuity from the mainstream Marvel Universe . Although Morales featured in the Ultimate Comics : Spider @-@ Man comic book series , he is not the lead character in the Ultimate Spider @-@ Man animated TV series that debuted in April 2012 on Disney XD , but he was later added to the main cast in 2016 . After Marvel ended the Ultimate imprint in 2015 , Miles was made a character in the main Marvel Universe , beginning with stories under the All @-@ New , All @-@ Different Marvel brand published that same year .
Reaction to the character varied , with some , including Spider @-@ Man 's creator , Stan Lee , approving the creation of a positive role model for non @-@ white children , to displeasure at the replacement of Peter Parker , with some decrying it as a publicity stunt motivated by political correctness , a charge Alonso denied . Alexandra Petri of The Washington Post called for the character to be judged on the quality of its stories , which have garnered positive reviews .
The character possesses powers similar to those of the original Spider @-@ Man , which were derived from the bite of a spider genetically engineered by Spider @-@ Man 's nemesis Norman Osborn in an attempt to duplicate those abilities .
= = Publication history = =
The concept of a black Spider @-@ Man was first discussed a few months before the November 2008 election of Barack Obama as President of the United States . Marvel Comics editor @-@ in @-@ chief Axel Alonso describes the catalyst , " When we were planning “ Ultimatum , ” we realized that we were standing at the brink of America electing its first African @-@ American President and we acknowledged that maybe it was time to take a good look at one of our icons . " This new Spider @-@ Man was considered a possible part of the 2008 @-@ 09 " Ultimatum " story arc that restructured much of the Ultimate Marvel universe , but those early thoughts were abandoned because the story for that character had not yet been developed . Bendis said thoughts about the character were further reinforced by African American actor Donald Glover 's appearance wearing Spider @-@ Man pajamas in " Anthropology 101 " , the second season premiere of the television comedy series Community . This was a reference to an unsuccessful online campaign that attempted to secure Glover an audition for the lead role in the 2012 film The Amazing Spider @-@ Man . Bendis said of Glover , " I saw him in the costume and thought , ' I would like to read that book . ' So I was glad I was writing that book . "
When the Marvel Comics staff decided that the Ultimate universe 's Peter Parker would be killed in the 2011 storyline " Death of Spider @-@ Man " , the character Miles Morales was created . Although Morales is the first black Spider @-@ Man , he marks the second time a Latino character has taken the Spider @-@ Man identity . Miguel O 'Hara , who is of half Mexican descent , was the title character in the series Spider @-@ Man 2099 . Morales has replaced Parker as Spider @-@ Man only in Ultimate Marvel , a parallel universe that re @-@ imagines the characters .
Miles Morales was created by comic book writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist Sara Pichelli . Morales was born and raised in Brooklyn , New York City , the 13 @-@ year @-@ old son of an African American father and a Puerto Rican mother . Axel Alonso has described Miles as an intelligent nerd with an aptitude for science similar to his predecessor , Peter Parker . The character made his debut in the fourth issue of the Ultimate Fallout limited series , which was released on August 3 , 2011 . He later starred in the relaunched Ultimate Comics : Spider @-@ Man series , written by Bendis and drawn by Pichelli , in September 2011 .
In contrasting Miles with Peter Parker , Bendis has depicted different conflicts and anxieties for the character . Right after acquiring his superhuman abilities from a spider bite at the home of his uncle , Aaron , whom Miles admires but he does not initially know is a career criminal , Miles ' father , Jefferson , explains to Miles that before Miles was born , Jefferson and Aaron were thieves who spent time in prison , and that while Jefferson reformed when he got older , Aaron has not . According to Bendis , this gives Miles cause to wonder if the traits that lead to criminal behavior are hardwired into his DNA , leading him to question whether he is essentially a good person or not , and what his future holds for him . These issues further haunt Miles after he becomes disillusioned with Aaron , and Aaron dies from an accidental explosion triggered during a battle between the two of them , saying , " You are just like me " to Miles before dying .
In creating the visual look for Miles , Pichelli followed her usual practice of approaching the design by giving thought to the character 's personality , including the background that influenced it , and the distinctive traits that he would exhibit , such as the clothing he wears , his body language and expressions . Pichelli also designed Spider @-@ Man 's new costume , a mostly black outfit with red webbing and a red spider logo . Pichelli had worked on four issues of Ultimate Spider @-@ Man before she was approached to work on the new title with Miles Morales . Pichelli , who works with a Cintiq 12wx graphic tablet , added more screentones to her illustrations to give what she called " a more ' pop ' feeling to the book , because I think it would fit perfectly with the new series " .
In 2012 , Morales appeared in the miniseries Spider @-@ Men , in which he encounters the Spider @-@ Man of the original Marvel universe .
In June 2013 , the character appeared in the climax of Age of Ultron # 10 ( also written by Brian Michael Bendis ) . In the storyline , which depicts major changes to the space @-@ time continuum as a result of the time travel on the part of the original Marvel versions of Susan Richards and Wolverine , Miles witnesses the coming of the mainstream Marvel Galactus to Earth .
Despite its initial press and critical reception , Ultimate Comics Spider @-@ Man was not a huge hit in the direct market . By August 2013 , sales on the title had slipped , and sales for the other two Ultimate titles , Ultimate Comics X @-@ Men and Ultimate Comics The Ultimates , had dropped to numbers at which mainstream Marvel titles are cancelled . That November , Ultimate Comics Spider @-@ Man ended its run with issue # 28 , and the other two titles ended along with it , to make way for the miniseries Cataclysm : Ultimate Spider @-@ Man , one of the books in the crossover storyline " Cataclysm " , in which the heroes of the Ultimate universe face the threat of the Marvel 616 Galactus , and Miles is transported to the mainstream Marvel universe .
In January 2014 , it was announced that following " Cataclysm " , Miles would begin starring in a new title called Miles Morales : Ultimate Spider @-@ Man , as part of Ultimate Marvel Now , an initiative with which Marvel will relaunch the Ultimate Marvel line . Miles Morales will also be a main character in the All @-@ New Ultimates , in which he will join a team of young heroes that will include Kitty Pryde , Bombshell , Cloak and Dagger , and a new Black Widow . The former title is written by Bendis , while the latter is written by Michel Fiffe and drawn by Amilcar Pinna. both series ran for 12 issues . The twelfth and final issue of Miles Morales : Ultimate Spider @-@ Man concluded with a cliffhanger that led directly into the 2015 " Secret Wars " storyline .
Marvel ended the Ultimate Marvel imprint with the " Secret Wars " storyline , in which the Marvel Universe was merged with other alternate universes , including the Ultimate Universe . Following " Secret Wars " , Miles become a character of the mainstream Marvel Universe , and a member of the titular team in All @-@ New , All @-@ Different Avengers . He also headlines a new series , titled simply Spider @-@ Man , which debuted February 3 , 2016 , with Bendis and Pichelli returning as the creative team . In the storyline , the now @-@ 16 @-@ year @-@ old Miles continues to patrol New York City , while Peter Parker will expand the scope of his activities globally . Issues that Miles deals with will include the confrontations with Parker 's rogues gallery , the public 's reaction to his ethnicity , and his love life .
= = Fictional character biography = =
= = = First appearance = = =
Miles Morales first appears in Ultimate Comics : Fallout # 4 , which was published in August 2011 , in which he foils a murder by Kangaroo , a short time after Peter Parker 's death . He wears a Spider @-@ Man costume similar to Peter Parker 's , but considers changing it when spectators tell him it is in " bad taste " .
= = = Ultimate Comics : Spider @-@ Man = = =
The opening story arc of Ultimate Comics : Spider @-@ Man , which premiered in September 2011 , is set prior to Ultimate Fallout # 4 , and details how Miles received his superhuman abilities . After Oscorp scientist Dr. Markus uses Parker 's blood to recreate the Oz formula that created Spider @-@ Man , the Prowler ( Aaron Davis ) steals the formula , and in the process , one of the spiders created by Markus crawls into the Prowler 's duffel bag . Days later , the Prowler 's nephew , grade @-@ schooler Miles Morales , is bitten by the spider during a visit to Aaron 's apartment . Morales develops superhuman abilities similar to those Peter Parker has , but does not tell his parents , Jefferson and Rio , due to his father 's distrust of superheroes , confiding only in his best friend , Ganke Lee .
Miles , who just wants a normal life , is unhappy about having these abilities , and initially nauseated at the idea of risking his life to engage in superheroics , a reaction that Bendis wrote to further contrast Miles with Parker . However , after witnessing Spider @-@ Man 's death at the hands of the Green Goblin , the guilt @-@ ridden Miles realizes he could have helped . After Ganke suggests he assume the mantle of Spider @-@ Man , and learns from Gwen Stacy why Parker did what he did , Miles is inspired to try his hand at costumed crimefighting . During his first foray into costumed superheroics , he is confronted not only by those who feel his use of the Spider @-@ Man costume is in bad taste , but also by Spider @-@ Woman , a member of the government superhuman team , the Ultimates , over his use of the Spider @-@ Man identity .
Spider @-@ Woman unmasks and arrests Miles and takes him to S.H.I.E.L.D. headquarters , where Nick Fury reveals that he knows all about Miles and his family , including his uncle 's criminal activity . After he helps S.H.I.E.L.D. subdue the escaped supervillain Electro , S.H.I.E.L.D. releases Miles and gives him a modified black and red version of the Spider @-@ Man costume , which Ganke feels makes Miles " officially " the new Spider @-@ Man . He also receives the blessing of the Earth @-@ 616 Peter Parker during the 2012 Spider @-@ Men miniseries , in which Parker briefly visits the Ultimate Marvel universe and meets Miles . After the newspapers begin reporting the emergence of a new Spider @-@ Man , Aaron deduces that it is really Miles , and offers to train Miles and work with him . After Aaron uses Miles in his ongoing conflict with the Mexican crime lord Scorpion , Miles realizes he is being exploited , and refuses to assist his uncle further , despite Aaron 's threat to inform Miles ' father of his secret . This leads to an altercation between the uncle and nephew that results in the malfunction of Aaron 's weapons , which explode , killing Aaron .
In subsequent storylines , Miles subsequently becomes acquainted with Peter Parker 's loved ones , May Parker , Gwen Stacy and Mary Jane Watson , who know of his secret identity , and give him Parker 's web shooters . He also encounters Captain America , who reluctantly agrees to train Miles .
In a 2013 storyline , investigative reporter Betty Brant incorrectly concludes that Miles ' father , Jefferson , is the new Spider @-@ Man . However , publisher J. Jonah Jameson , in light of the death of Peter Parker , refuses to publish her theory , on the grounds that it will merely ruin a family 's life and deprive the city of another hero . When Brant tries to publish her findings in a book , she is murdered by former Oscorp and then @-@ Roxxon scientist Dr. Conrad Marcus , who has become the newest host to the Venom symbiote . In the subsequent " Venom War " storyline , Venom learns of Brant 's findings , and confronts Jefferson at his home , where Spider @-@ Man repels the creature . Jefferson is critically injured and hospitalized in this battle , and Miles is confronted by former S.H.I.E.L.D. agent turned New York Police detective Maria Hill , who has also deduced his secret . When Venom later appears at the hospital , Spider @-@ Man again confronts him , during which Miles ' mother , Rio , also learns that her son is Spider @-@ Man . By the end of the brawl , Marcus is separated from the symbiote and killed by police gunfire , as is Rio , who tells Miles not to reveal his secret to his father before dying .
The storyline then jumps ahead one year . Miles has a girlfriend named Katie Bishop , and is planning on telling her about his former life as Spider @-@ Man . Though he has not engaged in heroics in a year , he is pressured to return to that life , by S.H.I.E.L.D. He reluctantly does so , after Ganke and Spider @-@ Woman convinces him that there needs to be a Spider @-@ Man . Along with Spider @-@ Woman , Bombshell and Cloak and Dagger , Miles helps arrest Donald Roxxon , the head of the Roxxon corporation , who reveals that he knows of Miles ' identity , and that he was the one who hired Aaron to break into Oscorp the night that the spider who gave Miles his powers was accidentally brought to Aaron 's home . He also reveals that he was responsible for the creation of Bombshell , Cloak and Dagger , which involved kidnapping underage people and experimenting on them using untested genetic technology . After Roxxon 's arrest , Miles thanks Ganke for his support , and affirms in earnest that he is Spider @-@ Man .
= = = " Cataclysm " = = =
In the " Cataclysm " storyline , the mainstream Marvel Galactus comes to Earth to consume it for its energy . During the course of this story , Miles comes to believe the world is coming to an end , and reveals his double life to his father , who believes he is responsible for the death of Aaron and Rio , and disowns him . Miles also journeys to the mainstream Marvel universe with Reed Richards to acquire information on how to repel Galactus .
= = = Miles Morales : Ultimate Spider @-@ Man = = =
During the course of his second solo series , Miles Morales : Ultimate Spider @-@ Man , Miles encounters a very much alive Peter Parker , who cannot explain his reappearance , and who does not intend to return to his former life . Together , the two Spider @-@ Men defeat Norman Osborn , who is also revealed to be alive , but who is killed during the course of the story . After witnessing Miles courageously battles Osborn , Peter acknowledges Miles a worthy successor , and decides to retire from superheroics for a life with his family and Mary Jane .
Miles ' father also reappears , and relates to his son that as a young man , he and Aaron went to work for a criminal named Turk after Jefferson was recruited by S.H.I.E.L.D. as a spy in order to infiltrate the organization of the then @-@ up @-@ and @-@ coming international criminal Wilson Fisk . Jefferson did this for a time , but after the Kingpin was arrested and convicted for his crimes , and Jefferson offered a chance to be a full @-@ fledged S.H.I.E.L.D. agent , he refused , not wanting any part of his brother 's world . He met Rio a week later and fell in love with her . Jefferson fled after learning that Miles was Spider @-@ Man because it brought back unresolved from that earlier time in his life , and tells Miles that he does not blame Miles for his mother 's death , and regrets abandoning him .
When Miles reveals his secret identity to his girlfriend , Katie Bishop , she and her parents are revealed to be sleeper agents for the terrorist group Hydra , who then kidnap Miles , his father and Ganke , as part of a plan involving Dr. Doom . Miles and the other prisoners are freed , however , in part with help from Miles ' dorm mate , Judge , Maria Hill , and other superhuman colleagues .
= = = " Secret Wars " and merge with Marvel @-@ 616 = = =
During the events of the 2015 " Secret Wars " storyline , both the Ultimate Marvel universe and the mainstream Earth @-@ 616 universe are destroyed . Miles manages to survive the destruction by infiltrating an escape ship designed by the Cabal . After eight years in stasis , Miles awakens on the planet Battleworld , a new planet created from the remains of the various alternate Earths that had been destroyed . Miles is reunited with Earth @-@ 616 's Peter Parker and the other surviving 616 heroes , who battle against Doctor Doom , who has used newly acquired powers appointed himself a God Emperor over the planet . At the conclusion of the storyline , the Ultimate Universe is wiped out of existence , but the Molecule Man , in gratitude for Miles ' earlier compassion to him , arranges for Earth @-@ 616 to be restored , with Miles and family among its inhabitants , including his mother , who has been indicated to have restored to life in the process . Both Miles and Peter share the mantle of Spider @-@ Man in the new universe , though the now @-@ 16 @-@ year @-@ old Miles will patrol New York City , while Peter Parker acts globally . Miles is also a member of the latest team of Avengers , which debuts in the 2016 series All @-@ New , All @-@ Different Avengers , and is being trained by Spider @-@ Man to act as New York 's resident spider @-@ themed hero while his work with Parker Industries allows the original Spider @-@ Man to act on a global scale .
= = Powers and abilities = =
Bitten by a slightly different genetically engineered spider than the one that granted Peter Parker 's powers , Miles Morales possesses abilities similar to the original Spider @-@ Man 's , including enhanced strength and agility , the ability to adhere to walls and ceilings with his hands and feet , and a " spider sense " that warns him of danger with a buzzing sensation in his head . Though his strength and agility are similar to those of the original Spider @-@ Man , his spider @-@ sense is not as strong , as it only warns him of immediate danger .
He has two abilities that the original Spider @-@ Man did not have : the ability to camouflage himself , including his clothing , to match his surroundings , and an electrical " venom strike " that can paralyze almost anyone with just a touch , including the electrically powered Electro . The venom strike can be conducted through Miles ' gloves , and can be used against an opponent at a distance by conducting it through a material in which both Miles and his opponent are in contact , such as the webbing of the Earth @-@ 616 's Spider @-@ Man . It can break chains being used to restrain Miles , and even repels non @-@ ferrous objects , such as plastic Lego bricks . The venom strike is powerful enough to render unconscious a person as large as Hank Pym 's Giant Man . It is powerful enough to drive away the villain Venom during Miles ' first encounter with the creature , but by their second encounter , Venom has developed such a tolerance to the strike that Miles has to be completely enveloped by the symbiote before the venom strike can separate the symbiote from its host . The effect of the venom strike manifests itself a few seconds after it is implemented , and is described by Bendis as being comparable to the feeling of being kicked in the testicles . Some uses of the venom strike , as when Miles freed himself from chains , require much power , and cannot be used multiple times in rapid succession without a " recharging " period for Miles , though he can still make conventional use of it against people .
Miles ' body also possesses a strong resistance to injury . During an altercation with the Roxxon mercenary Taskmaster , Miles is hurled toward a low brick wall , shattering it , without any apparent serious injury , though the experience was painful for him .
Miles wears a costume given to him by S.H.I.E.L.D. , and initially uses Peter Parker 's web shooters , which are given to him by May Parker . He is eventually given a new set of webshooters by S.H.I.E.L.D. as well .
= = Reception = =
The character Miles Morales was first reported by USA Today on August 2 , 2011 , shortly before the character officially debuted in Ultimate Fallout # 4 . The announcement received international coverage in the mainstream media and was met with mixed reactions by audiences . Chris Huntington of The New York Times lauded the creation of Morales , relating that it gave his adopted Ethiopian son Dagim a superhero who looks like him . Some fans and commentators felt the decision was an attempt by Marvel Comics to be politically correct and that the introduction of a minority Spider @-@ Man was simply a publicity stunt to attract more readers , while others felt that a person of color as Spider @-@ Man would set a positive example for minority readers , particularly children . Many Spider @-@ Man fans were disappointed that Peter Parker was killed , regardless of who replaced him . The wide @-@ ranging critical reception prompted The Washington Post to run an article called , " Sorry , Peter Parker . The response to the black Spider @-@ Man shows why we need one " , in which writer Alexandra Petri wrote that the character should be judged on the quality of its stories rather than on his appearance or ethnicity .
Similarly , conservative talkshow host Glenn Beck , claiming that Miles resembled President Barack Obama , argued that the new Spider @-@ Man was a result of a comment from Michelle Obama about changing traditions . However , Beck said he did not care about Miles ' race , and also acknowledged out that this was not the mainstream Spider @-@ Man . Axel Alonso denied the character was created out of political correctness , stating " Simple fact is Marvel comics reflect the world in all its shapes , sizes and colors . We believe there 's an audience of people out there who is thirsty for a character like Miles Morales . " Original Spider @-@ Man co @-@ creator Stan Lee approved of Miles , stating that " Doing our bit to try to make our nation , and the world , color blind is definitely the right thing . "
In a review for the first issue , David Pepose of Newsarama wrote , " The biggest victory that Bendis scores with Miles Morales is that he makes us care about him , and care about him quickly . Even though we 're still scratching the surface of what makes him tick , we 're seeing the world through his eyes , and it 's similar to Peter Parker 's but a whole lot tougher . But that kind of Parker @-@ style guilt — that neurotic , nearly masochistic tendency for self @-@ sacrifice that comes with great power and greater responsibility — is still intact . " Jesse Schedeen of IGN wrote that " Miles still feels like a bit of an outsider in his own book . Bendis never quite paints a complete picture of Miles — his thoughts , motivations , personality quirks , and so forth . Miles is largely a reactionary figure throughout the book as he confronts struggles like registering for a charter school or dealing with family squabbles . " Schedeen also opined that " Miles occupies a more urban , racially diverse , and tense landscape . All the story doesn 't pander or lean too heavily on elements like racial and economic tension to move forward . Miles is simply a character who speaks to a slightly different teen experience , and one not nearly as well represented in superhero comics as Peter 's " . James Hunt of Comic Book Resources rated the issue # 1 four and a half out of five stars , lauding Bendis for emphasizing Morales ' character and his supporting cast instead of rushing him into costume . The first issue holds a score of 7 @.@ 8 out of 10 at the review aggregator website Comic Book Roundup , based on 11 reviews , while the final issue , # 28 , holds a score of 8 @.@ 3 , based on 9 reviews , and the series overall holds an average issue rating of 8 @.@ 2 .
The second solo series , Miles Morales : Ultimate Spider @-@ Man , has an average issue rating of 8 @.@ 2 at Comic Book Roundup , while the third series , which debuted in 2016 , Spider @-@ Man , holds a rating of 7 @.@ 8 .
= = Other versions = =
At the conclusion of the 2012 miniseries Spider @-@ Men , in which the mainstream Marvel Universe Peter Parker briefly visits the Ultimate Marvel universe and meets Miles Morales , Parker returns to his home universe , and uses a Google search to see if his universe has a version of Miles Morales . He is shocked by what he finds , but the exact nature of what he finds is left unrevealed to the reader .
In Deadpool Killustrated # 1 ( 2012 ) , Miles Morales ' corpse is seen among those of various Spider @-@ Men across various dimensions of the multiverse that an alternate Deadpool has killed .
= = In other media = =
= = = Television and film = = =
Miles Morales appears in the Ultimate Spider @-@ Man TV series where he is initially voiced by Donald Glover in the Web Warriors season and by Ogie Banks starting with " Miles from Home " . Miles Morales ' name and picture appears in the episode " I Am Spider @-@ Man " on a list of understudies for the part of Spider @-@ Man in Phil Coulson 's high school play . He is the second to last choice , while Peter Parker is the last choice . In May 2014 , the Sunday badge for the 2014 New York Comic Con was revealed , featuring the third season title Ultimate Spider @-@ Man : Web @-@ Warriors , and showing various incarnations of Spider @-@ Man , including one wearing Miles Morales ' costume . Web Warriors is a third season storyline in which Peter Parker travels through various parallel universes , and encounters those dimensions ' versions of Spider @-@ Man , including Miles Morales . It was later announced that Miles would return for the show 's fourth season , Ultimate Spider @-@ Man vs The Sinister 6 , under the alias Kid Arachnid .
Writer Brian Michael Bendis has stated that he favors incorporating Miles into the Spider @-@ Man feature films in some way , as did actor Andrew Garfield , who played Spider @-@ Man in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man feature film series . Producers Avi Arad and Matt Tolmach have indicated in 2014 that they did not intend to have Miles or any other character replace Peter Parker in the role . However , after Marvel brokered a deal with Sony , which holds the feature film rights to all Spider @-@ Man characters , Kevin Feige stated that while Miles Morales will not be appearing in the Marvel Cinematic Universe for the foreseeable future , he is still interested in exploring opportunities to explore the character .
= = = Video games = = =
Miles Morales ' Spider @-@ Man suit is available as an alternate costume for Spider @-@ Man ( Peter Parker ) in Spider @-@ Man : Edge of Time .
Miles Morales appears as a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online , voiced by Alimi Ballard .
Miles Morales ' Spider @-@ Man costume appears in the 2014 video game The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 , with the in @-@ game biography stating that the costume was inspired by a comic series in the in @-@ game universe that looks at Miles Morales ' life as Spider @-@ Man .
Miles Morales is a playable character in Spider @-@ Man Unlimited , Marvel : Avengers Alliance , Marvel Puzzle Quest , Marvel Future Fight , and Marvel : Contest of Champions .
Miles Morales is a playable character in the Spider @-@ Man DLC pack for Lego Marvel 's Avengers .
Miles Morales is available as a team @-@ up character in Marvel Heroes 2016 .
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= Rhodes blood libel =
The Rhodes blood libel was an 1840 event of blood libel against Jews , in which the Greek Orthodox community accused Jews on the island of Rhodes ( then part of the Ottoman Empire ) of the ritual murder of a Christian boy who disappeared in February of that year .
Initially the libel garnered support from the consuls of several European countries , including the United Kingdom , France , the Austrian Empire , Sweden , and Greece , although later several supported the Jewish community . The Ottoman governor of Rhodes broke with the long tradition of the Ottoman governments ( which had previously denied the factual basis of the blood libel accusations ) and supported the ritual murder charge . The government arrested several Jewish subjects , some of whom were tortured and confessed . It blockaded the entire Jewish quarter for twelve days .
The Jewish community of Rhodes appealed for help from the Jewish community in Constantinople , who forwarded the appeal to European governments . In the United Kingdom and Austria , Jewish communities gained support from their governments . They sent official dispatches to the ambassadors in Constantinople unequivocally condemning the blood libel . A consensus developed that the charge was false . The governor of Rhodes sent the case to the central government , which initiated a formal inquiry into the affair . In July 1840 , that investigation established the innocence of the Jewish community . Finally , in November of the same year , the Ottoman sultan issued a decree ( firman ) denouncing the blood libel as false .
= = Background = =
= = = Jewish community = = =
The existence of a Jewish community in Rhodes was first documented toward the end of the Hellenistic period . In a Roman decree dated to 142 BC , Rhodes is listed among the areas notified of the renewal of the pact of friendship between the Roman senate and the Jewish nation . The Jews of Rhodes are mentioned in documents at the time of the Arab conquest of the island in the 7th century . In the 12th century , Benjamin of Tudela found some 400 Jews in the city of Rhodes .
In 1481 and 1482 , earthquakes destroyed the Jewish quarter , so that only 22 families remained in the city . After an epidemic of plague in 1498 – 1500 , the Knights Hospitaller , who ruled the island at that time , expelled those of the remaining Jews who would not be baptized . In the next two decades , the Hospitallers brought to the island between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 captured Jews who were kept as slaves to work on fortifications .
In 1522 , these Jews and their descendants helped the Ottomans seize Rhodes . Under the Ottoman rule , Rhodes became an important Sephardi center , home to many famous rabbis . By the 19th century , the wealthier Jews were merchants in cloth , silk , sulfur , and resins . The rest were small shopkeepers and artisans , street vendors , and fishermen . The community was governed by a council of seven officials . Sources give the number of Jews during the 19th century between 2 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 000 .
= = = Blood libel against the Jews in the Ottoman Empire = = =
The blood libel against Jews originated in England in 1144 with the case of William of Norwich . The accusation that Jews used the blood of Christian children to prepare matzos for the Passover became a staple of Christian antisemitism of the Middle Ages , with the total number of recorded ritual murder accusations reaching 150 . With the strengthening of standards of evidence in legal cases , the number of charges began to decline , and few blood libel cases reached European courts after 1772 . Nevertheless , some instances of ritual murder accusation arose as late as the 19th century .
In the Middle East , the blood libel was deeply ingrained in the consciousness of local Christian communities . Accusations of blood libel were commonplace in the Byzantine Empire . After the Ottomans conquered the Byzantine lands , Greek communities were usually the source of ritual murder charges against Jews , often at times of social and economic tensions . The first appearance of the blood libel under Ottoman rule took place in the reign of Mehmet II . Subsequently , accusations of ritual murder were only sporadic and Ottoman authorities usually condemned them . In the 16th century , Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent issued a firman , formally denouncing blood libel charges against the Jews .
With the increase of Christian influence in the Ottoman Empire , the standing of the Jews declined . The sultan 's Hatt @-@ i Sharif of Gulhane , proclaimed in 1839 , ushered in an era of liberal reforms known as Tanzimat . This period further enhanced the status of the Christians and eroded the power of authorities to protect the Jews . Before 1840 , cases of blood libel occurred in Aleppo in 1810 and in Antioch in 1826 .
In 1840 , contemporaneous with the affair in Rhodes , a more famous case of blood libel , known as the Damascus affair , was developing in Damascus , while the city was under the short @-@ lived control of Muhammad Ali of Egypt . On February 5 , Capuchin friar Thomas and his servant Ibrahim Amara went missing , and the Jews of Damascus were accused of murdering them to collect their blood for Passover matzos . The local Christian community , the governor , and the French consul , who received full support from Paris , actively pursued the ritual murder charge . The accused Jews were tortured , and some of them confessed to having killed Father Thomas and his servant . Their testimonies were used by the accusers as the irrefutable proof of guilt . The case drew international attention , arousing active protests from the European Jewish diaspora .
= = Accusation = =
= = = Disappearance = = =
On February 17 , 1840 , a boy from a Greek Orthodox family in Rhodes went for a walk and did not return . The next day his mother reported the disappearance to the Ottoman authorities . The island 's governor , Yusuf Pasha , ordered a search , but several days ' efforts proved fruitless . The European consuls pressed the governor to solve the case : the boy 's family was Christian , though without foreign protection . The Greek Christian population of Rhodes , meanwhile , had no doubts that the boy had been murdered by the Jews for ritual purposes . An eyewitness reported : " It was firmly believed that the child in question was doomed to be sacrificed by the Jews . The whole island was agitated from one end to the other . " The assurance of the local Christians having been impressed upon the Ottoman authorities , they began searching the Jewish quarter , again in vain .
= = = Arrests , interrogations , and torture = = =
Several days later , two Greek women reported having seen the boy walking towards the city of Rhodes accompanied by four Jews . The women claimed that one of the Jews was Eliakim Stamboli , who was arrested , questioned , and subjected to five hundred blows of the bastinado . On February 23 , he was interrogated again and tortured in the presence of many dignitaries , including the governor , the qadi ( Muslim judge ) , the Greek archbishop , and European consuls . Jews of Rhodes reported that Stamboli was " loaded with chains , many stripes were inflicted upon him and red @-@ hot wires were run through his nose , burning bones were applied to his head and a very heavy stone was laid upon his breast , insomuch as he was reduced to the point of death . " Under torture , Stamboli confessed to the ritual murder charge and incriminated other Jews , opening the door to further arrests . Some half dozen Jews were accused of the crime and tortured , and the chief rabbi was intensely questioned as to whether Jews practice ritual murder .
= = = Blockade = = =
At the instigation of the Greek clergy and the European consuls , the governor Yusuf Pasha blockaded the Jewish quarter on the eve of Purim and arrested Jacob Israel the chief rabbi . The inhabitants could obtain neither food nor fresh water . The Jews thwarted a subversive attempt to smuggle a dead body into the Jewish quarter . The Muslim authorities , on the whole , were not keen to pursue the ritual murder accusation against the Jews . The Muslim official in charge of the blockade was found smuggling bread to the imprisoned residents ; at the insistence of the British consul , he was bastinadoed and dismissed from service . The qadi openly sympathized with the Jews . At the end of February , he initiated further hearings on the case , after which evidence was declared insufficient to convict the prisoners . The governor , on the other hand , refused to lift the blockade of the Jewish quarter , though he seemed to waver somewhat . In early March he sent to Constantinople asking for instructions . Only after the blockade had lasted for twelve days was the governor forced to lift it by a high treasury official who visited the island on a tour of inspection . At that point , the Jews thought that the affair was over and " returned thanks to the Almighty for their deliverance " .
= = = Influence of the Damascus affair = = =
The relief , however , was dashed in early March by news of the Damascus affair . Reports that the Jews of Damascus had confessed to having murdered Father Thomas reinforced the belief of the Christian community in the ritual murder charge . The British consul reported that " the Greeks cried loud that justice had not been rendered to them and that the rabbi and chiefs ought to have been imprisoned … In order to keep the populace quiet … it was decided that these should be arrested . " Eight Jews were arrested , including the chief rabbi and David Mizrahi , who were tortured by being suspended swinging from hooks in the ceiling in the presence of the European consuls . Mizrahi lost consciousness after six hours , while the rabbi was kept there for two days until he suffered a hemorrhage . Nevertheless , neither confessed and they were released after a few days . The other six Jews remained in prison in early April .
= = = Consular involvement = = =
The European vice @-@ consuls in Rhodes were united in believing the ritual murder charge . They played the key role in the interrogation , with J. G. Wilkinson , the British consul , and E. Masse from Sweden being involved . During the interrogation of the chief rabbi , Wilkinson asked , referring to the qadi 's decision to dismiss the case : " What signifies the Mollah 's judgment to us after what happened in Damascus and it is proved that , according to the Talmud , Christian blood must be used in making your Passover bread ? " The consuls were also present during much of the torture . When the chief rabbi , an Austrian subject , was tortured , he appealed to Austrian vice @-@ consul Anton Giuliani , who replied : " What rabbi ? What do you complain about ? So you are not dead yet . "
Some Jewish inhabitants of Rhodes accused the consuls of a conspiracy to exploit the case in order to eliminate Elias Kalimati , a local Jew , who represented the business interests of Joel Davis , a Jewish businessman from London . Davis was rapidly increasing his share in the profitable sponge exports from the island , and he was a major business rival of the European consuls . Elias Kalimati , however , was not among the persons held in the affair , calling that allegation into question . Other Jewish sources claimed that " [ t ] he consuls stated openly … their purpose of exterminating the Jews of Rhodes or to compel them to change their religion . "
= = European diplomatic involvement = =
In the first days of the blockade , someone managed to smuggle a letter out of the Jewish quarter to the Jewish leadership in Constantinople . It was not until March 27 that the leaders of the Jewish community in the Ottoman capital forwarded it to the Rothschild family , together with a similar call for help from the Jews of Damascus . To these documents , the Jewish leaders attached their own statement in which they cast doubt on their ability to influence the sultan .
The intervention of the Rothschilds bore the quickest fruit in Austria . The head of the Rothschild family bank in Vienna , Salomon Mayer von Rothschild , played the key role in raising financing for the Austrian Empire , and he had a very close relationship with the Austrian chancellor von Metternich . On April 10 , Metternich dispatched instruction regarding both the Damascus and Rhodes affairs to Bartholomäus von Stürmer , ambassador in Constantinople , and Anton von Laurin , consul in Alexandria . In his dispatch , Metternich wrote : " The accusation that Christians are deliberately murdered for some blood @-@ thirsty Passover festival is by its nature absurd … " Regarding the Rhodes case , the chancellor instructed von Stürmer " to tip the wink to the Turkish regime , so that they instruct pasha of Rhodes accordingly and that you let [ our ] vice @-@ consul in Rhodes know that in such cases he should work in the spirit of sensible mediation . " Von Stürmer , responded , " [ T ] here have been no persecutions against the Jewish population , at least not by the authorities . "
In the UK , it took the Jewish community longer to react to the calls for help from Rhodes and Damascus . The Board of Deputies of the British Jews convened on April 21 to discuss the blood libels . They resolved to request the British , Austrian , and French governments to intercede with the Ottoman government and stop the persecutions . The resolution condemning the ritual murder charges was published as a paid advertisement in 35 British journals ; it appeared twice in the most important newspapers . On April 30 , a delegation elected by the Board met with the foreign secretary Lord Palmerston , who called the blood libel a " calumny " and promised that " the influence of the British government should be exerted to put a stop to [ the ] atrocities . " In his dispatch of May 5 , the foreign secretary told Lord Ponsonby , the British ambassador in Constantinople , to communicate the material on the Rhodes affair to the Ottoman government " officially and in writing " and to " request … an immediate and strict inquiry to be made … especially into the allegation that these atrocities were committed at the instigation of the Christians and the European consuls . "
A consensus formed within the European diplomatic community in Constantinople that the persecution of the accused Jews had to be stopped . This opinion was held not only by Lord Ponsonby , but also by von Stürmer , whose correspondence revealed that he was not at all convinced of the innocence of the Jews ; by the French ambassador Edouard Pontois , whose government stood by the French consuls who supported blood libels in Rhodes and Damascus ; and by the Prussian ambassador Hans von Königsmark . Consequently , the way was open for Lord Ponsonby , by far the most powerful diplomat in Constantinople , to intervene unopposed on behalf the Jews of Rhodes .
= = Investigation and trial = =
= = = Intervention of the Ottoman government = = =
In response to Yusuf Pasha 's request , the Ottoman government sent its instructions to Rhodes , where they arrived at the end of April . The government would set up an official investigatory commission before which representatives of the Jewish and Greek communities were ordered to present their evidence . In mid @-@ May , the government sent orders to release the six remaining Jewish prisoners . On May 21 , they were ceremoniously called before the court ( shura ) and freed under the guarantees of the elders of the Jewish community .
The Christians responded to these actions of the central government with a fresh wave of fury against the Jews so that in late May violence was in the air . The Jews described many cases in which they were assaulted or beaten by the Greeks , and the sons of the British and the Greek consuls were among those who beat up a number of Jews . When the Jews complained to the governor , he ordered the complainants subjected to four to five hundred blows of the bastinado . The qadi disassociated himself from the actions of the governor , who declared that he had acted upon the demands of the consuls . On top of that , the governor ordered five other Jews arrested .
= = = Acquittal = = =
The Greek and Jewish delegations from Rhodes , each numbering five , arrived at Constantinople on May 10 . In the capital they were joined by the qadi , the French consul , and the Austrian vice @-@ consul . On May 26 , the investigatory tribunal held its first open session chaired by Rifaat Bey . The qadi argued that " the entire affair is the product of hatred ; [ and ] was instigated by the English and Austrian consuls alone . " The consuls insisted on the guilt of the Jews , and they presented a concurring written testimony from their colleagues who stayed on Rhodes .
The case dragged on for two more months , as the British ambassador insisted on bringing to light the facts implicating the Rhodes governor of torture . Finally , on July 21 the verdict was announced . In its first part , the case between " the Greek population of Rhodes , the plaintiff , and the Jewish population , defendant " , the result was acquittal . In its second part , Yusuf Pasha was dismissed from his post as governor of Rhodes because " he had permitted procedures to be employed against the Jews which are not authorized in any way by the law and which are expressly forbidden by the Hatt @-@ i Sharif of 3 November " . The British ambassador praised the investigation as one during which " [ t ] he affair of Rhodes was examined with fairness " and called the verdict " a signal proof of the justice and humanity with which the Sublime Porte acts . "
= = = Sultan 's firman = = =
In July 1840 , a delegation headed by Adolphe Crémieux and Sir Moses Montefiore left for Egypt to save the Jews of Damascus . Crémieux and Montefiore requested Muhammad Ali to transfer the investigation to Alexandria or have the case considered by European judges . However , their request was denied . The delegation , concerned primarily with the release of the imprisoned Jews of Damascus , decided to accept their liberation without any judicial declaration of their innocence or formal denunciation of the blood libel . The liberation order was issued on August 28 , 1840 , and , as a compromise , it stated explicitly that it was an act of justice rather than a pardon granted by the ruler .
After completing his mission to Muhammad Ali , Montefiore was returning to Europe by way of Constantinople . On October 15 , 1840 , in the Ottoman capital he had a meeting with Lord Ponsonby , to whom Montefiore suggested that following the precedent set by Suleiman the Magnificent , the sultan should issue a decree ( firman ) formally denouncing the blood libel and effectively sealing the cases both in Rhodes and in Damascus . The British ambassador was enthusiastic about the idea , and within one week he arranged for Montefiore a meeting with Reshid Pasha . Montefiore prepared a draft text of the firman and had its French translation read to Reshid Pasha , who responded encouragingly .
Montefiore 's audience with the sultan took place at the palace late in the evening on October 28 . Montefiore described in his diary that as he and his party were driving to the palace , " [ t ] he streets were crowded ; many of the Jews had illuminated their houses . " During the audience , Montefiore read aloud a formal address in which he thanked the sultan for his stand in the Rhodes case . In turn , the sultan assured his guests that their request would be granted . The firman was delivered to Montefiore on November 7 , and a copy was subsequently provided to the Hakham Bashi . Citing the judgment in the Rhodes case , the decree stated that a careful examination of Jewish beliefs and " religious books " had demonstrated that " the charges brought against them … are pure calumny . The Jewish nation shall possess the same privileges as are granted to the numerous other nations who submit to our authority . The Jewish nation shall be protected and defended . "
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= Marvel Science Stories =
Marvel Science Stories was a U.S. pulp magazine which published a total of fifteen issues in two separate runs , both edited by Robert O. Erisman . The publisher for the first run was Postal Publications , and the second run was published by Western Publishing ; both companies were owned by Abraham and Martin Goodman . It appeared in August 1938 , and carried stories with more sexual content than was usual for the genre , including several stories by Henry Kuttner , under his own name and also under pseudonyms . Reader reaction was generally negative , with one reader referring to Kuttner 's story " The Time Trap " as " trash " . The magazine was cancelled after the April 1941 issue , but when a boom in science fiction magazines began in 1950 , the publishers revived it . The first issue of the new series was dated November 1950 ; a further six issues appeared , with the last issue dated May 1952 . In addition to Kuttner , contributors to the first run included Arthur J. Burks and Jack Williamson ; the second run published stories by Arthur C. Clarke , Isaac Asimov , Jack Vance and L. Sprague de Camp , among others . The quality of the second incarnation of the magazine was better than the first , but it was unable to compete with the new , higher @-@ quality magazines that had appeared since the magazine 's first series .
= = Publication history = =
Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . After 1931 , when Miracle Science and Fantasy Stories was launched , no new science fiction magazines appeared for several years . In 1936 Abraham and Martin Goodman , two brothers who owned a publishing company with multiple imprints , launched Ka @-@ Zar , an imitation Tarzan magazine with some borderline sf content . It lasted for three issues , with the last issue dated January 1937 . In addition to this marginal science fiction magazine , in 1937 the Goodmans began publishing several " weird @-@ menace " pulps . These were a genre of pulp magazine known for incorporating " sex and sadism " , with story lines that placed women in danger , usually because of a threat that appeared to be supernatural but was ultimately revealed to be the work of a human villain . The Goodmans ' titles were Detective Short Stories , launched in August 1937 , and Mystery Tales , which published its first issue in March 1938 . These were followed up by Marvel Science Stories , edited by Robert O. Erisman , which was not intended to be a weird @-@ menace pulp , but an sf magazine . The influence of the " sex and sadism " side of the Goodman 's portfolio of magazines was apparent , however : authors were sometimes asked to add more sex to their stories than was usual in the science fiction field at the time .
The first issue contained " Survival " by Arthur J. Burks as the lead novel ; this was well received by the readers , and was free of any taint of sex . The first couple of issues contained several stories that did little to offend readers , but they also contained two stories by Henry Kuttner , who was selling regularly to the Goodman 's other publications . Erisman and the Goodmans had asked Kuttner to spice up his submissions to Marvel Science Stories . He obliged with " Avengers of Space " in the first issue , which included " scenes of aliens lusting after unclothed Earth women " , in the words of sf historian Mike Ashley ; and " The Time Trap " in the second issue . Reader reaction was strongly negative : a typical letter , from William Hamling , later to become a publisher and editor of science fiction magazines in his own right , commented , " I was just about to write you a letter of complete congratulations when my eyes fell upon Kuttner 's " The Time Trap " . All I can say is : PLEASE , in the future , dislodge such trash from your magazine " . In addition to these two stories published under Kuttner 's name , there were two more stories in the same two issues by him under pseudonyms which were equally offensive to readers such as Hamling .
After five issues , the title was changed to Marvel Tales ; at the same time the number of stories advertised as " passionate " or containing " sin @-@ lost " or " lust @-@ crazed " characters sharply increased . Though some of the stories contained little to match the titillating blurbs , there were some that did , with " women entrapped , burned and otherwise maltreated , and whips cracking into use with uninventive frequency " , according to sf historian Joseph Marchesani . The magazine ceased publication with the April 1941 issue , but in 1950 the Goodmans saw an opportunity to revive it when a new boom in science fiction magazines got under way . Erisman was still working for the Goodmans , and was listed as editorial director of the new version of the magazine , but much of the editorial work was done by Daniel Keyes , who was credited as " Editorial Associate " on the 1951 issues . The first issue of the new incarnation of Marvel Science Stories was dated November 1950 . After two issues Erisman switched the magazine to a digest format , but the final issue , dated May 1952 , was once again a pulp . The post @-@ war issues contained stories by well @-@ known writers , including Arthur C. Clarke , Isaac Asimov , Richard Matheson , William Tenn , Jack Vance , and Lester del Rey , but the stories were of only average quality . Erisman and Keyes were able to improve on the material published in the pre @-@ war Marvel Tales , but the field had grown more sophisticated since those days , and the writers who sold to Marvel Tales were now publishing their best work elsewhere .
= = Bibliographic details = =
There were nine issues in the first sequence , in one volume of six numbers and a second volume of three numbers . All issues in the first run were in pulp format and were priced at 15 cents . The first four issues were 128 pages ; the next five were 112 pages . The title was Marvel Science Stories for five issues , then Marvel Tales for two issues , and then Marvel Stories for the last two issues of the first run . The publisher for the first series was listed as Postal Publications of Chicago for the first four issues , and as Western Publishing of New York and Chicago ; in both cases the owner was Martin and Abraham Goodman . The intended schedule was bimonthly but this was never achieved . The editor was Robert O. Erisman .
The second incarnation of the magazine lasted for six issues on a more regular quarterly schedule , starting in November 1950 . The price was 25 cents and the page count was 128 pages for all six issues ; the first two issues and last issue of this sequence were in pulp format , and the three from May 1951 to November 1951 were in digest format . The title returned to Marvel Science Stories for the first three issues of this series , and to Marvel Science Fiction for the last three issues . The publisher was listed as Stadium Publishing of New York ; as with the first series Martin and Abraham Goodman were the owners .
There was a British reprint of the February 1951 issue , published by Thorpe & Porter and dated May 1951 . Science fiction bibliographer Brad Day lists five other British reprints of the second series of Marvel Science Stories , but no copies are recorded by more recent bibliographers . In 1977 the Goodmans launched a digest science fiction magazine titled Skyworlds , which has been described by Mike Ashley as " without any shadow of a doubt , the worst " of the 1970s crop of science fiction magazines ; the fiction it contained was almost entirely reprinted from the second series of Marvel Science Stories .
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= Fairy Cube =
Fairy Cube ( Japanese : 妖精標本 , Hepburn : Yōsei Hyōhon ) is a fantasy , gothic shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) manga written and illustrated by Kaori Yuki . Appearing as a serial in the Japanese manga magazine Hana to Yume from February 2005 to 2006 , the Fairy Cube chapters were collected into three bound volumes by Hakusensha and published from October 2005 to July 2006 . A related short story , " Psycho Knocker " , appeared in the October 2004 issues of the same magazine . Yuki began Fairy Cube with the intent of writing a shorter manga . Set in a fictional universe in which a fairy @-@ inhabited Otherworld exists alongside present @-@ day Earth , the series focuses on Ian Hasumi , a teenager who can see fairies , and his childhood friend Rin . After Ian 's body is stolen from him , he starts on a journey to reclaim it and soon finds himself in conflict with a group of fairies who hope to capture the Earth by opening a pathway from the Otherworld .
Viz Media licensed Fairy Cube for an English @-@ language release in North America . It previewed the series in its manga anthology Shojo Beat and released the series from May 2008 to November 2008 . A digital edition was published in 2011 . Another English translation has been published by Chuang Yi in Singapore , and the series has been translated into several other languages . The series received a range of reviews : reviews of the first volume were generally positive , although the reviewers differed in their thoughts on the conclusion . The final volume placed in ICv2 's list of the top 300 bestselling graphic novels for November 2008 .
= = Plot = =
Fairy Cube takes place in a fictional universe in which an Otherworld , inhabited by a variety of fairies and other nonhuman entities , exists alongside present @-@ day Earth . The series focuses on Ian Hasumi ( 羽住 衣杏 , Hasumi Ian ) , a timid fifteen @-@ year @-@ old who sees fairies — invisible to normal people — and is stalked by Tokage ( トカゲ , Tokage ) , a spiteful spirit only he can see . In his backstory , it is revealed that before the start of the series , his mother , Kureha Hasumi ( 羽住 呉葉 , Hasumi Kureha ) left , causing his novelist father , Kazumi Hasumi ( 羽住 一巳 , Hasumi Kazumi ) , to burn wing marks on Ian 's back to prevent him from doing the same . Rin Ishinagi ( 石椛 鈴 , Ishinagi Rin ) , Ian 's abused childhood friend and secret " crush " , later returns to the city where he lives after being separated for years . Stumbling upon the scene of a murder and seeing a man retrieve a cube from the victim 's body , Ian follows him back to an antique shop , where the man , actually a Gancanagh named Kaito ( 界外 , Kaito ) , gives him Tokage 's fairy cube — a cube belonging to a fairy that can allow the fairy to take over the human who has it . Soon after , Ian is killed by his own father , who was manipulated by Tokage , and now exists as a spirit , with Tokage possessing his body . Returning to Kaito 's shop and after a trip through the Otherworld with Ainsel ( エインセル , Einseru ) , a small yet powerful and vicious fairy in love with Kaito , Ian takes control of the body of a deceased young boy , Eriya Barnett ( エリヤ ・ バレット , Eriya Barutto ) . Moved by his determination , Ainsel agrees to aid him in his quest to regain his body .
Along the way , Ian encounters his maternal aunt Lise ( 梨世 , Rise ) , a leanan sídhe like Kureha , who explains that Kureha left before she completely drained the life force of Kazumi ; Shira Gotoh ( 神門 姿良 , Gotō Shira ) , a cross @-@ dressing girl born in the Otherworld who , as the chairperson for the multi @-@ million land development company Gotoh Group , aims to restore the environment for the fairies ; and Raven ( レイヴン , Reivan ) , Shira 's supernatural bodyguard whose clan guards a " demon door " . Additionally , Ian learns that Tokage grew up in the Otherworld , abandoned by his parents Kureha and Kazumi , but loved by a non @-@ native fairy ; when his village tried to sacrifice him to the god of war and death , he slaughtered them and the god escaped . To infiltrate Gotoh Group , Rin allows herself to be captured , and under the pretense of a beauty contest , the company plans to harvest the energy of the fairy cubes and bystanders to open a " demon door " to the Otherworld . Ian rescues Rin , and the fairy god Balor is revealed to be inhabiting the body of Shira 's bedridden father and behind the plan . Ian eventually returns to his body through fairy magic , while Eriya 's body accepts Tokage . Having been held captive by Gotoh for most of the series , Kureha appears and before dying , reveals that Tokage is Ian 's stillborn twin . Shira is killed after cutting Balor 's life @-@ line , and Raven realizes that his fiancée , whom Kaito had seduced , had actually unsealed the demon door prior to the start of the series , angry with the two for playing with her feelings . Ainsel , secretly the consciousness of the door 's sealing spell , and Kaito die together as a sacrifice to seal the demon door , as Ian and Rin help by letting the people of earth glimpse the fairies and using the energy of their belief .
= = Development = =
Manga artist Kaori Yuki 's earlier , related short manga " Psycho Knocker " appeared in the October 2004 issues of the Japanese shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) manga magazine Hana to Yume published twice a month . It focuses on a pessimistic , heartbroken teenager who makes a pact with a lonely ghost , unknowningly exchanging her life for two wishes . Chasing down spirits that have escaped from the demon door , Raven and Tokage rescue her from the ghost , a young girl who died suddenly , and seal a spirit which feeds on negative emotions . Yuki wrote the story as a reminder to herself not to be so pessimistic , a trait she shares with the teenage protagonist .
Yuki started Fairy Cube with the goal of writing a short series . Because of the story 's nature as a serial , she faced page limitations . When deciding on the ending , she considered having Ian and Rin as the sacrifice to close the demon door , but rejected it , feeling that it would be too unpleasant for the readers , although she expressed her fondness for sad endings . She was also unable to include Ian and Tokage 's newfound friendship , because Rin and Ian 's romantic relationship served as the focus of the story .
= = Release = =
The eighteen chapters of Fairy Cube appeared as a serial in Hana to Yume from February 2005 to 2006 . Hakusensha collected the chapters into three bound volumes and published them from October 19 , 2005 , to July 19 , 2006 .
At the 2007 Comic @-@ Con International , a convention held in San Diego , California , Viz Media announced that it had licensed Fairy Cube for an English @-@ language release in North America . Viz included a preview of Fairy Cube in the April 2008 issue of its manga anthology Shojo Beat , and published the series from May 6 , 2008 , to November 4 , 2008 . A digital edition of the series was also released in 2011 . The series is also licensed in Singapore by Chuang Yi , and published in several other languages , among them German , Italian , and French .
= = = Volume list = = =
= = Reception = =
The final volume placed at the 221st spot on ICv2 's list of the top 300 bestselling graphic novels for November 2008 , with an estimated 516 copies sold .
Writing for School Library Journal , Cara von Wrangel Kinsey found Fairy Cube " more accessible than Yuki 's previous works , " despite covering subjects such as murder and revenge . A. E. Sparrow of IGN gave the first volume a favorable review , enjoying the series ' different view of the fairies . Mania Entertainment 's Danielle Van Gorder wrote that the story reminded her of the pre @-@ Victorian version of the fairytale " Snow White " or the British Sidhe fairies , in her review of the first volume . Van Gorder worried that the cover would mislead readers into believing that it was " a light and fluffy kind of story " and drive away the target audience . In a follow @-@ up review of the final volume , she wrote that the conclusion of the series was less confusing than that of Yuki 's earlier work Angel Sanctuary ( 1994 – 2000 ) and thought the story was " well @-@ executed , " though it still had some flaws . Rating the series 3 out of 4 stars , Jason Thompson , author of Manga : The Complete Guide ( 2007 ) , wrote that while it reminded him of Angel Sanctuary , it covered " more original subject matter " and had " tighter " plotting . Anime News Network 's Casey Brienza highly recommended the first volume , praising her inclusion of Celtic mythology . She enjoyed the plot and described the cover as beautiful , though she disliked the artistic inconsistencies caused by Yuki 's use of assistants . According to Katherine Dacey of PopCultureShock in her review of the first volume , the story succeeded through Yuki 's use of " outlandish touches , " creating " an intoxicating — if occasionally ridiculous — mix of horror , romance , and revenge . " In her review of the final volume , Dacey expressed her feelings of annoyance that the characters spent much of the volume talking with very little action , and wrote that the story , despite a promising start , went downhill with the introduction of the beauty contest in the second volume . Categorizing " Psycho Knocker " as " comeuppance theater , " she enjoyed it more than Fairy Cube 's conclusion , though still wrote that " it isn 't her best work . " A reviewer of the French edition disliked how quickly the story progressed , commenting that the protagonists ' personalities were not fully explored as a result . The reviewer praised the covers of the first and third volumes as " magnificent " .
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= Bob Ferguson ( infielder ) =
Robert Vavasour Ferguson ( January 31 , 1845 – May 3 , 1894 ) was an American infielder , league official , manager and umpire in the early days of baseball , playing both before and after baseball became a professional sport . In addition to playing and managing , he served as president of the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players from 1872 through 1875 , the sport 's first entirely professional league . His character and unquestioned honesty were highly regarded during a period in baseball history where the game 's reputation was badly damaged by gamblers and rowdy behavior by players and fans . However , his bad temper and stubbornness were traits that created trouble for him at times during his career , and caused him to be disliked by many . His nickname , " Death to Flying Things " , was derived from his greatness as a defensive player .
= = Early career = =
A native of Brooklyn , Ferguson played for two of New York 's earliest semi @-@ professional clubs in the late 1860s and early 1870s , the Atlantics and Mutuals . On June 14 , 1870 , Ferguson provided the hit that created the tying run and he later scored the winning run in a match against the famous Cincinnati Red Stockings , the first team that was composed entirely of professional players . This win brought to an end the Red Stockings ' 81 consecutive game winning streak . He is credited with being the first player to bat from both sides of home plate , known as switch @-@ hitting , but the practice was not popular at first . Among the explanations for this , it is claimed that , due to his personality , players did not want to emulate him . Managers , however , recognized the practice 's importance soon after , and began to play their players according to the opposing pitcher that day , known today as platooning , and the advantages that switch @-@ hitting posed would later become accepted strategic baseball philosophy , and many players began to experiment with the idea .
= = National Association = =
In 1871 , Ferguson took over the Mutual team as the player @-@ manager . In 33 games , he batted .241 , while the team finished with a 16 – 17 record , which put them in fifth place at the season 's end . As manager , Ferguson insisted upon implicit obedience from his men , but was forced to leave following the season due to heavy rumors of gambling surrounding the team . For the 1872 season , Ferguson re @-@ joined his Atlantics team , which was now a member of the National Association as well , and he would stay there through the 1874 season . In 1872 , he was elected by the players to be the president of the National Association , an office he held through the 1875 season , the last season of the Association .
On September 1 , 1872 , Ferguson arranged a benefit game for Al Thake , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old left fielder for the Atlantics , who drowned during a fishing trip off Fort Hamilton , in New York Harbor . The old Brooklyn Atlantics and Members of the 1869 Cincinnati Red Stockings played against each other in the benefit game .
While serving as a substitute umpire during a game between the Baltimore Canaries and Mutuals on July 24 , 1873 , Ferguson received continuous , loud , verbal abuse from Mutuals catcher Nat Hicks . Ferguson and Hicks got into an altercation at the conclusion of the game , which Ferguson ended by hitting Hicks in the left arm with a bat , breaking his arm in two places . Ferguson required a police escort to leave the playing field , and Hicks refused to press charges and the two reconciled afterwards . During the final season of the Association , he played and managed the Hartford Dark Blues .
= = National League = =
When the Association dissolved , his Hartford team was accepted into the National League for its inaugural season in 1876 , and Ferguson became a League Director . As a league official , he was involved in a landmark decision that season . The case involved Jim Devlin , pitcher for the Louisville Grays . Devlin wanted to be released from his contract , claiming that Louisville had failed to fulfill the terms of his contract . Surrounding Devlin were rumors that he took money from gamblers to throw games , known in the day as " hippodroming " . Ferguson , along with fellow league directors , ruled in favor of the Grays ' Vice @-@ President Charles Chase , and Devlin was ordered to remain with the Grays . The following season , Devlin and three other teammates , SS / 2B Bill Craver , OF George Hall and 3B Al Nichols would receive life suspensions for throwing games . Devlin attempted to gain reinstatement for a number of years , but this was never granted .
The Dark Blues had turned to Ferguson to play for and manage the team because of his reputation as the most authoritarian captain in the game . He was an honest and upstanding citizen in a time when not many ballplayers could say the same . However , he was also a domineering , dictatorial captain with a violent streak . Team discipline did improve in his first season , but his overbearing ways proved divisive , causing the team to bicker amongst themselves . Ferguson 's temper would flare up often , even when the team was winning . The Chicago Tribune reported that if anyone on the Hartford nine committed an error , " Ferguson [ would ] swear until everything looks blue . " He was particularly rough on second baseman Jack Burdock , who on more than one occasion heard his captain publicly threaten " to ram his fist down Burdock 's throat . " Some players tolerated his behavior ; others , however , refused to comply . Shortstop Tom Carey and center fielder Jack Remsen did not hesitate to yell back , while Burdock and pitcher Candy Cummings , on the other hand , often sulked . The situation in Hartford came to a head after a tough loss to the Red Stockings , a game in which Ferguson had committed several errors . Hartford 's main pitcher , Tommy Bond , suggested that Ferguson was " crooked " . Ferguson denied the charge , and Bond quickly retracted his statement , claiming that he said it in anger . Bond then requested that he be able to leave the team because he could not play for Ferguson , a request that was granted by league president Morgan Bulkeley , a former owner of the Dark Blues .
Hartford finished third in both of its two seasons in the National League , and when the team folded , Ferguson became the new Chicago White Stockings player @-@ manager . It would be his only season in Chicago . Al Spalding had hired Ferguson to captain his Chicago team because of his reputation , openly saying that he admired Ferguson 's style and leadership that made the Hartford teams successful . Ferguson personally had his most successful season as a player that season , as he batted .351 , which was third in the league , led the league in on @-@ base percentage , tied for fourth in runs batted in , and ranked fourth in hits . Unfortunately , the White Stockings finished at .500 , and in Spalding 's memoirs he called Ferguson " tactless " and hopelessly lacking any knowledge " of the subtle science of handling men by strategy rather than by force . " Cap Anson would eventually take over that role in 1879 .
Ferguson again moved on , this time accepting the player @-@ manager role with the new Troy Trojans team who began their time in the National League in 1879 , and would stay in that role until the team folded after the 1882 season . In 1883 , he became the first manager in the history of the Philadelphia Phillies franchise , which was known at the time as the Quakers , but was relieved of command when the team won only four of its first 17 games . On August 21 of that season , his Quakers traveled to Providence , Rhode Island to play the Grays . To increase ticket sales , he gave the day 's pitching duty to Rhode Island native Art Hagan in hopes that Hagan 's appearance would attract more locals to come watch the game . The strategy worked , but Hagen surrendered 28 runs and the Quakers made 20 errors behind him and did not score a run . Financially sound decision as it was , a bad decision for public relations as Ferguson was labeled a sadist for not relieving Hagen .
= = American Association = =
Ferguson 's last two managerial positions were in the American Association . He was player @-@ manager for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys , who later became the Pittsburgh Pirates , in 1884 and later took over the managerial role for parts of two seasons with the New York Metropolitans . Overall , as manager , his teams won 417 games and lost 516 , for a winning percentage of .447 , and never finished higher than the third @-@ place finishes his Trojans achieved . The totals reflect his time in the National Association as well as the National League and American Association .
= = Umpiring career = =
Ferguson had , on numerous occasions during his playing and managerial career , served as a substitute umpire , but did not start doing it full @-@ time until after his departure from Philadelphia . In 1888 , he became a full @-@ time professional umpire , working in the American Association , and later in the Players ' League in 1890 . By the end of the 1890 season he had passed Kick Kelly to take over the record for career games as an umpire with 650 ; John Gaffney surpassed his final total of 786 in 1893 . Ferguson officially umpired 804 games if his National Association games are taken into account , and his career came to a close after the 1891 season . On his umpiring philosophy , he once stated " Umpiring always came as easy to me " , he said , " as sleeping on a featherbed . Never change a decision , never stop to talk to a man . Make ' em play ball and keep their mouths shut , and never fear but the people will be on your side and you 'll be called the king of umpires . "
= = Post @-@ career = =
Ferguson died in Brooklyn of apoplexy at the age of 49 . Initially buried in the Cemetery of the Evergreens in Brooklyn , he was later reinterred in Cypress Hills Cemetery , also in the borough of Brooklyn . Despite his career that was filled with incidents of turmoil between him and his players and other baseball people , his funeral , which was held at his home , was quickly crowded , as was the front stoop . Eventually , they had to turn people away .
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= Too Tough to Die =
Too Tough to Die is the eighth studio album by the American punk rock band the Ramones . It was released on October 1 , 1984 , and is the first Ramones record to feature Richie Ramone on drums . With ex @-@ member Tommy Ramone producing , the recording process was similar to that of the band 's 1976 debut album , Ramones . Likewise , the record 's style — both lyrically and compositionally — saw the band returning to their roots . The photograph on the album cover , which features silhouettes of the band members , resulted from a " lucky accident " after photographer George DuBose 's camera malfunctioned .
The album 's overall style leaned toward that of hardcore punk and heavy metal music , rather than pop music which had been a focus of several of the band 's previous albums . Too Tough to Die borrows upon elements such as guitar riffs from 1983 's Subterranean Jungle . For the second time , after " Time Bomb " on Subterranean Jungle , bassist Dee Dee Ramone performs lead vocals on the album and receives vocal credits for two tracks . The album also contains the band 's only instrumental piece , " Durango 95 " .
Critics appreciated the band 's return to earlier methods of writing , recording , and production , noting they had strayed from the pop music genre . Despite critical acclaim , Too Tough to Die performed poorly in album sales . At this point in their career , the album was the band 's lowest peaking record on the Billboard 200 .
= = Recording and production = =
The recording of Too Tough to Die began in the summer of 1984 at the Media Sound Studios in New York City . The album 's recording process used similar techniques which were used to record their 1976 eponymous album , with Rolling Stone 's Kurt Loder describing it as " virtually live in the studio . " The album marked the debut of new drummer Richie Ramone , who replaced Marky Ramone after he was fired for excessive drinking . The album 's lyrics were written mainly by guitarist Johnny Ramone and bassist Dee Dee Ramone , while lead singer Joey Ramone did not participate in the process because he " wasn 't feeling well " prior to recording . Joey did , however , write the lyrics for " Daytime Dilemma ( Dangers of Love ) " after receiving help with the guitar part by Daniel Rey . Johnny Ramone recalled :
As we got ready to make Too Tough To Die , we were focused in the same direction , and it made a difference . We knew we needed to get back to the kind of harder material we 'd become known for . The pop stuff hadn 't really worked , and we knew we were much better off doing what we did best .
Previous Ramones records featured celebrity record producers in an attempt to gain some sort of popularity . Since this method did not yield the results which they were expecting , Sire Records contacted the producers of 1978 's Road to Ruin : Ed Stasium and ex @-@ band member Tommy Ramone . Too Tough to Die has less production value than previous recordings by the Ramones . Because critics often disapproved of the sound quality on End of the Century and Pleasant Dreams , the band leaned towards a harsher sound .
Too Tough to Die was also the first of three studio albums that were licensed from Sire Records to the independent record label Beggars Banquet Records for release in the UK . The deal saw the group 's work promoted better and resulted placings on the UK album and singles charts . The group had not charted in the UK since 1980 's End of the Century .
= = Cover art = =
The cover photo for the album was taken by photographer George DuBose in a subway in Central Park , New York City , near the Central Park Zoo . In the photo , the band members are standing side @-@ by @-@ side underneath an underpass arch , with their dark silhouettes illuminated in the background with blue lighting and dry ice fog . Johnny wanted the artwork to conceptually refer to the A Clockwork Orange film , released in 1971 . DuBose relates : " Johnny wanted a picture that would evoke memories of the gang in A Clockwork Orange . " DuBose also stated that the band did not need their faces on the cover because they had grown significantly in popularity ; however , he originally intended to include their faces . The photograph on the album cover was a " lucky accident " after DuBose 's camera malfunctioned and he unintentionally shot the band members in silhouette .
= = Music and compositions = =
Just as the recording methods resembled that of the band 's 1970 's era , the musical style which they produced also favored the band 's earlier approach to punk rock . Even though " Howling at the Moon ( Sha @-@ La @-@ La ) " featured a synthpop feel , the overall genre leaned more so toward heavy metal music rather than pop music , which had been a major focus of the band 's writing process throughout the 1980s . Authors Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz explained :
With Tommy Ramone / Erdelyi and Ed Stadium returning as producers , the album was , to some degree , the Ramones ' response to America 's burgeoning hard @-@ core punk scene , and did much to restore the band 's musical credibilty ... Too Tough to Die reclaimed the Ramone 's original values of energy , catchiness , and brevity without resorting to retro pandering . It also featured the band 's strongest set of songs since Rocket to Russia , with Dee Dee ( who wrote or co @-@ wrote nine of the album 's thirteen songs ) demonstrating a thoughtful , introspective edge on ' I 'm Not Afraid of Life ' and an apocalyptic social conscience on ' Planet Earth 1988.'
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote that the album uses the " big guitar riffs " featured on Subterranean Jungle and transfigures them to be " shorter and heavier . " The songs featured on the album are mostly rather short and have a considerably fast tempo , which was a typical quality of the band 's early work . The album features the only instrumental piece which the band released : " Durango 95 , " which clocks in at under a minute , being the shortest Ramones track on a studio album . ( Interestingly , the album also includes one of the longest Ramones studio recordings , " Daytime Dilemma ( Dangers of Love ) " on side two . ) " Durango 95 " ' s name is a reference to a car driven in A Clockwork Orange .
Too Tough to Die is also the first Ramones ' release which did not feature lead singer Joey Ramone on each track ; both " Wart Hog " and Endless Vacation " feature bassist Dee Dee Ramone as lead vocalist . Initially , " Wart Hog " ' s appearance on the album was declined by Joey , but Johnny argued for including the song , later stating , " If I hadn 't lobbied for them , they wouldn 't be on the [ album ] . " The lyrics to the song were not included on the initial printing of the album because Sire considered the drug @-@ inspired lyrics to be too explicit for potential fans .
= = Reception = =
Too Tough to Die was generally well received by critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called it " the last great record [ the Ramones ] would ever make " and noted that the use of Tommy Ramone as the album 's producer was beneficial since it aided in the group returning " to simple , scathing punk rock . " He also stated that the album reads " like a reaction to hardcore punk , " while still maintaining their more melodic style in songs . Music critic Robert Christgau also suggested that the album 's sound was a retreat to their earlier styles " with the cleansing minimalism of their original conception evoked , " saying their initial sound is " augmented rather than recycled . " Kurt Loder of the Rolling Stone concluded his review by saying that " Too Tough to Die is a return to fighting trim by the kings of stripped @-@ down rock & roll . "
The album was the band 's lowest peaking record at that point in their career , debuting at number 171 on the US Billboard 200 . It also peaked at number 49 on the Swedish Sverigetopplistan chart , and in a revival of fortunes spent three weeks on the UK Albums Chart where it peaked at number 63 . The only single released from the album , " Howling at the Moon ( Sha @-@ La @-@ La ) " ( backed with " Wart Hog " in the US and " Chasing the Night " in the UK ) peaked at number 85 on the UK Singles Chart , where it spent two weeks .
= = Track listing = =
The following track listing can be verified through the Too Tough to Die expanded edition liner notes .
= = Personnel = =
The following personnel can be verified through the Too Tough to Die expanded edition liner notes .
Ramones
Joey Ramone – Lead vocals ( all but 4 , 5 , 12 , 17 , 19 , 20 , 24 )
Johnny Ramone – Lead guitar
Dee Dee Ramone – Bass , guitar , backing and lead ( 5 , 12 , 17 , 19 , 20 , 24 ) vocals
Richie Ramone – Drums , backing vocals
Additional musicians
Walter Lure – Extra guitar ( on some tracks )
Jerry Harrison – Synthesizer ( 7 )
Ben Tench – Keyboards ( 8 )
Production
Tommy Ramone – Producer
Ed Stasium – Producer
Dave Stewart – Producer ( 8 )
Tony Wright – Cover design
George DuBose – Photography
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= Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece =
" Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " is the third episode of the first season of the American comedy @-@ drama television series Psych . It was written by writer and co @-@ executive producer Steve Franks , and was directed by assistant director Michael Zinberg . The episode originally aired on USA Network in the United States on July 21 , 2006 . The installment features guest appearances by Kirsten Nelson , Sage Brocklebank , Tom Butler , and Gina Holden among others .
In the episode , a multimillion @-@ dollar engagement ring is stolen from a hotel vault , and Shawn Spencer ( James Roday ) and Burton " Gus " Guster ( Dulé Hill ) investigate , without the permission of the police department . They visit the hotel , where Shawn gets keys to every room . Shawn becomes involved with the ceremony , and finds out everything that has been happening leading up to the wedding . While investigating , they discover the dead body of a suspect . During the ceremony , Shawn realizes what happened , and interrupts to solve it .
" Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " received mixed reviews from critics . At the time of its broadcast , the installment was considered to be the worst episode of the first season . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 4 @.@ 69 million viewers during its original broadcast , and received a 1 @.@ 6 rating among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . The installment 's rebroadcast on NBC was viewed by just 4 million people .
= = Plot = =
In 1985 , Young Shawn Spencer ( Liam James ) is looking for Young Gus . Henry Spencer ( Corbin Bernsen ) shows Shawn how to sneak around , hiding within his lesson the message to " do the little things right " . In present day , Shawn ( James Roday ) sneaks into the police briefing room , where he discovers that a five @-@ million dollar engagement ring has been stolen from a hotel vault . Without permission , Shawn and Gus ( Dulé Hill ) take the case . Shawn is given an invitation to the wedding . While at the hotel , Shawn listens into Detective Lassiter 's ( Timothy Omundson ) brief about the investigation , and gains valuable information . Dietrich Manheim ( Guy Fauchon ) , a hotel staff member becomes the police 's main suspect . After tricking the hotel receptionist , Shawn gains access to the rooms of all police officers and wedding attendees . Shawn walks in on a pre @-@ wedding party , and discovers that the florist quit , and the bridesmaids and groomsmen had to make their own wedding bouquets . Shawn and Gus break into Lassiter 's room , and discover an insurance policy on the ring , with a major value .
Gus decides they need to see the safe ; however , the only way they can access it is through the ventilation shafts . When opening a panel to access the shaft system , they discover Manheim 's dead body . Shawn " psychically " reveals this to the police , using it as a way to distract them while he watches the security footage for the vault . After viewing the footage , they hold a bachelor party where Shawn questions all of the attendees . Shawn talks with Lacey Maxwell ( Christine Chatelain ) , the sister of the groom , who asks him to get her bouquet from a locked cooler , but he can 't . Before the wedding , the bouquets are passed out , and Lacey panics when hers isn 't there . Lacey reveals she is a magician when she helps to calm down the flower girl . Shawn realizes who stole the ring and killed Manheim , but his realization occurs in the middle of the ceremony . Shawn interrupts the wedding with a " psychic episode " , and exposes Lacey to everyone .
= = Production = =
" Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " was the first episode directed by assistant director Michael Zinberg . The installment was the third of the series written by writer and co @-@ executive producer Steve Franks ; he had previously written the season 's first two episodes " Pilot " and " Spellingg Bee " . Stacy Hillman was the episode 's associate producer , and Erin Smith was the production manager . Michael McMurray was the installment 's director of photography , while Gordon Rimpel and Anupam Nigam acted as the editors . The music for the episode was written by Adam Cohen and John Robert Wood . Assistant directors for the installment were Jack Hardy and Roger Russell .
In addition to the regular cast , guest stars for the episode included Kirsten Nelson , who played interim police chief Karen Vick , a major reoccurring character , and Sage Brocklebank as junior police officer Buzz McNab , also a main reoccurring character . Other guests included Tom Butler ( who played Attorney General Maxwell ) , Gina Holden ( who played Bethany ) , Diego Klattenhoff ( who played Dylan Maxwell ) , and Christine Chatelain ( who played Lacey Maxwell ) . The episode first aired in the United States on USA Network on July 21 , 2006 , with a rating of TV @-@ PG . The episode was aired in the U.S. on August 14 , 2006 , on NBC , in an 8 p.m. time slot .
" Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " , along with the fourteen other episodes from Psych 's first season were released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on June 26 , 2007 . The set included full audio commentaries for six episodes , deleted scenes , blooper reals , audition tapes , character profiles , the international version of the episode " Pilot " , an " Inside the writer 's room " featurette , and other special features . The entire first season was released on the iTunes store for digital download , as well as downloads for individual episodes .
Included on the DVD set were deleted scenes for " Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " . The feature consisted of four scenes , amassing approximately 3 minutes of video . The deleted scenes consist of Young Shawn following tracks left by Gus leading to his hiding spot , Chief Vick confronting Shawn and Gus when she meets them in the hotel , the police removing Manheim 's body from the hotel while Officer McNab presents items taken from his locker , and Detective Lassiter getting into a confrontation with an elderly lady manning the guestbook for the wedding .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " was watched by a total of 4 @.@ 69 million people in its original American broadcast . It earned a 1 @.@ 6 rating / 5 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . It was viewed by 1 @.@ 3 million people within the 18 – 49 demographic , and 1 @.@ 3 million people in 25 – 54 demographic . The installment was the seventh most watched basic cable program for its air date in the 18 – 49 demographic . This was a slight decrease from the show 's previous episode , " Spellingg Bee " , which was viewed by 4 @.@ 71 million viewers , or 3 @.@ 35 million households . After its airing on August 14 on NBC , the episode was viewed by 4 million households , and received a 1 @.@ 3 rating / 4 share in the 18 – 49 demographic .
Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews . In his review for IGN , contributor Colin Moriarty heavily criticized the episode and show , calling them , " at best , a mediocre adventure in detective comedy television " . He considered the episode " mindless " when compared to Monk , which preceded the episode . Moriarty stated that , when not comparing Psych to other shows , the episode is still " making you wonder what the hell is going on in the minds of the show 's writers and producers " . He questioned the show 's ability to last due to having to continue the fake psychic concept , and called detectives Lassiter and O 'Hara " completely unlikeable " . Moriarty stated that things in the installment " simply don 't make any sense " . He questioned whether the show would be able to last more than one season , and said that " we highly recommend you continue to take a pass on Psych and save yourself from the mindlessness of it all " . The installment was given a rating of 6 , or " okay " , tying it for the lowest rated episode of the season , with the preceding episode , " Spellingg Bee " .
However , in his review for TV Squad , writer Richard Keller praised the episode , calling it " a very good episode for both James Roday and Dule Hill " . He stated that he " really liked this week 's episode " , and that " After testing the waters in the first two programs both Shawn and Gus really did some heavy detective work this episode " . He also praised the rotating of Shawn 's abilities , saying that " it showed that Psych could be more than just a one trick pony " . He compared Roday to Ben Stiller , and called the scene involving Gus after the bachelorette party the best of the episode . Keller declared that " Psych is finally settling into its niche and , hopefully , will only get stronger from here " .
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= Nibiru cataclysm =
The Nibiru cataclysm is a supposed disastrous encounter between the Earth and a large planetary object ( either a collision or a near @-@ miss ) which certain groups believe will take place in the early 21st century . Believers in this doomsday event usually refer to this object as Planet X or Nibiru . The idea that a planet @-@ sized object will collide with or closely pass by Earth in the near future is not supported by any scientific evidence and has been rejected as pseudoscience and an internet hoax by astronomers and planetary scientists .
The idea was first put forward in 1995 by Nancy Lieder , founder of the website ZetaTalk . Lieder describes herself as a contactee with the ability to receive messages from extraterrestrials from the Zeta Reticuli star system through an implant in her brain . She states that she was chosen to warn mankind that the object would sweep through the inner Solar System in May 2003 ( though that date was later postponed ) causing Earth to undergo a physical pole shift that would destroy most of humanity . The prediction has subsequently spread beyond Lieder 's website and has been embraced by numerous Internet doomsday groups , most of which linked the event to the 2012 phenomenon . Since 2012 , the Nibiru cataclysm has frequently reappeared in the popular media ; usually linked to newsmaking astronomical objects such as Comet ISON or Planet Nine . Although the name " Nibiru " is derived from the works of the ancient astronaut writer Zecharia Sitchin and his interpretations of Babylonian and Sumerian mythology , he denied any connection between his work and various claims of a coming apocalypse .
= = Origins = =
The idea of the Nibiru encounter originated with Nancy Lieder , a Wisconsin woman who claims that as a girl she was contacted by gray extraterrestrials called Zetas , who implanted a communications device in her brain . In 1995 , she founded the website ZetaTalk to disseminate her ideas . Lieder first came to public attention on Internet newsgroups during the build @-@ up to Comet Hale – Bopp 's 1997 perihelion . She stated , claiming to speak as the Zetas , that " The Hale @-@ Bopp comet does not exist . It is a fraud , perpetrated by those who would have the teeming masses quiescent until it is too late . Hale @-@ Bopp is nothing more than a distant star , and will draw no closer . " She claimed that the Hale @-@ Bopp story was manufactured to distract people from the imminent arrival of a large planetary object , " Planet X " , which would soon pass by Earth and destroy civilization . After Hale @-@ Bopp 's perihelion revealed it as one of the brightest and longest @-@ observed comets of the last century , Lieder removed the first two sentences of her initial statement from her site , though they can still be found in Google 's archives . Her claims eventually made the New York Times .
Lieder described Planet X as roughly four times the size of the Earth , and said that its closest approach would occur on May 27 , 2003 , resulting in the Earth 's rotation ceasing for exactly 5 @.@ 9 terrestrial days . This would be followed by the Earth 's pole destabilising in a pole shift ( a physical pole shift , with the Earth 's pole physically moving , rather than a geomagnetic reversal ) caused by magnetic attraction between the Earth 's core and the magnetism of the passing planet . This in turn would disrupt the Earth 's magnetic core and lead to subsequent displacement of the Earth 's crust .
After Lieder , the first person to propagate her Planet X idea was Mark Hazlewood , a former member of the ZetaTalk community , who in 2001 published a book titled Blindsided : Planet X Passes in 2003 . Lieder would later accuse him of being a confidence trickster . A Japanese cult called the Pana Wave Laboratory , which blocked off roads and rivers with white cloths to protect itself from electromagnetic attacks , also warned that the world would end in May 2003 after the approach of a tenth planet .
Roughly a week before the supposed arrival of Planet X in May 2003 , Lieder appeared on KROQ @-@ FM radio in Los Angeles , and advised listeners to euthanize their pets in anticipation of the event as she had done . This led the Fortean Times to conclude that she had put down her dog ( s ) to save them from further suffering during the Pole Shift . Later , in a 2004 interview she said that she had euthanized her dog because it was acting aggressively . After the 2003 date passed without incident , Lieder said that it was merely a " white lie ... to fool the establishment . " She refused to disclose the true date , saying that to do so would give those in power enough time to declare martial law and trap people in cities during the shift , leading to their deaths . Though Lieder herself has not specified a new date for the object 's return , many groups have taken up her idea and cited their own dates . One frequently cited date was December 21 , 2012 . This date had many apocalyptic associations , as it was the end of a cycle ( baktun ) in the long count in the Mayan calendar . Several writers published books connecting the encounter with 2012 . Despite that date having passed , many websites still contend that Nibiru / Planet X is en route to Earth .
In 2012 , Lieder claimed that U.S. President Barack Obama futilely attempted to announce the presence of Nibiru near the sun . After 2012 , she claimed that several world leaders had intended to announce the presence of Nibiru near the sun on October 20 , 2014 . Two weeks after the supposed date of announcement , she claimed that it did not occur because of consternation amongst the establishment .
= = = Zecharia Sitchin and Sumer = = =
Although Lieder originally referred to the object as " Planet X " , it has become deeply associated with Nibiru , a planet from the works of ancient astronaut proponent Zecharia Sitchin , particularly his book The 12th Planet . According to Sitchin 's interpretation of Babylonian religious texts , which contradicts conclusions reached by credited scholars on the subject , a giant planet ( called Nibiru or Marduk ) passes by Earth every 3 @,@ 600 years and allows its sentient inhabitants to interact with humanity . These beings , which Sitchin identified with the Annunaki of Sumerian myth , would become humanity 's first gods . Lieder first made the connection between Nibiru and her Planet X on her site in 1996 ( " Planet X does exist , and it is the 12th Planet , one and the same . " ) .
However , Sitchin , who died in 2010 , denied any connection between his work and Lieder 's claims . In 2007 , partly in response to Lieder 's proclamations , Sitchin published a book , The End of Days , which set the time for the last passing of Nibiru by Earth at 556 BC , which would mean , given the object 's supposed 3 @,@ 600 @-@ year orbit , that it would return sometime around AD 2900 . He did however say that he believed that the Annunaki might return earlier by spaceship , and that the timing of their return would coincide with the shift from the astrological Age of Pisces to the Age of Aquarius , sometime between 2090 and 2370 .
= = Scientific rejection = =
Astronomers reject the idea of Nibiru , and have made efforts to inform the public that there is no threat to Earth . They point out that such an object so close to Earth would be easily visible to the naked eye . A planet such as Nibiru would create noticeable effects in the orbits of the outer planets . Some counter this by claiming that the object has been concealed behind the Sun for several years , though this would be geometrically impossible . Most photographs showing " Nibiru " by the Sun are in fact of lens flares , false images of the Sun created by reflections within the lens .
Astronomer Mike Brown notes that if this object 's orbit were as described , it would only have lasted in the Solar System for a million years or so before Jupiter expelled it , and that there is no way another object 's magnetic field could have such an effect on Earth . Lieder 's assertions that the approach of Nibiru would cause the Earth 's rotation to stop or its axis to shift violate the laws of physics . In his rebuttal of Immanuel Velikovsky 's Worlds in Collision , which made the same claim that the Earth 's rotation could be stopped and then restarted , Carl Sagan noted that , " the energy required to brake the Earth is not enough to melt it , although it would result in a noticeable increase in temperature : The oceans would [ be ] raised to the boiling point of water ... [ Also , ] how does the Earth get started up again , rotating at approximately the same rate of spin ? The Earth cannot do it by itself , because of the law of the conservation of angular momentum . "
In a 2009 interview with the Discovery Channel , Mike Brown noted that , while it is not impossible that the Sun has a distant planetary companion , such an object would have to be lying very far from the observed regions of the Solar System to have no detectable gravitational effect on the other planets . A Mars @-@ sized object could lie undetected at 300 AU ( 10 times the distance of Neptune ) ; a Jupiter @-@ sized object at 30 @,@ 000 AU . To travel 1000 AU in two years , an object would need to be moving at 2400 km / s – faster than the galactic escape velocity . At that speed , any object would be shot out of the Solar System , and then out of the Milky Way galaxy into intergalactic space .
= = Conspiracy theories = =
Many believers in the imminent approach of Planet X / Nibiru accuse NASA of deliberately covering up visual evidence of its existence . One such accusation involves the IRAS infrared space observatory , launched in 1983 . The satellite briefly made headlines due to an " unknown object " that was at first described as " possibly as large as the giant planet Jupiter and possibly so close to Earth that it would be part of this Solar System " . This newspaper article has been cited by proponents of the Nibiru cataclysm , beginning with Lieder herself , as evidence for the existence of Nibiru . However , further analysis revealed that of several initially unidentified objects , nine were distant galaxies and the tenth was " galactic cirrus " ; none were found to be Solar System bodies .
Another accusation frequently made by websites predicting the collision is that the U.S. government built the South Pole Telescope ( SPT ) to track Nibiru 's trajectory , and that the object has been imaged optically . However , the SPT ( which is not funded by NASA ) is a radio telescope , and cannot take optical images . Its South Pole location was chosen due to the low @-@ humidity environment , and there is no way an approaching object could be seen only from the South Pole . The " picture " of Nibiru posted on YouTube was revealed , in fact , to be a Hubble image of the expanding light echo around the star V838 Mon .
Another conspiracy claim regards a patch of missing data in Google Sky near the constellation of Orion , which has often been cited as evidence that Nibiru has been redacted . However , the same region of sky can still be viewed by thousands of amateur astronomers . A scientist at Google said that the missing data is due to a glitch in the stitching software used to piece the images together .
Another piece of claimed evidence drawn from Google Sky is the carbon star CW Leonis , which is the brightest object in the 10 μm infrared sky and is frequently claimed to be Nibiru .
= = Misappellations = =
Believers in Planet X / Nibiru have given it many names since it was first proposed . All are , in fact , names for other real , hypothetical or imaginary Solar System objects that bear little resemblance either to the planet described by Lieder or to Nibiru as described by Sitchin .
= = = Planet X = = =
Lieder drew the name Planet X from the hypothetical planet once searched for by astronomers to account for discrepancies in the orbits of Uranus and Neptune . In 1894 , Bostonian astronomer Percival Lowell became convinced that the planets Uranus and Neptune had slight discrepancies in their orbits . He concluded that they were being tugged by the gravity of another , more distant planet , which he called " Planet X " . However , nearly a century of searching failed to turn up any evidence for such an object ( Pluto was initially believed to be Planet X , but was later determined to be too small ) . In 1992 , astronomer Myles Standish showed that the supposed discrepancies in the planets ' orbits were illusory , the product of overestimating the mass of Neptune . Today astronomers accept that Planet X , at least as originally defined , does not exist .
= = = Hercolubus = = =
In 1999 , New Age author V. M. Rabolu wrote in Hercolubus or Red Planet that Barnard 's star is actually a planet known to the ancients as Hercolubus , which purportedly came dangerously close to Earth in the past , destroying Atlantis , and will come close to Earth again . Lieder subsequently used Rabolu 's ideas to bolster her claims .
Barnard 's star has been directly measured to be 5 @.@ 98 ± 0 @.@ 003 light years from Earth ( 35 @.@ 15 trillion miles ) . While it is approaching Earth , Barnard 's Star will not make its closest approach to the Sun until around 11 @,@ 700 AD , when it will approach to within some 3 @.@ 8 light @-@ years . This is only slightly closer than the closest star to the Sun ( Proxima Centauri ) lies today .
= = = Nemesis = = =
Believers in Planet X / Nibiru have often confused it with Nemesis , a hypothetical star first proposed by physicist Richard A. Muller . In 1984 , Muller postulated that mass extinctions were not random , but appeared to occur in the fossil record with a loose periodicity that ranged from 26 to 34 million years . He attributed this supposed pattern to a heretofore undetected companion to the Sun , either a dim red dwarf or a brown dwarf , lying in an elliptical , 26 @-@ million @-@ year orbit . This object , which he named Nemesis , would , once every 26 million years , pass through the Oort cloud , the shell of over a trillion icy objects believed to be the source of long @-@ period comets that orbit at thousands of times Pluto 's distance from the Sun . Nemesis 's gravity would then disturb the comets ' orbits and send them into the inner Solar System , causing the Earth to be bombarded . However , to date no direct evidence of Nemesis has been found . Though the idea of Nemesis appears similar to the Nibiru cataclysm , they are , in fact , very different , as Nemesis , if it existed , would have an orbital period thousands of times longer , and would never come near Earth itself .
= = = Sedna or Eris = = =
Still others confuse Nibiru with Sedna ( 90377 Sedna ) or Eris ( 136199 Eris ) , trans @-@ Neptunian objects discovered by Mike Brown in 2003 and 2005 respectively . However , despite having been described as a " tenth planet " in an early NASA press release , Eris ( Then known only as 2003 UB313 ) is now classified as a dwarf planet . Only slightly more massive than Pluto , Eris has a well @-@ determined orbit that never takes it closer than 5 @.@ 5 billion km from the Earth . Sedna is slightly smaller than Pluto , and never comes closer to Earth than 11 @.@ 4 billion km . Mike Brown believes the confusion results from both the real Eris and the imaginary Nibiru having extremely elliptical orbits .
= = = Tyche = = =
Others have tied it to Tyche ; the name proposed by John Matese and Daniel Whitmire of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette for an object they believe to be influencing the orbits of comets in the Oort cloud . In February , 2011 , Whitmire and his colleagues took their hypothesis to the public in an article in The Independent , in which they named the object " Tyche " and claimed that evidence for its existence would be found once data from the WISE infrared telescope was collated , leading to a spike in calls to astronomers . The name , after the " good sister " of the Greek goddess Nemesis , was chosen to distinguish it from the similar Nemesis hypothesis as , unlike Nemesis , Matese and Whitmire do not believe that their object poses a threat to Earth . Also , this object , if it exists , would , like Nemesis , have an orbit hundreds of times longer than that proposed for Nibiru , and never come near the inner Solar System . In 2014 , NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out the existence of Tyche as its proponents had defined it .
= = = Comet Elenin = = =
Some associated Nibiru with Comet Elenin , a long @-@ period comet discovered by Russian astronomer Leonid Elenin on December 10 , 2010 . On October 16 , 2011 , Elenin made its closest approach to the Earth at a distance of 0 @.@ 2338 AU ( 34 @,@ 980 @,@ 000 km ; 21 @,@ 730 @,@ 000 mi ) , which is slightly closer than the planet Venus . Nevertheless , in the leadup to its closest approach , claims spread on conspiracy websites concluded that it was on a collision course , that it was as large as Jupiter or even a brown dwarf , and even that the name of the discoverer , Leonid Elenin , was in fact code for ELE , or an Extinction Level Event .
Although the sizes of comets are difficult to determine without close observation , Comet Elenin is likely to be less than 10 km in diameter . Elenin himself estimates that the comet nucleus is roughly 3 – 4 km in diameter . This would make it millions of times smaller than the supposed Nibiru . Comet hysteria is not uncommon . Attempts have been made to correlate Elenin 's alignments with the 2011 Japan earthquake , the 2010 Canterbury earthquake , and 2010 Chile earthquake ; however , even discounting Elenin 's tiny size , earthquakes are driven by forces within the earth , and cannot be triggered by the passage of nearby objects . In 2011 , Leonid Elenin ran a simulation on his blog in which he increased the mass of the comet to that of a brown dwarf ( 0 @.@ 05 solar masses ) . He demonstrated that its gravity would have caused noticeable changes in the orbit of Saturn years before its arrival in the inner Solar System .
In August , 2011 , Comet Elenin began to disintegrate , and by the time of its closest approach in October 2011 the comet was undetected even by large ground @-@ based telescopes .
= = = Comet ISON = = =
On 21 September 2012 , Vitali Nevski and Artyom Novichonok , using the International Scientific Optical Network of telescopes ( ISON ) , discovered the comet C / 2012 S1 , popularly known as " Comet ISON " . Its orbit was expected to take it within 0 @.@ 429 AU ( 64 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 km ; 39 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 mi ) of Earth on 26 December 2013 . Nonetheless , believers tied it to the Nibiru cataclysm , claiming it would hit the Earth on that date , or that it would fragment and pieces of it would hit the Earth . Images of the " fragments " of the comet circulating on the internet were shown to be camera artifacts . On April 30 , 2013 , the Hubble Space Telescope took three pictures of the comet over the course of 12 hours , which were published as a composite in Hubble 's archives . This led to speculation on conspiracy sites that the comet had split into 3 pieces , or even that it was a UFO . After ISON passed perihelion on 28 November , it rapidly began to fade , leaving many to suspect that it had been destroyed as it passed the Sun . While a dim remnant did eventually return round the Sun , it was generally accepted to be a cloud of dust , rather than a solid object . On 2 December 2013 , the CIOC ( NASA Comet ISON Observing Campaign ) officially announced that Comet ISON had fully disintegrated . The Hubble Space Telescope failed to detect fragments of ISON on 18 December 2013 . On 8 May 2014 , a detailed examination of the comet disintegration was published , suggesting that the comet fully disintegrated hours before perihelion .
= = = Planet Nine = = =
In March 2014 , astronomers Chad Trujillo and Scott Sheppard published a paper in Nature arguing that the apparent clustering of the arguments of perihelion of distant trans @-@ Neptunian objects suggested the existence of a large trans @-@ Neptunian planet . On January 20 , 2016 , Mike Brown and Konstantin Batygin announced that they had corroborated Trujillo and Sheppard 's findings , and that they believed the planet , which they dubbed " Planet Nine " , would have a mass roughly ten times that of the Earth , and a semimajor axis of approximately 400 – 1500 AU ( 60 – 225 billion km ) . Believers in Nibiru and the Nibiru cataclysm immediately argued that this constituted evidence for their claims . However , astronomers pointed out that this planet , if it exists , would have a perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) of roughly 200 AU , or 30 billion km .
In March 2016 , believers in the Nibiru cataclysm began to suggest that the month marked the true date for Nibiru 's arrival and the destruction of Earth . That same month , the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society published a paper by Daniel Whitmire ( who had proposed the existence of Tyche ) in which he reconsidered a modified version of the Nemesis model he had first proposed in 1985 in light of recent speculations concerning the possibility of a trans @-@ Neptunian planet . The hypothesis argues that an object far closer to the Sun than Nemesis could have a similar effect if its orbit precessed at a rate thousands of times slower than its actual speed , which would mean it might only interact with the Kuiper belt every 27 million years , potentially sending comets into the inner Solar System and triggering mass extinctions . However , the paper had been initially published online in November 2015 , before Brown and Batygin went public with Planet Nine , and concerns a different object far closer to the Sun ( 100 AU vs. ~ 600 AU ) ; Planet Nine , if it exists , is too far away , says Brown , to have such an effect on the Kuiper belt . Nonetheless , an article in the British tabloid The Sun ( later republished in the New York Post ) conflated the three ideas of Nibiru , Planet Nine and Whitmire 's planet to suggest that not only had Planet Nine been found , but that it would collide with Earth at the end of April , which resulted in Batygin receiving a spike in panicked calls .
= = Public reaction = =
The impact of the public fear of the Nibiru cataclysm has been especially felt by professional astronomers . In 2008 , Mike Brown said that Nibiru was the most common pseudoscientific topic he was asked about .
Before his retirement after 2012 , David Morrison , director of SETI , CSI Fellow and Senior Scientist at NASA 's Astrobiology Institute at Ames Research Center , said he received 20 to 25 emails a week about the impending arrival of Nibiru : some frightened , others angry and naming him as part of the conspiracy to keep the truth of the impending apocalypse from the public , and still others asking whether or not they should kill themselves , their children or their pets . Half of these emails are from outside the U.S. " Planetary scientists are being driven to distraction by Nibiru , " notes science writer Govert Schilling , " And it is not surprising ; you devote so much time , energy and creativity to fascinating scientific research , and find yourself on the tracks of the most amazing and interesting things , and all the public at large is concerned about is some crackpot theory about clay tablets , god @-@ astronauts and a planet that doesn 't exist . " In a similar vein , Professor Brian Cox Tweeted in 2012 that , " If anyone else asks me about " Nibiru " the imaginary bullshit planet I will slap them around their irrational heads with Newton 's Principia . " Prior to the 2012 date , Morrison stated that he hoped that the non @-@ arrival of Nibiru could serve as a teaching moment for the public , instructing them on " rational thought and baloney detection " , but doubted that would happen .
Morrison noted in a lecture recorded on FORA.tv that there was a huge disconnect between the large number of people on the Internet who believed in Nibiru 's arrival and the majority of scientists who have never heard of it . To date he is the only major NASA scientist to speak out regularly against the Nibiru phenomenon .
= = Cultural influence = =
A viral marketing campaign for Sony Pictures ' 2009 film 2012 , directed by Roland Emmerich , which depicts the end of the world in the year 2012 , featured a supposed warning from the " Institute for Human Continuity " that listed the arrival of Planet X as one of its doomsday scenarios . Mike Brown attributed a spike in concerned emails and phone calls he received from the public to this site . Danish filmmaker Lars von Trier drew inspiration from Nibiru for his 2011 apocalyptic film Melancholia .
The 2010 animated television series Scooby @-@ Doo ! Mystery Incorporated features Nibiru as a major plot point in its second season , tying the apocalyptic event with its mythological namesake .
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= Siege of Güns =
The Siege of Güns or Siege of Kőszeg ( Turkish : Güns Kuşatması ) was a siege of Kőszeg ( German : Güns ) in the Kingdom of Hungary within the Habsburg Empire , that took place in 1532 . In the siege , the defending forces of the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy under the leadership of Croatian Captain Nikola Jurišić ( Hungarian : Miklós Jurisics ) , defended the small border fort of Kőszeg with only 700 – 800 Croatian soldiers , with no cannons and few guns . The defenders prevented the advance of the Ottoman army of 120 @,@ 000 – 200 @,@ 000 toward Vienna , under the leadership of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent ( Ottoman Turkish : سليمان Süleymān ) and Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha .
The exact outcome is unknown , since it has two versions which differ depending on the source . In the first version Nikola Jurišić rejected the offer to surrender on favourable terms , and in the second version , the city was offered terms for a nominal surrender . Suleiman , having been delayed nearly four weeks , withdrew at the arrival of the August rains , and did not continue towards Vienna as he had intended , but turned homeward .
Suleiman secured his possession in Hungary by conquering several other forts , but after the Ottoman withdrawal , Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand I reoccupied some of the devastated territory . Following this , Suleiman and Ferdinand concluded a 1533 treaty in Constantinople that confirmed the right of John Zápolya as a king of all Hungary , but recognised Ferdinand 's possession of some of the reoccupied territory .
= = Background = =
On 29 August 1526 , at the Battle of Mohács , the Christian forces led by King Louis II were defeated by Ottoman forces led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent . Louis was killed in the battle , which resulted in the end of the independent Kingdom of Hungary as he died without an heir . Both the Kingdoms of Hungary and Croatia became disputed territories with claims from both the Habsburg and Ottoman empires . Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand I , who was a brother of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , married the sister of Louis II and was elected King by the nobles of both Hungary and Croatia .
The throne of Hungary became the subject of a dynastic dispute between Ferdinand and John Zápolya from Transylvania , since Suleiman had promised to make Zápolya the ruler of all Hungary . During Hungarian campaign of 1527 – 1528 , Ferdinand captured Buda from John Zápolya in 1527 , only to relinquish his hold on it in 1529 when an Ottoman counter @-@ attack stripped Ferdinand of all his territorial gains during 1527 and 1528 . The siege of Vienna in 1529 was the first attempt by Suleiman the Magnificent to capture the Austrian capital . This siege signalled the pinnacle of Ottoman power and the maximum extent of Ottoman expansion in central Europe .
= = = Little War in Hungary = = =
Following Suleiman 's unsuccessful Siege of Vienna in 1529 , Ferdinand launched a counter @-@ attack in 1530 to regain the initiative and avenge the destruction brought by Suleiman 's 120 @,@ 000 strong army . This campaign is usually considered as the start of the Little War , the period of a series conflicts between the Habsburgs and the Ottoman Empire . An assault of Buda was driven off by John Zápolya , the vassal King of Hungary , but Ferdinand was successful elsewhere , capturing Gran ( Esztergom ) and other forts along the Danube river , a vital strategic frontier .
= = Campaign of 1532 = =
During the early period of the Little War in Hungary , Suleiman , as a response to Ferdinand 's counter @-@ attack in 1530 , and as a part of his fifth imperial campaign ( Ottoman Turkish : سفر همايون , Sefer @-@ i humāyūn ) in 1532 , led a massive army of over 120 @,@ 000 troops to besiege Vienna again . Due to Suleiman 's rapid advances , Ferdinand feared the Christian forces would not be assembled in time to meet him . On 12 July , Suleiman wrote to Ferdinand from Osijek ( German : Esseg ) in Slavonia , to assure him of the Ottoman advance . According to the letter , Suleiman 's fifth campaign was primarily directed against Charles V , and not personally against Ferdinand . After Suleiman crossed the river Drava at Osijek , instead of taking the usual route for Vienna , he turned westwards into Ferdinand 's held Hungarian territory . According to historian Andrew Wheatcroft , on the route for Vienna , the Ottoman army had briefly invested and captured seventeen fortified towns or castles . Ferdinand withdrew his army , leaving only 700 men with no cannons and a few guns to defend Kőszeg .
However , in order to make decisive gains , the Ottomans had to take the city quickly , as a large Imperial army , raised in Germany , reinforced by Spanish troops and led by the Emperor Charles V himself was approaching in support of Ferdinand .
= = = Siege = = =
Located south of Sopron , the small town of Kőszeg was only a few miles from the Austrian border . It was held by a task force commanded by the Croatian soldier and diplomat Nikola Jurišić . Kőszeg was not considered a place of importance . It was an insubstantial obstacle and many stronger places had yielded without a fight . The Grand Vizier of the Ottomans , Ibrahim Pasha , did not realize how poorly defended Kőszeg was . After taking a few minor places , Suleiman came to join Ibrahim Pasha shortly afterwards , when the siege had already started .
The Ottomans met stiff resistance at Kőszeg . Suleiman had hoped that the imperial army would come to relieve Kőszeg , affording him an opportunity for a larger engagement . However , during the Ottoman attacks on Kőszeg , the imperial army still formed up in Regensburg . The Ottomans continued with one attack after another ; artillery fire brought down parts of the walls , but brought no surrender . The Ottomans ' mines were sapped by countermines . The layout of Kőszeg 's walls made mining a feasible strategy , but even though several mines succeeded in blowing holes in the fortifications , the defenders held out . For more than twenty @-@ five days , without any artillery , Captain Nikola Jurišić and his garrison of 800 Croats held out against nineteen full @-@ scale assaults and an incessant bombardment by the Ottomans .
The outcome has two versions . In the first version , Nikola Jurišić rejected the offer to surrender on favourable terms , and the Ottomans retreated . In the second version , the city was offered terms for a nominal surrender . The only Ottomans who would be allowed to enter the castle would be a token force who would raise the Ottoman flag . In either case , Suleiman withdrew at the arrival of the August rains , and returned homeward instead of continuing towards Vienna as previously planned . He had been delayed nearly four weeks , and during this time a powerful army had been collected in Vienna , which Suleiman had not the intention to face . According to historian Paolo Giovio , Charles arrived with an imperial army at Vienna on 23 September , too late for fighting the Ottomans since Suleiman already withdrew . By their defense of Kőszeg , Nikola Jurišić and his men had saved Vienna from a siege .
= = Aftermath = =
Although he was stopped at Kőszeg and failed to conquer Vienna , Suleiman additionally secured his possession in Hungary by conquering several forts , since Ferdinand and Charles evaded an open field battle . Immediately after the Ottoman withdrawal , Ferdinand reoccupied devastated territory in Austria and Hungary . Nevertheless , Suleiman concluded a peace treaty with Ferdinand in 1533 , in Constantinople . The treaty confirmed the right of John Zápolya as a king of all Hungary , but recognised Ferdinand 's possession of that part of the country that enjoyed the status quo .
This treaty did not satisfy Zápolya or Ferdinand , whose armies began to skirmish along the borders . After Zápolya 's death in 1540 , Suleiman annexed Hungary to the Ottoman realm . Although from 1529 to 1566 the borders of the Ottoman Empire moved further west , none of the campaigns after 1529 achieved the decisive victory that would secure the new Ottoman possessions .
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= Rwanda women 's national football team =
The Rwanda women 's national football team represents Rwanda in women 's association football and is controlled by the Fédération Rwandaise de Football Association . It had to date been scheduled to compete in one major tournament , the inaugural Women 's Challenge Cup held in Zanzibar in October 2007 , but the event was ultimately canceled . It has finally debuted in February 2014 against Kenya . Like their male counterpart , the team is nicknamed The She @-@ Amavubi ( Kinyarwanda for The She @-@ Wasps ) . It has never qualified for an African Championship finals or a World Cup .
= = Senior national team = =
Until 2012 , Rwanda had yet to play in a single FIFA recognised match . FIFA did not recognise a senior women 's national team in the period between 2002 and 2006 , with no team existing by 2008 . While Rwanda women 's national under @-@ 20 football team existed and played in matches by 2009 , the senior national team was not competing in matches in the period . There was no senior team competing in the 2010 African Women 's Championships during the preliminary rounds or the 2011 All Africa Games . In March 2012 , the team was not ranked in the world by FIFA and a senior national team still did not existed . However , a senior national team played its first official match on February 16 , 2014 .
The inaugural Council for East and Central Africa Football Associations ( CECAFA ) Women 's Challenge Cup was supposed to be held in Zanzibar October 2007 , an event Rwanda was planning to send a national team to compete in , but the competition was ultimately canceled . The competition was to be funded by Confederation of African Football . The Council of East and Central Africa Football Associations secretary , Nicholas Musonye said of the event , " CAF wants to develop women football in this region in recognition of the milestones CECAFA has achieved over the years . CAF appreciates what CECAFA has done despite the hardships the association has gone through , from financial problems to political instability in member states and poor management of associations . Member states in the CECAFA region have not taken women 's football seriously . CAF now wants to sponsor a long @-@ term campaign to attract women from this region into the game . "
= = History = =
She @-@ Amavubi debuted on 16 January 2014 , in the 2014 African Women 's Championship first qualification round , against Kenya in the Stade Régional Nyamirambo in Kigali . They won 1 – 0 from a goal scored by Alice Niyoyita at the 29th minute in the first leg . In the second leg in Kenyatta Stadium , Machakos , Kenya they lost 2 – 1 with the solitary goal scored by Jeanne Nyirahatashima . Rwanda qualified for the second round by the away goals rule after finishing 2 – 2 on aggregate and played against Nigeria . Their third official match was disputed on 13 May 2014 against Zambia and ended in a 3 – 0 loss , making it the third loss of their record . They disputed the 2014 African Women 's Championship second qualification round with Nigeria on 24 May 2014 , losing 4 – 1 . The goal was scored by Clementine Mukamana at the 53rd minute . In the second leg , again competing against Nigeria on 7 June 2014 , the She @-@ Amavubi lost by a crushing 8 – 0 defeat , leaving them out of the 2014 African Women 's Championship by a 12 – 1 aggregate score .
= = Competition records = =
= = = World Cup record = = =
= = = Africa Women 's Championship record = = =
= = = Coaches = = =
Grace Nyinawumuntu ( 2014 – )
= = = Recent matches = = =
= = Current Squad = =
The following squad was selected for the 2014 African Women 's Championship qualification match against Nigeria on 8 June 2014 .
Caps and goals updated as of 16 November 2014 .
= = = Recent call @-@ ups = = =
The following players have been called up for Rwanda squad within the past 12 months .
= = Head @-@ to @-@ Head Record = =
As of 16 June 2014
= = Junior national team = =
In 2006 , a Rwanda women 's national under @-@ 17 football team and Rwanda women 's national under @-@ 20 football team did not officially exist , but this changed by 2009 when an under @-@ 20 team and competed in the African Women U @-@ 20 World Cup 2010 Qualifying tournament . In the first leg on 24 October 2009 in Nakivubo , they lost to Uganda 1 – 2 . In the second leg on 7 November 2009 in Kigali , they lost to Uganda 0 – 1 . In Rwanda 's 1 – 2 loss , Saida Ntagisarinana came on in the second half as a substitute for Rwanda and scored the team 's only goal . Rwanda 's play in the game was described by Ugandan newspaper New Vision as " far more organised [ than Uganda ] , structured and played as a team . "
= = Background and history = =
The development of women 's football in Africa faces several challenges , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women in the wider society , and fundamental inequality present in that society that occasionally allows for female @-@ specific human rights abuses . At the same time , if talented women footballers do emerge , many choose to go abroad to maximize playing opportunities . A lack of funding impedes regional development of women 's football as most of the funding for the women 's national team comes from FIFA , not the national football association .
Inside Rwanda , the first women 's football programme was developed in 2000 . " Kicking for Reconciliation " was created during the late 2000s , and involved over 100 young players in an attempt at " bringing healing to a nation that saw the worst genocide since World War II " through sport . The programme was open to both Tutsis and Hutus . By 2008 , this included a schools and university competition . Women 's football was supported by a single dedicated national federation staffer by 2006 . Women 's sport , including football , received little press coverage in the Rwandan media . A women 's football league was founded in 2008 , and the country is the only one in the region with a viable league , but the it still faces challenges related to funding for teams , with most of its funding coming from FIFA . Grace Nyinawumuntu became the first female referee at the senior level in Rwanda in 2004 , and went on to become the first woman to coach a professional team in the country in 2009 . Her professional women 's side went on to win the league championship under her leadership . The lack of high @-@ level football opportunities in Uganda led to some players going from there to Rwanda for opportunities to play in the country 's professional league .
International training related to women is limited in Rwanda . Between 1991 and 2010 , there was no FIFA FUTURO III regional course for women 's coaching , no women 's football seminar held in the country , and no FIFA MA course held for women and youth football . Internationally , in 2007 , a representative from the country attended a FIFA sponsored women 's football symposium in China . Felicite Rwemarika is the head of women 's football in the country . She is credited with developing the sport in the country by founding the Association of Kigali Women in Football amongst other things .
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= West Coast Express ( ice hockey ) =
The West Coast Express was an ice hockey line that played for the National Hockey League 's ( NHL ) Vancouver Canucks from 2002 to 2006 . Named after Vancouver 's commuter rail service , the line consisted of Markus Naslund at left wing , Brendan Morrison at centre , and Todd Bertuzzi playing right wing . The West Coast Express was a high scoring line that was considered to be one of the best lines in hockey during its tenure .
Each player was acquired by the Canucks through various trades . Once each member arrived in Vancouver it took two years before the line played together regularly . Once they did , they helped to set a Canucks franchise record for points in 2002 – 03 season ( later surpassed ) , a season in which the West Coast Express accounted for 45 % of the team 's goal production . All three players recorded their most individually recognized and best statistical seasons while playing on the line . Despite regular season success , the Canucks were never able to advance past the second round of the playoffs during the West Coast Express years . The line was disbanded when Bertuzzi was traded to the Florida Panthers after the 2005 – 06 season . Both Morrison and Naslund played through the 2007 – 08 season with the Canucks before leaving the organization via free agency .
= = History = =
= = = Player acquisitions = = =
The Vancouver Canucks made the Stanley Cup Finals in 1994 , but proceeded to regress as a franchise progressively finishing worse each season . As such they began attempting to add skill players to the line @-@ up through trades . The Canucks made various deals to " move the program forward and in a different direction " . With the franchise moving in a new direction the first member of the West Coast Express line arrived in Vancouver on March 20 , 1996 when left wing Markus Naslund was traded to the Canucks by the Pittsburgh Penguins for Alek Stojanov . Naslund struggled to start his Canucks career and during the 1997 – 98 season he requested to be traded . It was not until the 1998 – 99 season that Naslund emerged as an offensive leader with the Canucks , leading them in goals ( 36 ) and points ( 66 ) . Todd Bertuzzi was the second member of the line to join the Canucks ' franchise , when he was acquired by Vancouver via a trade during the 1997 – 98 season . The New York Islanders received former Canuck captain Trevor Linden in exchange for right winger Bertuzzi , defenceman Bryan McCabe and a third @-@ round selection in the 1998 NHL Entry Draft ( Jarkko Ruutu ) . Bertuzzi began the 1998 – 99 season playing on a line with Mark Messier at centre and Alexander Mogilny on right wing . Bertuzzi played with the two until he suffered a fractured tibia , an injury that resulted in Naslund gaining increased ice time . The final piece came to the Canucks on March 14 , 2000 with the acquisition of Brendan Morrison . In an attempt to improve their team to make a Stanley Cup run , the New Jersey Devils traded Morrison and centre Denis Pederson for Mogilny at the National Hockey League 's ( NHL ) trade deadline . Upon his arrival Morrison did not begin playing with Naslund and Bertuzzi nor did he begin his Canucks ' career at centre , instead he began on the wing .
= = = Express years = = =
Although the three did not begin playing together immediately , Bertuzzi and Naslund regularly played together on the top line with centres Mark Messier and Andrew Cassels . Starting with their arrival in 2000 , head coach Marc Crawford often moved Bertuzzi to the second line to play with twin brothers Henrik and Daniel Sedin to complement their cycling game . Morrison spent time on the third line with agitator Matt Cooke . Morrison joined Naslund on the top line due to an injury to Cassels in early November of the 2001 – 02 season , the two were joined by Trent Klatt on right wing , with Bertuzzi playing on a line with the twins . During the game Bertuzzi joined Naslund and Morrison on a power play marking one of the first times the line was together . The Canucks won the game but the line did not remain together as Cassels returned from injury , Klatt was injured and Bertuzzi was returned to the second line . The first game the trio played together as a regular line was on January 9 , 2002 . In the game they registered two first period goals in a 5 – 4 loss to the Detroit Red Wings . Crawford liked the idea of having his two top scorers together , how Morrison worked with them on the power play , and felt Morrison could handle the demands of playing with two players who wanted the puck . In their second game together the line continued to its strong play as each member recorded two points in a 7 – 1 win over the Carolina Hurricanes . After being put together they were given the name West Coast Express , a reference to a commuter train of the same name that provides service along a 65 kilometres ( 40 mi ) route between Mission , British Columbia and Vancouver . By the end of the season each player set new career highs in points to that time in their careers . Naslund raised his point total by fifteen finishing the year as the league 's second leading scorer up thirty @-@ one spots from the previous season . Bertuzzi enjoyed the biggest point increase on the line adding thirty points and moving from eighty @-@ first in league scoring to third . Vancouver finished the season as the eighth seed in the Western Conference . The West Coast Express totaled three goals and nine points in the playoffs before being eliminated in six games by the top seeded Detroit Red Wings . In the off @-@ season , Naslund received NHL First Team All @-@ Star honours .
The 2002 – 03 season was the West Coast Express ' best season , as each member of the line again increased their point total to career highs . Naslund finished the year with 48 goals and 104 points again ranking him second in the league in points and goals . The fourth highest point total in franchise history to that point in time . Bertuzzi recorded 46 goals and 97 points , his goal total ranked him third in the league in goal scoring . Morrison 's 71 points remains a career high which he has not gotten within 11 points of since . During the year Naslund scored a career @-@ high four goals in a 6 – 3 win over the Edmonton Oilers , tying a Canucks record for most goals in a single game . In the game Bertuzzi added a goal and two assist while Morrison notched two assist of his own giving the line nine points in the game . Later in the season the West Coast Express helped the Canucks go on a 14 @-@ game unbeaten streak highlighted by back to back blowout wins to close out the streak . In the 13 game of the streak , a 7 – 2 win over the Columbus Blue Jackets , the line registered 5 goals and 12 points . The following game the trio increased their output to 5 goals and 14 points . In the contest both Bertuzzi and Morrison registered two goals and two assists . Naslund scored a goal and added five assists for a career @-@ high six point night . The Canucks finished the season with 104 points , a franchise record at the time . The West Coast Express accounted for 45 % of the Canucks ' 264 goals during the season . Finishing fourth in the Western Conference , the Canucks faced the St. Louis Blues in the playoffs . They fell behind St. Louis 3 – 1 in the series , but rallied back to force a game seven . In the deciding game , Naslund scored for the fourth consecutive game in the series and Morrison added the eventual game winner as the Canucks advanced to the second round . Facing off against the Minnesota Wild in game one of round two , the Canucks trailed late in the game . With just 8 @.@ 7 seconds remaining , Bertuzzi won a critical face @-@ off before Naslund took a shot that resulted in Cooke scoring on the rebound to force overtime , where the Canucks eventually ran out 4 – 3 winners . Vancouver took a 3 – 1 series lead before the Wild rallied to tie the series and force a game seven . The Canucks took a 2 – 0 lead in the game after Bertuzzi scored twice in the second period . Following his second goal , Bertuzzi skated by the Wild bench and said " Get your golf clubs out , boys , its over . " The Canucks preceded to surrender four consecutive goals , losing the game 4 – 2 and eliminating them from the playoffs . It was the last playoff game the trio would play together . In the off season Bertuzzi and Naslund were named to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team . Additionally Naslund was awarded the Lester B. Pearson Award ( since renamed the Ted Lindsay Award ) , given to the league 's best player as voted by the NHL Players ' Association .
= = = End of the Express = = =
The following season each member of the West Coast Express suffered a decline in performance . The trio were unable to complete the season as a unit due to injuries and suspension . On February 16 , 2004 in a game against the Colorado Avalanche , Naslund received a " questionable hit " from the Avalanche 's Steve Moore . Suffering a minor concussion from the hit and a hyper @-@ extended elbow when he fell to the ice , he missed three games due to his injuries . While Moore was unpenalized for the hit , some Canucks players felt that it was a " cheap shot " . In the second rematch of the two teams after Moore 's hit on Naslund , Vancouver allegedly put a " bounty " on Moore and were out to make him " pay a price " . Early in the game , Moore clashed with Cooke , but later refused to fight Bertuzzi , despite being taunted and followed around the ice . After being refused the fight , Bertuzzi punched Moore in the head from behind and slammed him into the ice . Bertuzzi was subsequently suspended indefinitely by the NHL , and the resulting injuries ended Moore 's career and left him suffering from concussion symptoms over the following seven years . Despite the loss of Bertuzzi , the Canucks won the Northwest Division . In the opening round Vancouver faced their division rival Calgary Flames . In the series Vancouver fell behind three games to two . They took a 4 – 0 lead in game six before the Flames came back to tie the game and send it to overtime . The game remained tied into the third overtime when Morrison scored at the 2 : 28 mark to force game seven . In game seven the Canucks were again trailing late into the third period in the closing seconds Naslund went around Flames defenceman Jordan Leopold drove the net and put a shot on goal . Flames goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff , made the save but Cooke scored on the rebound with just 5 @.@ 7 seconds remain to force overtime . The Canucks failed to capitalize on the change in momentum as the Flames ' Martin Gelinas scored 1 : 25 into overtime eliminating Vancouver . Naslund recorded nine points in the seven game series while Morrison chipped in five . During the off @-@ season Naslund received the last of his individual NHL honors being named a First Team NHL All @-@ Star once again .
Following the cancellation of the 2004 – 05 season due to a labor dispute , Bertuzzi was reinstated for the 2005 – 06 season . With the return of all three line mate and new rules designed to increase offensive chances the Canucks entered the year with high hopes . Despite this , Naslund and Morrison 's point production again decreased from their last NHL season . Bertuzzi point total increased , however , he played in 13 more games than his previous season . The Canucks missed the playoffs for the first time in four years and the only time during the West Coast Express ' tenure . During the off season , the line was officially dismantled when Bertuzzi was traded to the Florida Panthers , along with goaltender Alex Auld and defenceman Bryan Allen , in exchange for goaltender Roberto Luongo , defenceman Lukáš Krajíček and a sixth @-@ round selection in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft ( Sergei Shirokov ) . Both Naslund and Morrison played two more years with the Canucks , often together ( but not always ) , before signing as free agents with the New York Rangers and the Anaheim Ducks respectively in the summer of 2008 .
= = Legacy = =
During its time , the West Coast Express was widely considered one of the most dominant line combinations in the league . The mid @-@ nineties witnessed the increased popularity of defensive schemes like the neutral zone trap which slowed the game , limiting scoring and offensive chances . The emphasis on defensive has been blamed for diminishing fan interest . When Naslund was traded to Vancouver in 1996 the Canucks often played in a half empty arena and there were rumors about the franchise moving . The line 's offense first style helped to popularize the franchise . They began to sell out home games on a regular basis and started to have a following on the road . In the 2002 – 03 season the Canucks 264 goals was the highest total for the franchise in nine years . It remained unsurpassed by another Canucks team until the 2009 – 10 team , which featured the NHL 's leading scorer , Henrik Sedin . The franchise record for points they set that same season stood for only two seasons until it was surpassed in 2006 – 07 season . During which Roberto Luongo set a franchise record for goaltender wins with 47 , a single season win total that is also tied for second most all @-@ time in NHL history .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
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= Geography of Scotland in the Middle Ages =
The geography of Scotland in the Middle Ages covers all aspects of the land that is now Scotland , including physical and human , between the departure of the Romans in the early fifth century from what are now the southern borders of the country , to the adoption of the major aspects of the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century . Scotland was defined by its physical geography , with its long coastline of inlets , islands and inland lochs , high proportion of land over 60 metres above sea level and heavy rainfall . It is divided between the Highlands and Islands and Lowland regions , which were subdivided by geological features including fault lines , mountains , hills , bogs and marshes . This made communications by land problematic and raised difficulties for political unification , but also for invading armies .
Roman occupation of what is now southern Scotland seems to have had very little impact on settlement patterns , with Iron Age hill forts and promontory forts in the south and Brochs and wheel houses in the north , continuing to be occupied in the Early Medieval period . The study of place names and archaeological evidence indicates a pattern of early Medieval settlement by the Picts , most densely around the north @-@ east coastal plain ; early Gaelic settlement was predominately in the western mainland and neighbouring islands . Anglian settlement in the south @-@ east reached into West Lothian , and to a lesser extent into south @-@ western Scotland . Later Norse settlement was probably most extensive in Orkney and Shetland , with lighter settlement in the Western Islands .
From the reign of David I ( r . 1124 – 53 ) , there is evidence of burghs , particularly on the east coast , which are the first identifiable towns in Scotland . Probably based on existing settlements , they grew in number and significance through the Medieval period . More than 50 royal burghs are known to have been established by the end of the thirteenth century and a similar number of baronial and ecclesiastical burghs were created between 1450 and 1516 , acting as focal points for administration , as well as local and international trade . In the early Middle Ages the country was divided between speakers of Gaelic , Pictish , Cumbric and English . Over the next few centuries Cumbric and Pictish were gradually overlaid and replaced by Gaelic , English and Norse . From at least the reign of David I , Gaelic was replaced by French as the language of the court and nobility . In the late Middle Ages Scots , derived mainly from Old English , became the dominant language .
In the middle of this period , through a process of conquest , consolidation and treaty , the boundaries of Scotland were gradually extended from a small area under direct control of the kings of Alba in the east , to almost its modern borders . For most of the Medieval era the monarchy and court was itinerant , with Scone and Dunfermline acting as important centres and later Roxburgh , Stirling and Perth , before Edinburgh emerged as the political capital in the fourteenth century . Largely as a result of Viking raids from about 800 , Iona declined as a religious centre . Despite royal attempts to establish a new religious centre at Dunkeld , it was St. Andrews on the east coast , close to the heartland of Pictish settlement , that emerged as the most important religious focus of the kingdom .
= = Physical = =
Modern Scotland is half the size of England and Wales in area , but with its many inlets , islands and inland lochs , it has roughly the same amount of coastline at 4 @,@ 000 miles . Only a fifth of Scotland is less than 60 metres above sea level . Its east Atlantic position means that it has very heavy rainfall , today about 700 cm per year in the east and more than 1 @,@ 000 cm in the west . This encouraged the spread of blanket peat bog , the acidity of which , combined with high levels of wind and salt spray , made most of the islands treeless . The existence of hills , mountains , quicksands and marshes made internal communication and conquest extremely difficult and may have contributed to the fragmented nature of political power . The early Middle Ages was a period of climate deterioration , with a drop in temperature and an increase in rainfall , resulting in more land becoming unproductive . This was reversed in the period c . 1150 to 1300 , with warm dry summers and less severe winters allowing cultivation at much greater heights above sea level and making land more productive . In the late Middle Ages , average temperatures began to reduce again , with cooler and wetter conditions limiting the extent of arable agriculture , particularly in the Highlands .
The defining factor in the geography of Scotland is the distinction between the Highlands and Islands in the north and west and the Lowlands in the south and east . The Highlands are further divided into the Northwest Highlands and the Grampian Mountains by the fault line of the Great Glen . The Lowlands are divided into the fertile belt of the Central Lowlands and the higher terrain of the Southern Uplands , which included the Cheviot hills , over which the border with England came to run by the end of the period . Some of these regions were further divided by mountains , major rivers and marshes . The Central Lowland belt averages about 50 miles in width , and because it contains most of the good quality agricultural land and has easier communications , could support most of the urbanisation and elements of conventional Medieval government . The Southern Uplands , and particularly the Highlands were economically less productive and much more difficult to govern . This provided Scotland with a form of protection , as minor English incursions had to cross the difficult Southern Uplands ; two major attempts at conquest by the English , under Edward I and then Edward III , were unable to penetrate the Highlands , from where potential resistance could reconquer the Lowlands . But it also made those areas problematic to govern for Scottish kings and much of the political history of the era after the wars of independence centred on attempts to resolve problems of entrenched localism .
= = Settlement and demography = =
Roman influence beyond Hadrian 's Wall does not appear to have had a major impact on settlement patterns , with Iron Age hill forts and promontory forts continuing to be occupied through the early Medieval period . These often had defences of dry stone or timber laced walls , sometimes with a palisade . The large numbers of these forts has been taken to suggest peripatetic monarchies and aristocracies , moving around their domains to control and administer them . In the Northern and Western Isles the sites of Iron Age Brochs and wheel houses continued to be occupied , but were gradually replaced with less imposing cellular houses . There are a handful of major timber halls in the south , comparable to those excavated in Anglo @-@ Saxon England and dated to the seventh century . In the areas of Scandinavian settlement in the Islands and along the coast a lack of timber meant that native materials had to be adopted for house building , often combining layers of stone with turf .
Place @-@ name evidence suggests that the densest areas of Pictish settlement were in the north @-@ east coastal plain : in modern Fife , Perthshire , Angus , Aberdeen and around the Moray Firth , although later Gaelic migration may have erased some Pictish names from the record . Early Gaelic settlement appears to have been in the regions of the western mainland of Scotland between Cowal and Ardnamurchan , and the adjacent islands , later extending up the West coast in the eighth century . There is place name and archaeological evidence of Anglian settlement in south @-@ east Scotland reaching into West Lothian , and to a lesser extent into south @-@ western Scotland . Later Norse settlement was probably most extensive in Orkney and Shetland , with lighter settlement in the Western Islands , particularly the Hebrides and on the mainland in Caithness , stretching along fertile river valleys through Sutherland and into Ross . There was also extensive settlement in Bernicia stretching into the modern borders and Lowlands .
From the reign of David I , there are records of burghs ( a Germanic word for a fortress ) , towns that were granted certain legal privileges by the crown . Most of the burghs granted charters during David 's reign probably already existed as settlements . Charters were copied almost verbatim from those used in England , and early burgesses were usually English or Flemish . They were able to impose tolls and fines on traders within a region outside their settlements . Most of the early burghs were on the east coast . Among them were the largest and wealthiest , including Aberdeen , Berwick , Perth and Edinburgh , whose growth was facilitated by trade with the continent . In the south @-@ west Glasgow , Ayr and Kirkcudbright benefited from the less profitable sea trade with Ireland , and to a lesser extent France and Spain . Burghs were typically surrounded by a palisade or had a castle and usually a market place , with a widened high street or junction , often marked by a mercat cross beside which were houses for the burgesses and other inhabitants . Around 15 burghs can be traced to the reign of David I , and there is evidence of 55 by 1296 . In addition to the major royal burghs , the late Middle Ages saw the proliferation of baronial and ecclesiastical burghs ; 51 were created between 1450 and 1516 . Most were much smaller than their royal counterparts , and excluded from international trade they acted mainly as local markets and centres of craftsmanship .
There are almost no written sources from which to re @-@ construct the demography of early medieval Scotland . Estimates have been made of a population of 10 @,@ 000 inhabitants in Dál Riata and 80 – 100 @,@ 000 for Pictland , which was probably the largest region . It is likely that the fifth and sixth centuries saw higher mortality rates owing to the appearance of bubonic plague , which may have reduced the net population . The examination of burial sites for this period like that at Hallowhill , St Andrews indicate a life expectancy of only 26 – 29 . The known conditions have been taken to suggest it was a high @-@ fertility , high @-@ mortality society , similar to many developing countries in the modern world , with a relatively young demographic profile , and perhaps early childbearing , and large numbers of children for women . The result would have been a relatively small proportion of available workers to the number of mouths to feed , making it difficult to produce a surplus that would allow demographic growth and more complex societies to develop . From the formation of the kingdom of Alba in the tenth century , to before the Black Death reached the country in 1349 , estimates based on the amount of farmable land , suggest that population may have grown from half a million to a million . Although there is no reliable documentation on the impact of the plague , there are many anecdotal references to abandoned land in the following decades . If the pattern followed that in England , then the population may have fallen to as low as half a million by the end of the 15th century . Compared with the situation after the redistribution of population in the later clearances and the Industrial Revolution , these numbers would have been relatively evenly spread over the kingdom , with roughly half living north of the Tay . Perhaps ten per cent of the population lived in one of burghs . It has been suggested that they would have had a mean population of about 2 @,@ 000 , but many would be much smaller than 1 @,@ 000 and the largest , Edinburgh , probably had a population of more than 10 @,@ 000 by the end of the era .
= = Language = =
Modern linguists divide Celtic languages into two major groups : the P @-@ Celtic , from which the Brythonic languages – Welsh , Breton , Cornish and Cumbric derive – and the Q @-@ Celtic , from which come the Goidelic languages – Irish , Manx and Gaelic . The Pictish language remains enigmatic , since the Picts had no written script of their own and all that survives are place names and some isolated inscriptions in Irish ogham script . Most modern linguists accept that , although the nature and unity of Pictish language is unclear , it belonged to the former group . Historical sources , as well as place @-@ name evidence , indicate the ways in which the Pictish language in the north and Cumbric languages in the south were overlaid and replaced by Gaelic , Old English and later Norse in this period . By the High Middle Ages the majority of people within Scotland spoke the Gaelic language , then simply called Scottish , or in Latin , lingua Scotica .
In the Northern Isles the Norse language brought by Scandinavian occupiers and settlers evolved into the local Norn , which lingered until the end of the eighteenth century and Norse may also have survived as a spoken language until the sixteenth century in the Outer Hebrides . French , Flemish and particularly English became the main language of Scottish burghs , most of which were in the south and east , an area to which Anglian settlers had already brought a form of Old English . In the later part of the twelfth century , the writer Adam of Dryburgh described Lowland Lothian as " the Land of the English in the Kingdom of the Scots " . At least from the accession of David I , Gaelic ceased to be the main language of the royal court and was replaced by Norman French , to be followed by the Chancery , the castles of nobles and the upper order of the Church .
In the late Middle Ages , Middle Scots , often simply called English , became the dominant language of the country . It was derived largely from Old English , with the addition of elements from Gaelic and French . Although resembling the language spoken in northern England , it became a distinct dialect from the late fourteenth century . It was adopted by the ruling elite as they gradually abandoned French . By the fifteenth century it was the language of government , with acts of parliament , council records and treasurer 's accounts almost all using it from the reign of James I onwards . As a result , Gaelic , once dominant north of the Tay , began a steady decline .
= = Political = =
At its foundation in the tenth century , the combined Gaelic and Pictish kingdom of Alba contained only a small proportion of modern Scotland . Even when these lands were added to in the tenth and eleventh centuries , the term " Scotia " was applied in sources only to the region between the Forth , the central Grampians and the River Spey , and only began to be used to describe all of the lands under the authority of the Scottish crown from the second half of the twelfth century . The expansion of Alba into the wider kingdom of Scotland was a gradual process combining external conquest and the suppression of occasional rebellions , with the extension of seigniorial power through the placement of effective agents of the crown . Neighbouring independent kings became subject to Alba and eventually disappeared from the records . In the ninth century the term mormaer , meaning " great steward " , began to appear in the records to describe the rulers of Moray , Strathearn , Buchan , Angus and Mearns , who may have acted as " marcher lords " for the kingdom to counter the Viking threat . Later the process of consolidation is associated with the feudalism introduced by David I , which , particularly in the east and south where the crown 's authority was greatest , saw the placement of lordships , often based on castles , and the creation of administrative sheriffdoms , which overlay the pattern of local thegns .
Most of the regions of what became Scotland had strong cultural and economic ties elsewhere : to England , Ireland , Scandinavian and mainland Europe . Internal communications were difficult and the country lacked an obvious geographical centre ; the king kept an itinerant court , with no " capital " as such . Dunfermline emerged as a major royal centre in the reign of Malcolm III , and David I tried to build up Roxburgh as a royal centre , but in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries more charters were issued at Scone than anywhere else . Other popular locations in the early part of the era were nearby Perth , Stirling , Dunfermline and Edinburgh . In the later Middle Ages the king moved between royal castles , particularly Perth and Stirling , but also held judicial sessions throughout the kingdom ; Edinburgh only began to emerge as the capital in the reign of James III , at the cost of considerable unpopularity to the king . Iona was an early religious centre , and was said to be the burial place of the kings of Alba until the end of the eleventh century , but declined as a result of Viking raids from 794 . The transfer of part of the relics of St. Columba from there to Dunkeld in the mid @-@ ninth century , closer to the centre of the kingdom and close to Scone , the ceremonial site of coronations , may have represented an attempt to develop a new religious centre , but it was St. Andrews , with its biblical cult , probably established on the east coast in the centre of their political heartland by Pictish kings as early as the eighth century , and never a major political capital or trading centre , which emerged as the centre of the Scottish church .
Until the thirteenth century the borders with England were very fluid . Northumbria and Cumbria were annexed to Scotland by David I , but lost under his grandson and successor Malcolm IV in 1157 . The Treaty of York ( 1237 ) and Treaty of Perth ( 1266 ) fixed the borders of the Kingdom of the Scots with England and Norway respectively , close to the modern boundaries . The Isle of Man fell under English control in the fourteenth century , despite several attempts to restore Scottish authority . The English were able to annexe a large slice of the Lowlands under Edward III , but these losses were gradually regained , particularly while England was preoccupied with the Wars of the Roses ( 1455 – 85 ) . In 1468 the last great acquisition of Scottish territory occurred when James III married Margaret of Denmark , receiving the Orkney Islands and the Shetland Islands in payment of her dowry . In 1482 , Berwick , a border fortress and the largest port in Medieval Scotland , fell to the English once again , for what was to be the final change of hands . The only uncertain area was the small region of the Debatable Lands at the south @-@ west end of the border , which would be divided by a French @-@ mediated commission in 1552 .
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= Stanley Cup =
The Stanley Cup ( French : La Coupe Stanley ) is the championship trophy awarded annually to the National Hockey League ( NHL ) playoff winner . Originally commissioned in 1892 as the Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup , the trophy is named for Lord Stanley of Preston , then – Governor General of Canada , who awarded it to Canada 's top @-@ ranking amateur ice hockey club , which the entire Stanley family supported , with the sons and daughters playing and promoting the game . The first Cup was awarded in 1893 to Montreal HC , and subsequent winners from 1893 to 1914 were determined by challenge games and league play . Professional teams then became eligible to challenge for the Stanley Cup in 1906 . In 1915 , the two professional ice hockey organizations , the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) and the Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) , reached a gentlemen 's agreement in which their respective champions would face each other annually for the Stanley Cup . After a series of league mergers and folds , it was established as the de facto championship trophy of the NHL in 1926 and then the de jure NHL championship prize in 1947 .
There are actually three Stanley Cups : the original bowl of the " Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup " , the authenticated " Presentation Cup " , and the " Replica Cup " on display at the Hockey Hall of Fame . The NHL has maintained effective control over both the trophy itself and its associated trademarks . Nevertheless , the NHL does not actually own the trophy , but instead uses it by agreement with the two Trustees of the Cup . The NHL has registered trademarks associated with the name and likeness of the Stanley Cup , although the league 's right to outright own trademarks associated with a trophy it does not own has been disputed by some legal experts . The original bowl was made of silver and is 18 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 28 inches ) in height and 29 centimetres ( 11 @.@ 42 inches ) in diameter . The current Stanley Cup , topped with a copy of the original bowl , is made of a silver and nickel alloy ; it has a height of 89 @.@ 54 centimetres ( 35 @.@ 25 inches ) and weighs 15 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 34 @.@ 5 lb / 2 st 6 ½ lb ) .
Unlike the trophies awarded by the other major professional sports leagues of North America , a new Stanley Cup is not made each year ; winners keep it until a new champion is crowned . It is unusual among trophies , in that it has the names of all of the winning players , coaches , management , and club staff engraved on its chalice . Initially , a new band added each year caused the trophy to grow in size , earning the nickname " Stovepipe Cup " . In 1958 the modern one @-@ piece Cup was designed with a five @-@ band barrel which could contain 13 winning teams per band . To prevent the Stanley Cup from growing , when the bottom band is full , the oldest band is removed and preserved in the Hockey Hall of Fame , and a new blank band added to the bottom . It has been referred to as The Cup , Lord Stanley 's Cup , The Holy Grail , or facetiously ( chiefly by sportswriters ) as Lord Stanley 's Mug . The Stanley Cup is surrounded by numerous legends and traditions , the oldest of which is the celebratory drinking of champagne out of the cup by the winning team .
Since the 1914 – 15 season , the Cup has been won a combined 100 times by 18 active NHL teams and five defunct teams . Prior to that , the challenge cup was held by nine different teams . The Montreal Canadiens have won the Cup a record 24 times and are the most recent Canadian @-@ based team to win the cup , having won it in 1993 . The Stanley Cup was not awarded in 1919 because of a Spanish flu epidemic , and in 2005 , as a consequence of the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
After the Lord Stanley of Preston was appointed by Queen Victoria as Governor General of Canada on June 11 , 1888 , he and his family became highly enthusiastic about ice hockey . Stanley was first exposed to the game at Montreal 's 1889 Winter Carnival , where he saw the Montreal Victorias play the Montreal Hockey Club . The Montreal Gazette reported that he " expressed his great delight with the game of hockey and the expertise of the players " . During that time , organized ice hockey in Canada was still in its infancy and only Montreal and Ottawa had anything resembling leagues .
Stanley 's entire family became active in ice hockey . Two of his sons , Arthur and Algernon , formed a new team called the Ottawa Rideau Hall Rebels . Arthur also played a key role in the formation of what later became known as the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) , and would go on to be the founder of ice hockey in Great Britain . Arthur and Algernon persuaded their father to donate a trophy to be " an outward and visible sign of the hockey championship " . Stanley sent the following message to the victory celebration held on March 18 , 1892 , at Ottawa 's Russell Hotel for the three @-@ time champion Ottawa Hockey Club :
I have for some time been thinking that it would be a good thing if there were a challenge cup which should be held from year to year by the champion hockey team in the Dominion [ of Canada ] .
There does not appear to be any such outward sign of a championship at present , and considering the general interest which matches now elicit , and the importance of having the game played fairly and under rules generally recognized , I am willing to give a cup which shall be held from year to year by the winning team .
I am not quite certain that the present regulations governing the arrangement of matches give entire satisfaction , and it would be worth considering whether they could not be arranged so that each team would play once at home and once at the place where their opponents hail from .
Soon afterwards , Stanley purchased what is frequently described as a decorative punch bowl , but which silver expert John Culme identified as a rose bowl , made in Sheffield , England , and sold by London silversmith G. R. Collis and Company ( now Boodle and Dunthorne Jewellers ) , for ten guineas , equal to ten and a half pounds sterling , US $ 48 @.@ 67 , which is equal to $ 1 @,@ 282 today . He had the words " Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup " engraved on one side of the outside rim , and " From Stanley of Preston " on the other side .
Originally , Stanley intended that the Cup should be awarded to the top amateur hockey team in Canada , to be decided by the acceptance of a challenge from another team . He made five preliminary regulations :
The winners shall return the Cup in good order when required by the trustees so that it may be handed over to any other team which may win it .
Each winning team , at its own expense , may have the club name and year engraved on a silver ring fitted on the Cup .
The Cup shall remain a challenge cup , and should not become the property of one team , even if won more than once .
The trustees shall maintain absolute authority in all situations or disputes over the winner of the Cup .
If one of the existing trustees resigns or drops out , the remaining trustee shall nominate a substitute .
Stanley appointed Sheriff John Sweetland and Philip D. Ross ( who would serve in his post an unsurpassed 56 years ) as trustees of the Cup . Sweetland and Ross first presented the trophy in 1893 to the Montreal Amateur Athletic Association on behalf of the affiliated Montreal Hockey Club , the champions of the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada ( AHAC ) , since they " defeated all comers during the late season , including the champions of the Ontario Association " ( Ottawa ) . Sweetland and Ross also believed that the AHAC was the top league , and as first @-@ place finishers in the AHAC , Montreal was the best team in Canada . Naturally , the Ottawas were upset by the decision because there had been no challenge games scheduled and because the trustees failed to convey the rules on how the Cup was to be awarded prior to the start of the season .
As a result , the Cup trustees issued more specific rules on how the trophy should be defended and awarded :
The Cup is automatically awarded to the team that wins the title of the previous Cup champion 's league , without the need for any other special extra contest .
Challengers for the Cup must be from senior hockey associations , and must have won their league championship . Challengers will be recognized in the order in which their request is received .
The challenge games ( where the Cup could change leagues ) are to be decided either in a one @-@ game affair , a two @-@ game total goals affair , or a best of three series , to the benefit of both teams involved . All matches would take place on the home ice of the champions , although specific dates and times would have to be approved by the trustees .
Ticket receipts from the challenge games are to be split equally between both teams .
If the two competing clubs cannot agree to a referee , the trustees will appoint one , and the two teams shall cover the expenses equally . If the two competing clubs cannot agree on other officials , the referee will appoint them , and the two clubs shall also pay the expenses equally
A league could not challenge for the Cup twice in one season .
Stanley never saw a Stanley Cup championship game , nor did he ever present the Cup . Although his term as Governor General ended in September 1893 , he was forced to return to England on July 15 . In April of that year , his elder brother Edward Stanley , 15th Earl of Derby died , and Stanley succeeded him as the 16th Earl of Derby .
= = = Challenge Cup era = = =
During the challenge cup period , none of the leagues that played for the trophy had a formal playoff system to decide their respective champions ; whichever team finished in first place after the regular season won the league title . However , in 1894 , four teams out of the five @-@ team AHAC tied for the championship with records of 5 – 3 – 0 . The AHAC had no tie @-@ breaking system . After extensive negotiations and Quebec 's withdrawal from the championship competition , it was decided that a three @-@ team tournament would take place in Montreal , with the Ottawa team receiving a bye to the Final because they were the only road team . On March 17 , in the first ever Stanley Cup playoff game , the Montreal Hockey Club ( Montreal HC ) defeated the Montreal Victorias , 3 – 2 . Five days later , in the first Stanley Cup Final game , Montreal HC beat the Ottawa Hockey Club 3 – 1 .
In 1895 , Queen 's University was the first official challenger for the Cup , although it was controversial . The Montreal Victorias had won the league title and thus the Stanley Cup , but the challenge match was between the previous year 's champion , Montreal HC , and the university squad . The trustees decided that if the Montreal HC won the challenge match , the Victorias would become the Stanley Cup champions . The Montreal HC won the match 5 – 1 and their cross @-@ town rivals were crowned the champions . The first successful challenge to the Cup came the next year by the Winnipeg Victorias , the champions of the Manitoba Hockey League . On February 14 , 1896 , the Winnipeg squad defeated the champions 2 – 0 and became the first team outside the AHAC to win the Cup .
As the prestige of winning the Cup grew , so did the need to attract top players . Only nine months after winning the Cup , in March 1906 , the Montreal Wanderers pushed through a resolution at the annual meeting of the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) that would allow professional players to play alongside amateurs . Because the ECAHA was the top hockey league in Canada at the time , the Cup trustees agreed to open the challenges to professional teams . The first professional competition came one month later during the Wanderers ' two @-@ game , total goals challenge series , which they won 17 goals to 5 .
The smallest municipality to produce a Stanley Cup champion team is Kenora , Ontario ; the town had a population of about 4 @,@ 000 when the Kenora Thistles captured the Cup in January 1907 . Aided by future Hall of Famers Art Ross and " Bad " Joe Hall , the Thistles defeated the Montreal Wanderers in a two @-@ game , total goals challenge series . The Thistles successfully defended the Cup once , against a team from Brandon , Manitoba . In March 1907 , the Wanderers challenged the Thistles to a rematch . Despite an improved lineup , the Thistles lost the Cup to Montreal .
In 1908 , the Allan Cup was introduced as the trophy for Canada 's amateurs , and the Stanley Cup started to become a symbol of professional hockey supremacy . In that same year , the first all @-@ professional team , the Toronto Trolley Leaguers from the newly created Ontario Professional Hockey League ( OPHL ) , competed for the Cup . One year later , the Montreal HC and the Montreal Victorias , the two remaining amateur teams , left the ECAHA , and the ECAHA dropped " Amateur " from their name to become a professional league . In 1910 , the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) was formed . The NHA soon proved it was the best in Canada , as it kept the Cup for the next four years .
Prior to 1912 , challenges could take place at any time , given the appropriate rink conditions , and it was common for teams to defend the Cup numerous times during the year . In 1912 , Cup trustees declared that it was only to be defended at the end of the champion team 's regular season .
= = = Organized interleague competition = = =
In 1914 , the Victoria Aristocrats from the Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) challenged the NHA and Cup champion Toronto Blueshirts . A controversy erupted when a letter arrived from the Stanley Cup trustees on March 17 , that the trustees would not let the Stanley Cup travel west , as they did not consider Victoria a proper challenger because they had not formally notified the trustees . However , on March 18 , Trustee William Foran stated that it was a misunderstanding . PCHA president Frank Patrick had not filed a challenge , because he had expected Emmett Quinn of the NHA to make all of the arrangements in his role as hockey commissioner , whereas the trustees thought they were being deliberately ignored . In any case , all arrangements had been ironed out and the Victoria challenge was accepted .
Several days later , trustee Foran wrote to NHA president Quinn that the trustees are " perfectly satisfied to allow the representatives of the three pro leagues ( NHA , PCHA , and Maritime ) to make all arrangements each season as to the series of matches to be played for the Cup . " One year later , the NHA and the PCHA concluded a gentlemen 's agreement in which their respective champions would face each other for the Cup , similar to baseball 's World Series , which is played between the American League and National League champions . Under the new proposal , the Stanley Cup Final series alternated between the East and the West each year , with alternating games played according to NHA and PCHA rules . The PCHA 's Vancouver Millionaires won the 1915 series three games to none in a best @-@ of @-@ five series .
After the Portland Rosebuds , an American @-@ based team , joined the PCHA in 1914 , the trustees issued a statement that the Cup was no longer for the best team in Canada , but now for the best team in the world . Two years later , the Rosebuds became the first American team to play in the Stanley Cup Final . In 1917 , the Seattle Metropolitans became the first American team to win the Cup . After that season , the NHA dissolved , and the National Hockey League ( NHL ) took its place .
In 1919 , the Spanish influenza epidemic forced the Montreal Canadiens and the Seattle Metropolitans to cancel their series , marking the first time the Stanley Cup was not awarded . The series was tied at 2 – 2 – 1 , but the final game was never played because Montreal Manager George Kennedy and players Joe Hall , Billy Coutu , Jack McDonald , and Newsy Lalonde were hospitalized with influenza . Hall died four days after the cancelled game , and the series was abandoned .
The format for the Stanley Cup Final changed in 1922 , with the creation of the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) . Three leagues competed for the Cup : two league champions faced each other for the right to challenge the third champion in the final series . This lasted three seasons as the PCHA and the WCHL later merged to form the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) in 1925 . After winning in the 1924 – 25 season , the Victoria Cougars became the last team outside the NHL to win the Stanley Cup .
= = = NHL takes over = = =
The WHL folded in 1926 , leaving the NHL as the only league left competing for the Cup . Other leagues and clubs occasionally issued challenges , but from that year forward , no non @-@ NHL team has played for it , leading it to become the de facto championship trophy of the NHL . In 1947 , the NHL reached an agreement with trustees P.D. Ross and Cooper Smeaton to grant control of the Cup to the NHL , allowing the league to reject challenges from other leagues that may have wished to play for the Cup .
The Trustees hereby delegate to the League full authority to determine and amend from time to time the conditions for competition of the Stanley Cup , including the qualifications of challengers , the appointment of officials , the apportionment and distribution of all gate receipts , provided always that the winners of this trophy shall be the acknowledged World 's Professional Hockey Champions .
The Trustees agree that during the currency of this agreement they will not acknowledge or accept any challenge for the Stanley Cup unless such a challenge is in conformity with the condition specified in paragraph one ( 1 ) thereof .
The League undertakes the responsibility for the care and safe custody of the Stanley Cup including all necessary repairs and alterations to the cup and sub @-@ structure as may be required from time to time , and further undertakes to insure the Stanley Cup for its full insurable value .
The League hereby acknowledges itself to be bound to the Trustees in the sum of One Thousand Dollars , which bond is conditioned upon the safe return of the Stanley Cup to the Trustees in accordance with the terms of this Agreement , and it is agreed that the League shall have the right to return the trophy to the Trustees at any time .
This agreement shall remain in force so long as the League continues to be the world 's leading professional hockey league as determined by its playing caliber , and in the event of dissolution or other termination of the National Hockey League , the Stanley Cup shall revert to the custody of the trustees .
In the event of default in the appointment of a new trustee by the surviving trustee , the " Trustees " hereby delegate and appoint the Governors of the International Hockey Hall of Fame in Kingston , Ontario , to name two Canadian trustees to carry on under the terms of the original trust , and in conformity with this Agreement .
And it is further mutually agreed that any disputes arising as to the interpretation of this Agreement or the facts upon which such interpretation is made , shall be settled by an Arbitration Board of three , one member to be appointed by each of the parties , and the third to be selected by the two appointees . The decision of the Arbitration Board shall be final .
This agreement was amended on November 22 , 1961 , substituting the Governors of the International Hockey Hall of Fame in Kingston , Ontario with the Committee of the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto , Ontario as the group that would name the two Canadian trustees , if need be . In the 1970s , the World Hockey Association sought to challenge for the Cup – the Trustees denied them the opportunity to do so . However , notwithstanding the aforementioned legal obligation , the NHL quietly discontinued calling its champions the " world champions " during this time , largely in order to avoid having its champion incur at least a moral obligation to play the WHA champion .
The Cup was awarded every year until 2005 , when a labour dispute between the NHL 's owners and the NHL Players Association ( the union that represents the players ) led to the cancellation of the 2004 – 05 season . As a result , no Cup champion was crowned for the first time since the flu pandemic in 1919 . The lockout was controversial among many fans , who questioned whether the NHL had exclusive control over the Cup . A website known as freestanley.com ( since closed ) was launched , asking fans to write to the Cup trustees and urge them to return to the original Challenge Cup format . Adrienne Clarkson , then Governor General of Canada , alternately proposed that the Cup be presented to the top women 's hockey team in lieu of the NHL season . This idea was so unpopular that the Clarkson Cup was created instead . Meanwhile , a group in Ontario , also known as the " Wednesday Nighters " , filed an application with the Ontario Superior Court , claiming that the Cup trustees had overstepped their bounds in signing the 1947 agreement with the NHL , and therefore must award the trophy regardless of the lockout .
On February 7 , 2006 , a settlement was reached in which the trophy could be awarded to non @-@ NHL teams should the league not operate for a season . The dispute lasted so long that , by the time it was settled , the NHL had resumed operating for the 2005 – 06 season , and the Stanley Cup went unclaimed for the 2004 – 05 season . Furthermore , when another NHL lockout commenced in 2012 the Trustees stated that the 2006 agreement did not oblige them to award the Cup in the event of a lost season , and that they were likely to reject any non @-@ NHL challenges for the Cup in the event the 2012 – 13 season were cancelled , which it was not .
= = = Trustees = = =
The regulations set down by Lord Stanley call for two Trustees , who had the sole , joint right to govern the Cup and the conditions of its awarding until 1947 , when they ceded control to the NHL . While the original regulations allow for a Trustee to resign , to date , all Cup Trustees have served until their deaths . In the event of a vacancy , the remaining trustee names the replacement for the deceased or resigned Trustee .
To date , nine men have served as Trustees of the Stanley Cup :
= = Engraving = =
Like the Grey Cup , awarded to the winner of the Canadian Football League , the Stanley Cup is engraved with the names of the winning players , coaches , management , and club staff . However , this was not always the case : one of Lord Stanley 's original conditions was that each team could , at their own expense , add a ring to the Cup to commemorate their victory . Initially , there was only one base ring , which was attached to the bottom of the original bowl by the Montreal Hockey Club . Clubs engraved their team names , usually in the form " TEAM NAME " " YEAR WON " , on that one ring until it was full in 1902 . With no more room to engrave their names ( and unwilling to pay for a second band ) , teams left their mark on the bowl itself . The 1907 Montreal Wanderers became the first club to record their name on the bowl 's interior surface , and the first champion to record the name of every member of their team .
In 1908 , for reasons unknown , the Wanderers , despite having turned aside four challengers , did not record their names on the Cup . The next year , the Ottawa Senators added a second band onto the Cup . Despite the new room , the 1910 Wanderers and the 1911 Senators did not put their names on the Cup . The 1915 Vancouver Millionaires became the second team to engrave players ' names , this time inside the bowl along its sides .
The 1918 Millionaires eventually filled the band added by the 1909 Senators . The 1915 Ottawa Senators , the 1916 Portland Rosebuds and the 1918 Vancouver Millionaires all engraved their names on the trophy even though they did not officially win it under the new PCHA @-@ NHA system . They had only won the title of the previous champion 's league and would have been crowned as Cup champions under the old challenge rules . The winners in 1918 , 1920 to 1923 did not put their winning team name on it .
No further engraving occurred until 1924 , when the Canadiens added a new band to the Cup . Since then , engraving the team and its players has been an unbroken annual tradition . Originally , a new band was added each year , causing the trophy to grow in size . The " Stovepipe Cup " , as it was nicknamed because of its resemblance to the exhaust pipe of a stove , became unwieldy , so it was redesigned in 1948 as a two @-@ piece cigar @-@ shaped trophy with a removable bowl and collar . This Cup also properly honoured those teams that did not engrave their names on the Cup . Also included was 1918 – 19 No Decision Montreal Canadiens Seattle Metropolitans .
Since 1958 , the Cup has undergone several minor alterations . The original collar and bowl were too brittle , and were replaced in 1963 and 1969 , respectively . The modern one @-@ piece Cup design was introduced in 1958 , when the old barrel was replaced with a five @-@ band barrel , each of which could contain 13 winning teams . Although the bands were originally designed to fill up during the Cup 's centennial year , the names of the 1965 Montreal Canadiens were engraved over a larger area than allotted and thus there are 12 teams on that band instead of 13 . When the bands were all filled in 1991 , the top band of the large barrel was preserved in the Hockey Hall of Fame , and a new blank band was added to the bottom so the Stanley Cup would not grow further .
Another new band was scheduled to be added to the bottom of the cup following the 2004 – 05 season , but was not added because of the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout . After the 2005 – 06 champion Carolina Hurricanes were crowned , and the new bottom ring was finally added , the cancelled season was acknowledged with the words " 2004 – 05 Season Not Played " . Currently , the Cup stands at 89 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 35 ¼ inches ) tall and weighs 15 ½ kilograms ( 34 ½ lb ) .
= = = Name inscriptions = = =
Currently , a player must have played at least half of the regular season games ( usually 41 in current league format ) for the championship team ( provided the player remains with the team when they win the Cup ) or played in at least one game of the Stanley Cup Finals . However , since 1994 teams have been permitted to petition the NHL Commissioner , to be considered on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis , to engrave a player 's name on the cup if the player was unavailable to play due to " extenuating circumstances " . For example , the Detroit Red Wings received special permission from the NHL to inscribe the name of Vladimir Konstantinov , whose career ended after a car accident on June 13 , 1997 , on the Stanley Cup after Detroit defended their title in 1998 .
With the Montreal Canadiens having won by far the most Cup championships of any team , the list of the players who have been engraved on the Cup the most often is dominated by Montreal players . Henri Richard of the Canadiens , with his name engraved eleven times , played on more Stanley Cup champions than any other player . He is followed by Jean Beliveau and Yvan Cournoyer of the Canadiens with ten championships , Claude Provost of the Canadiens with nine , and three players tied with eight : Red Kelly ( four with the Red Wings , four with the Leafs , the most for any player who was not a member of the Canadiens ) and Canadiens players Jacques Lemaire , Maurice Richard . Beliveau 's name appears on the Cup more than any other individual , ten times as a player and seven times as management for a total of seventeen times .
Twelve women have had their names engraved on the Stanley Cup . The first woman to have her name engraved on the Stanley Cup is Marguerite Norris , who won the Cup as the President of the Detroit Red Wings in 1954 and 1955 . The only Canadian woman to have her name engraved on the Stanley Cup is Sonia Scurfield ( born in Hafford , Saskatchewan ) who won the Cup as a co @-@ owner of the Calgary Flames in 1989 .
In 2001 , Charlotte Grahame , the Colorado Avalanche 's Senior Director of Hockey Administration , had her name engraved on the trophy . Her son John later had his name engraved as a member of the Tampa Bay Lightning in 2004 .
= = = Engraving errors = = =
There are several misspellings and illegitimate names on the Cup . Many of them have never been corrected . Examples include :
Pat McReavy 's name is misspelled " McCeavy " as a member of the 1941 Boston Bruins on the second cup created during the 1957 – 58 season . McReavy 's name was often misspelled as " McCreavy " on team pictures of the Boston Bruins . When the Replica Cup was created in 1992 – 93 , the misspelling was not corrected .
Dickie Moore , who won six cups , had his name spelled differently five times ( D. Moore , Richard Moore , R. Moore , Dickie Moore , Rich Moore ) .
Glenn Hall 's name was misspelled as " Glin " in 1951 – 52 .
Alex Delvecchio 's name was misspelled as " Belvecchio " in 1954 .
Bob Gainey was spelled " Gainy " when he was a player for Montreal in the 1970s .
Ted Kennedy was spelled " Kennedyy " in the 1940s .
Toronto Maple Leafs was spelled " Leaes " in 1963 .
Boston Bruins was spelled " BQSTQN " in 1972 .
New York Islanders was spelled " Ilanders " in 1981 .
Justin Williams the Conn Smythe Trophy winner of the 2014 Los Angeles Kings was spelled " JUSTIN WILLIVIS . "
One name was later scratched out : Peter Pocklington , a former Edmonton Oilers owner , put his father 's name , Basil , on the Stanley Cup in 1984 ; today , there is a series of " X " s over Basil 's name .
In 1996 , Colorado Avalanche 's Adam Deadmarsh 's last name was spelled " Deadmarch " . It was later corrected , marking the first correction on the Cup . Similar corrections were made in 2002 , 2006 and 2010 for the names of Detroit Red Wings goalie Manny Legace ( " Lagace " ) , Carolina Hurricanes forward Eric Staal ( " Staaal " ) and Chicago Blackhawks forward Kris Versteeg ( " Vertseeg " ) .
= = Traditions and anecdotes = =
There are many traditions associated with the Stanley Cup . One of the oldest , started by the 1896 Winnipeg Victorias , dictates that the winning team drink champagne from the top bowl after their victory . The Cup is also traditionally presented on the ice to the captain of the winning team after the series @-@ winning game ; each member of the victorious club carries the trophy around the rink . However , this has not always been the case ; prior to the 1930s , the Cup was not awarded immediately after the victory . The first time that the Cup was awarded on the ice may have been to the 1932 Toronto Maple Leafs , but the practice did not become a tradition until the 1950s . Ted Lindsay of the 1950 Cup champion Detroit Red Wings became the first captain , upon receiving the Cup , to hoist it overhead and skate around the rink . According to Lindsay , he did so to allow the fans to have a better view of the Cup . Since then , it has been a tradition for each member of the winning team , beginning with the captain , to take a lap around the ice with the trophy hoisted above his head .
The tradition of the captain first hoisting the Cup has been " breached " a few times . In 1993 after the Montreal Canadiens defeated the Los Angeles Kings , Guy Carbonneau handed the Cup to Denis Savard , as Savard had been the player that many fans had urged the Canadiens to draft back in 1980 . Another notable exception was in 1998 , after the Detroit Red Wings had defeated the Washington Capitals , when Steve Yzerman immediately passed the Cup to Vladimir Konstantinov , whose career with the Red Wings ended due to serious injuries in a traffic accident the previous year and had to be wheeled on the ice . The third was involving Joe Sakic and Ray Bourque when the Colorado Avalanche won the Cup in 2001 , as the seventh and deciding game of the Finals would be the last of Bourque 's 22 @-@ year NHL career , having never been on a Cup @-@ winning team until that time ( Bourque had , until being traded to the Avalanche on March 6 , 2000 , only ever played for the Boston Bruins ) . When Sakic received the trophy , he did not hoist it , but instead immediately handed it to Bourque ; Sakic then became the second player on the team to hoist the trophy .
The Stanley Cup championship team is allotted 100 days during off @-@ season to pass around the Cup including the team 's parade , days with sponsors and a day or so with each player and member of the team 's staff . It is always accompanied by at least one representative from the Hockey Hall of Fame . Although many players have unofficially spent a day in personal possession of the Cup , in 1994 the New York Rangers started a tradition wherein each member of the Cup @-@ winning team is allowed to retain the Cup for a day . Victors of the Cup have used it to baptize their children . Two players ( the New York Islanders ' Clark Gillies and the Anaheim Ducks ' Sean O 'Donnell ) even allowed their dogs to eat out of the Cup .
= = = Original , authenticated , and replica versions = = =
There are technically three versions of the " Stanley Cup " : the original 1892 bowl or Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup , the 1963 authenticated " Presentation Cup " , and the 1993 " Replica Cup " at the Hall of Fame .
The original 1892 Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup , purchased and donated by Lord Stanley , was physically awarded to the Champions until 1970 , and is now displayed in the Vault Room at the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto , Ontario .
The authenticated version or " Presentation Cup " was created in 1963 by Montreal silversmith Carl Petersen . NHL president Clarence Campbell felt that the original bowl was becoming too thin and fragile , and thus requested a duplicate trophy as a replacement . The Presentation Cup is authenticated by the seal of the Hockey Hall of Fame on the bottom , which can be seen when winning players lift the Cup over their heads , and it is the one currently awarded to the champions of the playoffs and used for promotions . This version was made in secret , and its production was only revealed three years later .
The replica trophy , called the " Replica Cup " , was created in 1993 by Montreal silversmith Louise St. Jacques to be used as a stand @-@ in at the Hockey Hall of Fame whenever the Presentation Cup is not available for display . There are very few differences between the authenticated version and the replica version . The surest way to identify one version from the other is to check the engraving for the 1984 Stanley Cup winning Edmonton Oilers . The authenticated version has x 's engraved over Basil Pocklington 's name whereas his name is completely missing from the replica version .
= = = As morale booster = = =
The Stanley Cup has served as a valuable morale booster for both American and Canadian troops , as well as their NATO allies . In 2004 , the Cup was displayed at MacDill Air Force Base , located near Tampa , Florida . The visit gave both American troops and a visiting Canadian unit the thrill of seeing the trophy at close hand . The event was later touted by officials at MacDill as " a huge morale booster for our troops " . In 2006 , the Cup toured Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune , North Carolina , where wounded Marines were given the opportunity to view and be photographed with the Cup .
In 2007 , the Stanley Cup made its first trip into a combat zone . During the trip to Kandahar , Afghanistan from May 2 to May 6 , organized by the NHL , the Hockey Hall of Fame , the NHL Alumni and the Canadian Department of National Defence , the Cup was put on display for Canadian and other NATO troops . It briefly endured a rocket attack on May 3 , but emerged unscathed .
The Stanley Cup did a second tour in Afghanistan as part of a " Team Canada visit " in March 2008 . In the spring of 2010 the Stanley Cup made its fourth trip to Afghanistan , accompanied by ex @-@ players .
On June 27 , 2010 , Chicago Blackhawks defenceman Brent Sopel paid tribute to his friend , former Toronto Maple Leafs general manager Brian Burke and Burke 's late son , Brendan , by accompanying the Cup to the 2010 Chicago Gay Pride Parade .
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= Secret ( Madonna song ) =
" Secret " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Madonna from her sixth studio album Bedtime Stories ( 1994 ) . It was released on September 27 , 1994 , as the lead single from the album by Warner Bros. Records as well as Maverick and Sire . The song was later included on her greatest hits compilations GHV2 ( 2001 ) and Celebration ( 2009 ) . " Secret " was developed based on a demo version created by producer Shep Pettibone , which was reworked by Dallas Austin , with whom Madonna was working on Bedtime Stories . Written and produced by the singer with Austin , an additional writer on the track was Pettibone . The song was a departure from the style of music that Madonna had previously released ; up to that point in her career her music had mostly been big @-@ sounding dance tracks or melodic ballads . " Secret " combined pop and R & B genres with instrumentation from acoustic guitar , drums and strings , while lyrically talking about a lover having a secret , as well as how Madonna realized that one 's happiness is under one 's control .
The song was released accompanied by eight different remixes by DJ Junior Vasquez , who just re @-@ used Madonna 's vocals , but changed the composition of the track completely . Unusual for the mid @-@ 1990s , Madonna talked about the new single on the Internet leaving an audio message for her fans , as well as a snippet of the song . " Secret " received favorable reviews from music critics , who praised Madonna 's vocal delivery and its mid @-@ tempo R & B groove , deeming it seductive and soulful . The song was also a commercial success . In the United States , it peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . In the United Kingdom , it reached a peak of number five , becoming her record @-@ breaking 35th consecutive top @-@ ten single on the UK Singles Chart . Elsewhere , it reached number one in Canada , Finland and Switzerland , and the top five in Australia , Denmark , France , Italy , New Zealand and Spain .
With the single 's cover art and its accompanying music video , Madonna ushered in another image change , inspired by the look of Hollywood actress Jean Harlow . The black and white video was directed by photographer Melodie McDaniel who was chosen by the singer due to McDaniel 's previous short films . It features Madonna as a singer in a nightclub in Harlem , New York . Interspersed with scenes of daily life in the neighborhood , the video ends with Madonna uniting with her lover and their supposed child . The video sparked academic discussions on what can constitute the lyrical secret of the song . Madonna performed " Secret " on tour for the first time during her 2001 Drowned World Tour . It was later performed at the Houston stop of her Sticky and Sweet Tour in November 2008 as a fan request , and later on the Rebel Heart Tour in 2015 .
= = Background and release = =
Following the release Madonna 's first book publication , Sex , the erotic thriller , Body of Evidence , her fifth studio album , Erotica , as well as a disastrous interview on David Letterman 's show in the early 1990s , the media and public 's backlash against Madonna 's overtly sexual image was at a peak . Madonna wanted to tone down her explicit image . Her first attempt was to release the tender ballad " I 'll Remember " from the soundtrack of the film With Honors . Musically she wanted to move in a new musical direction and started exploring new @-@ jack R & B styles with a generally mainstream , radio @-@ friendly sound . She incorporated it in her sixth studio album , Bedtime Stories , released in October 1994 . At first , it started as a collaboration with Shep Pettibone and was to be stylistically similar to Erotica , but due to Madonna 's wish to soften her public image at the time , she decided to move towards an R & B sound collaborating with well @-@ known R & B producers and took a more appropriate image for the general public .
After searching , Madonna chose to work with Babyface , whose previous collaborations with artists like Whitney Houston , Boyz II Men , and Toni Braxton had resulted in successful smooth R & B songs . Through him , she met with then upcoming young producer from Atlanta called Dallas Austin , who had become famous for his work on girl group TLC 's debut album , Ooooooohhh ... On the TLC Tip ( 1992 ) . Together they composed two songs for the album , " Secret " and " Sanctuary " . The former was originally produced in its demo form by Pettibone , under the name " Something 's Coming Over Me " , however Austin reworked the demo and made it a different song musically . On September 27 , 1994 , the song was released as the lead single from Bedtime Stories . The cover art of the single showed a new look for Madonna , with blonde hair and style compared to the look of 1930s American actress , Jean Harlow . Shot by photographer Patrick Demarchelier in black @-@ and @-@ white , the image showed the singer slouched on a sofa with her dress down and revealing her translucent brassiere . Unusual for the mid @-@ 1990s , Madonna talked about the new single on the Internet leaving an audio message for her fans , as well as a snippet of the song .
Hello , all you Cyberheads ! Welcome to the 90 's version of intimacy . You can hear me ... You can even see me ... But you can 't touch me ... do you recognize my voice ? ... It 's Madonna . Often imitated , but never duplicated . Or , should I say , often irritated ? If you feel like it , you can download the sound file of my new single " Secret " , from my new album , Bedtime Stories , which comes out next month . I just shot the video in New York , and will be premiering an exclusive sample of it online . So check back soon . In the meantime , why don 't you post me a message and let me know what you think of my new song . And by the way , don 't believe any of those online imposters pretending to be me ... ain 't nothing like the real thing . Peace out .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Secret " was written and produced by Madonna and Austin , with Pettibone as co @-@ writer of the track . It was recorded from April to June 1994 at Axis Studios in New York and DARP Studios in Atlanta , GA . Alongside the production work , Austin also played the drums and the keyboards , while Tommy Martin played the acoustic guitars . Fred Jorio and Mark " Spike " Stent worked on the programming and engineering of the track while Tony Shimkin was the editor . Jon Gass and Alvin Speights mixed the song and finally Jessie Leavey , Craig Armstrong and Susie Katiyama did the strings and conducting sessions .
" Secret " was a departure from the style of music that Madonna had previously released ; up to that point in her career her music had mostly been big @-@ sounding dance tracks or melodic ballads . In the track , she mixed pop and Contemporary R & B genres . It begins with the sound of an acoustic guitar and wah @-@ wah and just the sound of Madonna 's voice singing over it , before opening up to a sparse , retro rhythm section . A descending chord sequence follows and around the one minute mark , the drums start with Madonna singing the chorus " Something 's coming over , mmmmmmmm " . It is entirely supported by the strings and Madonna 's lower harmonies allude to songs by Kurt Cobain . According to Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , the descending chords are supported by the ascending strings — an example of contrary motion used in music . During the middle section , another wah @-@ wah guitar solo is added alongside the strings . Near the end , the melodies add an upper harmony for differentiation with the verses .
According to Musicnotes.com , the song is set in the time signature of common time and progresses in 96 beats per minute . The composition is set in the key of E ♭ minor with Madonna 's vocal ranging from G ♭ 3 to G ♭ 4 . " Take a Bow " contains a basic sequence of B ♭ 7 – E ♭ m7 – D ♭ – Cm7 – C ♭ during the opening verses , and B7 – Em – D – C during the chorus its chord progression . Madonna 's voice remains at the center of the song 's production , as she sings lyrics such as " happiness lies in your own hand " . Lyrically it talks about a lover having a secret as well as how Madonna realized that one 's happiness is under one 's control . In Madonna the Companion : Two Decades of Commentary , authors Allen Metz and Carol Benson write that the tone that Madonna uses when singing these lyrics suggests that she is discussing " self @-@ determinism , not auto @-@ eroticism " . Throughout the song Madonna also sings the lyrics " My baby 's got a secret , " however , she never discloses what the secret may be .
= = Remixes = =
Madonna released more than eight remixes of the song in different formats . At the time , " Secret " was experiencing success on the US record charts , to keep the song current in dance clubs , Madonna requested remixes of the song from Junior Vasquez , who was a DJ at the Sound Factory nightclub in New York . According to him Madonna 's representatives " sent me a cassette of the song , just to get an idea what the song was ... [ A ] nd when it was 100 beats per minute I said , ' Oh god , what am I gonna do with this ? ' " Vasquez and his team of engineers first experimented with the track by making remixes closer to the original version . Then he used only Madonna 's vocals for the mixed versions , and re @-@ wrote and composed the music as brand new . He was sure of doing house mixes of the track but had to " speed @-@ up " Madonna 's vocals . Recording engineer Dennis Mitchell explained , " To do that we have to digitally manipulate her vocals , which is time compression ... It just digitally goes in and snipes out tiny little digital slices of the actual sound and squeezes it together so that her tempo is a new tempo but her pitch stays the same . " According to Vasquez , Madonna was " on top of everything " including the house mixes as well as the other mixes created .
The song also had dance mixes created by Vasquez . There are two versions of " Junior 's Luscious Mix " , those being a single edit and a longer version , which has a piano introduction and turns " Secret " into a dancefloor track . According to Larry Flick from Billboard these versions have " vibrant keyboards and an elastic bassline " . Like the house mixes , here also Madonna 's vocals were re @-@ edited to fit in with the faster beats . According to Jose F. Promis of AllMusic , the sped @-@ up vocals made Madonna 's voice have a " robotic , detached feel that the original doesn 't have . " Promis also noted that Vasquez 's " Sound Factory Mix " had " swirling instrumentals recalling flashing lights in a nightclub " . This remix also incorporated tribal percussion sounds and synth looping . Similarly he noted that the " Some Bizarre Mix " gave the song a " groovier , funkier spin " , while the " Allstar Mix " , gave it " a cold , hip @-@ hop feel " . Flick was positive towards all the remixes , noting that " this single is a promising preamble to what will likely be a cool , new chapter in the career of dance mu- sic 's most successful graduate . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Secret " received generally positive reviews from music critics . In his book Madonna : An Intimate Biography , author J. Randy Taraborrelli described the song as " clever " , adding that no matter how many time one listens to it , " it never ceases to intrigue " . Chris Wade , author of The Music of Madonna recalled that " Secret " had been his favorite song , and commended the track 's production , Madonna 's vocals and mixing . He declared it as " one of Madonna 's finest cuts from the whole of her 90s output . " Wade described the chorus as " sinister and catchy ; a strange eeriness about it that only the mystery of the forbidden can conjure . " Matthew Rettenmund wrote in his Encyclopedia Madonnica that " Secret " paved way a new direction musically for Madonna ; he believed that the track was more haunting musically than Madonna 's previous single " Who 's That Girl " ( 1987 ) and comparable to " Justify My Love " ( 1990 ) . Rettenmund complimented the cover artwork , saying that " a dozen years into her career , it was one of her most arresting poses shot by Demarchelier , a testament to the durability of her star appeal " . Author Lucy O 'Brien described the song in her book , Madonna : Like an Icon :
With its chunky backbeat , gentle strings and funky guitar motif , ' Secret ' is both languid and tense at the same time . The song has the air of quiet revelation and a relaxation of spirit . Madonna insisted later that the song wasn 't just about love but also about spiritual self @-@ empowerment . [ Austin 's reworked demo ] brought out a new warm , soulful tone in her voice , and making her swoony humming sound a central feature of the track .
Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine gave the song a rating of A , and noted that " Secret " was probably the most naked performance of Madonna 's career , with " acoustic guitars , expertly sweetened vocals and producer Dallas Austin 's signature R & B beats [ which ] soulfully transport the listener into Madonna 's troubled yet soothing world . " Barbara O 'Dair from Rolling Stone called the song " infectiously funky " , adding that her delivery of the lyrics " Happiness lies in your own hand / It took me much too long to understand " shows a downbeat restraint in her vocals that proves the singer is " drawn to sadness " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic listed it as one of the best songs from Bedtime Stories , stating that along with other album tracks — " Take a Bow " , " Inside of Me " , " Sanctuary " and " Bedtime Story " — it slowly " works its melody into the subconscious as the bass pulses " . Paul Verna from Billboard described the song as a " pop smash " that is one of the most " seductive " songs from Bedtime Stories . Alex Needham of NME called the song an " underrated gem " , adding that the track has a " brilliant bluesy strut " . In his 2011 review of Bedtime Stories , Brett Callwood of the Detroit Metro Times called the song " spectacular " . Charlotte Robinson , writer from PopMatters , wrote that the gentle grooves of " Secret " , accompanied by acoustic guitar and delicate strings , make the song " seductive " .
NME magazine ranked " Secret " at number 30 in their list of the best songs of 1994 . Slant Magazine listed " Secret " as the 42nd " Best Singles of the 1990s " , stating that its " one of the most organic @-@ sounding singles of Madonna 's career , taking its sweet time to get where it 's going and not giving up too much along the way . The arrangement gets off on being withholding , and , at least for one glorious single , so does Madonna : When she sings , " You knew all along / What I never wanted to say , " she sounds positively rapturous . Scott Kearnan of The Boston Globe included the track at number 30 on his list of " Best Madonna Songs " , stating " its slinky R & B groove made ' Secret ' something special , even if it 's not remembered for an accompanying scandal or bawdy ' moment ' . We like to talk about her ability to produce controversy and headlines , but at the end of the day , here 's what Madonna makes best : pop music " . Louis Virtel of The Backlot listed the song at number 14 on his list of the " The 100 Greatest Madonna Songs " , calling it " meditative , moving " and " sexy as hell " . Rooksby concurred that " its a good track " but felt that the time could have been reduced from five minutes , which made it a little long . He also felt that the drums looping around the track made it a " bit monotonous " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States it debuted at number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100 issue dated October 8 , 1994 . It was the third highest debut of Madonna 's music career at that time , following " Erotica " at number 13 ( 1992 ) and " Rescue Me " at number 15 ( 1991 ) . According to journalist Liz Smith , " Secret " became the most requested song on US radios after it was sent for airplay , being spun on 152 radio stations and gaining around 1 @,@ 900 spins . Following the release of the commercial CD formats the next week , the song debuted on the Singles Sales chart at number 31 with 18 @,@ 000 units sold . Three weeks later it peaked on the chart at number three , staying for a total of 22 weeks ; 11 of those were spent within the top ten . It also peaked at number three on both the US Hot 100 Airplay and Mainstream Top 40 charts and at number two on the Adult Contemporary chart . On the Hot Dance Club Songs chart it peaked at number one for two weeks , aided by the remixes from Vasquez . At the Year @-@ end Hot 100 ranking for 1994 , " Secret " was placed at number 84 and for 1995 , it was ranked at number 71 . " Secret " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on January 5 , 1995 , for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies of the single . In Canada the song debuted at number 91 on the RPM Singles Chart the week of October 3 , 1994 , eventually peaking at number one for three consecutive weeks starting from November 14 , 1994 . On the RPM 1994 Year @-@ End Chart , the song finished at number 23 .
In the United Kingdom " Secret " debuted and peaked at number five on the UK Singles Chart , staying on the chart for a total of ten weeks . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold a total of 117 @,@ 957 copies in that region as of 2008 . " Secret " became her 35th consecutive top @-@ ten single since " Like a Virgin " ( 1984 ) , which remains an unequaled record in British chart history . On the French Singles Chart , " Secret " peaked at number two for two weeks , staying on the chart for a total of 30 weeks . It placed at number 26 on the year @-@ end chart and was eventually certified silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for shipment of 125 @,@ 000 copies ; the song has sold a total of 255 @,@ 000 copies in France . The song also peaked at number one in Finland as well as Switzerland , charting on the Swiss Singles Chart for a total of 19 weeks . The song also placed within the top 10 on the charts in Italy , Spain , and Denmark , peaking at number three , number four , and number eight respectively . In Austria , the single missed the top 10 , peaking at number 11 , while in Ireland it peaked at number 16 on the Irish Singles Chart . In Sweden , the song peaked at number 12 and spent a total of 16 cumulative weeks on the chart .
" Secret " entered the ARIA Singles Chart at its peak of number five the week of October 23 , 1994 , eventually charting for a total of fourteen weeks . It later landed at number 46 position on the Australian singles year @-@ end chart . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) certified it gold for shipment of 35 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , the song entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 31 the week of November 6 , 1994 , eventually peaked at number five , remaining on the chart for a total of eight weeks .
= = Music video = =
= = = Conception and development = = =
According to O 'Brien , the general critical consensus about Bedtime Stories was " Madonna in retreat . Still smarting from criticism over the Sex book , she [ evolved ] into a softer , more gentle image . Yet despite the pastel tones of her new look , there was also a sense of grit . She combined this to startling effect with the music video for ' Secret ' . " Madonna knew that a lot was riding on her first visual after the Erotica era , and wanted to create an effect with it . The video was directed by Melodie McDaniel , who had previously gained acclaim as a photographer for album artwork and also as music video director for bands like The Cranberries and Porno for Pyros . However , Madonna was more interested in one of McDaniel 's earlier short films , where she portrayed baptism combining with voodoo rituals . She enlisted McDaniel and explained that she was " drawn to the rawness of [ McDaniel 's ] film " . Madonna wanted to tone down her image and according to McDaniel :
She was ready to go there ... Madonna had a blonde Jean Harlow look at the time . I wanted to combine that old classic Hollywood mix with the edginess of modern contemporary , but make it feel timeless . I was trying to think of something different , something real ... It was awesome I got this break , but I was freaked out . I was jumping from young artists to working with an icon ... I think she was drawn to the rawness of my work .
Before meeting with Madonna , McDaniel first listened to the song and found it inspiring . When asked by the singer about her references for the video , McDaniel presented her with pictures from her favorite 1970s photographer , Bill Burke , who took pictures of people considered as freaks or inbred . Another reference was the photography book , East 100 Street by Bruce Davidson , which showed pictures of people in Spanish Harlem . Madonna let the director live in her New York apartment to continue research and asked her to go through her book collections , including those by Helmut Newton and Richard Avedon . Madonna also started working with a stylist from McDaniel 's team called Brigitte Echols , for the fashion and wardrobes in the video . Echols had gone to a low @-@ rent mall called Crenshaw Swap Meet and bought a $ 180 gold necklace with the name " Madonna " in it , inside a jewelry box . Madonna liked it and together they decided on the wardrobe , including skirts and tops , vintage clothes from costume houses , La Perla bra , and two designs from then unknown Marc Jacobs . Echols described Madonna 's approach to style as " collaborative " .
= = = Filming and release = = =
The video was filmed during September 9 – 11 , 1994 at the Lenox Lounge and on location on Lenox Avenue in Harlem . McDaniel and her team scouted out low @-@ rent , speak @-@ easy locations and they did street @-@ casting , assembling off @-@ beat characters , from transvestites to card tricksters and edgy Harlem teenagers . However , when it came to filming there was a problem — McDaniel 's approach was to start the camera and let the cast improvise , but Madonna wanted direction . She would sit on the chair and when McDaniel said " Action " , she would still sit there saying impatiently , " What am I doing ? What am I doing ? Hello ? " In reality , McDaniel recalled that she was overawed by Madonna 's big entourage who had come to Harlem for the shoot , hence she held herself from speaking her mind about the singer 's look . When McDaniel explained to the singer that she wanted her to appear edgy like Jennifer Jason Leigh 's character in the 1990 drama film Last Exit to Brooklyn , the singer was annoyed . Madonna had her hair and makeup re @-@ done and it was the final look for the video .
Echols recalled that the first scenes shot were those of Madonna walking down Lenox Avenue . While filming , the singer noticed a black leather coat with fur trim , worn by Fatima , the assistant director . Madonna asked for the coat from Fatima and ended up wearing it in the video . Echols also noted that Madonna had a close relationship with the cinematographer , and knew from which angle her shots would be the best and which lights to be used . After the misunderstandings regarding looks , and the plot direction were cleared , the filming resumed and was finished within three days . The final scenes were with model Jason Olive in a Marlem house , with Madonna climbing steps and reaching him and their supposed child .
The video premiered on October 4 , 1994 , on MTV . It begins with showing the neighborhood of Harlem , with Madonna as a singer in a small jazz club . She simply sits in the club with her band and sings for her small , mostly black and Latino audience . Interspersed through out the video are scenes of people living in Harlem , doing their daily chores , including a supporting cast of transvestite prostitutes , a pimp , and a black gang member who shows off the scars on his body . During the intermediate verses , Madonna is shown writhing in the lap of an older , maternal woman , who symbolically baptizes her by splashing water on her forehead . Near the video 's end , Madonna walks through the neighborhood and climbs a set of stairs to have a reunion with her family , a young Latin man and their supposed son . The video ends with Madonna smiling towards the camera while sitting at the nightclub .
= = = Reception and aftermath = = =
The " Secret " music video was a hit on MTV , being played numerous times by the channel . It also generated discussions in academia regarding the supposed " secret " of the song . According to the book Madonna 's Drowned Worlds , author Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández argues that the young son that is revealed at the end of the video is in actuality Madonna 's lover 's secret . Throughout the video , scenes of Madonna are interspersed with scenes of drag queens primping , and religious iconography such as rebirth and damnation . In his book From Hegel to Madonna , author Robert Miklitsch states that the music video for " Secret " is a departure from the various themes — repression and loss , anger and aggression — explored so vividly on Bedtime Stories . Miklitsch goes on to say that , although the video depicts images of cleansing rebirth , the fact that Madonna announced that she was pregnant in 1996 shows that , in retrospect , " Secret " may have been less about cleansing rebirth , and instead more about maternity as birth .
Rettenmund had a different interpretation of the video , calling it as a " subtly orchestrated story of the singer 's addiction to — and almost spiritual deliverance from — heroin " . He found contrast in Madonna 's white blonde character — with hyper @-@ glamor , heavy mascara , pierced nose and navel , a clingy blouse and vintage high heels — to the neighborhood of Harlem , where Madonna is portrayed as a " Billie Holiday @-@ esque singer in the jazz club " . At the end of the video , Madonna climbs up the stairs to her lover 's room , Rettenmund found references to the music videos for the singles " Like a Virgin " ( 1984 ) and " Papa Don 't Preach " ( 1986 ) , both of which had the singer climbing the stairs but never reaching the destination , unlike " Secret " . Rettenmund also observed that " Secret " could serve as a follow @-@ up to the music video for " Borderline " with the events happening ten years and Madonna all grownup . He concluded by saying that in lieu of the singer 's 1994 interview with The Face magazine , where she expressed her desire to have a family , the video emphasized on Madonna 's interest in a partner and a child .
= = Live performances = =
On February 18 , 1995 , Madonna arrived in Europe to promote Bedtime Stories . During the same day , she performed " Secret " and " Take a Bow " on German TV show Wetten , dass .. ? , while she was also interviewed on the program . " Secret " was performed on Madonna 's 2001 Drowned World Tour , during the cowgirl section of the show . The performance was accompanied by a video montage of riverside baptism , whirling dervishes ceremonies and Buddhist prayers ; the footage was taken from McDaniel 's film which had inspired Madonna for the performance as well as enlisting her . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian called the performance " a gorgeous acoustic reading . " Writing for The Victoria Advocate , Steve Dollar praised the performance , saying that the song " has grown in depth " over time . During the New York City performance of " Secret " , she dedicated the song to its inhabitants . The performance of the song on August 26 , 2001 , at The Palace of Auburn Hills was recorded and released in the live video album , Drowned World Tour 2001 .
In November 2008 , " Secret " was performed a cappella at the Houston stop of her Sticky & Sweet Tour as fan request . After the performance , Madonna said : " Alright Texas ! That was really good . I 'd forgotten that song " . During the Vancouver stop on her Rebel Heart Tour in 2015 , Madonna again performed an acoustic rendition of the song , dedicating it to a " special guest " in the audience , which was assumed by media to be her ex @-@ husband Sean Penn , who was in the audience . The singer admitted she had not practiced the performance , and according to Vancouver Sun , it " came across as charitably , unpracticed ( if well @-@ intentioned ) " .
= = Track listings and versions = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from Bedtime Stories album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Valley of the Kings =
The Valley of the Kings ( Arabic : وادي الملوك Wādī al Mulūk ) , the Valley of the Gates of the Kings ( Arabic : وادي ابواب الملوك Wādī Abwāb al Mulūk ) , is a valley in Egypt where , for a period of nearly 500 years from the 16th to 11th century BC , tombs were constructed for the Pharaohs and powerful nobles of the New Kingdom ( the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Dynasties of Ancient Egypt ) . The valley stands on the west bank of the Nile , opposite Thebes ( modern Luxor ) , within the heart of the Theban Necropolis . The wadi consists of two valleys , East Valley ( where the majority of the royal tombs are situated ) and West Valley . With the 2005 discovery of a new chamber ( KV63 ) , and the 2008 discovery of two further tomb entrances , the valley is known to contain 63 tombs and chambers ( ranging in size from KV54 , a simple pit , to KV5 , a complex tomb with over 120 chambers ) . It was the principal burial place of the major royal figures of the Egyptian New Kingdom , as well as a number of privileged nobles . The royal tombs are decorated with scenes from Egyptian mythology and give clues to the beliefs and funerary rituals of the period . Almost all of the tombs seem to have been opened and robbed in antiquity , but they still give an idea of the opulence and power of the Pharaohs . This area has been a focus of archaeological and egyptological exploration since the end of the eighteenth century , and its tombs and burials continue to stimulate research and interest . In modern times the valley has become famous for the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun ( with its rumours of the Curse of the Pharaohs ) , and is one of the most famous archaeological sites in the world . In 1979 , it became a World Heritage Site , along with the rest of the Theban Necropolis . Exploration , excavation and conservation continues in the valley , and a new tourist centre has recently been opened .
= = Geology = =
The types of soil where the Valley of the Kings is located are an alternating sandwich of dense limestone and other sedimentary rock ( which form the cliffs in the valley and the nearby Deir el @-@ Bahri ) and soft layers of marl . The sedimentary rock was originally deposited between 35 – 56 million years ago during a time when the precursor to the Mediterranean Sea covered an area that extended much further inland than today . During the Pleistocene the valley was carved out of the plateau by steady rains . There is currently little year @-@ round rain in this part of Egypt , but there are occasional flash floods that hit the valley , dumping tons of debris into the open tombs .
The quality of the rock in the Valley is inconsistent , ranging from finely grained to coarse stone , the latter with the potential to be structurally unsound . The occasional layer of shale also caused construction and conservation difficulties , as this rock expands in the presence of water , forcing apart the stone surrounding it . It is thought that some tombs were altered in shape and size depending on the types of rock the builders encountered .
Builders took advantage of available geological features when constructing the tombs . Some tombs were quarried out of existing limestone clefts , others behind slopes of scree , or were at the edge of rock spurs created by ancient flood channels .
The problems of tomb construction can be seen with tombs of Ramesses III and his father Setnakhte . Setnakhte started to excavate KV11 but broke into the tomb of Amenmesse , so construction was abandoned and he instead usurped the tomb of Twosret , KV14 . When looking for a tomb , Ramesses III extended the part @-@ excavated tomb started by his father . The tomb of Ramesses II returned to an early style , with a bent axis , probably due to the quality of the rock being excavated ( following the Esna shale ) .
Between 1998 and 2002 the Amarna Royal Tombs Project investigated the valley floor using ground @-@ penetrating radar and found that , below the modern surface , the Valley 's cliffs descend beneath the scree in a series of abrupt , natural " shelves " , arranged one below the other , descending several metres down to the bedrock in the valley floor .
= = = Hydrology = = =
The area of the Theban hills is subject to infrequent violent thunder storms , causing flash floods in the valley . Recent studies have shown that there are at least 7 active flood stream beds , leading down into the central area of the valley . This central area appears to have been flooded at the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty and buried several tombs under metres of debris . The tombs KV63 , KV62 and KV55 are dug into the actual wadi bedrock rather than the debris , showing that the then level of the valley was 5 m below its present level . After this event later dynasties leveled the floor of the valley , making the floods deposit their load further down the valley , and the buried tombs were forgotten and only discovered in the early 20th century . This was the area that was the subject of the Amarna Royal Tombs Project ground scanning radar investigation , which showed several anomalies , one of which was proved to be KV63 .
= = History = =
The Theban Hills are dominated by the peak of al @-@ Qurn , known to the Ancient Egyptians as ta dehent , or ' The Peak ' . It has a pyramid shaped appearance , and it is probable that this echoed the pyramids of the Old Kingdom , more than a thousand years prior to the first royal burials carved here . Its isolated position also resulted in reduced access , and special tomb police ( the Medjay ) were able to guard the necropolis .
While the iconic pyramid complexes of the Giza plateau have come to symbolize ancient Egypt , the majority of tombs were cut into rock . Most pyramids and mastabas contain sections which are cut into ground level , and there are full rock @-@ cut tombs in Egypt that date back to the Old Kingdom .
After the defeat of the Hyksos and the reunification of Egypt under Ahmose I , the Theban rulers began to construct elaborate tombs that would reflect their newfound power . The tombs of Ahmose and his son Amenhotep I ( their exact location remains unknown ) were probably in the Seventeenth Dynasty necropolis of Dra ' Abu el @-@ Naga ' . The first royal tombs in the valley were those of Amenhotep I ( although this identification is also disputed ) , and Thutmose I , whose advisor Ineni notes in his tomb that he advised his king to place his tomb in the desolate valley ( the identity of this actual tomb is unclear , but it is probably KV20 or KV38 ) .
The Valley was used for primary burials from approximately 1539 BC to 1075 BC , and contains at least 63 tombs , beginning with Thutmose I ( or possibly earlier , during the reign of Amenhotep I ) , and ending with Ramesses X or XI , although non @-@ Royal burials continued in usurped tombs .
Despite the name , the Valley of the Kings also contains the tombs of favorite nobles as well as the wives and children of both nobles and pharaohs , meaning that only about 20 of the tombs actually contain the burials of kings ; the burials of nobles and the royal family , together with unmarked pits and embalming caches make up the rest . Around the time of Ramesses I ( ca . 1301 BC ) construction commenced in the separate Valley of the Queens .
= = = Royal Necropolis = = =
The official name for the site in ancient times was The Great and Majestic Necropolis of the Millions of Years of the Pharaoh , Life , Strength , Health in The West of Thebes ( see below for the hieroglyphic spelling ) , or more usually , Ta @-@ sekhet @-@ ma 'at ( the Great Field ) .
At the start of the Eighteenth Dynasty , only the kings were buried within the valley in large tombs ; when a non @-@ royal was buried , it was in a small rock cut chamber , close to the tomb of their master . Amenhotep III 's tomb was constructed in the Western Valley , and while his son Akhenaten moved his tomb 's construction to Amarna , it is thought that the unfinished WV25 may have originally been intended for him . With the return to religious orthodoxy at the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty , Tutankhamun , Ay and then Horemheb returned to the royal necropolis .
The Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties saw an increase in the number of burials ( both here and in the Valley of the Queens ) , with Ramesses II and later Ramesses III constructing a massive tomb that was used for the burial of his sons ( KV5 and KV3 respectively ) . There are some kings that are not buried within the valley or whose tomb has not been located : Thutmose II may have been buried in Dra ' Abu el @-@ Naga ' ( although his mummy was in the Deir el @-@ Bahri tomb cache ) , Smenkhkare 's burial has never been located , and Ramesses VIII seems to have been buried elsewhere .
In the Pyramid Age the tomb of the king was associated with a mortuary temple located close to the pyramid . As the tomb of the king was hidden , this mortuary temple was located away from the burial , closer to the cultivation facing towards Thebes . These mortuary temples became places visited during the various festivals held in the Theban necropolis , most notably the Beautiful festival of the valley , where the sacred barques of Amun @-@ Re , his consort Mut and son Khonsu left the temple at Karnak in order to visit the funerary temples of deceased kings on the West Bank and their shrines in the Theban Necropolis .
The tombs were constructed and decorated by the workers of the village of Deir el @-@ Medina , located in a small wadi between this valley and the Valley of the Queens , facing Thebes . The workers journeyed to the tombs via routes over the Theban hills . The daily lives of these workers are quite well known , recorded in tombs and official documents . Amongst the events document is perhaps the first recorded worker 's strike , detailed in the Turin strike papyrus .
= = Exploration of the valley = =
The area has been a major area of modern Egyptological exploration for the last two centuries . Before this the area was a site for tourism in antiquity ( especially during Roman times ) . This area illustrates the changes in the study of ancient Egypt , starting as antiquity hunting , and ending as scientific excavation of the whole Theban Necropolis . Despite the exploration and investigation noted below , only eleven of the tombs have actually been completely recorded .
Many of the tombs have graffiti written by these ancient tourists . Jules Baillet located over 2100 Greek and Latin graffiti , along with a smaller number in Phoenician , Cypriot , Lycian , Coptic , and other languages . The majority of the ancient graffiti are found in KV9 , which contains just under a thousand of them . The earliest positively dated graffiti dates to 278 B.C.
In 1799 , members of Napoleon 's expedition to Egypt ( especially Dominique Vivant ) drew maps and plans of the known tombs , and for the first time noted the Western Valley ( where Prosper Jollois and Édouard de Villiers du Terrage located the tomb of Amenhotep III , WV22 ) . The Description de l 'Égypte contains two volumes ( out a total of 24 ) on the area around Thebes .
European exploration continued in the area around Thebes during the nineteenth century , boosted by Champollion 's translation of hieroglyphs early in the century . Early in the century , the area was visited by Belzoni , working for Henry Salt , who discovered several tombs , including those of Ay in the West Valley ( WV23 ) in 1816 and Seti I ( KV17 ) the next year . At the end of his visits , Belzoni declared that all of the tombs had been found and nothing of note remained to be found . Working at the same time ( and a great rival of Belzoni and Salt ) was Bernardino Drovetti , the French Consul @-@ General .
When Gaston Maspero was reappointed to head the Egyptian Antiquities Service , the nature of the exploration of the valley changed again . Maspero appointed English archaeologist Howard Carter as the Chief Inspector of Upper Egypt and the young man discovered several new tombs and explored several others , clearing KV42 and KV20 .
Around the start of the 20th century , the American Theodore M. Davis had the excavation permit in the valley , and his team ( led mostly by Edward R. Ayrton ) discovered several royal and non @-@ royal tombs ( including KV43 , KV46 and KV57 ) . In 1907 they discovered the possible Amarna Period cache in KV55 . After finding what they thought was all that remained of the burial of Tutankhamun ( items recovered from KV54 and KV58 ) , it was announced that the valley was completely explored and no further burials were to be found , in Davis 's 1912 publication , The Tombs of Harmhabi and Touatânkhamanou ; the book closes with the comment , " I fear that the Valley of Kings is now exhausted . "
After Davis 's death early in 1915 Lord Carnarvon acquired the concession to excavate the valley and he employed Carter to explore it . After a systematic search they discovered the actual tomb of Tutankhamun ( KV62 ) in November 1922 .
Various expeditions have continued to explore the valley , adding greatly to the knowledge of the area . In 2001 the Theban Mapping Project designed new signs for the tombs , providing information and plans of the open tombs .
= = Tomb development = =
Location
The earliest tombs were located in cliffs at the top of scree slopes , under storm @-@ fed waterfalls ( for example KV34 and KV43 ) . As these locations were soon used , burials then descended to the valley floor , gradually moving back up the slopes as the valley bottom filled up with debris . This explains the location of the tombs KV62 and KV63 buried in the valley floor .
Architecture
The usual tomb plan consisted of a long inclined rock @-@ cut corridor , descending through one or more halls ( possibly mirroring the descending path of the sun @-@ god into the underworld ) , to the burial chamber . In the earlier tombs the corridors turn through 90 degrees at least once ( such as KV43 , the tomb of Thutmose IV ) , and the earliest had cartouche @-@ shaped burial chambers ( for example , KV43 , the tomb of Thutmose IV ) . This layout is known as ' Bent Axis ' , and after the burial the upper corridors were meant to be filled with rubble , and the entrance to the tomb hidden . After the Amarna Period , the layout gradually straightened , with an intermediate ' Jogged Axis ' ( the tomb of Horemheb , KV57 is typical of this , and is one of the tombs that is sometimes open to the public ) , to the generally ' Straight Axis ' of the late Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasty tombs ( Ramesses III 's and Ramesses IX 's tombs , KV11 and KV6 respectively ) . As the tomb 's axes straightened , the slope also lessened , and almost disappeared in the late Twentieth Dynasty . Another feature that is common to most tombs is the ' well ' , which may have originated as an actual barrier intended to stop flood waters entering the lower parts of the tombs . It later seems to have developed a ' magical ' purpose as a symbolic shaft . In the later Twentieth Dynasty , the well itself was sometimes not excavated , but the well room was still present .
Decoration
The majority of the royal tombs were decorated with religious texts and images . The early tombs were decorated with scenes from Amduat ( ' That Which is in the Underworld ' ) , which describes the journey of the sun @-@ god through the twelve hours of the night . From the time of Horemheb , tombs were decorated with the Book of Gates , which shows the sun @-@ god passing through the twelve gates that divide the night time , and ensure the tomb owner 's own safe passage through the night . These earliest tombs were generally sparsely decorated , and those of a non @-@ royal nature were totally undecorated .
Late in the Nineteenth Dynasty the Book of Caverns , which divided the underworld into massive caverns containing deities and the deceased waiting for the sun to pass through and restore them to life , was placed in the upper parts of tombs ; a complete version appears in the tomb of Ramesses VI . The burial of Ramesses III saw the Book of the Earth , where the underworld is divided into 4 sections , climaxing in the sun disc being pulled from the earth by Naunet .
The ceilings of the burial chambers were decorated ( from the burial of Seti I onwards ) with what become formalised as the Book of the Heavens , which again describes the sun 's journey through the twelve hours of night . Again from Seti I 's time , the Litany of Re , a lengthy hymn to the sun god began to appear .
Tomb equipment
Each burial was provided with equipment that would enable a continued existence in the afterlife in comfort . Also present in the tombs were ritual magical items , such as Shabtis and divine figurines . Some equipment was that which the king may have used in their lifetime ( Tutankhamun 's sandals for example ) , and some was specially constructed for the burial .
= = = Tomb numbering = = =
The modern abbreviation " KV " stands for " Kings ' Valley " , and the tombs are numbered in the order of ' discovery ' from Ramesses VII ( KV1 ) to KV63 ( which was discovered in 2005 ) , although many of the tombs have been open since antiquity , and KV5 was only rediscovered in the 1990s ( after being dismissed as unimportant by previous investigators ) . The West Valley tombs often have the " WV " prefix but follow the same numbering system . A number of the tombs are unoccupied , the owners of others remain unknown , and others are merely pits used for storage . Most of the open tombs in the Valley of the Kings are located in the East Valley , and this is where most tourists and facilities can be found .
= = = Eighteenth Dynasty = = =
The Eighteenth Dynasty tombs within the valley vary a good deal in decoration , style and location . At first there seems to have been no fixed plan ; indeed the tomb of Hatshepsut is of a unique shape , twisting and turning down over 200 metres from the entrance so that the burial chamber is 97 metres below the surface . The tombs gradually became more regular and formalised , and the tombs of Thutmose III and Thutmose IV , KV34 and KV43 are good examples of Eighteenth Dynasty tombs , both with their bent axis , and simple decoration .
Perhaps the most imposing tomb of this period is that of Amenhotep III , WV22 located in the West Valley . It has been re @-@ investigated in the 1990s ( by a team from Waseda University , Japan ) but is not open to the public .
At the same time , powerful and influential nobles started to be buried with the royal family ; the most famous of these tombs is the joint tomb of Yuya and Tjuyu , KV46 . They were possibly the parents of Queen Tiy , and until the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun , this was the best preserved tomb to be found in the Valley .
= = = = Amarna Period = = = =
The return of royal burials to Thebes after the end of Amarna period marks a change to the layout of royal burials , with the intermediate ' jogged axis ' gradually giving way to the ' straight axis ' of later dynasties . In the Western valley , there is a tomb commencement that is thought to have been started for Akhenaten , but it is no more than a gateway and a series of steps . Close by to this tomb is the tomb of Ay , Tutankhamun 's successor . It is likely that this tomb was started for Tutankhamun ( its decoration is of a similar style ) but later usurped for Ay 's burial . This would mean that KV62 may have been Ay 's original tomb , which would explain the smaller size and unusual layout for a royal tomb .
The other Amarna period tombs are located in a smaller , central area in the centre of the East Valley , with a possible mummy cache ( KV55 ) that may contain the burials of several Amarna Period royals — Tiy and Smenkhkare or Akhenaten .
Close to this is the burial of Tutankhamun , which is perhaps the most famous discovery of modern Western archaeology and was made here by Howard Carter on November 4 , 1922 , with clearance and conservation work continuing until 1932 . This was the first royal tomb to be discovered that was still largely intact ( although tomb robbers had entered it ) , and was , until the excavation of KV63 on 10 March 2005 , considered the last major discovery in the valley . The opulence of his grave goods notwithstanding , Tutankhamun was a rather minor king and other burials probably had more numerous treasures .
In the same central area as KV62 and KV63 , is ' KV64 ' , a radar anomaly believed to be a tomb or chamber announced on 28 July 2006 . It is not an official designation , and indeed the actual existence of a tomb at all is dismissed by the Supreme Council of Antiquities .
The nearby tomb of Horemheb , ( KV57 ) is rarely open for visitors , but it has many unique features , and is extensively decorated . The decoration shows a transition from the pre @-@ Amarna tombs to those of the 19th dynasty tombs that followed .
= = = Nineteenth Dynasty = = =
The Nineteenth Dynasty saw a further standardisation of tomb layout and decoration . The tomb of the first king of the dynasty Ramesses I was hurriedly finished due to the death of the king and is little more than a truncated descending corridor and a burial chamber ; however , KV16 has vibrant decoration , and still contains the sarcophagus of the king . Its central location means that it is one of the frequently visited tombs . It shows the development of the tomb entrance and passage and of decoration .
His son and successor , Seti I 's tomb , KV17 ( also known as Belzoni 's tomb , the tomb of Apis , or the tomb of Psammis , son of Necho ) is usually thought to be the finest tomb in the valley , with extensive relief work and paintings . When it was rediscovered by Belzoni in 1817 , he referred to it as " .. a fortunate day .. "
The son of Seti , Ramesses the Great constructed a massive tomb , KV7 , but it is in a ruinous state , and it is currently undergoing excavation and conservation by a Franco @-@ Egyptian team led by Christian Leblanc . It is a vast size , being about the same length , and a larger area , of the tomb of his father .
At the same time , and just opposite his own tomb , Ramesses enlarged the earlier small tomb of an unknown Eighteenth Dynasty noble ( KV5 ) for his numerous sons . With 120 known rooms and excavation work still underway , it is probably the largest tomb in the valley . Originally opened ( and robbed ) in antiquity , it is a low @-@ lying structure that has been particularly prone to the flash floods that sometimes hit the area , which washed in tonnes of debris and material over the centuries , ultimately concealing its vast size . It is not currently open to the public .
Ramesses II 's son and eventual successor , Merenptah 's tomb has been open since antiquity ; it extends 160 metres , ending in a burial chamber that once contained a set of four nested sarcophagi . Well decorated , it is typically open to the public most years .
The last kings of the dynasty also constructed tombs in the valley , all of which follow the same general pattern of layout and decoration , notable amongst these is the tomb of Siptah , which is well decorated , especially the ceiling decoration .
= = = Twentieth Dynasty = = =
The first ruler of the dynasty , Setnakhte , actually had two tombs constructed for himself ; he started to excavate the eventual tomb of his son , Ramesses III , but broke into another tomb and abandoned it in order to usurp and complete the tomb of the Nineteenth Dynasty female pharaoh Twosret . This tomb therefore has two burial chambers , the later extensions making the tomb one of the largest of the Royal tombs , at over 150 metres .
The tomb of Ramesses III ( known Bruce 's Tomb or The Harper 's Tomb due to its decoration ) is one of the largest tombs in the valley and is open to the public ; it is located close to the central ' rest – area ' and its location and superb decoration usually makes this one of the tombs visited by tourists .
The successors and offspring of Ramesses III constructed tombs that had straight axes and were decorated in much the same manner as each other ; notable amongst these is KV2 , the tomb of Ramesses IV , which has been open since antiquity , containing a large amount of hieratic graffiti . The tomb is mostly intact and is decorated with scenes from several religious texts . The joint tomb of Ramesses V and Ramesses VI , KV9 ( also known as the Tomb of Memnon or La Tombe de la Métempsychose ) , is decorated with many sunk @-@ relief carvings , depicting illustrated scenes from religious texts . Open since antiquity , it contains over a thousand graffiti in ancient Greek , Latin and Coptic . The spoil from the excavation and later clearance of this tomb , together with later construction of workers huts , covered the earlier burial of KV62 and seems to have been what protected that tomb from earlier discovery and looting .
The tomb of Ramesses IX , KV6 , has been open since antiquity , as can be seen by the graffiti left on its walls by Roman and Coptic visitors . Located in the central part of the valley , it stands between and slightly above KV5 and KV55 . The tomb extends a total distance of 105 metres into the hillside , including extensive side chambers that were neither decorated nor finished . The hasty and incomplete nature of the rock @-@ cutting and decorations ( it is only decorated for a little over half its length ) within the tomb indicate that the tomb was not completed by the time of Ramesses ' death , with the completed hall of pillars serving as the burial chamber .
Another notable tomb from this dynasty is KV19 , the tomb of Mentuherkhepshef ( son of Ramesses IX ) . The tomb is small and is simply a converted , unfinished corridor , but the decoration is extensive and the tomb has been newly restored and open for visitors .
= = = Twenty @-@ first Dynasty and the decline of the necropolis = = =
By the end of the New Kingdom , Egypt had entered a long period of political and economic decline . The priests at Thebes grew in power and effectively administered Upper Egypt , while kings ruling from Tanis controlled Lower Egypt . Some attempt at using the open tombs was made at the start of the Twenty @-@ first Dynasty , with the High Priest of Amun , Pinedjem I , adding his cartouche to KV4 . The Valley began to be heavily plundered , so during the Twenty @-@ first Dynasty the priests of Amun opened most of the tombs and moved the mummies into three tombs in order to better protect them , even removing most of their treasure in order to further protect the bodies from robbers . Most of these were later moved to a single cache near Deir el @-@ Bari ( known as TT320 ) ; located in the cliffs overlooking Hatshepsut 's famous temple , this mass reburial contained a large number of royal mummies . They were found in a great state of disorder , many placed in other 's coffins , and several are still unidentified . Other mummies were moved to the tomb of Amenhotep II , where over a dozen mummies , many of them royal , were later relocated .
During the later Third Intermediate Period and later periods , intrusive burials were introduced into many of the open tombs . In Coptic times , some of the tombs were used as churches , stables and even houses .
= = = Minor tombs in the Valley of the Kings = = =
The majority of the 65 numbered tombs in the Valley of the Kings can be considered as being minor tombs , either because at present they have yielded little information or because the results of their investigation was only poorly recorded by their explorers , while some have received very little attention or were only cursorily noted . Most of these tombs are small , often only consisting of a single burial chamber accessed by means of a shaft or a staircase with a corridor or a series of corridors leading to the chamber , but some are larger , multiple chambered tombs . These minor tombs served various purposes : some were intended for burials of lesser royalty or for private burials , some contained animal burials and others apparently never received a primary burial . In many cases these tombs also served secondary functions and later intrusive material has been found related to these secondary activities . While some of these tombs have been open since antiquity , the majority were discovered in the 19th and early 20th centuries during the height of exploration in the valley .
= = = Tomb robbers = = =
Almost all of the tombs have been ransacked . Several papyri have been found that describe the trials of tomb robbers ; these date mostly from the late Twentieth Dynasty . One of these ( Papyrus Mayer B ) describes the robbery of the tomb of Ramesses VI and was probably written in Year 9 of Ramesses IX :
The foreigner Nesamun took us up and showed us the tomb of King Ramesses VI ... And I spent four days breaking into it , we being present all five . We opened the tomb and entered it . ... We found a cauldron of bronze , three wash bowls of bronze ...
The valley also seems to have suffered an official plundering during the virtual civil war , which started in the reign of Ramesses XI . The tombs were opened , all the valuables removed , and the mummies collected into two large caches . One in the tomb of Amenhotep II , contained sixteen , and others were hidden within Amenhotep I 's tomb . A few years later most of them were moved to the Deir el @-@ Bahri cache , contained no less than forty royal mummies and their coffins . Only those tombs whose locations were lost ( KV62 , KV63 and KV46 , although both KV62 and KV46 were robbed soon after their actual closure ) were undisturbed in this period .
= = Tourism = =
Most of the tombs are not open to the public ( 18 of the tombs can be opened , but they are rarely open at the same time ) , and officials occasionally close those that are open for restoration work . The number of visitors to KV62 has led to a separate charge for entry into the tomb . The West Valley has only one open tomb — that of Ay — and a separate ticket is needed to visit this tomb . The tour guides are no longer allowed to lecture inside the tombs and visitors are expected to proceed quietly and in single file through the tombs . This is to minimize time in the tombs and prevent the crowds from damaging the surfaces of the decoration . Photography is no longer allowed in the tombs .
In 1997 , 58 tourists and four Egyptians were massacred at nearby Deir el @-@ Bahri by Islamist militants from Al @-@ Gama 'a al @-@ Islamiyya . This led to an overall drop in tourism in the area .
On most days of the week an average of four to five thousand tourists visit the main valley . On the days that the Nile Cruises arrive , the number can rise to over nine thousand . These levels are expected to rise to 25 @,@ 000 by 2015 . The West Valley is much less visited , as there is only one tomb that is open to the public .
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= Plymouth , Massachusetts =
Plymouth / ˈplɪməθ / ( historically known as Plimouth and Plimoth ) is a town in Plymouth County , Massachusetts , United States . Plymouth holds a place of great prominence in American history , folklore , and culture , and is known as " America 's Hometown . " Plymouth was the site of the colony founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims , passengers of the famous ship the Mayflower . Plymouth is where New England was first established . It is the oldest municipality in New England and one of the oldest in the United States . The town has served as the location of several prominent events , one of the more notable being the First Thanksgiving feast . Plymouth served as the capital of Plymouth Colony from its founding in 1620 until the colony 's merger with the Massachusetts Bay colony in 1691 . Plymouth is named after the English city of the same name .
Plymouth is the largest municipality in Massachusetts by area . The population is 58 @,@ 271 , according to the 2014 Demographics by Cubit . U.S. Census . Plymouth is one of two county seats of Plymouth County , the other being Brockton .
Plymouth is located approximately 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of Boston in a region of Massachusetts known as the South Shore . Throughout the 19th century , the town thrived as a center of ropemaking , fishing , and shipping , and once held the world 's largest ropemaking company , the Plymouth Cordage Company . It continues to be an active port , but today the major industry of Plymouth is tourism . Plymouth is served by Plymouth Municipal Airport , and contains Pilgrim Hall Museum , the oldest continually operating museum in the United States .
As one of the country 's first settlements , Plymouth is well known in the United States for its historical value . The events surrounding the history of Plymouth have become part of the ethos of the United States , particularly that relating to Plymouth Rock , the Pilgrims , and the First Thanksgiving . The town itself is a popular tourist spot during the Thanksgiving holiday . Plymouth is home to the Old Colony Club , one of the oldest Gentlemen 's clubs in the world .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ colonial era = = =
Prior to the arrival of the Pilgrims , the location of Plymouth was a village of 2 @,@ 000 Wampanoag Native Americans called Patuxet . This region that became Plymouth was visited twice by European explorers prior to the establishment of Plymouth Colony . In 1605 , Samuel de Champlain sailed to Plymouth Harbor , calling it Port St. Louis . Captain John Smith , a leader of the colony at Jamestown , Virginia , explored parts of Cape Cod Bay ; he is credited with naming the region " New Plimouth . "
Two plagues afflicted coastal New England in 1614 and 1617 , possibly transmitted from British and French fishermen to natives on the shore ( although no concrete evidence exists to prove such a connection ) . The plague killed between 90 % and 95 % of the local Wampanoag inhabitants . The near disappearance of the tribe from the site left their cornfields and cleared areas vacant for the Pilgrims to occupy ; it also meant that the Indians were in no condition to resist the arrival of the colonists .
= = = Colonial era = = =
Plymouth has played a very important role in American colonial history . It was the final landing site of the first voyage of the Mayflower , and the location of the original settlement of the Plymouth Colony . Plymouth was established in December 1620 by English separatist Puritans who had broken away from the Church of England , believing that the Church had not completed the work of the Protestant Reformation . Today , these settlers are much better known as " Pilgrims " , a term coined by William Bradford .
The Mayflower first anchored in what became the harbor of Provincetown , Massachusetts on November 11 , 1620 . The ship was headed for the mouth of the Hudson River near Manhattan , which was part of the Colony of Virginia at the time , but it eventually reached New England .
The Pilgrim settlers realized that they did not have a patent to settle in the region , so they signed the Mayflower Compact prior to disembarking . The Pilgrims explored various parts of Cape Cod , and eventually sought a suitable location for a permanent settlement to the westward in Cape Cod Bay . The Pilgrims eventually came across the sheltered waters of Plymouth Harbor on December 17 . The appealing protected bay led to a site in the present @-@ day Harbor District being chosen for the new settlement after three days of surveying .
The settlers officially disembarked on December 21 , 1620 . It is traditionally said that the Pilgrims first set foot in America at the site of Plymouth Rock , though no historical evidence can prove this claim . The settlers named their settlement " Plimouth " ( also historically known as " Plimoth " , an archaic English spelling of the name ) after the major port city in Devon , England from which the Mayflower ultimately sailed . ( Plymouth , Devon , United Kingdom was named after its location at mouth of the River Plym . )
= = = = First Winter = = = =
Plymouth faced many difficulties during its first winter , the most notable being the risk of starvation and the lack of suitable shelter . From the beginning , the assistance of Indians was vital . One colonist 's journal reports :
We marched to the place we called Cornhill , where we had found the corn before . At another place we had seen before , we dug and found some more corn , two or three baskets full , and a bag of beans .... In all we had about ten bushels , which will be enough for seed . It is with God 's help that we found this corn , for how else could we have done it , without meeting some Indians who might trouble us .
During their earlier exploration of the Cape , the Pilgrims had come upon an Indian burial site which contained corn , and they had taken the corn for future planting . On another occasion , they found an unoccupied house and had taken corn and beans , for which they made restitution with the occupants about six months later . Even greater assistance came from Samoset and Tisquantum ( better known as Squanto ) , an Indian sent by Wampanoag Tribe Chief Massasoit as an ambassador and technical adviser . Squanto had been kidnapped in 1614 by an English slave raider and sold in Málaga , Spain . He learned English , escaped slavery , and returned home in 1619 . He taught the colonists how to farm corn , where and how to catch fish , and other helpful skills for the New World . He also was instrumental in the survival of the settlement for the first two years .
Squanto and another guide sent by Massasoit in 1621 named Hobomok helped the colonists set up trading posts for furs . Chief Massasoit later formed a Peace Treaty with the Pilgrims . Upon growing a plentiful harvest in the fall of 1621 , the Pilgrims gathered with Squanto , Samoset , Massasoit , and ninety other Wampanoag men in a celebration of thanksgiving to God for their plentiful harvest . This celebration is known today as the First Thanksgiving , and is still commemorated annually in downtown Plymouth with a parade and a reenactment . Since 1941 , Thanksgiving has been observed as a federal holiday in the United States .
Plymouth served as the capital of Plymouth Colony ( which consisted of modern @-@ day Barnstable , Bristol , and Plymouth Counties ) from its founding in 1620 until 1691 , when the colony was merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony and other territories to form the Province of Massachusetts Bay . Plymouth holds the unique distinction of being the first permanent settlement in New England , and one of the oldest settlements in the United States .
= = = 19th century = = =
In the 1800s , Plymouth remained a relatively isolated seacoast town whose livelihood depended on fishing and shipping . The town eventually became a regional center of shipbuilding and fishing . Its principal industry was the Plymouth Cordage Company , which became the world 's largest manufacturer of rope and cordage products . The company was founded in 1824 . At one point , the longest ropewalk in the world , a quarter @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 4 km ) in length , was found on the Cordage Company 's site on the North Plymouth waterfront . It thrived into the 1960s , but was forced out of business in 1964 due to competition from synthetic @-@ fiber ropes . The refurbished factory , known as Cordage Commerce Center , is home to numerous offices , restaurants and stores .
= = = Modern history = = =
In the last 30 years , Plymouth has experienced rapid growth and development . As in many South Shore towns , Plymouth became more accessible to Boston in the early 1970s with improved railroads , highways , and bus routes . Furthermore , the town 's inexpensive land costs and low tax rates were factors in the town 's significant population rise . Plymouth 's population grew from 18 @,@ 606 residents in 1970 to 45 @,@ 608 residents in 1990 , a 145 % increase in 20 years . The population has continued to expand in recent years . While Plymouth has already surpassed several Massachusetts cities in population , the town is still officially regarded as a town , as it has not been re @-@ chartered as a city and continues to be governed by a board of selectmen rather than a mayor . Plymouth has emerged as a major economic and tourist center of the South Shore .
One of the largest towns in Massachusetts , Plymouth spans several exits on its main highway , Route 3 . Plymouth boasts several larger shopping plazas and the nearby Independence Mall in Kingston , MA , much of which has been built in just the past 5 years . As it has grown , additional access is possible via a recent extension to Plymouth 's second largest highway , U.S. Route 44 .
= = Geography = =
The latitude of Plymouth is 41 @.@ 95833 and its longitude is -70.66778 . According to the United States Census Bureau , the town has a total area of 134 @.@ 0 sq mi ( 347 km2 ) , of which 96 @.@ 5 sq mi ( 250 km2 ) is land , and 37 @.@ 5 sq mi ( 97 km2 ) ( 28 % ) is water .
With the largest land area of any municipality in Massachusetts , Plymouth consists of several neighborhoods and geographical sections . Larger localities in the town include Plymouth Center , North , West and South Plymouth , Manomet , Cedarville , and Saquish Neck .
Plymouth makes up the entire western shore of Cape Cod Bay . It is bordered on land by Bourne to the southeast , Wareham to the southwest , Carver to the west , and Kingston to the north . It also shares a small border with Duxbury at the land entrance of Saquish Neck . Plymouth 's border with Bourne makes up most of the line between Plymouth and Barnstable counties . The town is located roughly 44 miles ( 71 km ) southeast of Boston ( it is almost exactly 40 miles ( 64 km ) from Plymouth Rock to the Massachusetts State House ) and equidistantly east of Providence , Rhode Island .
Located in the Plymouth Pinelands , the town of Plymouth has many distinct geographical features . The town 's Atlantic coast is characterized by low plains , while its western sections are extremely hilly and forested . Plymouth contains several small ponds scattered throughout its western quadrant , the largest being the Great Herring Pond ( which is partly in the town of Bourne ) . A major feature of the town is the Myles Standish State Forest , which is in the southwestern region . Cachalot Scout Reservation , operated by the Cachalot District of the Narragansett Council of the Boy Scouts of America , lies adjacent to the state forest lands . There is also a smaller town forest , as well as several parks , recreation areas and beaches .
Plymouth has nine public beaches , the largest being Plymouth Beach . Plymouth Beach guards Plymouth Harbor and mostly consists of a three @-@ mile ( 5 km ) long , ecologically significant barrier beach . Clark 's Island , a small island in Plymouth Bay , is the only island in Plymouth . It is off the coast of Saquish Neck and has nine summer houses but no year @-@ round inhabitants .
= = Climate = =
Plymouth 's climate is a transitional humid continental / cold humid subtropical / marine type , which is the predominant climate for Massachusetts . Due to its location on the Atlantic Ocean , humidity levels can be very high year @-@ round . Plymouth 's coastal location causes it to experience warmer temperatures than many inland locations in New England . Summers are typically hot and humid , while winters are cold , windy and often snowy .
Plymouth 's warmest month is July , with an average high temperature of 80 @.@ 6 ° F ( 27 @.@ 0 ° C ) and an average low of 61 @.@ 6 ° F ( 16 @.@ 4 ° C ) . The coldest month is January , with an average high temperature of 38 @.@ 1 ° F ( 3 @.@ 4 ° C ) and an average low of 20 @.@ 1 ° F ( − 6 @.@ 6 ° C ) .
Much like the rest of the Northeastern seaboard , Plymouth receives ample amounts of precipitation year @-@ round . On average , summer months receive slightly less precipitation than winter months . Plymouth averages about 47 @.@ 4 inches ( 120 cm ) of rainfall a year . Plymouth , like other coastal Massachusetts towns , is very vulnerable to Nor 'easter weather systems . The town is sometimes vulnerable to Atlantic hurricanes and tropical storms , which infrequently threaten the Cape Cod region during the early autumn months .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 56 @,@ 468 people , 21 @,@ 269 households , and 14 @,@ 742 families residing in the town ; by population it is the second – largest town in Massachusetts , after Framingham . It is also the 21st – largest municipality in the state . The population density was 536 @.@ 0 inhabitants per square mile ( 207 @.@ 0 / km2 ) . There are 21 @,@ 250 housing units , at an average density of 85 @.@ 1 / km2 ( 220 / sq mi ) . The racial makeup of the town was 93 @.@ 8 % White , 2 @.@ 0 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 3 % Native American , 0 @.@ 9 % Asian , < 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 9 % from other races , and 1 @.@ 48 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1 @.@ 8 % of the population .
There are 21 @,@ 269 households out of which 29 @.@ 5 % have children under the age of 18 living with them , 54 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 10 @.@ 8 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 30 @.@ 7 % were non @-@ families . 23 @.@ 7 % of all households are made up of individuals , and 10 @.@ 0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size is 2 @.@ 55 and the average family size is 3 @.@ 04 .
In the town the population is spread out with 24 @.@ 3 % under the age of 20 , 10 @.@ 7 % from 20 to 29 , 28 @.@ 8 % from 30 to 49 , 22 @.@ 2 % from 50 to 64 , and 14 @.@ 1 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 41 @.@ 4 years .
The median income for a household in the town was $ 54 @,@ 677 as of the 2000 census , and the median income for a family was $ 63 @,@ 266 . Males had a median income of $ 44 @,@ 983 versus $ 31 @,@ 565 for females . The per capita income for the town was $ 23 @,@ 732 . About 4 @.@ 4 % of families and 5 @.@ 4 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 7 @.@ 1 % of those under age 18 and 6 @.@ 9 % of those age 65 or over .
= = Government = =
Plymouth is represented in the Massachusetts House of Representatives as a part of the First and Twelfth Plymouth Districts . The town is represented in the Massachusetts Senate as a part of the Plymouth and Barnstable district , which also includes Bourne , Falmouth , Kingston , Pembroke , Plympton , Sandwich , and part of Barnstable . On the state level , primary but shared patrolling responsibility of the town 's limited access highways falls upon the Seventh ( Bourne ) Barracks of Troop D of the Massachusetts State Police .
On the national level , Plymouth is a part of Massachusetts 's 9th congressional district , and is currently represented by William R. Keating . The state 's senior ( Class I ) member of the United States Senate is Elizabeth Warren . The state 's current junior ( Class II ) Senator is Edward Markey . On the local level , the town uses the representative town meeting form of government , led by a town manager and a board of selectmen . The current town manager of Plymouth is Melissa Arrighi .
Plymouth has a centralized municipal police force , the Plymouth Police Department . The town also has a professional fire department , with seven firehouses spread around the town . There are also six post offices for the town 's five ZIP codes , with one in the downtown area , one in North Plymouth , one in Manomet , one in White Horse Beach , one near the Plymouth County Jail , and one near the town forest in " The Village Green " shopping area of The Pinehills .
The town has a public library , with a branch location in Manomet . Both libraries are a part of the Old Colony Library Network , which services 28 libraries throughout the South Shore . Additionally , as a seat of Plymouth County , there are several county facilities located in Plymouth . These include a County farm , the Registry of Deeds , two jails ( the Massachusetts Correctional Institution - Plymouth and the Plymouth County Correctional Facility ) and the County Courthouse ..
= = Economy = =
Plymouth is an economic and tourism center of the South Shore . The major industry is tourism , with healthcare , technical and scientific research , real estate , and telecommunications also being primary industries . The largest employer in the town is Jordan Hospital .
Plymouth has experienced commercial and industrial success , with the downtown area and North Plymouth each becoming commercial centers and an industrial park opening outside of the town center . A large commercial project titled Colony Place located near the Industrial Park was completed in late 2007 . It consists of several large retail stores , various chain restaurants , and contains one of the largest outdoor designer outlet malls in the South Shore . Another large retail development that has recently finished construction off Route 3 's exit 5 is The Shops at 5 . The only nuclear power plant in Massachusetts , Pilgrim Nuclear Generating Station , is located in Plymouth .
Plymouth has also recently seen the development of several residential projects , among them The Pinehills , which consists of over 1 @,@ 000 residential units , two golf courses , a country club , and a shopping village . When completed in 2010 , it is expected to contain 2 @,@ 877 homes .
= = Education = =
Plymouth operates a large school system , with an enrollment over 8 @,@ 000 students . The Plymouth School District is one of the largest in the state , operating fourteen schools . This is larger than the Massachusetts average of eight schools . The school district operates 86 school buses under contract with First Student bus company .
The schools in Plymouth include the Mount Pleasant Preschool , eight elementary schools ( Cold Spring , Federal Furnace , Hedge , Indian Brook , Manomet , Nathanial Morton , South and West Elementaries ) which generally serve students from kindergarten to fifth grade , two middle schools that serve grades 5 – 8 , Plymouth Community Intermediate School ( PCIS ) and Plymouth South Middle School , and two high schools , Plymouth North and Plymouth South . Both high schools play in the Atlantic Coast League , and the two schools share a rivalry with each other . Students who decide to receive a technical education have the option of attending Plymouth South Technical School . There were also 120 home educated children in Plymouth as of 2011 .
There is also a charter school in the town , Rising Tide Charter Public School , which serves middle and high school @-@ aged students . Two special education schools , the Baird School and the Radius Pediatric School , are located in the town .
The town has two institutions of higher learning . Quincy College has a campus located in Cordage Park . The Plymouth campus opened in 1991 , and the college 's main campus is in Quincy . Curry College has a campus at the northern edge of Plymouth Center in the Citizens Bank building . The campus opened in 1994 , and the main campus is located in Milton . While the University of Massachusetts Boston does not have a campus in Plymouth , it offers some courses at another location in Cordage Park .
= = Healthcare = =
Plymouth is home to Beth Israel Deaconess - Plymouth Hospital ( Jordan Hospital ) , the largest hospital in the southern region of the South Shore . It is the only major healthcare provider in the town . The hospital is a community medical center serving twelve towns in Plymouth and Barnstable counties . It consists of more than 30 departments , with 150 patient beds . The hospital also offers a rehabilitation center in The Pinehills region .
While Beth Israel Deaconess - Plymouth Hospital ( Jordan Hospital ) is the only hospital in Plymouth . South Shore Hospital operates several offices and physician labs in South Pond . South Shore Hospital , in South Weymouth , is the largest hospital in southeastern Massachusetts .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Highways = = =
Plymouth lies along the " Pilgrims Highway " portion of Route 3 , which is the major route between Cape Cod and Boston . The town can be accessed from six exits on the highway , which is more than any other municipality along the Pilgrims Highway . Plymouth is also the eastern terminus of U.S. Route 44 . The route has changed recently , as a new divided highway section has linked it to Route 3 , before heading south and exiting at its old location before terminating at Route 3A , which more closely follows the shoreline and passes through Plymouth Center . Route 80 's western terminus is at its intersection with old Route 44 . Route 25 goes through a remote section of the town north of Buzzards Bay , but does not have an exit . Finally , the short Plimoth Plantation Highway allows easy access between Routes 3 and 3A , with an exit that allows direct entry to Plimoth Plantation 's parking area . The highway is north of Manomet and south of Plymouth Center .
= = = Rail = = =
Plymouth is one of two termini of the Kingston / Plymouth Old Colony Line of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority 's commuter rail , providing non @-@ peak service to Braintree and as far north as Boston 's South Station . The Plymouth MBTA station is near Cordage Park in North Plymouth , along Route 3A . ( The other terminus is in Kingston and has more frequent train arrivals and departures . Its station is behind the Independence Mall . ) No other railroad lines pass through the town .
= = = Ferry = = =
There is a seasonal ferry to Provincetown and several other excursion lines that offer cruises of Plymouth Bay and Cape Cod Bay . The ferry is operated by Capt. John Boats and offers one round trip daily from June to September . The ferry leaves from the State Wharf in Plymouth Center . In addition to the ferry , Plymouth Harbor offers service for harbor excursions , whale watching tours , and deep sea fishing .
= = = Bus = = =
The Plymouth & Brockton Street Railway Company offers scheduled service to Logan Airport , downtown Boston , Hyannis , and Provincetown . Buses can be boarded at the commuter parking lot at exit 5 off Route 3 , behind the McDonald 's rest stop . The Greater Attleboro Taunton Regional Transit Authority ( GATRA ) operates public transportation buses known as the Plymouth Area Link ( PAL ) throughout much of Plymouth and Kingston .
= = = Air = = =
The town is home to the Plymouth Municipal Airport , which lies on the border between Plymouth and Carver . Founded in 1931 , it offers scheduled service to Nantucket , as well as private service . The airport features a local restaurant and gift shop , but does not have an on @-@ site traffic control tower .
Barnstable Municipal Airport , in Hyannis , offers additional scheduled carrier service . The airport offers scheduled flight services to Nantucket , Martha 's Vineyard , Boston and New York City . It is approximately 30 mi ( 48 km ) from Plymouth .
The nearest national and international airport is Logan International Airport in Boston , roughly 43 mi ( 69 km ) away . T.F. Green Airport , a state airport located in Warwick , Rhode Island , is about 63 mi ( 101 km ) away .
= = Sports = =
Plymouth is the home of the New England Collegiate Baseball League 's Plymouth Pilgrims , who play their home games at Forges Field .
= = Points of interest = =
Promoted as America 's Hometown , Plymouth is a tourist destination noted for its heritage . The town is home to several notable sites .
= = = Plymouth Rock = = =
Plymouth Rock is one of Plymouth 's most famous attractions . Traditionally , the rock is said to be the disembarkation site of the Pilgrims . However , there is no historical evidence to support this belief . The first identification of Plymouth Rock as the actual landing site was made in 1741 by 94 @-@ year @-@ old Thomas Faunce , whose father had arrived in Plymouth in 1623 , three years after the arrival of the Mayflower . The rock is located roughly 650 feet ( 200 m ) from where the initial settlement was thought to be built .
Plymouth Rock became very famous after its identification as the supposed landing site of the Pilgrims , and was subsequently moved to a location in Plymouth Center . During the process , the rock split in two . It was later moved to Pilgrim Hall and then to a location under a granite Victorian Canopy , where it was easily accessible and subject to souvenir hunters . The rock was finally moved back to its original location along the town 's waterfront in 1921 . " Plymouth Rock " , a large boulder , now sits under the historic Plymouth Rock Portico . The Neo @-@ Classical Revival structure was designed by the highly influential architectural firm of McKim , Mead and White , designers of the Boston Public Library , Rhode Island State House and the former Pennsylvania Station in New York City . Built in 1921 the existing granite portico replaced an earlier Gothic Revival style monument designed by Hammatt Billings ( who also designed the National Monument to the Forefathers ) . In 1970 the Plymouth Rock Portico was listed in the National Register of Historic Places . The rock and portico are the centerpiece of Pilgrim Memorial State Park . The park is the smallest park in the Massachusetts state forest and park system , but is also the most heavily visited .
= = = Plimoth Plantation = = =
Plimoth Plantation is a living history museum located south of Plymouth Center . It consists of a re @-@ creation of the Plymouth settlement in 1627 , as well as a replica of a 17th @-@ century Wampanoag homesite . The museum features role playing tour guides , as well as a large crafts center . The Nye Barn , a replica of a 1627 farming homestead in Plymouth , is also part of the museum . The farm features several animals that would have been found in Plymouth Colony , but are very rare in modern times .
The museum opened in 1947 under the guidance of Henry Hornblower II , a wealthy Boston stockbroker who grew up in Plymouth . The museum originally consisted of the Mayflower II and a " First House " exhibit in Plymouth Center , but was expanded into a large fortified town and a Native American village by 1960 .
= = = Mayflower II = = =
The Mayflower II is a full @-@ size replica of the Mayflower , the ship which brought the Pilgrims to Plymouth in 1620 . It is located at the State Pier in Plymouth Center . The ship is open as a museum about the Pilgrims ' historic voyage from Plymouth , England , and is considered a faithful replica of the original Mayflower . It is officially a part of Plimoth Plantation .
The ship was built in Brixham , England in 1956 , and sailed to Plymouth across the Atlantic Ocean in 1957 by famous mariner Alan Villiers . The ship is still seaworthy , and routinely takes voyages around Plymouth Harbor . In the year 2007 , the Mayflower II celebrated the 50th anniversary of its arrival in Plymouth .
= = = Other sites = = =
= = = = Historic interest = = = =
In addition to the Plymouth Rock Memorial , several other monuments were constructed in celebration of Plymouth 's tricentennial . These include statues of Massasoit and William Bradford , and a sarcophagus containing the bones of the 51 Pilgrims who died in the winter of 1620 , which rests atop Cole 's Hill .
Pilgrim Hall Museum , founded in 1824 , is the oldest continually operating museum in the United States . It is located in Plymouth Center . Plymouth also features the National Monument to the Forefathers , which was dedicated in 1889 . Standing at 81 feet ( 25 m ) tall , it is the tallest free @-@ standing solid granite monument in the United States . Other notable historical sites include the Jenney Grist Mill , a working replica of an original mill built in 1636 , as well as the 1640 Richard Sparrow House , the oldest house still standing in Plymouth . At the edge of the town on Route 80 is Parting Ways , a 94 @-@ acre ( 380 @,@ 000 m2 ) site that is notable for containing the remains of four former slaves who fought in the American Revolutionary War and their families . Other historic houses include the Mayflower House Museum .
There are 21 locations in Plymouth that appear on the National Register of Historic Places , including Plymouth Rock , Cole 's Hill , and Pilgrim Hall .
= = = = Parks and recreation = = = =
Myles Standish State Forest , the Commonwealth 's second largest state forest , is located in Plymouth . It is a camping and hiking destination , and contains 16 freshwater lakes and ponds . Ellisville Harbor State Park , located in the extreme southern portion of the town , contains a natural beach inside Cape Cod Bay . Plymouth is also home to 11 public and private golf courses , which include Squirrel Run , Pinehills , Plymouth Country Club , and Southers Marsh , a course that runs through a series of actively maintained cranberry bogs .
= = = = Entertainment = = = =
Plymouth is also home to a vibrant music and arts community , including the Plymouth Center for the Arts , the Driftwood Folk Cafe , and three free summer concert series : The Project Arts Wednesday night series , the L. Knife and Son Thursday night series , and the Plymouth Independent Music Festival .
= = Notable people = =
Chris Alberghini , television producer @-@ writer , born in Plymouth
Oliver Ames , Jr . , railroad official , former resident of Plymouth
John Bartlett , publisher of Bartlett 's Familiar Quotations , born in Plymouth
Amy Lynn Baxter , adult film star and nude model , born in Plymouth
Jamie P. Chandler , political commentator and author , born in Plymouth
David Chokachi , actor , born in Plymouth
Ken Coleman , sportscaster , died in Plymouth
Nancy Darsch , WNBA Coach , current resident of Plymouth
Thomas Davee , United States Representative from Maine , born in Plymouth
Gary DiSarcina , former shortstop for the California Angels and manager of the single @-@ A team Lowell Spinners , currently resides in Plymouth .
Dave Farrell , bassist with Linkin Park , born in Plymouth
Peter J. Gomes , preacher and theologian at Harvard Divinity School , resident of Plymouth
Glen Gray , saxophonist , leader of the Casa Loma Orchestra , born in Plymouth
Dick Gregory , comedian , activist and nutritionist , current resident of Plymouth
Pee Wee Hunt , trombonist and co @-@ founder of the Casa Loma Orchestra , died in Plymouth
Frederic Augustus Lucas , Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences museum director , author of many scientific papers , born in Plymouth
Aaron Matson , a United States Representative from New Hampshire , born in Plymouth
Violet Mersereau , silent film actress , died in Plymouth
Warren G. Phillips , Inducted into the National Teachers Hall of Fame in 2010 , taught in Plymouth
Henry Picard , Professional golfer , won The Masters Tournament
Chris Raab , Member of the CKY crew .
Beatrice Roberts , film actress
Michael Sweet , Stryper lead vocalist and lead and rhythm guitars , resident of Plymouth
James Warren , president of the Massachusetts provincial legislature and prominent colonial @-@ era politician .
= = Twin and sister cities = =
Since 2001 , Plymouth has shared a twin @-@ city status with : Plymouth , Devon , United Kingdom . In addition , since 1990 , Plymouth has shared a sister @-@ city status with Shichigahama , Miyagi Prefecture , Japan .
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