page
stringlengths 23
146k
|
|---|
= Aberdaron =
Aberdaron is a community and former fishing village at the western tip of the Llŷn Peninsula ( Welsh : Penrhyn Llŷn ) in the Welsh county of Gwynedd . It lies 14 @.@ 8 miles ( 23 @.@ 8 km ) west of Pwllheli and 33 @.@ 5 miles ( 53 @.@ 9 km ) south west of Caernarfon , and has a population of 965 . It is sometimes referred to as the " Land 's End of Wales " , or in Welsh Pendraw 'r Byd ( roughly " far end of the world " ) . The community includes Bardsey Island ( Welsh : Ynys Enlli ) , the coastal area around Porthor , and the villages of Anelog , Llanfaelrhys , Penycaerau , Rhoshirwaun , Rhydlios , Uwchmynydd and Y Rhiw .
Y Rhiw and Llanfaelrhys have long been linked by sharing rectors and by their close proximity , but were originally ecclesiastical parishes in themselves . The parish of Bodferin / Bodverin was assimilated in the 19th century . The village was the last rest stop for pilgrims heading to Bardsey Island ( Ynys Enlli ) , the legendary " island of 20 @,@ 000 saints " . In the 18th and 19th centuries it developed as a shipbuilding centre and port . The mining and quarrying industries became major employers , and limestone , lead , jasper and manganese ( " Mango " ) were exported . There are the ruins of an old pier running out to sea at Porth Simdde , which is the local name for the west end of Aberdaron Beach . After the Second World War the mining industry collapsed , and Aberdaron gradually developed into a holiday resort . The beach was awarded a Seaside Award in 2008 .
The coastal waters are part of Pen Llŷn a 'r Sarnau Special Area of Conservation ( Welsh : Ardal Cadwraeth Arbennig Pen Llŷn a 'r Sarnau ) , one of the largest marine designated sites in the United Kingdom . The coast itself forms part of the Aberdaron Coast and Bardsey Island Special Protection Area ( Welsh : Ardal Gwarchodaeth Arbennig Glannau Aberdaron ac Ynys Enlli ) , and was designated a Heritage Coast in 1974 . In 1956 the area was included in Llŷn Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( Welsh : Ardal o Harddwch Naturiol Eithriadol Llŷn ) . Conservation Areas have been created in Aberdaron , Bardsey Island and Y Rhiw ; and the area has been designated a Landscape of Historic Interest .
= = Etymology = =
Aberdaron means " Mouth of the Daron River " , a reference to the Afon Daron ( English : River Daron ) which flows into Bae Aberdaron ( English : Aberdaron Bay ) in the village .
= = History = =
The area around Aberdaron has been inhabited by people for millennia . Evidence from the Iron Age hillfort at Castell Odo , on Mynydd Ystum , shows that some phases of its construction began unusually early , in the late Bronze Age , between 2850 and 2650 years before present ( BP ) . The construction was wholly defensive , but in later phases defence appears to have been less important , and in the last phase the fort 's ramparts were deliberately flattened , suggesting there was no longer a need for defence . It appears that Aberdaron became a peaceful farming community . Ptolemy calls the Llŷn Peninsula " Ganganorum Promontorium " ( English : Peninsula of the Gangani ) ; the Gangani were a tribe of Irish Celts , and it is thought there may have been strong ties with Leinster .
The church at Aberdaron had the ancient privilege of sanctuary . In 1094 Gruffudd ap Cynan , the exiled King of Gwynedd , sought refuge in the church while attempting to recapture his throne ; he escaped in the monastic community 's boat to Ireland . He regained his territories in 1101 , and in 1115 Gruffydd ap Rhys , the exiled prince of Deheubarth , took refuge at Aberdaron to escape capture by Gwynedd 's ruler . Henry I of England had invaded Gwynedd the previous year , and faced by an overwhelming force , Gruffudd ap Cynan had been forced to pay homage and a substantial fine to Henry . The King of Gwynedd , seeking to give up the exiled prince to Henry , ordered that the fugitive prince be dragged from the church by force , but his soldiers were beaten back by the local clergy ; Gruffydd ap Rhys escaped under cover of night and fled south to join up with his supporters in Ystrad Tywi .
Following the conquest of Gwynedd , in 1284 , Edward I set about touring his new territories . He visited the castles at Conwy and Caernarfon . Court was held at Nefyn , at which his new subjects were expected to demonstrate their loyalty ; and he visited Aberdaron on his way to Bardsey Abbey .
The medieval townships of Aberdaron were Isseley ( Bugelis , Rhedynfra , Dwyros , Anhegraig , Cyllyfelin , Gwthrian , Deuglawdd and Bodernabdwy ) , Uwchseley ( Anelog , Pwlldefaid , Llanllawen , Ystohelig , Bodermid , Trecornen ) , Ultradaron ( Penrhyn , Cadlan , Ysgo , Llanllawen ) , and Bodrydd ( Penycaerau , Bodrydd , Bodwyddog ) . These locatives predate the idea of the modern ecclesiastical parish . Some were or became hamlets in themselves , whereas others have subsequently been divided - for example the modern Bodrydd Farm is only a part of the medieval township .
After the English Civil War , when the Parliamentarians under Oliver Cromwell introduced a strongly Protestant regime , Catholicism remained the dominant religion in the area . Catholics , who had largely supported the Royalist side , were often considered to be traitors and efforts were made to eradicate the religion . The persecution even extended to Aberdaron , and in 1657 , Gwen Griffiths of Y Rhiw was summoned to the Quarter Sessions as a " papist " .
Agricultural improvement and the Industrial Revolution came to Aberdaron in the 19th century . The Inclosure ( Consolidation ) Act 1801 was intended to make it easier for landlords to enclose and improve common land , introduce increased efficiency , bring more land under the plough , and reduce the high prices of agricultural production . Rhoshirwaun Common , following strong opposition , was enclosed in 1814 ; while the process was not completed in Aberdaron , Llanfaelrhys and Y Rhiw until 1861 . On the industrial front , mining developed as a major source of employment , especially at Y Rhiw , where manganese was discovered in 1827 .
During the Second World War , Y Rhiw played a vital role in preparations for the Normandy landings . A team of electronic engineers set up an experimental ultra high frequency radio station , from where they were able to make a direct link to stations in Fishguard ( Welsh : Abergwaun ) and Llandudno . The system employed a frequency that the German forces were unable to either monitor or jam , and was used in the 1944 landings .
= = Governance = =
Aberdaron , Bardsey Island , Bodferin , Llanfaelrhys and Y Rhiw were civil parishes in the commote of Cymydmaen within Cantref Llŷn , in Caernarfonshire . Following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 , parishes were grouped into " unions " : Pwllheli Poor Law Union was created in 1837 . Under the Public Health Act 1848 the area of the poor law union became Pwllheli Rural Sanitary District , which from 1889 formed a second tier of local government under Caernarfonshire County Council . Y Rhiw was absorbed into the smaller Llanfaelrhys in 1886 ; and under the Local Government Act 1894 the four remaining parishes became part of Llŷn Rural District ( Welsh : Dosbarth Gwledig Llŷn ) . Bodferin , Llanfaelrhys , and parts of Bryncroes and Llangwnnadl , were amalgamated into Aberdaron in 1934 . Llŷn Rural District was abolished in 1974 , and Bardsey Island was absorbed into Aberdaron to form a community within Dwyfor District in the new county of Gwynedd ; Dwyfor was abolished as a local authority area when Gwynedd became a unitary authority in 1996 .
The community now forms an electoral division of Gwynedd Council , electing one councillor ; William Gareth Roberts of Plaid Cymru was re @-@ elected in 2008 . Aberdaron Community Council has 12 elected members , who represent three wards : Aberdaron De ( English : Aberdaron South ) , Aberdaron Dwyrain ( English : Aberdaron East ) and Aberdaron Gogledd ( English : Aberdaron North ) . Ten Independent councillors and one from Plaid Cymru were elected unopposed in the 2008 election .
From 1950 , Aberdaron was part of Caernarfon parliamentary constituency . In 2010 , the community was transferred to Dwyfor Meirionnydd constituency , represented by Elfyn Llwyd of Plaid Cymru . In the National Assembly for Wales it has , since 2007 , formed part of Dwyfor Meirionnydd assembly constituency , represented by Dafydd Elis @-@ Thomas , also of Plaid Cymru , who until 2011 was the Presiding Officer of the assembly . The constituency forms part of the electoral region of Mid and West Wales .
= = Geography = =
Aberdaron stands on the shore of Bae Aberdaron ( English : Aberdaron Bay ) in a small valley at the confluence of the Afon Daron and Afon Cyll @-@ y @-@ Felin , between the headlands of Uwchmynydd to the west , and Trwyn y Penrhyn to the east . At the mouth of the bay stand two islands , Ynys Gwylan @-@ Fawr and Ynys Gwylan @-@ Fach , which together are known as Ynysoedd Gwylanod ( English : Seagull Islands ) . Gwylan @-@ Fawr reaches 108 feet ( 33 metres ) in height . The Llŷn Peninsula is a marine eroded platform , an extension of the Snowdonia ( Welsh : Eryri ) massif , with a complex geology including Precambrian rocks . The coastline is rocky , with crags , screes and low cliffs ; heather covered hills are separated by valleys occupied by pastures .
To the east , Mynydd Rhiw , Mynydd y Graig and Mynydd Penarfynydd form a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long series of hog @-@ back ridges of igneous rock that reaches the sea at Trwyn Talfarach . Above 800 feet ( 240 m ) the ridges are topped by hard gabbro . At its northern end Mynydd Rhiw rises to 997 feet ( 304 m ) and is a Marilyn . The outcrop of Clip y Gylfinhir ( English : Curlew 's Crag ) looming above the village of Y Rhiw . Mynydd Penarfynydd is one of the best exposures of intrusive , layered , igneous rock in the British Isles .
East of Y Rhiw is an extensive low @-@ lying plateau between 65 feet ( 20 m ) and 100 feet ( 30 m ) above sea level . The coastal rock is softer here , and the sea has been free to erode the rock and boulder clay to form sand , resulting in the spacious beach of Porth Neigwl ( or Hell 's Mouth ) .
West of Aberdaron , four peaks rise above the rocky shoreline at Uwchmynydd . Mynydd Anelog stands 627 feet ( 191 m ) high , and another Marilyn , Mynydd Mawr at 525 feet ( 160 m ) , Mynydd y Gwyddel rises to 295 feet ( 90 m ) and Mynydd Bychestyn is 330 feet ( 100 m ) above sea level .
Bardsey Island ( Welsh : Ynys Enlli ) lies 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 km ) off Pen y Cil . The island is 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 @.@ 0 km ) wide and 1 @.@ 0 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long . The north east rises steeply from the sea to a height of 548 feet ( 167 m ) . The western plain , in contrast , comprises low , and relatively flat , cultivated farmland ; in the south the island narrows to an isthmus , connecting to a peninsula .
The coast around Aberdaron has been the scene of many shipwrecks . In 1822 , the Bardsey Island lighthouse tender was wrecked , with the loss of six lives ; and in 1752 , the schooner John the Baptist , carrying a cargo of oats from Wexford to Liverpool , was wrecked on the beach at Aberdaron . The sailing ship Newry , with 400 passengers bound from Warrenpoint to Québec , was wrecked at Porth Orion in 1880 . The crew abandoned the passengers , leaving just the captain , ship 's mate and one sailor , assisted by three local men , to lead 375 men , women and children to safety . A great storm swept the country on 26 October 1859 and many ships were lost : nine were wrecked at Porthor , seven of them with complete loss of life . On the south coast , vessels were often driven ashore at Porth Neigwl by a combination of south westerly gales and treacherous offshore currents . The Transit was lost in 1839 , the Arfestone the following year , and the Henry Catherine in 1866 . The bay earned its English title , " Hell 's Mouth " , from its reputation for wrecks during the days of the sailing ship .
Aberdaron is noted for low levels of air pollution . The Gwynedd State of the Environment Report in 2004 found levels of sulfur dioxide , nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide very low , and particulates to be low . It is one of the few sites in the United Kingdom for golden hair lichen , a striking bright orange lichen that is very sensitive to air pollution . The climate is relatively mild and , because of the Gulf Stream , frosts are rare in winter .
= = Economy = =
Sheep have been raised in the Llŷn Peninsula for over a thousand years , and Aberdaron has produced and exported wool for many years . The main product locally was felt , produced by soaking the cloth in water and beating it with large wooden paddles until the wool formed a thick mat which could be flattened , dried and cut into lengths . There were two fulling mills on the Afon Daron , in addition to three corn mills , and lichen was gathered around Y Rhiw , from which a grey dye was extracted . Arable crops consisted mainly of wheat , barley , oats and potatoes . The field boundaries date back several centuries and are marked by walls , cloddiau and hedgerows ; important habitats for a variety of wildlife .
Wrecking and smuggling supplemented local incomes . In 1743 John Roberts and Huw Bedward from Y Rhiw were found guilty of the murder of two shipwrecked sailors on the beach at Porth Neigwl on 6 January 1742 , and hanged ; Jonathan Morgan had been killed by a knife thrust into the nape of his neck , and Edward Halesham , described as a boy , had been choked to death . A ship claimed to be from France unloaded illicit tea and brandy at Aberdaron in 1767 , and attempted to sell its cargo to the locals ; a Revenue cutter discovered salt being smuggled at Porth Cadlan in 1809 ; and a schooner en route from Guernsey to Scotland was reported to have offloaded lace , tea , brandy and gin at Y Rhiw in 1824 .
During the 19th century good quality limestone and a small amount of lead ore were quarried in the village . Jasper was mined at Carreg ; granite was quarried at Porth y Pistyll ; and there was a brickworks at Porth Neigwl . The main source of income , however , was herring fishing . A regular shipping service was operated to Liverpool , exporting pigs , poultry and eggs ; the vessels returned laden with coal for the neighbourhood . Limestone was also imported and offloaded into the water at high tide , then collected from the beach when the tide went out . Lime was needed to reduce the acidity of the local soil , and lime kilns were built on the beaches at Porthor , Porth Orion , Porth Meudwy , Aberdaron and Y Rhiw to convert the limestone to quicklime . There was shipbuilding at Porth Neigwl , where the last ship , a sloop named the Ebenezer , was built in 1841 ; and at Porthor , which came to an end with the building of a schooner , the Sarah , in 1842 . Aberdaron 's last ship , the sloop Victory , had been built in 1792 , and the last ship to come out of Porth Ysgo had been another sloop , the Grace , in 1778 .
The outbreak of the First World War resulted in a great demand for manganese as a strengthening agent for steel . Ore had been discovered at Y Rhiw in 1827 , and the industry became a substantial employer in the village ; over 113 @,@ 000 long tons ( 115 @,@ 000 t ) of ore were extracted between 1840 and 1945 , and in 1906 the industry employed 200 people .
Tourism began to develop after 1918 . The first tourist guide to the village was published in 1910 and extolled the virtues of " the salubrious sea and mountain breezes " ; in addition to the two hotels in the village , local farmhouses took in visitors , which provided an extra source of income .
At the 2001 census , 59 @.@ 4 per cent of the population were in employment , and 23 @.@ 5 per cent were self @-@ employed ; the unemployment rate was 2 @.@ 3 per cent ; and 16 @.@ 0 per cent were retired . Of those employed , 17 @.@ 7 per cent worked in agriculture ; 15 @.@ 8 per cent in the wholesale and retail trades ; 10 @.@ 7 per cent in construction ; and 10 @.@ 5 per cent in education . Those working from home amounted to 32 @.@ 3 per cent ; 15 @.@ 2 per cent travelled less than 6 @.@ 2 miles ( 10 km ) to their place of work ; and 23 @.@ 6 per cent travelled more than 25 miles ( 40 km ) . The community is included in Pwllheli and Llŷn Regeneration Area and was identified in the Welsh Index of Multiple Deprivation 2005 as the electoral division in Gwynedd with least access to services ; and was ranked 13th in Wales . An agricultural census in 2000 recorded 33 @,@ 562 sheep , 4 @,@ 380 calves , 881 beef cattle , 607 dairy cattle , and 18 pigs ; there were 310 acres ( 130 ha ) of growing crops .
= = Demography = =
Aberdaron had a population of 1 @,@ 019 in 2001 , of which 20 @.@ 6 per cent were below the age of 16 , and 18 @.@ 7 per cent were over 64 years of age . Owner occupiers inhabited 53 @.@ 7 per cent of the dwellings ; and 21 @.@ 7 per cent were rented ; 19 @.@ 6 per cent were holiday homes . Central heating was installed in 62 @.@ 8 per cent of dwellings ; but 2 @.@ 4 per cent were without sole use of a bath , shower or toilet . The proportion of households without use of a vehicle was 14 @.@ 3 per cent ; but 40 @.@ 9 per cent had two or more . The population was predominantly white British ; 97 @.@ 8 per cent identified themselves as such ; 71 @.@ 9 per cent were born in Wales ; and 26 @.@ 9 per cent in England . The 2011 census revealed that 73 @.@ 5 % of residents identify themselves as Welsh speakers .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Aberdaron = = =
Two stone bridges , Pont Fawr ( English : Large Bridge ) and Pont Fach ( English : Small Bridge ) , built in 1823 , cross the Afon Daron and Afon Cyll y Felin in the centre of Aberdaron . Beyond the bridges the road opens up to create a small market square . The Old Post Office was designed by Portmerion architect , Clough Williams @-@ Ellis .
Y Gegin Fawr ( English : The Big Kitchen ) was built in the 13th century as a communal kitchen where pilgrims could claim a meal on their way to Bardsey Island . Aberdaron was the last place on the route for rest and refreshment and pilgrims often had to wait weeks in the village for a chance to cross the treacherous waters of Bardsey Sound ( Welsh : Swnt Enlli ) .
Next to the car park is a field , Cae y Grogbren ( English : Gallows Field ) , near which is a large red rock . In the Middle Ages , the abbot from the monastery on Bardsey Island visited the rock to dispense justice to local criminals ; if they were found guilty , the wrongdoer would be hanged and thrown into Pwll Ddiwaelod ( English : The Bottomless Pool ) . The pool is a kettle lake , formed at the end of the Ice Age , when blocks of ice were trapped underground and melted to form round , deep pools .
Above the village , on the Afon Daron , stands Bodwrdda , an early @-@ 16th century stone @-@ built house , which had a fulling mill adjacent ; two large brick @-@ built wings were added later , giving an imposing three @-@ storey facade containing 17th century windows . To the south , Penrhyn Mawr is a substantial late @-@ 18th century gable @-@ fronted farmhouse .
= = = Bardsey Island = = =
Bardsey Island ( Welsh : Ynys Enlli ) , 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) off the mainland , was inhabited in Neolithic times , and traces of hut circles remain . During the 5th century the island became a refuge for persecuted Christians , and a small Celtic monastery existed . Saint Cadfan arrived from Brittany in 516 and , under his guidance St Mary 's Abbey was built . For centuries the island was important as " the holy place of burial for all the bravest and best in the land " . Bards called it " the land of indulgences , absolution and pardon , the road to Heaven , and the gate to Paradise " ; and in medieval times three pilgrimages to Bardsey Island were considered to be of equivalent benefit to the soul as one to Rome . In 1188 the abbey was still a Celtic institution , but by 1212 it belonged to the Augustinians . Many people still walk to Aberdaron and Uwchmynydd each year in the footsteps of the saints , although today only ruins of the old abbey 's 13th @-@ century bell tower remain . A Celtic cross amidst the ruins commemorates the 20 @,@ 000 saints reputed to be buried on the island .
The island was declared a national nature reserve in 1986 , and is part of Aberdaron Coast and Bardsey Island Special Protection Area ( Welsh : Ardal Gwarchodaeth Arbennig Glannau Aberdaron ac Ynys Enlli ) . It is now a favourite bird @-@ watching location , on the migration routes of thousands of birds . Bardsey Bird and Field Observatory ( Welsh : Gwylfa Maes ac Adar Ynys Enlli ) , founded in 1953 , nets and rings 8 @,@ 000 birds each year to understand their migration patterns .
Bardsey Island Trust ( Welsh : Ymddiriedolaeth Ynys Enlli ) bought the island in 1979 , after an appeal supported by the Church in Wales ( Welsh : Yr Eglwys yng Nghymru ) and many Welsh academics and public figures . The trust is financed through membership subscriptions , grants and donations , and is dedicated to protecting the wildlife , buildings and archaeological sites of the island ; promoting its artistic and cultural life ; and encouraging people to visit as a place of natural beauty and pilgrimage . When , in 2000 , the trust advertised for a tenant for the 440 acres ( 180 ha ) sheep farm on the island , they had 1 @,@ 100 applications . The tenancy is now held by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds ; and the land is managed to maintain the natural habitat . Oats , turnips and swedes are grown ; goats , ducks , geese and chickens kept ; and there is a mixed flock of sheep and Welsh Black cattle .
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society has been working on cetaceans in the region . Several species , most notably bottlenose dolphins can be observed from the shores .
= = = Llanfaelrhys = = =
Porth Ysgo , owned by the National Trust , is reached by a steep slope from Llanfaelrhys , 3 @.@ 3 miles ( 5 @.@ 3 km ) east of Aberdaron , past a disused manganese mine in Nant y Gadwen . The mine employed 200 people in 1906 ; the ore was used as a strengthening agent for steel . The mine closed in 1927 , and produced 45 @,@ 644 long tons ( 46 @,@ 376 t ) in its lifetime . Where the path from Ysgo reaches the beach , a waterfall , Pistyll y Gaseg , tumbles over the cliff . At the eastern end of the bay is Porth Alwm , where the stream from Nant y Gadwen flows into the sea . The south @-@ facing beach is composed of fine , firm sand .
To the west , King Arthur 's last battle against his arch enemy , Mordred , was supposedly fought in the fields around Porth Cadlan . Offshore lies a rock , Maen Gwenonwy , named after Arthur 's sister .
Lladron Maelrhys are two large stones on the border between Llanfaelrhys and Y Rhiw . It is claimed that , years ago , thieves broke into St Maelrhys Church , intent on stealing money . Caught in the act , they fled for their lives but were caught as they approached Y Rhiw , and killed on the spot ; the stones mark their burial place . Another version claims that as they crossed the parish boundary they were turned to stone for their sacrilege .
= = = Porthor = = =
Porthor ( English : Whistling Sands ) is a cove 3 @.@ 2 miles ( 5 @.@ 1 km ) north of Aberdaron that has smooth white sand ; when dry , the sand whistles , or squeaks , underfoot . The crescent @-@ shaped beach is backed by steep cliffs of relatively hard rock , from which the cove has been sculpted by the rough seas . The bay is the centre of a National Trust estate which consists of 420 acres ( 170 ha ) of shoreline , headland and farmland , and includes Mynydd Carreg and Mynydd Anelog .
On the hill summits that dot the headlands are heather and gorse , shaped by the prevailing wind ; thrift and wild thyme thrive on the acidic soil . The cliffs are a stronghold of the chough , and a nesting place for razorbills and guillemots . On the lower rocks , in reach of the waves , are plentiful lichens , seaweeds , sponges , limpets and barnacles .
To the south are Dinas Bach and Dinas Mawr , twin peninsulas formed from weathered pillow lavas 600 million years old , thought to have been early fortified sites from the Iron Age . Kittiwakes , cormorants and shags can be seen on the cliffs , while farm birds such as the yellowhammer frequent the gorse . On Mynydd Anelog , experimental plots have been marked out to monitor different methods of managing heather to discover the best way the habitat can be conserved for the future .
North of Porthor is Porth Iago , a south @-@ facing narrow inlet and rocky cove , which has a small beach and steep cliffs .
= = = Rhoshirwaun = = =
Rhoshirwaun lies 2 @.@ 1 miles ( 3 @.@ 4 km ) to the north east of Aberdaron , and was formerly a marshy area . It provided fuel from peat cuttings , pasture for animals and accommodated squatters , mainly fishermen , who had encroached on the common with the tacit acceptance of the community . An inclosure act was drawn up in 1802 , designed to remove all squatters who had been there less than 20 years . Resistance to the evictions was fierce and was only suppressed by a contingent of dragoons . The act was finally applied in 1814 ; new roads were built across the moor ; boundaries were established ; allotments allocated ; and wetland reclaimed .
Castell Odo , on Mynydd Ystum , is one of Europe 's earliest Iron Age Settlements , standing 480 feet ( 150 m ) above sea level . The hillfort , 165 feet ( 50 m ) in diameter , has visible traces of eight circular huts ; pottery found on the site dates from 425 BC . Legend has it that a giant , Odo Gawr , is buried under a cairn of stones on the summit ; nearby is a huge rock known as Carreg Samson , supposedly thrown from Uwchmynydd by Samson . The holes in the rock are said to be the imprint of his fingers ; a pot of gold reputedly lies underneath .
To the east of the village , Felin Uchaf is an educational centre exploring ways of living and working in partnership with the environment . Developed on a redundant farm , it provides residential courses in rural skills and sustainable agriculture . A traditional Iron Age roundhouse has been built on the site .
= = = Uwchmynydd = = =
Uwchmynydd , 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) to the south west of Aberdaron , has a long history of human settlement . Mesolithic flints have been found in the area , and a Neolithic stone axe was discovered on Mynydd Mawr . Hut circles are visible on the summits , and part of a Roman anchor was recovered off Trwyn Bychestyn .
At Mynydd Mawr the picnic site has views which , on a fine day , take in Cardigan Bay ( Welsh : Bae Ceredigion ) , Bardsey Island and the Wicklow Mountains ( Irish : Sléibhte Chill Mhantáin ) ; at night , South Stack Lighthouse ( Welsh : Goleudy Ynys Lawd ) is visible in the distance . A road to the summit , owned by the National Trust , was built during the Second World War to provide access to the heights , where men were posted to give early warning to Liverpool of Luftwaffe air raids . The former Coastguard lookout point , manned for almost 80 years before becoming redundant in 1990 , provides views over Bardsey Sound to the island . The hut contains an exhibition to the natural history of the area , and a mural created by local children .
The headland at Braich y Pwll is the only known location on the British mainland of the spotted rock rose , which produces bright yellow petals that last only one day . The coast here has open grass heath land and mountain , giving way to rugged sea cliffs and coves . There is a profusion of wildlife , and it is an ideal vantage point to watch the spring and autumn bird migrations . Choughs , peregrine falcons , kestrels , puffins , stonechats , guillemots and Manx shearwaters can be seen , and dolphins , porpoises and seals can be spotted in the water .
Above the sea cliffs are the remains of Capel Mair ( English : St Mary 's Chapel ) , where it was customary for pilgrims to invoke the protection of the Virgin Mary before making the dangerous crossing to Bardsey Island . At the foot of Mynydd Mawr is Ffynnon Fair ( English : St Mary 's Well ) , the last stop for pilgrims crossing to the island ; the well is a freshwater spring which is covered twice daily by the sea , emerging from the ebbing tide with crystal clear water .
Cwrt ( English : Court ) , now a large farm , was the administrative centre of Bardsey Abbey 's mainland estates , and was known as the " Court of Bardsey " . The steepest cliffs in the Llŷn Peninsula are at Y Parwyd , the scene of a local ghost story . In 1794 a newly married couple moved into a cottage nearby . Within a few years they were disturbed by a phantom , but when they read a verse from the Bible , the phantom would retreat towards Y Parwyd and hover over the cliff edge before disappearing ; the couple finally moved to Bodferin . In 1801 a ship pilot was put ashore on the rocks below the cliffs . Although very drunk , he managed to climb the cliff face and , reaching the top , fell asleep in a sheep pen . In the early morning , he awoke and , still drunk , headed for home ; he walked in the wrong direction , however , and disappeared over the cliff edge into the sea .
The traditional embarkation point for pilgrims crossing to Bardsey Island was at Porth Meudwy ( English : Hermit 's Cove ) , now a lobster fishing cove . Further south is Porth y Pistyll , which has good views of Ynysoedd Gwylanod , home to puffin and guillemot colonies ; and Pen y Cil , where the Precambrian pillow lavas are exposed , revealing how they have been contorted over time .
= = = Y Rhiw = = =
The mountain @-@ top hamlet of Y Rhiw is 3 @.@ 9 miles ( 6 @.@ 3 km ) to the east . There are fine views of Llŷn towards Snowdonia ( Welsh : Eryri ) . On the slopes of Mynydd Rhiw is a late Stone Age burial chamber , and Neolithic quarries . Nearby on Mynydd y Graig are three hillforts , several hut circles and terraced fields that are thought to date from the late Iron Age ; in 1955 a Bronze Age cinerary urn was uncovered in the village .
Plas yn Rhiw , owned by the National Trust , is an early @-@ 17th century house that was restored by the Keating sisters in 1939 , with advice from Clough Williams @-@ Ellis . It is believed that the house is on or near the site of an earlier defended house , built by Meirion Goch in the 10th century to prevent incursions by Vikings into Porth Neigwl .
Bwlch y Garreg Wen at Y Rhiw , built in 1731 , is a croglofft cottage , a type of agricultural worker 's house found in Llŷn .
= = Transport = =
Aberdaron lies at the western end of the B4413 road . The road runs east to Llanbedrog , where it connects with the A499 Pwllheli to Abersoch road .
Bardsey Boat Trips ( Welsh : Mordeithiau Enlli ) operates passenger ferries between Porth Meudwy and Bardsey Island . These are supplemented by Enlli Charters , who sail between Pwllheli and the island . At low tide , the ferry boat has to be hauled up to the boathouse by tractor before passengers can disembark .
Buses are provided by two companies . Service 17 is operated by Nefyn Coaches , with six Monday to Saturday return journeys on the Pwllheli – Llanbedrog – Mynytho – Nanhoron – Botwnnog – Sarn Meyllteyrn – Penygroeslon – Rhoshirwaun – Aberdaron route . Two of the Aberdaron bound journeys divert through Bryn @-@ croes . Arriva Buses Wales provide a late night return journey on Saturdays . Service 17 is supplemented by Nefyn Coaches service 17b , running return journeys twice a day , Monday to Saturday , largely over the same route , but with diversions to serve Penllech and Llangwnnad towards Aberdaron , or Penycaerau and Y Rhiw heading back to Pwllheli .
The irregular Nefyn Coaches service 8b has an early morning weekday Nefyn – Tudweiliog – Llangwnnadl – Penygroeslon – Rhydlios bus , which operates only during school holidays . On Wednesdays throughout the year , a return journey runs the Rhydlios – Porth Or – Uwchmynydd – Aberdaron – Penycaerau – Y Rhiw – Botwnnog – Mynytho – Llanbedrog – Pwllheli route . On other weekdays a Nefyn – Tudweiliog – Llangwnnadl – Penygroeslon – Aberdaron – Uwchmynydd bus runs . On Wednesdays during school terms , an afternoon journey runs on the Y Rhiw – Botwnnog – Mynytho – Llanbedgrog – Pwllheli route . At weekends , a Saturday morning bus operates Nefyn – Dinas – Rhos @-@ ddu – Brynmawr – Sarn Meyllteyrn – Pant – Uwchmynydd . This then makes a journey through the heart of Llŷn on the Uwchmynydd – Porth Or – Rhydlios – Pant – Sarn Meyllteyrn – Brynmawr – Rhos @-@ ddu – Dinas – Llaniestyn – Garnfadryn – Rhyd @-@ y @-@ clafdy – Efailnewydd – Pwllheli route , returning in the afternoon . It completes the day retracing its steps over the Uwchmynydd – Pant – Sarn Meyllteyrn – Brynmawr – Rhos @-@ ddu – Dinas – Nefyn route .
On weekdays other than Wednesdays , Nefyn Coaches service 334 runs a morning Rhydlios – Porth Or – Uwchmynydd – Aberdaron – Penygroeslon – Llangwnnadl – Tudweiliog – Nefyn route . A second journey at midday operates from Uwchmynydd over the same route to Nefyn , and on to Pwllheli . Each weekday , an early evening bus runs the Penygroeslon – Rhydlios – Porth Or – Uwchmynydd route , while on Wednesdays during school holidays an afternoon Rhydlios – Botwnnog – Mynytho – Llanbedrog – Pwllheli bus runs .
The nearest railway station is at Pwllheli , 14 @.@ 8 miles ( 23 @.@ 8 km ) to the east , on the Cambrian Coast Line ( Welsh : Lein Arfordir y Cambria ) to Machynlleth . Services are provided by Arriva Trains Wales ( Welsh : Trenau Arriva Cymru ) , with some trains continuing to Shrewsbury and Birmingham .
= = Public services = =
Water and sanitation are provided by Dŵr Cymru ( English : Welsh Water ) , owned by Glas Cymru , a company limited by guarantee . The electricity distribution company is Scottish Power , a subsidiary of the Basque utility Iberdrola .
Welsh Ambulance Services ( Welsh : Gwasanaethau Ambiwlans Cymru ) provide ambulance and paramedic services ; and North West Wales NHS Trust ( Welsh : Ymddiriedolaeth GIG Gogledd Orllewin Cymru ) is responsible for hospital services . The nearest community hospital is Ysbyty Bryn Beryl at Pwllheli ; for 24 @-@ hour accident and emergency services the nearest provision is at Ysbyty Gwynedd in Bangor . The general provision of health services is the responsibility of Gwynedd Local Health Board ( Welsh : Bwrdd Iechyd Lleol Gwynedd ) .
Law enforcement is the responsibility of North Wales Police ( Welsh : Heddlu Gogledd Cymru ) , formed in 1967 as Gwynedd Constabulary . North Wales Fire and Rescue Service ( Welsh : Gwasanaeth Tân ac Achub Gogledd Cymru ) was created in 1996 by the merger of the Gwynedd and Clwyd fire brigades ; it provides public protection services , operating out of the fire station at Abersoch .
= = Education = =
In the early 19th century there was a school for poor children , which moved in a four @-@ year cycle between Aberdaron , Llanfaelrhys , Bryncroes and Y Rhiw . The Elementary Education Act 1870 provided for local school boards , but was opposed by the established church . The process of establishing boards was lengthy , and the government had to enforce the regulations in Aberdaron , Llanfaelrhys and Y Rhiw ; the national school opened at Y Rhiw in 1877 and had 74 pupils on its register ; it closed in 1965 .
Primary education is now provided by Ysgol Crud y Werin in Aberdaron , which has 54 pupils , and by Ysgol Llidiardau in Rhoshirwaun , established in 1880 , which has 21 pupils . At the last inspection of Ysgol Crud y Werin , by Estyn in 2008 , there were no pupils entitled to free school meals , and 84 per cent came from homes where Welsh was the main spoken language ; Welsh is the main medium of teaching . Ysgol Llidiardau was last inspected in 2009 ; 18 per cent of pupils were entitled to free school meals and 36 per cent came from homes where Welsh was the predominant language . Secondary school pupils mainly attend Ysgol Botwnnog .
= = Culture = =
Aberdaron is a predominantly Welsh @-@ speaking community ; 75 @.@ 2 per cent of the population speak the language . A mobile library visits a number of sites in the community each week ; and Llanw Llŷn , a papur bro published in Abersoch , serves the area ; the local English newspapers are the Caernarfon and Denbigh Herald , published in Caernarfon ; and the Cambrian News , published in Aberystwyth . Summer harp recitals and concerts are held in St Hywyn 's Church ; Gŵyl Pen Draw 'r Byd ( English : The Land 's End Festival ) is a yearly event which includes beach side concerts and competitions on the shore , with an evening concert at Morfa Mawr Farm ; Gŵyl Pentre Coll ( English : The Lost Village Festival ) , a festival of contemporary acoustic music , has been held since 2008 at Felin Uchaf in Rhoshirwaun ; and a local eisteddfod , Eisteddfod Flynyddol Uwchmynydd , is held at Ysgol Crud y Werin .
The poet R. S. Thomas was vicar of St Hywyn 's Church from 1967 to 1978 ; when he retired he lived for some years in Y Rhiw . An ardent Welsh nationalist who learnt to speak Welsh , his poetry was based on his religious faith . In 1995 he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature , and he was widely regarded as the best religious poet of his time . The subject of one of Thomas 's poems , Richard Robert Jones , better known as " Dic Aberdaron " , was born in the village in 1780 . Despite very little formal education , he is said to have been fluent in 14 languages , and spent years travelling the country accompanied by his books and his cat .
William Rowlands won a prize at the National Eisteddfod in 1922 , for an adventure story written for boys . The book , Y Llong Lo ( English : The Coal Ship ) was published in 1924 , and told the story of two boys who stow away on one of the ships that brought coal to Porth Neigwl . The South African poet Roy Campbell published The Flaming Terrapin , written in a " croglofft cottage " above Porth Ysgo , in 1922 ; he was considered to be one of the best poets of the period between the two world wars . Considered one of the most significant Welsh poets of the 15th century , Dafydd Nanmor , in Gwallt Llio , compared the striking yellow colour of the rocks at Uwchmynydd , covered by golden hair lichen , to the colour of his loved one 's hair . Lewys Daron , a 16th @-@ century poet best known for his elegy to friend and fellow poet Tudur Aled , is thought to have been born in Aberdaron .
Yorkshire @-@ born poet Christine Evans lives half the year on Bardsey Island and spends the winters at Uwchmynydd . She moved to Pwllheli as a teacher and married into a Bardsey Island farming family . On maternity leave in 1976 , she started writing poems ; her first book was published seven years later . Cometary Phrases was Welsh Book of the Year 1989 and she was the winner of the inaugural Roland Mathias Prize in 2005 .
Edgar Ewart Pritchard , an amateur film @-@ maker from Brownhills , produced " The Island in the Current " , a colour film of life on Bardsey Island , in 1953 ; a copy of the film is held by the National Screen and Sound Archive of Wales . A candle lantern , discovered in 1946 in a cowshed at Y Rhiw , is now displayed in St Fagans National History Museum ; and Iron Age pottery found at Castell Odo is on display at Gwynedd Museum and Art Gallery in Bangor .
Dilys Cadwaladr , the former school teacher on Bardsey Island , in 1953 became the first woman to win the Crown at the National Eisteddfod for her long poem Y Llen ; and artist Brenda Chamberlain twice won the Gold Medal for Art at the Eisteddfod ; some of the murals she painted can still be seen on the walls of Carreg , her island home from 1947 to 1962 . Wildlife artist Kim Atkinson , whose work has been widely exhibited in Wales and England , spent her childhood on the island and returned to live there in the 1980s .
Since 1999 , Bardsey Island Trust has appointed an Artist in Residence to spend several weeks on the island producing work which is later exhibited on the mainland . A Welsh literary residence was created in 2002 ; singer @-@ songwriter Fflur Dafydd spent six weeks working on a collection of poetry and prose . Her play Hugo was inspired by her stay , and she has produced two novels , Atyniad ( English : Attraction ) , which won the prose medal at the 2006 Eisteddfod ; and Twenty Thousand Saints , winner of the Oxfam Hay Prize , which tells how the women of the island , starved of men , turn to each other .
It was tradition for Bardsey Island to elect the " King of Bardsey " ( Welsh : Brenin Enlli ) , and from 1820 onwards he would be crowned by Baron Newborough or his representative ; the crown is now kept at Merseyside Maritime Museum in Liverpool , although calls have been made for it to return to Gwynedd . At the outbreak of the First World War , the last king , Love Pritchard , offered himself and the men of the island for military service , but he was refused as he was considered too old at the age of 71 ; Pritchard took umbrage , and declared the island to be a neutral power . In 1925 Pritchard left the island for the mainland , to seek a less laborious way of life , but died the following year .
Owen Griffith , a qualified pharmacist from Penycaerau , who was known as the " Doctor of the Wild Wart " , used a traditional herbalist remedy to cure basal cell carcinoma , also known as rodent ulcer ; the remedy had supposedly been passed on to the family 300 years earlier by an Irish tinker . In 1932 a woman died while receiving treatment and , even though the inquest into her death found that no blame was apportioned to the treatment , the Chief Medical Officer for Caernarfonshire vociferously condemned the treatment in the press . Former patients came out in support of the pharmacist , and petitions were sent to the Department of Health demanding that a medical licence be granted to Griffith and his cousin .
There are several folk tales of the Tylwyth Teg , the fairy people who inhabited the area and an invisible land in Cardigan Bay . One tells of a farmer from Aberdaron who was in the habit of stepping outside his house before retiring to bed . One night he was spoken to by a stranger , who asked why the farmer was annoyed by him . The farmer , confused , asked what the stranger meant and was told to stand with one foot on the stranger 's . This he did , and could see another house , just below his own , and that all the farm 's slops went down the chimney of the invisible house . The stranger asked if the farmer would move his door to the other side of the house , which the farmer subsequently did , walling up the original door ; from that day , the farmer 's livestock flourished , and he became one of the most prosperous men in the area .
= = Religion = =
A church was founded in Aberdaron in the 6th century by Saint Hywyn , a follower of Saint Cadfan ; it was a significant institution , a monastery and centre of religious learning , rather than simply a place of worship for the locals . The present double @-@ naved St Hywyn 's Church ( Welsh : Eglwys Hywyn Sant ) , built in 1137 and known as the " Cathedral of Llŷn " , stands above the shore and was on the pilgrim route to Bardsey Island . It contains a 12th century Romanesque arched door , and a square bell turret . The church was extended in 1417 and abandoned in 1841 , when the locals decided to build a new church , Eglwys Newydd , in the village ; the new building , however , proved unpopular and the congregation returned in 1906 . Inside is a display about the life and works of the poet , Ronald Stuart Thomas ; and in the churchyard stand Y Meini Feracius a Senagus ( English : The Veracius and Senacus Stones ) , the tombstones of two 5th century Christian priests , found in the 18th century on farmland near Mynydd Anelog . In 2008 the church became the centre of controversy when the local vicar blessed a gay civil partnership , after approval by the local church council ; the vicar was reprimanded by Barry Morgan , the Archbishop of Wales ( Welsh : Archesgob Cymru ) . Referring to the archbishop 's protests , the vicar stated " There was a bit of a to @-@ do about it " .
The church at Llanfaelrhys is the only one in the United Kingdom dedicated to Saint Maelrhys , the cousin of both Saint Cadfan and Saint Hywyn , who accompanied them to Wales from Brittany . Legend attributes the building of the church to a trader who landed a cargo of flour near Aberdaron during a famine ; he used the profit from his sale to construct a small church for the locals . Much of the building is medieval ; the font dates back to the 15th century ; and there are plain hard wooden benches on the north side ; on the south side are 19th century wooden box pews . The graveyard contains the graves of the three Keating sisters , who restored Plas yn Rhiw .
St Aelrhiw 's Church at Y Rhiw was built in 1860 on the footings of an earlier church . It consists of a small nave and short chancel ; aisles to the north and south ; and has boulder @-@ built walls and a slate roof . The churchyard contains the graves of some of the bodies that were washed up at Porth Neigwl during the First World War . Above Porth Iago is the site of the ancient St Medin 's Church ; now just a mound in the middle of a field , it was the parish church of Bodferin .
One of the first Non @-@ conformists in the area was Morgan Griffith of Y Rhiw . In 1745 he was brought before the court in Pwllheli , where he was jailed for failing to renounce his beliefs . After his release he returned to Y Rhiw and began to preach again . Re @-@ arrested , he was returned to a prison ship in England , where he subsequently died . Two of the earliest non @-@ conformist chapels in the Llŷn Peninsula were established at Penycaerau , in 1768 , and Uwchmynydd , in 1770 ; the Congregationalists opened Cephas Independent Chapel in 1829 ; and Capel Nebo was built at Y Rhiw in 1813 ; the Wesleyan Methodists followed in 1832 at Capel Pisgah . By 1850 there were eight non @-@ conformist chapels in Aberdaron ; five in Y Rhiw ; and one on Bardsey Island ; but more were to be built . The Calvinistic Methodists opened Capel Tan y Foel ; and Capel Bethesda , the Baptist chapel at Rhoshirwaun , was built in 1904 . Aberdaron is also home to a Seventh @-@ day Adventist youth camp named Glan @-@ yr @-@ afon , located 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the village centre .
At the 2001 census 73 @.@ 9 per cent of the population claimed to be Christian and 15 @.@ 0 per cent stated that they had no religion .
= = Sport = =
Aberdaron hosts numerous sailing regattas featuring clinker built boats unique to the area ; there is a popular regatta every August where the races are open to everyone . Sea angling trips are operated from Porth Meudwy , fishing for pollock , coley and mackerel ; wrasse , bass , mullet and gurnard are also possible . Bass and coley can be caught from the rocks at Porth Iago ; and wrasse , pollock and mackerel are plentiful . Access is difficult at Uwchmynydd , but pollock , mackerel , wrasse and conger are caught ; huss are plentiful ; and ling are found occasionally .
The village is a popular walking centre and lies on the Llŷn Coastal Path ( Welsh : Llwybr Arfordir Llŷn ) , which runs 84 miles ( 135 km ) from Caernarfon to Porthmadog . Kayaking is possible from both Aberdaron and Porth Neigwl , and the south @-@ facing " sunshine coast " is a major attraction ; there are camping facilities for canoeists on the shores of Porth Neigwl . Tidal streams are generally weak , although landing conditions are tricky when there is wind or swell from the south .
The area has excellent diving . Underwater visibility at Bardsey Island extends to 66 feet ( 20 m ) and there is a rich variety of sea life ; it is considered some of the best diving in Gwynedd . The Ynysoedd Gwylanod are particularly popular , and the wreck of the Glenocum , in Bae Aberdaron , is excellent for novices , having a maximum depth of 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) ; an extremely large conger eel lives in the lower section of the boiler openings . There is spectacular diving at Pen y Cil , where there is a slate wreck and an unusual cave dive ; nearby Carreg Ddu is an isolated rocky island in Bardsey Sound , although care must be taken as there are strong currents .
Bathing is popular along the coast . Aberdaron Beach , facing south west , is sandy , gently shelving and safe ; it received a Seaside Award in 2008 . Porthor also attracts bathers , and has sands which squeak when walked on ; the beach at Porth Neigwl was awarded a Green Coast Award in 2009 ;
Aberdaron Beach is a surfing and bodyboarding location for surfers of all levels , although it can be dangerous at high tide when the waves break directly onto boulders underneath the cliff . The better surfers head for the northern end .
= = Climate = =
Being situated at the west coast of the UK , Aberdaron has a distinct maritime climate , with mild winters and cool summers . That is not to say that extremes cannot occur . In fact , some extraordinary temperature extremes have been recorded :
On 2 August 1995 , Aberdaron equaled the highest ever August minimum temperature in Wales , at 22 ° C , after recording the record high temperature for the village of 29 @.@ 2 ° C on the same day
On 20 December 1998 , the maximum temperature at Aberdaron was below average at 5 ° C. The very next day , the highest January temperature ever observed in the UK was recorded there , at 20 @.@ 1 ° C. Yet the average temperature for that day was just 6 @.@ 4 ° C
On 9 July 2009 , Aberdaron equaled the lowest ever temperature for the UK for July , at -2.5 ° C
All of the record lows except for November and December were recorded in 2009 , and they were all below freezing .
Despite the fact that Aberdaron can have quite extreme weather , the number of frosts per year is very low , at around 7 @.@ 2 days per year . This is comparable with coastal areas of Devon and Cornwall . The region , England NW and Wales N , averages 52 @.@ 3 days , with December alone exceeding the average yearly amount of frost for Aberdaron . The village is generally quite windy throughout the year , particularly in Autumn and Winter . Sunshine amounts are lower than the UK average . Rainfall is well below the Wales average .
|
= The Boat Race 2009 =
The 155th Boat Race took place on 29 March 2009 . Oxford 's crew was the heaviest in the event 's history and which featured five Olympic rowers , including silver medallist Colin Smith and bronze medallist George Bridgewater . Cambridge took an early lead , only to be caught and overtaken by Oxford who won the race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie defeated Oxford 's Isis , while Oxford won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is an annual competition between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge . First held in 1829 , the competition is a 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) race along The Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 2008 race by six lengths , while Cambridge led overall with 79 victories to Oxford 's 74 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The race was sponsored by Xchanging for the fifth consecutive year .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) weighed an average of 8 pounds ( 3 @.@ 6 kg ) per rower more than the Cambridge crew ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) , making them the heaviest in Boat Race history . Oxford fielded five rowers who had featured at the 2008 Summer Olympics : Colin Smith won silver for Great Britain , while Ante Kušurin rowed for Croatia , New Zealander George Bridgewater won a bronze in the coxless pair , Sjoerd Hamburger rowed for The Netherlands , and Tom Solesbury for Great Britain . Cambridge 's crew contained five returning Blues to Oxford 's three .
The crews for the race were as follows :
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Cambridge 's cox Dowbiggin raised her hand to indicate that she was not ready to start just as Umpire Boris Rankov started the race . This allowed Oxford the initiative and they took an early lead . Cambridge slowly edged their way back into contention , and held a half @-@ a @-@ length lead at the two @-@ mile mark . At St Paul 's School , Cambridge were two @-@ thirds of a length ahead before a series of oar clashes and umpire warnings forced the boats apart . A larger clash , between Cambridge 's Monaghan and Oxford 's Smith , took place by Chiswick Eyot before Oxford made the better recovery and quickly pushed out to secure a clear @-@ water lead . Cambridge failed to threaten , and Oxford won by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths .
In the reserve race , Isis defeated Goldie by four lengths , completing the race in a time of 17 minutes 24 seconds , for their second consecutive win . Oxford won the Women 's Boat Race by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , hosted at Henley on 22 March 2014 .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford 's boat club president Colin Smith said " it 's a great , great feeling " . He continued : " The difference between the two crews today was our power , aggression and stickability " . Cambridge 's Australian international Cubasch said " it 's really devastating . Sometimes you 'd be happy with a silver but here it 's dead last . " His coach , Chris Nilsson , admitted " at the end of the day , the stronger crew with the more power came through " . Oxford coach Sean Bowden said " We just said ' get to halfway , and head for home ’ , and they did a really good job " .
|
= Music of Xenosaga =
The Xenosaga ( ゼノサーガ ) series is a series of science fiction role @-@ playing video games developed by Monolith Soft and published by Namco Bandai on the PlayStation 2 . The series began with the 2002 release of Episode I : Der Wille zur Macht , which was followed in 2004 by Episode II : Jenseits von Gut und Böse and in 2006 by Episode III : Also sprach Zarathustra . The music of Xenosaga includes the soundtracks to all three chapters , as well as the music for its spin @-@ off media . These include Xenosaga Freaks , a set of minigames set between the first two chapters , Xenosaga I & II , a Nintendo DS remake of the first two chapters , and Xenosaga : The Animation , an anime series covering the events of the first game . Episode I was composed by Yasunori Mitsuda , Episode II was split between Yuki Kajiura and Shinji Hosoe , and Episode III was composed by Kajiura alone . Xenosaga Freaks reused some of the music of Episode I by Mitsuda while also including new work by Satoru Kousaki and Hiroshi Ohkubo , while Xenosaga I & II and Xenosaga : The Animation used new pieces composed by Kousuke Yamashita .
Episode I sparked the release of two versions of its soundtrack album as well as a single , Episode II received two soundtrack albums , and Episode III received one . Xenosaga Freaks and Xenosaga : The Animation each also sparked the release of a soundtrack album . In addition to the albums , Episode I saw the release of a book of orchestral sheet music as well as a book of piano sheet music ; Episode II had only a book of piano sheet music . Music from the series has been played multiple times in concerts , especially that of the first two games .
= = Main series = =
= = = Episode I = = =
The first episode in the series was Xenosaga Episode I : Der Wille zur Macht , released in 2002 . Designed as a spiritual successor to Xenogears , the game was worked on by much of the same staff , including the composer Yasunori Mitsuda . For the game , Mitsuda composed a score that is mostly orchestral in nature , using the London Philharmonic Orchestra for several tracks . Other pieces include vocal tracks by the Metro Voices choir , piano solos by Yasuharu Nakanishi , and performances by the Gen Ittetsu Strings . The game 's theme songs , " Pain " and " Kokoro " , were sung by Celtic singer Joanne Hogg of the band Iona , with whom Mitsuda had previously worked for the soundtrack to Xenogears . The vocal songs throughout the soundtrack range from choral to opera to a capella , while the tone of the soundtrack overall has been described as being " serious , sometimes dark , heavy and even haunting at times " . At one point in the development process , Mitsuda planned to use a separate person to orchestrate his compositions after an early piece proved unworkable and had to be scrapped , causing him to lose confidence in his own ability . After working for several months , however , he regained his confidence and decided to work as his own orchestrator , a decision which he feels improved him as a composer .
The first release of the soundtrack as an album was the Xenosaga Original Soundtrack , released by DigiCube on March 6 , 2002 . The two @-@ disc album includes every piece from the game 's soundtrack , with a total length of 1 : 58 : 42 across its 45 tracks . Two years later , on May 19 , 2004 , Mitsuda released another version of the soundtrack through his Sleigh Bells label titled Xenosaga Episode I. This version features two new tracks — " World to be Born " and " Pain ~ piano version ~ " — as well as re @-@ recordings of some of the tracks . The playlist order was also changed between the two versions , with Episode I grouping the tracks by style , rather than in rough chronological order within the game like the original album . Mitsuda explained in the liner notes for the album that he felt that separating the two styles presented a different impression of the music that allowed the listener to greater appreciate the atmosphere of the pieces . In addition to the two albums , a single , " Kokoro " , was released for the game 's theme songs . Published by DigiCube , the disc includes " Pain " and " Kokoro " from the original soundtrack as well as a piano rendition of Kokoro and instrumental versions of both songs . The album has a total length of 23 : 55 , and was released on February 6 , 2002 .
The Original Soundtrack album reached # 38 on the Japan Oricon charts and was well received by reviewers . IGN termed it one of Mitsuda 's best soundtracks to date , calling it " near genius with nearly every passing track " . They especially praised the wide range of emotions present in the soundtrack . GameSpy agreed in their review of the game , saying that " the music is rich , full , varied , and underscores the cinemas and battle sequences excellently " . RPGFan , in their review of the Xenosaga Original Soundtrack album , said that the album works well as a stand @-@ alone album apart from the game , and that it has few , if any , bland or mediocre tracks . They repeated their praise for the soundtrack in their review of Xenosaga Episode I , though they felt that the two new tracks were not very impressive additions . " Kokoro " reached # 61 and received praise as well , for its emotional intensity and lyrics .
Original soundtrack track list
Episode I track list
= = = Episode II = = =
The second episode of the series , Xenosaga Episode II : Jenseits von Gut und Böse , was released in 2004 . Mitsuda did not return to compose the soundtrack ; instead , Yuki Kajiura and Shinji Hosoe were brought into the project . Kajiura had previously composed for a few video games as well as numerous anime soundtracks . Her style for the game 's soundtrack , for which she composed only the numerous cinematic scenes , has been described as " a fusion of electronica and techno with either an orchestra or ethnic instruments , " as well as including vocals in places where many composers would have left an instrumental section . Hosoe composed the music for the playable portions of the game , and feels that that the sound quality and balance of the soundtrack is poor . This feeling is based primarily on the fact that he " slashed the orchestral sound while creating the music " so that the music played using the PlayStation 2 's sound chip would match the music played off of the CD . He had predicted that there would be a fan outcry against " changing composers on a series like Xenosaga " , and suspects that his music from the game will never be released on an album ; to date the released albums for the game include only Kajiura 's work . Kajiura and Hosoe did not collaborate on any of the tracks in Episode II ; according to Kajiura they never even met during the production .
Episode II 's soundtrack was first released as an album on July 7 , 2004 as Xenosaga II : Jenseits Von Gut und Böse Movie Scene Soundtrack by Victor Entertainment . Including only Kajiura 's work , the album spans two discs and 40 tracks and has a duration of 1 : 52 : 26 . Another soundtrack album for the game , Xenosaga Episode II : Jenseits von Gut und Böse Soundtrack , was released by Namco and Brady Games as a promotional extra for the Brady Games strategy guide for the game . The 11 @-@ track CD again excluded the work of Hosoe , instead sampling Kajiura 's pieces . Released on February 17 , 2005 , the album has a duration of 30 : 25 . The Movie Scene album reached position # 46 on the Japanese Oricon charts . In the liner notes for Movie Scene Soundtrack , Kajiura claims that she felt that her work for the game was different from her previous pieces , as it was more of a soundtrack , with the individual tunes fitting more closely together . She also said that she found it easier to compose tracks that fit with the worldview that Mitsuda had created for the first game , rather than invent her own . She also notes that she intended tracks 1 — 4 to be a single , continuous piece , although they were broken up in the game ; she intended tracks 20 and 21 the same way .
IGN , in their review of the game , said that the soundtrack for Episode II was not up to par with that of Episode I. They felt that Hosoe 's tracks were in general too " upbeat and poppy " for the game 's premise , and that while Kaijura 's works were better , they were still weaker than Mitsuda 's . One review from RPGamer agreed with this sentiment , calling the music on the whole " pretty dull and unmemorable " , though another RPGamer review praised the increase in the number of tracks present in the game , giving the listener greater variety . An RPGFan review of the Movie Scene album termed it a " fantastic album " , though one with several weak tracks and an aesthetic that would not appeal to many listeners , especially those who disliked vocal tracks . Their review of the promotional album gave that album high marks as well , saying that it was an excellent sampler album and , at the time , easy to find due to its inclusion in the game 's strategy guide .
Movie Scene soundtrack track list
= = = Episode III = = =
The third and final episode in the series , Xenosaga Episode III : Also sprach Zarathustra , was released in 2006 . Composed entirely by Kajiura , her style shifted from that of Episode II to be darker , with a larger focus on rhythm and less use of background vocals . The soundtrack has been described as " melancholy " and " piano @-@ driven " . Despite moving from composing only the cinematic tracks in Episode II to composing the whole score for Episode III , Kajiura says that the difficulty of each game 's score was about the same . She primarily drew her inspiration for the music from the game 's artwork and her conception of the world the game was set in .
The only soundtrack album released for the game was Xenosaga III : Also Sprach Zarathustra Original Sound Best Tracks , an album of selections from the soundtrack rather than all of the tracks . The two @-@ disc album has 40 tracks , and a total length of 1 : 51 : 46 . It was published by Victor Entertainment on July 12 , 2006 . The album reached position # 50 on the Japanese Oricon charts , and stayed on the charts for four weeks . In the liner notes for the album , sound producer Keiichi Nozaki explains that the album would have needed to be six discs long to hold all of the music from the game , so he asked Kajiura to select a sample that would only fill two discs .
In RPGamer 's review of the game , they termed the soundtrack a " stunning success " , saying that Kajiura provided an " emotionally charged soundtrack " that fit the tone of each section of the game and was superior to the soundtrack of Episode II . G4TV called the soundtrack " a respectable contender " and better than Episode II 's soundtrack as well , praising the music 's restraint and usage in accenting the game rather than overpowering it . IGN called it " pretty darned good " , though noted that it was not as good as the score to the first game . RPGFan , in their review of the album , said that while the quality of the overall work was better than that of Episode II 's Movie Scene soundtrack album , the album was very inconsistent between great and poor tracks . They concluded that Kajiura had ultimately not succeeded in being Mitsuda 's successor for the series .
Best Tracks track list
= = Spin @-@ off media = =
The spin @-@ off media of the Xenosaga series to include music are a collection of minigames titled Xenosaga Freaks that explores the backstory of Episode I , a remake of the first two episodes for the Nintendo DS titled Xenosaga I & II , and an anime series titled Xenosaga : The Animation . There are also other media adaptions without music , such as a manga series . Xenosaga Freaks included new work by Satoru Kousaki and Hiroshi Ohkubo , while Xenosaga I & II and Xenosaga : The Animation used new pieces composed by Kousuke Yamashita .
Freaks sparked the release of an album , Xenosaga Freaks Reservation Privilege CD , which includes three vocal tracks sung by the voice actresses for the characters Shion , KOS @-@ MOS , and M.O.M.O. from the game , a fourth vocal track featuring all three of the singers , and a radio @-@ style interview with them . The 31 : 08 long album was released by Namco on April 28 , 2004 . The music , composed by Namco composers Satoru Kousaki and Hiroshi Ohkubo , is described as " silly lighthearted techno @-@ pop " , and very different from the music in the main games of the series . Xenosaga : The Animation also received an album release , titled Xenosaga : The Animation Original Soundtrack ; the 35 @-@ track album was released by Columbia Records on March 23 , 2005 .
= = Legacy = =
Music from the series was performed at the three @-@ show " Passion " concert series held in December 2006 by the Eminence Symphony Orchestra . The concerts included " Pain " from Episode I and " Sakura " from Episode II . Several tracks from Mitsuda and Kajiura 's other works were also performed . An album , Passion , was produced by the orchestra for the concert , and included both of the Xenosaga songs . In the Eminence April 21 , 2007 " A Night in Fantasia 2007 " concert , " Gnosis " , " Zarathustra " , and " World to be Born " from Episode I were played . " Pain " was again performed by a piano quintet from the Eminence Orchestra in their four @-@ show " Destiny - Reunion " concert series in July 2007 . Several other non @-@ Xenosaga pieces by Mitsuda and Kajiura were again also performed . In the Destiny : Dreamer 's Alliance album released for that concert series and others by the same quintet , " Nephilim " from Episode I , rather than " Pain " , was included .
In addition to concerts , music from the series has been released as sheet music . On January 20 , 2004 , Mitsuda released Partitura Originale Di Xenosaga Episodio Uno Sheet Music , a book of orchestral sheet music for tracks from Episode I , through his record label Procyon Studio . The book contains 22 songs , composed and arranged by Mitsuda . In addition to that book , DOREMI Music Publishing published a book of piano sheet music , Xenosaga Episode I Der Wille zur Macht Piano Solo Sheet Music . The book contains 21 songs , arranged by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate @-@ level piano solos . DOREMI Music Publishing also published a book of piano sheet music for Episode II , Xenosaga Episode II Jenseits von Gut und Böse Piano Solo Sheet Music . The book contains 23 tracks , arranged by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate @-@ level piano solos . Selections of remixes of music from the series appear on Japanese remix albums , called dōjin , and on English remixing websites such as OverClocked ReMix .
|
= Willis Ward =
Willis Franklin Ward ( December 28 , 1912 – December 30 , 1983 ) was a track and field athlete and American football player who was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1981 .
Ward was the Michigan High School Athlete of the Year , after setting a national prep record in the high jump . At the University of Michigan , he was a collegiate champion in the high jump , the long jump , the 100 @-@ yard dash , and the 440 @-@ yard dash , and finished second in the voting for the Associated Press Big Ten Athlete of the Year award in 1933 . In track and field he was a three @-@ time All @-@ American and eight @-@ time Big Ten champion .
In football , Ward was only the second African @-@ American to win a varsity letter for the Michigan Wolverines football team , lettering in 1932 , 1933 , and 1934 . In 1934 , a controversy developed when Georgia Tech refused to play if Ward took the field , and university officials opted to keep Ward out of the game . Teammate Gerald R. Ford reportedly threatened to quit the team in response to the university ’ s decision . After being excluded from the Georgia Tech game , Ward went on to score all 12 of Michigan 's points that year outside of the Georgia Tech game , without another Wolverine even having an extra point or a field goal .
Ward later became a lawyer in Detroit and a member of the Michigan Public Service Commission from 1966 to 1973 , serving as chairman from 1969 to 1973 . He also served as a probate court judge in Wayne County , Michigan .
= = Early years = =
Ward was born in Alabama in 1913 . His father , Henry R. Ward , was an Alabama native who moved to Detroit and worked there in a Ford Motor Company factory . His mother , Bessie , was a Georgia native .
Ward attended Detroit 's Northwestern High School where he excelled in both track and football . As a high school junior , he was named Michigan High School Athlete of the Year , after setting a national prep record in the high jump at 6 – 4 @.@ 5 . He was city champion in the low hurdles ( with a time of 13 @.@ 0 ) and the high hurdles ( with a time of 15 @.@ 8 ) . Ward also won the 220 hurdles at Ann Arbor ( with a time of 25 @.@ 9 ) and Class A ( with a time of 26 @.@ 1 ) .
= = University of Michigan = =
= = = Freshman track star = = =
Ward attended the University of Michigan from 1931 to 1935 , where he became one of the most successful track athletes in the school ’ s history . As a freshman in 1932 , Ward 's specialty was the high jump . Ward won the NCAA high jump championship in June 1932 with a jump of 6 – 7 1 / 3 . He jumped as high as 6 @-@ 7 @-@ 1 / 2 in his freshman year . Ward 's best jump in 1932 was two inches above the mark that won the gold medal at the 1932 Summer Olympics ( Canada 's Duncan McNaughton won the gold with a jump of 6 feet , 5 ½ inches ) , but Ward did not qualify for the team .
Ward ’ s accomplishments were not limited to the high jump . An Associated Press article in 1932 noted : “ His specialty is the high jump for which he has a mark of 6 feet 7 ½ inches . He can run the high hurdles and the low hurdles . He has broad jumped 22 feet without training in that event . He put the 16 @-@ pound shot over 43 feet without prior experience , and it believed he might be developed into a world champion weight man . He unquestionably could be trained to do the springs . He is only 19 . Ward has an ideal build for a track man , six feet , one inch tall , 185 pounds of well @-@ distributed weight , good legs , natural co @-@ ordination . He is quiet and unassuming , and popular with coaches and fellow members of the squad . ”
When Ward decided to try out for the football team as a sophomore , Michigan track fans worried that Ward would be injured . The Associated Press reported : “ University of Michigan track fans do a lot of worrying these days because a Negro boy from Detroit insists on playing football . Willis Ward , they believe , will be the greatest track man ever to compete for the Maize and Blue — if he doesn ’ t get hurt . … Ward is a good football player and loves the game . . . . Well wishers even have told him about the advantages of competing only in track and staying away from the gridiron , but he is determined to play on the eleven , and he is good enough to make the grade . ” Michigan ’ s track coach , Chuck Hoyt , noted that “ Ward is his own boss and football is his recreation . ”
= = = First African @-@ American football player in 40 years = = =
In addition to the concerns of track fans , Ward 's decision to try out for the football team raised issues of race . Though George Jewett had broken the race barrier as Michigan 's first African @-@ American football player in 1890 , Michigan had not played another African @-@ American in the 40 years after Jewett . During Fielding Yost 's tenure as coach several African @-@ American students joined the football team , but records indicate that none of them ever saw game action and only one earned even a " reserve letter " . Some reports attribute the de facto segregation of the football team to racism on the part of Yost , who was the son of a Confederate soldier .
While in high school , Ward had decided to attend Dartmouth College . With Kipke 's assurance that he would be given full opportunity to play football , Ward enrolled at Michigan . Kipke had played with African @-@ American athletes in high school and was eager to have Ward on his team . According to John Behee , the author of a book on the history of African @-@ American athletes at Michigan , Kipke “ threatened to fight , physically fight , those alumni and fellow coaches who opposed his playing Ward . ” Behee wrote that " on several occasions Kipke took off his coat and was prepared to fight with those who bitterly opposed having a Negro play for Michigan . "
Ward got the opportunity to prove himself in spring football practice in May 1932 . According to one account , Kipke ordered his veterans to pound Ward " without mercy " during practice . " If , at the end of the week " , said Kipke , " he doesn 't turn in his uniform , then I know I 've got a great player . " The United Press reported on the results of spring practice : “ Three young freshmen at the University of Michigan — Jerry Ford , of Grand Rapids ; Russell Oliver , of Pontiac , and Willis Ward , Detroit Negro — displayed such brilliance during spring football practice that they are expected to become important cogs next fall in the Wolverine varsity eleven . ” Another report in July 1932 described Ward , the “ giant negro , ” as being “ the outstanding athlete becoming eligible for play . ”
Ward made the team in 1932 and started four games at end . Ivy Williamson , captain of the 1932 football team , greeted Ward at the field house and told him , " If you have any problems with anybody , let me know because we 're prepared to take care of them . " Reporting on his decision to play football and risk injury , the Associated Press noted : “ Ward would rather win an ‘ M ’ on the gridiron than be an Olympic champion . ”
The 1932 Michigan Wolverines football team went 8 – 0 , outscored its opponents 123 – 13 , and won the national championship .
= = = 1933 track season = = =
During the 1933 track season , Ward was so dominant that he was dubbed Michigan 's “ one @-@ man track team ” and became a national sensation . He led Michigan to Big Ten championships in both indoor and outdoor track . Going into the Big Ten track meet in May 1933 , Ward was expected to dominate . Coach Hoyt descried Ward as “ a good ‘ un , ” and praised him for his unassuming character and tolerance of the spotlight of publicity . One report noted : “ He is altogether likeable , for he always speaks without raising his voice and never protests a decision . … Ward is a star now , but he is just finishing his first year of competition . Unless injuries hamper him it is likely he will be as great an attraction or possibly even greater than the two Negro track stars who preceded him here , DeHart Hubbard and Eddie Tolan . ”
Michigan won the Big Ten meet with 60 ½ points , with Ward individually accounting for 18 points . One writer noted that the Wolverines would have finished in second place “ without the huge , versatile negro . ” At the meet , Ward won the 100 @-@ yard dash and the high jump and placed second in the 120 yard high hurdles and the broad jump . His performance at the Big Ten meet was described as “ the greatest individual performance since Carl Johnson scored 20 points for Michigan in 1918 . ”
Even TIME magazine took note of Ward ’ s dominating performance . Time noted : “ The other entrants in the Intercollegiates last week had reason to consider with awe another athlete who — until he helped Michigan win the Western Conference title last week , with 60 ½ points to Indiana 's 47 ½ had not often been heard of outside the Midwest , except as a member of Michigan 's football team . He was Willis Ward , 196 @-@ lb . Negro sophomore . At the Big Ten meet in Evanston last week . Willis Ward won the 100 @-@ yd. dash in 9 @.@ 6 sec . He won the high jump , placed second in the broad jump . In the 120 @-@ yd. high hurdles , he forced Ohio State 's Jack Keller to world 's record time of 14 @.@ 1 sec . , finished a close second . The 18 points he won were what enabled Michigan to beat Indiana . They made his the most efficient individual performance in a Big Ten meet since Carl Johnson scored 20 points for Michigan in 1918 . Quiet , unassuming , an above @-@ average student of literature , Ward was the first Negro ever elected to Sphinx , Michigan 's junior honor society . ”
At the Drake Relay Carnival in April 1933 , he finished second in the 100 @-@ yard dash , narrowly losing to Ralph Metcalfe . The 1934 Michigan yearbook , called the Michiganensian , noted : " Michigan climaxed a successful season by winning the Annual Butler Relays and taking the title from Indiana . Willis Ward won the meet almost single @-@ handed when he scored thirteen of the team ’ s 18 ¾ points . In winning the 60 yard dash , the Flashy negro star equaled the recognized world mark of 6 @.@ 2 seconds . " At the Big Ten indoor track championship , the Michiganensian noted that Ward , “ Michigan ’ s all around athlete , was easily the outstanding star of the meet . ” Ward won the 60 @-@ yard dash , the 70 @-@ yard high hurdles and the high jump .
= = = 1933 football season = = =
In 1933 , Ward started all eight games for Michigan at right end and was a key player in Michigan ’ s second consecutive undefeated football season and national championship . Time magazine credited the work of Ward and halfback Herman Everhardus : " Michigan came perilously close to slipping from the top of the Big Ten , where it has been for three years . That it did not slip was largely due to a crack halfback named Herman Everhardus and to Willis Ward , a rangy Negro end . It was Ward who , after hard @-@ fighting Illinois had marched to a touchdown in the first period , shot through and blocked the place kick which would have given Illinois a seventh point . " After the season was over , Coach Kipke also credited the play of Everhardus and his ends for the undefeated season : " Our ends , Ward and Petoskey , were near perfection . " Michigan 's left end , Ted Petoskey was named a first @-@ team All @-@ American in 1933 , and Ward earned honorable mention All @-@ American honors at right end .
= = = Runner up for 1933 Big Ten athlete of the year = = =
In December 1933 , Ward finished second in close balloting for the Associated Press Big Ten Athlete of the Year award . The AP reported that Duane Purvis of Purdue beat Ward " by the slender margin of two votes . " In the AP ’ s polling of conference coaches and sports writers , 55 votes were cast , with Purvis receiving 17 votes to 15 for Ward , described by the AP as " Michigan 's ' one @-@ man track team . ' " The AP pointed to Ward ’ s dual contributions in football and track : “ Ward , in addition to his feats in track , was one of the bright stars of Michigan 's championship football team this fall . Fast and rangy , he was classed as one of the finest wingmen in football . In track , he has run the century in 9 @.@ 6 , high jumped 6 feet 7 ½ inches , leaped 24 feet in the broad jump and won his share of glory in the high hurdles . ”
= = = 1934 track season = = =
In 1934 , Ward won the Big Ten long jump championship with a distance of 23 – 2 ¼ .
= = = 1934 football season = = =
The 1934 football season proved to be one of the low points in the school ’ s history , both because of the team 's 1 – 7 record , and the ugly racial incident that kept Ward out of the game against Georgia Tech . Though excluded from the Georgia Tech game , Willis started every other game — five games at right end , and two games at halfback . Incredibly , Michigan scored only 21 points in the entire 1934 season , and Ward scored 12 of those points . In fact , Michigan scored nine points against Georgia Tech and Ward 's 12 points were the only points scored by the Wolverines in the seven games in which Ward played . Michigan was shut out in the first two games , before beating Georgia Tech in the season 's third game . The following week , Michigan lost to Illinois , 7 – 6 , as Ward scored Michigan 's only touchdown from the line of scrimmage of the entire 1934 season . ( The season 's only other touchdown came on a punt return against Georgia Tech . ) Ward 's touchdown came on a trick play , as fullback Johnny Regeczi passed the ball to end Mike Savage who lateraled to Ward . According to the Chicago Tribune , the lateral " enabled the fleet Negro to outfoot the Illinois secondary . " After being shut out in three games after the Illinois match , Michigan closed the season with a 13 – 6 loss to Northwestern . Michigan 's only points against Northwestern came on two field goals by Ward . Thus , all 12 of Michigan 's 1934 points outside the Georgia Tech game were scored by Ward , without another Wolverine even having an extra point or a field goal .
= = = 1934 Georgia Tech game = = =
Despite his many accomplishments , the event for which Ward is most remembered is the game he did not play . In 1934 , Michigan had scheduled Georgia Tech as the third game of the season . After learning that Michigan had an African @-@ American player , Georgia Tech football coach and athletic director W. A. " Bill " Alexander refused to allow his team to take the field if Ward played . As early as the fall of 1933 , Alexander wrote to Yost asking what was going to be done about Ward , asserting that his team would not take the field if Ward played .
As the game approached , word spread that Georgia Tech was insisting that Ward not play , and that the administration might capitulate to the demand . Ward ’ s right to play became a major controversy on the campus . Mass meetings and demonstrations were held . Some students and faculty demanded that either Ward must play or the game should be canceled . Petitions were circulated , and formal protests were lodged with the university by the Ann Arbor Ministerial Association , the NAACP , the National Student League and many other groups . The student newspaper , the Michigan Daily opined : “ If the athletic department forgot it had Ward on its football team when it scheduled a game with Georgia Tech , it was astonishingly forgetful ; ... if it was conscious of Ward 's being on the team but scheduled the game anyway , it was extraordinarily stupid . "
Time magazine ran a story about the uproar on Michigan ’ s campus : “ Fifteen hundred Michigan students and faculty members signed a petition asking that the team 's star end , Negro Willis Ward , be allowed to play against Georgia Tech . ” According to Time , 200 “ campus radicals ” threatened to prevent the game from being played by standing in the middle of the field . Rumors of a sit @-@ down protest on the 50 @-@ yard line during the game spread across campus in the week before the game . One alumnus recalled that , the night before the game , " bonfires lit all over the campus echoed with screams of student anger , and ' Kill Georgia Tech ' was heard throughout Ann Arbor . " In an attempt to thwart any attempt to disrupt the game , Yost hired a Pinkerton agent to infiltrate " The United Front Committee on Ward " , a conglomerate of student organizations that supported Ward 's right to play .
Athletic authorities argued that Ward should not play because it would be discourteous to Georgia Tech , and he might be injured . There was fear that if Ward played , he would be injured by malicious blows after the play had ended . Playwright Arthur Miller , then a writer for Michigan ’ s student newspaper , learned first @-@ hand about the strong resistance among the Georgia Tech team to playing on the same field with an African @-@ American athlete . In his biography of Miller , Enoch Brater noted that Miller had friends from Arkansas who knew one of the Georgia Tech players . Brater described Miller ’ s involvement this way : “ Remmel [ Miller ’ s friend from Arkansas ] took Miller with them to meet with members of the team , to protest but also to appeal to the athletes ' sense of fair play . ‘ Miller was right in the middle of this ’ , Remmel recalls . Not only did the visiting team rebuff ‘ the Yankee ’ Miller ‘ in salty language ’ , but they told him they would actually kill Ward if he set one foot on the Michigan gridiron . ‘ The Georgia Tech team was wild . ’ Miller was furious . He ‘ went immediately to the office of the Michigan Daily and wrote an article about it , but it was not published . ’ . . . Remmel said that Miller ‘ could not believe that the Georgia Tech team would have tried to destroy Willis Ward — but , I am sure they would have . ’ ”
In the end , Ward was not allowed to play . As his teammates faced Georgia Tech , there are conflicting reports as to Ward ’ s whereabouts . According to Time , Ward “ sat calmly in a radio booth , watched his teammates defeat the Southerners , 9 @-@ to @-@ 2 . ” According to Behee , Ward was not even allowed to watch the game from the press box , or even from the bench of his own stadium . Instead , he spent the afternoon in a fraternity house . A third account states that Kipke “ quietly sent Willis Ward off to scout another Michigan game in Wisconsin . ” The day after the Georgia Tech game was played , an editorial ran in The Michigan Daily stating " that everyone who touched ( the Ward affair ) did so only to lose in respect and esteem . "
= = = Gerald Ford ’ s role in the Georgia Tech controversy = = =
The school ’ s refusal to play Ward in the Georgia Tech game later became part of the public legacy of President Gerald R. Ford . Ward recalled that he met “ my man Jerry ” during freshman orientation in 1932 , and the two became friends and roommates when the football team traveled for road games . When Ford learned that the school had capitulated to Georgia Tech , some accounts indicate that he " quit the team " or threatened to quit in order " to make a statement and take a stand because Willis Ward was his friend . " Ford wrote about the Georgia Tech incident in his autobiography , recalling that he felt the decision to keep Willis out of the game was " morally wrong . " “ I went to Willis himself . He urged me to play . ‘ Look , ’ he said , ‘ the team ’ s having a bad year . We ’ ve lost two games already and we probably won ’ t win any more . You ’ ve got to play Saturday . You owe it to the team . ’ I decided he was right . That Saturday afternoon , we hit like never before and beat Georgia Tech 9 – 2 . ” Years later , Ford wrote that the Ward incident had influenced his thinking about race . Ford noted : “ His sacrifice led me to question how educational administrators could capitulate to raw prejudice . ” Ford used the story to voice his support for U @-@ M ’ s affirmative action admissions policy saying , “ Do we really want to risk turning back the clock to an era when the Willis Wards were isolated and penalized for the color of their skin , their economic standing or national ancestry ? ”
In 1976 , Ward , then a probate court judge in Wayne County , said that Ford never mentioned the incident to him , but that Ford 's brother later told him about it . “ Jerry was very concerned , ” Ward recalled . “ His brother told me , ‘ Jerry was so upset he wrote father asking him if he should quit the team . He was that angry . ’ ” At Ford 's funeral , President George W. Bush also spoke about the Willis Ward incident . Bush said : “ Long before he was known in Washington , Gerald Ford showed his character and his leadership . As a star football player for the University of Michigan , he came face to face with racial prejudice when Georgia Tech came to Ann Arbor for a football game . One of Michigan 's best players was an African American student named Willis Ward . Georgia Tech said they would not take the field if a black man were allowed to play . Gerald Ford was furious at Georgia Tech for making the demand , and for the University of Michigan for caving in . He agreed to play only after Willis Ward personally asked him to . The stand Gerald Ford took that day was never forgotten by his friend . ”
= = = Impact on Ward = = =
Ward proved to be one of the most successful athletes in the history of the University of Michigan . He earned six varsity letters in football and track . In track , he won Big Ten titles in the 100 @-@ yard dash in 1933 ; in the high jump in 1933 and 1935 ; in the 400 meter dash in 1933 ; and in the long jump in 1934 . On several occasions , Ward even beat Jesse Owens in the 100 @-@ yard dash . Because of his all @-@ around skills , Ward was considered a likely contender for the U.S. decathlon team in the 1936 Olympics .
However , the Georgia Tech incident left Ward angry and disillusioned . He recalled that it sapped his competitive spirit . Ward considered quitting football , even writing a letter to Coach Kipke about his intentions of leaving the team . He recalled later that the refusal to let him play against Georgia Tech destroyed his will . " It was the fact that I couldn 't play in the Georgia Tech game . That all of a sudden , the practice that you just did because it was the thing to do that was good — a tremendous amount of burnt up energy — all of a sudden becomes drudgery . " His one sports highlight in 1935 was beating Jesse Owens at Yost Fieldhouse in the 60 @-@ yard dash and 65 high hurdles . Ward 's times were neck @-@ and @-@ neck with Owens ' up until the NCAA track and field championship . He took part in the Olympic trials in 1936 , but having lost his competitive drive , Ward , in his own words , did not train to his peak and failed to make the U.S. team . " They were urging me to go out in ' 36 , " Ward recalled . " But that Georgia Tech game killed me . I frankly felt they would not let black athletes compete . Having gone through the Tech experience , it seemed an easy thing for them to say ' Well , we just won 't run ' em if Hitler insists . ' " Interviewed about the incident in 1976 , Ward said : “ It was like any bad experience — you can ’ t forget it , but you don ’ t talk about it . It hurts . ”
= = Later years = =
Willis Ward went on to earn a law degree from Detroit College of Law in 1939 and had a distinguished career as a lawyer and judge . In 1964 , Ward , described as “ a Detroit Negro attorney , ” spoke out against Barry Goldwater and in favor of Michigan Governor George Romney as a possible Presidential candidate . In 1966 , Romney appointed Willis to the Michigan Public Service Commission , the state agency responsible for regulating Michigan 's public utilities ; Willis became chairman of the PSC in 1969 , serving in that capacity until 1973 . Ward later was elected a probate judge in Wayne County , Michigan .
Ward was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1981 , as part of the fourth group inducted .
|
= Chocolatier ( video game ) =
Chocolatier is a casual strategy video game with action game elements , developed by Big Splash Games and published by PlayFirst . The game was released as a download on May 1 , 2007 and was followed by CD @-@ ROM release on September 27 , 2007 . Players assume the role of a young Chocolatier , who must navigate 14 cities around the globe while buying ingredients , manufacturing chocolates , and selling them to chocolate shops . Two modes of play are available : in story mode the player must rebuild an almost bankrupt chocolate empire and acquire 64 chocolate recipes from around the world ; in free mode players start out with scant resources and must become successful chocolatiers .
Chocolatier was the first game developed by Big Splash Games , a trio of experienced video game designers , who remained employees whilst developing a prototype game in their spare time . This prototype was rejected by publishers , but after coming up with the premise of Chocolatier the team was signed @-@ up by PlayFirst and completed the title . The game received a mostly positive reception : reviewers enjoyed the action mini @-@ game which is played when chocolates are manufactured , and the game 's graphics , sound , and Victorian @-@ era presentation .
= = Gameplay = =
The player assumes the role of a young chocolatier in 1880 , during the Victorian era . The game has two modes of play : story and free play . Story mode involves a number of quests , including delivering specific chocolates and restoring the fictional Baumeister chocolate empire to its former glory . The player is enlisted by Evangeline Baumeister to rebuild the Baumeister chocolate empire which has been ruined by Evangeline 's younger sister who scattered chocolate recipes around the world . The player must locate the 64 lost recipes , visit 14 different cities around the globe , purchase 6 closed Baumeister factories , establish business relationships with outlets and suppliers , and manufacture chocolates to keep in business . Free play mode allows the player to travel , manufacture , and trade without undertaking quests . This mode starts the player with a small amount of cash and all chocolate recipes unlocked for use . In story mode , players begin with a single factory and a recipe for simple chocolate bars , the player must visit the market to purchase ingredients and begin the manufacturing process .
The game is turn @-@ based . Each turn represents one week , and travelling between cities takes a number of turns depending on the proximity of the destination city . Many cities have a chocolate shop , where the player can sell his or her stock , and a market where ingredients can be purchased . Some specialty cacao beans can only be purchased from plantations in certain cities . Factories manufacturing chocolates produce a set amount of product every turn , as long as the required ingredients are in stock . During story mode , quests are given by non @-@ player characters ; these typically involve producing a particular volume and type of chocolate and delivering it to another non @-@ player character , who is either traveling or can be found at a set location . Quest rewards take the form of a high price for the chocolates or a new recipe . Some encounters with characters give the player an opportunity to gamble a large amount of money on a dice roll . Market owners can be bartered with , though this carries the risk of them becoming irritated and raising prices rather than lowering them .
When producing a particular chocolate for the first time , a mini @-@ game is played where ingredients are fired from a cannon to fill circular trays which revolve around the cannon . The ingredients and quantities needed vary , depending on the recipe . Each time a circle is filled with the correct ingredients , it is removed and an empty circle put in its place . The trays spin faster as more circles are filled . If too many ingredients are wasted by misfiring the cannon , production is brought to a halt and the mini @-@ game must be attempted again . The mini @-@ game ends when the timer runs out ; the number of completed circles is equal to the number of chocolates produced by that factory every week . The mini @-@ game cannot be played unless the player owns the correct ingredients , and it can be replayed if the player wishes to try to improve the efficiency of the factory . Playing the mini @-@ game advances in @-@ game time by one week . Different chocolate types , such as truffles and squares , require the factory to be upgraded first , costing money .
= = Development = =
Tucson , Arizona based Big Splash Games was formed in late 2005 by three veterans of the videogame industry : Jon Blossom , Stephen Lewis and Michael Wyman . They came together to produce a prototype video game for the casual market . They worked on this for a few months when they were not working ( they still held jobs within the industry to support themselves ) . This prototype was pitched to a few publishers in order to gain feedback . PlayFirst , though not interested in the prototype , issued the team a request for proposal for an economic simulation game , hoping that Big Splash could produce another proposal . The next morning , Big Splash co @-@ founder Stephen Lewis remembered that he had been told that some people , in particular women , " have an almost religious connection with chocolate " . Taking this idea he quickly wrote a proposal and forwarded it to his two partners . After brainstorming the idea the team decided that it satisfied PlayFirst 's request for proposal , forwarded a copy of the idea and received word from the publisher that they " had hit the nail on the head " .
Chocolatier was designed to appeal to women aged between 35 and 55 , a different market compared to the games previously developed by the trio . In order to immerse themselves in the subject matter during development , Big Splash 's staff tasted as many variety of chocolates as they could find and took the Scharffen Berger Chocolate Maker factory tour , where they witnessed the full " bean to bar " process . The factory mini @-@ game was developed in order to give players a break from the economic side of the game , which involves buying low and selling high . It took approximately the same time to produce the mini @-@ game as it did to create the rest of the game , which drained the developer 's resources , though Stephen Lewis believed this was " the right decision " . Journalists were sent Chocolatier @-@ branded chocolate bars and " golden tickets " which allowed them to download the game for free , in order to promote the game 's release . The game 's sequel , Chocolatier 2 : Secret Ingredients was first released on November 27 , 2007 . Chocolatier : Decadence by Design is the third installment , released in 2009 . The Great Chocolate Chase : A Chocolatier Twist was later released by PlayFirst .
= = Reception = =
Chocolatier was awarded Gamezebo 's Zeeby award for best strategy game of 2007 . The game received a positive response from critics , though GameZone 's Anise Hollingshead found the game too easy , noting " there really isn ’ t a whole lot of thinking involved . " other reviewers called it " a delightfully challenging business tycoon game " , " challenging but not frustratingly so " , and said that the game " turned out as beautifully as the chocolates . " The game 's graphics and sound received praise : Marc Saltzman noted " the game 's wonderful art style and delightful music " , but website Killer Betties ' Jason Van Horn found the graphics " alright , simply doing what it needs to do to get its gameplay across . "
Reviewers praised the amount of freedom given to players , Meryl Evans of Blogcritics stated " There was no right or wrong , or a set path you must take " , but added that the game lost pace when she had gathered a large amount of money and had to find a specific character to speak with before completing her current quest . After finding the non @-@ player character , the game " picked up again and kept me hopping for the rest of it . " Didi Cardoso of website Grrl Gamer also enjoyed the freedom , but noted that sometimes she felt lost and was unsure of how to find the location of the next recipe . The chocolate manufacturing mini @-@ game was also praised as " fun " . Peter Cohen of Macworld noted that some fans of business simulators might find the mini @-@ game " off @-@ putting " , but also suggested that it helped break up gameplay . Marc Saltzman expressed the same opinion , while Anise Hollingshead found the mini @-@ game to be too easy to play .
|
= Operation Charnwood =
Operation Charnwood was an Anglo @-@ Canadian offensive that took place from 8 to 9 July 1944 , during the Battle for Caen , part of the larger Battle of Normandy , in the Second World War . The operation was intended to at least partially capture the German @-@ occupied French city of Caen ( French pronunciation : [ kɑ ̃ ] ) , which was an important objective for the Allies during the opening stages of Operation Overlord , the codename for the Battle of Normandy . It was also hoped that the attack would forestall the transfer of German armoured units from the Anglo @-@ Canadian sector to the lightly screened American sector , where a major American offensive was being planned . The British and Canadians advanced on a broad front and by the evening of the second day had taken Caen up to the Orne and Odon rivers .
Preceded by a controversial bombing raid that destroyed much of Caen 's historic Old City , Operation Charnwood began at dawn on 8 July , with battalions of three infantry divisions attacking German positions north of Caen behind an artillery creeping barrage . Supported by three armoured brigades , the forces of the British I Corps made gradual progress against the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend and 16th Luftwaffe Field Division . By the end of the day the 3rd Canadian and British 3rd and British 59th infantry divisions had cleared the villages in their path and reached Caen 's outskirts . Moving into the city at dawn the following morning , the Allies encountered resistance from remnants of German units who were beginning a withdrawal across the Orne . Carpiquet airfield fell to the Canadians during the early morning and by 18 : 00 , the British and Canadians had linked up and were on the Orne 's north bank . Discovering Caen 's remaining bridges to be defended or impassable and with German reserves positioned to oppose their crossing , I Corps closed down the operation .
With the capture of northern Caen and the many casualties inflicted on the German defenders , Operation Charnwood was a mutually costly tactical success for the Allies . Operationally , the Germans retired from north of the Orne River but did not stop sending formations to the American front . The Germans established another defensive line along two ridges to the south of the city . The Allies maintained the initiative and began Operation Goodwood and Operation Atlantic a week later , in which the rest of Caen was secured .
= = Background = =
The Norman city of Caen was one of the D @-@ Day objectives for the British 3rd Infantry Division which landed on Sword Beach on 6 June 1944 . The capture of Caen , while " ambitious " , was the most important D @-@ Day objective assigned to British I Corps under Lieutenant @-@ General Sir John Crocker ,
The quick capture of that key city [ Caen ] and the neighbourhood of Carpiquet was the most ambitious , the most difficult and the most important task of Lieutenant @-@ General J. T. Crocker 's I Corps .
The initial Overlord plan called for the British Second Army to secure the city and then form a front line from Caumont @-@ l 'Éventé to the south @-@ east of Caen , to acquire space for airfields and to protect the left flank of the United States First Army while it moved on Cherbourg . Possession of Caen and its environs would give Second Army a suitable staging area for a push south to capture Falaise , which could then be used as the pivot for a swing left to advance on Argentan and then towards the Touques River . The terrain between Caen and Vimont was especially attractive to Allied planners , being open , dry and conducive to swift offensive operations . Since the Allies greatly outnumbered the Germans in tanks and mobile units , creating the conditions for a fluid , fast moving battle was to their advantage .
The British 3rd Infantry Division came ashore as planned but was hampered by congestion in its beachhead , diversions en route and the late arrival of much of its armoured support . The division was unable to assault Caen in force and its lead elements were brought to a halt short of the outskirts . Later attacks failed as the German defenders were reinforced by the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend . On 7 June the British began Operation Perch , a pincer attack by I Corps and XXX Corps , to encircle Caen from the east and west flanks . The I Corps attack south of the Orne River was halted by the 21st Panzer Division and the XXX Corps attack to the west of Caen was contained near Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles by the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division . To force the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division to withdraw the British 7th Armoured Division attacked the western flank of the division on 13 June , through a gap created by the U.S. 1st Infantry Division , to reach high ground near Villers @-@ Bocage . In the Battle of Villers @-@ Bocage the 7th Armoured Division vanguard was ordered to retire and the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division held its positions until XXX Corps captured Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles on 19 June .
The next British offensive , codenamed Operation Epsom , was launched by VIII Corps on 26 June , after Operation Martlet ( also known as Operation Dauntless ) a preliminary attack on 25 June , to secure the right flank of VIII Corps . VIII Corps advanced to the west of Caen on a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) front from Rauray to Carpiquet . Once across the Odon and Orne rivers , VIII Corps was to make for high ground near Bretteville @-@ sur @-@ Laize and encircle Caen . The Germans managed to contain the offensive by committing all their strength , including two the 9th SS @-@ Panzer Division Hohenstaufen and 10th SS @-@ Panzer Division Frundsberg of the II SS Panzer Corps , which had been sent from the Eastern Front soon after the D @-@ Day and had been intended for a counter @-@ offensive against Bayeux .
On 27 June , the 8th Infantry Brigade ( 1st Suffolk Regiment , 2nd East Yorkshire Regiment , 1st South Lancashire Regiment ) of the 3rd Infantry Division , supported by the Staffordshire Yeomanry , of 27th Armoured Brigade , and specialist armour from the 79th Armoured Division , launched Operation Mitten . The objective was to seize the German @-@ occupied Château la Londe and Château le Landel . The initial evening assault , led by the 1st Battalion , South Lancashire Regiment was repulsed but the following morning further attacks gained the objectives and destroyed several German tanks . Operation Mitten cost at least three British tanks and had it succeeded quicker , the 9th Brigade , supported by the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade , would have launched Operation Aberlour , to capture the villages of la Bijude , Épron , Galmache , St. Contest , Authie and Cussy but this follow @-@ up operation was cancelled by Lieutenant @-@ General J. T. Crocker the I Corps commander . The area of the Châteaux was later called the " bloodiest square mile in Normandy " . and 268 men .
Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt , supreme commander of the German forces in the west ( OB West ) , directed on 1 July that Caen should be gradually abandoned and the bulk of the German armoured divisions be shifted to the west end of the beachhead against the U.S. First Army but the city and its surroundings were considered by the German Armed Forces High Command ( OKW ) to be fundamental to the defence of Normandy . OKW wanted an arc of defensible terrain from the English Channel to the western banks of the Orne to be held and Adolf Hitler sacked Rundstedt and replaced him with Generalfeldmarschall Günther von Kluge . Learning of this through Ultra , the Allied ground forces commander , General Bernard Law Montgomery , planned an offensive to capture Caen and to prevent a large redeployment of German forces from the Anglo @-@ Canadian sector to the American front .
On 4 July , the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division launched Operation Windsor , to seize Carpiquet and the adjacent airfield from the 12th SS @-@ Panzer Division . Carpiquet fell on 5 July , the airfield remained in German hands .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Allies = = =
Having failed to take Caen through successive flanking manoeuvres , Montgomery decided the next attack would be a frontal assault . Although Caen 's strategic importance had vastly diminished since D @-@ Day , he sought control of Bourguébus and the commanding high ground to the south . On 5 July the orders for Operation Charnwood were issued ; it was to be launched at 04 : 20 , an hour and a half before dawn on 8 July .
The objective of Charnwood was to clear Caen of its defenders up to the Orne river and if possible to secure bridgeheads in southern Caen . To achieve the latter it was planned to send an armoured column through the city to rush the bridges ; it was hoped that I Corps could exploit the situation to sweep on through southern Caen towards the Verrières and Bourguébus ridges , paving the way for the British Second Army to advance towards Falaise . Historian Roger Cirillo however points out the operation was designed to clear the town of German forces ; due to it being cut by both a river and a canal any attempts to make rapid progress through and beyond Caen were " in all probability , impossible . "
Crocker 's 115 @,@ 000 @-@ strong I Corps was assigned the task of penetrating to the Orne and Odon rivers . The 3rd Infantry Division would attack on a one brigade front from the north @-@ east , supported by the 33rd Armoured Brigade ; the 59th ( Staffordshire ) Infantry Division would attack on a two brigade front from the north , supported by the 27th Armoured Brigade ; and the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division would attack on a one brigade front from the northwest , supported by the 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade . To maintain the maximum possible pressure on German forces in the sector , VIII Corps was placed on 24 hours notice to launch further attacks to the west of Caen .
In the light of lessons learned from the partial Canadian success during Operation Windsor , Charnwood was to be launched on a broad front to increase the pressure on the German defences and disperse their defensive fire . SHAEF planners had advised , on 10 June , that the best way to break a stalemate was to use air power to support an attack ; this method was to be used for Charnwood as Montgomery enlisted the aid of RAF Bomber Command . Heavy bombers would attack Caen on the night preceding the assault , with 15 % of the total bomb load being delayed action bombs set to explode when the ground attack was launched . A second wave of light bombers would follow the heavies and a third wave of American bombers would attack on the morning of the operation .
Additional support would be provided by rocket firing Typhoon fighter @-@ bombers , the monitor HMS Roberts , the light cruisers HMS Belfast and HMS Emerald and the 16 @-@ inch guns of the battleship Rodney . Five divisions would contribute 656 guns for bombarding German positions to the south . In all , it was planned that 2 @,@ 000 tons of bombs would be dropped on Caen before the infantry assault began . Due to the proximity of the target area to the Allied lines and the resulting risk of friendly casualties , the aiming point for the bombers was shifted 6 @,@ 000 yards ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) to the south — beyond most of the main German defences screening the city . Following a long saturation bombardment , the three infantry divisions were to push through the fortified villages in their path and advance directly into Caen 's northern suburbs .
= = = Germans = = =
Caen 's defence fell to two divisions ; the 12th SS Panzer Division of I SS Panzer Corps , and the 16th Luftwaffe Field Division of LXXXVI Corps . An assault on the city was expected , and it was assumed that further attacks in the Odon valley towards the Orne river would quickly follow suit . The 12th SS Panzer Division , commanded by Kurt Meyer , consisted of three panzergrenadier regiments including one — the 1st SS Panzergrenadier Regiment — borrowed from the 1st SS Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler ( 1st SS Panzer Division ) . With its 61 surviving tanks 12th SS Panzer was holding the northwest approaches to Caen , defending the city and Carpiquet airfield from the 3rd Canadian and 59th British Infantry Divisions .
The main German defensive line , a 9 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) arc of villages from the northeast to the west , was held by the 25th SS Panzergrenadier Regiment and elements of the 12th SS Panzer Regiment . Troops from the 26th SS Panzergrenadier Regiment were holding the western flank , concentrating their strength , which included mortar batteries and a few tanks , in the area around Carpiquet airfield . The 1st SS Panzergrenadier Regiment was occupying a line from Franqueville to the western end of Éterville ; the villages formed mutually @-@ supporting strongpoints with dug @-@ in tanks and assault guns , and the defensive line was 2 – 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 8 km ) in depth , supplemented by anti @-@ tank ditches , weapons pits , minefields and other obstacles . The rest of the division , with 35 tanks of the 12th SS Panzer Regiment , were held in reserve , with elements located north , west and south of the city . Most of the division 's artillery had been moved back across the Orne , and the divisional command centre had been relocated from the Ardenne Abbey to Abbaye @-@ aux @-@ Dames in the centre of Caen .
The 16th Luftwaffe Field Division was an inexperienced infantry division that had only recently arrived in Normandy to relieve the 21st Panzer Division of its defence of Caen and its positions east of the Caen canal . The division was under @-@ trained and lacked sufficient anti @-@ tank weapons ; to remedy the latter it was reinforced with a tank battalion from 21st Panzer . The Luftwaffe division was deployed on both sides of the Orne , with three battalions holding the villages to the immediate north of the city . The 1st SS Panzer Division was roughly 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south of Caen with a regiment of dual purpose 88 mm guns from the III Flak Corps . The II SS Panzer Corps was to the west , with the 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg around 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) southwest of the city .
= = = Air attack , 7 July = = =
On the night of 7 July , 467 Lancaster and Halifax heavy bombers of the Royal Air Force — half of Bomber Command 's strength — attacked Caen , dropping over 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) of bombs on the city . Although intended mainly to facilitate the Anglo @-@ Canadian advance and to prevent German reinforcements from reaching the battle or retreating through Caen , a secondary consideration was the suppression of the German defences . In this the bombing largely failed ; the main German armour and infantry positions to the north of Caen remained intact . Several tanks were hit and temporarily disabled but only two Panzer IV of the 12th SS Panzer Division were destroyed . General Miles Dempsey , in command of the British Second Army , was more concerned with the morale @-@ boosting effect of the bombing on his troops , than any material losses it might inflict on the Germans .
The pathfinders of No. 625 Squadron RAF , dropping the target markers for the bombers , were instructed not to allow the target zone to " drift back " towards the Allied lines as had been the tendency in earlier operations . Together with the cautious shifting of the target zone during the planning stage , the effect was that in many cases the markers were dropped too far forward , pushing the bombed zone well into Caen itself and further away from the German defences . By 22 : 00 on 7 July , the bombers had departed , leaving 80 percent of the north of Caen destroyed . Caen University was particularly hard hit , starting chemical fires that soon spread . At 22 : 50 , six squadrons of de Havilland Mosquito bombers attacked individual targets and ten minutes later the 636 guns of the assaulting divisions opened fire , with the battleship Rodney and other ships adding their support . The bombardment was intensified by the artillery of VIII Corps , against the villages north of Caen , to eliminate German strong points before the infantry assault began .
= = Battle = =
= = = 8 July = = =
At 04 : 30 on 8 July , the artillery of I and VIII Corps shifted their fire deeper into the German defensive belt , along the axes of advance of the 3rd Canadian Division and the 59th ( Staffordshire ) Infantry Division . As the infantry and armour moved off their start @-@ lines , the barrage slowly crept forward , concentrating its fire on positions in front of the Anglo @-@ Canadian troops ; four battalions and two armoured regiments advancing on a two brigade front . At 07 : 00 , 192 B @-@ 26 Marauder medium bombers arrived over the battlefield but finding it obscured by cloud only 87 aircraft were able to drop their bombs , totalling 133 long tons ( 135 t ) . Some bombs landed on the 12th SS Headquarters at Abbaye @-@ aux @-@ Dames .
Crocker launched the second phase of Operation Charnwood at 07 : 30 , although neither division had yet reached its objectives . The 26th SS Panzergrenadier Regiment was still in control of high ground around the Carpiquet airfield on the right flank of the advance . On the left , facing the relatively weak defences of the 16th Luftwaffe Field Division , the 3rd Infantry Division made good progress . They attacked Lébisey and rapidly pushed through the village , although fighting intensified as the division reached Hérouville . Concerned about the state of the Luftwaffe division , General Heinrich Eberbach , in command of Panzer Group West ordered the 21st Panzer Division to redeploy north @-@ east of Caen in support . The manoeuvre was spotted and when 21st Panzer attempted to cross the Caen Canal , a naval bombardment was directed against them . Facing the possibility of heavy losses , the move was abandoned . In the centre , the 176th Brigade of the 59th Division was encountering much stiffer resistance from the 12th SS Panzer Regiment in Galmanche and la Bijude . The 197th Brigade bypassed Galmanche and by noon had reached St @-@ Contest .
Further to the west , the 9th Infantry Brigade of the 3rd Canadian Division had been involved in heavy fighting in Buron , which was defended by 200 men from the 12th SS . With support from the 10th Armoured Regiment ( The Fort Garry Horse ) , by noon Buron had been taken , although the Canadian assault companies suffered 60 % casualties . South of Buron , a counter @-@ attack by Panzer IV and Panther tanks of the 12th SS Panzer Regiment was defeated by 17pdr SP Achilles self @-@ propelled anti @-@ tank guns and 17 @-@ pounder anti tank guns of the 245th Battery , 62nd Antitank Regiment . Thirteen German tanks were destroyed in one of the most successful antitank engagements of the campaign , for the loss of four tank destroyers and a further four damaged . Gruchy was captured with relatively less difficulty , with the 7th Canadian Infantry Brigade encountering only mortar and artillery fire in their drive to Authie . The capture of Authie facilitated the 59th Infantry Division assault on St @-@ Contest and that village fell too , clearing the way for an advance on Caen . In Phase 3 of the operation , the 7th Brigade pushed towards the former headquarters of the 12th SS Panzer Division at Ardenne Abbey , securing the position before midnight .
The British 3rd Division brushed aside 16th Luftwaffe and approached the outskirts of Caen from the north @-@ east . At 19 : 15 , Meyer and Eberbach authorised the withdrawal of the 12th SS Panzer Division heavy weapons and the remnants of the Luftwaffe division across the Orne to the southern side of Caen . In the early evening , the 12th SS fought a rearguard action against elements of the 59th and 3rd Canadian divisions , as it pulled back from positions no longer considered tenable . Reports of this withdrawal came into the Anglo @-@ Canadian command but patrols probing German positions , created a false perception that no withdrawal was taking place .
= = = 9 July = = =
British and Canadian patrols began to infiltrate the city at dawn on 9 July . The airfield at Carpiquet finally fell into Allied hands during the early morning , when the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division discovered that the 26th SS Panzergrenadier Regiment had withdrawn during the night . With the German situation north of the river becoming increasingly precarious , 21st Panzer Division battle groups and the remaining regiments of the 12th SS Panzer Division conducted a slow withdrawal across the Orne , making for the Verrières and Bourguébus Ridges . By noon the 3rd British Infantry Division had reached the Orne 's north bank , virtually destroying the elements of the 16th Luftwaffe Field Division , positioned west of the Orne , in the process . A few hours later the British and Canadians met in the centre of the city and by 18 : 00 the northern half of Caen was firmly under Allied control ; all I Corps 's objectives had been achieved . A few of Caen 's bridges were intact but these were either blocked by rubble or defended by German troops on the south bank and the 1st SS Panzer Division had by now positioned itself to oppose any further advance .
The 12th SS Panzer Division ( by the end of the battle the division 's infantry strength had been reduced to that of a battalion ) — claimed over the course of two days to have destroyed 103 British and Canadian tanks for the loss of 20 . On entering Caen the Anglo @-@ Canadian troops found it in ruins , with four @-@ fifths of the Old City reduced to rubble by the 7 July bombings . The debris that choked the streets made it almost impossible for British armour to manoeuvre through the northern half of the city , preventing Second Army from exploiting I Corps 's success . Without possession of the terrain flanking the south of the city , no further gains could be made within Caen so by mid @-@ afternoon on 9 July , Operation Charnwood was over .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Analysis = = =
The German were forced to withdraw from the north of the Orne but Allied forces were unable to push beyond the Orne . German forces were dug @-@ in on the opposite bank in position to block a move south . Montgomery called off an advance beyond the Orne as further attacks would be too costly for the gains made , which had inflicted much attrition on the defenders . For French public opinion the operation was a coup ; civilians now believed the liberation of France was under way
Antony Beevor called Operation Charnwood a partial success , because although much of Caen was taken , the British and Canadians failed to secure enough ground to expand the Allied build @-@ up ; the bulk of the First Canadian Army was still waiting in the United Kingdom for transfer to Normandy . Carlo D 'Este wrote that Charnwood did improve the Second Army 's position but without the high ground to the south , Caen was useless , the capture of the city was too little too late a hollow victory . Chester Wilmot wrote that for Montgomery to maintain a threat to German @-@ occupied Paris , Caen 's southern suburbs with their factories and communications network would have been a more significant prize . Buckley and Copp note that by the time the city was captured , the Germans — weakened by the battles of late June and early July — had already established defensive positions on the high ground to the south of the Orne , which blocked the route to the Falaise plain
Copp also wrote that the British Second Army won an important operational victory during Charnwood and the Society for Army Historical Research recorded that the attacks were a tactical and operational success . In the aftermath , the Supreme Allied Commander , General Dwight D. Eisenhower expressed his concern that a breakout was unlikely . Montgomery differed ; the tenacity of the German defence was no barometer of its longevity . Field Marshal Erwin Rommel mentioned to Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Caesar von Hofacker that the front @-@ line in France could only be held for another three weeks . Hofacker was a member of the German resistance and linked with the Hitler assassination plot and according to Trew , Rommel 's comment led to the plot timetable being decided .
The serious losses sustained in maintaining a static defence during June led to fractures in the German high command . On 1 July , Panzer Group West commander Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg had been replaced by Heinrich Eberbach , following disagreements with Hitler over how the campaign should be conducted . Gerd von Rundstedt , soon followed , that evening , in a telephone conversation with Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel , head of OKW , von Rundstedt said " Make peace , you fools . " Taken to task over his endorsement of von Schweppenburg 's recommendation for a withdrawal , he replied " If you doubt what we 're doing , get up here and take over this shambles yourself " . The following morning , informed that perhaps his health was " no longer up to the task " , von Rundstedt resigned and was succeeded as OB West by Günther von Kluge . The costly battles in and around Caen and Saint @-@ Lô convinced both Eberbach and von Kluge that their predecessors had been correct . The Germans had suffered heavily , leading Hitler to order Army Group B to temporarily abandon big counter @-@ attacks and go over to the defensive until more reinforcements could arrive to bolster the front .
Trew contends that the capture of northern Caen had a psychological impact on the French population , convincing them the Allies were there to stay and that the liberation of France could not be far off . By Operation Charnwood 's conclusion , Allied losses since 6 June had amounted to over 30 @,@ 000 men , excluding those who had been evacuated due to sickness and those suffering from battle exhaustion . Buckley believes Charnwood to have been a good idea but one that proved better in concept than in execution , influenced as it was by the mounting political pressure on 21st Army Group to produce results . Copp wrote that the broad @-@ based assault plan across the entire front worked , preventing the Germans bringing to bear superior firepower on any one formation .
Copp wrote that Charnwood should have produced a rapid breakthrough but concedes that the battle was one of the most difficult of the campaign . Buckley singles out poor cooperation between armoured and infantry units as one of the reasons for such high Allied losses ; he is critical of the habit of tanks standing off from German positions and firing the infantry onto the objective like artillery , instead of moving forward to give close support . He further notes that from the German perspective , the Anglo @-@ Canadian forces apparently lacked the desire or ability to press home their advantages , citing Kurt Meyer 's opinion that during the battle the Allies allowed the opportunity of destroying his 12th SS Panzer Division to elude them . Buckley comments on the defensive power of the British and Canadian formations . The German practice of conducting immediate local counter @-@ attacks to retake lost ground cost them many of their best troops , losses they could ill @-@ afford . He illustrates this with a typical action during which the Germans lost 13 tanks to British self @-@ propelled anti @-@ tank guns .
With Caen north of the River Orne in Allied hands , mine @-@ clearance operations were launched , bulldozers were set to work to clear the streets and a convoy of trucks carrying supplies for the civilian population was brought in . On 10 July the French flag was raised over the city and three days later a parade was held in the Place Saint @-@ Martin during which a second flag was raised to the strains of Scottish bagpipers playing La Marseillaise .
Rommel and Eberbach consolidated defensive positions in and around southern Caen , the 12th , 1st and 9th SS Panzer Divisions turning the Bourguébus and Verrières Ridges into formidable barriers . Having committed all of his armoured reserves , Rommel transferred the remainder of his infantry divisions — the 708th , 276th , 277th and 272nd — to the Anglo @-@ Canadian front . On 8 July he released the remnants of the Panzer Lehr Division and the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich to the American sector . At the start of the campaign , Panzer @-@ Lehr was one of the most powerful armoured formations in the German army , by this stage it had been reduced to a number of battlegroups and was no longer operational as a division . On 17 July , Rommel 's staff car was strafed by British fighters , severely injuring the Field Marshal and confining him to hospital . Two days later he was replaced as Army Group B commander by Field Marshal Günther von Kluge . Rommel never returned to Normandy ; implicated in the 20 July plot against Hitler , on 14 October he was forced to commit suicide .
Caen 's partial capture allowed General Omar Bradley , commander of the United States First Army , to accelerate his plans for a breakout . Shortly after Charnwood the US VII Corps attacked German positions in Saint @-@ Lô , which the 2nd SS Panzer Division had been ordered to " hold at all costs " . On 18 July , after eight days of fighting during which 95 percent of the town was destroyed and VII Corps had more than 5 @,@ 000 casualties , Saint @-@ Lô fell to the Americans .
The same day , Miles Dempsey 's Second Army launched Operation Goodwood with from 1 @,@ 100 – 1 @,@ 300 tanks in the largest armoured battle in British military history . Lieutenant @-@ General Richard O 'Connor 's VIII Corps spearheaded the drive towards the Bourguébus Ridge with three armoured divisions , supported by Crocker 's I Corps . After a preliminary attack by 1 @,@ 056 heavy bombers , elements of the 11th , Guards and 7th Armoured Division assaulted the positions of LXXXVI Corps north of Bourguébus but despite early gains of around 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 11 km ) , strong resistance prevented VIII Corps taking the ridge . Simultaneously , Lieutenant General Guy Simonds 's newly activated II Canadian Corps launched an offensive on the Verrières Ridge , codenamed Operation Atlantic . II Corps ran into fierce opposition ; during the seven @-@ day battle that followed the Canadians sustained 2 @,@ 800 casualties . Verrières Ridge would remain in German hands until 8 August .
= = = Battle honours = = =
The British and Commonwealth system of battle honours recognises the battle by the award to 55 units of the honour Caen , for participation in the capture of Caen between 4 – 18 July 1944 . Awarded from 1956 to 1959 , the recognition was accompanied by honours for taking part in Operation Charnwood . For participating in the capture of Caen between 8 – 9 July three units were awarded the honour Orne , nine the honour The Orne , and two the honour The Orne ( Buron ) .
= = = Bombing = = =
Hastings wrote that the bombing came to be seen by many as " one of the most futile air attacks of the war " and Beevor called the attack a " disaster " . Reynolds judged the results of the bombing as " pathetic " and D 'Este wrote that the bombing hindered the Allied push into the city . Air Commodore E. J. Kingston @-@ McCloughry and Solly Zuckerman conducted a survey and concluded that no targets of military value had been attacked , nor were there any gun positions , tanks or German dead in the target zone . They interviewed men of the 3rd Infantry Division , who were reportedly bewildered as to why the bombers had been employed . The 3rd Division historian , wrote that in the wake of the air @-@ raid the men
... for the first time for weeks breathed freely . The full support of the Air Force gave them full hearts ... and the men were encourage .
The Canadian Official Historian , C. P. Stacey wrote that several Canadian formations reported an increase in morale . Wilmot wrote that the bombing was essential because it raised the morale of the Second Army and depressed that of the German defenders .
A 21st Army Group intelligence report , based on the interrogation of German prisoners recorded that the raid was " decisive " and had apparently destroyed the headquarters of the Luftwaffe infantry regiment based north of Caen and deprived the German troops north of the city of ammunition and rations the following morning . Gray wrote that the bombing had an effect on the morale of both sides but that this was temporary . L. F. Ellis , the British Official Historian , Trew and Badsey all wrote that the raid was intended to cut off German reinforcements from the battlefield and hinder an attempt to withdraw south of the Orne river . Stacey wrote that it was " obvious and desirable " that for maximum advantage , the Allied ground forces should have advanced on the heels of the attack . Gray concluded that no @-@ one " can [ not ] satisfactorily answer the question ' why ' " the city was bombed .
Analysis by Operational Research Section Number 2 ( ORS2 ) concluded that the bombing of the first aiming point north @-@ west of Caen was accurate , finding that the centre of the 90 percent zone ( the area where 90 percent of the bombs fell ) was 200 – 300 yards ( 180 – 270 m ) east of the aiming point , with some spillage to the south and west . Examination of the area after its capture , indicated some destruction of German equipment , including the wreckage of ten of the forty trucks believed to be in the area at the time of the raid . The 48 hours that elapsed between the bombing and the Allied occupation of the area , allowed the Germans time to recover from any shock and disorientation and to salvage some damaged equipment . Examination of the second aiming point , " Northern Caen " , failed to reveal a 90 percent zone but it was noted that the obstructive effect of bombing a suburb was significant and had caused substantial delays to vehicles of both sides , by cratering and blocking roads . ORS2 concluded that the success of Charnwood owed little to the bombing and made recommendations including changing to instantly fused bombs , dropping larger numbers of smaller anti @-@ personnel bombs and rapidly following @-@ up a bombardment with ground forces to take advantage of its main effect , which was the temporary suppression of German will to resist . In Operation Goodwood , Operation Bluecoat , Operation Cobra , Operation Totalize and Operation Tractable the 21st Army Group exploited better the effect of preparatory attacks by strategic bombers by following @-@ up the attacks immediately .
The British initially announced that around 6 @,@ 000 civilians had been killed during the air @-@ raid and a Soviet war correspondent attached to the 21st Army Group , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Kraminov , put the figure as high as 22 @,@ 000 , a claim that was used by French communists in post @-@ war anti @-@ British propaganda . It was later found that 300 – 400 civilians were killed in the raid . Caen citizens were relieved and provided their liberators with a welcome that the troops found very moving ; French accounts of the time claim that " All [ of ] Caen was in the streets to greet them " . Although Ellis called the French welcome " pathetic " , no Allied unit recorded any complaints about the reception they were given . Stacey wrote that the populace were " particularly delighted to find their city freed in part by men from Canada " . Beevor wrote that most of the population were numb from the shock and quoted a British soldier who recalled that " most ... women were crying , grief @-@ stricken and anguished " . As early as 12 June , the French Resistance had sent messengers to the British , informing them that refugees were gathering in the areas around the Abbaye @-@ aux @-@ Hommes and the Hôpital du Bon Sauveur and requested that these locations not to be bombed ; British assurances were given and these locations were nearly untouched . Gray wrote that after the war , the city population regarded itself as being martyred , which could be seen on the war memorial .
= = Subsequent operations = =
= = = Operation Jupiter = = =
On 10 July , the 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division attacked the positions of the 10th SS Panzer Division to the southwest of Caen on Hill 112 . Preceded by a two @-@ day bombardment that included support from naval vessels and Hawker Typhoons , the assault was designed to threaten Caen from the west and push back the 10th SS Panzer Division . This would secure the British Second Army an avenue for future offensives . The 43rd Wessex began their assault at dawn on 10 July , supported by two armoured brigades . By 08 : 00 British tanks and infantry were engaged with 10th SS Panzer and " well up " the slopes of Hill 112 . Eterville was taken around mid @-@ morning ; as the 4th Armoured Brigade and 43rd Wessex pressed their attack , Panzer Group West commander General Eberbach insisted that " Hill 112 is the pivotal point of the whole position West of Caen , and must therefore be held " .
The 102nd SS Heavy Panzer Battalion and the 1st SS Panzer Division were committed to its defence . The 4th Armoured Brigade reached the summit but in the evening were counter @-@ attacked by remnants of the 1st and 12th SS Panzer Divisions . The British offensive resumed the following day with the support of antitank regiments from the Second Army ; these had heavy losses in a counter @-@ attack by the 102nd SS Heavy Panzer Battalion . Hill 112 was briefly taken by a battalion of the Duke of Cornwall 's Light Infantry , only to be lost to further German counter @-@ attacks in the late afternoon . By the evening of 11 July , with both sides exhausted and having suffered heavily the offensive had reached a stalemate . The 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division and its supporting armour had sustained two thousand casualties in the two days of fighting .
|
= 2005 Qeshm earthquake =
The 2005 Qeshm earthquake occurred on November 27 at 13 : 52 IRST ( 10 : 22 UTC ) on the sparsely populated Qeshm Island off Southern Iran , killing 13 people and devastating 13 villages . It was Iran 's second major earthquake of 2005 , following that at Zarand in February . The epicenter was about 1 @,@ 500 kilometers ( 930 mi ) south of Tehran , close to Iran 's southern borders . Initial measurements showed that the earthquake registered about 6 @.@ 0 on the moment magnitude scale , although that was reduced to 5 @.@ 8 after further analysis . More than 400 minor aftershocks followed the main quake , 36 of which were greater than magnitude 2 @.@ 5 . The earthquake occurred in a remote area during the middle of the day , limiting the number of fatalities . Iranian relief efforts were effective and largely adequate , leading the country to decline offers of support from other nations and UNICEF .
Qeshm Island is part of the Simply Folded Belt , the most seismically active part of the Zagros fold and thrust belt . Similar to most earthquakes in the area , the 2005 event resulted from reverse slip faulting . Since it lies in such a seismically active area , there is a high risk of destructive earthquakes in Iran ; 1 in 3 @,@ 000 deaths are attributable to earthquakes . One geophysicist has cited the lack of strict building codes as a serious concern .
= = Background = =
Iran experiences at least one minor earthquake per day on average , and the Zagros region is particularly prone to seismic activity . During the last 100 years , Iran has been hit by more than 130 events stronger than magnitude 5 , with damaging earthquakes near Qeshm recorded in 1360 , 1703 , 1884 , 1897 , 1902 , and 1905 . The majority of Iranian quakes occur in the upper crust , close to the surface , which means that they are potentially more destructive .
In terms of earthquake protection , Iran was named the " worst offender " in 2004 by Professor Roger Bilham of the University of Colorado at Boulder . Bilham , a geophysicist who specializes in earthquake @-@ related deformation and hazards , blames construction practices for many of the deaths in Iranian earthquakes . Since the start of the 20th century 1 in 3 @,@ 000 Iranians have died in earthquake @-@ related incidents . The United Nations ' Common Country Assessment for Iran states that the greatest damage occurs in rural areas , for which no building code exists . Large cities have a building code that takes account of the seismic hazard , but it is not rigorously followed , despite the susceptibility of three quarters of Iranian major cities to damaging earthquakes . The risk posed by poor engineering is of significant concern to the populace and an impediment to economic development . The 1990 Manjil – Rudbar earthquake , with at least 42 @,@ 000 fatalities , cost Iran roughly 7 @.@ 2 percent of its Gross National Product ( GNP ) for that year , and wiped out two years of economic growth .
= = Geological setting = =
Iran lies within the complex zone of collision between the Arabian Plate and the Eurasian Plate ; near Qeshm the rate of convergence is about 25 millimeters annually . Part of this convergence is accommodated by crustal shortening and thickening within the Zagros fold and thrust belt , with the remainder occurring to the north of the Iranian Plateau . The most active part of the Zagros is the Simply Folded Belt , which is characterised by large folds formed above a layer of late Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian Hormuz salt , which locally reaches the surface in the crests of some anticlines as salt diapirs . The sequence of sedimentary rocks above the salt layer comprises a basal Cambrian conglomerate beneath a thick sequence of limestones of Palaeozoic to late Cretaceous age , known together as the " Competent Group " owing to their relatively high mechanical strength , overlain by a sequence of weaker marls and interbedded limestones of latest Cretaceous to early Miocene age , topped by Neogene sandstones and conglomerates . There is evidence of intermediate level detachment at some of the weaker layers , which means that folds at different stratigraphic levels may have different locations , orientations , or wavelengths . Measurements of earthquake focal mechanisms and hypocentral depths show that shortening is accommodated by a mixture of high @-@ angle and low @-@ angle reverse faulting , within either the lowest part of the sedimentary cover or in the basement beneath the Hormuz salt .
The island of Qeshm is elongated WSW – ENE , parallel to the coastline and the regional trend of the main fold axes . Neogene sedimentary rocks outcrop at the surface over the whole island , apart from a diapir of older Hormuz salt that pierces through to the surface at its western end . The sediments are affected by a series of large , mainly anticlinal folds that show a variety of trends in the central part of the island . The axis of the Laft anticline runs mainly NW – SE , while the Salakh anticline trends roughly W – E and the Suza anticline and Ramkan syncline trend SW – NE . The island shows clear evidence of recent uplift in the form of marine terraces , with the highest terrace identified at 220 meters ( 720 ft ) above sea level . An uplift rate of 0 @.@ 2 millimeters annually has been estimated from uranium series dating ( 230Th / 234U ) of aragonite from corals on the terraces .
= = Characteristics = =
The earthquake was initially measured at 6 @.@ 0 on the moment magnitude scale , although later analysis suggests a slightly lower value of 5 @.@ 8 . The epicenter was near the village of Gavarzin in central Qeshm , and a hypocentral depth of 10 kilometers ( 6 mi ) was estimated . The focal mechanism derived for the earthquake indicates that it was the result of reverse faulting on a fault plane dipping either to the north at 50 ° or to the south – southeast at 40 ° . No evidence has been found of surface faulting , but a 3 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 2 mi ) set of bedding @-@ parallel cracks was observed on the northwestern flank of the Ramkan syncline , interpreted as representing probable slip along bedding planes , possibly due to further tightening of this fold . Other NW – SE trending tensional cracks observed further southwest along the syncline are more likely to be due to salt movement at depth .
Surface displacement during the earthquake was measured using SAR interferometry . The computed area of uplift is elongated W @-@ E , with a maximum value of about 20 centimeters ( 8 in ) centered over the eastern end of the Latif anticline . A smaller area of subsidence was observed to the south of the uplifted area , and the lack of a sharp boundary between the two suggests that the fault does not come to the surface . The pattern of displacement is consistent with a north @-@ dipping fault rupturing between about 8 kilometers ( 5 mi ) and 4 kilometers ( 2 mi ) in depth , which also provides a good match to the results of seismic modeling using body waves , although a SSE @-@ dipping plane remains possible . This depth range strongly suggests that the fault affected the lower part of the sedimentary cover , while not ruling out some basement involvement . The mismatch between the orientation of the fault planes that caused the earthquake and the observed surface folds suggests that deformation at these two levels is decoupled by the presence of a detachment , possibly within marl layers .
Most aftershocks occurred at significantly greater depths than the mainshock and are dominated by strike @-@ slip focal mechanisms . This suggests that the mainshock triggered later movement on a complex set of right and left lateral strike @-@ slip faults within the basement , together accommodating north @-@ south shortening beneath the Hormuz salt layer .
On September 10 , 2008 , there was another major earthquake on Qeshm , with a magnitude of 5 @.@ 9 and hypocentral depth of 8 kilometers ( 5 mi ) . The pattern of uplift observed for this earthquake is also consistent with rupturing within the lower sedimentary sequence , but on a fault with two segments , dipping overall to the southeast . The earthquakes of 2005 and 2008 may have ruptured adjacent segments of the same southeast @-@ dipping reverse fault . Seven deaths were reported as a result of the 2008 earthquake .
= = Damage and casualties = =
The earthquake hit at 13 : 52 : 19 IRST , or 1 : 52 pm ( 10 : 22 : 19 UTC ) , and lasted between 10 and 30 seconds . It killed 13 people and injured 100 on Qeshm Island . In Zirang ( Ziranag ) , a village on Qeshm , 80 percent of the buildings were demolished . Seven villages experienced extensive damage , and 13 villages were destroyed : Tonban , Ramekan , Gevarzin , Khaledin , Direstan , Kushe , Karavan , Turyan , Tom senati , Gorbehdan , Ziranag , Giahdan , and Gourian . There were reports of intensity III effects on the Mercalli scale from Bandar Abbas , Abu Dhabi , Ajman , Dubai , Fujairah and Ras al @-@ Khaimah ; Intensity IV ( Light ) effects occurred at Sharjah . Shaking from the earthquake was also noted in Oman . No major damage occurred directly at the epicenter ; residents of Qeshm reported that the shaking smashed windows , leading citizens to evacuate their homes fearing collapse . In total more than 2 @,@ 000 people were affected .
One major hospital damaged by the earthquake was inundated with the injured and lacked medical supplies for treatment . An airport on the epicentral island sustained damage , and power lines on the island were severed . The director of Tehran 's seismological building dismissed fears of a tsunami , saying that the Persian Gulf was not deep enough to allow for one . In one school , some people suffered broken legs when the building collapsed , but there were no fatalities . Buildings in Dubai , including the Emirates Towers , were evacuated because of concerns that the structures might collapse , but no such incidents occurred . One woman described the locals as " panicked " . Television stations throughout Iran released footage of quake damage and of injured residents being taken to hospitals .
A landslide and 36 major aftershocks of more than magnitude 2 @.@ 5 ( in total , 400 aftershocks ) followed the earthquake . A former Portuguese fortress , built by Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque in 1507 , sustained heavy damage to its eastern wall but otherwise remained intact .
If the earthquake had occurred during the early morning while residents were asleep , rather than mid @-@ afternoon ( 1 : 52 pm local time ) , it could have been deadlier as housing in the epicentral area consisted chiefly of mud and brick .
= = Relief efforts and aftermath = =
Aid workers from the domestic region began delivering supplies such as food , blankets , and tents . A dispatch of 101 relief helpers , 40 IRCS staff , and four people from the public relations department at ReliefWeb also assisted survivors . Three ambulances , 46 trucks , three helicopters , 12 vans , nine cars , two minibuses , and two sniffer dogs were also dispatched to help citizens of quake @-@ struck areas .
Injured residents were transported to Bandar Abbas by helicopter . An Iranian police official , citing concerns about possible looting , said all movement into and out of damaged houses would require prior approval from the governor 's office , the police , and the Unexpected Events Committee on the island . UNICEF offered assistance to Iran , and the official in charge of response stated : " we are preparing to respond if needed " . They elaborated that the Iranian authorities " appeared to have things under control " .
In 2007 , the Asian Centre on Seismic Risk Reduction was formed in response to the regular earthquakes experienced in south , west , and central Asia , to " encourage regional and inter @-@ regional networking and partnerships to reduce seismic damage " . Earthquakes account for 73 percent of natural disaster deaths in these locations .
|
= White Rabbit ( Lost ) =
" White Rabbit " is the fifth episode of the first season of Lost . The episode was directed by Kevin Hooks and written by Christian Taylor . It first aired on October 20 , 2004 , on ABC .
The episode is centered on the character of Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) , with flashbacks revealing his past , including his childhood and his trip to Australia looking for his missing father Christian Shephard . In present @-@ day events , the plane crash survivors begin to struggle as they realize they are running out of fresh water . While Jack tries to solve the conflicts , he starts seeing Christian in the jungle , and chases the hallucination of his dead father .
The episode attracted an estimated 16 @.@ 82 million live viewers . It received mostly positive reviews , and was listed as # 49 on IGN 's ranking of every episode of Lost . After the broadcast of " White Rabbit " , ABC picked up Lost for a full season , adding an additional nine episodes to the thirteen that were already scheduled .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
A young Jack Shephard ( John O 'Hara ) and a friend are being beaten up . One bully gives Jack the chance to leave , but he decides to help his friend , causing Jack to be further assaulted . When Jack 's father , Christian Shephard ( John Terry ) sees his son 's beaten face , he tells Jack he should not be a hero because he " doesn 't have what it takes . "
Many years later , Jack ( Matthew Fox ) visits his mother , ( Veronica Hamel ) who tells him that Christian has left for Australia , and asks Jack to bring his father back . Jack reluctantly agrees , and after arriving in Sydney searches the hotel at which his father was staying . The manager informs Jack that his father has not slept at the hotel for several days following an incident at a bar , and Jack finds bottles of alcohol , pills , and his father 's wallet in Christian 's room .
Jack is shown identifying his father 's corpse in a morgue , where the coroner ( Geoff Heise ) tells Jack that the death was possibly caused by an alcohol @-@ induced heart attack . Jack later argues with Oceanic Airlines ticket agent Chrissy ( Meilinda Soerjoko ) , who says the documentation to board Christian 's coffin aboard Flight 815 is incomplete . Jack , frustrated , explains that all the arrangements are set for the funeral once he arrives at LAX , and he needs to bury his father , because he needs it " to be over " .
= = = On the Island = = =
Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) rescues Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) in the ocean as Boone fails to swim out to save a drowning woman , Joanna . Later , as Jack is approached by Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) and Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) as they question how to deal with the diminishing water supplies of the survivors , Boone confronts Jack regarding how he saved him and not Joanna , asking who made Jack their leader . Jack again sees the man who he saw in the previous episode , " Walkabout " , and runs off after him . Once Jack catches up , he recognizes the man as his father , and the man runs away again . While chasing him , Jack trips and rolls down a mountain , just barely grabbing on to the edge of a cliff .
Back at the beach , Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) faints due to dehydration , and Charlie is unable to find the remaining water . John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) volunteers to search for water in the jungle , and , while searching , discovers Jack hanging on the precipice . After rescuing him , the two talk , with Jack saying he does not want to be a leader because he " doesn 't have what it takes " , while Locke advises him to pursue his " hallucination " of his father , comparing it to the White Rabbit from Alice in Wonderland and explaining his belief that everything on the Island happens for a reason . At nightfall , Jack follows a sound he heard in the jungle , leading him to stumble upon a cave containing a spring of fresh water , where he finds some debris from the plane , including his father 's coffin . Jack opens it and finds the coffin empty , leading him to tear it apart in frustration .
Back on the beach , Boone gives water to an unconscious Claire . After being caught by Charlie , Boone admits that it is he who stole the water , in an attempt to take responsibility for its rationing . A fight between him and some of the other survivors begins , but Jack returns and interrupts with a speech , saying that he has found fresh water and that they must all band together if they are to survive , because " if we can 't live together , we 're going to die alone . "
= = Production = =
" White Rabbit " aired on October 20 , 2004 . The episode was directed by Kevin Hooks and written by Christian Taylor . Taylor declared the underlying message was of " a man 's journey to find out who he really is " , in how solving Jack 's conflicted relationship with his father gave him an excuse to reinvent himself and was " integrated into what Jack becomes in the context of the series " . Showrunner Damon Lindelof was enthusted in working with the episode , even if " it did not end with a big shocking twist or surprise " like predecessor " Walkabout " . Lindelof was particularly positive about " this great scene between Jack and Locke in the woods , " which still influenced the characters ' later discussions about faith , such as in the fourth season finale " There 's No Place Like Home " .
In the scene when Jack is dangling from the cliff , Matthew Fox performs the stunt himself , as he considered that relying on stunt doubles " always sort of inhibits the director 's ability to shoot it in cool ways . " Fox dangled from a thirty foot high cliff in front of a blue screen , that through digital extensions appeared to be hundreds of feet high . However , Fox 's long time stunt actor , Steve Blalock , performed Jack 's rolling down the mountain before grabbing the edge of the cliff , given Fox considered that " there are some things that I 'm not gonna be able to do " .
The episode is named after the White Rabbit from the tale Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , who leads the story 's title character , Alice , deeper and deeper down a hole to a whimsical world called Wonderland , while meeting different characters . Just as Alice followed the White Rabbit deeper and deeper down the hole to Wonderland , Jack follows his father deeper and deeper into the jungle . Geoff Heise , who shows Jack his dead father at the morgue , is also in the Pilot episode as a survivor . It is unclear why this is so , and whether or not his portrayal of two seemingly unrelated characters has any symbolism . The episode marks the first appearance of actor John Terry , who plays Jack 's father , Christian Shephard ( the mysterious man who Jack chases in the jungle ) . In the previous episode , " Walkabout " , Christian was played by a stand @-@ in actor , as the character hadn 't been cast yet ; thus , only the back of his head was shown .
= = Reception = =
" White Rabbit " first aired in the United States on October 20 , 2004 . An estimated 16 @.@ 82 million viewers in America watched the episode on its first broadcast , and it finished second in its timeslot behind the 2004 Major League Baseball season playoffs . Among adults aged 18 to 49 , the episode earned a ratings share of 6 @.@ 3 / 16 , finishing in fourteenth place for the week . Based upon the series ' success , ABC picked up Lost for the full season soon after the broadcast of " White Rabbit " , ordering another nine episodes beyond the thirteen it had already agreed upon .
The episode received mostly positive reviews . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A- , writing that " The structure of ' White Rabbit ' is kind of half @-@ formed , in a way that strikes me as very similar to the structure of ' Tabula Rasa ' , but I think that feeling of everything having been tossed together at the last minute suits the episode in a way it didn ’ t the earlier one . " VanDerWerff also writes , " the more I think about this episode , the more I admire it for taking away Jack ’ s agency . " IGN reviewer Chris Carabott gave the episode a 7 @.@ 9 / 10 , writing that it " features one of the best flashbacks dedicated to Jack . " Robin Pierson of The TV Critic gave " White Rabbit " a 72 / 100 , praising on how the writers did another " character heavy " episode without " trying to cram unnecessary action . " However , Pierson added that the cliff scene was clichéd , particularly as " we don ’ t really believe that he will die , so it is an action movie scene which we probably didn ’ t leave . "
Ryan McGee of Zap2it described " White Rabbit " as " a worthy successor to ' Walkabout , ' and one of the stronger Jack @-@ centric eps the show ever produced . " Lost Episode Guide for Others : An Unofficial Anthology by Robert Dougherty says the episode is a must @-@ see ; it is " our first in depth glimpse at Jack 's character " . Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a B + , complimenting the " tantalizing peek " into Jack 's dysfunctional relationship with Christian , " producing both juicy questions and eerie revelations " . IGN listed " White Rabbit " 49th on their ranking of every episode of Lost , describing the " live together , die alone " speech as iconic . A similar ranking of episodes by Todd VanDerWerff for the Los Angeles Times placed the episode at 82nd , feeling it was " more notable for the things it introduces -- like the Monster impersonating dead people " than the plot .
|
= The Colour Out of Space =
" The Colour Out of Space " is a short story written by American horror author H. P. Lovecraft in March 1927 . In the tale , an unnamed narrator pieces together the story of an area known by the locals as the " blasted heath " in the wild hills west of Arkham , Massachusetts . The narrator discovers that many years ago a meteorite crashed there , poisoning every living being nearby ; vegetation grows large but foul tasting , animals are driven mad and deformed into grotesque shapes , and the people go insane or die one by one .
Lovecraft began writing " The Colour Out of Space " immediately after finishing his previous short novel , The Case of Charles Dexter Ward , and in the midst of final revision on his horror fiction essay " Supernatural Horror in Literature " . Seeking to create a truly alien life form , he drew inspiration from numerous fiction and nonfiction sources . First appearing in the September 1927 edition of Hugo Gernsback 's science fiction magazine Amazing Stories , " The Colour Out of Space " became one of Lovecraft 's most popular works , and remained his personal favorite short story . It was adapted into feature film versions in 1965 , 1987 , and 2010 .
= = Synopsis = =
An unnamed surveyor from Boston telling the story in the first @-@ person perspective attempts to uncover the secrets behind a shunned place referred to by the locals of Arkham as the " blasted heath . " Unable to garner any information from the townspeople , the protagonist seeks out an old and allegedly crazy man by the name of Ammi Pierce , who relates his personal experiences with a farmer who used to live on the cursed property , Nahum Gardner . Pierce claims that the troubles began when a meteorite crashed into Gardner 's lands in June 1882 .
The meteorite never cools , but begins shrinking , and local scientists cannot discern its origins . As the stone shrinks , it leaves behind globules of colour that are referred to as such only by analogy , as they fall outside the range of anything known in the visible spectrum . These remains eventually disappear but , the following season , Gardner 's crops come in unnaturally large and abundantly . When he discovers that , despite their appearance , they are inedible , he becomes convinced the meteorite has poisoned the soil . Over the following year , the problem spreads to surrounding vegetation and local animals , altering them in unusual ways . Plant life around the farmhouse becomes " slightly luminous in the dark , " and Gardner 's wife eventually goes mad , forcing him to lock her in the attic . During this time , Gardner begins to isolate his family from the rest of the town and Pierce slowly becomes his only contact with the outside world .
Soon after Gardner 's wife becomes mad , the vegetation begins eroding into a grey powder and the water from the well becomes tainted . One of Gardner 's sons , Thaddeus , goes insane like his mother and is similarly locked in a different room in the attic . The livestock begins turning grey and dying and , like the crops , their meat is tasteless and inedible . Thaddeus eventually dies and Merwin , another of Gardner 's sons , goes missing during an excursion to retrieve water from the well . After two weeks of silence from Gardner , Pierce visits the farmstead and witnesses the tale 's eponymous horror for the first time in the attic . Gardner 's final son , Zenas , has disappeared and the " colour " has infected Nahum 's wife , whom Pierce puts out of her misery . He then flees the decaying house as the horror destroys the last surviving resident , Nahum .
Pierce returns to the farmstead shortly after with six other men , including a doctor , who begin examining Nahum 's remains . They discover Merwin and Zenas ' eroding skeletons at the bottom of the well , as well as remnants of several other creatures . As they reflect upon their discoveries in the house , a light begins to emit from the well that eventually transforms into the " colour " and begins pouring out , spreading over everything nearby . The men flee the house just as the horror blights the land and then shoots toward the sky . Pierce alone turns back after the " colour " has gone and witnesses a small part of it try to follow the rest , only to fail and return to the well . The knowledge that part of the alien still resides on earth is sufficient to alter his mental state . When some of the men return the following day , there is nothing remaining but a dead horse and acres of grey dust , and the surrounding area is quickly abandoned by all of its remaining residents .
= = Background = =
Lovecraft began writing " The Colour Out of Space " in March 1927 , immediately after completing The Case of Charles Dexter Ward . As he wrote the tale , however , he was also typing the final draft of his horror fiction essay " Supernatural Horror in Literature " . Although the author himself claimed that his inspiration was the newly constructed Scituate Reservoir in Rhode Island , Lovecraft scholar S. T. Joshi believes that the planned Quabbin Reservoir in Massachusetts must have influenced him as well . American writer and pulp fiction enthusiast Will Murray cites paranormal investigator Charles Fort , and the " thunderstones " ( lightning @-@ drawing rocks that may have fallen from the sky ) he describes in The Book of the Damned , as possible inspirations for the behavior of the meteorite .
Lovecraft was dismayed at the all @-@ too human depiction of aliens in other works of fiction , and his goal for " Colour " was to create an entity that was truly alien . In doing so , he drew inspiration from a number of sources describing colors outside of the visible spectrum . Most notably , Joshi points to Hugh Elliott 's Modern Science and Materialism , a 1919 nonfiction book that mentions the " extremely limited " senses of humans , such that of the many " aethereal waves " striking the eyes , " The majority cannot be perceived by the retina at all . " Lovecraft had used this concept previously , in his 1920 short story , " From Beyond " . Completed by the end of March , " The Colour Out of Space " first appeared in Hugo Gernsback 's science fiction magazine , Amazing Stories in September 1927 . The story was illustrated by J. M. de Aragón , an artist who produced occasional artwork for the magazine .
= = Reception and legacy = =
" The Colour Out of Space " became the only work from Amazing Stories to make Edward O 'Brien 's anthology of The Best American Short Stories , appearing in the 1928 " Roll of Honor " . Gernsback paid Lovecraft only $ 25 ( approximately $ 341 in present @-@ day terms ) and was late in doing so , leading Lovecraft to refer to the publisher as " Hugo the Rat " . He never again submitted anything to the publication . Lovecraft did not write another major short story until the following year , when he crafted " The Dunwich Horror " , although he did pen " History of the Necronomicon " and " Ibid " as minor works in @-@ between , as well as an account of a Halloween night 's dream that he called " The Very Old Folk " .
In addition to being Lovecraft 's personal favourite of his short stories , critics generally consider " The Colour Out of Space " one of his best works , and the first with his trademark blending of science fiction and horror . Lovecraft scholar Donald R. Burleson referred to the tale as " one of his stylistically and conceptually finest short stories . " Joshi praises the work as one of Lovecraft 's best and most frightening , particularly for the vagueness of the description of the story 's eponymous horror . He also lauded the work as Lovecraft 's most successful attempt to create something entirely outside of the human experience , as the creature 's motive ( if any ) is unknown and it is impossible to discern whether or not the " colour " is emotional , moral , or even conscious . His only criticism is that it is " just a little too long " . The text of " The Colour Out of Space " , like many of Lovecraft 's works , has fallen into public domain and can be accessed in several compilations of the author 's work , as well as on the Internet . It also had a strong influence on Brian Aldiss 's The Saliva Tree , which has been seen as a rewriting of Lovecraft 's tale . In 1984 , the novel The Color Out of Time by Michael Shea was published as a sequel to the original novelette .
= = = Film adaptations = = =
The 1965 film Die , Monster , Die ! , directed by Daniel Haller , is based on " The Colour Out of Space " . Nick Adams plays a scientist named Stephen Reinhart who travels to England to visit his fiancee ( played by Suzan Farmer ) at the home of her parents Nahum ( Boris Karloff ) and Letitia ( Freda Jackson ) . There he discovers that Nahum is keeping a space rock in his basement and using it to grow giant vegetation and mutated animals . The rock has driven Nahum and Letitia insane and , in the film 's climax , it transforms Nahum into a glowing monster . Lovecraft scholar Don G. Smith claims that , of the scenes that are derived from Lovecraft 's work , the " blasted heath doesn 't live up to Lovecraft 's description " and asserts that , overall , the film does not capture Lovecraft 's intent to " ... play ... with the idea of an alien life form completely different from anything humans can imagine . " Smith considers Haller 's work an imitation of Roger Corman 's Edgar Allan Poe films , rather than a serious attempt to adapt Lovecraft 's tale .
Another adaptation , 1987 's The Curse , was directed by David Keith and more closely follows the plot of Lovecraft 's work . A meteorite lands on the property of Nathan Hayes ( Claude Akins ) and local physician Alan Forbes ( Cooper Huckabee ) is unable to explain why the rock keeps shrinking . He is dissuaded from contacting the authorities by Charlie Davidson ( Steve Carlisle ) , a realtor who does not want the new arrival to discourage the Tennessee Valley Authority ( TVA ) from establishing a new reservoir in the area . As the rock disappears , a glowing colour seeps out and into the ground . Within a few weeks , the farm 's crops bloom but soon turn out to be inedible . Shortly after , local animals , as well as Nathan 's wife , begin to go mad , and a previously unknown element is discovered in the property 's well . Soon Nathan and his son Cyrus ( Malcolm Danare ) also go insane , and begin terrorizing those who come to the farm , including the other children Zack ( Wil Wheaton ) and Alice ( Amy Wheaton ) . In the film 's conclusion , they are saved by TVA representative Carl Willis ( John Schneider ) and the house collapses . Lovecraft scholar Charles P. Mitchell referred to the film as faithful to the author 's original work , but claimed that " [ t ] he last twenty minutes of the film are so disjointed that they virtually ruin the entire film " .
The 2010 film Die Farbe , directed by Huan Vu , is an adaptation set in Germany instead of in Massachusetts . It is shot mainly in black and white , the exception being the " Colour " itself . S. T. Joshi described it as " the best Lovecraft film adaptation ever made " .
|
= Downtown Triangle ( Jerusalem ) =
The Downtown Triangle ( Hebrew : המשולש , Ha @-@ Meshulash , lit . " The Triangle " ) is a central commercial and entertainment district in Jerusalem , Israel . Measuring 29 @,@ 000 square metres ( 310 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , the area is bounded by Jaffa Road on the north , King George Street on the west , and Ben Yehuda Street on the southeast . Its vertices are the intersections of Jaffa Road and King George Street , King George and Ben Yehuda Streets , and Ben Yehuda Street and Jaffa Road ( the latter known as Zion Square ) .
From the mid @-@ 1940s through the 1960s , the Triangle was the commercial and cultural heart of Jerusalem , with many upscale shops and restaurants operated by German @-@ Jewish immigrant businessmen that appealed to an affluent clientele . Following the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967 and the expansion of the city away from the downtown core , the commercial viability of the Triangle declined . The area was revitalized by the conversion of Ben Yehuda Street and the interior streets of the Triangle to an open @-@ air pedestrian mall in 1982 . Over the next two decades , outdoor cafes and souvenir shops moved in , cementing the reputation of the Triangle as a popular shopping and entertainment venue for tourists and young Israelis .
= = History = =
Before the British Mandatory government took over in 1917 , the main commercial district in Jerusalem was in the Old City . With an eye to the continuing development of new neighborhoods outside the Old City Walls , the British drew up a master town plan that called for the establishment of two commercial hubs in the New City . The first commercial district to be built was the Downtown Triangle , although it was intended to play a secondary role to the other planned commercial district in the Mamilla area , which was closer to the Old City . However , the Mamilla development did not garner as much interest as the Triangle .
The land used for the Downtown Triangle had been purchased by the Jewish Colonization Association from the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate , which began selling off some of its holdings in Jerusalem after World War I. The British developed the field into a triangular district ( hence its appellation , " The Triangle " ) demarcated by Jaffa Road , Ben Yehuda Street ( constructed by the British in 1922 ) and King George Street ( constructed by the British in 1924 ) . Lots were sold to large companies and cooperatives as well as private businesses . Other streets adjacent to the Triangle – Shlomzion Hamalka , Mamilla , Agron , and King David Streets – were zoned for commercial and residential use .
= = = European ambience = = =
According to Jerusalem architectural historian David Kroyanker , the heyday of the Downtown Triangle lasted from the early 1930s to the 1970s . Many stores and restaurants were opened by German Jewish immigrants who sought to recreate a European ambience in the city center . Their upscale boutiques , coffeehouses , delicatessens , and exclusive restaurants were frequented by senior Mandate officials and wealthy , English @-@ speaking tourists . Unlike Israeli stores that sold all kinds of unrelated products under one roof , the Europeans introduced boutiques that featured only one item , such as gloves or ties . Some shops offered unique extras , such as coffeehouses that included an orchestra and dance floor , and a bookstore with a second @-@ floor library .
The European immigrant @-@ owned bookstores fueled the demand for detective fiction , historical reading , and periodicals from Germany and England . Steimatzky , which opened its first bookstore on Jaffa Road in the Triangle in 1925 , identified the growing taste for imported newspapers and magazines and bought the franchises for many of them . The European immigrants also created a market for cold cuts and cheeses , with three competing delicatessens on King George and Ben Yehuda Streets . For many years , the Triangle was also the only place where Jerusalem residents could purchase clothing , shoes , furniture , and household goods .
At its peak , the district was home to 14 cinemas screening the newest Hollywood fare . Located in close proximity to one another , the cinemas would attract both adults and youth , who would afterwards patronize the coffeehouses and restaurants . The Downtown Triangle was the cultural heart of the city and the place " to see and be seen " .
= = = Architecture = = =
The cosmopolitan flavor of the Triangle extended to its buildings . The Sansur building , for example , has an " eclectic " design that combines " neo @-@ Renaissance and classicist elements " . Approximately 15 buildings in the Triangle were designed by architect Reuven Avraham Rabinowitz , who often added a row of roughly dressed stone to the facade to demarcate each story .
= = Decline and rebirth = =
Following the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967 , the city embarked on significant expansion . Large commercial centers were opened in the new , outlying neighborhoods of Talpiot , Givat Shaul , and Malha , drawing customers away from the city center . Government offices began moving out as well , precipitating the economic decline of the Downtown Triangle in the 1970s . The clientele of the upscale European boutiques had also aged , and the neighborhoods adjacent to downtown became occupied by poor and Haredi Jews who did not patronize the Triangle . The elegant shops gave way to hummus restaurants , dollar stores , and money changers . The advent of television precipitated the closure of most of the Triangle 's cinemas .
In 1982 , the city attempted to revitalize the downtown district by closing Ben Yehuda Street and the Triangle 's interior streets ( Luncz , Dorot Rishonim , Yavetz , Ben Hillel , and HaHistadrut Streets ) to traffic , and converting the entire area to an open @-@ air pedestrian mall . Though taxi companies demonstrated against the renovation and merchants claimed it would fail , the idea proved successful . Outdoor cafes , pizzerias , and fast @-@ food restaurants moved into the Triangle , together with shops selling souvenirs , Judaica , and jewelry to tourists . Street musicians , street artists , political promoters , and tables manned by Chabad and Breslov Hasidim add to the lively nature of the mall . The pedestrian mall restored the Triangle 's reputation as the " heart " of the city , although the formerly upscale , European tone was replaced by a more populist image . The introduction of the Jerusalem Light Rail in December 2011 further increased local and visitor traffic : estimates show that 36 @,@ 000 pedestrians per day visited the Triangle in April 2012 , up from 16 @,@ 000 per day in April 2004 . The mall is especially busy on Saturday nights , as eateries that have closed for Shabbat reopen and the streets are crowded with young Israelis from Jerusalem and Tel Aviv .
Beginning in the late 1990s , the pedestrian mall became noted for hosting a growing presence of at @-@ risk and homeless youth . Three youth centers – Hameshulash , Hezroni 's Squat , and The Zone – operate in the vicinity of Zion Square .
= = = Bombing attacks = = =
Due to its centrality and large concentration of visitors and entertainment venues , the Downtown Triangle has been the target of numerous bombing attacks and attempted attacks . On 22 February 1948 , three British Army trucks led by an armored car driven by Arab irregulars and British deserters exploded on Ben Yehuda Street , killing 58 Jewish civilians and injuring 140 . On 4 July 1975 , a refrigerator containing 5 kilograms ( 11 lb ) of explosives detonated in Zion Square , killing 15 and wounding 77 . On 24 March 1979 , a bomb exploded in a trash can in Zion Square , killing one and wounding 13 .
During the suicide bomber era in the late 1990s , three suicide bombers stationed at different points on Ben Yehuda Street exploded themselves almost simultaneously , causing eight deaths and 277 injuries . A similar " relay " bombing attack took place on 1 December 2001 : Police and emergency medical personnel were rushing to the scene of a double suicide bombing attack in the Triangle when a car bomb exploded ; 20 died and 150 were wounded . Earlier , in August , a Sbarro restaurant at the corner of Jaffa Road and King George Street , packed with lunchtime customers , was bombed ; 15 people died and 90 were wounded .
In February 2014 , in response to lobbying by terror victims groups , the Jerusalem municipality held a ceremony and mounted a memorial plaque at the site of the 1948 bombing on Ben Yehuda Street .
= = Landmarks = =
The tallest building in the Triangle is the seven @-@ story , 5 @,@ 000 square metres ( 54 @,@ 000 sq ft ) Hamashbir Lazarchan department store , which opened on the eastern side of Zion Square in 2011 . It is the largest department store in Israel and the flagship store of the 38 @-@ store chain . Hamashbir is intimately associated with the Downtown Triangle , as the first Hamashbir store was established across the street from its current location in 1947 , and moved to another vertex of the Triangle , at King George and Ben Yehuda Streets , from 1970 to 2010 .
Freimann and Bein ( 50 Jaffa Road ) was the first luxury shoe store in Israel . Founded by German @-@ Jewish immigrants , it imported quality leather shoes from Europe and attracted a clientele of British officers and Arab sheikhs . The store originally opened in the Generali Building further east on Jaffa Road in 1935 and moved to 50 Jaffa Road in 1947 . It closed in 2014 . Khalifa Shoes ( 44 Jaffa Road ) , founded in 1954 , is a Jewish family @-@ owned business specializing in Israeli @-@ made shoes and sandals .
The longest @-@ lasting dining establishments in the Triangle were Atara Cafe and Fink 's Bar . Atara Cafe operated at 7 Ben Yehuda Street from 1938 to 1996 . The European @-@ style coffeehouse was a favorite of Mandate officers , pre @-@ state paramilitary groups , and Israeli politicians , journalists , and bohemians . Fink 's Bar , at the corner of King George and HaHistadrut Streets , was open from 1936 to 2006 . The intimate , exclusive restaurant was one of the most prestigious dining addresses in Jerusalem . Specializing in European cuisine , the restaurant / bar made its kitchen kosher in 2003 in order to overcome several years of declining business and broaden its customer base beyond " politicians , journalists and diplomats " .
The Downtown Triangle includes two hotels . Kikar Zion Hotel ( Zion Square Hotel ) , which faces Zion Square from the south , occupies the site of the former Zion Cinema that gave the square its name . The cinema was demolished in 1972 and a high @-@ rise building containing the Kikar Zion Hotel ( on the upper floors ) and a branch of Bank Hapoalim ( on the lower floors ) was erected . As of 2016 , the hotel is being renovated for reopening as the Herbert Samuel Hotel . On the northern side of Zion Square stands the Jerusalem Hostel . This lodging opened as the Tel Aviv Hotel in 1926 and later became known as the Ron Hotel . Menachem Begin stood on one of the hotel 's balconies on 3 August 1948 , to announce the dissolution of the Irgun and the sign @-@ up of his soldiers with the Israel Defense Forces .
|
= Song of Innocence =
Song of Innocence is the debut album of American composer and producer David Axelrod , released in October 1968 by Capitol Records . Axelrod sought to capitalize on the experimental climate of popular music at the time and composed the album as a suite @-@ like tone poem based on Songs of Innocence , a 1789 illustrated collection of poems by William Blake . It was recorded at Capitol Studios in Los Angeles with an orchestra and a variety of studio musicians , including keyboardist and conductor Don Randi , guitarist Al Casey , bassist Carol Kaye , and drummer Earl Palmer .
Song of Innocence is an instrumental jazz fusion record that incorporates elements of classical , rock , funk , pop , and theatre music . It is arranged for bass , drums , and string instruments , written in the rock idiom with tempos centered on rock @-@ based patterns by Palmer . Axelrod used contrast in his orchestral compositions and interspersed the album 's euphoric psychedelic R & B form with dramatic , harrowing arrangements to reflect the supernatural themes found in Blake 's poems . The music 's reverent , psychedelic overtones evoke their themes of innocence and spirituality .
Although Song of Innocence was innovative for its application of rock and jazz techniques , it was not commercially successful and confounded contemporary critics , who viewed it as an ambitious curiosity piece . In the 1990s , critics reassessed the album as a classic , while leading disc jockeys in hip hop and electronica rediscovered and sampled the album 's music . " Holy Thursday " , the record 's best @-@ known song , was frequently sampled by hip hop producers . The renewed interest in Axelrod 's work prompted Stateside Records to reissue Song of Innocence in 2000 .
= = Background = =
In 1968 , David Axelrod gained national fame for his controversial mass composition Mass in F Minor , which he wrote in a contemporary rock vein for the Electric Prunes . Axelrod , who was challenged by what he described as a " new breed of record buyer ... more sophisticated in his thinking " , was one of several Los Angeles @-@ based musical eccentrics during the late 1960s who expanded on the mid @-@ 1960s studio experiments of Brian Wilson and George Martin . After his success with the Electric Prunes , he was asked to record a similar album by Capitol Records , for whom he worked as a staff producer and songwriter . Axelrod wanted to further capitalize on the experimental climate of popular music at the time and chose to adapt works by English poet William Blake on an album .
At the time , Blake musical settings were at the height of their popularity among musicians and composers . Numerous serious music composers had set his poems to music since the 1870s , and the practice was eventually adapted in other musical fields during the 20th century , including popular music , musical theatre , and the 1960s folk idiom . Axelrod , a self @-@ professed " Blake freak " , had been fascinated by Blake 's painting and poetry since his late teens and frequently read the poems as an adult . He conceived Song of Innocence after he had bought an edition of Blake 's complete poetry while working in Capitol 's art department and considered the concept for a few years before Mass in F Minor . Axelrod was not sociable with colleagues , such as record executives who could have helped him professionally , and felt that he could identify with Blake ; he considered the poet " very bad at making new friends " .
Axelrod composed Song of Innocence in one week and began recording in mid @-@ 1968 . He recorded the album at Capitol Studios in Los Angeles and enlisted his close @-@ knit group of veteran studio musicians , including keyboardist and conductor Don Randi , guitarist Al Casey , bassist Carol Kaye , and drummer Earl Palmer . He had worked with them when producing sessions for other recording artists . Axelrod did not play any instruments on Song of Innocence ; he instead wrote arrangements for his orchestra and utilized 33 players to perform his notated charts . He had learned how to read and orchestrate complex music charts from jazz musicians during the 1950s . Randi conducted the orchestra and played both piano and organ on the record . Axelrod preferred listening to a session from a recording booth like his contemporary Igor Stravinsky . " That way the sounds don 't seem to go all over the place " , he later said . " Music seems so small in a studio . " Axelrod originally wanted some of the album 's compositions to feature a large @-@ scale choir but was uncertain if he could find the appropriate ensemble , so he recorded an entirely instrumental album and included one Blake setting for each section of the score .
= = Composition = =
A jazz fusion album , Song of Innocence combines jazz elements with impressionistic musical figures and hard rock guitar solos . Its music also incorporates funk , rock , theatre , and pop styles . Music journalists categorized the record as jazz @-@ rock , baroque pop , and psychedelic R & B. John Murph of JazzTimes magazine said the music could be better characterized as art pop than jazz . Axelrod , who had produced bebop albums before working for Capitol , asserted that jazz played a crucial role in the music : " For years , all I did was jazz . When I first got in the record business , I was so into jazz that I had never heard Elvis Presley . I still probably listen to jazz more than anything else . "
Axelrod composed the album as a tone poem suite based on Blake 's illustrated 1789 collection of poems Songs of Innocence . His compositions borrowed titles from Blake 's poems , which dealt with themes such as visions , religious iniquity , rite of passage , and life experience after a person 's birth and innocence . Mary Campbell of The Baltimore Sun said the classical and Christian church music elements made the record sound " reverent , as if describing a biblical story " . Les Inrockuptibles described it as a " psyche @-@ liturgical " work dedicated to Blake . According to AllMusic 's Thom Jurek , psychedelia was implicit in the record 's musical form and feeling , which impelled Axelrod to " celebrate the wildness and folly of youth with celebration and verve " .
The album 's music was written in the rock idiom and arranged for bass , drums , and strings . As a composer , Axelrod abandoned the conventional unison approach to orchestral writing in favor of more contrasts while centering his tempos around rock @-@ based drum patterns played mostly in common time by Palmer . He utilized his instrumental ensemble as a rock orchestra , playing melodramatic strings and pronounced , echo @-@ laden breakbeats . The music was also embellished with electric piano , intricate basslines , Echoplex effects , and elements of suspense Axelrod used to reflect the supernatural themes found in Blake 's poems . According to David N. Howard , the album 's " euphorically " upbeat psychedelic R & B form was interspersed by " dramatically sparse " and " harrowing " arrangements .
Axelrod and his musicians used key musical phrases that are expanded upon throughout Song of Innocence . He was interested in György Ligeti 's 1961 piece Atmosphères and Lukas Foss ' idea of starting a piece with a sustained chord , having musicians improvise over 100 bars , and ending with another chord as they finish . " Urizen " opened with long sustained chords , sound effects , reverbed guitar stabs , and a supple bassline . On " Holy Thursday " , the rhythm section played a slow , jazzed @-@ out groove and bluesy bop piano lines , as a big band vamp was played by a large @-@ scale string section . In response to their swing style , the brass section and guitarists played dramatic , high @-@ pitched overtones built around a complex melody . The middle of the album featured more traditional jazz passages and the presence of a psychedelic harpsichord . " The Smile " was recorded with a rhythmic drum beat , offbeat bass , and a progressive string part . For the songs near the end , the musicians steadily transitioned to heady psychedelia featuring gritty guitars and disorienting organ licks . On " The Mental Traveler " , Axelrod said he tried to experiment with atonality but " chickened out " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Song of Innocence was released in October 1968 by Capitol Records . It received radio exposure on both AM and FM stations with songs such as the title track and " Holy Thursday " , which became the album 's best @-@ known recording . The album was not a commercial success and only sold 75 @,@ 000 copies by October 1969 . Billboard magazine called it " an aesthetic mix of music and philosophy ... chock full of mysticism , creativity , and change " , believing that Axelrod 's idyllic music was interesting enough to impact the record charts . In a review for Gramophone , Alasdair Clayre said Axelrod 's impressions of Blake " reveal a depth of imagination and skill warranting attention beyond the confines of pop music " , proving he could compose innovatively for a large orchestra , which Clayre felt comprised the best of California 's studio musicians on the album . He questioned whether the " occasional guitar gobbling " reflected Axelrod 's genuine ideas or " an obligatory concession to contemporary sound " on an otherwise compelling record . The magazine 's Nigel Hunter found the record 's songs to be " of absorbing power and depth " , but complained of the electric guitar parts . Nat Freedland from Entertainment World was more critical , accusing Axelrod of " indulging himself here to little avail " . Stereo Review magazine 's Paul Kresh panned Song of Innocence as a pretentious , inadequate album dependent on movie music tricks and outdated techniques such as forced climaxes and gaudy orchestration . He said it fell severely short of the concept Axelrod aspired to and that " only the most uneducated will be taken in by the mountains of misterioso claptrap that surround these squeaking musical mice " .
Song of Innocence was one of many concept albums recorded as rock music was developing in various directions during the late 1960s , following in the wake of the Beatles ' 1967 album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . It was innovative for its original application of both rock and jazz techniques . According to music journalist Zaid Mudhaffer , the term " jazz fusion " was coined in a review of the record when it was released . Axelrod followed the album up in 1969 with the similarly Blake @-@ inspired Songs of Experience , which adapted Gunther Schuller 's third stream concept to baroque orchestrations and rock , pop , and R & B rhythms and melodies . Both albums established Axelrod as an unpredictable , challenging conceptual artist . His instrumental interpretations of Blake were the first in jazz , followed in 1971 by Rafał Augustyn 's Niewinnosc and Adrian Mitchell 's musical Tyger : A Celebration of William Blake with composer Mike Westbrook ; Westbrook later composed more Blake @-@ inspired works , including The Westbrook Blake : " Bright as Fire " ( 1980 ) .
During the late 1990s , Axelrod 's records were reassessed and considered innovative by critics , including Song of Innocence , which was regarded as a classic . Mojo cited it as " the heart of Axelrod 's legacy " , while NME called it " sky @-@ kissingly high and divine " , finding Axelrod versatile enough to " soar above his own pretensions " , Writing for AllMusic , John Bush said the album " sounded like nothing else from its era " , while Thom Jurek argued that it continued to sound new upon each listen due to a lack of " cynicism and hipper @-@ than @-@ thou posturing " in the music . In a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star retrospective review , Jurek said it was innovative in 1968 and still " withstands the test of time better than the Beatles Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band album that allegedly inspired it " . Giving it a five @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five score , Tiny Mix Tapes said it sounded engagingly magnificent and diverse , citing it as one of the most dynamic musical fusions and " one of the most unique and thought provoking musical efforts of the last several decades " .
Axelrod 's music was also rediscovered and sampled by leading disc jockeys in the 1990s including hip hop producers . When sampling in hip hop peaked during the early and mid @-@ 1990s , they searched for archived records with atmospheric beats and strings to sample . Los Angeles @-@ based disc jockey B + recalled finding a copy of Song of Innocence at a Goodwill in Culver City and said it appealed to him because of its dissonant quality , musical dynamics , and string sound : " This big sound . It was like somehow [ Axelrod ] was summoning the future , that you can project this environment , this moment into the future . " Electronica pioneers such as DJ Cam and DJ Shadow also sampled Song of Innocence . The latter producer sampled the record 's choral themes and piano motifs on his influential debut album Endtroducing ..... ( 1996 ) . " The Smile " was sampled by Pete Rock on his 1998 song " Strange Fruit " and by DJ Premier on Royce da 5 ' 9 " ' s 2009 song " Shake This " . " Holy Thursday " was frequently sampled by producers , including The Beatnuts on their 1994 song " Hit Me with That " , UNKLE on their 1998 song " Rabbit in Your Headlights " , and Swizz Beatz on Lil Wayne 's 2008 song " Dr. Carter " .
The renewed interest in Axelrod 's work prompted Stateside Records to reissue Song of Innocence in 2000 . Now wrote that after sounding odd during the 1960s , the songs had become " a sampler 's dream come true – who knew ? " David Keenan of The Wire attributed Axelrod 's sampling legacy with producers such as DJ Premier and DJ Shadow to Palmer , " the original badass drummer [ who ] played on all of these tracks " . He facetiously critiqued that the album 's songs " may reek of stale joss sticks and patchouli @-@ scented self @-@ actualisation , but in their very datedness they somehow sound very modern . " Pitchfork journalist Sean Fennessey felt Axelrod 's first two records were " essential if only as a tour guide through early 90s hip @-@ hop " , having " literally been a rap producer 's delight for years " . In a 2013 list for Complex , DJ and production duo Kon and Amir named " Holy Thursday " the greatest hip hop sample of all time .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written , arranged , and produced by David Axelrod .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Release history = =
|
= Game Gear =
The Game Gear ( ゲームギア , Gēmu Gia ) is an 8 @-@ bit handheld game console released by Sega on October 6 , 1990 in Japan , 1991 in North America and Europe , and Australia in 1992 . The Game Gear primarily competed with Nintendo 's Game Boy , the Atari Lynx and NEC 's TurboExpress . The handheld shares much of its hardware with the Master System and is able to play its own titles as well as those of the Master System , the latter being made possible by the use of an adapter . Containing a full @-@ color backlit screen with a landscape format , Sega positioned the Game Gear as a technologically superior handheld to the Game Boy .
Though the Game Gear was rushed to market , its unique game library and price point gave it an edge over the Atari Lynx and TurboExpress . However , due to issues with its short battery life , lack of original titles , and weak support from Sega , the Game Gear was unable to surpass the Game Boy , selling 10 @.@ 62 million units by March 1996 . The Game Gear was succeeded by the Genesis Nomad in 1995 and discontinued in 1997 . It was re @-@ released as a budget system by Majesco in 2000 , under license by Sega .
Reception of the Game Gear was mixed , with praise for its full @-@ color backlit screen and processing power for its time , criticisms over its large size and battery life , and uneven reception over the quality of its game library .
= = History = =
Developed under the name " Project Mercury " , the Game Gear was first released in Japan on October 6 , 1990 , in North America and Europe in 1991 , and in Australia in 1992 . Originally retailing at JP ¥ 19 @,@ 800 in Japan , US $ 149 @.@ 99 in North America , and GB £ 99 @.@ 99 in Europe , the Game Gear was designed to compete with the Game Boy , which Nintendo had released in 1989 . The console had been designed as a portable version of the Master System , and featured more powerful systems than the Game Boy , including a full @-@ color screen , in contrast to the monochromatic screen of its rival . In order to improve upon the design of their competition , Sega designed the Game Gear with a similar shape to a Genesis controller , with the idea being that the curved surfaces and longer length would make the Game Gear more comfortable to hold than the Game Boy . Despite the similarities the Game Gear shared with the Master System , the games of the latter were not directly playable on the Game Gear , and were only able to be played on the handheld by the use of an accessory called the Master Gear Converter . The original Game Gear pack @-@ in title was Columns , which was similar to the Tetris cartridge that Nintendo had included when it launched the Game Boy .
With a late start into the handheld gaming market , Sega rushed to get the Game Gear into stores quickly , having lagged behind Nintendo in sales without a handheld on the market . As one method of doing so , Sega based the hardware of the Game Gear on the Master System , albeit with a much larger color palette than its predecessor : the Game Gear supported 4096 colors , compared to the 64 colors supported by the Master System . Part of the intention of this move was to make Master System games easy to port to the Game Gear . Though the Game Gear was designed to be technologically superior to the Game Boy , its design came at a cost of battery life : whereas the Game Boy could run for more than 30 hours on four AA batteries , the Game Gear required six AA batteries and could only run for three to five hours . With its quick launch in Japan , the handheld sold 40 @,@ 000 units in its first two days , 90 @,@ 000 within a month , and the number of back orders for the system was over 600 @,@ 000 . According to Sega of America marketing director Robert Botch , " there is clearly a need for a quality portable system that provides features other systems have failed to deliver . This means easy @-@ to @-@ view , full @-@ colour graphics and exciting quality games that appeal to all ages . "
= = = Release and marketing = = =
Before the Game Gear 's launch in 1990 , Sega had had success marketing its 16 @-@ bit home console , the Genesis , by advertising it as a " more mature " option for gamers . In keeping with this approach , Sega positioned the Game Gear as a " grown @-@ up " option compared to the Game Boy . While Sega 's marketing in Japan did not take this perspective , instead opting for advertisements with Japanese women featuring the handheld , Sega 's worldwide advertising prominently positioned the Game Gear as the " cooler " console than the Game Boy .
In North America , marketing for the Game Gear included side @-@ by @-@ side comparisons of Sega 's new handheld with the Game Boy , and likened Game Boy players to the obese and uneducated . One Sega advertisement featured the quote , " If you were color blind and had an IQ of less than 12 , then you wouldn 't mind which portable you had . " Such advertising drew fire from Nintendo , who sought to have protests organized against Sega for insulting disabled persons . Sega responded with a statement from Sega of America president Tom Kalinske saying that Nintendo " should spend more time improving their products and marketing rather than working on behind @-@ the @-@ scenes coercive activities . " Ultimately , this debate would have little impact on sales for the Game Gear .
Europe and Australia were the last regions to receive the Game Gear . Due to the delays in receiving the new handheld , some importers paid as much as £ 200 in order to have the new system . Upon the Game Gear 's release in Europe , video game distributor Virgin Mastertronic unveiled the price of the Game Gear as £ 99 @.@ 99 , positioning it as being more expensive than the Game Boy , but less expensive than the Atari Lynx , which was also a full @-@ color system . Marketing in the United Kingdom included the use of the slogan , " To be this good takes Sega " , and also included advertisements with a biker with a Game Gear .
= = = Decline = = =
Support for the Game Gear by Sega was drastically hurt by its focus on its home console systems . In addition to the success of the Genesis , Sega was also supporting two peripherals for its home system , the Sega CD and the 32X , as well as developing its new 32 @-@ bit system , the Sega Saturn . Despite selling 10 @.@ 62 million units by March 1996 , the Game Gear was never able to match the success of its main rival , the Game Boy , which sold over ten times that number . The system 's late sales were further hurt by Nintendo 's release of the Game Boy Pocket , a smaller version of the Game Boy which could run on two AAA batteries .
Plans for a 16 @-@ bit successor to the Game Gear were made to bring Sega 's handheld gaming into the fifth generation of video games , but a new handheld system never materialized for Sega , leaving only the Genesis Nomad , a portable version of the Genesis , to take its place . Though the Nomad had been released in 1995 , Sega did not officially end support for the Game Gear until 1996 in Japan , and 1997 worldwide .
Though the system was no longer supported by Sega in 2000 , third @-@ party developer Majesco released a version of the Game Gear at US $ 30 , with games retailing at US $ 15 . New games were released , such as a port of Super Battletank . This version was also compatible with all previous Game Gear games , but was incompatible with the TV Tuner and some Master System converters . Over ten years later , on March 2 , 2011 , Nintendo announced that their 3DS Virtual Console service on the Nintendo eShop would feature games from Game Gear .
= = Technical specifications = =
A handheld game console , the Game Gear was designed to be played while being held horizontally . The console contains an 8 @-@ bit 3.5MHz Zilog Z80 chip for a central processing unit , the same as the Master System . Its screen was 3 @.@ 2 square inches in size , and is able to display up to 32 colors at a time from a total palette of 4096 colors , at a display resolution of 160 x 144 pixels , . The screen is backlit in order to allow gamers to play in low @-@ lighting situations . Powered by 6 AA batteries , the Game Gear has an approximate battery life of 3 to 5 hours . In order to lengthen this duration and to save money for consumers , Sega also released two types of external rechargeable battery packs for the Game Gear . The system contains 8kB of RAM and an additional 16kB of video RAM . Audio is supplied by the Texas Instruments SN76489 PSG , which was also used in the Master System . However , unlike the Master System , stereo sound is able to be supplied through an output for headphones . Physically , the Game Gear measures 209mm across , 111mm high , and 37mm deep .
Several accessories were created for the Game Gear during its lifespan . A TV Tuner accessory plugged into the system 's cartridge slot , and allowed one to watch TV on the Game Gear 's screen . Released at $ 105 @.@ 88 ( $ 186 in 2016 ) , the add @-@ on was expensive but unique for collectors and contributed to the system 's popularity . Another accessory , the " Super Wide Gear " , was an accessory that magnified the Game Gear screen to compensate for its relatively small size . Also released was an adaptor ( known as the Game Gear Car Adaptor ) that plugged into cars or cigarette lighters to power the system while traveling , and the " Gear @-@ to @-@ Gear Cable " , an accessory that established a data connection between two Game Gear systems using the same multiplayer game and let users play against each other .
Over the course of its lifespan , the Game Gear also received a number of variations . Later releases included several different colors for the console , including a blue " sports " variation released in North America bundled with World Series Baseball ' 95 or The Lion King . A white version was also released , sold in a bundle with a TV tuner . Other versions included a red Coca @-@ Cola themed unit , bundled with the game Coca @-@ Cola Kid , and the Kids Gear , a Japan @-@ only variation targeted toward children .
= = Game library = =
Over 300 games were released for the Game Gear , although at the time of the console 's launch , there were only six software titles available . Prices for game cartridges initially ranged from $ 24 @.@ 99 to $ 29 @.@ 99 each . The casings were molded black plastic with a rounded front to aid in removal . Some titles for the system included Sonic the Hedgehog , The GG Shinobi , Space Harrier , and Land of Illusion Starring Mickey Mouse , which was considered the best game for the system by GamesRadar . Later titles took advantage of the success of the Genesis , Sega 's 16 @-@ bit video game console , with games released from franchises originally released on the Genesis . A large part of the Game Gear 's library consists of Master System ports . Because of the landscape orientation of the Game Gear 's screen and the similarities in hardware between the handheld console and the Master System , it was easy for developers to port Master System games to the Game Gear .
Due to Nintendo 's licensing practices during the lifespan of the Game Gear , few third @-@ party developers were available to create games for Sega 's system . This was a contributing factor to the large number of Master System ports for the Game Gear . Likewise , because of this , the Game Gear library contained many games that were not available on other handhelds , pulling sales away from the Atari Lynx and NEC TurboExpress and helping to establish the Game Gear 's position in the market . While the Game Gear 's library consisted of over 300 titles , however , the Game Boy 's library contained over 1000 individual games .
Several Game Gear titles were released on the Nintendo 3DS 's Virtual Console service on the Nintendo eShop . The emulator for the Virtual Console releases was handled by M2 .
= = Reception = =
Game Gear surpassed the Atari Lynx and NEC TurboExpress , but lagged far behind the Game Boy in the handheld marketplace . Retrospective reception to the Game Gear is mixed . In 2008 , GamePro listed the Game Gear as 10th on their list of the " 10 Worst @-@ Selling Handhelds of All Time " and criticized aspects of the implementation of its technology , but also stated that the Game Gear could be considered a success for having nearly 11 million units sold . According to GamePro reviewer Blake Snow , " Unlike the Game Boy , the Game Gear rocked the landscape holding position , making it less cramped for human beings with two hands to hold . And even though the Game Gear could be considered a success , its bulky frame , relative high price , constant consumption of AA batteries , and a lack of appealing games ultimately kept Sega from releasing a true successor . "
GamesRadar offered some praise for the system and its library , stating , " With its 8 @-@ bit processor and bright color screen , it was basically the Sega Master System in your hands . How many batteries did we suck dry playing Sonic , Madden and Road Rash on the bus or in the car , or in the dark when we were supposed to be sleeping ? You couldn 't do that on a Game Boy ! " By contrast , IGN reviewer Levi Buchanan noted the Game Gear 's biggest fault was its game library when compared to the Game Boy , stating that " the software was completely lacking compared to its chief rival , which was bathed in quality games . It didn 't matter that the Game Gear was more powerful . The color screen did not reverse any fortunes . Content and innovation beat out technology , a formula that Nintendo is using right now with the continued ascendance of the DS and Wii . " Buchanan later went on to praise some parts of the Game Gear 's library , however , stating " Some of those Master System tweaks were very good games , and fun is resilient against time . " Retro Gamer praised Sega 's accomplishment in surviving against the competition of Nintendo in the handheld console market with the Game Gear , noting that " for all the handhelds that have gone up against the might of Nintendo and ultimately lost out , Sega 's Game Gear managed to last the longest , only outdone in sales by the Sony PSP . For its fans , it will remain a piece of classic gaming hardware whose legacy lives on forever . "
|
= British Cypriots =
The British Cypriot community in the United Kingdom consists of British people born on , or with ancestors from , the Eastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus . British Cypriot people may be of Greek- , Turkish- , Maronite- , or Armenian @-@ Cypriot descent .
Migration from Cyprus to the UK has occurred in part due to the colonial links between the countries and the internal conflict that followed Cyprus ' independence from the British Empire in 1960 . Migration peaked at the time of independence but has continued on a smaller scale . The number of Cypriot @-@ born people in the UK fell between the 1991 and 2001 censuses , but the community , including people of Cypriot ancestry , remains sizeable , and the Cypriot @-@ born population grew slightly between the 2001 and 2011 censuses . A number of famous British people are of Cypriot ancestry , including musicians George Michael and Cat Stevens , footballer Leon Osman , artist Panayiotis Kalorkoti , visual artist Tracey Emin , and politician Lord Adonis . Migration between the UK and Cyprus is currently open and free , as both countries are members of the European Union at this point in time .
= = History = =
Before the First World War , very few Cypriots migrated to the UK and the British Cypriot population at this time was around 150 , according to historian Stavros Panteli . Only a handful of marriages involving Cypriots are recorded at London 's Greek Orthodox Cathedral of Saint Sophia in the years before 1918 . During the First World War many Cypriots joined the allied forces . When the British annexed Cyprus in 1914 , Cypriots ' political status changed and they found it easier to travel .
The 1931 British Census recorded more than 1 @,@ 000 Cypriot @-@ born people , but many of these were the children of British military personnel serving in the Mediterranean . However , some Greek Cypriots did migrate to the UK in the 1920s and 1930s , often finding jobs in the catering industry in Soho . By the start of the Second World War , there were around 8 @,@ 000 Cypriots in London . More Cypriot immigrants arrived during the National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters ( EOKA ) ' s campaign for Cypriot independence from Britain and union with Greece , which started in 1955 . In the four years of conflict , an average of 4 @,@ 000 Cypriots left the island per year for the UK , because of violence on the island and the fear felt by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots in mixed villages where they formed minorities . Migration peaked following independence in 1960 , with around 25 @,@ 000 Cypriots migrating in the year that followed . Many migrants joined family already living in Britain . Further migration accompanied the Turkish invasion of the island in 1974 . Home Office figures show that roughly 10 @,@ 000 Cypriots fled to the UK , the majority of them refugees , but many of them subsequently returned to the island .
In the 1960s , Greek Cypriots in London outnumbered Turkish Cypriots by four to one . The increase in post @-@ war rents in central London had forced many Cypriot immigrants to move north within the city . The Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities tended to be geographically segregated , with Greeks settling mainly in Camden and Turks in Stoke Newington . This was due to the migrants ' reliance on social networks to find housing on their arrival . Robert Winder reports that " Haringey became the second biggest Cypriot town in the world " . Many Cypriots set up restaurants , filling a gap left by Italians , many of whom had been interned during the Second World War .
Much of the Turkish Cypriot migration to the UK occurred as a consequence of intercommunal violence in Cyprus during the 1950s and 1960s . Many Turkish Cypriots viewed the EOKA insurgency as an attempt on the part of Greek Cypriots to establish hegemony on the island with the aim of achieving union with Greece . By 1958 , there were around 8 @,@ 500 Turkish Cypriots in Britain . Between 1960 and 1962 , the inflow increased substantially because of a fear that Britain would impose immigration controls , and indeed the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962 did reduce migration flows from Cyprus to Britain . Although the expansion of Britain 's Turkish Cypriot community took place primarily between the late 1940s and the mid @-@ 1960s , there was a further influx of around 3 @,@ 000 immigrants after partition in 1974 . Migration continued because of the political and economic situation in the 1970s and 1980s , and Turkish Cypriots have continued to migrate to the UK due to high unemployment rates in northern Cyprus . In the early 1980s , it was estimated that 160 @,@ 000 Cypriots were resident in the UK , 20 to 25 per cent of them being Turkish Cypriots . Since Cyprus joined the European Union in May 2004 , holders of Republic of Cyprus passports have been able to migrate freely to the UK under EU law .
According to the BBC , while divisions and resentment exist between Greek and Turkish Cypriots in the UK , particularly amongst those old enough to remember atrocities committed in Cyprus , " if differences of opinion exist , both sides have learnt to live together regardless " . Community relations are generally good , with Turkish Cypriot community centres welcoming Greek Cypriots and vice versa . In oral history interviews conducted by academic Nergis Canefe in the late 1990s , Turkish Cypriots in London tended to define themselves as Anglo @-@ Cypriot , particularly if they were born in the UK . Canefe notes that her interviewees were proud to be Cypriot , but also of being British and not Turkish . They had Turkish friends , but also close Greek and Greek Cypriot friends . The neighbourhoods they inhabited tended to be ethnically mixed , and often shared with Greeks and Greek Cypriots .
= = Demographics = =
= = = Population = = =
Cyprus appeared amongst the top ten non @-@ British countries of birth for the first time in the 1961 Census , which recorded 42 @,@ 000 Cypriot @-@ born people living in England and Wales . This number peaked in the 1981 Census , at 83 @,@ 000 . The 2001 Census recorded 77 @,@ 673 Cypriot @-@ born people residing in the whole of the UK . The number of Cypriot @-@ born people in Great Britain fell from 78 @,@ 191 in 1991 to 77 @,@ 156 in 2001 , one of the few country @-@ of @-@ birth groups to experience a decrease in numbers . According to the 2011 UK Census , there were 78 @,@ 795 Cypriot @-@ born residents in England , 1 @,@ 215 in Wales , 1 @,@ 941 in Scotland , and 344 in Northern Ireland . More recent estimates by the Office for National Statistics put the number of Cypriot @-@ born residents in the UK as a whole at 68 @,@ 000 in 2013 , though these estimates are subject to a forthcoming reweighting exercise to reflect the results of the most recent census .
British Cypriot people include those of Greek- , Turkish- , Maronite- , or Armenian @-@ Cypriot descent . The National Federation of Cypriots in the UK , an umbrella organisation representing the Cypriot community associations and groups across the UK with largely Greek Cypriot memberships , claims to represent more than 300 @,@ 000 people of Cypriot ancestry , although they do not state whether or not this includes non @-@ Greek Cypriots . A similar figure was given by then Minister for Europe Caroline Flint , who , giving a speech at the London School of Economics in February 2009 , stated that more than 300 @,@ 000 Greek and Turkish Cypriots were living in the UK .
One estimate states that 130 @,@ 000 nationals of the breakaway Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus ( TRNC ) currently reside in the UK , a figure also given by the Turkish consulate in London , whereas the Museum of London reports that 100 @,@ 000 Turkish Cypriots live in Britain — 20 @,@ 000 more than in Cyprus itself . Nergis Canefe suggests a figure of 190 @,@ 000 , whereas the TRNC Ministry of Foreign Affairs suggested in May 2001 that 200 @,@ 000 Turkish Cypriots were living in the United Kingdom . Evidence submitted by the Home Office to the House of Commons Home Affairs Select Committee in February 2011 suggested that there were about 300 @,@ 000 Turkish Cypriots living in the UK .
Of the 80 @,@ 010 people in England and Wales who specified their country of birth as Cyprus in the 2011 Census , 57 @.@ 5 per cent stated that they were Christian , 20 @.@ 8 per cent that they were Muslim , 13 @.@ 1 per cent responded that they had no religion , and 7 @.@ 9 per cent did not state a religion . Small numbers of Buddhists , Hindus , Jews , Sikhs and those of other religions were recorded , totaling 0 @.@ 6 per cent of the Cypriot @-@ born resident population .
= = = Population distribution = = =
Of the 80 @,@ 010 Cypriot @-@ born residents of England and Wales recorded by the 2011 Census , 43 @,@ 428 were in London and 8 @,@ 254 in South East England . Detailed analysis of data from the previous census shows that of the 77 @,@ 156 Cypriot @-@ born people living in mainland Britain , 60 per cent lived in areas of London with Turkish communities . A total of 45 @,@ 887 were resident in Greater London . Analysis of the census shows that Cypriot @-@ born people were found in large numbers in the London boroughs of Enfield , Haringey , Barnet and Hackney . The census tracts with the highest number of Cypriot @-@ born people were Southgate , Palmers Green , Upper Edmonton , Cockfosters , Lower Edmonton , Tottenham North and Tottenham South . Outside of London , concentrations are found in Borehamwood , Cheshunt , and Bristol .
= = Notable individuals = =
A number of British Cypriot people are well known in the UK and overseas . These include George Michael , who was born in London to a Greek Cypriot father ; Cat Stevens , whose father was Greek Cypriot ; entrepreneur Stelios Haji @-@ Ioannou ; Andreas Liveras , a Greek Cypriot @-@ born businessman killed in the 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks ; Theo Paphitis , an entrepreneur and TV personality ; Greek Cypriot @-@ born artist Panayiotis Kalorkoti ; artist Tracey Emin , who has a Turkish Cypriot father ; and fashion designer Hussein Chalayan , who was born in Nicosia . Everton footballer Leon Osman has a Turkish Cypriot father . Politician Andrew Adonis 's father is a Greek Cypriot who moved to the UK aged 18 . British athlete and former world javelin champion Fatima Whitbread was born in Stoke Newington , London , to a Turkish Cypriot mother and Greek Cypriot father , though she grew up in children 's homes .
|
= Battle of Bathys Ryax =
The Battle of Bathys Ryax was fought in 872 or 878 between the Byzantine Empire and the Paulicians . The Paulicians were a Christian sect which — persecuted by the Byzantine state — had established a separate principality at Tephrike on Byzantium 's eastern border and collaborated with the Muslim emirates of the Thughur , the Abbasid Caliphate 's borderlands , against the Empire . The battle was a decisive Byzantine victory , resulting in the rout of the Paulician army and the death of its leader , Chrysocheir . This event destroyed the power of the Paulician state and removed a major threat to Byzantium , heralding the fall of Tephrike itself and the annexation of the Paulician principality shortly after .
= = Background = =
The Paulicians were a Christian sect whose precise origins and beliefs are somewhat obscure : Byzantine sources portray them as dualists , while Armenian sources maintain that they were an adoptionist sect . The Paulicians were fiercely iconoclastic , adhered to a very distinct Christology and rejected the authority and practices of the official Byzantine Church , following their own leaders . Consequently , they were persecuted by the Byzantine state as early as 813 , despite the emperors ' official support for iconoclasm . After the definitive end of Byzantine Iconoclasm in 843 , that persecution was intensified : in an attempt , unique in Byzantine history , to eradicate an entire " heretical " sect , orders were sent out to kill anyone who would not recant . According to the chroniclers , up to 100 @,@ 000 Paulicians were massacred , while the remnants fled from their strongholds in east @-@ central Anatolia , and found refuge among the Empire 's Muslim enemies , the Arab emirates of the Thughur , the Arab – Byzantine frontier zone along the Taurus – Antitaurus mountain ranges . With support from the emir of Melitene , Umar al @-@ Aqta , the Paulician leader Karbeas founded a separate principality at Tephrike , and for the next decades , the Paulicians campaigned alongside the Arabs against Byzantium .
The Arabs and Paulicians suffered a critical blow in 863 with the defeat and death of Umar at the Battle of Lalakaon and the death of Karbeas in the same year , but under their new leader , Chrysocheir , the Paulicians resumed their raids deep into Byzantine Anatolia , raiding as far as Nicaea and sacking Ephesus in 869 / 970 . The new Byzantine emperor , Basil I the Macedonian ( r . 867 – 886 ) , sent an embassy for negotiations to Tephrike . After the talks failed , Basil led a campaign against the Paulician state in the spring of 871 , but was defeated and only narrowly managed to escape himself .
= = Battle = =
Encouraged by this success , Chrysocheir then staged another deep raid into Anatolia , reaching Ancyra and ravaging southern Galatia . Basil reacted by sending his relative , the Domestic of the Schools Christopher , against them . The Paulicians managed to avoid a clash , and as the campaigning season drew to a close , they began retiring towards their own territory . They encamped at Agranai ( modern Muşali Kalesı ) in the theme of Charsianon , with the shadowing Byzantine army making their camp at nearby Siboron ( Σίβορον , modern Karamadara ) to the west . From there , the Paulicians marched northeast to the pass of Bathys Ryax or Bathyryax ( Βαθυρύαξ , " Deep Stream " , modern Kalınırmak pass west of Sivas in Turkey ) , a location of strategic importance , as indicated by the fact that it served as a fortified assembly point ( aplekton ) for Byzantine expeditions to the East . Christopher sent the strategoi of the themes of Armeniakon and Charsianon ahead with some four to five thousand men , to make contact with the Paulician army , shadow it as far as the pass and report on its intentions , i.e. whether it intended to double back westwards to resume raiding Byzantine territory or whether it headed back to Tephrike , in which case they would have to rejoin the Domestic 's forces .
When the two generals with their men reached the pass , night had fallen , and the Paulicians , apparently unaware that they were being followed , had made camp in the valley of the pass . The Byzantines took up position in a wooded hill called Zogoloenos that overlooked the Paulician encampment , which further concealed them from their enemy . At this point , the sources record that a dispute broke out between the men of the two thematic corps as to who was the bravest ; the two generals decided to take advantage of their troops ' high morale and impetuousness to attack , despite their orders . A picked detachment of 600 men from both divisions launched a surprise attack at dawn , while the rest of the army remained behind and made loud clamour with trumpets and drums , so as to suggest the imminent arrival of the entire Byzantine field army under Christopher . The ruse worked perfectly : the Paulicians , taken by surprise , panicked and dispersed without offering any serious resistance . The Paulician rout was completed as they fell upon the main Byzantine army while fleeing . Their remnants were pursued by the victorious Byzantines up to a distance of 50 km . Chrysocheir himself managed to escape with a small detachment of bodyguards , but he was brought at bay at Konstantinou Bounos ( probably modern Yildiz Dagı ) . In the ensuing engagement , he was wounded by Poulades , a Byzantine soldier who had been formerly a captive of the Paulicians , and fell from his horse . He was then captured and beheaded by the advancing Byzantines , and his head was sent to Emperor Basil in Constantinople .
= = Aftermath = =
The defeat at Bathys Ryax signalled the end of the Paulicians as a military power and a threat to Byzantium . Basil followed this success by a series of campaigns in the East against the Paulician strongholds and the Arab emirates . Tephrike itself was taken in 878 and razed to the ground . The remaining Paulicians were resettled in the Balkans , while a large contingent was shipped off to Southern Italy to fight for the Empire under Nikephoros Phokas the Elder .
= = Questions of chronology = =
The chronology and sequence of events regarding the battle and the fall of the Paulician state is unclear , since the Byzantine sources are contradictory : a number of scholars place the battle in 872 , others in 878 , in both cases either before or after the capture and razing of Tephrike itself by the Byzantines . Thus Alexander Vasiliev proposed a first victorious battle for the Byzantines , followed by the sack of Tephrike and the final Paulician defeat at Bathys Ryax , all in 872 . Most recent historians place the battle before the sack of the city , but disagree in the dates of the two events . Some , like Nina Garsoïan or John Haldon , place both events in 878 ; the French Byzantinist Paul Lemerle , followed by other scholars like Mark Whittow and Warren Treadgold , placed the battle in 872 and the final subjugation of Tephrike years later , in 878 ( Treadgold in 879 ) .
|
= Alan Partridge =
Alan Gordon Partridge is a fictional character portrayed by English actor and comedian Steve Coogan . A parody of British television personalities , Partridge is a tactless and inept television and radio presenter who often insults his guests and whose inflated sense of celebrity drives him to treachery and shameless self @-@ promotion . Coogan described Partridge as a Little Englander , with right @-@ wing values and poor taste .
Partridge was created by Coogan and Armando Iannucci for the 1991 BBC Radio 4 comedy programme On the Hour , a spoof of British current affairs broadcasting , as the show 's sports presenter . In 1992 , Partridge hosted a spin @-@ off Radio 4 spoof chat show , Knowing Me , Knowing You with Alan Partridge . On the Hour transferred to television as The Day Today in 1993 , followed by Knowing Me , Knowing You in 1994 . In 1997 , Coogan starred as Partridge in a BBC sitcom , I 'm Alan Partridge , written by Coogan , Iannucci and Peter Baynham , following Partridge 's life working for a small radio station and living in a roadside hotel . It earned two BAFTAs and was followed by a second series in 2002 .
After a hiatus , Partridge returned in 2010 with a series of shorts , Mid Morning Matters with Alan Partridge , written by Coogan and new writers Rob and Neil Gibbons , who have co @-@ written every Partridge product since . The series was followed by a bestselling spoof autobiography , I , Partridge : We Need to Talk About Alan ( 2011 ) , along with a successful feature film , Alan Partridge : Alpha Papa ( 2013 ) , several TV specials , and a second series of Mid Morning Matters ( 2016 ) .
Critics have praised Alan Partridge 's complexity , realism and pathos . Vanity Fair called him a British " national treasure " and the Guardian described him as " one of the greatest and most beloved comic creations of the last few decades " . The character has been credited with influencing " awkward " comedies such as The Inbetweeners , Nighty Night and Peep Show . According to Den of Geek , Partridge has so influenced British culture that " Partridgisms " have become part of everyday vernacular .
= = History = =
= = = Creation , Knowing Me , Knowing You and move to television = = =
Alan Partridge was created for the 1991 BBC Radio 4 comedy programme On The Hour , a spoof of British current affairs broadcasting , as the show 's hapless sports presenter , portrayed by Steve Coogan . The show 's writers Armando Iannucci , Patrick Marber , Richard Herring and Stewart Lee wrote much of Partridge 's original material , although Herring credits the creation to Coogan and Iannucci . Iannucci asked Coogan to do a voice for a generic sports reporter ; according to Iannucci , " Someone said , ' He 's an Alan ! ' and someone else said , ' He 's a Partridge ! ' Within minutes we knew where he lived , we 'd worked out his back story , what his aspirations were . " Coogan said Partridge was originally a " one @-@ note , sketchy character " and " freak show " , but became " more and more refined as sort of a dysfunctional alter ego " over the years . He had performed a similar character for a BBC college radio station at university .
Following On the Hour , Partridge presented six episodes of a spoof Radio 4 chat show , Knowing Me , Knowing You with Alan Partridge , first broadcast on 1 December 1992 . The series saw Partridge annoy and offend his guests , and coined the character 's catchphrase , " Aha ! " In 1993 , On the Hour transferred to television as The Day Today , in which Partridge reprised his role as sports reporter . In 1994 , Knowing Me , Knowing You transferred to television ; the series ends with Partridge accidentally shooting a guest and attacking a BBC commissioning editor , ending his television career . It was nominated for the 1995 BAFTA for Light Entertainment Performance . A Christmas special , Knowing Me , Knowing Yule , was broadcast in December 1995 .
= = = I 'm Alan Partridge and further appearances = = =
In 1997 , Coogan starred in a sitcom , I 'm Alan Partridge , written by Coogan , Iannucci and Peter Baynham . The sitcom follows Partridge after he has been left by his wife and dropped from the BBC ; he lives in a roadside hotel , presents a graveyard slot on local Norwich radio , and desperately pitches ideas for new television shows . Iannucci said the writers used the sitcom as " a kind of social X @-@ ray of male middle @-@ aged Middle England . " It won the 1998 BAFTA awards for Comedy Performance and Comedy Programme or Series .
In 1999 , Partridge appeared on the BBC telethon Children in Need , performing a medley of Kate Bush songs . The BBC broadcast a second series of I 'm Alan Partridge in 2002 , following Partridge 's life in a static caravan with his new Ukrainian girlfriend after recovering from a mental breakdown . In March 2003 , the BBC broadcast a mockumentary , Anglian Lives : Alan Partridge , about Partridge 's life and career . In 2008 , Coogan performed a tour titled " Steve Coogan as Alan Partridge and other Less Successful Characters " , featuring Partridge as a life coach .
= = = Mid Morning Matters , autobiography , and feature film = = =
After a hiatus , Partridge returned in 2010 in a series of YouTube shorts , Mid Morning Matters with Alan Partridge , as the host of a digital radio show with co @-@ presenter Sidekick Simon ( Tim Key ) . Coogan co @-@ wrote the shorts with brothers Neil and Rob Gibbons , who submitted scripts to his company Baby Cow Productions ; the brothers have co @-@ written every Partridge project since . According to Neil , Coogan " invited us in , our sensibilities chimed , and before we knew it , Mid Morning Matters was up and running . We wrote it as if it was our baby , and though there was a sense that we were standing on the shoulders of giants , I think we were like two pairs of fresh eyes , and Steve seemed to fall in love with the character all over again . " Coogan said they chose the web format because " it was a bit underground , a low @-@ key environment in which to test the character out again . And the response was so good , we realised there was more fuel in the tank . " The shorts were later broadcast by Sky Atlantic .
In 2011 , a spoof autobiography , I , Partridge : We Need to Talk About Alan , written by Coogan , Iannucci and the Gibbons brothers , was published in the UK . An audiobook version recorded by Coogan as Partridge was released on CD and downloadable audio formats . In October , Coogan appeared as Partridge to promote the book on The Jonathan Ross Show and BBC Radio 5 Live . It received positive reviews and became a bestseller .
On 25 June 2012 , Partridge presented a one @-@ hour Sky special , Alan Partridge : Welcome to the Places of My Life , taking the viewer on a tour of Partridge 's home county Norfolk , for which Coogan won the 2013 BAFTA for Best Male Performance in a Comedy Programme . It was followed the next week by Open Books with Martin Bryce , a mock literary programme discussing Partridge 's autobiography .
On 7 August 2013 , a feature film , Alan Partridge : Alpha Papa , written by Coogan , Iannucci , Baynham and the Gibbons brothers , was released in the UK . It was directed by Declan Lowney and co @-@ produced by StudioCanal and Baby Cow Productions , with support from BBC Films and the BFI Film Fund . The film sees Partridge enlisted as a crisis negotiator during a siege at his radio station . It received positive reviews and opened at number one at the box office in the UK and Ireland .
On 18 December 2015 , Coogan co @-@ presented a special Christmas episode of the Channel 4 chat show TFI Friday as Partridge . In February 2016 , Sky Atlantic broadcast a second series of Mid Morning Matters , in which Partridge continues his relationship with divorcee Angela , a character introduced in Alpha Papa . On May 30 , Sky Atlantic broadcast Alan Partridge 's Scissored Isle , a moralising mockumentary in which Partridge examines the British class divide . A second Alan Partridge memoir , Alan Partridge : Nomad , in which Partridge recounts a " one @-@ man walk I undertook to try to learn about who I really am " , will be published on 20 October 2016 .
= = Character = =
Alan Partridge is an incompetent and tactless television and radio presenter from Norwich , England . He is socially inept , often offending his guests , and has an inflated sense of importance and celebrity . According to the Telegraph , Partridge is " utterly convinced of his own superiority , and bewildered by the world 's inability to recognise it – qualities that placed him in the line of comedy lineage that runs directly from Hancock , Captain Mainwaring , and Basil Fawlty . " His need for public attention drives him to deceit , treachery and shameless self @-@ promotion , and sometimes violence ; in the Knowing Me , Knowing Yule Christmas special , for example , he assaults a BBC boss and a paralysed former golfer .
Partridge holds right @-@ wing views ; Coogan described him as a Little Englander , with a " myopic , slightly philistine mentality " . Earlier versions of the character were more bigoted , but the writers later found there was more humour in having him attempt to be liberal . Coogan said : " He 's aware of political correctness but he 's playing catch @-@ up . In the same way that the Daily Mail is a bit PC – it wouldn 't be openly homophobic now – Alan is the same . He tries to be modern . "
According to Forbes , Partridge has " parochial bad taste " , and Coogan described him as " on the wrong side of cool " . He is a fan of the Daily Mail newspaper , James Bond films and Lexus cars . His music taste includes Wings and Abba , naming his son Fernando and his talk show Knowing Me , Knowing You after Abba songs ; Partridge 's catchphrase , " Aha ! " , also comes from Abba . In earlier incarnations , Partridge 's wardrobe includes a blazer , badge and tie , driving gloves , and " too @-@ short " shorts , styles he describes as " sports casual " and " imperial leisure " . According to Iannucci , by the time of Alpha Papa his wardrobe had " evolved to the Top Gear Presenter Circa 2005 stage " , with sports jackets and a " borderline @-@ foppish " fringe . As Coogan aged , the ageing make @-@ up he wore in earlier performances became unnecessary .
Guardian critic Alexis Petridis wrote that " one of the reasons audiences find [ Partridge ] funny is that they recognise at least a bit of themselves in him . " Baynham told the Guardian that " despite the fact that people say he 's awful , a lot of the time we were trying to build empathy : you 're watching a man suffer but also at some level identifying with his pain . " Felicity Montagu , who plays Partridge 's assistant Lynn , felt he was a good person " deep down " and actually " vulnerable and lovable " . Iannucci said that Partridge stays optimistic because he never sees himself as others see him , and that despite his failings was " the perfect broadcaster for these times , when there are 24 hours to fill and dead time is a crime – he has a unique capacity to fill any vacuum with his own verbal vacuum . " Rob and Neil Gibbons felt that by the time of Mid Morning Matters , when Partridge is working for an even smaller radio station , he was more at peace with himself and that his lack of self @-@ awareness saved him from misery .
= = Reception and influence = =
Vanity Fair described Alan Partridge as " a national treasure ... a part of British comedy heritage as John Cleese 's Basil Fawlty and Rowan Atkinson 's Mr. Bean . " According to Variety , in Britain " Alan Partridge is a full @-@ on phenomenon , a multiplatform fictional celebrity whose catchphrases , mangled metaphors and social ineptitude are the stuff of legend and good ratings . " The character is less well known outside the UK , but according to Anchorman director Adam McKay , " every American comic knows who Steve is , whether it 's Stiller or Ferrell or Jack Black or me ... and everyone watching those [ Partridge ] DVDs had the same reaction . How did I not know about this guy ? " Indiewire wrote that " few Americans may know , but Partridge is a something of a comic icon across the pond ... Before there was Ron Burgundy for the Yanks , there was Alan Partridge for the Brits . "
Brian Logan wrote in the Guardian that though Partridge was created as a satire of the " asinine fluency of broadcaster @-@ speak " of the time , his study of character traits gave the character a timeless quality . Guardian writer John Crace wrote : " By rights , Alan Partridge should have been dead as a character years ago , the last drops of humour long since wrung out ... but Steve Coogan keeps finding ways to make him feel fresh . " Reviewing Alpha Papa in 2013 , the Independent wrote that Partridge is a " disarming creation " and that despite his flaws " we always root for him . "
The entertainment news site Mandatory said Partridge was " a fascinatingly layered and fully realized creation of years of storytelling and a fundamentally contemptible prick — he feels like a living , breathing person , but a living , breathing person that you want to strangle . " The Telegraph credited Partridge with influencing " awkward " sitcoms such as The Inbetweeners , Nighty Night and Peep Show , and wrote : " Never has one actor so completely inhabited a sitcom character . We believe Partridge is real , from his side @-@ parted hair down to his tasseled sports @-@ casual loafers . " In 2014 , Guardian writer Stuart Heritage described Partridge as " one of the greatest and most beloved comic creations of the last few decades . "
According to Den of Geek , Alan Partridge has so influenced British culture that " Partridgisms " have become part of everyday vernacular . " Monkey Tennis " , one of Partridge 's desperate television proposals , has become shorthand for absurd television concepts . Another , " Youth Hostelling with Chris Eubank " , was used by the hostel booking site Hostelworld as the basis of a 2015 television advert with boxer Chris Eubank . " Accidental Partridge " , an unofficial Twitter account which collects quotes reminiscent of Partridge 's speech from real media figures , had attracted 144 @,@ 000 followers by May 2014 . In July 2015 , an art exhibition inspired by the character opened in Norwich .
= = Appearances = =
Bold text indicates a starring role .
|
= Allemand 's expedition of 1805 =
Allemand 's expedition of 1805 , often referred to as the Escadre invisible ( invisible squadron ) in French sources , was an important French naval expedition during the Napoleonic Wars , which formed a major diversion to the ongoing Trafalgar Campaign in the Atlantic Ocean . With the French Mediterranean Fleet at sea , Emperor Napoleon I hoped to unite it with the French Atlantic Fleet and together form a force powerful enough to temporarily displace the British Royal Navy Channel Fleet for long enough to allow an invasion force to cross the English Channel and land in Britain . In support of this plan , the French squadron based at Rochefort put to sea in July 1805 , initially with the intention that they would join the Atlantic Fleet from Brest . When this fleet failed to put to sea , the Rochefort squadron , under Contre @-@ Admiral Zacharie Allemand , went on an extended raiding cruise across the Atlantic , both to intercept British trade left lightly defended by the concentration of British forces in European waters and with the intention of eventually combining with the French Mediterranean Fleet then blockaded in Spanish harbours .
On 25 September , Allemand achieved a major success when his squadron , while waiting for a convoy from the Leeward Islands , encountered a seven ship convoy from the island of Saint Helena . The convoy 's commander , Captain Daniel Woodriff in the fourth rate HMS Calcutta , sought to interpose his ship between the French squadron and his convoy and was captured after a fierce battle . All except one of convoy escaped , and by deliberately drawing the French away from his own convoy 's direction , he had saved the Leewards Islands convoy from attack as well . After the battle , Allemand was forced to conduct repairs at Tenerife , sailing again on 17 October , four days before the French Mediterranean Fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Trafalgar . With the planned invasion impossible , Allemand began commerce raiding in the Eastern Atlantic , capturing 43 merchant ships during his cruise and successfully disrupting the British blockade of Cadiz . This had an unintended but significant effect on the Atlantic campaign of 1806 , resulting eventually in the Battle of San Domingo in February 1806 . Allemand returned to Rochefort on 23 December , having not lost a single ship during the expedition .
= = Trafalgar campaign = =
In March 1805 , the French Mediterranean Fleet sailed from Toulon under Vice @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve for an extended cruise to the West Indies , ultimately under orders to link with the French Atlantic Fleet based at Brest . Together these fleets would stage a major operation in the English Channel , driving off the Royal Navy Channel Fleet and allowing a fleet of landing barges to land on the southern coast of England as the first move in an invasion of Britain . Arriving at Martinique on 14 May , Villeneuve waited for reinforcements from the Atlantic fleet , only to be informed on 2 June that they had failed to leave port . Despite repeated orders issued to the Atlantic fleet instructing them to sail to Martinique , Vice @-@ Admiral Honoré Ganteaume had failed in his one effort to break out of Brest during March and then given up . His entire fleet ultimately remained in port throughout the campaign . On 7 June Villeneuve learned of the arrival in the Caribbean of the British Mediterranean Fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Nelson and hastily sailed back to Europe , eventually sheltering in the Spanish harbour of Vigo after an encounter on 22 July with a British fleet under Sir Robert Calder at the Battle of Cape Finisterre , in which two of his ships were captured . In the aftermath of the spring campaign , both Nelson and Calder returned to Britain , leaving only relatively small squadrons off the French and Spanish coasts .
Despite delays to his plan , Napoleon had pressed ahead with preparations for the Channel campaign : an army of 200 @,@ 000 men was assembling at Boulogne for the invasion , and orders continued to insist that the fleets under Villeneuve and Ganteaume put to sea . Also ordered to sail was the squadron based at the Atlantic port of Rochefort , led by Contre @-@ Admiral Zacharie Allemand . Allemand 's squadron consisted of the powerful 120 @-@ gun ship Majestueux , three other ships of the line and several frigates and brigs , forming a significant force in its own right and a valuable addition to any battle fleet . Allemand was ordered to cruise off the southern coast of Cornwall , awaiting the combined fleets of Villeneuve and Ganteaume and their descent into the Channel . If this force did not materialise , Allemand was subsequently ordered to the Bay of Biscay to join up with Villeneuve on his route northwards and should this too fail then he was to conduct an extended commerce raiding operation in the Atlantic to take advantage of the concentration of British forces off Europe and the consequent exposure of British trade .
= = = Bay of Biscay = = =
Allemand sailed from Rochefort on 16 July while the blockade squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Charles Stirling was out of position , rapidly escaping the coast into the Atlantic . On 17 July , the squadron outran and captured the British brig HMS Ranger , rated as 18 guns but actually carrying 24 . Ranger 's crew had observed the approaching French squadron from some distance , and Commander Charles Coote had ordered that once their capture was inevitable , the crew were to cause as much damage as possible to their vessel to deny its use to the French . So successful were these efforts that Allemand was forced to burn Ranger once her crew had been removed as prisoners of war . Allemand subsequently reached his first station , off The Lizard , the day after capturing Ranger . There he waited in vain for the fleet under Ganteaume , which had never departed Brest . Following his instructions , Allemand then sailed for the Bay of Biscay , where he was to meet the fleet under Villeneuve that had been ordered north to join with Ganteaume . He passed southwards during July and was in the region of Cape Finisterre on 22 July : later records show that he was close enough to the site of the Battle of Cape Finisterre to have participated in the engagement if he had been aware that it was underway . News of Allemand 's presence reached Villeneuve early in August and on 5 August he despatched the frigate HMS Didon in search of the Rochefort squadron . Didon was followed on 9 August by the main fleet , including 29 ships of the line and associated frigates and corvettes . Villeneuve passed up the Spanish coast , anchoring off the village of Zerez , near Ferrol , on 10 August and departing the following day in a west by northwest direction . On 13 August the fleet was spotted by the frigates HMS Iris under Captain Edward Brace and HMS Naiad under Captain Thomas Dundas , who were forced to flee a French detachment sent in pursuit , losing sight of the enemy on 14 August as Villeneuve 's main force continued to the northwest .
While Villeneuve was searching for Allemand , the Rochefort squadron was passing south along the Spanish coast in search of Villeneuve , anchoring at Vigo on 16 August without having seen any sign of the combined fleet . Villeneuve had not left instructions at Vigo for the Rochefort squadron and Allemand was uncertain where his superior was intending to sail to . One of Villeneuve 's scouting frigates meanwhile had spoken with a Danish ship that reported a fleet of 25 British ships of the line actively searching the region for the combined fleet . When on the evening of 14 August Villeneuve 's scouts sighted the ship of the line HMS Dragon under Captain Edward Griffiths , the frigate HMS Phoenix and the captured Didon to the west , the French admiral assumed they were an advance guard of this British fleet and turned away to the south , the impression encouraged by frantic signals raised by Dragon . In fact , these ships were the only British forces in the region . The Danish ship had been boarded by Dragon earlier in the day and her crew deliberately fed misinformation about British strength . When the French scouts sighted Dragon , the presence of the captured Didon and Captain Griffiths ' signals , that were made to an expanse of empty sea beyond the visible horizon on the French ship , successfully misled the French admiral into fleeing a non @-@ existent fleet .
Bypassing Vigo on his flight southwards , Villeneuve put into the Southern Spanish fleet base of Cadiz on 20 August . By abandoning his efforts to reach the English Channel , Villeneuve was in effect abandoning the entire invasion strategy and , when news of Villeneuve 's retreat reached him , Napoleon decided to formally abandon the campaign , marching the army at Boulogne south to the Austrian border . Without instructions from his superior , and with no idea where the main French fleet was , Allemand spent much of August off the Spanish coast before deciding to turn to the third aspect of his orders , the disruption of British trade .
= = The Calcutta convoy = =
The threat posed by the fleets in Brest and Cadiz was stretching the Royal Navy , and convoy escorts were weaker than usual as so many vessels had been diverted to the blockade fleets needed to watch French and Spanish movements . As a result , there were a number of independently sailing merchant ships in the Bay of Biscay and Allemand encountered and captured three on his journey north into the area later known as the Western Approaches . From the prisoners taken out of these ships , the French admiral learned that a large convoy was due from the West Indies , protected only by a single ship of the line , HMS Illustrious . This rich prize would be a major success for Allemand and his squadron cruised the Western Approaches in anticipation of its arrival during September 1805 .
At 12 : 00 on 25 September at 49 ° 30 ′ N 09 ° 00 ′ W , Armide , an outlying frigate from Allemand 's squadron , spotted sails to the southeast . Closing to investigate , these sails were identified as a small British convoy , not the expected force under Illustrious but another convoy from Saint Helena , consisting of the East Indiaman Indus , two whalers , three small merchant ships , the slow merchant vessel Brothers and the 50 @-@ gun fourth rate ship HMS Calcutta . The convoy had departed Saint Helena with seven ships on 3 August , and made fast time northwards until 14 September when it was joined by Brothers , which had been blown out of the Illustrious convoy by Atlantic gales several days earlier . Brothers was a heavily laden ship that sailed poorly , and as a result the entire Saint Helens convoy was severely delayed . When lookouts on Calcutta sighted the sails to the northwest , Captain Daniel Woodriff was not immediately alarmed . He was expecting the Illustrious convoy from that direction , and knew that a number of British squadrons were at sea . Throughout the afternoon and the following night the sails closed with his squadron until at 11 : 00 on 26 September they were close enough for Woodriff to make the Royal Navy secret recognition signals .
By 12 : 00 , Woodriff had realised that the approaching ships did not know the recognition signals and therefore must be enemies . With his first priority to protect his convoy , Woodriff sent an urgent message to Indus , the largest and strongest of the merchant ships , to lead the main body of the convoy ahead eastwards at all speed . With his most valuable charges now making distance away from the French , Woodriff persuaded the captain of Brothers to sail northwards while he intended to engage the French directly and draw them southwards , away from the Saint Helena convoy and also away from the projected track of the Illustrious convoy . Once the merchant ships were gone beyond the horizon , Woodriff turned Calcutta about and sailed directly for the nearest French ship , the frigate Armide , which was gaining on his vessel . Armide was far more nimble than the lumbering Calcutta , and rapidly passed her out of range of her broadside , the frigate turning about and opening fire with her stern chasers , cannon mounted in the rear of the ship , at 15 : 00 . Calcutta replied ineffectually with her bow chasers , until Armide allowed the British ship to draw alongside . The two ships then opened a heavy fire on one another which continued for an hour until Armide , with her rigging badly damaged , drew back towards the rapidly approaching French squadron .
At 17 : 00 , the leading French ship of the line , Magnanime , came within range with her bow chasers . Calcutta continued sailing southwards , remaining ahead of the squadron but not at a sufficient distance to avoid Magnanime 's fire . Realising that unless he took drastic measures his ship would be caught , Woodriff turned Calcutta back towards Magnanime , hoping to disable her before the next ship in line , the frigate Thétis , could join the battle . Captain Pierre @-@ François Violette on Magnanime prepared to meet Calcutta and the engagement rapidly became furious , Calcutta and Magnanime exchanging full broadsides at close range . Within 45 minutes , it was clear that Woodriff 's gamble had failed . The larger and more powerful Magnanime inflicted severe damage to the British ship 's rigging , rendering her unable to manoeuvre or escape , with the remainder of the French squadron bearing down . With defeat inevitable , Woodriff spared the lives of his men by striking his colours and surrendering to Violette . Although Calcutta was badly damaged among her rigging and sails , her hull had suffered little from the engagement and she had only lost six killed and six wounded . French casualties were negligible , although Armide was forced to undergo extensive temporary repairs on her own sails and rigging before she was able to operate as a scout once more . Brothers had also been captured : the corvette Sylphe had separated during the chase and rapidly overhauled the lumbering merchant ship , which had surrendered without a fight .
= = Raiding operations = =
Woodriff 's resistance had an important indirect effect on Allemand 's cruise . In drawing the squadron southwards , Woodriff had pulled them out of the line travelled by the Illustrious convoy . In the aftermath of the engagement , it took two days to repair the battered Calcutta and in that time the convoy had safely passed Allemand 's former position without sighting the French force . With his object frustrated , Allemand completed the repairs to Calcutta and crewed her with men drawn from the rest of the squadron , adding the ship to his force . Aware that news of his presence would rapidly spread , Allemand subsequently turned southwards , sailing from the North Atlantic to the coast of North Africa to avoid pursuing British forces . There Allemand anchored for a time at the Spanish island of Tenerife , where he was able to repair and resupply his squadron before embarking on a lengthy cruise against the British convoys that regularly crossed the region .
Elsewhere , the Trafalgar campaign reached its climax on 21 October 1805 , when Villeneuve 's fleet was intercepted at sea off Cadiz by Nelson 's fleet and destroyed at the Battle of Trafalgar , the French and Spanish losing 17 out of 30 ships of the line . The British fleet did not lose a single ship , but the cost of the victory was severe : Lord Nelson , victor of four major battles in the previous eight years , had been killed at the height of the combat by a musket ball . The survivors of the combined fleet scattered , most making their way back to Cadiz . However , the four ships of the French vanguard , which had rapidly outdistanced the battle and not returned , escaped towards the Bay of Biscay under Contre @-@ Admiral Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley . Allemand 's cruise was to have unforeseen consequences for Dumanoir 's squadron : among the British forces mustered to hunt for the ships from Rochefort was a squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Richard Strachan in HMS Caesar , consisting of five ships of the line and two frigates . On 2 November , the frigate HMS Phoenix , which had also been ordered to search for signs of Allemand , discovered four French ships near Cape Finisterre . Unaware of the events of Trafalgar and assuming these ships to be a part of Allemand 's force , Captain Dundas sought to lure them towards Strachan 's squadron , which he knew to be in the area . Dundas was successful in provoking Dumanoir to chase his frigate , and two days later , on 4 February , Strachan was able to bring the French squadron to battle , capturing all four ships at the Battle of Cape Ortegal .
As these events unfolded Allemand was many hundreds of miles to the south , preying successfully on the trade that passed along the African coast without any serious opposition from major British forces , which were still largely confined to European waters . There was particular fear in Britain that Allemand might intercept two convoys of vital strategic importance : one extremely valuable convoy from India to Britain that also carried Major @-@ General Sir Arthur Wellesley as a passenger , and an expeditionary force under Admiral Sir Home Riggs Popham for a planned invasion of South Africa . In the event however , both these convoys managed to successfully avoid Allemand 's force . On 20 November , with his supplies running low , Allemand attacked a convoy of seven ships sailing from Britain to Gorée , passing close to the Savage Islands . Although his attack was successful , Allemand was unable to prevent the escape of the convoy 's escort , the 18 gun brig HMS Lark under Commander Frederick Langford . Making all sail northwards in search of reinforcements , Langford encountered his target on 26 November , meeting HMS Agamemnon , one of the ships that made up the squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth . Duckworth had , with his subordinate Rear @-@ Admiral Thomas Louis , been ordered to keep a close blockade on Cadiz in case the remainder of the combined fleet that still sat at anchor there should try to escape . The work was tedious , and Duckworth immediately abandoned his post when news of attack by Allemand 's squadron reached him . He cast southwards in search of the French , leaving Cadiz guarded by just two frigates .
Allemand was aware of the risk involved in allowing Lark to escape , and was already many miles to the north when Duckworth headed southwards . There was no benefit to be had in a battle with Duckworth or any other British squadron and he did not delay on his journey home , reaching Rochefort without further incident on 23 December . His actions off the Savage Islands were to have far reaching consequences however . Duckworth continued southwards for much of December 1805 , only turning back north once he had reached the Cape Verde Islands , a point far too far south for Allemand to have been operating in . Accepting that his enemy had escaped him , Duckworth turned back north but soon afterwards ran into the frigate HMS Arethusa under Captain Charles Brisbane , whose large convoy had been broken up by an unidentified French battle squadron in the Bay of Biscay . Assuming this force to be Allemand , Duckworth set a course to intercept them based on their last known heading . Duckworth 's reckoning was good , and on 26 December he encountered a large squadron and immediately gave chase . It was not until sometime later that he realised the force he was chasing was too large to be Allemand 's : in fact Duckworth had stumbled into a squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez , sent from Brest with another force under Contre @-@ Admiral Corentin Urbain Leissègues on 15 December at the start of the Atlantic campaign of 1806 , an operation largely inspired by the success of Allemand 's expedition . Although Willaumez was eventually able to outrun Duckworth , the chase continued for so long that Duckworth 's squadron was forced to take on fresh supplies at St Kitts in the West Indies . There news reached him that Leissègues had been sighted off Santo Domingo and he sailed to investigate , annihilating the French squadron at the Battle of San Domingo in February 1806 .
= = Aftermath = =
The French naval authorities considered Allemand 's cruise a major success in a year that had cost them huge numbers of ships and men . In addition to Ranger and Calcutta , Allemand had captured the hired naval cutter Dove and 43 merchant ships , including the lumbering Brothers . With the exception of Calcutta , all of these prizes had been burnt and their prisoners had been transferred to the French squadron , 1 @,@ 200 in total . For minimal casualties , Allemand had inflicted a blow against British Atlantic trade and tied up substantial Royal Navy resources during a complicated and strategically vital campaign . Calcutta was bought into the French Navy and became an armed storeship , still carrying the designated 50 @-@ guns . She served for three years before her destruction at the Battle of the Basque Roads in April 1809 . Her British officers were later exchanged and honourably acquitted at the court @-@ martial that investigated her loss .
In France , Allemand was highly commended for the success of his operation , especially as both Leissègues and Willaumez met with disaster during the 1806 campaign . He remained with the Atlantic fleet for the next two years and in 1808 commanded a second successful operation in the Atlantic , carrying reinforcements to the Mediterranean Fleet at Toulon . In 1809 he returned to the Brest fleet as its commander , his ships trapped near the Île @-@ d 'Aix . He subsequently commanded the fleet at the defeat of the Battle of Basque Roads . His captains on the expedition were also praised and two later led their own campaigns , although both ended in defeat : Captain Éléonore @-@ Jean @-@ Nicolas Soleil was in command of the frigate squadron destined for the West Indies that was destroyed in the Bay of Biscay at the Action of 25 September 1806 , while Captain Amable @-@ Gilles Troude led a larger squadron to the West Indies in early 1809 , suffering defeat in a battle off the Îles des Saintes .
= = Order of battle = =
|
= Nokian Tyres =
Nokian Tyres plc ( Finnish : Nokian Renkaat Oyj ) , headquartered in Nokia , Finland , produces tyres for cars , trucks , buses , and heavy @-@ duty equipment . Known for its winter tyres , Nokian operates the only permanent winter tyre testing facility in the world . The company 's Hakkapeliitta brand name is recognised in Finland as a reputable trademark .
Nokian Tyres concentrates on the consumer car and vehicle tyre replacement and premium snow tyre markets ; they do not supply automobile manufacturers tyres for new car production . The greater prices consistently found in those markets result in higher profitability compared to the rest of the tyre industry . The company also produces retreading materials and tyre pressure monitors . It also previously manufactured bicycle tyres but currently licenses the Nokian name on bicycles tyres to another Finnish company . The Vianor retail tyre store chain , which services cars in addition to selling tyres , is owned by Nokian Tyres PLC .
The company traces its history to a groundwood pulp mill established in 1865 . Car tyre production began in 1932 by Suomen Gummitehdas Oy ( Finnish Rubber Works Ltd ) . A three @-@ company merger formed the Nokia Corporation in 1967 ; Nokian Tyres Limited was established in 1988 as a joint venture company split from the conglomerate as Nokia Corporation started focusing entirely on the mobile communications business . Nokian is " Nokia " in the genitive , thus Nokian renkaat meaning " Tyres of Nokia " . The European subsidiary of Japanese tyre company Bridgestone is currently the largest minority shareholder .
= = History = =
Early corporate predecessors of Nokian Tyres are the Nokia Aktiebolag ( Nokia Company ) and Suomen Kumitehdas Oy ( Finnish Rubber Works Ltd . ) . In 1865 , mining engineer Fredrik Idestam established a groundwood pulp mill on the banks of the Tammerkoski rapids in the town of Tampere , in southwestern Finland . In 1868 , Idestam built a second mill near the town of Nokia , 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) west of Tampere by the Nokianvirta River , which had better resources for hydroelectric production . In 1871 , with the help of his close friend , the statesman Leo Mechelin , Idestam renamed and transformed his mills into a share company , founding the Nokia Company .
Suomen Gummitehdas Oy was founded in 1898 and began manufacturing car tyres in 1932 . The Hakkapeliitta tyre name was introduced in 1936 , and some tyres sold under the Nokian tyre name still use the Hakkapeliitta brand name . Hakkapeliitta is a ( Finnish ) historical term used for a Finnish light cavalryman in the service of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden during the Thirty Years ' War ( 1618 – 48 ) . In 1967 , Suomen Kumitehdas Oy ( originally called Suomen Gummitehdas Oy ) merged with Suomen Kaapelitehdas ( Finnish Cable Works ) and the forest and power industry company Nokia Aktiebolag to create Nokia Corporation .
Nokian Tyres ( which had manufactured tyres under the Nokia brand ; Nokian is the genitive ) was split from the Nokia Corporation when Nokian Tyres Limited was created in 1988 as a joint venture company . Nokian Tyres PLC shares were floated on the Helsinki Stock Exchange ( OMX Helsinki ) in 1995 . Nokia , which became the largest mobile telephone manufacturer in 1998 , ended its ownership interest in Nokian Tyres in 2003 , selling its holding of 2 million shares to Bridgestone Europe NV / SA , a subsidiary of the Japanese tyre manufacturer Bridgestone , for U.S. $ 73 @.@ 2 million . This made Bridgestone the largest shareholder , with an 18 @.@ 9 % stake , later diluted to 16 @.@ 8 % . Bridgestone announced that Nokian Tyres would be operated independently , but it would consider complementing the company 's product development , testing , and distribution .
Production of bicycle tyres and inner tubes started in 1974 in Lieksa , Finland . In 2004 , Nokian Tyres sold its bicycle tyre business to Suomen Rengastehdas Oy for € 3 @.@ 6 million . This successor company remains one of the few manufacturers of tungsten carbide @-@ studded snow tyres for bicycles . Suomen Rengastehdas continues to produce bicycle tyres , including all Nokian @-@ branded bicycle tyres .
Nokian Tyres set up a joint venture , Ordabasy – Nokian Tyres JSC , with Ordabasy Corporation JSC , a multi @-@ industry Kazakh company , to manufacture passenger car tyres at a planned new factory in Kazakhstan . The venture started in 2007 , but the manufacturing project was put on hold in early 2009 . Nokian Tyres was to provide technical expertise in tyre manufacturing , and the products were to be sold in Kazakhstan , Central Asia , Russia , and Eastern Europe . In 2009 , the Nokian Hakkapeliitta tyre model line received the " List of trademarks with a reputation " status by the National Board of Patents and Registration of Finland .
= = Financial information = =
Nokian Tyres ' three principal activities are the manufacture of passenger car tyres , heavy commercial tyres , and retail tyre sales . As of 2008 , the Company is the most profitable tyre manufacturer in the world , at up to 18 % earnings ( before taxes and interest ) relative to sales , compared to 14 % at Bridgestone , 8 % at Michelin , and 9 @.@ 6 % at Continental .
In 2010 , Nokian Tyres profits were € 167 @.@ 9 million on sales of € 1 @.@ 058 billion , an increase in revenues of 32 @.@ 5 % on the previous year . The company had revenue growth of 18 % annually in the 2003 – 2007 period . Nokian Tyres is also publicly traded on the Berlin Stock Exchange . Kim Gran has been the President and Chief Executive Officer since 1 September 2000 , having previously served as a Vice President for five years .
= = Products = =
= = = Passenger car tyres = = =
Nokian Tyres produces tyres for passenger cars , SUVs , and vans . Nokian branded tyres are sold in over 60 countries . Nokian Tyres designed the first winter tyres in 1934 and has more winter tyre patents than any other manufacturer . Nokian Tyres is known for its winter tyres , not to be confused with all @-@ season tyres . Nokian winter tyres have been described as a favourite of critics and have been well received in winter test results by several publications . Nokian also has designed some winter tyre models with low rolling resistance , offering lower fuel consumption . Nokian was the first company to produce a tyre that allowed for year @-@ round use by having different tread patterns on the lateral and medial aspect of the tread . One pattern is optimised for winter and another pattern is designed as an all @-@ season pattern .
Nokian Tyres was the first tyre manufacturer in the world to fully eliminate high @-@ aromatic oils from its production process . Used as plasticising agents in tread production and to facilitate the compounding of rubber , they contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) , a carcinogen , and have been replaced by low @-@ aromatic oils . In 2006 , Nokian Tyres received a commendation in the Finnish round of the European Business Awards for the Environment .
The demand for Nokian tyres is seasonal , as a high percentage of the company 's sales are of winter tyres , but it has reduced seasonal fluctuations by its development of summer and all weather tyres . According to the company , more than 80 % of its passenger car and van tyre sales are winter tyres . Winter tyre sales have a strong seasonal characteristic with 30 % of retail sales occurring in the ten days after the first snowfall , thus presenting challenges in production and delivery .
Nokian Tyres does not sell to automobile manufacturers , but instead concentrates on the more profitable consumer tyre replacement and premium snow tyre markets . Nokian Tyres has the highest market share of the Finnish passenger car tyre market . The Finnish , Swedish , and Norwegian markets contributed over 40 % of Nokian Tyres ' corporate net sales in 2008 .
The Russian market , Nokian Tyres ' largest , contributed 34 % of the net sales and captured 26 % of the Russian winter tyre market . CEO Kim Gran describes the Russian consumer as having a " love affair " with the Nokian brand citing that it stems from tyres which fits the local weather conditions and a genuine need in the market . The use of winter tyres , which has softer rubber compounds than all @-@ season tyres , results in improved starting , stopping , and steering performance . The Hakkapeliitta brand was , at one time , the only Western tyre brand in Russia having entered the market during the Soviet era in 1964 . In contrast to having a Russian tyre factory to benefit from lower tariffs , another tyre company , Continental AG , abandoned Russian tyre production and hopes for Russian membership in the World Trade Organisation will result in lower import tariffs .
In 2009 , the North American market accounted for over 10 % of the company 's net sales . Nokian Tyres has a tyre subsidiary based in LaVergne , Tennessee ( USA ) . In that market , Nokian Tyres sell only to independent dealers , some of whom use the tyre products to fill in gaps in their product lines instead of an exclusive or majority share . This results in some dealers being knowledgeable about specific tyres but not Nokian Tyre 's full tyre product range .
= = = Commercial vehicle tyres = = =
Nokian Tyres manufactures truck and bus tyres sold under the Nokian Hakkapeliitta brand . Steer , traction , and trailer tyres are marketed . Nokian Heavy Tyres Ltd is a manufacturer of special tyres for forestry , industrial machinery , and agriculture . Its products are sold as original equipment as well on the replacement tyre market . Nokian Tyres produces a number of product lines , including the Tractor Industrial 2 and Country King . Nokian Tyres is a world market leader in forestry tyres , which are a key product of the Nokian Heavy Tyres subsidiary . Nokian forestry tyres include the Skidder and Cut @-@ To @-@ Length model lines . The Skidder tyres have a 25 degree bar angle and the Cut @-@ To @-@ Length tyres have a 35 degree bar angle . Bar angle is a tyre tread measurement . Smaller bar angles are associated with higher traction at the expense of increased mud accumulation .
= = = Tyre @-@ related products = = =
Nokian Tyres also produces materials for retreading and refurbishing used tyres . Nokian Noktop and Kraiburg , an industry competitor , produce most of the retreading materials for the European market . The RoadSnoop Pressure Watch , a tyre pressure monitor for race cars , is also produced by Nokian Tyres .
= = = Bicycle = = =
The Nokian brand of bicycle tyres , including studded winter MTB and touring models , is owned by Suomi Tyres Finland . See external links below for website .
= = Vianor tyre chain = =
Nokian Tyres owns 100 % of Vianor Holding Oy , which administers Vianor , a tyre chain of company owned and franchised stores . The Vianor name is derived from the Latin phrase " northern way " or " northern road " , and reflects the tyre chain 's image as a tyre specialist for winter conditions .
Vianor is the largest and most extensive tyre franchise in the Nordic countries with approximately 170 company @-@ owned retail outlets and around 800 outlets in total including franchises . Company @-@ owned outlets are located in the Switzerland , Russia , Norway , Finland , Sweden , and the United States . The twelve United States outlets are located in the American states of Vermont , New Hampshire , New York and Massachusetts . Countries with only franchised outlets include Ukraine , Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania , Kazakhstan , Armenia , Moldova , Georgia , Belarus , Poland , Germany , Czech Republic , Slovakia and Bulgaria .
Nokian Tyres has operated retail tyre stores in Norway since 1987 , when it acquired Larsen & Lund , and since 1998 in Sweden and Latvia . The Vianor name was launched in 1999 coinciding with the company 's expansion into Finland and Estonia .
Vianor sells two million tyres annually , including Michelin and Bridgestone brands as well as Nokian tyres . Car servicing and a tyre hotel , facilities for customers to store summer or winter tyres during the off @-@ season , are also offered .
= = Tyre facilities = =
= = = Nokia , Finland production and testing facilities = = =
Nokian Tyres produces 23 @,@ 000 tyres per day at a factory in Nokia , Finland , and 200 @,@ 000 tyres a year under the Bridgestone brand name . The original factory was built in 1904 , the current one in 1945 ; it has expanded several times since then . Nokian Tyres has 27 assembly lines at its Finnish plant . The plant uses radio frequency devices to monitor the inventory of materials used to manufacture tyres , such as the 100 @-@ metre long strips of rubber tread . Shortages of rubber tread can halt production and so keeping an adequate supply of materials increases efficiency . Despite trade journals discussing this technique , Nokian declines to confirm its production methods .
The company has a 30 @-@ hectare ( 74 @-@ acre ) testing facility in Nokia , where it road tests tyres between April and November . From November to May , tests are carried out at its Ivalo Proving Grounds in Arctic Lapland . The Ivalo Proving Ground is the only permanent winter tyre testing facility in the world . Because of the short summer in Finland , Nokian tests summer tyres at other locations . During the winter , the testing of summer tyres takes place in South Africa . Nokian also tests tyres at the Applus + IDIADA facilities in El Vendrell , Spain , and the ATP facilities in Papenburg , Germany .
= = = Vsevolozhsk , Russia factory = = =
Nokian produces approximately 6 @,@ 000 tyres daily and employs 510 employees at its factory in Vsevolozhsk , Russia near Saint Petersburg , and plans to increase manufacturing capacity to 10 million tyres annually by 2011 . The factory was established in 2005 . In 2006 , it expanded its facilities there , adding a mixing department and a 19 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 200 @,@ 000 sq ft ) warehouse capable of housing 600 @,@ 000 tyres . The new mixing department gives the factory the capability to produce rubber compounds on @-@ site instead of importing them from the factory in Nokia , Finland . The Vsevolozhsk factory manufactures Nokian @-@ branded car tyres , the majority of which are sold in Russia and countries of the former USSR . Nokian plans to build 300 housing units and sell them to employees at cost as part of the Russian factory expansion that is scheduled to be completed by 2011 .
= = = Contract production of tyres = = =
Nokian Tyres licenses production of its tyres to companies in the United States ( Bridgestone , LaVergne , Tennessee plant ) , Slovakia ( Matador , Puchov plant ) , Indonesia ( PT Gajah Tunggal Tbk company ) , and the People 's Republic of China ( Giti Tire ) , as well as contracts manufacture of agriculture and industrial tyres in Spain and India . In the past , some United States contract manufacturing was done by Cooper Tire 's Findley , Ohio plant . Contract manufacture by Giti Tire includes production of up to 500 @,@ 000 Nokian summer tyres with expansion up to 1 @.@ 5 million tyres per year . Some Nokian agricultural and industrial tyres were made under contract by the Tofan Grup in Romania for two years until December 1999 , when Nokian Tyres withdrew , citing quality standards . Contract manufacture of these types of heavy tyres was then undertaken by Michelin at its Polish plant in Stomil @-@ Olsztyn from 2000 until 2005 , when Nokian began to shift contract manufacture of industrial tyres to Bridgestone 's factory in Bilbao , Spain and agricultural tyres to Balkrishna Tyres in Bhiwadi , India . With an increase in tyre demand as a result of improving economies , Nokian is considering increasing production as well as outsouring additional tyre manufacture in Asia .
|
= Edward Porter Alexander =
Edward Porter Alexander ( May 26 , 1835 – April 28 , 1910 ) was a military engineer , railroad executive , planter , and author . He served first as an officer in the United States Army and later , during the American Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) , in the Confederate Army , rising to the rank of brigadier general .
Alexander was the officer in charge of the massive artillery bombardment preceding Pickett 's Charge , on the third day of the Battle of Gettysburg , and is also noted for his early use of signals and observation balloons during combat . After the Civil War , he taught mathematics at the University of South Carolina in Columbia , spent time in Nicaragua , and wrote extensive memoirs and analyses of the war , which have received much praise for their insight and objectivity . His Military Memoirs of a Confederate were published in 1907 . An extensive personal account of his military training and his participation in the Civil War was rediscovered long after his death and published in 1989 as Fighting for the Confederacy .
= = Early life and career = =
Alexander , known to his friends as Porter , was born in Washington , Georgia into a wealthy and distinguished family of planters of the Old South . He was the sixth of ten children of Adam Leopold Alexander and Sarah Hillhouse Gilbert Alexander . He became the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Alexander R. Lawton and Jeremy F. Gilmer . He graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1857 , third in his class of 38 cadets , and was brevetted a second lieutenant of engineers . He briefly taught engineering and fencing at the academy before he was ordered to report to Brig. Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston for the Utah War expedition . That mission ended before he could reach Johnston , and Alexander returned to West Point . He participated in a number of weapon experiments and worked as an assistant to Major Albert J. Myer , the first officer assigned to the Signal Corps and the inventor of the code for " wig @-@ wag " signal flags , or " aerial telegraphy " . Alexander was promoted to second lieutenant on October 10 , 1858 .
Alexander met Bettie Mason of Virginia in 1859 and married her on April 3 , 1860 . They would eventually have six children : Bessie Mason ( born 1861 ) , Edward Porter II and Lucy Roy ( twins , born 1863 ) , an unnamed girl ( 1865 , died in infancy prior to naming ) , Adam Leopold ( 1867 ) , and William Mason ( 1868 ) . Lt. Alexander 's final assignments for the U.S. Army were at Fort Steilacoom , in the Washington Territory , and at Alcatraz Island , near San Francisco , California .
= = Civil War service = =
After learning of the secession of his home state of Georgia , Alexander resigned his U.S. Army commission on May 1 , 1861 , to join the Confederate Army as a captain of engineers . While organizing and training new recruits to form a Confederate signal service , he was ordered to report to Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard at Manassas Junction , Virginia . He became the chief engineer and signal officer of the Confederate Army of the Potomac on June 3 .
At the First Battle of Bull Run , Alexander made history by being the first to use signal flags to transmit a message during combat over a long distance . Stationed atop " Signal Hill " in Manassas , Alexander saw Union troop movements and signaled to the brigade under Col. Nathan " Shanks " Evans , " Look out for your left , your position is turned " . Upon receiving a similar message , Beauregard and Gen. Joseph E. Johnston sent timely reinforcements that turned the tide of battle in the Confederates ' favor .
Alexander was promoted to major on July 1 and lieutenant colonel on December 31 , 1861 . During much of this period he was chief of ordnance , under Johnston 's command , managing supplies and ammunition in what later became the Army of Northern Virginia . He was also active in signal work and intelligence gathering , dealing extensively with spies operating around Washington , D.C.
During the early days of the Peninsula Campaign of 1862 , Alexander continued as chief of ordnance under Johnston , but he also fought at the Battle of Williamsburg , under Maj. Gen. James Longstreet . When Gen. Robert E. Lee assumed command of the army , Alexander was in charge of pre @-@ positioned ordnance for Lee 's offensive in the Seven Days Battles . Alexander continued his intelligence gathering by volunteering to go up in an observation balloon at Gaines ' Mill on June 27 , ascending several times and returning with valuable intelligence regarding the position of the Union Army .
Alexander continued in charge of ordnance for the Northern Virginia Campaign ( Second Bull Run ) and the Maryland Campaign ( Antietam ) . He barely missed capture by Federal cavalry , under Col. Benjamin F. " Grimes " Davis , that had escaped from Harpers Ferry during the Maryland Campaign ; over 40 of Longstreet 's 80 ammunition wagons were captured .
Porter Alexander is best known as an artilleryman who played a prominent role in many of the important battles of the war . He served in different artillery capacities for Longstreet 's First Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia , starting that role on November 7 , 1862 , after leaving Lee 's staff to command the battalion that was the corps ' artillery reserve . He was promoted to colonel on December 5 . He was instrumental in arranging the artillery in defense of Marye 's Heights at the Battle of Fredericksburg in December 1862 , which proved to be the decisive factor in the Confederate victory . While the rest of Longstreet 's corps was located around Suffolk , Virginia , Alexander accompanied Stonewall Jackson on his flanking march at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863 , and his artillery placements in Hazel Grove at Chancellorsville proved decisive .
= = = Gettysburg cannonade = = =
Alexander 's most famous engagement was on July 3 , 1863 , at the Battle of Gettysburg , during which he was in command of the artillery for Longstreet 's corps . On that day , he was effectively in control of the artillery for the full army ( despite Brig. Gen. William N. Pendleton 's formal role as chief of artillery under Lee ) . He conducted a massive two @-@ hour bombardment , arguably the largest in the war , using between 150 and 170 guns against the Union position on Cemetery Ridge . Unfortunately , the poor quality of the Confederate fuses delayed the planned detonation of many of the shells , and a number of the guns were not properly ranged , so that the rear areas sustained more damage than the front lines . General Longstreet effectively put Alexander in charge of launching Maj. Gen. George Pickett on his famous charge , placing the young colonel under enormous pressure to determine whether the Union artillery defenses had been suppressed . Alexander would blame Lee for the defeat at Gettysburg , writing in 1901 : " Never , never , never did Gen. Lee himself bollox [ sic ] a fight as he did this . "
= = = Longstreet 's Chief of Artillery = = =
Alexander accompanied the First Corps to northern Georgia in the fall of 1863 to reinforce Gen. Braxton Bragg for the Battle of Chickamauga . He personally arrived too late to participate in the battle , but served as Longstreet 's chief of artillery in the subsequent Knoxville Campaign and in the Department of East Tennessee in early 1864 . He returned with the corps to Virginia for the remainder of the war , now with the rank of brigadier general ( as of February 26 , 1864 ) . He served in all the battles of the Overland Campaign , and when Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant slipped around Lee 's army to cross the James River and assault Petersburg , Alexander was able to move his guns quickly through the lines , emplacing them to repel the main attack .
During the Siege of Petersburg , Alexander had to adapt his artillery tactics to trench warfare , including experimentation with various types of mortars . He became convinced that the Union forces were attempting to tunnel under the Confederate lines , but before he was able to act on this , on June 30 , 1864 , he was wounded in the shoulder by a sharpshooter . As he departed on medical leave to Georgia , he informed Lee of his suspicion . After unsuccessful attempts were made to locate the tunneling activity , the Battle of the Crater caught the Confederates by surprise , although it ended in a significant Union defeat . Alexander returned to the Army in February 1865 and supervised the defenses of Richmond along the James River . He retreated along with Lee 's army in the Appomattox Campaign .
At Appomattox Court House , it was Alexander who made the famous proposal to Robert E. Lee that the army disperse , rather than surrendering . Lee rebuked him , and Alexander later wrote about regretting his suggestion . Although this incident is sometimes described as a proposal for " guerrilla war " , Alexander describes his proposal in his memoir , Fighting for the Confederacy , as one in which " the army may be ordered to scatter in the woods & bushes & either to rally upon Gen. Johnston in North Carolina , or to make their way , each man to his own state , with his arms , & to report to his governor . "
= = Later life = =
After the surrender , Alexander briefly toyed with joining the Brazilian Army . Finding that he no longer desired the Georgia plantation life of his youth , he taught mathematics at the University of South Carolina in Columbia , and then served in executive positions with the Charlotte , Columbia , and Augusta Railroad ( executive superintendent ) , the Savannah and Memphis Railroad ( president ) , the Louisville and Nashville Railroad ( president ) , and in the late 1880s the Central Rail Road and Banking Company of Georgia until 1891 .
Alexander became friends with Grover Cleveland and the two spent many hours hunting for ducks on Alexander 's estate . In May 1897 , President Cleveland appointed Alexander as the arbiter of the commission tasked with fixing and demarcating the boundary between the Republics of Nicaragua and Costa Rica , with a view towards the possible construction of an interoceanic canal to be dug across Central America . Alexander spent two years at the head of that commission , headquartered in the coastal village of Greytown ( now San Juan de Nicaragua ) . He completed the work to the satisfaction of the two governments and returned to the U.S. in October 1899 . His wife Bettie became ill while he was in Nicaragua and she died shortly after his return , on November 20 , 1899 . In October 1901 , Alexander married Mary Mason , his first wife 's niece .
Alexander was selected to give the Confederate veteran 's speech on Alumni Day during the centennial celebration at the United States Military Academy on June 9 , 1902 . The speech was so well received that it was reprinted in the NY Times in its entirety in the 15 June 1902 edition . The NY Times referred to the speech as " decidedly the feature of Alumni Day . " The audience included President Theodore Roosevelt as well as Alexander 's former commander , General Longstreet .
After the war , Alexander became a well @-@ respected author . He wrote many magazine articles and published his Military Memoirs of a Confederate : A Critical Narrative ( 1907 ) , praised by Douglas Southall Freeman as " altogether the best critique of the operations of the Army of Northern Virginia . " Long after his death , it was realized that Alexander had produced the Military Memoirs , which sought to be a professional work of military history and analysis , after a long effort of editing a collection of much more personal memoirs that he had started compiling during his time in Greytown , Nicaragua , at the behest of his family . Those earlier memoirs were edited and published posthumously in 1989 as Fighting for the Confederacy : The Personal Recollections of General Edward Porter Alexander .
Unlike such Confederate officers as Jubal Early and William Pendleton , Alexander eschewed the bitter Lost Cause theories of why the South was doomed to fail , given the overwhelming superiority of the North . He was willing to express in writing his criticisms of prominent Confederate officers , including General Lee himself . Many historians regard Alexander 's memoirs as among the most objective and sharpest sources produced by a Civil War combatant . David Eicher called Fighting for the Confederacy " a superb personal narrative with a good deal of analysis of Lee 's operations ... Dramatic and revealing , an important source on the general , his fellow officers , and the Army of Northern Virginia . " Alexander 's other books include Railway Practice ( 1887 ) and Catterel , Ratterel ( Doggerel ) ( 1888 ) . Alexander died in Savannah , Georgia and is buried in Magnolia Cemetery , Augusta , Georgia .
= = In Popular Culture = =
Alexander was portrayed by James Patrick Stuart in the 1993 film Gettysburg and its 2003 prequel Gods and Generals .
In the alternate history novel How Few Remain , Alexander continues his career as a brigadier general long after the Confederate States of America wins the civil war and was instrumental in defending Confederate Kentucky and fending off another Union invasion while under Stonewall Jackson during a second war with the United States in the 1880 's .
|
= A Saucerful of Secrets =
A Saucerful of Secrets is the second studio album by the English rock band Pink Floyd , released on 29 June 1968 by EMI Columbia in the United Kingdom and released on 27 July 1968 in the United States by Tower Records . The album was recorded before and after Syd Barrett 's departure from the group . Owing to Barrett 's behaviour becoming increasingly unpredictable , Barrett was forced to leave the band and David Gilmour was recruited in January 1968 .
As a result , A Saucerful of Secrets became the only non @-@ compilation Pink Floyd album on which all five band members appeared , the first for Gilmour , with him appearing on five songs ( " Let There Be More Light " , " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " , " Corporal Clegg " , " A Saucerful of Secrets " and " See @-@ Saw " ) , and the last for Barrett , with him on three ( " Remember a Day " , " Jugband Blues " and " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " ) . " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " was the only song all five members appeared on together . The band 's drummer Nick Mason has declared A Saucerful of Secrets to be his favourite Pink Floyd album .
= = Background = =
From mid to late 1967 , Syd Barrett 's erratic behaviour became more apparent , and at one performance of the band 's first US tour , he slowly detuned his guitar while on stage . The audience , used to the band 's experimental performances , seemed to enjoy such antics , and were unaware of the rest of the band 's increasing consternation . Interviewed on Pat Boone 's show during this tour , Barrett 's reply to Boone 's questions was a " blank and totally mute stare " , and kept his lips closed during the mimed performance . Barrett exhibited behaviour in a similar style during the band 's first appearance on Dick Clark 's popular TV show American Bandstand . Barrett mimed fairly well for the performance of " Apples and Oranges " , but responded to Clark 's questions with no interest or enthusiasm .
= = Recording = =
= = = Recording with Syd Barrett = = =
The album was recorded at EMI Studios in London . The first songs recorded for the album were Roger Waters ' " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " and an unreleased Barrett track , " Scream Thy Last Scream " ; both recorded on 7 – 8 August 1967 . The two tracks were arranged to be released as a single on 8 September , before it was vetoed by the band 's record company , EMI . The band recorded " Vegetable Man " at De Lane Lea Studios on 9 – 11 October , and returned later in the month , on 19 October , to record " Jugband Blues " , with producer Norman Smith booking a Salvation Army band , at Barrett 's request . Overdubbing " Remember a Day " at the sessions ; the song , which was an outtake from The Piper at the Gates of Dawn sessions , features Barrett on slide guitar , the band took a break from the album sessions to record what became their third single , " Apples and Oranges " , on 26 and 27 October . A few days later , the band recorded the B @-@ side , " Paint Box " , before leaving for a US tour .
In November , " Apples and Oranges " was released as a single but failed to chart at all . The band eventually went back to De Lane Lea and recorded the unreleased track " Vegetable Man " . Sometime around Christmas , David Gilmour ( Barrett 's old school friend ) was asked to join the band as a second lead guitarist to cover for Barrett when his erratic behaviour prevented him from performing . As Barrett had , up until then , written ( or co @-@ written ) most of the songs on the band 's debut album , The Piper at the Gates of Dawn , as well as the band 's three singles up to this point , the initial plan was to keep him in the group as a non @-@ touring member – in similar style to Brian Wilson 's recent status in The Beach Boys – but this meant that Barrett and the group were essentially separated . For two days from 10 January 1968 , Pink Floyd reconvened at EMI Studios , attempting to work on older tracks : Waters ' vocals and Wright 's organ were overdubbed onto " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " , while Mason added vocals to " Scream Thy Last Scream " . Upon leaving Pink Floyd , Barrett said to Melody Maker : " I suppose it was really just a matter of being a little offhand about things " .
= = = Recording with David Gilmour = = =
When Gilmour joined the band , Pink Floyd performed briefly as a five @-@ man piece , from 12 January till the 20th . For a handful of shows Gilmour played and sang while Barrett wandered around on stage , occasionally joining in with the playing . In between these five @-@ piece gigs , the group rehearsed a few Waters @-@ penned songs on 15 and 16 January . During the next session on 18 January , the band , joined by Smith , jammed on rhythm tracks ; Barrett didn 't attend this session . On 24 and 25 January , the band recorded a song , logged as " The Most Boring Song I 've Ever Heard Bar 2 " at Abbey Road . The band recorded " Let There Be More Light " , " Corporal Clegg " ( which features lead vocals by Nick Mason ) and " See @-@ Saw " all without Barrett , despite manager Andrew King claiming Barrett performed the slide solo at the end of " Let There Be More Light " . The other band members soon grew tired of Barrett 's antics and , on 26 January 1968 , when Waters was driving on the way to a show at Southampton University , picking the members up on the way , one person in the car said , " Shall we pick Syd up ? " and another said , " Let 's not bother . " Barrett was finally ousted from the band in late January 1968 , leaving the new incarnation of Pink Floyd to finish the album ; " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " is the only song on which all five band members appeared .
The four @-@ piece band struggled to come up with new material for an album , but in February 1968 recorded Wright 's " It Would Be So Nice " and Waters ' " Julia Dream " . In early February it was announced that the Waters @-@ penned track , " Corporal Clegg " would be the band 's next single , however , due to pressure from the label , the song was earmarked for the album , and " It Would Be So Nice " was released in April as a single , with " Julia Dream " on the B @-@ side . Throughout April , the band was taking stock of the songs recorded up to that point . Waters blocked the release of the two tracks , " Vegetable Man " and " Scream Thy Last Scream " , on the album , though the band retained " Jugband Blues " , and the Waters @-@ written " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " on which Barrett played . With not enough material to fill the album 's last 12 minutes , the band started piecing together several pieces of material that was to become the title track of the album , " A Saucerful of Secrets " . Mason and Waters planned the track out as if it were an architectural design , including peaks and troughs . Producer Smith didn 't like the song , stating to them that they " just can 't do this , it 's too long . You have to write three @-@ minute songs . " On 25 June , the band recorded another session for BBC Radio 's Top Gear ; the session featured two tracks from Saucerful : " Let There Be More Light " and a shortened retitled version of the title track , titled here as " The Massed Gadgets of Hercules " .
= = Songs = =
Like The Piper at the Gates of Dawn before it , the album contains space rock and psychedelic rock songs . However , unlike Piper , which was dominated by Barrett 's compositions , A Saucerful of Secrets contains only one Barrett original : " Jugband Blues " . AllMusic described that with A Saucerful of Secrets , " the band begin to map out the dark and repetitive pulses that would characterize their next few records . " Wright sings or shares lead vocals on four of the album 's seven songs , and contributes vocals on the eleven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute instrumental opus " A Saucerful of Secrets " , making this the only Pink Floyd album where his vocal contributions outnumber those of the rest of the band .
With Barrett seemingly detached from proceedings , it came down to Waters and Wright to provide adequate material . The opening , " Let There Be More Light " , penned by Waters , continues the space rock approach established by Barrett . " Let There Be More Light " evolved from a bass riff that was part of " Interstellar Overdrive " . Both " Remember a Day " and " See @-@ Saw " use the childlike approach that was established on their debut . Wright remained critical of his early contributions to the band . " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " was first performed with Barrett in 1967 . The success of the track was such that it remained in their live setlist until 1973 where it appeared in a greatly extended form . Waters later performed the track during solo concerts from 1984 and later . Waters borrowed the lyrics from a book of Chinese poetry from the Tang Dynasty , like Barrett had used in " Chapter 24 " . " Corporal Clegg " , is the first Pink Floyd song to address issues of war , a theme which would endure throughout the career of Waters as a songwriter for the band , culminating on the 1983 album The Final Cut . " A Saucerful of Secrets " was originally written as a new version of " Nick 's Boogie " . The track is titled as four parts , on Ummagumma . A staple in the band 's live set until summer 1972 , a live version of the song was recorded on 27 April 1969 at the Mothers Club in Birmingham for inclusion on Ummagumma . " Jugband Blues " refers to Barrett 's departure from the group ( " It 's awfully considerate of you to think of me here / And I 'm most obliged to you for making it clear that I 'm not here " ) . A promotional video was recorded for the track . The band 's management wanted to release the song as a single , before being vetoed by both the band and producer Norman Smith .
= = = Unreleased songs = = =
As well as " Jugband Blues " , the album was to include " Vegetable Man " , another Barrett composition . The song was to appear on a single as the B @-@ side to " Scream Thy Last Scream " . The band performed " Jugband Blues " , " Vegetable Man " and " Scream Thy Last Scream " for a Top Gear session , recorded on 20 December , and broadcast on 31st . Two additional Barrett songs , " In the Beechwoods " , and " No Title " ( frequently referred to on bootlegs as " Sunshine " ) , were recorded early in the album sessions . At least one other song , " John Latham " , was recorded during these sessions , and remains unreleased .
= = Release and reception = =
This is the first of several Pink Floyd album covers that were designed by Hipgnosis , and was only the second time that an EMI group ( The Beatles were the first ) was permitted to hire outside designers for an album jacket . The album was released in the UK on 29 June 1968 on EMI 's Columbia label as both mono and stereo LPs , reaching number 9 in the UK charts . It was released in the US by the Tower Records division of Capitol , where it remains the only Pink Floyd album not to chart . However , when reissued as A Nice Pair with the original version of The Piper at the Gates of Dawn after the success of The Dark Side of the Moon , the album did chart at number 36 on the Billboard 200 . " Let There Be More Light " was released as a single , backed with " Remember a Day " , in the US on 19 August 1969 .
The CD stereo mix of the album was first released in 1988 , and in 1992 was digitally remastered and reissued as part of the Shine On box set . The remastered stereo CD was released on its own in 1994 in the UK and the US . The mono mix version of the album has never been officially released on CD . This album will be re @-@ issued on the Pink Floyd Records label on 3 June 2016 .
Upon its release , Rolling Stone magazine 's review was unfavourable , writing that it is " not as interesting as their first " and " rather mediocre " , highlighting the near @-@ departure of Syd Barrett as one of its detractions .
In a retrospective review for AllMusic , Richie Unterberger draws attention to the album 's " gentle , fairy @-@ tale ambience " , with songs that move from " concise and vivid " to " spacy , ethereal material with lengthy instrumental passages " . In a review for BBC Music , Daryl Easlea said Saucerful was " not without filler " , adding that " Jugband Blues " was " the most chilling " song on the album .
While promoting 2014 's The Endless River , Nick Mason named A Saucerful of Secrets as his favourite of Pink Floyd 's studio albums . “ I think there are ideas contained there that we have continued to use all the way through our career , ” he says . “ I think [ it ] was a quite good way of marking Syd [ Barrett ] ’ s departure and Dave [ Gilmour ] ’ s arrival . It ’ s rather nice to have it on one record , where you get both things . It ’ s a cross @-@ fade rather than a cut . ”
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Pink Floyd
( all personnel uncredited )
Roger Waters – bass guitar , percussion , vocals
Richard Wright – piano , organ , mellotron , vibraphone , xylophone , vocals , tin whistle on " Jugband Blues "
David Gilmour – guitars ( except " Remember a Day " and " Jugband Blues " ) , kazoo , vocals
Nick Mason – drums , percussion , vocals on " Corporal Clegg " , kazoo on " Jugband Blues "
Syd Barrett – acoustic and slide guitar on " Remember a Day " , guitar on " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " , vocals and guitar on " Jugband Blues "
Additional personnel
Norman Smith – producer , drums and backing vocals on " Remember a Day " , voice on " Corporal Clegg "
The Salvation Army ( The International Staff Band ) on " Jugband Blues "
= = Charts and certifications = =
|
= The Inner Light ( song ) =
" The Inner Light " is a song by the English rock group the Beatles , written by George Harrison . It was released on a non @-@ album single in March 1968 , as the B @-@ side to " Lady Madonna " . The song was the first Harrison composition to be featured on a Beatles single and reflects the band 's embrace of Transcendental Meditation and his continued interest in Indian classical music . It is the last of three Indian @-@ style tracks he wrote for the Beatles , after " Love You To " and " Within You Without You " . The lyrics are a rendering of a poem from the Taoist Tao Te Ching , which Harrison set to music on the recommendation of Juan Mascaró , a Sanskrit scholar who had translated the passage in his 1958 book Lamps of Fire . The song became a comparative rarity among the Beatles ' recordings in the decade following its release ; it has subsequently appeared on compilation albums such as Rarities , Past Masters , Volume Two and Mono Masters .
Harrison recorded the instrumental track for " The Inner Light " in India in January 1968 , during the sessions for his Wonderwall Music soundtrack album . The only Beatles studio recording to be made outside Europe , the song introduced instruments such as sarod , shehnai and pakhavaj to the band 's sound and features contributions from Indian classical musicians including Aashish Khan , Hanuman Jadev and Hariprasad Chaurasia . Aside from Harrison 's lead vocal , recorded in London , the Beatles ' only contribution came in the form of group backing vocals at the end of the song .
Among music critics , " The Inner Light " has received praise for its melodic qualities and for its evocation of the meditation experience . Jeff Lynne and Anoushka Shankar performed the song at the Concert for George tribute in November 2002 , a year after Harrison 's death . An alternative take of the 1968 instrumental track was released in 2014 on the remastered Wonderwall Music CD . Screenwriter Morgan Gendel named a 1992 episode of the television series Star Trek : The Next Generation as an homage to the song .
= = Background and inspiration = =
In his autobiography , I , Me , Mine , George Harrison recalls that he was inspired to write " The Inner Light " by Juan Mascaró , a Sanskrit scholar at Cambridge University . Mascaró had taken part in a debate , televised on The Frost Programme on 4 October 1967 , during which Harrison and John Lennon discussed the merits of Transcendental Meditation with an audience of academics and religious leaders . In a subsequent letter to Harrison , dated 16 November , Mascaró expressed the hope that they might meet again before the Beatles departed for India , where the group were to study meditation with their guru , Maharishi Mahesh Yogi . Mascaró enclosed a copy of his book Lamps of Fire , an anthology of religious writings , including from Lao @-@ Tzu 's Tao Te Ching . Having stated his admiration for the spiritual message in Harrison 's composition " Within You Without You " , Mascaró enquired : " might it not be interesting to put into your music a few words of Tao , for example no . 48 , page 66 of Lamps ? "
Harrison wrote the song during a period when he had undertaken his first musical project outside the Beatles , composing the soundtrack to the Joe Massot @-@ directed film Wonderwall . When writing " The Inner Light " , he made minimal alterations to the translated Lao @-@ Tzu text and used the same title that Mascaró had used . In I , Me , Mine , Harrison says of the changes required to create his second verse :
In the original poem , the verse says " Without going out of my door , I can know the ways of heaven . " And so to prevent any misinterpretations – and also to make the song a bit longer – I did repeat that as a second verse but made it : " Without going out of your door / You can know all things on earth / Without looking out of your window / You can know the ways of heaven " – so that it included everybody .
After " Within You Without You " , " The Inner Light " was the second composition to fully reflect Harrison 's immersion in Eastern spiritual concepts , particularly meditation , an interest that had spread to his Beatles bandmates and to the group 's audience . The lyrics espouse meditation as a means to genuine understanding . Theologian Dale Allison describes the song as a " hymn " to quietism and comments that , in their attempt to " relativize and disparage knowledge of the external world " , the words convey Harrison 's enduring worldview . Author John Winn notes that Harrison had pre @-@ empted the message of " The Inner Light " in an August 1967 interview , when he told New York DJ Murray Kaufman : " The more you learn , the more you know that you don 't know anything at all . " Writing in his study of Harrison 's musical career , Ian Inglis similarly identifies a precedent in the song " It 's All Too Much " , where Harrison sings : " The more I learn , the less I know . "
= = Composition and musical structure = =
" The Inner Light " was Harrison 's third song in the Indian musical genre , after " Love You To " and " Within You Without You " . While those earlier songs had followed the Hindustani ( North Indian ) system of Indian classical music , as sitar- and tabla @-@ based compositions , " The Inner Light " is closer in style to the Carnatic ( or South Indian ) temple music tradition . Harrison 's progression within the genre reflected his concept for the Wonderwall soundtrack – namely , that the assignment allowed him to create an " anthology " of Indian music and present a diverse range of styles and instrumentation .
The composition is structured into three instrumental passages separated by two sections of verse . The buoyant mood of the instrumental sections – set to what author Peter Lavezzoli describes as " a raucous 4 / 4 rhythm " – contrasts with the gentle , meditative portions containing the verses . The contrast is reflected in the lead instruments that Harrison would use on the recording : whereas sarod and shehnai , supported by pakhavaj , are prominent during the musical passages , the softer @-@ sounding bansuri ( flute ) and harmonium accompany the singing over the verses , as the sarod provides a response to each line of the vocal . In the last instrumental section , Harrison incorporates the conclusion of Lao @-@ Tzu 's poem , beginning with the line " Arrive without travelling " .
The melody conforms to the pitches of Mixolydian mode , or its Indian equivalent , the Khamaj thaat . Musicologist Dominic Pedler writes that the tune features unusual tritone intervals , which , together with the musical arrangement , ensure that the song is far removed from standard " pop tunes " . In a further departure from Harrison 's previous forays into Indian music , both of which made extensive use of single @-@ chord drone , the melody allows for formal chord changes : over the verses , the dominant E ♭ major alternates with F minor , before a move to A ♭ over the line " The farther one travels the less one knows " .
In the opening words ( " Without going out " ) , the melody uses what Pedler terms a " hauntingly modal " G @-@ B ♭ -D ♭ tritone progression as , within the song 's tonic key ( of E ♭ ) , the 3rd note heads towards the flat 7th . Musicologist Walter Everett likens this ascending arpeggiation of the diminished triad to a melodic feature in " Within You Without You " ( over that song 's recurring phrase " We were talking " ) . " The Inner Light " is an example of Harrison creating ambiguity about the tonic key , a technique that Pedler recognises as a characteristic of Harrison 's spiritually oriented songwriting .
= = Recording = =
= = = Bombay = = =
Having used London @-@ based Indian musicians from the Asian Music Circle on " Love You To " and " Within You Without You " , Harrison recorded " The Inner Light " in India with some of the country 's foremost contemporary classical players . In early January 1968 , he travelled to HMV Studios in Bombay to record part of the score for Wonderwall , much of which would appear on his debut solo album , Wonderwall Music . The day after completing the soundtrack recordings , on 13 January , Harrison taped additional pieces for possible later use , one of which was the instrumental track for " The Inner Light " . Five takes of the song were recorded on a two @-@ track recorder .
The musicians on the track were Aashish Khan ( sarod ) , Mahapurush Misra ( pakhavaj ) , Hanuman Jadev ( shehnai ) , Hariprasad Chaurasia ( bansuri ) and Rijram Desad ( harmonium ) . In Lavezzoli 's estimation , although these instruments are more commonly associated with the Hindustani discipline , the performers play them in a South Indian style , which adds to the Carnatic identity of the song . The recording features tabla tarang over the quiet , vocal interludes . Author Simon Leng refutes the presence of the oboe @-@ like shehnai , however , saying that this part was played on an esraj , a bow @-@ played string instrument . As with the Wonderwall selections recorded at HMV , Harrison directed the musicians but did not perform on the instrumental track .
= = = London = = =
Harrison completed the song in London during sessions for a new Beatles single , which was intended to cover their absence while the group were in Rishikesh , India , with the Maharishi . Once the Bombay recording had been transferred to four @-@ track tape , Harrison recorded his vocal part for " The Inner Light " on 6 February , at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios . Lacking confidence in his ability to sing in so high a register , he had to be coaxed by Lennon and Paul McCartney into delivering the requisite performance . Two days later , McCartney and Lennon overdubbed backing vocals at the very end of the song , over the words " Do all without doing " .
" The Inner Light " was held in high regard by Harrison 's bandmates , particularly McCartney , and was selected as the B @-@ side for the forthcoming single . It was the first Harrison composition to appear on a Beatles single , in addition to being the only Beatles studio recording made outside Europe . Everett writes that Lennon 's admiration for the track was evident from his subsequent creation of the song " Julia " through " a very parallel process " – in that instance , by adapting a work by Kahlil Gibran . Although Harrison had served as the producer at the Bombay session , only George Martin received a production credit for " The Inner Light " .
= = Release and reception = =
The song was issued as the B @-@ side of " Lady Madonna " on 15 March 1968 in the UK , with the US release following three days later . While Chris Welch of Melody Maker expressed doubts about the hit potential of the A @-@ side , Billboard magazine 's reviewer commented on the aptness of " The Inner Light " , given the band 's concurrent " meditation spell " . In America , the B @-@ side charted independently on the Billboard Hot 100 for one week , placing at number 96 . In Australia , it was listed with " Lady Madonna " , as a double A @-@ side , when the single topped the Go @-@ Set national singles chart .
Among Beatles biographers , Nicholas Schaffner wrote in 1977 that " The Inner Light " " proved to be the best – and last – of George 's attempts to incorporate Indian music into the context of the Beatles " . Schaffner paired it with " Within You Without You " as raga rock songs that " feature haunting , exquisitely lovely melodies " , and as two works that could have been among Harrison 's " greatest achievements " had they been made with his bandmates ' participation . Bruce Eder of AllMusic describes the same tracks as " a pair of beautiful songs … that were effectively solo recordings " . Ian MacDonald likens the song 's " studied innocence and exotic sweetness " to recordings by the Incredible String Band and concludes : " ' The Inner Light ' is both spirited and charming – one of its author 's most attractive pieces . "
Writing for Mojo magazine in 2003 , John Harris similarly admired it as Harrison 's " loveliest addition of Indian music to The Beatles ' repertoire " . In Ian Inglis ' view : " it is the extraordinary synthesis of separate musical and lyrical traditions ( in this case , Indian instrumentation , Chinese philosophy , and Western popular music ) that distinguishes the song . Harrison 's uncharacteristically warm vocal weaves in and around the delicate , almost fragile , melody to deliver a simple testimony to the power of meditation ... " With regard to the song 's influence , Inglis recognises Harrison 's espousal of Eastern spirituality as " a serious and important development that reflected popular music 's increasing maturity " , and a statement that prepared rock audiences for later religious pronouncements by Pete Townshend , Carlos Santana , John McLaughlin , Cat Stevens and Bob Dylan .
Nick DeRiso of the music website Something Else ! considers " The Inner Light " to be one of its composer 's " most successful marriages of raga and rock " and , through Harrison 's introduction of instruments such as sarod , shehnai and pakhavaj , a key recording in the evolution of the 1980s world music genre . While admiring the song 's transcendent qualities , Everett quotes the ethnomusicologist David Reck , who wrote in 1988 : " Most memorable is the sheer simplicity and straightforwardness of the haunting modal melody , somehow capturing perfectly the mood and truth and aphoristic essence of the lyrics . "
= = Later releases = =
A stereo mix of " The Inner Light " was created at Abbey Road on 27 January 1970 for what Beatles recording historian Mark Lewisohn terms " some indefinable future use " . On this later mix , the opening instrumental section differs slightly from that on the original , mono version .
Following its initial release in 1968 , " The Inner Light " became one of the rarest Beatles recordings . Although it appeared on Por Siempre Beatles , a 1971 Spanish compilation album , the song was not available on a British or American album until its inclusion on Rarities , which was originally issued as a disc in the 1978 box set The Beatles Collection before receiving an independent UK release . The 1980 US compilation titled Rarities also featured " The Inner Light " , again in its mono form . The stereo mix was first released as the opening track on a bonus EP , titled The Beatles , issued in the UK in December 1981 as part of the Beatles EP Collection box set . The song was issued on CD in 1988 , in stereo , on Past Masters , Volume Two . The mono mix was subsequently included on the Beatles ' Mono Masters compilation .
For the Beatles ' 2006 remix album Love , created for the Cirque du Soleil stage show , the song was segued onto the end of " Here Comes the Sun " . This mashup begins with Harrison singing " Here Comes the Sun " over the tabla part from " Within You , Without You " and ends with Indian instrumentation from " The Inner Light " .
In 2014 , an alternative instrumental take of the song was issued as a bonus track on Harrison 's Wonderwall Music remastered CD . The recording begins with a short studio discussion , as Harrison instructs the Bombay musicians .
= = Cover versions and popular culture = =
Having covered " Within You Without You " in 1967 , the Soulful Strings included " The Inner Light " on their album Another Exposure the following year . Junior Parker recorded the song , releasing a version on his 1971 album with Jimmy McGriff , The Dudes Doin ' Business . Later in the 1970s , the song 's title was appropriated for one of the first international Beatles fanzines .
= = = Concert for George performance = = =
Jeff Lynne , who worked frequently with Harrison after the Beatles ' break @-@ up , sang " The Inner Light " at the Concert for George tribute , held at London 's Royal Albert Hall on 29 November 2002 , a year after the former Beatle 's death . In what Simon Leng describes as " a wonderfully eloquent duet " , Lynne performed the song with Anoushka Shankar , who played the original sarod part on sitar . Lynne and Shankar were accompanied by Harrison 's son Dhani ( on keyboards and backing vocals ) and an ensemble of Indian musicians that included percussionist Tanmoy Bose ( on dholak ) , Rajendra Prasanna ( shehnai ) and Sunil Gupta ( flute ) .
The song appeared partway through the concert 's opening , Indian music segment , which was performed by Shankar and otherwise composed by her father , and Harrison 's friend and former sitar tutor , Ravi Shankar . Inglis comments that , in its context at the Concert for George , " [ ' The Inner Light ' ] does not appear at all out of place among the Indian folk and classical compositions that surround it . " Reviewing the Concert for George film for The Guardian , James Griffiths admired Lynne 's reading of the song as a " particularly sublime version " .
= = = Star Trek : The Next Generation episode = = =
In June 1992 , the American television series Star Trek : The Next Generation aired an episode titled " The Inner Light " , which went on to win the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation . The plot centres around the show 's main character , Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard , temporarily living in a dream @-@ like state on an unfamiliar planet , during which decades elapse relative to a few minutes in reality . An avowed fan of the Beatles , screenwriter Morgan Gendel titled the episode after Harrison 's song .
In an email to the Star Trek blog site Soul of Star Trek , Nick Sagan , another of the show 's screenwriters , suggested that the song 's lyrics express the " ability to experience many things without actually going anywhere – and that 's what happens to Picard " . In his subsequent post on the same site , Gendel confirmed this similarity , saying that the Beatles track " captured the theme of the show : that Picard experienced a lifetime of memories all in his head " . When discussing the episode on the official Star Trek website in 2013 , Gendel concluded : " If you Google ' Inner Light + song ' you ’ ll get the Beatles tune and an acknowledgment of my TNG homage to it back @-@ to @-@ back … that might be the best gift my authorship of this episode has given me . "
= = Personnel = =
According to Peter Lavezzoli :
George Harrison – lead vocals , direction
John Lennon – harmony vocals
Paul McCartney – harmony vocals
Aashish Khan – sarod
Hanuman Jadev – shehnai
Hariprasad Chaurasia – bansuri
Mahapurush Misra – pakhavaj
Rijram Desad – harmonium
uncredited – tabla tarang
|
= Fauna of Puerto Rico =
The fauna of Puerto Rico is similar to other island archipelago faunas , with high endemism , and low , skewed taxonomic diversity . Bats are the only extant native terrestrial mammals in Puerto Rico . All other terrestrial mammals in the area were introduced by humans , and include species such as cats , goats , sheep , the small Asian mongoose , and escaped monkeys . Marine mammals include dolphins , manatees , and whales . Of the 349 bird species , about 120 breed in the archipelago , and 47 @.@ 5 % are accidental or rare .
The most recognizable and famous animal of Puerto Rico is probably the common coquí , a small endemic frog , and one of the 86 species that constitute Puerto Rico 's herpetofauna . Some native freshwater fish inhabit Puerto Rico , but some species , introduced by humans , have established populations in reservoirs and rivers . The low richness @-@ high diversity pattern is also apparent among invertebrates , which constitutes most of the archipelago 's fauna .
The arrival of the first people about 4 @,@ 000 years ago and , to a larger extent , of Europeans more than 500 years ago , had a significant effect on Puerto Rico 's fauna . Hunting , habitat destruction , and the introduction of non @-@ native species led to extinctions and extirpations ( local extinctions ) . Conservation efforts , the most notable being for the Puerto Rican parrot , began in the second half of the 20th century . According to IUCN , as of 2002 , there were 21 threatened species in Puerto Rico : two mammals , eight breeding birds , eight reptiles , and three amphibians. i
= = Origin of Puerto Rican fauna = =
The Caribbean Plate , an oceanic tectonic plate on which Puerto Rico and the Antilles ( with the exception of Cuba ) lie , was formed in the late Mesozoic . According to Rosen , when South America separated from Africa , a volcanic archipelago known as " Proto @-@ Antilles " was formed . It later divided into the present @-@ day Greater and Lesser Antilles because of a new fault line in the " Proto @-@ Antilles " . Geologically , the archipelago of Puerto Rico is young , having formed about 135 Ma ( million years ) ago . The prevailing hypothesis , proposed by Howard Meyerhoff , posits that the Puerto Rican Bank , consisting of Puerto Rico , its outlying islands , and the Virgin Islands with the exception of St. Croix , was formed from volcanism in the Cretaceous Period . Rock samples from Sierra Bermeja in southwestern Puerto Rico , dated to the late Jurassic / early Cretaceous period , confirm this theory .
There is ongoing debate over when and how the ancestors of vertebrate fauna colonized the Antilles — particularly whether the Proto @-@ Antilles were oceanic islands or whether they once formed a land connection between South and North America . The first , and prevailing , model favors overwater dispersal from continental , primarily South American , fauna ; the other suggests the vicarization of proto @-@ Antillean fauna . Hedges et al. conclude that dispersal was " the primary mechanism for the origin of West Indian biota " . Vertebrate terrestrial genera such as Eleutherodactylus dispersed in a " filter " effect among the islands before any vicarization event occurred . However , other fauna such as the endemic Antillean insectivores ( Nesophontes sp . , Solenodon marcanoi and others ) and freshwater fish appear to have colonized the West Indies earlier through other means . Woods provides evidence to support this hypothesis by analyzing the arrival of ancestors of the Antillean capromyids and echimyids , concluding that an ancient echimyid must have arrived on the Greater Antilles from South America either by island @-@ hopping through the Lesser Antilles or by rafting either to Puerto Rico or Hispaniola .
MacPhee and Iturralde provide an alternate hypothesis that the initiators of land mammal clades arrived on the Proto @-@ Antilles by the mid @-@ Tertiary period , approximately at the Eocene – Oligocene boundary . A short @-@ lived ( ~ 1 Ma ) landmass named " GAARlandia " ( Greater Antilles + Aves Ridge land ) connected northwestern South America with three of the Greater Antilles ( Cuba , Hispaniola and Puerto Rico ) during this period . Afterwards , during the fragmentation of the Proto @-@ Antilles , divergence of vacariated lines would have begun .
The last major changes in Puerto Rican fauna occurred about 10 @,@ 000 years ago as a result of the post @-@ Ice Age rise in sea level and associated environmental changes . Puerto Rico 's transformation from a dry savanna environment to its present moist , forested state led to mass extinctions , especially of the vertebrate fauna . Around this time , the Puerto Rican Bank — a single landmass comprising the archipelago of Puerto Rico ( except for Mona , Monito and Desecheo ) and the Virgin Islands ( except for St. Croix ) — became separated . The Puerto Rican Bank has never been connected to its closest eastern bank , St. Maarten .
= = Mammals = =
The richness of mammals in Puerto Rico , like many other islands , is low relative to mainland regions . The present @-@ day native terrestrial mammal fauna of Puerto Rico is composed of only 13 species , all of which are bats . 18 marine mammals , including manatees , dolphins and whales , occur in Puerto Rico . Fossil records show the existence of one shrew ( Puerto Rican shrew , Nesophontes edithae ) , one sloth ( Puerto Rican sloth ) , three additional leaf @-@ nosed bats ( Macrotus waterhousii , Monophyllus plethodon , and Phyllonycteris major ) , and five rodents ( one giant hutia : Elasmodontomys obliquus , one hutia : Isolobodon portoricensis and three spiny rats : Heteropsomys antillensis , Heteropsomys insulans , and Puertoricomys corozalus ) . Woods suggests a reason for their extinction : " Taxa evolving in isolation on oceanic islands without competition or predators may not be able to adapt to rapidly changing conditions , such as the extensive climatic fluctuations of the Ice Ages or sudden competition or predation from introduced animals " .
Other terrestrial mammals have been introduced throughout the history of Puerto Rico . Indigenous settlers first introduced dogs and guinea pigs from South or Central America . Afterwards , Taínos introduced hutias as a food source from Hispaniola . When the Spanish colonized the island in the early 16th century , they introduced domesticated animals such as dogs , cats , goats , pigs , cattle , horses , and donkeys . Other species such as black rats ( Rattus rattus ) , Norway rats ( Rattus norvegicus ) and house mice ( Mus sp . ) have been unintentionally introduced as stowaways , possibly since Christopher Columbus 's arrival in 1493 . More recently , species have been introduced as a means of biological pest control . For example , the small Asian mongoose ( Herpestes javanicus ) was introduced in the 19th century to control the damage caused by rats in sugar cane plantations . The introduction was a failure : the mongoose failed to control the rat population and instead contributed to the decline of native fauna such as the yellow @-@ shouldered blackbird and possibly the elfin @-@ woods warbler .
As part of a study on adaptation , 57 rhesus macaques ( Macaca mulatta ) were introduced to the island of Desecheo and other southern off @-@ shore islands and cays in 1967 . Prior to the introduction , Desecheo was the largest nesting colony of the brown booby , but mainly as a result of egg predation by the introduced macaques , no bird species presently nests in the island . Efforts to trap and remove the species have been unsuccessful and it has expanded its range to southwestern Puerto Rico . Other primates also have established populations in Puerto Rico . As a result of vandalism , 107 squirrel monkeys escaped from a research station at Sabana Seca in the late 1970s . The latest estimate for this population is 35 individuals .
Arguably the best known of aquatic mammals occurring in Puerto Rican waters is the Antillean manatee ( Trichechus manatus manatus ) which is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN . The archipelago 's waters are one of the species ' main breeding areas . Manatees gathered local media attention when a two @-@ month manatee nicknamed Moisés was rescued and raised for 27 months by the Caribbean Stranding Network ( CSN ) . Moisés was the first successful release of an orphaned , captive @-@ raised manatee to the marine environment in the Caribbean . The animal became a Puerto Rican cultural , as well as scientific , icon when Tony Croatto wrote a song titled " Moisés " . A municipality of Puerto Rico , Manatí is believed to be named after the species .
Puerto Rico 's waters are also an important breeding site for the humpback whale during the Northern Hemisphere 's winter . Humpback whale watching is a popular tourist attraction in the municipality of Rincón in western Puerto Rico .
= = = Bats = = =
Extant bats of Puerto Rico belong to five families ( Noctilionidae , Mormoopidae , Phyllostomidae , Vespertilionidae , and Molossidae ) and include a total of 13 species , of which six subspecies are endemic to the archipelago . Seven of the 13 species are insectivores , four can be considered frugivores , one species feeds on nectar and another on fish . The species total is a relatively low number in comparison to the other Greater Antilles . Jamaica , for example , with an area approximately 1 @.@ 2 times that of Puerto Rico , has 21 species ( 1 @.@ 6 times that of Puerto Rico ) . A possible explanation for this is the comparatively large distance between the archipelago and the mainland dispersion areas . Jamaica , for example , is closer to Cuba and Hispaniola which are themselves closer to the mainland dispersion areas of North and Central America .
Bats play an important role in forest and cave ecology in Puerto Rico and help control mosquito populations . Most species ( 10 of 13 ) are cave @-@ dwellers with low reproductive rates ; the area with the highest species richness is the Caribbean National Forest , where eleven species occur . The red fig @-@ eating bat ( red fruit bat ) , endemic to the Puerto Rican Bank , plays an important role in the ecology of tabonuco forest in the Luquillo Mountains since it is believed to be the only seed disperser of bulletwood ( Manilkara bidentata ) . Cave ecosystems are enhanced by bat feces ( guano ) since many of the invertebrate cave fauna are either guano scavengers , detritivores or predators of the former two .
The bat species that occur in the archipelago of Puerto Rico are : greater bulldog bat ( Noctilio leporinus ) , Antillean ghost @-@ faced bat ( Mormoops blainvillii ) , Parnell 's mustached bat ( Pteronotus parnellii ) , sooty mustached bat ( Pteronotus quadridens ) , Jamaican fruit bat ( Artibeus jamaicensis ) , Antillean fruit bat ( Brachyphylla cavernarum ) , buffy flower bat ( Erophylla sezekorni bombifrons ) , Leach 's single leaf bat ( Monophyllus redmani ) , red fruit bat ( Stenoderma rufum ) , big brown bat ( Eptesicus fuscus ) , eastern red bat ( Lasiurus borealis ) , velvety free @-@ tailed bat ( Molossus molossus ) , and Mexican free @-@ tailed bat ( Tadarida brasiliensis ) .
= = Birds = =
The avifauna of Puerto Rico is composed of 349 species , 18 of which are endemic to the archipelago . Almost half of the species ( 166 ) are accidental , meaning that they have been sighted only once or twice , and 42 of the species have been introduced , either directly or indirectly ( mainly through habitat alteration ) , by humans . Approximately 120 species , including both native and introduced , breed regularly in the archipelago .
The avifauna of the West Indies is predominantly of tropical North American ( southern North America and Central America ) origin with aggressive South American species having colonized the area only recently . The South American families occurring in the Greater Antilles are the hummingbirds ( Trochilidae ) , tyrant flycatchers ( Tyrannidae ) , bananaquit ( Coerebidae ) and tanagers ( Thraupidae ) , all of which are represented in Puerto Rico . The prevailing theory suggests that bird fauna colonized the West Indies by transoceanic dispersal during the glacial periods of the Pleistocene . The most primitive West Indies birds are the todies which have an endemic representative in Puerto Rico , the Puerto Rican tody .
Puerto Rico 's avifauna has diminished due to extinction and extirpation , either by natural forces or human intervention . For example , fossil evidence was discovered for a species of swift , Tachornis uranoceles , dated to the late Pleistocene ( between 17 @,@ 000 and 21 @,@ 000 years ago ) . The species is believed to have become extinct as a result of habitat alteration after the Wisconsin glaciation . At least six endemic species have become extinct in the last millennia : Puerto Rican barn owl ( Tyto cavatica ) , Puerto Rican caracara ( Polyborus latebrosus ) , Puerto Rican conure ( Aratinga chloroptera maugei ) , Puerto Rican woodcock ( Scolopax anthonyi ) , Puerto Rican quail @-@ dove ( Geotrygon larva ) , and the Antillean cave rail ( Nesotrochis debooyi ) . With a population of 13 individuals in 1975 , the Puerto Rican parrot almost became the seventh , but conservation efforts helped save the species from extinction . However , it is still one of the ten most critically endangered birds in the world . Four Puerto Rican birds , the Hispaniolan parakeet , the white @-@ necked crow , the Cuban crow , and the limpkin , became extirpated after Puerto Rico 's population expansion in the latter half of the nineteenth century and three more species , the black @-@ bellied whistling duck , the black rail , and the greater flamingo , no longer breed in the archipelago .
= = Amphibians and reptiles = =
Puerto Rico 's herpetofauna consists of 25 amphibian species and 61 reptile species . The majority of West Indian terrestrial reptile clade is believed to have arrived by flotsam dispersion from South America . Little evidence exists to support the alternative hypothesis of proto @-@ Antillean vicariance . Other terrestrial herpetofauna are believed to have arrived to the West Indies ( and Puerto Rico ) by the same method and subsequently undergone vicarization by banks or islands . As a result , Puerto Rico , and the Caribbean in general , has one of the highest percentages of endemism among amphibians and reptiles in the world . Amphibian species in Puerto Rico belong to four families : Bufonidae ( 2 species ) , Hylidae ( 3 ) , Leptodactylidae ( 18 ) and Ranidae ( 2 ) . Reptiles include turtles ( freshwater and marine ) , lizards , worm lizards , snakes and a caiman .
All species of Ranidae and Hylidae occurring in Puerto Rico are introduced . One species from the family Bufonidae , the cane toad , is introduced while the other , the Puerto Rican crested toad , is endemic and critically endangered . The cane toad was introduced to Puerto Rico in the 1920s to control the populations of white @-@ grub ( Phyllophaga spp . ) , a sugar cane pest . All species from the family Leptodactylidae are native to the region . Of the 18 Leptodactylidae species , 17 are from the genus Eleutherodactylus and are commonly known in Puerto Rico as coquís . Three of these , the web @-@ footed coquí , the golden coqui and the mottled coqui , are likely to be extinct . The golden coqui is the only live @-@ bearing species from the family Leptodactylidae and Cook 's robber frog ( E. cooki ) is the only Eleutherodactylus sp. that exhibits sexual dimorphism in both size and color . The common coquí ( Eleutherodactylus coqui ) is an unofficial national symbol of Puerto Rico and an important aspect of Puerto Rican culture . Since 14 of the 17 coquís are endemic to the archipelago , a common phrase used by Puerto Ricans to assert their national pride is " De aquí como el coquí " ( From here Puerto Rico like the coquí ) .
Puerto Rico 's turtle fauna includes both freshwater ( 5 species , including two extinct species ) and marine turtles ( 5 ) . Two of these species , the hawksbill turtle and the leatherback sea turtle , are critically endangered . Threats to these species include habitat destruction and illegal capture of eggs and individuals . The spectacled caiman , an introduced species , is the only representative of the order Crocodilia in Puerto Rico .
The 11 snake species occurring in Puerto Rico are generally considered non @-@ venomous , although research has concluded that at least one species , the Puerto Rican racer ( Alsophis portoricensis ) , secretes venom . These species belong to 3 families and 4 genera : Typhlopidae ( Typhlops genus ) , Boidae ( Epicrates ) and Colubridae ( Alsophis and Arrhyton ) . The largest snake in Puerto Rico is the endemic Puerto Rican boa ( Epicrates inornatus ) with a maximum length of 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . The diet of snakes in Puerto Rico consists of reptiles ( Ameiva , Anolis , geckos ) , coquís and other frogs , and , to a lesser extent , mice , birds and bats ( exclusively by the Puerto Rican Boa ) .
The largest terrestrial lizard of the archipelago of Puerto Rico is the Mona ground iguana ( Cyclura cornuta stejnegeri ) . A subspecies of the rhinoceros iguana ( Cyclura cornuta ) , it is endemic to Mona Island , located in the Mona Passage between the main island of Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic . Another Cyclura species of similar size , the Anegada ground iguana ( Cyclura pinguis ) , once occurred in the archipelago but it became extirpated due to predation by dogs , cats , and humans , habitat destruction , and competition from goats and pigs , and is now restricted to Anegada . The most common lizard in Puerto Rico is the sharp @-@ mouthed lizard ( Anolis pulchellus ) . The Anolis lizards of Puerto Rico , and the Greater Antilles in general , represent an interesting case of adaptive radiation . Anolis lizards in the Greater Antilles are more closely related to other species within the same island than to species of adjacent islands . Surprisingly , even though species divergence occurred independently on each island , the same set of ecomorphs ( habitat specialists ) have evolved on each island .
= = Fish = =
The first fish descriptions from Puerto Rico were compiled by Cuvier and Valenciennes in 1828 . They reported 33 taxa for the archipelago . Puerto Rico has few native freshwater fish species ; however , there are over 30 introduced species , mainly originating from Africa , South America and the southeastern United States , have established populations , and 60 marine species use Puerto Rico 's freshwater bodies intermittently during the year . Introductions have been intentional and accidental . The purposes of intentional introductions have been sport fishing for recreation and food , mosquito control , and to provide baitfish for largemouth bass . Accidental introductions , such as the sailfin armored catfish ( Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus ) , are mainly attributed to the release of aquarium fish . Since 1936 , the Puerto Rican Department of Natural and Environmental Resources runs a hatchery at the municipality of Maricao . About 25 @,@ 000 fish , including largemouth bass , peacock bass , and channel catfish , and some turtle species are raised annually to stock Puerto Rico 's reservoirs and rivers .
Three types of habitats , mangroves , reefs and seagrasses , are found in Puerto Rico 's ocean waters . A total of 677 fish species live in these habitats ; 242 being reef species . Fish species found in Puerto Rican reefs are representative of the general Caribbean fauna . Common reef fishes include wrasses , damselfishes , white grunts ( Haemulon plumieri ) , bluestriped grunts ( Haemulon sciurus ) , queen parrotfish ( Scarus vetula ) , and sharks ( family Carcharhinidae ) . Sea breams ( Archosargus rhomboidalis ) and yellowfin mojarras ( Gerres cinereus ) are some of the species commonly found in mangrove habitats . Other species of interest include flatfishes , with 21 recorded species , and sharks , with more than 20 species . Oceanic whitetip sharks and silky sharks are common in the Mona Passage .
= = Invertebrates = =
The invertebrate fauna of Puerto Rico is high in richness but low in diversity relative to mainland neotropical faunas of similar size and habitat diversity . Puerto Rico , in comparison to other Antillean islands , is the most extensively studied in regards to invertebrates .
Puerto Rico 's insect fauna , similar to the majority of major invertebrate taxa in the archipelago , is considered depauperate when compared to its mainland counterparts . For example , approximately 300 species of butterfly occur in Puerto Rico , in contrast to more than 600 species in Trinidad and more than 1 @,@ 500 species documented from a 7 @.@ 5 km2 region in Brazil . As of 1998 , out of the estimated 925 @,@ 000 described insect species , only 5 @,@ 573 were documented from Puerto Rico . In terms of diversity , of the 31 extant insect orders , 27 have representatives in Puerto Rico . The orders without reported representatives are Microcoryphia , Grylloblattaria , Plecoptera , and Mecoptera . The largest insect depository in Puerto Rico resides at the Museo de Entomología y Biodiversidad Tropical ( Museum of Entomology and Tropical Biodiversity ) , part of the Agricultural Experimental Station of the University of Puerto Rico .
Arachnids are important to the forest ecology , as both predators and prey . In some forest types , such as tabonuco forest , they are the major arboreal invertebrate predators ; spiders being the most abundant representative . The Maricao Commonwealth Forest 's 27 spider species belong to five families : Uloboridae , Pholcidae , Theridiidae , Linyphiidae and Araneidae . Theotima minutissima , a small spider species found in abundance in the Caribbean National Forest , is believed to be parthenogenetic , meaning that it reproduces without fertilization by a male .
Other terrestrial invertebrates described from Puerto Rico include earthworms and cave dwelling animals . Eighteen native species of earthworm have been described , with 11 species belonging to the family Glossoscolecidae , 3 to the family Megascolecidae , and 4 to the family Exxidae . Seventy @-@ eight invertebrate species are known to inhabit Puerto Rico 's caves . Six of these species are restricted to the Antilles , 23 come from North America and 23 are endemic to Puerto Rico . Only two of the species are confirmed as troglobites , or restricted to caves . Forty @-@ five percent of the species are predators while the remaining 55 % are guano scavengers , detritivores and herbivores . It is believed that most of this fauna arrived at Puerto Rico in the Pleistocene .
The marine invertebrate fauna of Puerto Rico is composed of 61 sponges , 171 cnidarians , 8 nemerteans , 1 @,@ 176 mollusks , 129 annelids ( polychaetes ) , 342 crustaceans , 165 echinoderms , 131 bryozoans , 117 hard corals , 99 soft corals and gorgonians , 13 corallimorphs , and 8 hydrocorals . Coral species found in Puerto Rican reefs are representative of the general Caribbean fauna . Commonly occurring corals include boulder star coral ( Montrastaea annularis ) , finger coral ( Porites porites ) , and elkhorn coral ( Acropora palmata ) .
Invertebrate introductions have had an observable effect on Puerto Rican fauna . Native freshwater snails such as Physa cubensis have been adversely affected by introduced species . Currently , the most abundant freshwater snail in Puerto Rico is the Quilted Melania ( Tarebia granifera ) , an introduced species . Another invertebrate introduced to Puerto Rico is the honeybee . This animal competes with the endangered Puerto Rican parrot for secondary nesting cavities at the Caribbean National Forest . Africanized bees , which pose an even greater threat for secondary cavity nesters , have recently extended their range to Puerto Rico . Other introductions include 18 species of ant , one of the most abundant taxa in leaf litter habitats .
= = Human effect and conservation = =
The fauna of Puerto Rico has been subjected to human influence since the arrival of the Ortoiroid , Puerto Rico 's first settlers , approximately 4 @,@ 000 years ago . The native fauna was used by the island 's indigenous population as a source of food , while others were used for skins and trade . Significant declines in the populations and diversity of the islands fauna are believed to have begun after the arrival of European settlers in the sixteenth century . Habitat destruction , primarily as a result of forest clearing for sugar cane plantations , had a devastating effect on Puerto Rican fauna during the latter half of the nineteenth century . Furthermore , human @-@ introduced species such as rats , cats , the small Asian mongoose , and the cane toad have had a profound effect on the native fauna of Puerto Rico . Rats on Monito Island are believed to be a limiting factor on the abundance of the endemic Monito gecko , feral cats on Mona Island have been documented attacking common ground doves and endemic reptiles , and have been associated with the reduction of Mona ground iguana juveniles , and mongooses have been documented preying on Puerto Rican parrot fledgings .
Conservation efforts include both land and species protection . Approximately 8 @.@ 95 km2 ( equal to 3 @.@ 4 % of total land area ) divided among 34 reserves are protected in Puerto Rico . According to the IUCN there are 21 threatened species in Puerto Rico : 2 mammals , 8 breeding birds , 8 reptiles , and 3 amphibians . The U.S. federal government lists 5 mammals , 2 amphibians , 8 birds , and 10 reptiles under the Federal Endangered Species Act . The Puerto Rican government , through the Department of Natural and Environmental Resources ( DNER ) , produces its own threatened species list which includes 18 critically endangered species ( 3 amphibians , 7 birds , 3 reptiles , 2 fish and 3 invertebrates ) , and 14 endangered species . The DNER follows the IUCN classification scheme for species ' priority assignment .
Birds currently receive the greatest attention in regards to conservation . Arguably the most successful fauna recovery plan in Puerto Rico was the Puerto Rican Parrot Recovery Plan . Initiated in 1968 , its main objective was to downlist the Puerto Rican parrot 's status from critical to threatened by 2020 . Other objectives include the establishment of two separate , effective , wild populations ( 500 or more individuals for 5 years ) , the protection of habitat for those populations and the control of predators , parasites and competitors of the species . Currently , the total wild parrot population is estimated at 44 individuals , and 105 birds are in captivity . This program was fundamental in raising ecological awareness in Puerto Rico .
The Puerto Rico Breeding Bird Survey ( PRBBS ) , established in 1997 , is a program with the purpose of monitoring the status and trends of Puerto Rican breeding bird populations . The information gathered by these surveys is used by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) to assess bird conservation priorities . Other conservation programs by the USFWS include the Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands Migratory Bird Conservation and the maintenance of 5 wildlife refuges at Cabo Rojo , Laguna Cartagena , Vieques , Culebra and Desecheo . Other institutions supporting bird conservation in Puerto Rico are the Puerto Rican Ornithological Society and the Puerto Rico National History Association .
Marine conservation has recently garnered support in Puerto Rico . The archipelago has an estimated 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 126 @.@ 5 km ) of coastline and 1 @,@ 300 mi2 ( 3 @,@ 370 km2 ) of coral reef communities . The Department of Natural Resources of Puerto Rico maintains 25 areas with marine components but only two of these ( 11 km2 ) are designated as no @-@ take zones . All turtle species occurring in Puerto Rico 's waters are classified as either endangered or threatened . Earthwatch @-@ supported turtle conservation programs and U.S. federal programs have raised local awareness and have contributed to the decline of egg @-@ poaching and turtle meat consumption .
|
= Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Alabama =
The Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Alabama , USA included $ 127 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage and three injuries . Dennis made landfall on the Florida Panhandle as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale on July 10 , 2005 , before tracking over Alabama as a minimal hurricane . In preparation for the storm , about 500 @,@ 000 people were given evacuation orders , and the Red Cross opened 87 shelters . As a result , all southbound lanes of Interstate 65 from Mobile to Montgomery were closed .
Hurricane Dennis caused modest damage in Alabama , mostly related to moderate wind gusts . Several counties within the state reported downed trees and powerlines , leaving a total of 280 @,@ 000 people without electric power . Downed trees also left numerous county and state roads temporarily impassable . Maximum rainfall peaked at 12 @.@ 80 in ( 325 mm ) near Camden and top wind gusts surpassed 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Despite the damage , there were no fatalities , although three injuries occurred . Also , an unconfirmed tornado tore the roof off a home , forcing emergency workers to evacuate a man inside .
= = Storm history and preparations = =
On June 29 , 2005 , a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa . Gradually , the system organized on July 2 and formed a broad low pressure area . The system continued to organize , and became a tropical depression on July 4 . Tracking westward , it became a tropical storm on July 5 and a hurricane on July 7 . Dennis rapidly intensified to attain Category 4 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale before making landfall on Cuba . The storm weakened to Category 1 status before re @-@ emerging in the Gulf of Mexico and intensifying . Dennis made landfall on the Florida Panhandle on July 10 before tracking over Alabama as a minimal hurricane .
On July 8 , a hurricane watch was put into effect for coastal areas between the Pearl River and the Steinhatchee River . Early on July 9 , the hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning in anticipation of the storm . Early on July 10 prior to Dennis ' landfall , the warning was discontinued for locations between the Steinhatchee River and the Ochlockonee River , leaving Alabama within the advisory . Just hours after the storm moved ashore , the warning was adjusted to include areas from the Alabama / Mississippi border to Destin , Florida . On July 10 , the coastal hurricane warning was downgraded to a tropical storm warning , although inland hurricane warnings remained in place . At 2200 ( UTC ) on July 10 , all tropical cyclone advisories were discontinued as the hurricane progressed inland .
About 500 @,@ 000 people were given evacuation orders in the state , mostly in coastal areas . Residents in Mobile County , and those south of I @-@ 10 in Baldwin County , were ordered to evacuate . Similar orders were issued in Mississippi for parts of Jackson , Hancock , and Harrison counties , and for coastal areas in the Florida Panhandle stretching from Escambia County to Bay County .
At 2300 ( UTC ) on July 9 , 2005 , all southbound lanes on Interstate 65 from Mobile to Montgomery were closed . Traffic was redirected , making all four lanes northbound to allow evacuations . Likewise , military installations such as NAS Pensacola , Whiting Field , Eglin AFB , Hurlburt Field and Tyndall AFB were all evacuated days before the storm . Red Cross officials opened 87 shelters across the state which were able to hold about 14 @,@ 000 evacuees .
= = Impact = =
As Hurricane Dennis moved through the state , sustained winds reached minimal hurricane force in the interior of the state . In total , 280 @,@ 000 people in Alabama experienced power outages during the storm . No deaths occurred , although Dennis caused three injuries and total damage amounted to $ 127 million ( 2005 USD ) , mostly due to structural damage . There was also severe damage to cotton crops .
Rainfall typically ranged from 2 – 4 inches ( 50 – 100 mm ) , although rainfall in localized areas reached 12 @.@ 80 in ( 325 mm ) . This caused numerous rivers to overflow causing widespread , locally major , flash flooding . The rainfall flooded numerous state and county roads , some with water up to 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep . Parts of Interstate 20 were overwashed with water , temporarily closing the highway . In Dallas County , a mudslide closed a section of State Highway 5 . In Greene County , the minor flooding was reported along the Tombigbee River . Throughout the region , numerous bridges were washed away several homes were flooded , sustaining major damage in some cases .
Storm surge generally ranged from 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) – 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) , with the highest surge reported in Mobile Bay as winds became onshore during Dennis ' landfall .
A wind gust of 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) was reported at Dothan , with minimum barometric pressure reaching 999 @.@ 2 mb . It is reported that the worst damage occurred in Escambia and Monroe counties . In the Escambia County city of Atmore , 100 percent of the city 's residents lost electric power for some a period of time during the hurricane . The strongest winds occurred in Escambia County , where gusts surpassed 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , leaving numerous structures damaged or destroyed as Dennis tracked through the western half of the county . One man in the county was injured by a fallen tree branch . Also , an unconfirmed tornado tore the roof off a home , forcing emergency workers to evacuate a man inside . In Coffee County , local officials reported wind gusts had blown a carport into a wall of a house . Marengo County received moderate damage , mostly limited to power outages and minor roof and structural damage caused by fallen trees and powerlines . Many customers were without electric power for at least a day , and numerous county roads were covered with debris . A person was injured in Dallas County when a tree landed on their car . Five homes and one business were damaged due to high winds , and thousands of people county @-@ wide experienced power outages . Greene County reported hundreds of downed trees and powerlines causing County Roads 148 and 20 and State Highways 11 , 43 and 14 to be temporarily closed . In Forkland , a mobile home caught fire when a powerline fell on the home . A motorist ran into a fallen tree in Boligee although did not sustain injuries . In Perry County , 2 @,@ 200 homes were without electric power for several hours , and several vehicles and homes were damaged . A structural fire occurred in Russell County and was believed to be ignited by downed powerlines .
Wind gusts in Autauga County surpassed 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) , causing $ 180 @,@ 000 dollars ( 2005 USD ) in damage . The Robinson Springs United Methodist Church had part of its roof torn off in Elmore County , while numerous other homes sustained roof damage . One person was injured in Montgomery County when a tree fell on their vehicle . Another person was injured in Clay County when he ran his vehicle into a downed tree . A structural fire occurred in Randolph County as a result of fallen powerlines .
= = Aftermath = =
On July 10 , just hours after Hurricane Dennis made landfall in the Florida Panhandle , President George W. Bush ordered the federal government to provide necessary disaster resources and assets for the state to aid people who were affected by the storm . Also , 45 counties in the state were eligible for federal funds to pay 75 percent of the approved costs for debris removal and emergency protective services related to the hurricane , including requested emergency work undertaken by the federal government . On July 11 , Escambia County joined Baldwin and Mobile counties to be eligible to receive individual assistance funds .
Shortly after , on July 13 , two Disaster Recovery Centers opened to provide information to those who have suffered damage . The next day , state and federal community relations teams were deployed into Alabama ’ s disaster @-@ declared counties , to assist residents who suffered from Dennis . The Alabama Emergency Management Agency ( AEMA ) and the Department of Homeland Security ’ s Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) had 20 federal community relations specialists and their state counterparts working in the disaster areas . Subsequently , three more Disaster Recovery Centers became scheduled to open on July 16 . On July 25 , four Disaster Recovery Centers in Alabama were scheduled to close . By August 19 , over $ 4 million ( 2005 USD ) in individual assistance funds were received .
|
= USS Chew ( DD @-@ 106 ) =
USS Chew ( DD @-@ 106 ) was a Wickes @-@ class destroyer in the United States Navy during World War I and World War II . She was named in honor of Samuel Chew .
From 1918 to 1922 , Chew operated along the East Coast of the United States on patrol and training duties , including escorting a transatlantic voyage of Curtiss NC seaplanes . In 1940 , she was recommissioned and operated out of Pearl Harbor . During the 7 December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor , she brought her guns to bear against aircraft of the Empire of Japan , and two of her men were killed helping to man the Pennsylvania . For the remainder of the war , Chew operated out of the port on escort and patrol duties , until she was decommissioned in 1945 .
= = Design and construction = =
Chew was one of 111 Wickes @-@ class destroyers built by the United States Navy between 1917 and 1919 . She , along with seven of her sisters , were constructed at Union Iron Works shipyards in San Francisco , California using specifications and detail designs drawn up by Bethlehem Steel .
She had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 060 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 040 long tons ; 1 @,@ 170 short tons ) an overall length of 314 feet 5 inches ( 95 @.@ 83 m ) , a beam of 31 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 68 m ) and a draught of 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) . On trials , Harding reached a speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . She was armed with four 4 " / 50 caliber guns and twelve 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . She had a regular crew complement of 113 officers and enlisted men . She was driven by two Curtis steam turbines powered by four Yarrow boilers .
Specifics on Chew 's performance are not known , but she was one of the group of Wickes @-@ class destroyers designed by Bethlehem Steel , built from a different design than the ' Liberty type ' destroyers constructed from detail designs drawn up by Bath Iron Works , which used Parsons or Westinghouse turbines . The non- ' Liberty ' type destroyers deteriorated badly in service , and in 1929 all 60 of this group were retired by the Navy . Actual performance of these ships was far below intended specifications especially in fuel economy , with most only able to make 2 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 600 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) instead of the design standard of 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The class also suffered problems with turning and weight .
Chew was the first and only ship commissioned in the U.S. Navy named for Samuel Chew , who had been a Continental Navy officer killed in the Revolutionary War .
= = Service history = =
Chew was launched on 26 May 1918 out of San Francisco , sponsored by F. X. Gygax . She was commissioned on 12 December 1918 under the command of Commander J. H. Klein Jr .
She sailed for the East Coast of the United States on 21 December 1918 , and arrived in port at Newport , Rhode Island on 10 January 1919 . After brief repairs at port in New York City , New York and refresher training at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base , she cleared New York on 28 April and embarked as an escort during the first transatlantic seaplane flight , made by Curtiss NC @-@ 4 aircraft . Following this duty , she visited to the Azores , Gibraltar , Malta , and Constantinople before returning to New York on 5 June . After repairs , she steamed for San Diego , California , leaving New York on 17 September and arriving in San Diego on 12 October . Beginning on 19 November 1919 , she was placed in reduced commission , operating only infrequently with Naval reservists of Reserve Division 10 until she was placed out of commission on 1 June 1922 .
At a part of the mobilization effort preceding the U.S. entry into World War II , Chew was recommissioned on 14 October 1940 , assigned to Defense Force , 14th Naval District . She arrived at Pearl Harbor on 17 December 1940 which she made her home port . She spent the next year conducting patrols and had training duty from Pearl Harbor . She was assigned to Destroyer Division 80 , with sister ships Allen , Ward , and Schley .
On the morning of 7 December 1941 , Chew was moored in Berth X @-@ 5 , alongside Allen and the decommissioned Baltimore , which was being used for storage . At the outbreak of the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan that morning , Chew brought one of her 3 " / 23 caliber guns online and began firing at 08 : 03 , under the command of her executive officer . At 08 : 11 , two of her .50 caliber machine guns were also brought online and began firing . The 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) gun scored one Japanese aircraft shot down and two damaged , and the machine guns observed no hits . Chew maintained continuous fire from these weapons until 09 : 34 , when the last of the Japanese aircraft departed . She then got underway and began patrolling for Japanese submarine activity , just southwest of the port entrance buoy . She pinged eight possible contacts and dropped 28 depth charges , which her commander , H. R. Hummer , Jr . , reported two Japanese submarines destroyed . Subsequent evidence does not suggest Chew struck any Japanese submarines . In the chaos of the attack , a number of Chew crew members also disembarked and came aboard nearby Pennsylvania , which was in drydock , to assist in manning guns , forming ammunition trains , and fighting fires . Aboard Pennsylvania , two Chew crewman were killed in defending the ship , Seaman Second Class Matthew J. Agola and Fireman Third Class Clarence A. Wise .
From 1941 through the end of World War II , Chew operated out of Pearl Harbor on patrol . She took on periodic escort duties among the Hawaiian Islands and on training duty for submarines . She made occasional trips to San Francisco and Seattle escorting convoys and screening for other Navy ships , inter @-@ island escort , and submarine training duty . Following the end of the war , she departed Pearl Harbor on 21 August 1945 and arrived at Philadelphia 13 September . She was decommissioned there on 10 October 1945 , and sold for scrap on 4 October 1946 . Chew received one battle star for World War II service .
|
= Roentgenium =
Roentgenium is a chemical element with symbol Rg and atomic number 111 . It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element ( an element that can be created in a laboratory but is not found in nature ) ; the most stable known isotope , roentgenium @-@ 282 , has a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 1 minutes . Roentgenium was first created in 1994 by the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research near Darmstadt , Germany . It is named after the physicist Wilhelm Röntgen ( also spelled Roentgen ) .
In the periodic table , it is a d @-@ block transactinide element . It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the group 11 elements , although no chemical experiments have been carried out to confirm that it behaves as the heavier homologue to gold in group 11 . Roentgenium is calculated to have similar properties to its lighter homologues , copper , silver , and gold , although it may show some differences from them .
= = History = =
= = = Official discovery = = =
Roentgenium was first synthesized by an international team led by Sigurd Hofmann at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung ( GSI ) in Darmstadt , Germany , on December 8 , 1994 . The team bombarded a target of bismuth @-@ 209 with accelerated nuclei of nickel @-@ 64 and detected a single atom of the isotope roentgenium @-@ 272 :
209
83Bi + 64
28Ni → 272
111Rg + 1
0n
This reaction had previously been conducted at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna ( then in the Soviet Union ) in 1986 , but no atoms of 272Rg had then been observed . In 2001 , the IUPAC / IUPAP Joint Working Party ( JWP ) concluded that there was insufficient evidence for the discovery at that time . The GSI team repeated their experiment in 2002 and detected three more atoms . In their 2003 report , the JWP decided that the GSI team should be acknowledged for the discovery of this element .
= = = Naming = = =
Using Mendeleev 's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements , roentgenium should be known as eka @-@ gold . In 1979 , IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called unununium ( with the corresponding symbol of Uuu ) , a systematic element name as a placeholder , until the element was discovered ( and the discovery then confirmed ) and a permanent name was decided on . Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels , from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks , the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field , who either called it " element 111 " , with the symbol of ( 111 ) or even simply 111 .
The name roentgenium ( Rg ) was suggested by the GSI team in 2004 , to honor the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen , the discoverer of X @-@ rays . This name was accepted by IUPAC on November 1 , 2004 .
= = Isotopes = =
Roentgenium has no stable or naturally @-@ occurring isotopes . Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory , either by fusion of the nuclei of lighter elements or as intermediate decay products of heavier elements . Seven different isotopes of roentgenium have been reported with atomic masses 272 , 274 , and 278 – 282 , two of which , roentgenium @-@ 272 and roentgenium @-@ 274 , have known but unconfirmed metastable states . All of these decay through alpha decay or spontaneous fission .
= = = Stability and half @-@ lives = = =
All roentgenium isotopes are extremely unstable and radioactive ; in general , the heavier isotopes are more stable than the lighter . The most stable known roentgenium isotope , 282Rg , is also the heaviest known roentgenium isotope ; it has a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 1 minutes . The isotopes 280Rg and 281Rg have also been reported to also have half @-@ lives over a second . The remaining isotopes have half @-@ lives on the millisecond range . The undiscovered isotope 287Rg has been predicted to be the most stable towards beta decay ; however , no known roentgenium isotope has been observed to undergo beta decay . The unknown isotopes 277Rg and 283Rg are also expected to have long half @-@ lives of 1 second and 10 minutes respectively . Before their discovery , the isotopes 278Rg , 281Rg , and 282Rg were predicted to have long half @-@ lives of 1 second , 1 minute , and 4 minutes respectively ; however , they were discovered to have shorter half @-@ lives of 4 @.@ 2 milliseconds , 17 seconds , and 2 @.@ 1 minutes respectively .
= = Predicted properties = =
= = = Chemical = = =
Roentgenium is the ninth member of the 6d series of transition metals . Since copernicium ( element 112 ) has been shown to be a transition metal , it is expected that all the elements from 104 to 112 would form a fourth transition metal series . Calculations on its ionization potentials and atomic and ionic radii are similar to that of its lighter homologue gold , thus implying that roentgenium 's basic properties will resemble those of the other group 11 elements , copper , silver , and gold ; however , it is also predicted to show several differences from its lighter homologues .
Roentgenium is predicted to be a noble metal . Based on the most stable oxidation states of the lighter group 11 elements , roentgenium is predicted to show stable + 5 , + 3 , and − 1 oxidation states , with a less stable + 1 state . The + 3 state is predicted to be the most stable . Roentgenium ( III ) is expected to be of comparable reactivity to gold ( III ) , but should be more stable and form a larger variety of compounds . Gold also forms a somewhat stable − 1 state due to relativistic effects , and roentgenium may do so as well : the electron affinity of roentgenium is expected to be around 1 @.@ 6 eV ( 37 kcal / mol ) , significantly lower than gold 's value of 2 @.@ 3 eV ( 53 kcal / mol ) , so roentgenides may not be stable or even possible . The 6d orbitals are destabilized by relativistic effects and spin – orbit interactions near the end of the fourth transition metal series , thus making higher oxidation states like roentgenium ( V ) and copernicium ( IV ) more stable than their lighter homologues gold ( V ) and mercury ( IV ) ( each of which are known only in one compound ) as the 6d electrons participate in bonding to a greater extent . The spin @-@ orbit interactions stabilize molecular roentgenium compounds with more bonding 6d electrons ; for example , RgF −
6 is expected to be more stable than RgF −
4 , which is expected to be more stable than RgF −
2 . Roentgenium ( I ) is expected to be difficult to obtain .
The probable chemistry of roentgenium has received more interest than that of the two previous elements , meitnerium and darmstadtium , as the valence s @-@ subshells of the group 11 elements are expected to be relativistically contracted most strongly at roentgenium . Calculations on the molecular compound RgH show that relativistic effects double the strength of the roentgenium – hydrogen bond , even though spin – orbit interactions also weaken it by 0 @.@ 7 eV ( 16 kcal / mol ) . The compounds AuX and RgX , where X = F , Cl , Br , O , Au , or Rg , were also studied . Rg + is predicted to be the softest metal ion , even softer than Au + , although there is disagreement on whether it would behave as an acid or a base . In aqueous solution , Rg + would form the aqua ion [ Rg ( H2O ) 2 ] + , with an Rg – O bond distance of 207 @.@ 1 pm . It is also expected to form Rg ( I ) complexes with ammonia , phosphine , and hydrogen sulfide .
= = = Physical and atomic = = =
Roentgenium is expected to be a solid under normal conditions and to crystallize in the body @-@ centered cubic structure , unlike its lighter congeners which crystallize in the face @-@ centered cubic structure , due to its being expected to have different electron charge densities from them . It should be a very heavy metal with a density of around 28 @.@ 7 g / cm3 ; in comparison , the densest known element that has had its density measured , osmium , has a density of only 22 @.@ 61 g / cm3 . This results from roentgenium 's high atomic weight , the lanthanide and actinide contractions , and relativistic effects , although production of enough roentgenium to measure this quantity would be impractical , and the sample would quickly decay .
The stable group 11 elements , copper , silver , and gold , all have an outer electron configuration nd10 ( n + 1 ) s1 . For each of these elements , the first excited state of their atoms has a configuration nd9 ( n + 1 ) s2 . Due to spin @-@ orbit coupling between the d electrons , this state is split into a pair of energy levels . For copper , the difference in energy between the ground state and lowest excited state causes the metal to appear reddish . For silver , the energy gap widens and it becomes silvery . However , as the atomic number increases , the excited levels are stabilized by relativistic effects and in gold the energy gap decreases again and it appears gold . For roentgenium , calculations indicate that the 6d97s2 level is stabilized to such an extent that it becomes the ground state and the 6d107s1 level becomes the first excited state . The resulting energy difference between the new ground state and the first excited state is similar to that of silver and roentgenium is expected to be silvery in appearance . The atomic radius of roentgenium is expected to be around 138 pm .
= = Experimental chemistry = =
Unambiguous determination of the chemical characteristics of roentgenium has yet to have been established due to the low yields of reactions that produce roentgenium isotopes . For chemical studies to be carried out on a transactinide , at least four atoms must be produced , the half @-@ life of the isotope used must be at least 1 second , and the rate of production must be at least one atom per week . Even though the half @-@ life of 281Rg , the most stable known roentgenium isotope , is 26 seconds , long enough to perform chemical studies , another obstacle is the need to increase the rate of production of roentgenium isotopes and allow experiments to carry on for weeks or months so that statistically significant results can be obtained . Separation and detection must be carried out continuously to separate out the roentgenium isotopes and automated systems can then experiment on the gas @-@ phase and solution chemistry of roentgenium as the yields for heavier elements are predicted to be smaller than those for lighter elements . However , the experimental chemistry of roentgenium has not received as much attention as that of the heavier elements from copernicium to livermorium , despite early interest in theoretical predictions due to the maximizing of relativistic effects on the ns subshell in group 11 occurring at roentgenium .
|
= Impossible Princess =
Impossible Princess ( retitled Kylie Minogue in the UK and Europe ) is the sixth studio album by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue , released on 22 October 1997 . Because the A & R department of her label , Deconstruction Records , were not present throughout the majority of the album 's production process , song writing and production were primarily handled by Minogue , in collaboration with producers Dave Ball , Ingo Vauk , Brothers in Rhythm , Manic Street Preachers and Rob Dougan .
Minogue started work on the album in October 1995 when she returned from her trips with French photographer and her then @-@ boyfriend Stéphane Sednaoui . A release with a mixture of different musical genres and styles , the album features several songs employing themes of self @-@ reflection , relationships and insecurities . The album cover was photographed by Sednaoui and the album title was derived from the book Poems to Break the Harts of Impossible Princesses ( 1994 ) by Billy Childish and from a lyric in the song " Dreams " . The tracks " Some Kind of Bliss " , " Did It Again " , " Breathe " and " Cowboy Style " served as the album 's official singles , while the other songs from the album served as promotional singles in Australia and New Zealand .
Impossible Princess received positive reviews from most critics . Australian and American critics viewed the album positively for its production and experimentation , while the British press criticized Minogue 's indie image and music change from her earlier work . Peaking at number four and ten in Australia and the United Kingdom respectively , it was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . Minogue promoted the album on her Intimate and Live tour , which was positively received critically and commercially .
= = Background and development = =
Minogue left her label PWL in 1992 due to creative differences , and signed a three album deal with Deconstruction Records the following year . Her self @-@ titled album was released through Deconstruction in September 1994 , where it peaked at number three in Australia and number four in the United Kingdom . The following year , she recorded the song " Where the Wild Roses Grow " , a duet with Australian rock musician Nick Cave . Cave was interested in working with Minogue since hearing her 1990 single " Better the Devil You Know " , saying it contained " one of pop music 's most violent and distressing lyrics " .
In 1995 , Minogue began a relationship with French photographer Stéphane Sednaoui and embarked a series of trips to North America and South East Asia . Minogue was encouraged by Sednaoui to write songs for the album ; she had written lyrics before , but described them as " safe , just neatly rhymed words " . Each morning , Minogue would present lyrics to producer Dave Seaman from the night before . Impossible Princess took nearly two years to record , the longest period of time Minogue had worked on a project since her time acting on the Australian soap opera Neighbours ( from 1986 to 1988 ) . Minogue 's creative director Steve Anderson later explained that its lengthy time was " due to the pure perfectionism of all creatively involved " .
Minogue started recording rough demos in October 1995 with Brothers in Rhythm in Chippenham , where they completed the unreleased track " You 're the One " . Impossible Princess is Minogue 's first album to incorporate live instrumentation ; she had commented " I was joking with James Dean Brafield ' Oh my god , every instrument is a real instrument , I don 't think I 've ever had this before ! ' " Minogue felt it was unusual because she was familiar with the use of synthesizers . Minogue attended all music sessions from start to finish , and often turned up late and asked several questions because she wanted more information on how to produce , compose and " change and distort " songs .
= = Composition = =
Impossible Princess combines several musical genres including trip hop , techno , Britpop , pop music , indie rock and dance music . Orkus writer Marcel Anders felt though the album includes guitar @-@ driven tracks , " Most tracks are still very dancefloor oriented " . Music critic Michael R. Smith from the DailyVault.com noted the techno elements , while a reviewer from Classic Pop Magazine found influences of 1990s Britpop . Digital Spy critic Nick Levine said the album was " all over the dance @-@ pop shop " . Sednaoui introduced her to the work of Icelandic musician Björk , American – Scottish band Garbage , Japanese producer Towa Tei and Irish band U2 , all whom influenced the work from Impossible Princess . Minogue cited The Verve , The Prodigy , The Chemical Brothers , The Eels and the " British music scene " as influences to the album .
" Too Far " , Impossible Princess ' opening track and lead promotional single , is a drum and bass track that was noted as one of " the toughest club cuts in Kylie 's career " by Levine . Minogue wrote the track at a local cafe and sings about stress and anger . The second track and fourth single , " Cowboy Style " , is a tribal – Celtic pop song that mixes both live instrumentation and electronic synths , and talks about the first time she met Sednaoui . " Some Kind of Bliss " , the album 's lead single , is her first track to work strictly with live instrumentation , focusing on instruments such as bass guitar , string arrangements and drums . Her most indie track , the lyrics focus on being happy while away from family and friends . The fourth track and second single , " Did It Again " , also focuses on live instrumentation with elements of dance music , and discusses her self @-@ consciousness and self @-@ hatred . Both " Breathe " , the album 's third single , and " Say Hey " are electronic tracks that have been compared to the music of Icelandic recording artist Björk . " Breathe " deals with calmness , while " Say Hey " talks about verbal communication with Sednaoui .
The seventh track , " Drunk " , is a Techno song which Minogue sings about desiring Sednaoui 's attention and wanting him to be satisfied . " I Don 't Need Anyone " has been recognized as the album 's most straightforward Motown – indie rock song . Minogue stated that the lyrical narrative was " difficult " to explain . The ninth track , " Jump " , is a slow trip @-@ hop song that has Minogue singing about self @-@ acceptance and the future . " Limbo " is a dance song that deals with being trapped and not visiting anyone . The eleventh track , " Through the Years " , was compared to the work of Björk once again , and deals with past relationships and affairs . The twelfth and final track on the album is " Dreams " , a track about pushing boundaries over an orchestral and string arrangement .
= = Release and packaging = =
Deconstruction aimed to release the album in January 1997 , but the release was postponed until May 1997 . Deconstruction then decided to release the album in September 1997 , but the release was postponed once again . Because of constant delays , Deconstruction , BMG and Mushroom released selected album tracks on various formats throughout Australia , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . BMG released Impossible Princess on 22 October 1997 in Japan and Taiwan , followed by a 12 January 1998 release in Australia through Mushroom and 23 March 1998 in the UK . On 26 May 2003 , Deconstruction and Mushroom re @-@ released the album with a new disc with bonus tracks and remixes . Minogue told Billboard that she and Deconstruction had plans to release the album in North America , but dismissed these plans after they failed to find an American label to promote it .
The album cover , photographed by Sednaoui , is a frontal @-@ view shot of Minogue , sitting down inside of a multi @-@ coloured cut cone . The shoot was inspired by Japanese and French pop culture , and Sednaoui identified Japanese photographer Nobuyoshi Araki as an inspiration . For the limited 3D cover , it required multiple static cameras to shoot Minogue and she grew tired of posing for long periods of time . Minogue was dressed in a blue Véronique Leroy mini dress . Minogue recalled " The shoot was so very difficult but we knew that once we got it right it would be amazing . " The album title references Poems to Break the Harts of Impossible Princesses ( 1994 ) by Billy Childish . A copy of the book was given to Minogue as a gift by Cave ; she said its poems summarized where she was at that time in her life . Minogue recalled " The first time I saw the name Impossible Princess , It had me written all over it . " Due to the death of Diana , Princess of Wales in August 1997 , the album title was changed to Kylie Minogue for the UK and the rest of Europe .
= = Promotion = =
Minogue embarked a promotional tour in the Oceanic region in October 1997 . Minogue performed in Singapore and then followed with Australian state capitals Melbourne , Brisbane , Sydney and Adelaide . Next was Auckland and she finished off in Hong Kong . After the album 's European release , Minogue went on to promote the album with concert gigs in Norway , Denmark and the Netherlands . Minogue embarked Intimate and Live , an Australian and European tour , which spanned from 2 June 1998 to 8 July 1998 . Minogue started rehearsing for the tour after performing at the 1998 Sydney Mardi Gras in January . Unlike her previous tours , Intimate and Live 's production was handled with a low budget .
Minogue and Baker sketched plans and stage props for the tour . The " K " symbol and the multi @-@ coloured cone from the album 's photoshoot had been featured as props for the tour . The show was accompanied by only two dancers ( David Scotchford and Ashley Wallen ) and a backing group – mainly John Farnham 's band members – with added backing vocalists . Despite initial plans not to take the show outside of Australia , Minogue decided to extend it into Europe due to high demand . From the supporting album , Minogue performed " Too Far " , " Some Kind of Bliss " , " Breathe " , " Cowboy Style " , " Say Hey " , " Drunk " , " Did It Again " , and " Limbo " . The live album was released on 30 November 1998 in Australia and the DVD was released in July 2002 .
= = Critical reception = =
Impossible Princess received positive reviews from most music critics . Billboard 's Larry Flick described the album as " stunning " , concluding that " it 's a golden commercial opportunity for a major record company with vision and energy to release it in the United States ... " Herald Sun writer C. Adams said " Impossible Princess is her best yet , the classey , personal pop album she has always threatened . " Chris True of Allmusic called it " a pretty damn good record " and opined , " Unlike Minogue 's early work , this album sounds stronger and has a more natural feel . Her songwriting abilities have come a long way , and Impossible Princess actually flows together as an album . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine was impressed with the album 's " starkly personal and unified cord " , saying Impossible Princess " is the work of an artist willing to take risks , not a pop queen concerned with preserving her reign . "
While reviewing her tenth album X ( November 2007 ) , Evan Sawdey from PopMatters commented " For those who still have a copy of her Manic Street Preachers @-@ assisted Impossible Princess , then you have one of the most crazed , damn @-@ near perfect dance @-@ pop albums ever created . " Michael R. Smith from The Daily Vault called it her " biggest step forward " . Ben Willmott of NME criticized Impossible Princess ' musical direction , branding Minogue a " total fraud " for introducing several different genres . Specifically , he lambasted her collaborations with Bradfield . A reviewer from the publication Music Week was less than impressed , writing that " Kylie 's vocals take on a stroppy edge ... but not strong enough to do much " . A reviewer from Samesame.com.au said " Impossible Princess remains Kylie watershed moment creatively ... The resulting LP remains Kylie at her most pure . "
The album was nominated for Album of the Year at the 1998 ARIA Music Awards , her first nomination in that category , but lost to Unit by Regurgitator respectively . Sarah Smith from FasterLouder rated the album at number five on their The Most Underrated Albums of All Time , saying " Why Madonna 's Ray Of Light was acclaimed for pushing these boundaries at the very same moment Impossible Princess was maligned for it , is confusing , but perhaps best explained by the music media 's ongoing narrative of these two singers : Madonna is meant to challenge , Kylie , to smile , pout and spin round . " Slant Magazine included the album on their Vital Pop : 50 Essential Pop Albums list in June 2003 .
= = Commercial performance = =
The album debuted and peaked at number four on the ARIA Albums Chart and number one on the Australian Music Report chart in January 1998 . It became the highest debuting album on the top 50 chart for the week . It dropped to eight , unable to reach a higher position and descended out of the chart on the week end 26 April 1998 after fourteen weeks . It stayed in for thirty @-@ five weeks , Minogue 's longest @-@ charting album at that point . It became the thirty @-@ first best @-@ selling album of 1998 and was certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies .
In the UK , it entered the UK Albums Chart at number ten on 4 April 1998 . Despite being higher than her previous album Let 's Get To It , which reached number fifteen , it descended its way out and stayed in the chart for four weeks . Impossible Princess is Minogue 's worst selling studio album in the UK . Publications in the United Kingdom pointed out that the lack of devoted promotion with a tour was possible cause of low sales , along with Minogue 's image change . After a year of its release , UK Virgin Radio mocked the sales of the album along with Minogue 's concepts , stating : " We 've done something to improve Kylie 's records : we 've banned them . "
= = Impact = =
Impossible Princess is considered to be an example of Minogue 's constant " reinventions " and is recognized as her most personal and experimental album to date . Critics feel Impossible Princess is Minogue 's biggest leap forwards in terms of lyrics , vocals and music , with True commenting " She recruits Manic Street Preachers ' James Dean Bradfield , Sean Moore , and Nicky Wire , starts writing unaided , and completely changes musical direction . Enter Kylie Minogue 's Impossible Princess . From the trippy cover art to the abundance of guitars and experimental vocal tracks , this was her " great leap forward . " UK editor Tom Parker , who wrote the liner notes for the re @-@ released edition , labelled it her " greatest triumph " . Alan McGee from The Observer labelled her " Self @-@ realized Kylie " , but commented " Impossible Princess bombed . She was written off again " . Michael Paoletta from Billboard said that it is her most misunderstood album in her career .
Impossible Princess received huge backlash and mockery for her " Indie Kylie " image and low sales . It was viewed as an inferior attempt of Ray of Light by American singer Madonna , despite Madonna 's album being released months later . In retrospect , Tim Jonze from The Guardian felt her pop and disco @-@ influenced album Light Years ( 2000 ) saved her career from Impossible Princess ' backlash .
Minogue said that while Impossible Princess was strong , " I 've gotten stronger and more focused since that album " . As a result of the low success , Minogue left Deconstruction and BMG . Minogue told NME in 2008 that if she ever wrote another album solely by her " it 'd be seen as ' Impossible Princess 2 ' " . She did admit that she does not intend to do this because she may fear it " it would be equally critiqued . " In October 2012 , Minogue revealed that her most disappointing career moment was in fact the low sales of the album by commenting " look at Impossible Princess - it didn 't exactly sell truckloads of album ! " Minogue confirmed that she would never release an " Impossible Princess 2 " in the future .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Impossible Princess . All lyrics by Kylie Minogue except " I Don 't Need Anyone " ( Kylie Minogue / Nick Jones )
= = Release formats = =
CD — containing the 12 @-@ track album .
CD Japanese Edition — 13 @-@ track album including the bonus track " Tears " .
CD Limited Edition — 12 @-@ track album including lenticular cover art .
CD Promo — 12 @-@ track album released exclusively in the United Kingdom .
UK Cassette Promo — 6 @-@ track cassette released exclusively in the United Kingdom . Contains the songs " Cowboy Style " , " Through the Years " , " Breathe " , " Jump " , " Drunk " and " I Don 't Need Anyone " .
CD Australian / New Zealand Sampler — 6 @-@ track CD released exclusively in Australia and New Zealand .
Cassette — containing the 12 @-@ tracks .
2003 Re @-@ issue — containing original 12 @-@ track album and bonus disc with 12 previously unreleased songs / mixes .
Other releases
Other Sides ( 1998 ; an extended play , featuring three unreleased Impossible Princess tracks , that was accompanied with the purchase of Impossible Princess at Australian HMV stores . )
Live and Other Sides ( 1998 ; an extended play , featuring three unreleased Impossible Princess tracks and three live tracks , that was accompanied with the purchase of Impossible Princess at Australian HMV stores . This copy was later removed and re @-@ shelved with Other Sides )
Mixes ( 1998 ; a remix album that included remixes of the Impossible Princess singles . )
Impossible Remixes ( 1998 ; a remix album that included remixes of the Impossible Princess singles . )
Confide in Me ( 2002 ; a compilation album that featured the Impossible Princess singles and other album tracks . )
Kylie Minogue : Artist Collection ( 2004 ; a compilation album that featured the Impossible Princess singles and other album tracks . )
Confide in Me : The Irresistible Kylie ( 2007 ; a compilation album that featured the Impossible Princess singles and other album tracks . )
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Impossible Princess adapted from liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
|
= Pushkar Lake =
Pushkar Lake or Pushkar Sarovar ( Sanskrit : पुष ् कर @-@ सरोवर ) is located in the town of Pushkar in Ajmer district of the Rajasthan state of western India . Pushkar Lake is a sacred lake of the Hindus . The Hindu scriptures describe it as " Tirtha @-@ Raj " – the king of pilgrimage sites related to a water @-@ body and relate it to the mythology of the creator @-@ god Brahma , whose most prominent temple stands in Pushkar . The Pushkar Lake finds mention on coins as early as the 4th century BC .
Pushkar Lake is surrounded by 52 bathing ghats ( a series of steps leading to the lake ) , where pilgrims throng in large numbers to take a sacred bath , especially around Kartik Poornima ( October – November ) when the Pushkar Fair is held . A dip in the sacred lake is believed to cleanse sins and cure skin diseases . Over 500 Hindu temples are situated around the lake precincts .
Tourism and deforestation in the surroundings have taken a heavy toll on the lake , adversely affecting its water quality , reducing the water levels and destroying the fish population . As part of conservation measures , the government is undertaking de @-@ silting , de @-@ weeding , water treatment , and afforestation as well as mass awareness programme .
= = Geography = =
Pushkar Lake around which the Pushkar town has developed is in the Ajmer district in the state of Rajasthan , India amidst the Aravalli range of hills . The mountain range known as Nag Parbat ( " snake mountain " ) separates the lake from the city of Ajmer . The valley is formed between the two parallel ranges of the Aravalli hills ( in elevation range of 650 – 856 metres ( 2 @,@ 133 – 2 @,@ 808 ft ) running south @-@ west to north @-@ east . Situated at 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) northwest from Ajmer , the artificial Pushkar Lake created by building a dam is surrounded by deserts and hills on all three sides . The lake is categorized as a " Sacred Lake " under the list of " Classification of Lakes in India " .
The soil and topography in the catchment are predominantly sandy with very low water retention capacity . The land use pattern in the Pushkar valley that drains into the lake comprises 30 % of the area under shifting sand dunes , 30 % under hills ( degraded and barren ) and streams and 40 % of the area is agricultural .
= = = Climate = = =
The region experiences semi @-@ arid climatic conditions with dry and hot summers and cool winters . The summer months of May and June are the hottest , with a maximum temperature of around 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) . During the winter months , the maximum mean temperature is in the range of 25 – 10 ° C ( 77 – 50 ° F ) . Rain mainly occurs during a short spell of two months during July and August . The recorded average rainfall is in the range of 400 – 600 millimetres ( 16 – 24 in ) . Rainfall is also recorded some times during winter months of January and February .
From April to September , strong winds blowing in the southwest to northeast direction add to the formation of sand dunes .
= = = Hydrology = = =
The Pushkar Lake drains a catchment of the Aravalli hills covering an area of 22 square kilometres ( 8 @.@ 5 sq mi ) . The lake has a water surface area of 22 hectares ( 54 acres ) . It is a perennial lake sourced by the monsoon rainfall over the catchment . The depth of water in the lake varies from season to season from 8 – 10 metres ( 26 – 33 ft ) . The total storage capacity of the lake is 0 @.@ 79 million cubic metres ( 1 @.@ 03 million cu yd ) . As the lake periphery is encircled by 52 ghats of various sizes , the surface water flow from the catchment into the lake is channelled through a series of arches under a foot bridge , 110 metres ( 360 ft ) long at the southern end . The foot bridge facilitates the parikrama ( circumambulation ) that is performed by pilgrims around the lake covering all the 52 ghats ( covers an area of 2 hectares ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) ) .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Pushkar Lake , when full , is rich in fish and other aquatic life . The depth of the lake has substantially shrunk – to less than 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) from a maximum of 9 metres ( 30 ft ) – resulting in the death of large fish weighing 5 – 20 kilograms ( 11 – 44 lb ) , caused due to the viscous water and the lack of oxygen for the fish to survive . Since the region where the lake and its valley is situated is arid , the flora and fauna recorded relate to desert plants , including cactus and thorny bushes , as well as desert animals like camels and cattle . Man @-@ eating crocodiles used to be a menace in the Puskhar Lake , resulting in the deaths of people . Pilgrims were aware of this fact , yet many considered it as lucky to be eaten by crocodiles . The crocodiles were caught with nets by the British and shifted to a nearby reservoir .
= = History = =
Pushkar Lake 's history dates back to the 4th century BC . Numismatics , in the form of punched Greek and Kushan coins date the lake back to this time . The inscriptions found at Sanchi attest to the lake 's existence to the 2nd Century BC . This suggests that Pushkar was a pilgrimage centre even if it did not lie on the trade route .
In the fifth century AD , Chinese traveller Fa Xian made reference to the number of visitors to Pushkar Lake .
A story tells of a ninth @-@ century Rajput king , Nahar Rao Parihar of Mandore , chasing a white boar to the lake shore on a hunting expedition . In order to quench his thirst , he dipped his hand into the lake and was astonished to see that the Leukoderma marks on his hand had disappeared . Impressed with the sacred curative nature of the lake , he got the lake restored to its glory . After discovering the curative characteristics of the lake water , people have since visited the lake to take a holy dip and cure themselves of skin problems .
The creation of Pushkar Lake , as an artificial lake , is also credited to the 12th century when a dam was built across the headwaters of the Luni River . The 10th Sikh guru , Guru Govind Singh ( 1666 – 1708 ) , is said to have recited the Sikh sacred text Guru Granth Sahib on the banks of the lake .
During the Mughal rule , there was a short break in the lake 's importance due to the levy of a pilgrim tax and a ban on religious processions . In 1615 – 16 , the Mughal emperor Jahangir ( 1569 – 1627 ) built his hunting lodge ( seen now in total ruins ) on the shores of the Pushkar Lake to celebrate his victory over the local Rajput Rana ( king ) . He came to this lodge 16 times for hunting during his stay in Ajmer , about 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) from Pushkar . This act violated the local tradition of not killing any animals in the precincts of the sacred lake . He also committed an idolatrous act by breaking the image of Varaha – the boar Avatar of the god Vishnu , as it resembled a pig and symbolically hurt Islamic sensitivity . Thereafter , Jahangir 's grandson emperor Aurangzeb ( 1618 – 1707 ) destroyed and desecrated several temples , which were later rebuilt . However , during the rule of Jahangir 's father , Emperor Akbar ( 1542 – 1605 ) , there was a revival of not only the lake but also the Ajmer 's Dargah dedicated to sufi saint Moinuddin Chishti , of whom Akbar was a devout follower .
The Rajput rulers of Amber , Bundi , Bikaner and Jaisalmer made great efforts to restore the importance of the lake and its surrounding temples . Credits given for modern additions to the building of ghats and the renovation / construction of temples go to Maharaja Man Singh I of Amber for the Raj Ghat and Man temple ; Maha Rana Pratap for the Varaha temple ; Daulat Rao Scindia for Kot Tirth Ghat , the Marathas @-@ Anaji Scindia to the Koteshwar Mahadev temple and Govind Rao , the Maratha governor of Ajmer for Shiva Ghat ; to the British rule for combining the religious pilgrimage with a cattle fair to generate taxes for improving the lake and its surroundings ; and gifting of the Jaipur Ghat and the Main Palace on the ghat in 1956 by the Maharaja of Jaipur .
= = Religious significance = =
There are various legends from Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata and the Puranic scriptures which mention the Pushar Lake and the town of Pushkar surrounding it .
According to the Hindu scripture Padma Purana , Brahma saw the demon Vajranabha ( Vajranash in another version ) trying to kill his children and harassing people . He immediately slew the demon with his weapon , the lotus @-@ flower . In this process , the lotus petals fell on the ground at three places , where springs emerged creating three lakes : the Pushkar Lake or Jyeshta Pushkar ( greatest or first Pushkar ) , the Madya Pushkar ( middle Pushkar ) Lake , and Kanishta Pushkar ( lowest or youngest Pushkar ) lake . When Brahma came down to the earth , he named the place where the flower ( " pushpa " ) fell from Brahma 's hand ( " kar " ) as " Pushkar " . It is also said that the sacred Sarasvati River emerged at Pushkar as five streams . The three lakes were assigned their presiding deities as the Hindu Trinity Brahma , Vishnu and Shiva , respectively . When Brahma came down to the earth , he named the place where the lotus fell as ' Pushkar ' . Brahma then decided to perform a yagna at the place , at the main Pushkar Lake . However , his wife Savitri ( called Sarasvati in some versions ) could not be present at the designated time to perform the essential part of the yagna . Brahma , therefore , married a Gujjar , a dominant agricultural race named Gayatri and completed the yagna with his new consort sitting beside him . However , when Savitri finally arrived at the venue , she found Gayatri sitting next to Brahma in her rightful place . Agitated , she cursed Brahma that he would be worshipped only in Pushkar . As a result of this , yagna performed in the presence of all the gods , it is said that a dip in the lake created at this place is credited with holiness , assuring salvation from all sins . It is now one of the five holiest centres of pilgrimage for Hindus .
Ramayana and Mahabharata refer to Pushkar Lake as Adi Tirtha , or the " original sacred water @-@ body " . The famous Sanskrit poet and play @-@ writer Kalidasa also referred to this lake in his poem Abhijñānaśākuntalam . The Ramayana mentions that Vishwamitra performed penance at Pushkar Lake for a thousand years . In spite of Brahma appearing before him and granting him the higher status of a rishi instead of a royal @-@ sage ( rajarishi ) , Vishwamitra continued his penance , but , the celestial nymph apsara , Menaka came to the lake to take a bath . Vishwamitra was enamoured by her beauty and they decided to live together in pursuit of pleasure for ten years . Then , Vishwamitra realized that his main activity of penance was disturbed . He , therefore , took leave of Menaka and went away to the north to continue his meditation . Vishwamitra was also described as building the Brahma temple at Pushkar after Brahma 's yagna . Mahabharata mentions that Pushkar is a holy place of the god Vishnu , considered as the Adi Tirtha where millions of tirthas united during sunrise and sunset , and visiting the lake and taking a holy bath in the lake would wash off all sins .
According to Hindu theology , there are five sacred lakes collectively called Panch @-@ Sarovar ( ' Sarovar ' means " lake " ) . Namely , Mansarovar , Bindu Sarovar , Narayan Sarovar , Pampa Sarovar and Pushkar Sarovar ; hence , Pushkar is considered one of the most sacred places in India . It is also the belief of devotees that a dip in the waters of the lake on Kartik Poornima would equal the benefits that would accrue by performing yagnas ( fire @-@ sacrifices ) for several centuries . Pushkar is often called " Tirtha @-@ Raj " – the king of pilgrimage sites related to water @-@ bodies . The scriptures also mention that doing parikrama ( circumambulation ) of the three lakes ( the main Pushkar , Madya Pushkar where there is a Hanuman temple and an old Banyan tree , and Kanistha Pushkar where a Krishna temple exists ) , which cover a distance of 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) , during the Kartik Poornima day would be highly auspicious . International Business Times has identified Pushkar as one of the ten most religious places in the world and one of the five sacred pilgrimage places for the Hindus , in India .
= = Cultural attractions = =
Pushkar Lake and its precincts offer a plethora of monuments of national importance , such as the Pushkar city , the Brahma temple at Pushkar and the ghats on the periphery of the lakes . The lake is the central divine theme for the popularity of all the monuments seen in the town and the fairs held here .
= = = Pushkar city = = =
Pushkar city , with a population of 14 @,@ 791 at the 2001 census , is one of the oldest cities in India . The city lies on the shore of Pushkar Lake . The date of its actual origin is not known , but legend associates Brahma with its creation concurrent with the lake ; Brahma is said to have performed penance here for a darshan ( sight ) of god Vishnu . Thus , its uniqueness lies in the fact of its historic @-@ religious @-@ cultural background , and as a result it attracts approximately 100 @,@ 000 visitors every month , apart from the very large congregation that occurs during the annual Pushkar Fair . However , the Pushkar Lake is central to its sustenance as a religious centre . The tourist arrivals during 2005 were reported to be about 16 @.@ 12 million ( said to be the maximum among all tourist attractions in Rajasthan ) , out of which the foreign tourists were about 63 @,@ 000 .
= = = Temples = = =
Apart from the sacred Lake , Pushkar is said to have over 500 temples ( 80 are large and the rest are small ) ; of these many old temples were destroyed or desecrated by Muslim depredations during Aurangzeb 's rule ( 1658 – 1707 ) but were re @-@ built subsequently . The most important of these is the Brahma temple . Though the current structure dates to the 14th century , the original temple is believed to be 2000 years old . Pushkar is often described in the scriptures as the only Brahma temple in the world , owing to the curse of Savitri , but also as the " King of the sacred places of the Hindus " . Although now the Pushkar temple does not remain the only Brahma temple , it is still one of very few existing temples dedicated to Brahma in India as well as the most prominent . Hindu pilgrims , including holy men and sages visit this temple after taking a ceremonial sacred bath in the Pushkar Lake . Other notable temples around the lake include Varaha temple – dedicated to Varaha ( the boar incarnation of god Vishnu ) , Savitri temple and Gayatri temple , dedicated to the consorts of Brahma .
= = = Ghats = = =
Ghats ( stone steps laid on a gradual bank slope to descend to the lake edge ) at Pushkar are integral to the lake . Ghats are also used for sacred bathing and rites , such as ancestor worship . Out of 52 ghats used by pilgrims to take a holy bath in the lake , ten important ghats on the periphery of the lake , which have other contiguous ghats adjoining them , have also been declared as ' Monuments of National Importance ' . These ghats are : the Varaha Ghat , the Dadhich Ghat , Saptarishi Ghats , Gwalior Ghat , Kota Ghat , Gau ghat , Yag Ghat , Jaipur Ghat , Karni Ghat and Gangaur Ghat . These ghats as well as the sacred Pushkar Lake ( which is also a declared heritage monument ) have been refurbished over the centuries by the Royal families of Rajasthan and by the Maratha kings . These are now undergoing further improvements as part of a heritage improvement programme launched with funds provided by the Government of Rajasthan and several departments of the Government of India . There are strict codes to be followed while taking a bath in the ghats , such as removing shoes away from the ghats and avoiding the passing of unwarranted comments about Hindu religious beliefs by non @-@ Hindus , since the ghats and the temples are linked to the divine lake . The sacred water of the lake is said to be curative of many skin diseases . Local belief is that water around each ghat has a special curative power . While many ghats have been named after the Rajas who built them , some ghats have particular importance . Varaha ghat is so named since Vishnu appeared here in his incarnation of a boar ( Varaha ) . Brahma Ghat is so named since Brahma bathed here . The Gau Ghat was renamed as Gandhi Ghat after Mahatma Gandhi 's ashes were immersed at this ghat . Nart Singh Ghat , close to Varaha Ghat , has a stuffed crocodile on display .
A coinage known as " Puskar Passport " used by visitors to the lake and the ghats denotes the red thread that is tied on the wrists of pilgrims by the priests ( for a dakshina – an unspecified fee ) . This indicates that the pilgrim has visited Pushkar Lake and is usually not approached by priests again for further rites and fees .
= = Pushkar Fair = =
Pushkar Lake and its precincts become very heavily populated during the annual Pushkar Fair or Pushkar mela , which has both a religious as well as an economic aspect . During the fair , a very large gathering of pilgrims takes a holy dip in the lake and the camel fair is an adjunct celebration . Pushkar Fair commences on Prabodhini Ekadashi , the 11th lunar day in the bright fortnight and ends on Kartik Poornima – the full Moon day in the month of Kartik ( October – November ) , the latter being the most important day of the fair . This fair is held in the honour of god Brahma . A ritual bath on Kartik Poornima in the Pushkar Lake is considered to lead one to salvation . It is believed circling the three Pushkars on Kartik Poornima is highly meritorious . Sadhus , Hindu holy men , gather here and stay from the Ekadashi to full moon day in caves . The Pushkar fair is also Asia 's largest camel fair . The colourful and lively Camel Fair reportedly attracts 2 lakh people and 50 @,@ 000 camels . In this fair held on the banks of the lake , camels are very colourfully decorated and paraded in the sand dunes on the southern part of the lake . Tribes from several neighbouring villages are seen in their traditional colourful costumes . The fair on Kartik Poornima , the day when Brahma is believed to have concluded his Yagna establishing the lake . It is organized by the Rajasthan Tourism Development Corporation ( RTDC ) , Pushkar Municipal Board and the Animal Husbandry Department of Rajasthan . The fair is a colourful cultural event also with folk dances , music , camel races and the cattle fair . The tug of war is a popular entertaining sport held during the fair . This event is held between the Rajasthanis and foreigners ; locals invariably win the event .
= = Status and conservation issues = =
The natural environment of Pushkar Lake and its precincts has become increasingly degraded in the last few decades . The problems arise primarily from the over development of tourist facilities as well as the deforestation of the surrounding area .
The critical issues related to the conservation of the lake have been identified as :
Siltation during the rainy season due to soil erosion of the denuded hills and inappropriate agricultural practices flowing through the three feeder streams namely , the Gomukh , the Nag Pahar and Savitri .
Shifting sand dunes from hills and surrounding areas causing a rise of the bed level of the lake .
Upstream interception by farmers through check dams for farming practices causing reduction in inflows . This reduction is reflected in the full reservoir level of 8 @.@ 53 metres ( 28 @.@ 0 ft ) not being achieved during most years , resulting in pilgrim displeasure and the reduction in maximum depth of the lake , reported now as only 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 15 ft ) .
Large inflow of sewage from the ghats and the surrounding habitation has caused serious water pollution .
Alarming rate of fall in ground water level has occurred in the vicinity of the lake due to high extraction for various uses .
In recent years , storage in the Pushkar Lake has been reduced alarmingly , leaving only a small puddle of water in many years during the festival season when pilgrims flock to the lake for sacred bathing during the Hindu holy month of Kartik , when the Pushkar Fair is held . During the 2009 Pushkar fair , the situation became very grim when the lake dried up entirely . Alternate arrangements were made to facilitate sacred bathing by providing water in concrete tanks near one of the upper ghats , fed by tube wells from ground water sources . While the authorities have been blamed for poor planning by de @-@ silting the lake , the drought situation has resulted in insignificant rainfall in the area to fill the lake .
= = = Water quality issues = = =
The lake does not meet the National Water Quality Standards due to its high concentration of Biochemical Oxygen Demand ( BOD ) . Considering the adverse impact on the lake water quality due to Eutrophication , anthropogenic pressures and holy rituals and tourism , a water quality study was specifically undertaken at four sites on a monthly basis for six months . The sampling sites were chosen to represent the pressure of pilgrims and other pollution inflows at the locations . The water samples were analysed for temperature , pH , salinity , conductivity , total dissolved solids , alkalinity , hardness , turbidity , dissolved oxygen , chloride , nitrite , nitrate , phosphate , sulphate , sodium , ammonium , potassium , total chlorophyll , biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand . The analysis over the period has revealed that the lake water was alkaline , chloride and conductivity concentrations were high at all the four sites , and there were lower levels of dissolved oxygen ( at sites with greater pollution load ) and high hardness ( on account of excess of calcium and magnesium from surface run @-@ off ) . During the period of the annual Pushkar Fair , a distinct co @-@ relationship was discerned between various parameters analysed and the degree of water pollution in the lake . This has called for urgent remedial actions to be undertaken by all of the government agencies involved with the lake management , with people 's participation .
= = = Restoration works = = =
To supplement water supply to the lake , even as early as in 1993 , the government built 12 deep tube wells to supplement water supply to the lake . However , most tube wells were dysfunctional , thereby aggravating the problem . The Union Ministry for Environment and Forests included Pushkar Lake on a list of five lakes under the National Lake Conservation Project ( NLCP ) for restoration . They have been providing funds since 2008 for the restoration works , but the situation has not eased .
Development plans are under various stages of implementation to address the critical issues related to the lake . They aim to improve water quality , increase water storage capacity , prevent encroachment of the lake periphery , improve the ambience around the lake , as well as to introduce recreational and revenue generating schemes .
Sewage outfalls into the lake are proposed to be completely stopped by the interception and diversion of feeder lines . Lining the main feeders into the lake and setting up water treatment plants to continuously treat and recirculate the lake water are also envisioned . Conservation measures proposed for adoption to clean the lake are by way of desilting and deweeding , water treatment at inlet of feeders into the lake , construction of check dams , conservation of ghats , afforestation of denuded hills in the catchment , soil moisture conservation measures , stabilization of sand dunes by planting vegetation of suitable species of plants and restriction of cultivation in the bed of feeder channels . In addition , the institutional measures considered for effecting improvement of the lake are mass awareness programmes with the population 's participation as well as the control of fish proliferation to reduce the risk of death of fishes during periods of inadequate water depth in the lake .
|
= Invading My Mind =
" Invading My Mind " is a song recorded by American entertainer Jennifer Lopez for her seventh studio album Love ? ( 2011 ) . It was written by RedOne , AJ Junior , BeatGeek , Teddy Sky , Bilal " The Chef " , Jimmy Joker and produced by RedOne , Lopez , Lady Gaga , BeatGeek , Jimmy Joker and Kuk Harrell . " Invading My Mind " is an uptempo song that speaks of being overcome with a feeling that 's " attacking , invading my mind " .
" Invading My Mind " received generally positive acclaim from music critics , who thought of the song to be single @-@ worthy . The song drew comparisons to Ace of Base 's 1995 single " Beautiful Life " and to the music of Kylie Minogue . It additionally was compared to Lopez 's own single " On the Floor " , but with " more of a groove feel " . Upon the release of Love ? , " Invading My Mind " debuted at number ten on the South Korea Gaon International Chart .
= = Production and composition = =
" Invading My Mind " was written by RedOne , AJ Junior , BeatGeek , Teddy Sky , Bilal The Chef , Jimmy Joker and produced by RedOne , Lopez , Lady Gaga , BeatGeek and Joker . Lopez 's vocals for the song were arranged and produced by RedOne . The vocals were recorded by Jim Annunziato , Josh Gudwin and Kuk Harrell at Cove Studios in New York City , New York and Henson Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California . RedOne , Chris " Tek " O 'Ryan and Trevor Muzzy handled audio engineering of " Invading My Mind " , while RedOne and O 'Ryan were in charge of vocal editing . RedOne , BeatGeek and Joker provided instruments for the song and also programming for them . The song was later mixed by Trevor Muzzy .
" Invading My Mind " is an uptempo song , with a length of three minutes and twenty seconds ( 3 : 20 ) . Melinda Newman of HitFix described " Invading My Mind " as being a " fast @-@ paced , Euro @-@ tinged , robotic dance thumper " , while Swagata Panjari of Radio and Music called it a " groovy club banger " with " high energy beats " . The song contains an almost " duplicate rhythm " to " On the Floor " , but with " more prominent " electro keys and breaks that have " more of a groove feel " to them . The song received comparisons to Ace of Base 's 1995 single " Beautiful Life " and to the music of Kylie Minogue .
While working with RedOne , Lopez insists that he " brought the best out of her " , something she credits to his Moroccan , Swedish and American heritage . Lopez stated that : " He 's awesome . He 's one of the nicest people and has a beautiful spirit . He can create something the whole world will love and that is probably to do with his international background . Some people can do dance , others can do urban or pop , but Nadir does it all and understand what makes a hit on every level " .
= = Plagiarism allegations = =
In August 2011 , Rebecca Francescatti , a Chicago @-@ based singer , filed a lawsuit against Lady Gaga claiming that she had plagiarized elements of her 1999 recording " Juda " ( It 's All About You ) for Gaga 's 2011 single " Judas " . Francescatti 's lawyer told TMZ : " Though the songs are different styles , the composition is the same , and the chorus is the same melody . [ Francescatti ] is seeking recognition for what she created . " Francescatti noted that the similarities of the two songs could stem from the fact that her former bass player , Brian Gaynor , was now working for a company who wrote several tracks for Gaga 's second album Born This Way ( 2011 ) .
Francescatti 's lawyer claimed in December 2012 that Gaga used an additional unlicensed sample in " Judas " and then incorporated it into " Invading My Mind " . It was alleged that Gaga asked Lopez for a credit on " Invading My Mind " to " cover her tracks " , with Francescatti 's lawyer claiming that she did not even contribute to the song . The lawsuit claimed to have uncovered text messages between Gaga and RedOne proving that she had stolen the sample loop used in both " Judas " and " Invading My Mind " .
= = Critical response = =
" Invading My Mind " received generally positive acclaim from music critics . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly awarded the song a B + rating , stating that : " Remember when the thought of Jennifer Lopez releasing good music was as likely as a sequel to Angel Eyes ? Well , our bad . The American Idol judge shot up the charts with the cheesetastic Ibiza chant On the Floor . Now she unites with Gaga pal RedOne for this appropriately named piece of pop pleasure : Once the club banger hits your ears , good or bad , you won 't be able to get it out of your head . " Tanner Stransky , also of Entertainment Weekly , gave a positive review of the song , stating that between " On the Floor " and " Invading My Mind " Lopez is " really made a glittery return to her extreme club / " Waiting for Tonight " roots " . She continued by stating : " Sure , ' [ Invading My ] Mind ' may be shallower than the kiddie pool , but this one is up from the first second ... and never goes down " . Monica Herrera from Billboard stated that on " Invading My Mind " RedOne and Lady Gaga bring the " hit potential " , while Lopez " brings the heat " . She continued by stating that the song is an " irresistible ' 80s euphoria and release " .
Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey , who although stated that the song isn 't anything " we haven 't heard before , " it is worthy of a standalone release . Shane Phoenix of Hot Spots disagreed , stating that " the lyrics are a little repetitive to be a feature single " , but it could , however , be a " great follow up to ' On the Floor ' if you want to listen back to back and keep dancing " . A staff member from Idolator stated that : " In a parallel universe , we could definitely hear Gaga herself singing ' Invading My Mind , ' though it has more in common with early tracks from Fame than anything the p @-@ p @-@ p @-@ pointy @-@ faced provocateur has done lately " . He also stated that the verses of the song " remind us an awful lot of Lopez 's current RedOne @-@ produced hit ' On the Floor ' . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine said that " Lopez shines " on the Love ? album cuts which clock at and above 120 bpm , except for what he said was the " throwaway " song " Invading My Mind " . Cinquemani mockingly called the song 's lyrics " poetry " , referring to the line : " freezing cold , steaming hot , sweaty drip , drip , drop " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Love ? .
= = Charts = =
|
= Fly Me Away =
" Fly Me Away " is an electronic song performed by British group Goldfrapp . The song was written and produced by Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory for the duo 's third album Supernature ( 2005 ) . The song features a synthesizer and orchestral arrangement and was written about the need to escape from the troubles of daily life .
The song was released as the album 's fourth single in May 2006 to positive reviews from music critics . It was a modest commercial success , reaching the top forty in Ireland and the United Kingdom . The song has been remixed a number of times and was featured in advertising campaigns for the US retail company Target .
= = Background and writing = =
" Fly Me Away " is a mid @-@ tempo electronic song about the need to escape from the troubles of daily life . It was composed as a collaborative effort between Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory in late 2004 in a rented cottage in the countryside of Bath , England . The song was written and recorded while Goldfrapp and Gregory were " jamming in the recording studio , bouncing song ideas off each other " . " Fly Me Away " is written in the common verse @-@ chorus form and features instrumentation from synthesizers and an orchestra that was conducted by Nick Ingman .
The North American digital EP featured a cover version of " Boys Will Be Boys " as its B @-@ side . The song was originally performed by British rock group The Ordinary Boys .
= = Marketing and release = =
In late 2006 , " Fly Me Away " was featured in Christmas advertising campaigns for the US retail company Target . The song , along with " Number 1 " , was featured in winter themed television commercials . An instrumental of the song was also featured in advertisements for L 'Oréal Feria , which starred actress Scarlett Johansson .
" Fly Me Away " was released as a various formats throughout the world . While most territories received a CD single and digital download release , the single was released as a limited edition 12 @-@ inch single in April 2006 in the UK . A DVD single was also issued and included the " Fly Me Away : Inflight Movies ( Paris - New York - London ) " film , directed by Hannah Holland , and Diane Martel 's music video for " Ride A White Horse " .
The Chris Hopewell @-@ directed music video for " Fly Me Away " was never released . Clips from the video have , however , leaked on to the internet , appearing on the video sharing website YouTube . Instead , Goldfrapp released a performance video on their MySpace page and an animated short film version , directed by Andreas Nilsson and titled " Jakko & the Poet " , on the Supernature Limited Edition DVD .
= = Chart performance = =
" Fly Me Away " was released in the United Kingdom on 1 May 2006 . Because it was released as the fourth single , success was very limited since many consumers had already purchased the album , which at the time had been certified platinum in the UK . The song entered the UK Singles Chart on 8 May 2006 at number twenty @-@ six . The following week it dropped thirty @-@ five positions to number sixty @-@ one and exited the singles chart in its third week of release . In Ireland , the song entered at number forty , remaining on the singles chart for one week . In the US , " Fly My Away " became Goldfrapp 's fourth song to chart within the top ten of the Billboard Dance Chart , reaching number six .
= = Remixes = =
Carl Craig made the most well @-@ known remix of the song , titled the " C2 rmx 4 " , which was included on the limited edition CD single . The track uses Goldfrapp 's original vocals over a heavy bass line and layered synths . Craig also created two other C2 remixes , which focus on Gregory 's instrumentation . Ladytron 's remix of " Fly Me Away " remained close to the original , but was called less " fun and bouncy " by About.com reviewer Mike Stier . Stier also disliked Filippo Moscatello 's " Naughty rmx " writing that it did not contain the " zest and zing " that Craig 's remixes had .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of single releases of " Fly Me Away " .
= = Personnel = =
The following people contributed to Fly Me Away :
Alison Goldfrapp – lead vocals , backing vocals , synthesizer
Nick Batt – synthesizer , programming
Will Gregory – synthesizer
Mark " Spike " Stent – mixing
Ted Jensen – mastering
= = Charts = =
|
= Q * bert =
Q * bert / ˈkjuːbərt / is an arcade video game developed and published by Gottlieb in 1982 . It is a 2D action game with puzzle elements that uses " isometric " graphics to create a pseudo @-@ 3D effect , and serves as a precursor to the isometric platformer genre . The objective is to change the color of every cube in a pyramid by making the on @-@ screen character hop on top of the cube while avoiding obstacles and enemies . Players use a joystick to control the character .
The game was conceived by Warren Davis and Jeff Lee . Lee designed the title character and original concept , which was then further developed and implemented by Davis . Q * bert was developed under the project name Cubes , but was briefly named Snots And Boogers and @ ! # ? @ ! during development .
Q * bert was well received in arcades and among critics . The game was Gottlieb 's most successful video game and among the most recognized brands from the golden age of arcade video games . It has been ported to numerous platforms . The success resulted in sequels and the use of the character 's likeness in merchandising , such as appearances on lunch boxes , toys , and an animated television show . The character Q * bert became known for his " swearing " , an incoherent phrase of synthesized speech generated by the sound chip and a speech balloon of nonsensical characters that appear when he collides with an enemy .
Because the game was developed during the period when Columbia Pictures owned Gottlieb , the intellectual rights to Q * bert remained with Columbia even after they divested themselves of Gottlieb 's assets in 1984 . Therefore , the rights have been owned by Sony Pictures Entertainment since its parent Sony acquired Columbia in 1989 . Q * bert appeared in Disney 's computer @-@ animated film Wreck @-@ It Ralph under license from Sony , and later appeared in Columbia 's live @-@ action film Pixels in 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Q * bert is an action game with puzzle elements played from an axonometric third @-@ person perspective to convey a three @-@ dimensional look . The game is played using a single , diagonally mounted four @-@ way joystick . The player controls Q * bert , who starts each game at the top of a pyramid made of 28 cubes , and moves by hopping diagonally from cube to cube . Landing on a cube causes it to change color , and changing every cube to the target color allows the player to progress to the next stage .
At the beginning , jumping on every cube once is enough to advance . In later stages , each cube must be hit twice to reach the target color . Other times , cubes change color every time Q * bert lands on them , instead of remaining on the target color once they reach it . Both elements are then combined in subsequent stages . Jumping off the pyramid results in the character 's death .
The player is impeded by several enemies , introduced gradually to the game :
Coily - Coily first appears as a purple egg that bounces to the bottom of the pyramid and then transforms into a snake that chases after Q * bert .
Ugg and Wrongway - Two purple creatures that hop along the sides of the cubes in an Escheresque manner . Starting at either the bottom left or bottom right corner , they keep moving toward the top right or top left side of the pyramid respectively , and fall off the pyramid when they reach the end .
Slick and Sam - Two green creatures that descend down the pyramid and revert cubes whose color has already been changed .
A collision with purple enemies is fatal to the character , whereas the green enemies are removed from the board upon contact . Colored balls occasionally appear at the second row of cubes and bounce downward ; contact with a red ball is lethal to Q * bert , while contact with a green one immobilizes the on @-@ screen enemies for a limited time . Multicolored floating discs on either side of the pyramid serve as an escape from danger , particularly Coily . When Q * bert jumps on a disc , it transports him to the top of the pyramid . If Coily is in close pursuit of the character , he will jump after Q * bert and fall to his death , awarding bonus points . This causes all enemies and balls on the screen to disappear , though they start to return after a few seconds .
Points are awarded for each color change ( 25 ) , defeating Coily with a flying disc ( 500 ) , remaining discs at the end of a stage ( at higher stages , 50 or 100 ) and catching green balls ( 100 ) or Slick and Sam ( 300 each ) . Extra lives are granted for reaching certain scores , which are set by the machine operator .
= = Development = =
= = = Concept = = =
The basic ideas for the game were thought up by Warren Davis and Jeff Lee . The initial concept began when artist Jeff Lee drew a pyramid of cubes inspired by M. C. Escher . Lee felt a game could be derived from the artwork , and created an orange , armless main character . The character jumped along the cubes and shot projectiles , called " mucus bombs " , from a tubular nose at enemies . Enemies included a blue creature , later changed purple and named Wrong Way , and an orange creature , later changed green and named Sam . Lee had drawn similar characters since childhood , inspired by characters from comics , cartoons , Mad magazine and by artist Ed " Big Daddy " Roth . Q * bert 's design later included a speech balloon with a string of nonsensical characters , " @ ! # ? @ ! " , which Lee originally presented as joke .
= = = Implementation = = =
Warren Davis , a programmer hired to work on the action game Protector , noticed Lee 's ideas , and asked if he could use them to practice programming randomness and gravity as game mechanic . Thus , he added balls that bounced from the pyramid 's top to bottom . Because Davis was still learning how to program game mechanics , he wanted to keep the design simple . He also felt games with complex control schemes were frustrating and wanted something that could be played with one hand . To accomplish this , Davis removed the shooting and changed the objective to saving the protagonist from danger . As Davis worked on the game one night , Gottlieb 's vice president of engineering , Ron Waxman , noticed him and suggested to change the color of the cubes after the game 's character has landed on them . Davis implemented a unique control scheme ; a four @-@ way joystick was rotated 45 ° to match the directions of Q * bert 's jumping . Staff members at Gottlieb urged for a more conventional orientation , but Davis stuck to his decision . Davis remembered to have started programming in April 1982 , but the project was only put on schedule as an actual product several months later .
= = = Audio = = =
A MOS Technology 6502 chip that operates at 894 kHz generates the sound effects , and a speech synthesizer by Votrax generates Q * bert 's incoherent expressions . The audio system uses 128B of random @-@ access memory and 4KB of erasable programmable read only memory to store the sound data and code to implement it . Like other Gottlieb games , the sound system was thoroughly tested to ensure it would handle daily usage . In retrospect , audio engineer David Thiel commented that such testing minimized time available for creative designing .
Thiel was tasked with using the synthesizer to produce English phrases for the game . However , he was unable to create coherent phrases and eventually chose to string together random phonemes instead . Thiel also felt the incoherent speech was a good fit for the " @ ! # ? @ ! " in Q * bert 's speech balloon . Following a suggestion from technician Rick Tighe , a pinball machine component was included to make a loud sound when a character falls off the pyramid . The sound is generated by an internal coil that hits the interior of a cabinet wall . Foam padding was added to the area of contact on the cabinet ; the developers felt the softer sound better matched a fall rather than a loud knocking sound . The cost of installing foam , however , was too expensive and the padding was omitted .
= = = Title = = =
The Gottlieb staff had difficulty naming the game . Aside from the project name " Cubes " , it was untitled for most of the development process . The staff agreed the game should be named after the main character , but disagreed on the name . Lee 's title for the initial concept — Snots And Boogers — was rejected , as was a list of suggestions compiled from company employees . According to Davis , vice president of marketing Howie Rubin championed @ ! # ? @ ! as the title . Although staff members argued it was silly and would be impossible to pronounce , a few early test models were produced with @ ! # ? @ ! as the title on the units ' artwork . During a meeting , " Hubert " was suggested , and a staff member thought of combining " Cubes " and " Hubert " into " Cubert " . Art director Richard Tracy changed the name to " Q @-@ bert " , and the hyphen was later changed to an asterisk . In retrospect , Davis expressed regret for the asterisk , because he felt it prevented the name from becoming a common crossword term and it is a wildcard character for search engines .
= = = Testing = = =
As development neared the production stage , Q * bert underwent location tests in local arcades under its preliminary title @ ! # ? @ ! , before being widely distributed . According to Jeff Lee , his oldest written record attesting to the game being playable as @ ! # ? @ ! in a public location , a Brunswick bowling alley , dates back to September 11 , 1982 . Gottlieb also conducted focus groups , in which the designers observed players through a one @-@ way mirror . The control scheme received a mixed reaction during play testing ; some players adapted quickly while others found it frustrating . Initially , Davis was worried players would not adjust to the different controls ; some players would unintentionally jump off the pyramid several times , reaching a game over in about ten seconds . Players , however , became accustomed to the controls after playing several rounds of the game . The different responses to the controls prompted Davis to reduce the game 's level of difficulty — a decision that he would later regret .
= = = Release = = =
A copyright claim registered with the United States Copyright Office by Gottlieb on February 10 , 1983 cites the date of publication of Q * bert as October 18 , 1982 . Video Games reported that the game was sold directly to arcade operators at its public showing at the AMOA show held November 18 – 20 , 1982 . Gottlieb offered the machines for $ 2600 per unit . Q * bert is Gottlieb 's fourth video game .
= = Reception = =
Q * bert was Gottlieb 's only video game that gathered huge critical and commercial success , selling around 25 @,@ 000 arcade cabinets . Cabaret and cocktail versions of the game were later produced . The machines have since become collector 's items ; the rarest of them are the cocktail versions .
When the game was first introduced to a wider industry audience at the November 1982 AMOA show , it was immediately received favorably by the press . Video Games placed Q * bert first in its list of Top Ten Hits , describing it as " the most unusual and exciting game of the show " and stating that " no operator dared to walk away without buying at least one " . The Coin Slot reported " Gottlieb 's game , Q * BERT , was one of the stars of the show " , and predicted that " The game should do very well . "
Contemporaneous reviews were equally enthusiastic , and focused on the uniqueness of the gameplay and audiovisual presentation . Roger C. Sharpe of Electronic Games considered it " a potential Arcade Award winner for coin @-@ op game of the year " , praising innovative gameplay and outstanding graphics . William Brohaugh of Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games described the game as an " all @-@ round winner " that had many strong points . He praised the variety of sound effects and the graphics , calling the colors vibrant . Brohaugh lauded Q * bert 's inventiveness and appeal , stating that the objective was interesting and unique . Michael Blanchet of Electronic Fun suggested the game might push Pac @-@ Man out of the spotlight in 1983 . Neil Tesser of Video Games also likened Q * bert to Japanese games like Pac @-@ Man and Donkey Kong , due to the focus on characters , animation and story lines , as well as the " absence of violence " . Computer and Video Games magazine praised the game 's graphics and colors .
Electronic Games awarded Q * bert " Most Innovative Coin @-@ op Game " of the year . Video Game Player called it the " Funniest Game of the Year " among arcade games in 1983 .
Q * bert continues to be widely recognized as a significant part of video game history . Author Steven Kent and GameSpy 's William Cassidy considered Q * bert one of the more memorable games of its time . Author David Ellis echoed similar statements , calling it a " classic favorite " . 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish and Kim Wild of Retro Gamer magazine described the game as difficult yet addictive . Author John Sellers also called Q * bert addictive , and praised the sound effects and three @-@ dimensional appearance of the graphics . Cassidy called the game unique and challenging ; he attributed the challenge in part to the control scheme . IGN 's Jeremy Dunham felt the controls were poorly designed , describing them as " unresponsive " and " a struggle " . He nonetheless commented that the game was addictive despite the controls .
The main character also received positive press coverage . Edge magazine attributed the success of the game to the title character . They stated that players could easily relate to Q * bert , particularly because he swore . Computer and Video Games , however , considered the swearing a negative , but still felt the character was appealing . Cassidy believed the game 's appeal lay in the main character . He described Q * bert as cute and having a personality that made him stand out in comparison to other popular video game characters . The authors of High Score ! referred to Q * bert as " ultra @-@ endearing alien hopmeister " , and the cutest game character of 1982 .
= = Ports = =
At the 1982 AMOA Show , Parker Brothers secured the license to publish home conversions of the Q * bert arcade game . Parker first published a port to the Atari 2600 , and by the end of 1983 , the company also advertised versions for Atari 5200 , Intellivision , ColecoVision , the Atari 8 @-@ bit computer family , Commodore VIC @-@ 20 , Texas Instruments TI @-@ 99 / 4A and Commodore 64 . The release of the Commodore 64 version was noted to lag behind the others but appeared in 1984 . Parker Brothers also translated the game into a stand @-@ alone tabletop electronic game . It uses a VFD screen , and has since become a rare collector 's item . Q * bert was also published by Parker Brothers for the Philips Videopac in Europe , by Tsukuda Original for the Othello Multivision in Japan , and by Ultra Games for the NES in North America .
The initial home port for the Atari 2600 , the most widespread system at the time , was met with mixed reactions . Video Games warned that buyers of the Atari 2600 version " may find themselves just a little disappointed . " They criticized the lack of music , the removing of the characters Ugg and Wrongway , and the system 's troubles to handle the character sprites on screen at a steady performance . Later Mark Brownstein of the same magazine was more in favor of the game , but still cited the presence of fewer cubes in the game 's pyramidal layout and " pretty poor control " as negatives . Will Richardson of Electronic Games noted a lack in audiovisual qualities and counter @-@ intuitive controls , but commended the gameplay , stating that the game " comes much closer to its source of inspiration than a surface evaluation indicates " . Randi Hacker of Electronic Fun with Computers & Games called it a " sterling adaption [ sic ] " In 2008 , however , IGN 's Levi Buchanan rated it the fourth worst arcade port for the Atari 2600 , mostly due to a lack of jumping animations for enemies , which instead pop up instantly on the adjacent cube , making it impossible to know which direction they travel before they land . Entertainment Weekly called Q * Bert one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600 in 2013 , saying the port " lost the cool isometric perspective but none of the addictive gameplay " .
Other home versions were well @-@ received for the most part , with some exceptions . Of the ColecoVision version , Electronic Fun with Computers & Games noted that " Q * bert aficionados will not be disappointed " . Marc Brownstein of Video Games called it one of the best of the authorized versions . Warren Davis also considered the ColecoVision version the most accurate port of the arcade . Mark Brownstein judged the Atari 5200 version inferior to the ColecoVision , due to the imprecision of the Atari 5200 controller , but noted that " it does tend to grow on you . " Video Games determined the Intellivision version as the worst of the available ports , criticizing the system 's controller for being inadequate for the game . Antic magazine 's David Duberman called the Atari 8 @-@ bit version " one of the finest translations of an arcade game for the home computer format " , and Arthur Leyenberger of Creative Computing listed it as a runner @-@ up for Best Arcade Adaptation to the system , praising its faithful graphics , sound , movement and playability . Softline was more critical , criticizing the Atari version 's controls and lack of swearing . The magazine concluded that " the home computer game doesn 't have the sense of style of the one in the arcades ... the execution just isn 't there " . In 1984 the magazine 's readers named the game the fifth @-@ worst Atari program of 1983 . Computer Games called the C64 version an " absolutely terrific translation " that " almost totally duplicates the arcade game , " aside from its lack of synthesized speech . The stand @-@ alone tabletop was awarded Stand @-@ Alone Game of the Year in Electronic Games .
In 2003 , a version for Java @-@ based mobile phones was announced by Sony Pictures Mobile . Reviewers generally acknowledged it as a faithful port of the arcade original , but criticized the controls . Modojo 's Robert Falcon stated that the diagonal controls take time to adapt to on a cell phone with traditional directions . Michael French of Pocket Gamer concluded : " You can 't escape the fact it doesn 't exactly fit on mobile . The graphics certainly do , and the spruced @-@ up sound effects are timeless … but really , it 's a little too perfect a conversion . " Airgamer criticized the gameplay as monotonous and the difficulty as frustrating . By contrast , Wireless Gaming Review called it " one of the best of mobile 's retro roundup " .
On February 22 , 2007 , Q * bert was released on the PlayStation 3 's PlayStation Network . It features upscaled and filtered graphics , an online leaderboard for players to post high @-@ scores , and Sixaxis motion controls . The game received a mixed reception . Dunham and Gerstmann did not enjoy the motion controls and felt it was a title only for nostalgic players . Eurogamer.net 's Richard Leadbetter judged the game 's elements " too simplistic and repetitive to make them worthwhile in 2007 " . In contrast , Parish considered the title worth purchasing , citing its addictive gameplay .
= = Legacy = =
According to Jeremy Parish , Q * bert was " one of the higher @-@ profile titles of the classic era " . In describing Q * bert 's legacy , Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot referred to the game as a " rare arcade success " . In 2008 , Guinness World Records ranked it behind 16 other arcade games in terms of their technical , creative and cultural impact . Despite its success , the creators of the game did not receive royalties , as Gottlieb had no such program in place at the time . Davis and Lee nonetheless expressed pride about the game continuing to be remembered fondly .
= = = Market impact = = =
Q * bert became one of the most merchandised arcade games behind Pac @-@ Man , although according to John Sellers it was not nearly as successful as that franchise or Donkey Kong . The character 's likeness appears on various items including coloring books , sleeping bags , frisbees , board games , wind @-@ up toys , and stuffed animals . In a flyer distributed in 1983 , Gottlieb claimed over 125 licensed products . However , the North American video game crash of 1983 depressed the market , and the game 's popularity began to decline by 1984 .
In the years following its release , Q * bert inspired many other games with similar concepts . The magazines Video Games and Computer Games both commented on the trend with features about Q * bert @-@ like games in 1984 . They listed Mr. Cool by Sierra On @-@ Line , Frostbite by Activision , Q @-@ Bopper by Accelerated Software , Juice by Tronix , Quick Step by Imagic , Flip & Flop and Boing by First Star Software , Pharaoh 's Pyramid by Master Control Software , Pogo Joe by Screenplay , Rabbit Transit by Starpath , as games which had been inspired by Q * bert . Further titles that have been identified as Q * bert @-@ like games include J @-@ bird by Orion Software , Cubit by Micromax , and in the UK Pogo by Ocean , Spellbound by Beyond and Hubert by Blaby Computer Games .
= = = Other media appearances = = =
In 1983 , Q * bert was adapted into an animated cartoon as part of CBS 's Saturday Supercade , which features segments based on video game characters from the golden age of video arcade games . Saturday Supercade was produced by Ruby @-@ Spears Productions , the Q * bert segments between 1983 ( 1983 ) and 1984 ( 1984 ) . The show is set in a United States , 1950s era town called " Q @-@ Burg " , and stars Q * bert as a high school student , altered to include arms and hands . He also has the ability to shoot black projectiles from his nose . Characters frequently say puns that add the letter " Q " to words . Aside from Q * bert and the known game villains , the cartoon also includes new characters similar to Q * bert in appearance and naming .
Q * bert , Coily , Ugg , Slick , and Sam appear in the 2012 Disney computer @-@ animated film Wreck @-@ It Ralph . They start out as " homeless " video game characters living in Game Central Station after their game was unplugged and taken out of Litwak 's Arcade . Ralph gives them a cherry from Pac @-@ Man as a gesture of kindness . After Ralph takes Markowski 's uniform in Tapper 's , he accidentally trips over Q * bert on his way to Hero 's Duty . This leads Q * bert to go to Fix @-@ It Felix Jr. to warn Felix that Ralph has " gone Turbo . " In that scene , Felix apparently speaks " Q * bert @-@ ese . " At the end of the film , Ralph and Felix decide to let Q * bert , Coily , Ugg , Slick , Sam , and the generic homeless video game characters into Fix @-@ It Felix Jr . , suggesting that they help out in the bonus levels where Coily , Ugg , Slick , Sam , and the generic video game characters assist Ralph in wrecking the building while Q * bert assists Felix in fixing it .
Q * bert makes another appearance in Sony film Pixels , which was released on July 24 , 2015 . In the movie , Q * bert is given to the main characters as a " trophy " by the aliens for defeating Pac @-@ Man . He then accompanies the team on its last mission . In the end , he randomly transforms into the fictional female character Lady Lisa ( of the fictional video game Dojo Quest ) , after victory against the aliens .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Q * bert is seen being played in the 1984 film Moscow on the Hudson starring Robin Williams . The 1993 IBM PC role @-@ playing game Ultima Underworld II : Labyrinth of Worlds features a segment where the player has to solve a pyramid puzzle as an homage to Q * bert . In the 2009 action @-@ adventure game Ghostbusters : The Video Game , a Q * bert arcade cabinet can be seen in the Ghostbusters HQ . However , the game is merely decoration and not playable .
More recently , the game or its characters have been referenced in several animated television series . In the Family Guy episode " Chick Cancer " , Stewie reflects on how it was easier being Q * bert 's room mate and an animation of him on the game board is shown . In " Anthology of Interest II " of Futurama , he is one of the aliens that attack to invade earth in a segment of video game parodies . In The Simpsons episode " In the Name of the Grandfather " Marge , Bart and Lisa hop around the stones of the Giants Causeway in a game of Q * bert . The Robot Chicken episode " Sushi Rolls " is in general a Street Fighter parody , but in the end M. Bison is shown inside the game Q * bert . In Mad : " James Bond : Reply All " , Q * bert is seen at the MI6 lab . Q * bert also appeared on the battlefield in South Park : " Imaginationland : Episode III " .
In his 2014 memoir " Will Not Attend " , comedy writer Adam Resnick relates an anecdote in the story , " Substandard Risk . " While Resnick plays Q * bert in a bowling alley , his colleague Bob implores him to " shoot the little prick " . That not being the object of the game , Resnick explains the " Q * bert was a lover , not a fighter . " Bob spits out a mouthful of beer and laughs until he starts to choke .
= = = High score records = = =
On November 28 , 1983 , Rob Gerhardt reached a record score of 33 @,@ 273 @,@ 520 points in a Q * bert marathon . He held it for almost 30 years , until George Leutz from Brooklyn , NY played one game of Q * bert for eighty @-@ four hours and forty @-@ eight minutes on February 14 – 18 , 2013 at Richie Knucklez ' Arcade in Flemington , NJ . He scored 37 @,@ 163 @,@ 080 points .
Doris Self , credited by Guinness World Records as the " oldest competitive female gamer " , set the tournament record score of 1 @,@ 112 @,@ 300 for Q * bert in 1984 at the age of 58 . Her record was surpassed by Drew Goins on June 27 , 1987 with a score of 2 @,@ 222 @,@ 220 . Self continuously attempted to regain the record until her death in 2006 .
On November 18 , 2012 , George Leutz broke the Q * Bert tournament world record live at the Kong Off 2 event at The 1up Arcade and Bar in Denver , Co . George scored 3 @,@ 930 @,@ 990 points in just under 8 hours , earning 1 @.@ 5 million points on his first life , beating Self 's score using a single life . Leutz 's score was verified by Twin Galaxies . The video ends at a score of 3 @.@ 7 Million points , 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 points over the previous record .
= = = Updates , remakes , and sequels = = =
= = = = Faster Harder More Challenging Q * bert = = = =
Believing that the original game was too easy , Davis initiated development of Faster Harder More Challenging Q * bert ( also known as FHMC Q * bert ) in 1983 , which increases the difficulty , introduces Q * bertha and adds a bonus round . Finally , the project was canceled and the game never entered production . Davis later released FHMC Q * bert 's ROM image onto the web .
= = = = Q * bert 's Quest = = = =
Gottlieb also released a pinball game , Q * bert 's Quest , based on the arcade version . It features two pairs of flippers in an " X " formation and audio from the arcade . Gottlieb produced fewer than 900 units .
= = = = Q * bert 's Qubes = = = =
Several video game sequels were released over the years , but did not reach the same level of success as the original . The first , titled Q * bert 's Qubes , shows a copyright for 1983 on its title screen , whereas the instruction manual cites a 1984 copyright . It was manufactured by Mylstar Electronics , and uses the same hardware as the original . The game features Q * bert , but introduces new enemies : Meltniks , Soobops , and Rat @-@ A @-@ Tat @-@ Tat . The player navigates the protagonist around a plane of cubes while avoiding enemies . Jumping on a cube causes it to rotate , changing the color of the visible sides of the cube . The goal is to match a line of cubes to a target sample ; later levels require multiple rows to match . Despite the popularity of the franchise , the game 's release was hardly noticed . Parker Brothers showcased home versions of Q * bert 's Qubes at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show in January 1985 . Q * bert 's Qubes was ported to the Colecovision and Atari 2600 .
= = = = Q * bert ( 1986 ) = = = =
Konami , who had distributed the original Q * bert to Japanese arcades in 1983 , produced a game with the title Q * bert for MSX computers in 1986 , released in Japan and Europe . However , the main character is a little dragon , and the mechanics are based on Q * bert 's Qubes . The player once again turns around colored cubes by jumping from cube to cube , trying to reach the displayed target pattern . Contrary to Mylstar 's arcade game , each of the 50 stages has a different pattern of cubes , in addition to the known rule extensions in later stages . The game also features a competitive 2 @-@ player mode , where each side is assigned a different pattern , and the players can score points either by completing their pattern first , or by pushing the other off the board .
= = = = Q * bert for Game Boy = = = =
In 1992 , this handheld game was developed by Realtime Associates and published by Jaleco in 1992 . It features 64 boards in different shapes .
= = = = Q * bert 3 = = = =
Q * bert 3 for the SNES was also developed by Realtime Associates and released in 1992 . Jeff Lee , creator of the Q * bert character , also worked on the graphics for this game . Q * bert 3 features gameplay similar to the original , but like the Game Boy game , it has larger levels of varying shapes . In addition to enemies from the first game , it introduces several new enemies ( Frogg , Top Hat , and Derby ) . Published by NTVIC . Q * bert is a playable character in the game .
= = = = Q * bert ( 1999 ) = = = =
A remake with three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphics was developed by Artech Studios and released by Hasbro Interactive on the PlayStation in 1999 and on the Dreamcast the following year . It features three modes of play : classic , adventure , and competitive multiplayer . Allgame 's Brett Weiss praised all aspects of the game , while Parish called it a poor adaptation . Kevin Rice of Next Generation Magazine praised the game 's graphics , but criticized the new level designs . He further commented that adventure mode was not enjoyable . The game was the winner of Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Puzzle Game of the Year " award .
= = = = Q * bert 2004 = = = =
In 2004 , Sony Pictures released a remake / sequel for Adobe Flash titled Q * bert 2004 , containing a faithful rendition of the original arcade game , along with 50 levels that use new board layouts and six new visual themes . Q * Bert Deluxe for iOS devices was initially released as a rendition of the arcade game , but later received updates with the themes and stages from Q * Bert 2004 .
= = = = Q * bert 2005 = = = =
In 2005 , Sony Pictures released Q * bert 2005 as a download for Windows and as a Flash browser applet , featuring 50 different levels .
= = = = Q * bert Rebooted = = = =
On July 2 , 2014 , Gonzo Games and Sideline amusement announced Q * bert Rebooted to be released on Steam , iOS and Android . Versions for PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita were released on February 17 , 2015 in North America and February 18 , 2015 in Europe . It was released on February 12 , 2016 for the Xbox One . According to Mark Caplan , Vice President , Consumer Products , Worldwide Marketing & Distribution at Sony Pictures Entertainment , the release was motivated by " renewed interest in Q * bert , in part due to the cameo in the recent Wreck It Ralph animated feature film " .
Q * bert Rebooted contains a port of the classic arcade game alongside a new playing mode that uses hexagonal shapes , increasing the number of possible movement directions to six . Additionally , the ' Rebooted ' mode features new enemy types , including a boxing glove that punches Q * bert off the levels and a treasure chest that tries to avoid him . The game has 5 different stage designs spread across 40 levels , which contain three rounds and a bonus round and have to be completed with 5 lives . Gems are collected to unlock different skins for the Q * bert character , and completing levels multiple times while reaching specific time and score goals is awarded with stars that enable access to more levels .
|
= Ralph Milne =
Ralph Milne ( 13 May 1961 – 6 September 2015 ) was a Scottish professional footballer whose clubs included Dundee United , Charlton Athletic , Bristol City and Manchester United . He played as both an attacking midfielder or a winger .
He began his career at Dundee United , helping the club to be crowned Premier Division champions in 1982 – 83 , and playing in Scottish Cup and League Cup final defeats . In recognition of his contribution to the most successful period in the club 's history , Milne has been inducted into the Dundee United Hall of Fame , alongside several of his former teammates . He made a total of 285 appearances for Dundee United in major competitions and is the club 's all @-@ time top scorer in Europe ( UEFA Cup and European Cup ) with a tally of 15 goals . Milne is often considered to be amongst some of the best Scottish footballers not to win a full senior cap .
Hampered by his heavy drinking , he hit his peak at an early age and after an unsuccessful spell at English club Charlton Athletic from January 1987 , ended the 1987 – 88 season with Third Division club Bristol City . He returned to the First Division after being signed by Alex Ferguson at Manchester United in November 1988 for a £ 170 @,@ 000 fee , but failed to restart his career . Barring a brief spell in Hong Kong with Sing Tao , Milne played his last first @-@ team game as a professional at the age of 28 .
= = Club career = =
Ralph Milne was born in Dundee , the youngest of four siblings , on 13 May 1961 . He was moved forward a year in primary school due to his remarkable academic progress . He began his football career as a youth with Dundee Celtic Boys Club , where he played initially as a striker and had a prolific goalscoring record .
= = = Dundee United = = =
= = = = Immediate success = = = =
Milne signed for Dundee United in January 1976 and after a couple of seasons in the reserves began to feature for the first team during the 1979 – 80 campaign . He scored his first goal at the age of 18 during his full debut appearance on 28 July 1979 , United 's third goal in a 3 – 0 win over Dunfermline Athletic in a Drybrough Cup tie . Milne scored his first Premier Division goal on 8 September in a 2 – 2 draw away against Celtic , netting the equaliser with a long @-@ range shot . By the end of his debut season , Milne had played 20 games , eight of which he was in the starting line @-@ up for , and scored three goals . He was named as the club 's Reserve Player of the Year and picked up a 1979 Scottish League Cup Final winners medal despite not being named in the matchday squad .
The 1980 – 81 season saw Milne become a regular in the Dundee United team , scoring 10 goals in 33 appearances . United retained the League Cup , though Milne did not feature in the final victory over their Dundee derby rivals at Dens Park . He finished the season playing in the 1981 Scottish Cup Final side , which ended in a 4 – 1 defeat to Rangers after a replay . Milne was now being described by manager Jim McLean as " potentially ... the most exciting player in Scotland " , describing Milne as a " winger with pace who can score goals " . McLean however expressed reservations about Milne 's overall attitude and ability to play through patches of poor form .
Dundee United reached another final in the 1981 – 82 season , and Milne scored the opening goal in the 1981 Scottish League Cup Final on 28 November 1981 , latching onto a pass from Paul Sturrock and striking a low powerful shot past the Rangers goalkeeper ; however Rangers went on to controversially win 2 – 1 after another goal for Dundee United , " scored " by Sturrock , had been disallowed for offside . Milne also impressed in Europe that season , scoring against AS Monaco , Borussia Mönchengladbach and Winterslag ( twice ) in the UEFA Cup .
= = = = League title and European Cup campaign = = = =
The 1982 – 83 season proved to be a seminal year for both Dundee United and 21 year @-@ old Milne . The club won the league for the first time , finishing one point ahead of Celtic and " New Firm rivals " Aberdeen in a tightly fought league campaign . Milne 's 16 goals in the league , playing wide right , were a significant contribution to United 's league win . One of the most high profile of these goals was on 20 April when he scored the winning goal in a 3 – 2 win over Celtic at Parkhead ; he controlled an Eamonn Bannon cross from the right on his chest and volleyed the ball from 20 yards out past Celtic goalkeeper Pat Bonner . On the last day of the season , 14 May 1983 , Dundee United needed a win to guarantee the league title . The day after his 22nd birthday , Milne opened the scoring against local rivals Dundee with a skilfully executed long @-@ distance chipped shot ; the match finished 2 – 1 to United . Milne achieved his peak goal tally in his career that season , scoring 21 goals in all competitions . Having turned 22 the day before the game , the goal against Dundee was to be the defining moment of his career .
Dundee United 's league success saw them take part in the European Cup in 1983 – 84 . Milne scored doubles against Hamrun Spartans and Standard Liège as United reached the semi @-@ final , losing 3 – 2 on aggregate to Roma in an ill @-@ tempered tie . Dundee United also failed to retain their league title , finishing in third place and 10 points behind champions Aberdeen . Milne 's goal tally also dropped significantly from the previous year , down to five goals in the league and a total of 12 in all competitions .
= = = = Discipline problems and decline = = = =
Milne was with Dundee United for a further three seasons and still a regular player in the team , although he scored less frequently . Milne 's increasingly fractious relationship with manager Jim McLean was also becoming common knowledge ; in December 1983 McLean publicly criticised Milne , stating " I have tried to get the message across to him that it is when he is not playing well that he needs to work hardest . It is plainly not sinking in . " Ironically some months later in August 1984 , it was Milne who scored both goals against Nottingham Forest in a pre @-@ season testimonial match for McLean . However , after the game the pair again fell out because of a brief conversation Milne had with Brian Clough which led McLean to believe the player was trying to arrange a deal away from United ; by this time Milne had grown increasingly frustrated over being frequently fined a week 's wages for breaking minor club rules and generally offending McLean 's strict sense of discipline . The financial strain this caused led to him to work as a casual labourer in order to meet his mortgage repayments . By this time his drinking had become more of a problem , resulting in a struggle to maintain fitness .
Milne featured in a further two Cup finals for United , losing 1 – 0 to Rangers in October 1984 in the Scottish League Cup Final and losing 2 – 1 to Celtic in May 1985 in the Scottish Cup Final . He aggravated a hamstring injury in the final against Rangers and was out of action for three months . In 1986 – 87 , he played in the first three rounds of the UEFA Cup run ( scoring once , against RC Lens in the first round ) which eventually saw the team beat Barcelona and Borussia Mönchengladbach on their way to the final . However Milne had left in January 1987 before these high profile games took place , sold to Charlton Athletic , having lost his place in the side to the up @-@ and @-@ coming Kevin Gallacher . He made a total of 285 appearances for Dundee United in major competitions and is the club 's all @-@ time top scorer in Europe ( UEFA Cup and European Cup ) with a tally of 15 goals .
= = = Charlton Athletic = = =
He was sold to English First Division club Charlton Athletic in January 1987 for a fee of £ 125 @,@ 000 . He played at Wembley Stadium in the final of the Full Members Cup on 29 March , which ended in a 1 – 0 defeat to Blackburn Rovers . Charlton finished the 1986 – 87 season in the relegation play @-@ off place , but retained their top @-@ flight status after beating Leeds United 2 – 1 in a replay in the play @-@ off final , following a 1 – 1 aggregate draw . Milne only played as a late substitute in the first leg at Selhurst Park , and ended the game with a broken jaw after being elbowed by Micky Adams . He dropped out of manager Lennie Lawrence 's first team plans during the 1987 – 88 season , and was allowed to leave the club .
= = = Bristol City = = =
Milne dropped down two divisions to join Bristol City for a £ 50 @,@ 000 fee in January 1988 . City ended the 1987 – 88 campaign in the play @-@ offs , but failed to gain promotion after losing 4 – 0 to Walsall in a replay of the play @-@ off final .
After a full pre @-@ season he started to play well and hit six goals in 30 Third Division games during his time at Ashton Gate . Milne 's form attracted attention elsewhere with Aberdeen among those interested , a move Milne favoured to be near his son and other family in Scotland . On being called into a meeting with manager , Joe Jordan , Milne was told by Jordan that he had no intention of letting him nor any of his other best players leave , but that he would make an exception for Manchester United .
= = = Manchester United = = =
Milne 's form at Bristol City was enough to convince Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson that he was still worth a contract with a top @-@ flight club . In November 1988 he moved to Old Trafford in a £ 170 @,@ 000 deal . Ferguson was looking to build a title winning side two years after joining United , but had seen his side finish second in the league the previous season and now they were on a winless run in the league that saw them mid @-@ table . He put Milne on the left @-@ wing as Gordon Strachan was already established on the right @-@ wing .
Milne managed three goals in 22 league appearances in 1988 – 89 . The first was a 20 @-@ yard volley on 3 December 1988 in a 3 – 0 home win over former club Charlton Athletic , which ended United 's nine @-@ match winless run ( eight draws and a defeat ) in the First Division . He also found the net on Boxing Day in a 2 – 0 win over Nottingham Forest at Old Trafford . The week after Milne played what he felt was his best game in a Manchester United jersey in a 3 – 1 New Year 's victory over rivals Liverpool . However they were unable to maintain their form and finished 11th in the league after winning only three of their last 14 league games . Milne scored his third and final United goal on 25 March 1989 in a 2 – 0 home win over Luton Town , once again in the league .
In September 1989 , Ferguson signed left @-@ winger Danny Wallace from Southampton . Wallace was not a particularly successful buy for United , and was soon himself struggling to hold down a place in the first team , but the progression of Lee Sharpe meant that Milne was forced out of the first team picture at Old Trafford in 1989 – 90 , making one substitute appearance in the league . During that season , as United struggled in the league but won the FA Cup , Milne was loaned out to Lou Macari 's West Ham United , where he made the final appearance of his career in a League Cup tie on 24 January 1990 away to Derby County at the age of 28 . His season was ended shortly afterwards after he picked up groin injury that required surgery . Despite being given a new one @-@ year contract he began missing reserve team games during the 1990 – 91 season and instead spent his time drinking .
Milne has been described as Ferguson 's and even as Manchester United 's worst signing , despite his low transfer fee . Ferguson defended the signing by pointing out Milne 's contribution to the development of Lee Sharpe , who was playing left @-@ back at the time . Ferguson remarked that Milne helped Sharpe by both dropping back to protect Sharpe and by giving him positional advice . Milne remained on United 's payroll until 30 June 1991 , when he was released .
" You know what it ’ s like ? It ’ s like being a kid watching a movie , and it ’ s a sad ending . And you start crying . If it makes a huge impression when United want to sign you , it makes a huge one when they want to get rid of you . Bang , the door ’ s closed . You ’ re finished . "
= = = Sing Tao = = =
Milne had unsuccessful trials with Turkish club MKE Ankaragücü and Danish side Esbjerg fB in 1991 . Later in the year he travelled to Hong Kong to play for Sing Tao SC . He spent a year there , helping the club to finish fourth in the First Division in 1991 – 92 , before he rejected the offer of a new contract and instead returned to Britain . He had a trial spell at Derry City before quitting football at the age of 32 .
= = International career = =
Milne made his debut for the Scotland under @-@ 21 side on 8 September 1981 at the age of 20 , when he on came as a substitute for Alan Brazil during a 4 – 0 win over Sweden in Edinburgh . He made a further two appearances for the under @-@ 21 side as an overage player in the autumn of 1983 , playing against Belgium ( 0 – 0 at Dundee ) and East Germany ( 1 – 1 at Jena , East Germany ) . He was never capped for the senior team , and has been cited as one of the best Scottish footballers not to win a full senior cap .
= = Style of play = =
Milne was naturally right @-@ footed , though trained hard with his left foot as a boy to become equally skilled with both feet . Former Dundee United teammate Paul Hegarty stated that Milne possessed great pace , as well as bravery , a good work ethic , and an ability to score important goals . Another former Dundee United teammate , Davie Dodds , said that Milne was as good a finisher as any player in Scottish football during the 1980s .
Jim McLean , Milne 's manager at Dundee United , summed up Milne 's career and footballing ability when writing his autobiography :
" If I had an outstanding failure then it was Ralph Milne . He should have been playing in World Cups . He should have won a bundle of Scotland international honours . It was a tragedy that that boy was not playing for his country all the time . He had tremendous talent – and I failed with him . He did not have the right attitude to the game and I could not instil that into him . "
= = Personal life = =
He was married to Kim from 1985 to 1988 , and the couple had a son , Bradley . He also had a son , Robert , with new partner Lee in 1990 . The relationship with Lee ended after ten years . In 2005 he began a relationship with Fiona Spence , 19 years his junior , who stayed with Milne for over eight years despite admitting that Milne regularly beat her .
= = = Struggle with alcoholism = = =
Milne had admitted to problems with alcoholism and gambling addiction during and after his playing career . He was always an enthusiastic drinker throughout his career , but he lost his passion for football after picking up an injury in 1990 and began drinking in a way which began to severely damage his health . After retiring as a player he worked at a pub in Nailsea . He appeared in court in 2010 and 2013 , but was never convicted , for allegedly attacking his partner Fiona Spence whilst highly intoxicated . Milne 's manager at Dundee United , Jim McLean , has since stated that Milne would have had greater success in his career were it not for his problems with alcohol and discipline . Milne died on 6 September 2015 , at the age of 54 , due to complications from liver problems .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Honours = =
Dundee United
Scottish League Cup : 1979
Scottish Football League Premier Division : 1982 – 83
Dundee United Hall of Fame ( inducted 2009 )
Charlton Athletic
Football League Second Division play @-@ off winner : 1987
|
= Deep @-@ fried butter =
Deep @-@ fried butter is a snack food comprising butter that is coated with a batter or breading and then deep @-@ fried . The dish has been served at several fairs in the United States ; among them , the State Fair of Texas in Dallas , Texas , and the Iowa State Fair in Des Moines , Iowa . It has a significant buttery flavor , which has been compared to that of French toast . Fried butter is a similar dish , for which recipes exist dating to the 17th century .
= = History = =
= = = United States = = =
Abel Gonzales Jr . , also known as " Fried Jesus " , of Dallas , Texas , invented deep @-@ fried butter , serving it at the 2009 State Fair of Texas in Dallas , Texas . Prepared using frozen , battered butter , it was awarded the " Most Creative food prize " at that time .
The debut of deep @-@ fried butter in 2010 at the Canadian National Exhibition in Toronto , Canada was attributed to a possible rise in attendance rates at the event , specifically per the presence of the dish . During the 18 @-@ day event in 2010 , the concession stand purveying the dish sold 9 @,@ 000 orders , which equated to 36 @,@ 000 individual deep @-@ fried butter balls using 800 pounds of butter . The dish was served in portions of four balls at the event , which totaled 315 calories .
A version of deep @-@ fried butter on a stick debuted at the Iowa State Fair 2011 , which was prepared using frozen butter that is dipped in a honey- and cinnamon- flavored batter , deep @-@ fried until browned , and then topped with a confectioner 's sugar glaze . This concoction on a stick was invented by Larry Fyfe , an entrepreneur and concessionaire at the fair . Versions at the Iowa State Fair have also been prepared and served formed as balls . Deep @-@ fried butter has also been served on a stick at the State Fair of Texas .
In 2011 at the Orange County Fair in Costa Mesa , California , deep @-@ fried butter was paired with chocolate @-@ covered bacon and dubbed the " coronary combo . " ABC News made a comparison regarding the pricing of this food pairing , stating , " the $ 10 @.@ 50 price rivaled some health plans ' co @-@ payments for a visit to a cardiologist . " This dish has also been served at other events and venues , such as the State Fair of Virginia and the Musikfest music festival in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
In 2011 in Edinburgh , Scotland , a pub named The Fiddler 's Elbow served a dessert dish named " Braveheart Butter Bombs " that consists of deep @-@ fried butter served with ice cream infused with Irn Bru soda and coulis . Some critics in Edinburgh have referred to deep @-@ fried butter as a " coronary on a plate " , but chefs at the pub have stated that when consumed in moderation it " should be all right " . The pub also planned on offering a variation using whisky in place of Irn Bru .
= = Characteristics = =
Deep @-@ fried butter 's flavor has been compared to that of French toast , and has also been described as tasting like " the most buttery bread you 've ever had . " It has been stated that the butter mostly melts into the mix when it is cooked . It may be prepared using whipped butter , which is less dense compared to standard butter . When consumed , stray liquefied butter inside the product may ooze from the product onto one 's face and fingers .
The food has been described by ABC News as an " artery @-@ clogging snack . "
In the United States , celebrity chef Paula Deen has published a recipe for fried butter balls . The recipe uses a blend of cream cheese and butter that is frozen , coated , frozen again , and then deep @-@ fried . The cooking time in this recipe is short , for only ten to fifteen seconds , whereupon the product attains a " light golden " color .
= = Fried butter = =
Fried butter is a similar dish , for which recipes exist dating to the 17th century . The first known recipe for fried butter dates to 1615 . Fried butter was documented in the cookbook The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy in 1747 . The recipe entailed soaking butter in salted water for a few hours , placing it on a rotisserie ( " spit it " ) , covering it with breadcrumbs and nutmeg , and roasting it under a low fire while continuously covering it with egg yolks and additional bread crumbs . Oysters were recommended to accompany the dish .
|
= Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis =
Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis ( TPP ) is a condition featuring attacks of muscle weakness in the presence of hyperthyroidism ( overactivity of the thyroid gland ) . Hypokalemia ( a decreased potassium level in the blood ) is usually present during attacks . The condition may be life @-@ threatening if weakness of the breathing muscles leads to respiratory failure , or if the low potassium levels lead to cardiac arrhythmias ( irregularities in the heart rate ) . If untreated , it is typically recurrent in nature .
The condition has been linked with genetic mutations in genes that code for certain ion channels that transport electrolytes ( sodium and potassium ) across cell membranes . The main ones are the L @-@ type calcium channel α1 @-@ subunit and potassium inward rectifier 2 @.@ 6 ; it is therefore classified as a channelopathy . The abnormality in the channel is thought to lead to shifts of potassium into cells , under conditions of high thyroxine ( thyroid hormone ) levels , usually with an additional precipitant .
Treatment of the hypokalemia , followed by correction of the hyperthyroidism , leads to complete resolution of the attacks . It occurs predominantly in males of Chinese , Japanese , Vietnamese , Filipino , and Korean descent . TPP is one of several conditions that can cause periodic paralysis .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
An attack often begins with muscle pain , cramping , and stiffness . This is followed by weakness or paralysis that tends to develop rapidly , usually in late evening or the early hours of the morning . The weakness is usually symmetrical ; the limb muscles closer to the trunk ( proximal ) are predominantly affected , and weakness tends to start in the legs and spread to the arms . Muscles of the mouth and throat , eyes , and breathing are usually not affected , but occasionally weakness of the respiratory muscles can cause life @-@ threatening respiratory failure . Attacks typically resolve within several hours to several days , even in the absence of treatment . On neurological examination during an attack , flaccid weakness of the limbs is noted ; reflexes are usually diminished , but the sensory system is unaffected . Mental status is not affected .
Attacks may be brought on by physical exertion , drinking alcohol , or eating food high in carbohydrates or salt . This may explain why attacks are more common in summer , when more people drink sugary drinks and engage in exercise . Exercise @-@ related attacks tend to occur during a period of rest immediately after exercise ; exercise may therefore be recommended to abort an attack .
There may be symptoms of thyroid overactivity , such as weight loss , a fast heart rate , tremor , and perspiration ; but such symptoms occur in only half of all cases . The most common type of hyperthyroidism , Graves ' disease , may additionally cause eye problems ( Graves ' ophthalmopathy ) and skin changes of the legs ( pretibial myxedema ) . Thyroid disease may also cause muscle weakness in the form of thyrotoxic myopathy , but this is constant rather than episodic .
= = Causes = =
= = = Genetics = = =
Genetic mutations in the L @-@ type calcium channel α1 @-@ subunit ( Cav1.1 ) have been described in Southern Chinese with TPP . The mutations are located in a different part of the gene from those described in the related condition familial periodic paralysis . In TPP , the mutations described are single @-@ nucleotide polymorphisms located in the hormone response element responsive to thyroid hormone , implying that transcription of the gene and production of ion channels may be altered by increased thyroid hormone levels . Furthermore , mutations have been reported in the genes coding for potassium voltage @-@ gated channel , Shaw @-@ related subfamily , member 4 ( Kv3.4 ) and sodium channel protein type 4 subunit alpha ( Na41.4 ) .
Of people with TPP , 33 % from various populations were demonstrated to have mutations in KCNJ18 , the gene coding for Kir2.6 , an inward @-@ rectifier potassium ion channel . This gene , too , harbors a thyroid response element .
Certain forms of human leukocyte antigen ( HLA ) — especially B46 , DR9 , DQB1 * 0303 , A2 , Bw22 , AW19 , B17 , and DRW8 — are more common in TPP . Linkage to particular forms of HLA , which plays a central role in the immune response , might imply an immune system cause , but it is uncertain whether this directly causes TPP or whether it increases the susceptibility to Graves ' disease , a known autoimmune disease .
= = = Thyroid disease = = =
The most common underlying form of thyroid disease associated with TPP is Graves ' disease , a syndrome due to an autoimmune reaction that leads to overproduction of thyroid hormone . TPP has also been described in people with other thyroid problems such as thyroiditis , toxic nodular goiter , toxic adenoma , TSH @-@ producing pituitary adenoma , excessive ingestion of thyroxine or iodine , and amiodarone @-@ induced hyperthyroidism .
= = Mechanism = =
The muscle weakness and increased risk of irregular heart beat in TPP result from markedly reduced levels of potassium in the bloodstream . Potassium is not in fact lost from the body , but increased Na + / K + -ATPase activity ( the enzyme that moves potassium into cells and keeps sodium in the blood ) leads to shift of potassium into tissues , and depletes the circulation . In other types of potassium derangement , the acid @-@ base balance is usually disturbed , with metabolic alkalosis and metabolic acidosis often being present . In TPP , these disturbances are generally absent . Hypokalemia leads to hyperpolarization of muscle cells , making the neuromuscular junction less responsive to normal nerve impulses and leading to decreased contractility of the muscles .
It is not clear how the described genetic defects increase the Na + / K + -ATPase activity , but it is suspected that the enzyme becomes more active due to increased thyroid hormone levels . Hyperthyroidism increases the levels of catecholamines ( such as adrenaline ) in the blood , increasing Na + / K + -ATPase activity . The enzyme activity is then increased further by the precipitating causes . For instance , increased carbohydrate intake leads to increased insulin levels ; this is known to activate Na + / K + -ATPase . Once the precipitant is removed , the enzyme activity returns to normal levels . It has been postulated that male hormones increase Na + / K + -ATPase activity , and that this explains why males are at a higher risk of TPP despite thyroid disease being more common in females .
TPP is regarded as a model for related conditions , known as " channelopathies " , which have been linked with mutations in ion channels ; the majority of these conditions occurs episodically .
= = Diagnosis = =
Hypokalemia ( low blood potassium levels ) commonly occurs during attacks ; levels below 3 @.@ 0 mmol / l are typically encountered . Magnesium and phosphate levels are often found to be decreased . Creatine kinase levels are elevated in two thirds of cases , usually due to a degree of muscle injury ; severe elevations suggestive of rhabdomyolysis ( muscle tissue destruction ) are rare . Electrocardiography ( ECG / EKG ) may show tachycardia ( a fast heart rate ) due to the thyroid disease , abnormalities due to cardiac arrhythmia ( atrial fibrillation , ventricular tachycardia ) , and conduction changes associated with hypokalemia ( U waves , QRS widening , QT prolongation , and T wave flattening ) . Electromyography shows changes similar to those encountered in myopathies ( muscle diseases ) , with a reduced amplitude of the compound muscle action potentials ( CMAPs ) ; they resolve when treatment has commenced .
TPP is distinguished from other forms of periodic paralysis ( especially hypokalemic periodic paralysis ) with thyroid function tests on the blood . These are normal in the other forms , and in thyrotoxicosis the levels of thyroxine and triiodothyronine are elevated , with resultant suppression of TSH production by the pituitary gland . Various other investigations are usually performed to separate the different causes of hyperthyroidism .
= = Treatment = =
In the acute phase of an attack , administration of potassium will quickly restore muscle strength and prevent complications . However , caution is advised as the total amount of potassium in the body is not decreased , and it is possible for potassium levels to overshoot ( " rebound hyperkalemia " ) ; slow infusions of potassium chloride are therefore recommended while other treatment is commenced .
The effects of excess thyroid hormone typically respond to the administration of a non @-@ selective beta blocker , such as propranolol ( as most of the symptoms are driven by increased levels of adrenaline and its effect on the β @-@ adrenergic receptors ) . Subsequent attacks may be prevented by avoiding known precipitants , such as high salt or carbohydrate intake , until the thyroid disease has been adequately treated .
Treatment of the thyroid disease usually leads to resolution of the paralytic attacks . Depending on the nature of the disease , the treatment may consist of thyrostatics ( drugs that reduce production of thyroid hormone ) , radioiodine , or occasionally thyroid surgery .
= = Epidemiology = =
TPP occurs predominantly in males of Chinese , Japanese , Vietnamese , Filipino , and Korean descent , as well as Thais , with much lower rates in people of other ethnicities . In Chinese and Japanese people with hyperthyroidism , 1 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 9 % experience TPP . This is in contrast to North America , where studies report a rate of 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 % . Native Americans , who share a genetic background with East Asians , are at an increased risk .
The typical age of onset is 20 – 40 . It is unknown why males are predominantly affected , with rates in males being 17- to 70 @-@ fold those in females , despite thyroid overactivity being much more common in women .
= = History = =
After several case reports in the 18th and 19th centuries , periodic paralysis was first described in full by the German neurologist Carl Friedrich Otto Westphal ( 1833 – 1890 ) in 1885 . In 1926 the Japanese physician Tetsushiro Shinosaki , from Fukuoka , observed the high rate of thyroid disease in Japanese people with periodic paralysis . The first English @-@ language report , in 1931 , originated from Dunlap and Kepler , physicians at the Mayo Clinic ; they described the condition in a patient with features of Graves ' disease . In 1937 periodic paralysis was linked with hypokalemia , as well as precipitation of attacks with glucose and insulin . This phenomenon has been used as a diagnostic test .
In 1974 it was discovered that propranolol could prevent attacks . The concept of channelopathies and the link with specific ion channel mutations emerged at the end of the 20th century .
|
= Doom Bar =
The Doom Bar ( previously known as Dunbar sands , Dune @-@ bar , and similar names ) is a sandbar at the mouth of the estuary of the River Camel , where it meets the Celtic Sea on the north coast of Cornwall , England . Like two other permanent sandbanks further up the estuary , the Doom Bar is composed mainly of marine sand that is continually being carried up from the seabed . More than 60 percent of the sand is derived from marine shells , making it an important source of agricultural lime , which has been collected for hundreds of years ; an estimated 10 million tons of sand or more has been removed from the estuary since the early nineteenth century , mainly by dredging .
The estuary mouth , exposed to the Atlantic Ocean , is a highly dynamic environment , and the sands have been prone to dramatic shifts during storms . According to tradition , the Doom Bar formed in the reign of Henry VIII , damaging the prosperity of the port of Padstow a mile up the estuary .
Until the twentieth century , access to Padstow 's harbour was via a narrow channel between the Doom Bar and the cliffs at Stepper Point , a difficult passage for sailing ships to navigate especially in north @-@ westerly gales when the cliffs would cut off the wind . Many ships were wrecked on the Doom Bar , despite the installation of mooring rings and capstans on the cliffs and quarrying away part of Stepper Point to improve the wind . In the early twentieth century the main channel moved away from the cliffs , and continued dredging has made it much safer for boats , but deaths have occurred on the bar as recently as 1997 .
A Cornish folklore legend relates that a mermaid created the bar as a dying curse on the harbour after she was shot by a local man . The Doom Bar has been used in poetry to symbolise feelings of melancholy , and it has given its name to the flagship ale from Sharp 's Brewery .
= = Description = =
The Doom Bar is a sandbar at the mouth of the Camel estuary on the north coast of Cornwall . The bar is composed mostly of coarse sediment carried up from the seabed by bed load processes , and it has been shown that there is a net inflow of sediment into the estuary . This inflow is aided by wave and tidal processes , but the exact patterns of sediment transport within the estuary are complex and are not fully understood . There is only a very small sediment contribution from the River Camel itself : most of the river 's sediment is deposited much higher up the estuary .
There are three persistent sandbars in the Camel estuary : the Doom Bar ; the Town Bar at Padstow , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) upstream ; and the Halwyn Bank just upstream of Padstow , where the estuary changes direction . All three are of similar composition ; a large proportion of their sediment is derived from marine mollusc shells , and as a consequence it includes a high level of calcium carbonate , measured in 1982 at 62 per cent . The high calcium carbonate content of the sand has meant that it has been used for hundreds of years to improve agricultural soil by liming . This use is known to date back to before 1600 . High calcium carbonate levels combined with natural sea salt made the sand valuable to farmers as an alkaline fertiliser when mixed with manure .
In a report published in 1839 , Henry De la Beche estimated that the sand from the Doom Bar accounted for between a fifth and a quarter of the sand used for agriculture in Devon and Cornwall . He also stated that around 80 men were permanently employed to dredge the area from several barges , removing an estimated 100 @,@ 000 long tons ( 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 kg ) of sand per year , which he said he had been " assured by competent persons " had caused a reduction in height of the bar of between 6 and 8 feet ( 180 and 240 cm ) in the 50 years before 1836 . Another report , published about twenty years earlier by Samuel Drew , stated , however , that although the sandbars had been " pillaged " for ages they remained undiminished . An estimated ten million tons of sediment was removed from the estuary between 1836 and 1989 , mostly for agricultural purposes and mostly from the Doom Bar . Sand is still regularly dredged from the area ; in 2009 an estimated 120 @,@ 000 tons of sand were removed from the bar and the surrounding estuary .
There is a submerged forest beneath the eastern part of the Doom Bar , off Daymer Bay . It is believed to be part of the wooded plain that existed off the current Cornwall coast before it was overcome by sand dunes and beach sand during the last significant rise in sea @-@ level , which ended around 4 @,@ 000 years ago . Exposed as they are to the Atlantic Ocean , the sands of the area have always been prone to sudden shifts : several houses were said to have been buried one night during a powerful storm . According to tradition one such shift led to the formation of the Doom Bar during the reign of Henry VIII ( 1509 – 1547 ) , causing a decline in the prosperity of Padstow . Today , the sandbank covers approximately 0 @.@ 4 square miles ( 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) , linking the beaches near Harbour Cove by sand flats , although the actual size and shape varies .
The name " Doom Bar " is a corruption of the older name Dunbar which itself derives from dune @-@ bar . Although the bar was commonly known as " Dunbar sands " before 1900 , the name " Doom Bar " was used in 1761 ( as " the Doom @-@ bar " ) , and it was also used in poetry , and in House of Commons papers in the nineteenth century .
= = Danger to shipping = =
For centuries , the Doom Bar was regarded as a significant danger to ships — to be approached with caution to avoid running aground . When sails were the main source of power , ships coming round Stepper Point would lose the wind , causing loss of steerage , leaving them to drift away from the channel . Sometimes , gusts of wind known colloquially as " flaws " blew over Stepper Point and pushed vessels towards the sandbank . Dropping anchor would not help , as it could not gain a firm hold on the sand . Richard Hellyer , the Sub @-@ Commissioner of Pilotage at Padstow , gave evidence in 1859 that the Doom Bar was regarded as so dangerous that in a storm , vessels would risk being wrecked on the coast rather than negotiate the channel to Padstow harbour .
In 1761 John Griffin published a letter in the London Chronicle recommending methods for entering the Camel estuary during rough weather , particularly while north @-@ northwest winds were blowing and described the bolts and rings he had fixed to the cliffs to assist ships trying to enter the harbour . Mooring rings were still there in 1824 , and around 1830 , three capstans at the base of the cliffs and bollards along the cliffs , by which means boats could be warped safely past the bar were installed .
In 1846 , the Plymouth and Padstow Railway company took an interest in trying to remove the Doom Bar , hoping to increase trade through the harbour at Padstow . The plan was to create a breakwater on the bar , which would stop the build @-@ up of sand , and the railway would transport sand from the nearby dunes to where it was needed for agricultural purposes elsewhere in the south west .
In the event , neither the breakwater nor the railway were built , but the issue was re @-@ examined by the 1858 British Parliamentary Select Committee on Harbours for Refuge . The select committee took evidence from many witnesses about harbours all around the country . For Padstow , evidence from Captain Claxton , RN , stated that without the removal of the sand , ships in distress could only use the harbour at high tide . The committee was told by J. D. Bryant , a port commissioner and Receiver of Wreck for Padstow , that in 1848 Padstow Harbour Association had cut down a small piece of Stepper Point , which had given ships about 50 fathoms of extra " fair wind " into the harbour . Bryant recommended further removal of the point which would allow a true wind along the whole channel past the dangerous sandbar .
The select committee report concluded the bar would return through re @-@ silting if it were dredged , and there were insufficient resources to prevent it . Several alternatives were discussed , including the construction of two guide walls to sluice water across the bar , thereby removing it . Evidence was given that the bar was made up of " hard sand " which would prove difficult to remove . During the discussions , it was indicated that whilst the sandbank could be removed by a variety of methods , it would not significantly improve access to the harbour , and that a harbour of refuge would be better on the Welsh coast .
The committee 's final report determined that along the whole of the rocky coast between Land 's End and Hartland Point , Padstow was the only potentially safe harbour for the coasting trade when the most dangerous north @-@ westerly onshore gales were blowing . It noted that Padstow 's safety was compromised by the Doom Bar and by the eddy @-@ forming effect of Stepper Point . The report recommended initial expenditure of £ 20 @,@ 000 to cut down the outer part of Stepper Point , which , in conjunction with the capstans , bollards and mooring rings , would significantly reduce the risk to shipping .
During the twentieth century the Doom Bar was regularly dredged to improve access to Padstow . By the 1930s , when Commander H.E. Turner surveyed the estuary , there were two channels round the Doom Bar , and it is thought that the main channel may have moved to the east side in 1929 . By 2010 the original channel had disappeared . The estuary is regularly dredged by Padstow Harbour Commission 's dredgers , Sandsnipe and Mannin .
= = Shipwrecks = =
The Doom Bar has accounted for more than 600 beachings , capsizes and wrecks since records began early in the nineteenth century , the majority of which are wrecks .
Larger boats entering Padstow were offered assistance , generally by pilots who would wait at Stepper Point when a ship signalled it would be entering . If a boat was foundering , salvors would step in and help . There were cases where salvors attempted to overstate the danger in court , so as to extort more money from the owners . This happened to the brig The Towan , which floundered in October 1843 but was not in significant danger . Although it did not need assistance , salvors interfered and attempted to claim a large amount in compensation from the owner .
In 1827 , the recently founded Life @-@ boat Institution helped fund a permanent lifeboat at Padstow , a 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) rowing boat with four oars . The lifeboat house at Hawker 's Cove was erected two years later by the Padstow Harbour Association for the Preservation of Life and Property from Shipwreck . Reverend Charles Prideaux @-@ Brune of Prideaux Place was the patron . In 1879 , four of his granddaughters and their friend were rowing on the Doom Bar and saw a craft go down . They rowed out to save the drowning sailor . As it was very unusual for women to rescue men all five girls received a Royal National Lifeboat Institution Silver Medal for their bravery .
Despite the safer eastern channel and improvements in maritime technology , the Royal National Lifeboat Institution still deals with incidents at the Doom Bar . In February 1997 , two fishermen who were not wearing lifejackets drowned after their boat capsized . Two anglers had been killed in a similar incident in 1994 . On 25 June 2007 , the Padstow lifeboat and a rescue helicopter rescued the crews of two yachts in separate incidents from the area .
= = = HMS Whiting = = =
The only warship reported wrecked on the Doom Bar was HMS Whiting , a 12 @-@ gun schooner . The Whiting was originally a cargo ship named Arrow , which travelled from the United States to France ; she was captured by the Royal Navy on 8 May 1812 and renamed . On 15 September 1816 , she ran aground on the Doom Bar as the tide was ebbing and the wind was from an unfavourable direction offering little assistance . According to court @-@ martial transcripts , an attempt to move her was made at the next high tide , but she was taking on water and it was impossible to save her .
Whiting was abandoned over the next few days and the crew salvaged whatever they could . The officer in charge , Lieutenant John Jackson , lost one year 's seniority for negligence , and three crewmen were given " 50 lashes with nine tails " for desertion . The wreck was sold to salvors and , despite correspondence requesting salvage eleven years later , the navy took no further interest . The Royal Navy attempted to survey the wreck in June 1830 , by which time the sandbank had covered most of it . In May 2010 a marine research and exploration group , ProMare , and the Nautical Archaeology Society , with the help of Padstow Primary School , mounted a search for the ship . The groups searched four sites on the Doom Bar , but have so far been unsuccessful .
= = = Antoinette = = =
The largest ship wrecked on the Doom Bar is believed to be the Antoinette , an 1874 barque of 1 @,@ 118 tonnes . On New Year 's Day 1895 , she set sail from Newport in South Wales with a cargo of coal for Brazil , but foundered near Lundy Island , losing parts of her mast . She was towed by a steam tug towards Padstow but struck the Doom Bar and the tow rope either broke , or had to be released . Her crew of fourteen and several men who had attempted to salvage her were rescued by lifeboats from Port Isaac and Padstow , following which she rapidly sank .
Attempts by three tugs from Cardiff to remove the wreck were unsuccessful , but the next spring tide carried the midsection up the estuary onto Town Bar , opposite Padstow , where it was a hazard to shipping . A miner named Pope was called in to remove it : he used gelignite without success , though the explosion was reported to have broken many windows in the town . In 2010 a wreck , identified as almost certainly the Antoinette , surfaced on Town Bar . The Royal Navy Bomb Disposal Unit failed to demolish it and it was marked with a buoy ; in March 2011 work started to demolish the remainder of it using saws .
= = In literature = =
According to local folklore , the Doom Bar was created by the Mermaid of Padstow as a dying curse after being shot . In 1906 , Enys Tregarthen wrote that a Padstow local , Tristram Bird , bought a new gun and wanted to shoot something worthy of it . He went hunting seals at Hawker 's Cove but found a young woman sitting on a rock brushing her hair . Entranced by her beauty , he offered to marry her and when she refused he shot her in retaliation , only realising afterwards that she was a mermaid . As she died she cursed the harbour with a " bar of doom " , from Hawker 's Cove to Trebetherick Bay . A terrible gale blew up that night and when it finally subsided there was the sandbar , " covered with wrecks of ships and bodies of drowned men " .
The ballad , The Mermaid of Padstow , tells a similar story of a local named Tom Yeo , who shot the mermaid mistaking her for a seal . John Betjeman , who was well @-@ acquainted with the area , wrote in 1969 that the mermaid met a local man and fell in love with him . When she could no longer bear living without him , she tried to lure him beneath the waves but he escaped by shooting her . In her rage she threw a handful of sand towards Padstow , around which the sandbank grew . In other versions of the tale , the mermaid sings from the rocks and a youth shoots at her with a crossbow , or a greedy man shoots her with a longbow . Mermaids were believed to sing to their victims so that they can lure adulterers to their death .
The mermaid legend extends beyond the creation of the Doom Bar . In 1939 Samuel Williamson declared there are mermaids comparable to Sirens who lie in the shallow waters and draw in ships to be wrecked . In addition , " the distressful cry of a woman bewailing her dead " is said to be heard after a storm where lives are lost on the sandbar .
Rosamund Watson 's " Ballad of Pentyre Town " uses the sandbank for imagery to elicit feelings of melancholy when talking of giving up everything for love . A Victorian poem by Alice E. Gillington , " The Doom @-@ Bar " , relates the story of a girl who gave an engraved ring to the man she loved before he sailed away across the Doom Bar , breaking her heart . Four years later , when the tide was lower than usual , her friends persuaded her to walk out on the sand where she found the ring inside a scallop . Realising he must have tossed it aside on the night he left , she resolved not to remain heart @-@ broken , but to sail out to sea herself .
A play , The Doom Bar , about smuggling and wrecking was written in the early 1900s by Arthur Hansen Bush . Although there was no interest in London it was well received in America , and was scheduled to tour in Chicago and New York . A series of mishaps , blamed on the legendary wrecker Cruel Coppinger , culminating in a fire at Baltimore , caused the play to be considered cursed by America 's actors ' unions and its members were banned from appearing in it .
= = Doom Bar bitter = =
Doom Bar is a bitter ( 4 @.@ 0 % abv ) brewed by Sharp 's Brewery originally at Rock , a village on the estuary opposite Padstow and in Burton @-@ upon @-@ Trent . It is the brewery 's flagship beer , accounting for 90 per cent of sales and with an output of 24 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imperial pints ( 14 @,@ 000 kl ) in 2010 . In 2011 , sales increased by 22 per cent , making it the UK 's fastest growing ale for three years in a row . As of June 2013 , Doom Bar bitter became the number one UK cask ale , by volume and value .
|
= Komm , du süße Todesstunde , BWV 161 =
Komm , du süße Todesstunde ( Come , o sweet hour of death ) , BWV 161 , is a church cantata composed by Johann Sebastian Bach in Weimar for the 16th Sunday after Trinity .
Bach had taken up regular cantata composition two years before when he was promoted to concertmaster at the Weimar court , writing one cantata per month to be performed in the Schlosskirche , the court chapel in the ducal Schloss . The text of Komm , du süße Todesstunde , as of most other cantatas written in Weimar , was provided by court poet Salomon Franck . He based it on the prescribed gospel reading about the Young man from Nain . His text reflects on longing for death , seen as a transition to a life united with Jesus . The text includes as a closing chorale the fourth stanza of the hymn " Herzlich tut mich verlangen " by Christoph Knoll .
The cantata comprises six movements , which opens with a sequence of alternating arias and recitatives leading to a chorus and a concluding chorale . The chorale tune , known as " O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden " , appears already in the first movement , played by the organ , and musical motifs of the arias are derived from it , providing an overall formal unity to the composition . Bach scored the work for two vocal parts ( alto and tenor ) , a four @-@ part choir , and a Baroque chamber ensemble of recorders , strings and continuo . In the alto recitative ( movement 4 ) , accompanied by all instruments , Bach creates the images of sleep , of waking up , and of funeral bells , the latter in the recorders and pizzicato of the strings .
While the libretto was published in a collection in 1715 , Bach possibly led the first performance only a year later on 27 September 1716 , due to a period of public mourning . Bach revived the cantata in Leipzig , but not during his cantata cycles when he composed three new works for the 16th Sunday after Trinity . With minor changes , he performed Komm , du süße Todesstunde between 1737 and 1746 . He also assigning it to the occasion of Purification , a feast with a similar topic .
= = Background = =
Bach established his reputation as an outstanding organist while in his teens . He moved to Weimar in 1708 to take up position as court organist to the co @-@ reigning dukes Wilhelm Ernst and Ernst August of Saxe @-@ Weimar . He had already begun to compose cantatas at his previous posts at Arnstadt and Mühlhausen , and his reasons for moving included disappointment with the standard of singing at the churches where he had worked . He was appointed concertmaster of the Weimar court capelle on 2 March 1714 . As concertmaster , he assumed principal responsibility for composing new works . Specifically he was tasked with providing cantatas for the Schlosskirche ( palace church ) on a monthly schedule , and a complete annual cycle within four years . While Bach had composed vocal music only for special occasions until his promotion , the regular chance to compose and perform a new work resulted in a program into which Bach " threw himself wholeheartedly " , as the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff notes .
= = = Cantatas in 1716 = = =
The cantatas probably first performed in 1716 were written on texts by the Weimar court poet Salomon Franck , published in his collections Evangelisches Andachts @-@ Opffer ( 1715 ) and Evangelische Sonn- und Festtages @-@ Andachten ( 1717 ) . Fewer cantatas survived than from the years before , which could be the result of less interest , but also loss of composed works .
Bach turned again to prolific writing with the beginning of a new liturgical year with the first Sunday in Advent . He composed works for three consecutive Sundays in Advent , prompted probably by the death of the Kapellmeister Johann Samuel Drese on 1 December 1716 . When Bach 's hope to become Drese 's successor was disappointed he ceased to compose cantatas for the Weimar court .
The following table of works performed by Bach as concertmaster in 1716 is based on Wolff and the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr .
= = Readings and text = =
Bach wrote Komm , du süße Todesstunde for the 16th Sunday after Trinity . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the Epistle to the Ephesians , dedicated to the strengthening of faith in the congregation of Ephesus ( Ephesians 3 : 13 – 21 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , the raising from the dead of the Young man from Nain ( Luke 7 : 11 – 17 ) . In Bach 's time the story pointed at the resurrection of the dead , expressed in words of desire to die soon .
The text for this cantata , as for many others of Bach 's Weimar period , was written by the court poet Salomon Franck , and published in his collection Evangelisches Andachts @-@ Opffer in 1715 . He included as the closing chorale the fourth stanza of the hymn " Herzlich tut mich verlangen " ( 1611 ) by Christoph Knoll . Franck wrote a libretto full of biblical references , such as a phrase in movement one , " feeding on honey from the lion 's mouth " , which is based on Judges 14 : 5 – 9 . Alfred Dürr , an authority on Bach 's cantatas , summarizes that Franck wrote " a deeply felt , personal confession of longing for Jesus " . The Bach scholar Richard D. P. Jones notes that the cantata is " one of the most richly inspired of all Bach 's Weimar cantatas " , and sees the text as a part of the inspiration , with its " mystical longing for union with Christ .
= = Performances = =
Bach led the first performance , but the date has been debated . Dürr concluded initially ( in the first edition of his book Die Kantaten von Johann Sebastian Bach of 1971 ) that the cantata was first performed on 6 October 1715 . However , as this date fell in a period of public mourning in Weimar , the first performance is now generally accepted as the same occasion the following year , 27 September 1716 , by the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff , the publisher Carus @-@ Verlag , and Dürr in the revised and translated edition of 2006 . Richard D. P. Jones notes in his book The Creative Development of Johann Sebastian Bach that " technical novelties " suggest that the cantata was also composed in 1716 , according to a recent study .
In his first year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , Bach composed a new cantata for the 16th Sunday after Trinity , Christus , der ist mein Leben , BWV 95 . A year later he wrote a chorale cantata for his second cantata cycle , Liebster Gott , wenn werd ich sterben ? BWV 8 , and for his third cantata cycle there he composed Wer weiß , wie nahe mir mein Ende ? BWV 27 . He revived Komm , du süße Todesstunde in Leipzig , but only later , in a version dated some time between 1737 and 1746 , with minor changes to the scoring . He even performed it for a different liturgical occasion , the feast of the Purification of Mary on 2 February . The prescribed readings for the Purification included Simeon 's canticle Nunc dimittis ( Luke 2 : 22 – 32 ) , which with its line " now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace " has a similar topic .
= = Music = =
= = = Structure and scoring = = =
The cantata is structured in six movements : a series of alternating arias and recitatives leads to a chorus and a concluding chorale . As with several other cantatas on words by Franck , it is scored for a small ensemble : two vocal soloists ( alto ( A ) and tenor ( T ) ) , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque chamber ensemble of two recorders ( Fl ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , organ ( Org ) and basso continuo ( Bc ) . The title page reads simply : " Auf den sechzenden Sontag nach Trintatis " ( For the sixteenth Sunday after Trinity ) . The duration is given as 19 minutes .
A structural element is the anticipation of the closing chorale in the first movement , where the chorale melody is used as a cantus firmus . Bach used this approach to unify a structure also in the cantatas Alles , was von Gott geboren , BWV 80a , and Barmherziges Herze der ewigen Liebe , BWV 185 , also composed at Weimar . He later used the juxtaposition of a chorale cantus firmus against vocal music later on a grand scale in his St Matthew Passion , in both the opening chorus and the movement concluding Part I. The use of recorders in Komm , du süße Todesstundeis reminiscent of the early cantata Actus tragicus , Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit , BWV 106 .
In the Leipzig performances of the cantata , the first verse of the chorale was probably sung by a soprano , instead of an instrumental quotation of the chorale tune in the first aria . The cantata was transposed from C major to E @-@ flat major at Leipzig ) . The recorders were then possibly replaced by transverse flutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring and keys are given for the version performed in Weimar in 1714 . The keys and time signatures are taken from Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The instruments are shown separately for winds and strings , while the continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = = Movements = = =
A Phrygian chorale melody , well @-@ known as the melody of " O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden " , provides the musical theme of the cantata , appearing in movement 1 in both its original form and the alto line derived from it . The themes of the two other arias are taken from the same melody , providing formal unity . The same melody appears five times in chorales of Bach 's St Matthew Passion .
= = = = 1 = = = =
The opening aria for alto , " Komm , du süße Todesstunde " ( " Come , o sweet hour of death " or " Come , thou sweet hour of parting " ) is accompanied by the recorders . They move in the ritornello in parallel thirds and sixths . The organ serves not only as a bass instrument but supplies the chorale melody . In Weimar , Bach seems to have expected the congregation to know the words of the first stanza of Knoll 's hymn .
Jones points out that the cantus firmus of the organ seems " objective " , in contrast to the subjective " display of personal feeling " of the voice and the complexity of the other parts .
In a later performance in Leipzig , a soprano sang the stanza with the organ .
= = = = 2 = = = =
The tenor recitative , " Welt , deine Lust ist Last " ( World , your pleasure is a burden ) , begins as a secco recitative , but ends in an arioso as the words paraphrase a biblical verse from Philippians 1 : 23 , " Ich habe Lust abzuscheiden und bei Christo zu sein " to " Ich habe Lust , bei Christo bald zu weiden . Ich habe Lust , von dieser Welt zu scheiden " ( I desire to pasture soon with Christ . I desire to depart from this world ) . Dürr notes that the development from secco to arioso is frequent in Bach 's early cantatas , and is here especially motivated to highlight the biblical paraphrase .
= = = = 3 = = = =
The aria for tenor , " Mein Verlangen ist , den Heiland zu umfangen " ( My longing is , to embrace my Savior ) , is the first movement with the strings , expressing a deep sense of longing . It returns to the hope for union with Jesus of the first movement , expressed in in an agitated way , with syncopies for " longing " and flowing motifs for " embracing " . The middle section is mostly accompanied by the continuo only , but at times interjected by the strings playing the " longing " -motifs .
= = = = 4 = = = =
The alto recitative , " Der Schluß ist schon gemacht " ( The end has already come ) , is accompanied by all instruments , creating the images of sleep ( in a downward movement , ending in long notes ) , the waking up ( in fast movement upwards ) , and funeral bells in the recorders and pizzicato of the strings . The musicologist Tadashi Isoyama notes : " In this movement the anticipation of death appears to be fulfilled , and the alto 's declamation , welcoming death and the ringing of the funeral bells , is filled with a pathos amounting almost to obsession . "
= = = = 5 = = = =
The first choral movement 5 , " Wenn es meines Gottes Wille " ( If it is my God 's will ) , is marked aria by Franck . Bach set it for four parts , using song @-@ like homophony . Wolff compares the style to Thuringian motets of around 1700 . The first part is not repeated da capo , in keeping with the last words " Dieses sei mein letztes Wort " ( May this be my last word ) . While a textual da capo is impossible , Bach composed a musical da capo , giving the movement a structure of ABB 'A ' . Dürr notes that " Arnold Schering has drawn attention to the increasing rapture " .
= = = = 6 = = = =
The closing chorale , " Der Leib zwar in der Erden " ( The body , indeed , in the earth ) , is illuminated by a fifth part of the two recorders playing a lively counterpoint in unison .
The " soaring descant " of the recorders has been interpreted as " creating the image of the flesh transfigured " .
= = = Summary = = =
Wolff summarizes : " Cantata 161 is one of the most delicate and jewel @-@ like products of Bach 's years in Weimar . The writing in up to ten parts is extraordinarily subtle . ... The recorders additionally contribute in no small way to the spiritualised emotion and positive feelings associated with the ' sweet hour of death ' " . Jones writes : " Bach 's arrival at full maturity by about the middle of his Weimar period ( 1713 – 17 ) is attested by the stylistic and technical assurance , and the consistently high standard , of his writing at that time . " He counts the cantata as one of several that reached a level of mastery unsurpassed in later years , along with the Orgelbüchlein and the cantata Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis , BWV 21 , among others .
= = Publication = =
The cantata was edited for the Bach Gesellschaft Ausgabe , the first complete edition of Bach 's works , by Franz Wüllner . The volume in question was published in 1887 . The New Bach Edition ( Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe , NBA ) published the score of both the Weimar and the Leipzig version in 1982 , edited by Helmuth Osthoff , with the critical commentary following in 1984 .
= = Later performances = =
John Eliot Gardiner performed the cantata twice in the Bach year 2000 , both on Bach 's day of death , 28 July , at Iona Abbey , and on the 16th Sunday after Trinity at the church of the Convent of San Domingos de Bonaval of Santiago de Compostela as part of the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage with the Monteverdi Choir .
= = Selected recordings = =
The table entries are excerpted from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs are roughly marked as large by red background , orchestras from large ( red ) to vocal ensembles with one voice per part ( OVPP ) and ensembles playing on period instruments in historically informed performances ( green ) .
|
= Pi =
The number π is a mathematical constant , the ratio of a circle 's circumference to its diameter , commonly approximated as 3 @.@ 14159 . It has been represented by the Greek letter " π " since the mid @-@ 18th century , though it is also sometimes spelled out as " pi " ( / paɪ / ) .
Being an irrational number , π cannot be expressed exactly as a fraction ( equivalently , its decimal representation never ends and never settles into a permanent repeating pattern ) . Still , fractions such as 22 / 7 and other rational numbers are commonly used to approximate π . The digits appear to be randomly distributed . In particular , the digit sequence of π is conjectured to satisfy a specific kind of statistical randomness , but to date no proof of this has been discovered . Also , π is a transcendental number – a number that is not the root of any non @-@ zero polynomial having rational coefficients . This transcendence of π implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle with a compass and straightedge .
Ancient civilizations needed the value of π to be computed accurately for practical reasons . It was calculated to seven digits , using geometrical techniques , in Chinese mathematics and to about five in Indian mathematics in the 5th century AD . The historically first exact formula for π , based on infinite series , was not available until a millennium later , when in the 14th century the Madhava – Leibniz series was discovered in Indian mathematics . In the 20th and 21st centuries , mathematicians and computer scientists discovered new approaches that , when combined with increasing computational power , extended the decimal representation of π to , as of 2015 , over 13 @.@ 3 trillion ( 1013 ) digits . Practically all scientific applications require no more than a few hundred digits of π , and many substantially fewer , so the primary motivation for these computations is the human desire to break records . However , the extensive calculations involved have been used to test supercomputers and high @-@ precision multiplication algorithms .
Because its definition relates to the circle , π is found in many formulae in trigonometry and geometry , especially those concerning circles , ellipses or spheres . Because of its special role as an eigenvalue , π appears in areas of mathematics and the sciences having little to do with the geometry of circles , such as number theory and statistics . It is also found in cosmology , thermodynamics , mechanics and electromagnetism . The ubiquity of π makes it one of the most widely known mathematical constants both inside and outside the scientific community : Several books devoted to it have been published , the number is celebrated on Pi Day and record @-@ setting calculations of the digits of π often result in news headlines . Attempts to memorize the value of π with increasing precision have led to records of over 70 @,@ 000 digits .
= = Fundamentals = =
= = = Name = = =
The symbol used by mathematicians to represent the ratio of a circle 's circumference to its diameter is the lowercase Greek letter π , sometimes spelled out as pi , and derived from the first letter of the Greek word perimetros , meaning circumference . In English , π is pronounced as " pie " ( / paɪ / , paɪ ) . In mathematical use , the lowercase letter π ( or π in sans @-@ serif font ) is distinguished from its capital counterpart Π , which denotes a product of a sequence .
The choice of the symbol π is discussed in the section Adoption of the symbol π .
= = = Definition = = =
π is commonly defined as the ratio of a circle 's circumference C to its diameter d :
<formula>
The ratio C / d is constant , regardless of the circle 's size . For example , if a circle has twice the diameter of another circle it will also have twice the circumference , preserving the ratio C / d . This definition of π implicitly makes use of flat ( Euclidean ) geometry ; although the notion of a circle can be extended to any curved ( non @-@ Euclidean ) geometry , these new circles will no longer satisfy the formula π
= C / d .
Here , the circumference of a circle is the arc length around the perimeter of the circle , a quantity which can be formally defined independently of geometry using limits , a concept in calculus . For example , one may compute directly the arc length of the top half of the unit circle given in Cartesian coordinates by x2 + y2 =
1 , as the integral :
<formula>
An integral such as this was adopted as the definition of π by Karl Weierstrass , who defined it directly as an integral in 1841 .
Definitions of π such as these that rely on a notion of circumference , and hence implicitly on concepts of the integral calculus , are no longer common in the literature . Remmert ( 1991 ) explains that this is because in many modern treatments of calculus , differential calculus typically precedes integral calculus in the university curriculum , so it is desirable to have a definition of π that does not rely on the latter . One such definition , due to Richard Baltzer , and popularized by Edmund Landau , is the following : π is twice the smallest positive number at which the cosine function equals 0 . The cosine can be defined independently of geometry as a power series , or as the solution of a differential equation .
In a similar spirit , π can be defined instead using properties of the complex exponential , exp ( z ) , of a complex variable z . Like the cosine , the complex exponential can be defined in one of several ways . The set of complex numbers at which exp ( z ) is equal to one is then an ( imaginary ) arithmetic progression of the form :
<formula>
and there is a unique positive real number π with this property . A more abstract variation on the same idea , making use of sophisticated mathematical concepts of topology and algebra , is the following theorem : there is a unique continuous isomorphism from the group R / Z of real numbers under addition modulo integers ( the circle group ) onto the multiplicative group of complex numbers of absolute value one . The number π is then defined as half the magnitude of the derivative of this homomorphism .
A circle encloses the largest area that can be attained within a given perimeter . Thus the number π is also characterized as the best constant in the isoperimetric inequality ( times one @-@ fourth ) . There are many other , closely related , ways in which π appears as an eigenvalue of some geometrical or physical process ; see below .
= = = Irrationality and normality = = =
π is an irrational number , meaning that it cannot be written as the ratio of two integers ( fractions such as 22 / 7 are commonly used to approximate π ; no common fraction ( ratio of whole numbers ) can be its exact value ) . Because π is irrational , it has an infinite number of digits in its decimal representation , and it does not settle into an infinitely repeating pattern of digits . There are several proofs that π is irrational ; they generally require calculus and rely on the reductio ad absurdum technique . The degree to which π can be approximated by rational numbers ( called the irrationality measure ) is not precisely known ; estimates have established that the irrationality measure is larger than the measure of e or ln ( 2 ) but smaller than the measure of Liouville numbers .
The digits of π have no apparent pattern and have passed tests for statistical randomness , including tests for normality ; a number of infinite length is called normal when all possible sequences of digits ( of any given length ) appear equally often . The conjecture that π is normal has not been proven or disproven .
Since the advent of computers , a large number of digits of π have been available on which to perform statistical analysis . Yasumasa Kanada has performed detailed statistical analyses on the decimal digits of π and found them consistent with normality ; for example , the frequency of the ten digits 0 to 9 were subjected to statistical significance tests , and no evidence of a pattern was found . Any random sequence of digits contains arbitrarily long subsequences that appear non @-@ random , by the infinite monkey theorem . Thus , because the sequence of π 's digits passes statistical tests for randomness , it contains some sequences of digits that may appear non @-@ random , such as a sequence of six consecutive 9s that begins at the 762nd decimal place of the decimal representation of π .
= = = Transcendence = = =
In addition to being irrational , more strongly π is a transcendental number , which means that it is not the solution of any non @-@ constant polynomial with rational coefficients , such as x5 / 120 − x3 / 6 + x = 0 .
The transcendence of π has two important consequences : First , π cannot be expressed using any finite combination of rational numbers and square roots or n @-@ th roots such as 3 √ 31 or √ 10 . Second , since no transcendental number can be constructed with compass and straightedge , it is not possible to " square the circle " . In other words , it is impossible to construct , using compass and straightedge alone , a square whose area is equal to the area of a given circle . Squaring a circle was one of the important geometry problems of the classical antiquity . Amateur mathematicians in modern times have sometimes attempted to square the circle and sometimes claim success despite the fact that it is impossible .
= = = Continued fractions = = =
Like all irrational numbers , π cannot be represented as a common fraction ( also known as a simple or vulgar fraction ) , by the very definition of " irrational " . But every irrational number , including π , can be represented by an infinite series of nested fractions , called a continued fraction :
<formula>
A001203
Truncating the continued fraction at any point yields a rational approximation for π ; the first four of these are 3 , 22 / 7 , 333 / 106 , and 355 / 113 . These numbers are among the most well @-@ known and widely used historical approximations of the constant . Each approximation generated in this way is a best rational approximation ; that is , each is closer to π than any other fraction with the same or a smaller denominator . Because π is known to be transcendental , it is by definition not algebraic and so cannot be a quadratic irrational . Therefore , π cannot have a periodic continued fraction . Although the simple continued fraction for π ( shown above ) also does not exhibit any other obvious pattern , mathematicians have discovered several generalized continued fractions that do , such as :
<formula>
= = = Approximate value = = =
Some approximations of pi include :
Integers : 3
Fractions : Approximate fractions include ( in order of increasing accuracy ) 22 / 7 , 333 / 106 , 355 / 113 , 52163 / 16604 , 103993 / 33102 , and 245850922 / 78256779 . ( List is selected terms from A063674 and A063673 . )
Decimal : The first 50 decimal digits are 3 @.@ 14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510 ... A000796
Binary : The base 2 approximation to 48 digits is 11 @.@ 001001000011111101101010100010001000010110100011 ...
Hexadecimal : The base 16 approximation to 20 digits is 3.243F6A8885A308D31319 ...
Sexagesimal : A base 60 approximation to five sexagesimal digits is 3 ; 8 @,@ 29 @,@ 44 @,@ 0 @,@ 47
= = = Complex numbers and Euler 's identity = = =
Any complex number , say z , can be expressed using a pair of real numbers . In the polar coordinate system , one number ( radius or r ) is used to represent z 's distance from the origin of the complex plane and the other ( angle or φ ) to represent a counter @-@ clockwise rotation from the positive real line as follows :
<formula>
where i is the imaginary unit satisfying i2
= − 1 . The frequent appearance of π in complex analysis can be related to the behavior of the exponential function of a complex variable , described by Euler 's formula :
<formula>
where the constant e is the base of the natural logarithm . This formula establishes a correspondence between imaginary powers of e and points on the unit circle centered at the origin of the complex plane . Setting φ =
π in Euler 's formula results in Euler 's identity , celebrated by mathematicians because it contains the five most important mathematical constants :
<formula>
There are n different complex numbers z satisfying zn = 1 , and these are called the " n @-@ th roots of unity " . They are given by this formula :
<formula>
= = = Spectral characterizations = = =
Many of the appearances of π in the formulas of mathematics and the sciences have to do with its close relationship with geometry . However , π also appears in many natural situations having apparently nothing to do with geometry .
In many applications it plays a distinguished role as an eigenvalue . For example , an idealized vibrating string can be modelled as the graph of a function f on the unit interval [ 0 @,@ 1 ] , with fixed ends f ( 0 ) |
= f ( 1 ) =
0 . The modes of vibration of the string are solutions of the differential equation f " ( x ) + λ2 f ( x ) |
= 0 . Here λ is an associated eigenvalue , which is constrained by Sturm – Liouville theory to take on only certain specific values . The value λ =
π is one such eigenvalue , as the function f ( x ) |
= sin ( π x ) satisfies the boundary conditions and the differential equation with λ =
π .
The value π is in fact the least such eigenvalue , and is associated with the fundamental mode of vibration of the string . One way to obtain this is by estimating the energy . The energy satisfies an inequality , Wirtinger 's inequality for functions , which states that if a function f : [ 0 , 1 ] → ℂ is given such that f ( 0 ) |
= f ( 1 ) =
0 and f and f ' are both square integrable , then the inequality holds :
<formula>
and the case of equality holds precisely when f is a multiple of sin ( π x ) . So π appears as an optimal constant in Wirtinger 's inequality , and from this it follows that it is the smallest such eigenvalue ( by Rayleigh quotient methods ) .
The number π serves a similar role in higher @-@ dimensional analysis , appearing as eigenvalues for other similar kinds of problems . As mentioned above , it can be characterized via its role as the best constant in the isoperimetric inequality : the area A enclosed by a plane Jordan curve of perimeter P satisfies the inequality
<formula>
and equality is clearly achieved for the circle , since in that case A |
= πr2 and P =
2πr .
Ultimately as a consequence of the isoperimetric inequality , the constant π is associated with best constants of the Poincaré inequality . As a special case , π appears as the optimal smallest eigenvalue of the Dirichlet energy , in dimensions 1 and 2 , which thus characterizes the role of π in many physical phenomena as well , for example those of classical potential theory . The one @-@ dimensional case is just Wirtinger 's inequality .
The constant π also appears as a critical spectral parameter in the Fourier transform . This is the integral transform , that takes a complex @-@ valued integrable function f on the real line to the function defined as :
<formula>
There are several different conventions for the Fourier transform , all of which involve a factor of π that is placed somewhere . The appearance of π is essential in these formulas , as there is there is no possibility to remove π altogether from the Fourier transform and its inverse transform . The definition given above is the most canonical however , because it describes the unique unitary operator on L2 that is also an algebra homomorphism of L1 to L ∞ .
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle also contains the number π . The uncertainty principle gives a sharp lower bound on the extent to which it is possible to localize a function both in space and in frequency : with our conventions for the Fourier transform ,
<formula>
The physical consequence , about the uncertainty in simultaneous position and momentum observations of a quantum mechanical system , is discussed below . The appearance of π in the formulae of Fourier analysis is ultimately a consequence of the Stone – von Neumann theorem , asserting the uniqueness of the Schrödinger representation of the Heisenberg group .
= = = Gaussian integrals = = =
The fields of probability and statistics frequently use the normal distribution as a simple model for complex phenomena ; for example , scientists generally assume that the observational error in most experiments follows a normal distribution . The Gaussian function , which is the probability density function of the normal distribution with mean μ and standard deviation σ , naturally contains π :
<formula>
For this to be a probability density , the area under the graph of f needs to be equal to one . This follows from a change of variables in the Gaussian integral :
<formula>
which says that the area under the basic Bell curve in the figure is equal to the square root of π .
The central limit theorem explains the central role of normal distributions , and thus of π , in probability and statistics . This theorem is ultimately connected with the spectral characterization of π as the eigenvalue associated with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle , and the fact that equality holds in the uncertainty principle only for the Gaussian function . Equivalently , π is the unique constant making the Gaussian normal distribution e @-@ πx2 equal to its own Fourier transform . Indeed , according to Howe ( 1980 ) , the " whole business " of establishing the fundamental theorems Fourier analysis reduces to the Gaussian integral .
= = History = =
= = = Antiquity = = =
The best known approximations to π dating before the Common Era were accurate to two decimal places ; this was improved upon in Chinese mathematics in particular by the mid first millennium , to an accuracy of seven decimal places . After this , no further progress was made until the late medieval period .
Some Egyptologists have claimed that the ancient Egyptians used an approximation of π as 22 / 7 from as early as the Old Kingdom . This claim has met with skepticism .
The earliest written approximations of π are found in Egypt and Babylon , both within one percent of the true value . In Babylon , a clay tablet dated 1900 – 1600 BC has a geometrical statement that , by implication , treats π as 25 / 8 = 3 @.@ 125 . In Egypt , the Rhind Papyrus , dated around 1650 BC but copied from a document dated to 1850 BC , has a formula for the area of a circle that treats π as ( 16 / 9 ) 2 ≈ 3 @.@ 1605 .
Astronomical calculations in the Shatapatha Brahmana ( ca . 4th century BC ) use a fractional approximation of 339 / 108 ≈ 3 @.@ 139 ( an accuracy of 9 × 10 − 4 ) . Other Indian sources by about 150 BC treat π as √ 10 ≈ 3 @.@ 1622 .
= = = Polygon approximation era = = =
The first recorded algorithm for rigorously calculating the value of π was a geometrical approach using polygons , devised around 250 BC by the Greek mathematician Archimedes . This polygonal algorithm dominated for over 1 @,@ 000 years , and as a result π is sometimes referred to as " Archimedes ' constant " . Archimedes computed upper and lower bounds of π by drawing a regular hexagon inside and outside a circle , and successively doubling the number of sides until he reached a 96 @-@ sided regular polygon . By calculating the perimeters of these polygons , he proved that 223 / 71 < π < 22 / 7 ( that is 3 @.@ 1408 < π < 3 @.@ 1429 ) . Archimedes ' upper bound of 22 / 7 may have led to a widespread popular belief that π is equal to 22 / 7 . Around 150 AD , Greek @-@ Roman scientist Ptolemy , in his Almagest , gave a value for π of 3 @.@ 1416 , which he may have obtained from Archimedes or from Apollonius of Perga . Mathematicians using polygonal algorithms reached 39 digits of π in 1630 , a record only broken in 1699 when infinite series were used to reach 71 digits .
In ancient China , values for π included 3 @.@ 1547 ( around 1 AD ) , √ 10 ( 100 AD , approximately 3 @.@ 1623 ) , and 142 / 45 ( 3rd century , approximately 3 @.@ 1556 ) . Around 265 AD , the Wei Kingdom mathematician Liu Hui created a polygon @-@ based iterative algorithm and used it with a 3 @,@ 072 @-@ sided polygon to obtain a value of π of 3 @.@ 1416 . Liu later invented a faster method of calculating π and obtained a value of 3 @.@ 14 with a 96 @-@ sided polygon , by taking advantage of the fact that the differences in area of successive polygons form a geometric series with a factor of 4 . The Chinese mathematician Zu Chongzhi , around 480 AD , calculated that π ≈ 355 / 113 ( a fraction that goes by the name Milü in Chinese ) , using Liu Hui 's algorithm applied to a 12 @,@ 288 @-@ sided polygon . With a correct value for its seven first decimal digits , this value of 3 @.@ 141592920 ... remained the most accurate approximation of π available for the next 800 years .
The Indian astronomer Aryabhata used a value of 3 @.@ 1416 in his Āryabhaṭīya ( 499 AD ) . Fibonacci in c . 1220 computed 3 @.@ 1418 using a polygonal method , independent of Archimedes . Italian author Dante apparently employed the value 3 + √ 2 / 10 ≈ 3 @.@ 14142 .
The Persian astronomer Jamshīd al @-@ Kāshī produced 9 sexagesimal digits , roughly the equivalent of 16 decimal digits , in 1424 using a polygon with 3 × 228 sides , which stood as the world record for about 180 years . French mathematician François Viète in 1579 achieved 9 digits with a polygon of 3 × 217 sides . Flemish mathematician Adriaan van Roomen arrived at 15 decimal places in 1593 . In 1596 , Dutch mathematician Ludolph van Ceulen reached 20 digits , a record he later increased to 35 digits ( as a result , π was called the " Ludolphian number " in Germany until the early 20th century ) . Dutch scientist Willebrord Snellius reached 34 digits in 1621 , and Austrian astronomer Christoph Grienberger arrived at 38 digits in 1630 using 1040 sides , which remains the most accurate approximation manually achieved using polygonal algorithms .
= = = Infinite series = = =
The calculation of π was revolutionized by the development of infinite series techniques in the 16th and 17th centuries . An infinite series is the sum of the terms of an infinite sequence . Infinite series allowed mathematicians to compute π with much greater precision than Archimedes and others who used geometrical techniques . Although infinite series were exploited for π most notably by European mathematicians such as James Gregory and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , the approach was first discovered in India sometime between 1400 and 1500 AD . The first written description of an infinite series that could be used to compute π was laid out in Sanskrit verse by Indian astronomer Nilakantha Somayaji in his Tantrasamgraha , around 1500 AD . The series are presented without proof , but proofs are presented in a later Indian work , Yuktibhāṣā , from around 1530 AD . Nilakantha attributes the series to an earlier Indian mathematician , Madhava of Sangamagrama , who lived c . 1350 – c . 1425 . Several infinite series are described , including series for sine , tangent , and cosine , which are now referred to as the Madhava series or Gregory – Leibniz series . Madhava used infinite series to estimate π to 11 digits around 1400 , but that value was improved on around 1430 by the Persian mathematician Jamshīd al @-@ Kāshī , using a polygonal algorithm .
The first infinite sequence discovered in Europe was an infinite product ( rather than an infinite sum , which are more typically used in π calculations ) found by French mathematician François Viète in 1593 :
<formula> A060294
The second infinite sequence found in Europe , by John Wallis in 1655 , was also an infinite product :
<formula>
The discovery of calculus , by English scientist Isaac Newton and German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the 1660s , led to the development of many infinite series for approximating π . Newton himself used an arcsin series to compute a 15 digit approximation of π in 1665 or 1666 , later writing " I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures I carried these computations , having no other business at the time . "
In Europe , Madhava 's formula was rediscovered by Scottish mathematician James Gregory in 1671 , and by Leibniz in 1674 :
<formula>
This formula , the Gregory – Leibniz series , equals π / 4 when evaluated with z = 1 . In 1699 , English mathematician Abraham Sharp used the Gregory – Leibniz series for <formula> to compute π to 71 digits , breaking the previous record of 39 digits , which was set with a polygonal algorithm . The Gregory – Leibniz for <formula> series is simple , but converges very slowly ( that is , approaches the answer gradually ) , so it is not used in modern π calculations .
In 1706 John Machin used the Gregory – Leibniz series to produce an algorithm that converged much faster :
<formula>
Machin reached 100 digits of π with this formula . Other mathematicians created variants , now known as Machin @-@ like formulae , that were used to set several successive records for calculating digits of π . Machin @-@ like formulae remained the best @-@ known method for calculating π well into the age of computers , and were used to set records for 250 years , culminating in a 620 @-@ digit approximation in 1946 by Daniel Ferguson – the best approximation achieved without the aid of a calculating device .
A record was set by the calculating prodigy Zacharias Dase , who in 1844 employed a Machin @-@ like formula to calculate 200 decimals of π in his head at the behest of German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss . British mathematician William Shanks famously took 15 years to calculate π to 707 digits , but made a mistake in the 528th digit , rendering all subsequent digits incorrect .
= = = = Rate of convergence = = = =
Some infinite series for π converge faster than others . Given the choice of two infinite series for π , mathematicians will generally use the one that converges more rapidly because faster convergence reduces the amount of computation needed to calculate π to any given accuracy . A simple infinite series for π is the Gregory – Leibniz series :
<formula>
As individual terms of this infinite series are added to the sum , the total gradually gets closer to π , and – with a sufficient number of terms – can get as close to π as desired . It converges quite slowly , though – after 500 @,@ 000 terms , it produces only five correct decimal digits of π .
An infinite series for π ( published by Nilakantha in the 15th century ) that converges more rapidly than the Gregory – Leibniz series is :
<formula>
The following table compares the convergence rates of these two series :
After five terms , the sum of the Gregory – Leibniz series is within 0 @.@ 2 of the correct value of π , whereas the sum of Nilakantha 's series is within 0 @.@ 002 of the correct value of π . Nilakantha 's series converges faster and is more useful for computing digits of π . Series that converge even faster include Machin 's series and Chudnovsky 's series , the latter producing 14 correct decimal digits per term .
= = = Irrationality and transcendence = = =
Not all mathematical advances relating to π were aimed at increasing the accuracy of approximations . When Euler solved the Basel problem in 1735 , finding the exact value of the sum of the reciprocal squares , he established a connection between π and the prime numbers that later contributed to the development and study of the Riemann zeta function :
<formula>
Swiss scientist Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1761 proved that π is irrational , meaning it is not equal to the quotient of any two whole numbers . Lambert 's proof exploited a continued @-@ fraction representation of the tangent function . French mathematician Adrien @-@ Marie Legendre proved in 1794 that π2 is also irrational . In 1882 , German mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann proved that π is transcendental , confirming a conjecture made by both Legendre and Euler . Hardy and Wright states that " the proofs were afterwards modified and simplified by Hilbert , Hurwitz , and other writers " .
= = = Adoption of the symbol π = = =
The earliest known use of the Greek letter π to represent the ratio of a circle 's circumference to its diameter was by Welsh mathematician William Jones in his 1706 work Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos ; or , a New Introduction to the Mathematics . The Greek letter first appears there in the phrase " 1 / 2 Periphery ( π ) " in the discussion of a circle with radius one . Jones may have chosen π because it was the first letter in the Greek spelling of the word periphery . However , he writes that his equations for π are from the " ready pen of the truly ingenious Mr. John Machin " , leading to speculation that Machin may have employed the Greek letter before Jones . It had indeed been used earlier for geometric concepts . William Oughtred used π and δ , the Greek letter equivalents of p and d , to express ratios of periphery and diameter in the 1647 and later editions of Clavis Mathematicae .
After Jones introduced the Greek letter in 1706 , it was not adopted by other mathematicians until Euler started using it , beginning with his 1736 work Mechanica . Before then , mathematicians sometimes used letters such as c or p instead . Because Euler corresponded heavily with other mathematicians in Europe , the use of the Greek letter spread rapidly . In 1748 , Euler used π in his widely read work Introductio in analysin infinitorum ( he wrote : " for the sake of brevity we will write this number as π ; thus π is equal to half the circumference of a circle of radius 1 " ) and the practice was universally adopted thereafter in the Western world .
= = Modern quest for more digits = =
= = = Computer era and iterative algorithms = = =
The development of computers in the mid @-@ 20th century again revolutionized the hunt for digits of π . American mathematicians John Wrench and Levi Smith reached 1 @,@ 120 digits in 1949 using a desk calculator . Using an inverse tangent ( arctan ) infinite series , a team led by George Reitwiesner and John von Neumann that same year achieved 2 @,@ 037 digits with a calculation that took 70 hours of computer time on the ENIAC computer . The record , always relying on an arctan series , was broken repeatedly ( 7 @,@ 480 digits in 1957 ; 10 @,@ 000 digits in 1958 ; 100 @,@ 000 digits in 1961 ) until 1 million digits were reached in 1973 .
Two additional developments around 1980 once again accelerated the ability to compute π . First , the discovery of new iterative algorithms for computing π , which were much faster than the infinite series ; and second , the invention of fast multiplication algorithms that could multiply large numbers very rapidly . Such algorithms are particularly important in modern π computations , because most of the computer 's time is devoted to multiplication . They include the Karatsuba algorithm , Toom – Cook multiplication , and Fourier transform @-@ based methods .
The iterative algorithms were independently published in 1975 – 1976 by American physicist Eugene Salamin and Australian scientist Richard Brent . These avoid reliance on infinite series . An iterative algorithm repeats a specific calculation , each iteration using the outputs from prior steps as its inputs , and produces a result in each step that converges to the desired value . The approach was actually invented over 160 years earlier by Carl Friedrich Gauss , in what is now termed the arithmetic – geometric mean method ( AGM method ) or Gauss – Legendre algorithm . As modified by Salamin and Brent , it is also referred to as the Brent – Salamin algorithm .
The iterative algorithms were widely used after 1980 because they are faster than infinite series algorithms : whereas infinite series typically increase the number of correct digits additively in successive terms , iterative algorithms generally multiply the number of correct digits at each step . For example , the Brent @-@ Salamin algorithm doubles the number of digits in each iteration . In 1984 , the Canadian brothers John and Peter Borwein produced an iterative algorithm that quadruples the number of digits in each step ; and in 1987 , one that increases the number of digits five times in each step . Iterative methods were used by Japanese mathematician Yasumasa Kanada to set several records for computing π between 1995 and 2002 . This rapid convergence comes at a price : the iterative algorithms require significantly more memory than infinite series .
= = = Motivations for computing π = = =
For most numerical calculations involving π , a handful of digits provide sufficient precision . According to Jörg Arndt and Christoph Haenel , thirty @-@ nine digits are sufficient to perform most cosmological calculations , because that is the accuracy necessary to calculate the circumference of the observable universe with a precision of one atom . Despite this , people have worked strenuously to compute π to thousands and millions of digits . This effort may be partly ascribed to the human compulsion to break records , and such achievements with π often make headlines around the world . They also have practical benefits , such as testing supercomputers , testing numerical analysis algorithms ( including high @-@ precision multiplication algorithms ) ; and within pure mathematics itself , providing data for evaluating the randomness of the digits of π .
= = = Rapidly convergent series = = =
Modern π calculators do not use iterative algorithms exclusively . New infinite series were discovered in the 1980s and 1990s that are as fast as iterative algorithms , yet are simpler and less memory intensive . The fast iterative algorithms were anticipated in 1914 , when the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan published dozens of innovative new formulae for π , remarkable for their elegance , mathematical depth , and rapid convergence . One of his formulae , based on modular equations , is
<formula>
This series converges much more rapidly than most arctan series , including Machin 's formula . Bill Gosper was the first to use it for advances in the calculation of π , setting a record of 17 million digits in 1985 . Ramanujan 's formulae anticipated the modern algorithms developed by the Borwein brothers and the Chudnovsky brothers . The Chudnovsky formula developed in 1987 is
<formula>
It produces about 14 digits of π per term , and has been used for several record @-@ setting π calculations , including the first to surpass 1 billion ( 109 ) digits in 1989 by the Chudnovsky brothers , 2 @.@ 7 trillion ( 2 @.@ 7 × 1012 ) digits by Fabrice Bellard in 2009 , and 10 trillion ( 1013 ) digits in 2011 by Alexander Yee and Shigeru Kondo . For similar formulas , see also the Ramanujan – Sato series .
In 2006 , Canadian mathematician Simon Plouffe used the PSLQ integer relation algorithm to generate several new formulas for π , conforming to the following template :
<formula>
where q is eπ ( Gelfond 's constant ) , k is an odd number , and a , b , c are certain rational numbers that Plouffe computed .
= = = Monte Carlo methods = = =
Monte Carlo methods , which evaluate the results of multiple random trials , can be used to create approximations of π . Buffon 's needle is one such technique : If a needle of length ℓ is dropped n times on a surface on which parallel lines are drawn t units apart , and if x of those times it comes to rest crossing a line ( x > 0 ) , then one may approximate π based on the counts :
<formula>
Another Monte Carlo method for computing π is to draw a circle inscribed in a square , and randomly place dots in the square . The ratio of dots inside the circle to the total number of dots will approximately equal π / 4 .
Another way to calculate π using probability is to start with a random walk , generated by a sequence of ( fair ) coin tosses : independent random variables Xk such that Xk ∈ { − 1 @,@ 1 } with equal probabilities . The associated random walk is
<formula>
so that , for each n , Wn is drawn from a standard binomial distribution . As n varies Wn defines a ( discrete ) stochastic process . Then π can be calculated by
<formula>
This Monte Carlo method is independent of any relation to circles , and is a consequence of the central limit theorem , discussed above .
These Monte Carlo methods for approximating π are very slow compared to other methods , and do not provide any information on the exact number of digits that are obtained . Thus they are never used to approximate π when speed or accuracy is desired .
= = = Spigot algorithms = = =
Two algorithms were discovered in 1995 that opened up new avenues of research into π . They are called spigot algorithms because , like water dripping from a spigot , they produce single digits of π that are not reused after they are calculated . This is in contrast to infinite series or iterative algorithms , which retain and use all intermediate digits until the final result is produced .
American mathematicians Stan Wagon and Stanley Rabinowitz produced a simple spigot algorithm in 1995 . Its speed is comparable to arctan algorithms , but not as fast as iterative algorithms .
Another spigot algorithm , the BBP digit extraction algorithm , was discovered in 1995 by Simon Plouffe :
<formula>
This formula , unlike others before it , can produce any individual hexadecimal digit of π without calculating all the preceding digits . Individual binary digits may be extracted from individual hexadecimal digits , and octal digits can be extracted from one or two hexadecimal digits . Variations of the algorithm have been discovered , but no digit extraction algorithm has yet been found that rapidly produces decimal digits . An important application of digit extraction algorithms is to validate new claims of record π computations : After a new record is claimed , the decimal result is converted to hexadecimal , and then a digit extraction algorithm is used to calculate several random hexadecimal digits near the end ; if they match , this provides a measure of confidence that the entire computation is correct .
Between 1998 and 2000 , the distributed computing project PiHex used Bellard 's formula ( a modification of the BBP algorithm ) to compute the quadrillionth ( 1015th ) bit of π , which turned out to be 0 . In September 2010 , a Yahoo ! employee used the company 's Hadoop application on one thousand computers over a 23 @-@ day period to compute 256 bits of π at the two @-@ quadrillionth ( 2 × 1015th ) bit , which also happens to be zero .
= = Use = =
Because π is closely related to the circle , it is found in many formulae from the fields of geometry and trigonometry , particularly those concerning circles , spheres , or ellipses . Other branches of science , such as statistics , physics , Fourier analysis , and number theory , also include π in some of their important formulae .
= = = Geometry and trigonometry = = =
π appears in formulae for areas and volumes of geometrical shapes based on circles , such as ellipses , spheres , cones , and tori . Below are some of the more common formulae that involve π .
The circumference of a circle with radius r is 2πr .
The area of a circle with radius r is πr2 .
The volume of a sphere with radius r is 4 / 3πr3 .
The surface area of a sphere with radius r is 4πr2 .
The formulae above are special cases of the volume of the n @-@ dimensional ball and the surface area of its boundary , the ( n − 1 ) -dimensional sphere , given below .
Definite integrals that describe circumference , area , or volume of shapes generated by circles typically have values that involve π . For example , an integral that specifies half the area of a circle of radius one is given by :
<formula>
In that integral the function √ 1 − x2 represents the top half of a circle ( the square root is a consequence of the Pythagorean theorem ) , and the integral ∫ 1
− 1 computes the area between that half of a circle and the x axis .
The trigonometric functions rely on angles , and mathematicians generally use radians as units of measurement. π plays an important role in angles measured in radians , which are defined so that a complete circle spans an angle of 2π radians . The angle measure of 180 ° is equal to π radians , and 1 ° = π / 180 radians .
Common trigonometric functions have periods that are multiples of π ; for example , sine and cosine have period 2π , so for any angle θ and any integer k ,
<formula>
= = = Topology = = =
The constant π appears in the Gauss – Bonnet formula which relates the differential geometry of surfaces to their topology . Specifically , if a compact surface Σ has Gauss curvature K , then
<formula>
where χ ( Σ ) is the Euler characteristic , which is an integer . An example is the surface area of a sphere S of curvature 1 ( so that its radius of curvature , which coincides with its radius , is also 1 . ) The Euler characteristic of a sphere can be computed from its homology groups , and is found to be equal to two . Thus we have
<formula>
reproducing the formula for the surface area of a sphere of radius 1 .
The constant appears in many other integral formulae in topology , in particular those involving characteristic classes via the Chern – Weil homomorphism .
= = = Vector calculus = = =
Vector calculus is a branch of calculus that is concerned with the properties of vector fields , and has many physical applications such as to electricity and magnetism . The Newtonian potential for a point source Q situated at the origin of a three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system is
<formula>
which represents the potential energy of a unit mass ( or charge ) placed a distance | x | from the source , and k is a dimensional constant . The field , denoted here by E , which may be the ( Newtonian ) gravitational field or the ( Coulomb ) electric field , is the negative gradient of the potential :
<formula>
Special cases include Coulomb 's law and Newton 's law of universal gravitation . Gauss ' law states that the outward flux of the field through any smooth , simple , closed , orientable surface S containing the origin is equal to 4πkQ :
<formula> <formula> <formula>
It is standard to absorb this factor of 4π into the constant k , but this argument shows why it must appear somewhere . Furthermore , 4π is the surface area of the unit sphere , but we have not assumed that S is the sphere . However , as a consequence of the divergence theorem , because the region away from the origin is vacuum ( source @-@ free ) it is only the homology class of the surface S in R3 \ { 0 } that matters in computing the integral , so it can be replaced by any convenient surface in the same homology class , in particular a sphere , where spherical coordinates can be used to calculate the integral .
A consequence of the Gauss law is that the negative Laplacian of the potential V is equal to 4πkQ times the Dirac delta function :
<formula>
More general distributions of matter ( or charge ) are obtained from this by convolution , giving the Poisson equation
<formula>
where ρ is the distribution function .
The constant π also plays an analogous role in four @-@ dimensional potentials associated with Einstein 's equations , a fundamental formula which forms the basis of the general theory of relativity and describes the fundamental interaction of gravitation as a result of spacetime being curved by matter and energy :
<formula>
where Rμν is the Ricci curvature tensor , R is the scalar curvature , gμν is the metric tensor , Λ is the cosmological constant , G is Newton 's gravitational constant , c is the speed of light in vacuum , and Tμν is the stress – energy tensor . The left @-@ hand side of Einstein 's equation is a non @-@ linear analog of the Laplacian of the metric tensor ( and reduces to that in the weak field limit ) , and the right hand side is the analog of the distribution function , times 8π .
= = = Cauchy 's integral formula = = =
One of the key tools in complex analysis is contour integration of a function over a positively oriented ( rectifiable ) Jordan curve γ . A form of Cauchy 's integral formula states that if a point z0 is interior to γ , then
<formula>
Although the curve γ is not a circle , and hence does not have any obvious connection to the constant π , a standard proof of this result uses Morera 's theorem , which implies that the integral is invariant under homotopy of the curve , so that it can be deformed to a circle and then integrated explicitly in polar coordinates . More generally , it is true that if a rectifiable closed curve γ does not contain z0 , then the above integral is 2πi times the winding number of the curve .
The general form of Cauchy 's integral formula establishes the relationship between the values of a complex analytic function f ( z ) on the Jordan curve γ and the value of f ( z ) at any interior point z0 of γ :
<formula>
provided f ( z ) is analytic in the region enclosed by γ and extends continuously to γ . Cauchy 's integral formula is a special case of the residue theorem , that if g ( z ) is a meromorphic function the region enclosed by γ and is continuous in a neighborhood of γ , then
<formula>
where the sum is of the residues at the poles of g ( z ) .
= = = The gamma function and Stirling 's approximation = = =
The factorial function n ! is the product of all of the positive integers through n . The gamma function extends the concept of factorial ( normally defined only for non @-@ negative integers ) to all complex numbers , except the negative real integers . When the gamma function is evaluated at half @-@ integers , the result contains π ; for example <formula> and <formula> .
The gamma function is defined by its Weierstrass product development :
<formula>
where γ is the Euler – Mascheroni constant . Evaluated at z |
= 1 / 2 and squared , the equation Γ ( 1 / 2 ) 2 =
π reduces to the Wallis product formula . The gamma function is also connected to the Riemann zeta function and identities for the functional determinant , in which the constant π plays an important role .
The gamma function is used to calculate the volume Vn ( r ) of the n @-@ dimensional ball of radius r in Euclidean n @-@ dimensional space , and the surface area Sn − 1 ( r ) of its boundary , the ( n − 1 ) -dimensional sphere :
<formula>
<formula>
Further , it follows from the functional equation that
<formula>
The gamma function can be used to create a simple approximation to the factorial function n ! for large n : <formula> which is known as Stirling 's approximation . Equivalently ,
<formula>
As a geometrical application of Stirling 's approximation , let Δn denote the standard simplex in n @-@ dimensional Euclidean space , and ( n + 1 ) Δn denote the simplex having all of its sides scaled up by a factor of n + 1 . Then
<formula>
Ehrhart 's volume conjecture is that this is the ( optimal ) upper bound on the volume of a convex body containing only one lattice point .
= = = Number theory and Riemann zeta function = = =
The Riemann zeta function ζ ( s ) is used in many areas of mathematics . When evaluated at s = 2 it can be written as
<formula>
Finding a simple solution for this infinite series was a famous problem in mathematics called the Basel problem . Leonhard Euler solved it in 1735 when he showed it was equal to π2 / 6 . Euler 's result leads to the number theory result that the probability of two random numbers being relatively prime ( that is , having no shared factors ) is equal to 6 / π2 . This probability is based on the observation that the probability that any number is divisible by a prime p is 1 / p ( for example , every 7th integer is divisible by 7 . ) Hence the probability that two numbers are both divisible by this prime is 1 / p2 , and the probability that at least one of them is not is 1 − 1 / p2 . For distinct primes , these divisibility events are mutually independent ; so the probability that two numbers are relatively prime is given by a product over all primes :
<formula>
This probability can be used in conjunction with a random number generator to approximate π using a Monte Carlo approach .
The solution to the Basel problem implies that the geometrically derived quantity π is connected in a deep way to the distribution of prime numbers . This is a special case of Weil 's conjecture on Tamagawa numbers , which asserts the equality of similar such infinite products of arithmetic quantities , localized at each prime p , and a geometrical quantity : the reciprocal of the volume of a certain locally symmetric space . In the case of the Basel problem , it is the hyperbolic 3 @-@ manifold SL2 ( R ) / SL2 ( Z ) .
The zeta function also satisfies Riemann 's functional equation , which involves π as well as the gamma function :
<formula>
Furthermore , the derivative of the zeta function satisfies
<formula>
A consequence is that π can be obtained from the functional determinant of the harmonic oscillator . This functional determinant can be computed via a product expansion , and is equivalent to the Wallis product formula . The calculation can be recast in quantum mechanics , specifically the variational approach to the spectrum of the hydrogen atom .
= = = Fourier series = = =
The constant π also appears naturally in Fourier series of periodic functions . Periodic functions are functions on the group T = R / Z of fractional parts of real numbers . The Fourier decomposition shows that a complex @-@ valued function f on T can be written as an infinite linear superposition of unitary characters of T. That is , continuous group homomorphisms from T to the circle group U ( 1 ) of unit modulus complex numbers . It is a theorem that every character of T is one of the complex exponentials <formula> .
There is a unique character on T , up to complex conjugation , that is a group isomorphism . Using the Haar measure on the circle group , the constant π is half the magnitude of the Radon – Nikodym derivative of this character . The other characters have derivatives whose magnitudes are positive integral multiples of 2π . As a result , the constant π is the unique number such that the group T , equipped with its Haar measure , is Pontrjagin dual to the lattice of integral multiples of 2π . This is a version of the one @-@ dimensional Poisson summation formula .
= = = Modular forms and theta functions = = =
The constant π is connected in a deep way with the theory of modular forms and theta functions . For example , the Chudnovsky algorithm involves in an essential way the j @-@ invariant of an elliptic curve .
Modular forms are holomorphic functions in the upper half plane characterized by their transformation properties under the modular group <formula> ( or its various subgroups ) , a lattice in the group <formula> . An example is the Jacobi theta function
<formula>
which is a kind of modular form called a Jacobi form . This is sometimes written in terms of the nome <formula> .
The constant π is the unique constant making the Jacobi theta function an automorphic form , which means that it transforms in a specific way . Certain identities hold for all automorphic forms . An example is
<formula>
which implies that θ transforms as a representation under the discrete Heisenberg group . General modular forms and other theta functions also involve π , once again because of the Stone – von Neumann theorem .
= = = Cauchy distribution and potential theory = = =
The Cauchy distribution
<formula>
is a probability density function . The total probability is equal to one , owing to the integral :
<formula>
The Shannon entropy of the Cauchy distribution is equal to log ( 4π ) , which also involves π .
The Cauchy distribution plays an important role in potential theory because it is the simplest Furstenberg measure , the classical Poisson kernel associated with a Brownian motion in a half @-@ plane . Conjugate harmonic functions and so also the Hilbert transform are associated with the asymptotics of the Poisson kernel . The Hilbert transform H is the integral transform given by the Cauchy principal value of the singular integral
<formula>
The constant π is the unique ( positive ) normalizing factor such that H defines a linear complex structure on the Hilbert space of square @-@ integrable real @-@ valued functions on the real line . The Hilbert transform , like the Fourier transform , can be characterized purely in terms of its transformation properties on the Hilbert space L2 ( R ) : up to a normalization factor , it is the unique bounded linear operator that commutes with positive dilations and anticommutes with all reflections of the real line . The constant π is the unique normalizing factor that makes this transformation unitary .
= = = Complex dynamics = = =
An occurrence of π in the Mandelbrot set fractal was discovered by David Boll in 1991 . He examined the behavior of the Mandelbrot set near the " neck " at ( − 0 @.@ 75 , 0 ) . If points with coordinates ( − 0 @.@ 75 , ε ) are considered , as ε tends to zero , the number of iterations until divergence for the point multiplied by ε converges to π . The point ( 0 @.@ 25 , ε ) at the cusp of the large " valley " on the right side of the Mandelbrot set behaves similarly : the number of iterations until divergence multiplied by the square root of ε tends to π .
= = Outside mathematics = =
= = = Describing physical phenomena = = =
Although not a physical constant , π appears routinely in equations describing fundamental principles of the universe , often because of π 's relationship to the circle and to spherical coordinate systems . A simple formula from the field of classical mechanics gives the approximate period T of a simple pendulum of length L , swinging with a small amplitude ( g is the earth 's gravitational acceleration ) :
<formula>
One of the key formulae of quantum mechanics is Heisenberg 's uncertainty principle , which shows that the uncertainty in the measurement of a particle 's position ( Δx ) and momentum ( Δp ) cannot both be arbitrarily small at the same time ( where h is Planck 's constant ) :
<formula>
The fact that π is approximately equal to 3 plays a role in the relatively long lifetime of orthopositronium . The inverse lifetime to lowest order in the fine @-@ structure constant α is
<formula>
where m is the mass of the electron .
π is present in some structural engineering formulae , such as the buckling formula derived by Euler , which gives the maximum axial load F that a long , slender column of length L , modulus of elasticity E , and area moment of inertia I can carry without buckling :
<formula>
The field of fluid dynamics contains π in Stokes ' law , which approximates the frictional force F exerted on small , spherical objects of radius R , moving with velocity v in a fluid with dynamic viscosity η :
<formula>
Under ideal conditions ( uniform gentle slope on an homogeneously erodible substrate ) , the sinuosity of a meandering river approaches π . The sinuosity is the ratio between the actual length and the straight @-@ line distance from source to mouth . Faster currents along the outside edges of a river 's bends cause more erosion than along the inside edges , thus pushing the bends even farther out , and increasing the overall loopiness of the river . However , that loopiness eventually causes the river to double back on itself in places and " short @-@ circuit " , creating an ox @-@ bow lake in the process . The balance between these two opposing factors leads to an average ratio of π between the actual length and the direct distance between source and mouth .
= = = Memorizing digits = = =
Piphilology is the practice of memorizing large numbers of digits of π , and world @-@ records are kept by the Guinness World Records . The record for memorizing digits of π , certified by Guinness World Records , is 70 @,@ 000 digits , recited in India by Rajveer Meena in 9 hours and 27 minutes on 21 March 2015 . In 2006 , Akira Haraguchi , a retired Japanese engineer , claimed to have recited 100 @,@ 000 decimal places , but the claim was not verified by Guinness World Records .
One common technique is to memorize a story or poem in which the word lengths represent the digits of π : The first word has three letters , the second word has one , the third has four , the fourth has one , the fifth has five , and so on . An early example of a memorization aid , originally devised by English scientist James Jeans , is " How I want a drink , alcoholic of course , after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics . " When a poem is used , it is sometimes referred to as a piem . Poems for memorizing π have been composed in several languages in addition to English . Record @-@ setting π memorizers typically do not rely on poems , but instead use methods such as remembering number patterns and the method of loci .
A few authors have used the digits of π to establish a new form of constrained writing , where the word lengths are required to represent the digits of π . The Cadaeic Cadenza contains the first 3835 digits of π in this manner , and the full @-@ length book Not a Wake contains 10 @,@ 000 words , each representing one digit of π .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Perhaps because of the simplicity of its definition and its ubiquitous presence in formulae , π has been represented in popular culture more than other mathematical constructs .
In the 2008 Open University and BBC documentary co @-@ production , The Story of Maths , aired in October 2008 on BBC Four , British mathematician Marcus du Sautoy shows a visualization of the - historically first exact - formula for calculating π when visiting India and exploring its contributions to trigonometry .
In the Palais de la Découverte ( a science museum in Paris ) there is a circular room known as the pi room . On its wall are inscribed 707 digits of π . The digits are large wooden characters attached to the dome @-@ like ceiling . The digits were based on an 1853 calculation by English mathematician William Shanks , which included an error beginning at the 528th digit . The error was detected in 1946 and corrected in 1949 .
In Carl Sagan 's novel Contact it is suggested that the creator of the universe buried a message deep within the digits of π . The digits of π have also been incorporated into the lyrics of the song " Pi " from the album Aerial by Kate Bush .
In the United States , Pi Day falls on 14 March ( written 3 / 14 in the US style ) , and is popular among students. π and its digital representation are often used by self @-@ described " math geeks " for inside jokes among mathematically and technologically minded groups . Several college cheers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology include " 3 @.@ 14159 " . Pi Day in 2015 was particularly significant because the date and time 3 / 14 / 15 9 : 26 : 53 reflected many more digits of pi .
During the 2011 auction for Nortel 's portfolio of valuable technology patents , Google made a series of unusually specific bids based on mathematical and scientific constants , including π .
In 1958 Albert Eagle proposed replacing π by τ |
= π / 2 to simplify formulas . However , no other authors are known to use τ in this way . Some people use a different value , τ =
6 @.@ 283185 ... = 2π , arguing that τ , as the number of radians in one turn or as the ratio of a circle 's circumference to its radius rather than its diameter , is more natural than π and simplifies many formulas . Celebrations of this number , because it approximately equals 6 @.@ 28 , by making 28 June " Tau Day " and eating " twice the pie " , have been reported in the media . However , this use of τ has not made its way into mainstream mathematics .
In 1897 , an amateur American mathematician attempted to persuade the Indiana legislature to pass the Indiana Pi Bill , which described a method to square the circle and contained text that implied various incorrect values for π , including 3 @.@ 2 . The bill is notorious as an attempt to establish a value of scientific constant by legislative fiat . The bill was passed by the Indiana House of Representatives , but rejected by the Senate .
|
= HMS Ark Royal ( 1914 ) =
HMS Ark Royal was the first ship in history designed and built as a seaplane carrier . She was purchased by the Royal Navy in 1914 shortly after her keel had been laid and the ship was only in frames ; this allowed the ship 's design to be modified almost totally to accommodate seaplanes . In World War I , Ark Royal participated in the Gallipoli Campaign in early 1915 with her aircraft conducting aerial reconnaissance and observation missions . Her aircraft later supported British troops on the Macedonian Front in 1916 , before she returned to the Dardanelles to act as a depot ship for all the seaplanes operating in the area . In January 1918 , several of her aircraft unsuccessfully attacked the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben when she sortied from the Dardanelles to attack Allied ships in the area . The ship left the area later in the year to support seaplanes conducting anti @-@ submarine patrols over the southern Aegean Sea .
After the end of the war , Ark Royal mostly served as an aircraft transport and depot ship for those aircraft in support of White Russian and British operations against the Bolsheviks in the Caspian and Black Sea regions . She also supported Royal Air Force ( RAF ) aircraft in British Somaliland in the campaign against the Mad Mullah in 1920 . Later that year , the ship was placed in reserve . Ark Royal was recommissioned to ferry an RAF squadron to the Dardanelles during the Chanak crisis in 1922 . She was reduced to reserve again upon her return to the United Kingdom the following year .
Ark Royal was recommissioned in 1930 to serve as a training ship for seaplane pilots and to evaluate aircraft catapult operations and techniques . She was renamed HMS Pegasus in 1934 and continued to serve as a training ship until the beginning of World War II in September 1939 . Assigned to Home Fleet at the beginning of the war , she took on tasks as an aircraft transport , in addition to her training duties , until she was modified to serve as the prototype fighter catapult ship in late 1940 . This type of ship was intended to defend convoys against attacks by German long @-@ range maritime patrol bombers by launching fighters via their catapult to provide air cover for the convoy . Pegasus served in this role until mid @-@ 1941 when she reverted to her previous duties as a training ship . This lasted until early 1944 when she became a barracks ship . The ship was sold in late 1946 and her conversion into a merchant ship began the following year . However , the owner ran out of money during the process and Anita I , as she had been renamed , was seized by her creditors in 1949 and sold for scrap . She was not broken up until late 1950 .
= = Design and description = =
The Royal Navy had conducted trials in 1913 with a modified cruiser , Hermes , to evaluate the ability of seaplanes to work with the fleet . They were successful enough that the Admiralty allocated £ 81 @,@ 000 in the 1914 – 1915 Naval Programme to purchase a merchant ship for a more thorough modification than had been possible with Hermes to better accommodate seaplanes . A tramp steamer was purchased in 1914 that had just begun construction at the Blyth Shipbuilding Company so it could be easily modified to suit its new role .
Ark Royal was laid down on 7 November 1913 by the Blyth Shipbuilding Company in Blyth , Northumberland , as a freighter , probably intended for the coal @-@ for @-@ grain trade in the Black Sea . She was purchased in May 1914 and was launched on 5 September 1914 . The ship was commissioned on 10 December 1914 .
Extensive changes to the ship were made in converting her to a seaplane tender , with the superstructure , funnel , and propulsion machinery moved aft and a working deck occupying the forward half of the ship . The deck was not intended as a flying @-@ off deck , but for starting and running up of seaplane engines and for recovering damaged aircraft from the sea . The ship was equipped with a large aircraft hold , 150 feet ( 45 @.@ 7 m ) long , 45 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 m ) wide and 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high along with extensive workshops . Two 3 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 3 @.@ 0 t ) steam cranes on the sides of the forecastle lifted the aircraft through the sliding hatch of the hangar onto the flight deck or into the water . She carried 4 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 18 @,@ 000 l ; 4 @,@ 800 US gal ) of petrol for her aircraft in standard commercial 2 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 9 @.@ 1 l ; 2 @.@ 4 US gal ) tins .
She could carry five floatplanes and two to four regular , wheeled aircraft . The latter would have to return to land after launch , but the seaplanes would take off and land in the water alongside the carrier , lifted on and off the ship by the cranes . Her original complement of aircraft consisted of a Short Folder , two Wight Pushers , three Sopwith Type 807 seaplanes and two to four Sopwith Tabloid wheeled aircraft .
Ark Royal had an overall length of 366 feet ( 111 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 50 feet 10 inches ( 15 @.@ 5 m ) , and a draught of 18 feet 9 inches ( 5 @.@ 7 m ) . She normally displaced 7 @,@ 080 long tons ( 7 @,@ 190 t ) , with a displacement of 7 @,@ 450 long tons ( 7 @,@ 570 t ) at deep load . The ship had one vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engine driving one propeller shaft . The ship 's three cylindrical boilers generated enough steam to produce 3 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 200 kW ) from the engine . The ship had a designed speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) , but she made a speed of 10 @.@ 64 knots ( 19 @.@ 71 km / h ; 12 @.@ 24 mph ) during her sea trials with 2 @,@ 675 shaft horsepower ( 1 @,@ 995 kW ) in December 1914 . Ark Royal carried 500 tonnes ( 490 long tons ) of fuel oil , enough to give her a range of 3 @,@ 030 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 610 km ; 3 @,@ 490 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship was armed with four QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt guns and two machine guns . Including 60 aviation personnel , her crew totalled 180 officers and men . " Her truly unique feature was the steadying sail on the mizzen to help keep her head to the wind ; she remains the only aircraft carrier to have been fitted with a sail . "
= = Service = =
= = = World War I = = =
The ship proved to be too slow to work with the Grand Fleet and for operations in the North Sea in general , so Ark Royal was ordered to the Mediterranean in mid @-@ January 1915 to support the Gallipoli campaign . Under the command of Commander Robert Clark @-@ Hall , the ship sailed on 1 February 1915 and arrived at the island of Tenedos on 17 February . She attempted to fly three of her seaplanes on the day of her arrival to reconnoitre the Straits , but two of them had engine troubles and the third could not take off despite the calm water . A Wight Pusher eventually managed to get into the air and discovered new fortifications down the Straits ; it dropped a single 20 @-@ pound ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) bomb on the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles and returned with seven bullet holes in its skin . Two days later , the ship 's aircraft attempted unsuccessfully to spot for the fleet as they bombarded the Ottoman fortifications defending the Straits . They conducted more aerial reconnaissance and observation missions in support of the fleet later in the month and in early March as it moved further up the Straits . Ark Royal lost her first aircraft on 5 March as the propeller of one of her Sopwiths splintered into pieces at 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) . Both of the aircraft 's crewmen were recovered by the destroyer HMS Usk .
Later in the month , the ship 's aircrew learned to spot mines from the air and were moderately successful , although they failed to detect the minefield that sank one French and two British predreadnoughts and damaged a British battlecruiser on 18 March . Later in the month , Ark Royal and her aircraft were relieved by No. 3 Squadron of the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) . In preparation for the squadron 's arrival , the ship 's crew cleared a vineyard on the island to serve as an airfield and unloaded its crated aircraft on 26 – 27 March . From 31 March to 7 April , Ark Royal and her companions made several fake landing attempts and her aircraft bombarded the port of Smyrna with little effect . When she returned to Tenedos on 8 April , she exchanged her Tabloids , which had never flown from the ship , for a pair of Sopwith Schneider single @-@ seat floatplanes . In addition , she received two Sopwith Type 860s , another Wight Pusher , and a Short Type 166 , all two @-@ seat floatplanes , as replacements . The ship had no room for all these aircraft and she used the collier Penmorvalt to store them and for additional workshop space . Her aircraft resumed reconnaissance and observation missions over the Dardanelles ; aircraft discovered a large ammunition dump on 12 April , and provided corrective data to direct gunfire from HMS Lord Nelson onto the target .
Ark Royal 's aircraft provided support to the Australian and New Zealand troops at Anzac Cove as they landed on 25 April on the Gallipoli Peninsula . Two days later , the ship was taken under fire by the Ottoman predreadnought Turgut Reis , firing across the peninsula , and she had to move in a hurry to avoid being hit . A month later , the battle on the peninsula had bogged down and the success of the German submarine U @-@ 21 in sinking two British predreadnoughts forced Ark Royal to move to a safer anchorage at Imbros at the end of May . There she became a depot ship for all the seaplanes in the area , while her own aircraft continued to support operations at Gallipoli . On occasion , aircraft were loaned out to other ships for reconnaissance or observation missions .
The ship left Imbros on 1 November for Mytilene , from where her aircraft flew aerial reconnaissance missions over Smyrna , before she continued onwards to Salonika , where she arrived on 8 November . While based there , her aircraft supported British troops fighting the Bulgarians , spotted for British ships conducting shore bombardments , and conducted anti @-@ submarine patrols . At this time , Ark Royal operated five Short 166s and a couple of Sopwith seaplanes . On 27 March 1917 , the ship was transferred to Mudros to serve as a depot ship for all the seaplanes assigned to No. 2 Wing RNAS , which controlled all RNAS aircraft in the area . By the end of 1917 , she operated a mixture of Short Type 184 and Sopwith Baby aircraft .
On the morning of 20 January 1918 , the Ottoman battlecruiser Yavûz Sultân Selîm , together with the light cruiser Midilli , ( formerly the German Goeben and Breslau , and still with German crews ) , sortied from the Dardanelles to attack British warships based at Mudros . Yavuz struck a mine shortly after they exited the mouth of the Dardanelles so they switched targets and sank two British monitors off Imbros Island . As they were returning to the Dardanelles , the two ships were attacked by two of Ark Royal 's Sopwith Babies with 65 @-@ pound ( 29 kg ) bombs . One Baby was quickly shot down and the other was forced to make an emergency landing with engine problems off Imbros ; the pilot was able to taxi the aircraft onto a beach and it was recovered several days later . Midilli struck five mines and sank on the return whilst Yavuz struck two more mines and then ran aground inside the Straits . Ark Royal 's Short 184s attempted to bomb her at dawn on the following morning , but all ten bombs missed , and an attempt to attack the ship with a Short 184 modified to carry a 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo failed when the weight of the torpedo proved to be more than the aircraft could lift .
On 3 April , the ship was transferred to the island of Syros , where she could support the seaplanes of No. 62 Wing of the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) on anti @-@ submarine patrols ; part of the former No. 2 Wing RNAS redesignated when the RNAS and the Royal Flying Corps were merged to form the RAF . Ark Royal was transferred to Piraeus in October and was still there when the Armistice of Mudros with Turkey was signed on 31 October . The ship joined the Allied fleet that occupied Constantinople after the surrender .
= = = Interwar years and World War II = = =
After the war , Ark Royal transported aircraft across the Black Sea to Batumi , where they were ferried across the Caucasus to the British naval forces supporting White Russian forces fighting the Bolsheviks in the Caspian Sea during the Russian Civil War . The ship was withdrawn from the Black Sea in late 1919 and disembarked her seaplanes at Malta to load a dozen de Havilland DH @-@ 9 bombers and 181 personnel of the supporting Z Force for transport to British Somaliland . The ship arrived in Berbera on 30 December and the squadron was unloaded to support the air and land campaign against the Mad Mullah . Ark Royal served during this campaign solely as a depot and repair ship for the RAF . She was withdrawn before its conclusion and transferred to the Black Sea to support the White Russian forces there as they began to collapse . The ship twice ferried refugees from the Caucasian coast to the Crimea and , after the second voyage , had to be fumigated at Constantinople after an outbreak of typhus among her passengers . During the summer of 1920 , Ark Royal ferried RAF aircraft and personnel to Basra . She then returned to Britain for a refit and was put into reserve at Rosyth in November .
She was recommissioned in September 1922 to transport 4 Squadron , equipped with a dozen Bristol F.2 Fighters , out to the Dardanelles during the Chanak crisis . The aircraft were ferried semi @-@ assembled and then transferred to the aircraft carrier Argus where they were fully erected . On 11 October , the F.2s flew from the carrier to an airfield at Kilya on the European side of the straits . The ship remained in the area until she was given a brief refit at Malta in early 1923 . Now equipped with Fairey IIID seaplanes , Ark Royal returned to the Dardanelles until she was transferred back to the United Kingdom late in the year . Upon her arrival , the ship was placed back in reserve and became the depot ship for the reserve of minesweepers at Sheerness until 1930 .
In 1930 , Ark Royal was recommissioned again as a training ship and an aircraft catapult was installed on her forecastle , forward of her cranes . For the next nine years , the ship conducted trials and evaluations of catapults and seaplane launch and recovery equipment and techniques . On 21 December 1934 , she was renamed HMS Pegasus to release her name for a new carrier that was then beginning construction . The ship was assigned to Home Fleet when World War II began and was mostly used to train seaplane pilots in catapult launching and shipboard recovery techniques , using the Fairey Seafox , Supermarine Walruses and Fairey Swordfish of 764 Squadron . She also served as an aircraft transport and was present in Scapa Flow , having just delivered some aircraft , on 14 October when the battleship Royal Oak was sunk by the German submarine U @-@ 47 . As the closest ship to Royal Oak , Pegasus was able to rescue some 400 survivors .
Pegasus was converted to the prototype fighter catapult ship in November 1940 , carrying three Fairey Fulmar fighters from 807 Squadron between 1 December and 10 February 1941 , which were replaced by aircraft from 804 Squadron between 10 February and 23 July . These fighters were supposed to defend convoys against attacks from Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 maritime patrol bombers and to prevent them from radioing location reports to U @-@ boats . If out of range of land , the fighters would have to ditch at sea and hope to be recovered by a ship from their convoy . The ship escorted nine convoys between December 1940 and July 1941 . At some point during the war , the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was supplemented with a pair of Oerlikon 20 mm light anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted in the bow , the ship 's bridge was enlarged and the mast was replaced with a tripod mast bearing a Type 291 air warning radar . The ship then became a seaplane training ship again , hosting 763 Squadron aboard from 20 April 1942 to 13 February 1944 . Pegasus then became a barracks ship until May 1946 and was then listed for disposal in June .
She was sold to R. C. Ellerman on 18 October , renamed Anita I , and registered under the Panamanian flag . Under the management of the Compania de Navigation Ellanita , the ship sailed from Cardiff to Antwerp in October 1947 to begin conversion to a freighter . The work ceased in early 1948 and Anita I was seized by her creditors and auctioned off to a Dutch shipbreaking firm on 16 June 1949 . She was resold once more before the ship was purchased by the British Iron and Steel Corporation in October 1950 . Later that year , the ship was broken up for scrap at Grays , Essex .
|
= Juliomys anoblepas =
Juliomys anoblepas is a rodent in the genus Juliomys of the subfamily Sigmodontinae known from a single broken skull . The specimen was collected by Peter Wilhelm Lund in the caves of Lagoa Santa , Minas Gerais , Brazil , in the first half of the 19th century and described by Herluf Winge in 1887 as Calomys anoblepas . The species remained unstudied and its affinities unclear until 2011 , when it was recognized as a member of the genus Juliomys , which includes three other species from southern Brazil and nearby Argentina and Paraguay . J. anoblepas is probably a separate extinct species of the genus , which is no longer found at Lagoa Santa .
Juliomys anoblepas is similar to the other members of its genus in the configuration of its zygomatic plate ( a bony plate on the side of the skull ) . It hardly extends forward in front of the connection between the plate and the main body of the skull , and that connection is relatively low on the skull . Furthermore , the incisive foramina , openings in the front part of the palate , extend to a point between the first molars , and the palate is short , with its back margin between the third molars . The living species of Juliomys differ from J. anoblepas in various characters , including shorter incisive foramina in two species and the shape of the zygomatic arch ( cheekbone ) in J. anoblepas . The upper molar row is 4 @.@ 13 mm long , which makes J. anoblepas the largest known species of Juliomys .
= = Taxonomy = =
Between 1835 and 1849 , Danish zoologist Peter Wilhelm Lund collected abundant remains of mammals around the village of Lagoa Santa in Brazil . After his death , his fellow Dane Herluf Winge described Lund 's collections in detail , among many others publishing a monograph about the rodents of the collection in 1887 . Winge described numerous new species , many of which received little attention from systematists afterward , and among these is the species he named Calomys anoblepas . The specific name , anoblepas , derives from the Greek ἄνω ( ano ) " upwards " and βλέπω ( blepo ) " to look " and thus means " looking upward " . Although Winge did not explain the name , it most likely refers to the zygomatic plate ( a bone plate at the side of the skull ) , which is bended outward . Winge understood the genus Calomys in a sense very different from that used today , including in it the species Calomys longicaudatus ( currently Oligoryzomys nigripes ) , Calomys coronatus ( currently Euryoryzomys russatus ) , Calomys rex ( currently Sooretamys angouya ) , Calomys laticeps ( currently Cerradomys subflavus ) , Calomys saltator ( currently Hylaeamys laticeps ) , and Calomys plebejus ( currently Delomys , species uncertain ) . He wrote that C. anoblepas was the most divergent of the species of Calomys , but that it was similar to C. longicaudatus .
Winge 's concept of the genus Calomys essentially included unspecialized species with pentalophodont molars , which are characterized by the presence of a crest known as the mesoloph on the upper and mesolophid on the lower molars , and excluded species now placed in Calomys , which he classified in Hesperomys instead . Since 1898 , authors have placed Winge 's Calomys species in Oryzomys , conforming to the more conventional taxonomic arrangement ; after that , the species was referred to as Oryzomys anoblepas . Over many decades , the identity of most of Winge 's species remained uncertain , and in many cases it was not until the 1990s that the original material was restudied to provide a definitive identification of the material . In a 2002 review of the fossil sigmodontine rodents of South America , Argentinean zoologist Ulyses Pardiñas and his coworkers wrote that O. & nsbsp ; anoblepas was " possibly an Oecomys " , but this claim was based only on a cursory investigation .
In 2011 , Pardiñas and Pablo Teta published another paper on " Calomys anoblepas " after re @-@ examining the only known specimen in Copenhagen , and concluded that the animal was instead related to the living genus Juliomys , which currently includes three living species from southern Brazil and nearby Paraguay and Argentina . They recognized some features by which J. anoblepas differs from the living species , and consequently kept it as a distinct , extinct species . Juliomys is a genus of unclear relations within the subfamily Sigmodontinae , which is widespread and very diverse in South America and southern North America .
= = Description = =
Juliomys anoblepas is known only from the front half of a skull , which was found in a cave known as " Lapa da Serra das Abelhas " . Compared to other species of Juliomys , it is large and has a more robust skull and teeth . Its rostrum ( the front part ) is broad and short and the interorbital region ( between the skull ) is hourglass @-@ shaped , with squared margins . The thomasomyine rodent Rhipidomys and the oryzomyine Oecomys , both of which also occur in eastern Brazil , both have a broader interorbital region with better @-@ developed ridges at the margins . One of three living species of Juliomys , Juliomys pictipes , also has a broader interorbital region . Behind the position of the nasals ( which are missing in the only known skull ) is an interlacrymal depression , a lowered portion of the skull ; the suture ( connection ) between the two frontal bones is incompletely closed there . This interfrontal fontanelle is shared with Juliomys rimofrons , but not with Juliomys pictipes , nor with most specimens of Juliomys ossitenuis . In Wilfredomys , a Brazilian rodent with some similarities to J. anoblepas , the premaxillary bone forms a narrow projection towards the frontals , which is absent in J. anoblepas and other Juliomys species .
The zygomatic plates are almost completely vertical . As Winge already noted , the front margin of the zygomatic plate hardly extends forward before the antorbital bridge , which connects the plate to the body of the skull . This feature distinguishes J. anoblepas from Wilfredomys and many oryzomyines , but the zygomatic plate of living Juliomys species closely resembles that of J. anoblepas . In addition , the connection between the zygomatic plate and the antorbital bridge is inserted higher on the rostrum in Wilfredomys . The zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) spread broadly . More than in other Juliomys species , the front part of the zygomatic arches is bended forward and the zygomatic plates are bended outward . Furthermore , the zygomatic notch , the notch between the zygomatic plate and arch , is deep , not shallow as in J. ossitenuis and J. rimofrons .
The incisive foramina ( openings in the palate between the incisors and the molars ) are broad and long , extending to the front margins of the first upper molar ( M1 ) . Wilfredomys has even longer incisive foramina , extending between the molars , but the foramina are shorter in J. ossitenuis and J. pictipes . The palate itself is wide and short , with its back margin between the M3s . Oryzomyines like Oecomys and Oligoryzomys have longer palates , extending beyond the third molars . Fine openings ( foramina ) are present on the palate . The back margin of the palate is squared ; J. anoblepas lacks a spine in the middle of the back margin , as is present in Rhipidomys . Wilfredomys has the back margin U @-@ shaped instead and has a longer palate , with the back margin behind the M3s .
The well @-@ developed upper incisors have orange enamel at their front surfaces and are slightly opisthodont ( with their cutting edge behind the vertical plane of the incisors ) . The molars are brachyodont ( low @-@ crowned ) and bear crests and cusps arranged in pairs opposite each other . The front cusp of M1 , the anterocone , is divided into two smaller cusps on each side of the tooth by a valley , the anteromedian flexus . Both M1 and the second molar ( M2 ) have a well @-@ developed mesoloph ( a crest near the middle of the tooth ) . Although M3 is relatively large , its back part is reduced .
The interorbital region is 4 @.@ 14 mm long and the zygomatic plate is 2 @.@ 38 mm . The diastema ( gap ) between the incisors and molars is 6 @.@ 39 mm long . The incisive foramina are 5 @.@ 25 mm long and 1 @.@ 77 mm broad . The palatal bridge ( the portion of the palate between the incisive foramina and the mesopterygoid fossa behind the back end of the palate ) is 4 @.@ 29 mm long and 2 @.@ 75 mm broad at the first molars . The upper molar row is 4 @.@ 13 mm long and M1 is 1 @.@ 19 mm broad . These measurements make J. anoblepas the largest known species of Juliomys .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Juliomys anoblepas is known only from Lagoa Santa , where the genus no longer occurs ; the nearest records are about 70 km ( 43 @.@ 5 mi ) to the southeast . It is one of several Lagoa Santa fossil rodents that no longer occur in the area . Although the precise environmental background of the Lagoa Santa fossil assemblage remains unclear , they may have been deposited in a period of climatic cooling that led to higher local diversity .
|
= Tropical cyclone basins =
Traditionally , areas of tropical cyclone formation are divided into seven basins . These include the north Atlantic Ocean , the eastern and western parts of the northern Pacific Ocean , the southwestern Pacific , the southwestern and southeastern Indian Oceans , and the northern Indian Ocean ( Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal ) . The western Pacific is the most active and the north Indian the least active . An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide , with 47 reaching hurricane / typhoon strength , and 20 becoming intense tropical cyclones ( at least of Category 3 intensity ) .
= = Overview = =
= = Northern Hemisphere = =
= = = North Atlantic Ocean = = =
This region includes the North Atlantic Ocean , the Caribbean Sea , and the Gulf of Mexico . Tropical cyclone formation here varies widely from year to year , ranging from one to over twenty @-@ five per year . Most Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanes form between June 1 and November 30 . The United States National Hurricane Center monitors the basin and issues reports , watches and warnings about tropical weather systems for the Atlantic Basin as one of the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres for tropical cyclones as defined by the World Meteorological Organization . On average , 11 named storms ( of tropical storm or higher strength ) occur each season , with an average of 6 becoming hurricanes and 2 becoming major hurricanes . The climatological peak of activity is around September 10 each season .
The United States Atlantic coast and Gulf Coast , Mexico , Central America , the Caribbean Islands , and Bermuda are frequently affected by storms in this basin . Venezuela , the 4 provinces of Atlantic Canada , and Atlantic Macaronesian islands also are occasionally affected . Many of the more intense Atlantic storms are Cape Verde @-@ type hurricanes , which form off the west coast of Africa near the Cape Verde islands . Occasionally , a hurricane that evolves into an extratropical cyclone can reach western Europe , including Hurricane Gordon , which spread high winds across Spain and the British Isles in September 2006 . Hurricane Vince , which made landfall on the southwestern coast of Spain as a tropical depression in October 2005 , is the only known system to impact mainland Europe as a tropical cyclone ( correction / citation needed here to mention 1842 Spain hurricane ) .
= = = Eastern Pacific = = =
The Northeastern Pacific is the second most active basin and has the highest number of storms per unit area . The hurricane season runs between May 15 and November 30 each year , and encompasses the vast majority of tropical cyclone activity in the region . In the 1971 – 2005 period , there were an average of 15 – 16 tropical storms , 9 hurricanes , and 4 – 5 major hurricanes ( storms of Category 3 intensity or greater ) annually in the basin .
Storms that form here often affect western Mexico , and less commonly the Continental United States ( in particular California ) , or northern Central America . No hurricane included in the modern database has made landfall in California ; however , historical records from 1858 speak of a storm that brought San Diego winds over 75 mph ( 65 kn ; 121 km / h ) ( marginal hurricane force ) , though it is not known if the storm actually made landfall . Tropical storms in 1939 , 1976 and 1997 brought gale @-@ force winds to California .
The Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility ( AOR ) begins at the boundary with the National Hurricane Center ' AOR ( at 140 ° W ) , and ends at the International Date Line , where the Northwestern Pacific begins . The hurricane season in the North Central Pacific runs annually from June 1 to November 30 ; The Central Pacific Hurricane Center monitors the storms that develop or move into the defined area of responsibility . The CPHC previously tasked with monitoring tropical activity in the basin was originally known as the Joint Hurricane Warning Center ; today it is called the Joint Typhoon Warning Center .
Central Pacific hurricanes are rare and on average 4 to 5 storms form or move in this area annually . As there are no large contiguous landmasses in the basin , direct hits and landfalls are rare ; however , they occur occasionally , as with Hurricane Iniki in 1992 , which made landfall on Hawaii , and Hurricane Ioke in 2006 , which made a direct hit on Johnston Atoll .
= = = Northwestern Pacific Ocean = = =
The Northwest Pacific Ocean is the most active basin on the planet . Annually , an average of 25 @.@ 7 tropical cyclones in the basin acquire tropical storm strength or greater ; also , an average of 16 typhoons occurred each year during the 1968 – 1989 period . The basin occupies all the territory north of the equator and west of the International Date Line , including the South China Sea . The basin sees activity year @-@ round ; however , tropical activity is at its minimum in February and March .
Tropical storms in this region often affect China , Hong Kong , Japan , North Korea , South Korea , the Philippines , Taiwan and Vietnam , plus numerous Oceanian islands such as Guam , the Northern Marianas and Palau . Sometimes , tropical storms in this region affect Cambodia , Laos , Malaysia , Thailand and even Singapore . This is by far the most active basin , accounting for one @-@ third of all tropical cyclone activity . The coast of China sees the most landfalling tropical cyclones worldwide . The Philippines archipelago receives an average of 6 – 7 tropical cyclone landfalls per year .
= = = North Indian Ocean = = =
This basin is divided into two areas : the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea , with the Bay of Bengal dominating ( 5 to 6 times more activity ) . Still , this basin is the most inactive worldwide , with only 4 to 6 storms per year . This basin 's season has a double peak : one in April and May , before the onset of the monsoon , and another in October and November , just after . Although it is an inactive basin , the deadliest tropical cyclones in the world have formed here , including the 1970 Bhola cyclone , which killed 500 @,@ 000 people . Nations affected include India , Bangladesh , Sri Lanka , Thailand , Myanmar , and Pakistan . Rarely do tropical cyclones that form in this basin affect the Arabian Peninsula or Somalia ; however , Cyclone Gonu caused heavy damage in Oman on the peninsula in 2007 .
= = = Mediterranean Sea = = =
On rare occasions , tropical @-@ like systems , that can reach the intensity of hurricanes , occur over the Mediterranean Sea . Such a phenomenon is called a Medicane ( mediterranean @-@ hurricane ) . Although the geographical dimensions of tropical oceans and the Mediterranean Sea are clearly different , the precursor mechanisms of these perturbations , based on the air @-@ sea thermodynamic imbalance , are similar . Their origins are typically non @-@ tropical , and develop over open waters under strong , initially cold @-@ core cyclones , similar to subtropical cyclones or anomalous tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Basin , like Karl ( 1980 ) , Vince ( 2005 ) , Grace ( 2009 ) or Chris ( 2012 ) . Sea surface temperatures in late @-@ August and early @-@ September are quite high over the basin ( 24 / 28 ° C or 75 / 82 ° F ) , though research indicates water temperatures of 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) are normally required for development .
Meteorological literature document that such systems occurred in September 1947 , September 1969 , January 1982 , September 1983 , January 1995 , October 1996 , September 2006 , November 2011 and November 2014 . The 1995 system developed a well @-@ defined eye , and a ship recorded 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) winds , along with an atmospheric pressure of 975 mbar . Although it had the structure of a tropical cyclone , it occurred over 61 ° F ( 16 ° C ) water temperatures , suggesting it could have been a polar low .
= = Southern Hemisphere = =
Within the Southern Hemisphere tropical cyclones generally form on a regular basis between the African coast and the middle of the South Pacific . Tropical and Subtropical Cyclones have also been noted occurring in the Southern Atlantic Ocean at times . For various reasons including where tropical cyclones form , there are several different ways to split the area between the American and African coasts . For instance the World Meteorological Organization define three different basins for the tracking and warning of tropical cyclones . These are the South @-@ West Indian Ocean between the African Coast and 90 ° E , the Australian region between 90 ° E and 160 ° E and the South Pacific between 160 ° E and 120 ° W. The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center also monitors the whole region , but splits it at 135 ° E into the South Pacific and the Southern Indian Ocean .
= = = South @-@ West Indian Ocean = = =
The South @-@ West Indian Ocean is located within the Southern Hemisphere between the Africa 's east coast and 90 ° E and is primarily monitored by the Meteo France 's La Reunion RSMC , while the Mauritian , Australian Indonesian , and Madagascan weather services also monitor parts of it . Until the start of the 1985 – 86 tropical cyclone season the basin only extended to 80 ° E , with the 10 degrees between 80 and 90E considered to be a part of the Australian region . On average about 9 cyclones per develop into tropical storms , while 5 of those go on to become tropical cyclones that are equivalent to a hurricane or a typhoon . The tropical cyclones that form in this area can affect some of the various Indian Ocean island nations and or various countries along Africa 's east coast .
= = = Australian region = = =
Through the middle of 1985 , this basin extended westward to 80E . Since then , its western boundary has been 90E . Tropical activity in this region affects Australia and Indonesia . According to the Australian Bureau of Meteorology , the most frequently hit portion of Australia is between Exmouth and Broome in Western Australia . The basin sees an average of about seven cyclones each year , although more can form or come in from other basins , such as the South Pacific . The tropical cyclone Cyclone Vance in 1999 produced the highest recorded speed winds in an Australian town or city at around 267 km / h ( 166 mph ) .
= = = South Pacific Ocean = = =
The South Pacific Ocean basin starts at 160 ° E and extends to 120 ° W with cyclones developing in it officially monitored by Fiji and New Zealand 's Meteorological Services . Tropical Cyclones that develop within this basin generally affect countries to the west of the dateline , though during El Nino 's cyclones have been known to develop to the east of the dateline near French Polynesia . On average the basin sees nine tropical cyclones annually with about half of them becoming severe tropical cyclones .
= = = South Atlantic Ocean = = =
Cyclones rarely form in other tropical ocean areas , which are not formally considered tropical cyclone basins . Tropical depressions and tropical storms occur occasionally in the South Atlantic , and the only full @-@ blown tropical cyclones on record were 2004 's Hurricane Catarina , which made landfall in Brazil and 2010 's Tropical Storm Anita , which formed off the coast of Rio Grande do Sul . South Atlantic ocean is not officially classified as a tropical cyclone basin by the World Meteorological Organization and do not have a designated regional specialized meteorological center ( RSMC ) . However , the Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center has started in 2011 to assign names to tropical and subtropical systems in this basin , when they have sustained wind speeds of at least 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) .
|
= Lady of Quality =
Lady of Quality is the last Regency romance novel written by Georgette Heyer . It was first published in 1972 and was the last of her novels to be published during her lifetime .
The story describes the romantic relationship between Annis Wychwood , a wealthy spinster , and Oliver Carleton , a rake who cares little for society 's opinion of him . The two meet while jointly supervising Carleton 's ward , Lucilla . Heyer granted her heroine a level of independence that was rare in Regency times and rare for Heyer 's novels . Although the hero 's personality is similar to that of many of Heyer 's other heroes , in a departure from romance novel convention he experienced little personal growth in the novel ; his primary change was to accept that he would like to have a wife .
Heyer frequently highlights the heroine 's many masculine qualities , which include a fierce independence and a disregard for social mores . Modern literary critics have noted that the relationship between the protagonists is modelled on those of the latter 20th century , offering companionship and allowing both parties to retain a level of independence . The heroine 's unwillingness to conform attracts the hero , rather than repels him .
= = Background = =
British author Georgette Heyer essentially invented the Regency romance in 1935 with the publication of Regency Buck , and her early Regencies were quite successful . In 1950 she began to work on what she called " the magnum opus of my latter years " , a medieval trilogy intended to cover the House of Lancaster between 1393 and 1435 . To earn income , she periodically interrupted her research to write additional Regency romances ; Lady of Quality , published in 1972 , was the last of them , and the last of her novels to be published during her lifetime . Heyer suffered a stroke in July 1973 and was in ill health until her death the following year .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel is set in Regency England somewhere around 1818 , and events are related through third @-@ person narrative . As the story opens , a wealthy , beautiful and intelligent woman named Annis Wychwood reaches the age of majority . Now having greater control over her personal and financial affairs , Annis decides to move to Bath and live alone , to the displeasure of her brother and his family . Several years later , on the way back to Bath after a visit to her childhood home , Annis meets Lucilla Carleton and Ninian Elmore . Lucilla is running away to Bath to avoid her marriage to Ninian , a match that her guardian is very much in favour of , and Ninian is escorting her to ensure her safe arrival . Annis volunteers to chaperone Lucilla and notifies the girl 's guardian of her plans .
Lucilla 's guardian , Oliver Carleton , visits Bath to investigate her new living arrangements . Carleton is a rake – a sexually experienced man who refuses to conform to many of society 's guidelines . His biting wit has earned him the label of rudest man in England , but he and Annis soon find mutual enjoyment in lively banter . As Carleton and Annis 's friendship develops , they discover deeper feelings for each other . Carleton proposes marriage , but Annis refuses , unwilling to relinquish her independence . Using the excuse that he must find Lucilla a new guardian , Carleton returns to London .
Annis 's brother , Sir Geoffrey Wychwood , hears rumours of her developing relationship with Carleton and sends his wife and children to Bath to discourage Carleton . Soon after their arrival members of the household contract influenza , and Annis nurses them until she too becomes infected . When Carleton hears that Annis is seriously ill he returns to Bath , arriving on the first day that she is able to get out of bed . Annis agrees to marry Carleton , despite the objections of her brother .
= = Genre and themes = =
Like many of Heyer 's novels , Lady of Quality is a Regency romance , relying heavily on its setting as a plot device . As noted by literary critic Kay Mussell , Heyer 's Regency romances revolved around a " structured social ritual – the marriage market represented by the London season " where " all are in danger of ostracism for inappropriate behavior " . Heyer 's novels were known for their painstaking attention to detail , which she used to infuse the novels with the " tone of the time " .
The heroine , Annis , is one of Heyer 's more modern characters . Her wealth and spinsterhood allow her a level of freedom that is unusual in a Heyer novel , as it was in the Regency period . Many of the actions Annis takes , such as moving to a different city despite her family 's objections , were common among women living in the 1970s when the novel was written , but in a Regency setting they mark Annis as a bold and unusually independent woman .
Heyer 's hero , Carleton , is a worldly and independent man , similar to those found in many of her other novels . In a departure from her other novels however , Carleton is an " unrepentant hero " who refuses to apologise for his past misdeeds and sees no need to change aspects of his behaviour such as his temper . Although in most romance novels the hero changes throughout the course of the narrative , in Lady of Quality Carleton is essentially the same character at the novel 's conclusion that he was at its beginning . The sole difference is his realisation that he loves Annis and wishes to marry her .
In contrast to his defiance of society in matters of his own relationships , Carleton is tasked with supervising his niece Lucilla . He must ensure that she is not drawn into a scandal , ruining her prospects of marriage , a role Heyer often gives to her heroes . It is rare that her heroines are given the same responsibility , but in this novel Annis chooses to become involved in shepherding Lucilla through society . Like the hero , the heroine ignores the standards of propriety when she chooses , yet also shelters Lucilla from following her example , as Annis thinks the younger woman lacks the experience to properly judge when it is appropriate to disregard society 's mores . Annis 's age , and the life experience she has gained , give her a greater ability to manipulate the social standards of her time than a young ingenue . As in Heyer 's other novels , her word choice frequently highlights the fact that the heroine 's behavior diverges from the socially accepted feminine ideal of the Regency period . Rather than repel others , the unwillingness to conform to the expected behavioural norms endears the heroine to the hero .
= = Publication and reception = =
Exact publication figures are unavailable for this book , but a first printing of one of Heyer 's novels in the British Commonwealth often consisted of 65 @,@ 000 – 75 @,@ 000 copies , and each of her books generally sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies in paperback . As with Heyer 's other popular fiction , this book was largely ignored by contemporary critics ; only after her death did they begin to take more interest in her work .
Philippa Toomey , a literary critic for The Times , wrote a short review of Lady of Quality soon after its publication . While noting that the plots of all Heyer 's romance novels were similar , Toomey described Lady of Quality as " almost identical twins " with Heyer 's earlier work Black Sheep . Despite the formulaic nature of the plot , Toomey believed that Heyer fans would enjoy the novel , as it showcased Heyer 's skill in creating interesting characters who acted appropriately for their setting .
Lady of Quality was profiled in Pamela Regis 's 2003 book A Natural History of the Romance Novel . Regis describes the relationship between the protagonists as very modern ; both are financially independent , and neither cares overly much for the opinions of others . Literary critic Karin Westman , writing at about the same time agreed , noting that the novel provides " a vision of marriage as companionship , a union which does not require ceding independence ... thanks to a heroine who can conduct herself as a hero " .
|
= 1937 Fox vault fire =
The 1937 Fox vault fire was a major fire in a 20th Century Fox film storage facility in Little Ferry , New Jersey on 9 July 1937 . It was caused by the spontaneous combustion of nitrate film stored in inadequately @-@ ventilated vaults . The fire resulted in one death and two injuries , and destroyed all of the film present .
This fire was responsible for the loss of most of the silent films produced by Fox Film Corporation before 1932 . Also destroyed were Educational Pictures negatives and films of several other studios . It brought attention to the potential for decaying nitrate film to spontaneously ignite , and changed the focus of film preservation efforts to include a greater focus on fire safety .
= = Background = =
= = = Nitrate film = = =
The early motion picture industry primarily used nitrocellulose film stock , commonly called nitrate film . This film is flammable , and produces its own oxygen supply as it burns . Nitrate fires burn rapidly , and cannot typically be extinguished , capable of burning even underwater . Additionally , nitrocellulose is subject to thermal decomposition and hydrolysis , breaking down over time in the presence of high temperatures and moisture . This decaying film stock releases nitrogen oxides that themselves contribute to the decay and make the damaged film burn more easily . Under the right conditions , nitrate film can even spontaneously combust . In part because of substantial variability in the manufacturing of early film , there is considerable uncertainty about the circumstances necessary for self @-@ ignition . Sustained temperatures of 106 ° F ( 41 ° C ) or higher , large quantities of nitrate film , increased humidity , poor ventilation , and aged or decaying film have all been considered risk factors . Most such fires in film archives have taken place in heat waves during summer months , in closed facilities with limited ventilation , compounding several of these variables . Especially in confined areas , such fires can result in explosions .
Large and dangerous fires sometimes resulted . On 4 May 1897 , one of the first major fires involving nitrate film began when a Lumière projector caught fire at the Bazar de la Charité in Paris ; the resulting blaze caused 180 deaths . In the United States , a series of fires occurred at industry facilities . The Lubin Manufacturing Company 's vault in Philadelphia exploded on 13 June 1914 , followed on 9 December by a fire that destroyed Thomas Edison 's laboratory complex in West Orange , New Jersey . The New York studio of the Famous Players Film Company burned in September 1915 ; in July 1920 , the shipping facility of its corporate successor , Famous Players @-@ Lasky , was destroyed by a fire in Kansas City , Missouri , despite construction intended to minimize that risk . The United Film Ad Service vault , also in Kansas City , burned on 4 August 1928 , and a fire was reported at Pathé Exchange nine days later . In October 1929 , the Consolidated Film Industries facility was badly damaged by a nitrate fire . Spontaneous combustion was not proven to have occurred in any of these fires ; it is possible that the potential of nitrate film to self @-@ ignite was not even recognized before 1933 .
= = = Little Ferry = = =
When Little Ferry , New Jersey contractor William Fehrs was hired to construct a film storage facility in 1934 , he designed the structure to be fireproof . The building had 12 @-@ inch ( 30 cm ) outer walls and a reinforced concrete roof . Internally , it was divided into forty @-@ two individual vaults , each enclosed behind a steel door and separated with 8 @-@ inch ( 20 cm ) brick interior walls . The local fire department confirmed Fehrs 's fireproofing . Despite the potential for fire , the facility was located in a residential neighborhood , and was equipped with neither a fire sprinkler system nor mechanical ventilation .
Film processing company DeLuxe Laboratories owned the building , and rented it to 20th Century Fox to store the silent films acquired from Fox Film Corporation during the merger .
= = Fire = =
Northern New Jersey experienced a heat wave in July 1937 , with daytime temperatures of 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) and warm nights . The sustained heat contributed to nitrate decomposition in the film vaults , and the building 's ventilation was inadequate to prevent a dangerous buildup of gasses . At some time shortly after 2 : 00 a.m. on the 9th , spontaneous ignition occurred in the vault at the building 's northwest corner . Local truck driver Robert Davison observed flames coming from one of the structure 's window vents and , within five minutes , used a municipal fire alarm call box to report the fire .
Davison then attempted to awaken the residents of the surrounding houses , many of whom were already alerted to the situation by the noise and intense heat . As decomposition gasses in additional vaults ignited , bursts of fire shot over 100 feet ( 30 m ) horizontally across the ground from the windows , and a similar distance into the air from the building 's roof vents . Anna Greeves and her two sons , John and Charles , were caught in one such " sheet of flame " while attempting to flee the area . All three were seriously burned ; 13 @-@ year @-@ old Charles eventually died from his injuries on 19 July . Other area families were able to escape unharmed as the fire spread to five neighboring residences and destroyed two vehicles .
Little Ferry firefighters first arrived at 2 : 26 a.m. , followed by additional companies from Hawthorne , Ridgefield Park , River Edge , and South Hackensack . Despite 150 men employing fourteen hose streams , the fire was not extinguished until 5 : 30 a.m.
Property damage was estimated at $ 150 @,@ 000 — 200 @,@ 000 . All of the film in the facility was destroyed ; more than 40 @,@ 000 reels of negatives and film prints burned to ashes inside their film cans . Fifty @-@ seven truckloads of burned film were hauled from the site to have their silver content extracted . Each can contained about five cents worth of silver ; the salvaged metal returned $ 2 @,@ 000 .
= = Legacy = =
Although 20th Century Fox officials at the time remarked that " only old films " were destroyed , the 1937 Fox vault fire is now understood as a significant loss of American film heritage . Film historian Anthony Slide called the destruction of the Fox Film Corporation vault " the most tragic " American nitrate fire . The highest quality examples of every Fox film produced prior to 1932 were destroyed . Although copies located elsewhere allowed some of these films to survive , mostly as lower @-@ quality prints or mere fragments of film , more than 75 % of Fox 's feature films from before 1930 are completely lost . Total or near lost filmography rates occurred for Fox performers like Theda Bara , Valeska Suratt , William Farnum , George Walsh and notorious celebutante performer Evelyn Nesbit , who made less than a score of films for the Studio . The Little Ferry vaults also held works by other film studios which had contracted with Fox for distribution . Educational Pictures had more than 2 @,@ 000 negatives and prints destroyed , including the negatives of Buster Keaton 's silent films with the company . Also present was the original negative of D. W. Griffith 's Way Down East ( which Fox had purchased with the intent of remaking ) , the negative for the controversial Christie Productions sponsored film The Birth of a Baby , and films by smaller studios such as Atherton Productions , Peck 's Bad Boy Corporation , Principal Pictures , and Serial Producing . Archival material intended for the Museum of Modern Art 's Film Library was lost as well .
The destruction of the Little Ferry facility spurred an interest in fire safety as an aspect of film preservation . Unlike previous large nitrate film fires , the spontaneous combustion of decomposing film stock was determined to be responsible . Investigators suggested that the older nitrocellulose film stored in the archive was of lower quality than then @-@ current film and thus more prone to instability . The Society of Motion Picture Engineers 's Committee on Preservation of Film , three months after the vault fire , cited " recent and rather extensive film fires " as evidence that existing preservation efforts had failed to adequately address the " fire problem " . More heavily reinforced film vaults were suggested , to prevent fires in a single vault from destroying entire archival facilities . Film storage cabinets with ventilation and cooling systems were also proposed , as was further research into improving the quality of cellulose acetate film to encourage its use as a safer replacement for nitrate film .
|
= Battle of Nam River =
The Battle of Nam River was an engagement between United Nations ( UN ) and North Korean ( NK ) forces early in the Korean War from August 31 to September 19 , 1950 , in the vicinity of the Nam River and the Naktong River in South Korea . It was a part of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , and was one of several large engagements fought simultaneously . The battle ended in a victory for the United Nations after large numbers of United States ( US ) and Republic of Korea ( ROK ) troops were able to repel a North Korean attack across the river .
Positioned in defense of Masan during the Battle of Masan , the US 35th Infantry Regiment , 25th Infantry Division took up positions along the Nam River , one of the many tributaries of the Naktong River on the southern flank of the Pusan Perimeter . The North Korean People 's Army 's 7th Division effected a crossing of the river on August 31 , and though the 35th Infantry was able to stem the North Korean advance , thousands of North Korean troops were able to exploit a hole in the line and surround the regiment . What followed was an intense battle in which the US and North Korean units were heavily engaged all along and behind the Kum River line . Eventually , though , the North Korean force was routed and defeated by the US troops .
During the battle , the 35th Infantry was instrumental in forcing back the North Korean division and preventing it from advancing to capture Pusan . The delay was enough for UN forces to counterattack Inchon , effectively defeating the entire North Korean army at the Pusan Perimeter . The 35th Infantry 's performance in the battle earned the regiment a Presidential Unit Citation .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the June 25 , 1950 , outbreak of the Korean War after the invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by its northern neighbor , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) , the United Nations decided to commit troops to the conflict on behalf of South Korea . The United States , a member of the UN , subsequently committed ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of fighting back the North Korean invasion and to prevent South Korea from collapsing . However , US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II , five years earlier , and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division , headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Regardless , the 24th was ordered to South Korea .
The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances , delaying much larger North Korean units to buy time to allow reinforcements to arrive . The division was consequently alone for several weeks as it attempted to delay the North Koreans , making time for the 1st Cavalry and the 7th and 25th Infantry Divisions , along with other US Eighth Army supporting units , to move into position . Advance elements of the 24th Infantry were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , the first encounter between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat of Task Force Smith , the 24th Infantry Division was repeatedly defeated and forced south by superior North Korean numbers and equipment . The regiments of the 24th Infantry were systematically pushed south in engagements around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The 24th made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon , where it was almost completely destroyed but delaying North Korean forces until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's force of combat troops was roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region , with new UN units arriving every day .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
With Taejon captured , North Korean forces began surrounding the Pusan Perimeter from all sides in an attempt to envelop it . The 4th and 6th North Korean Infantry Divisions advanced south in a wide flanking maneuver . The two divisions attempted to envelop the UN 's left flank , but became extremely spread out in the process . They advanced on UN positions with armor and superior numbers , repeatedly pushing back US and South Korean forces .
American forces were pushed back repeatedly before finally halting the North Korean advance in a series of engagements in the southern section of the country . Forces of the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry Regiment , newly arrived in the country , were wiped out at Hadong in a coordinated ambush by North Korean forces on July 27 , opening a pass to the Pusan area . Soon after , North Korean forces took Chinju to the west , pushing back the US 19th Infantry Regiment and leaving routes to the Pusan open for more North Korean attacks . US formations were subsequently able to defeat and push back the North Koreans on the flank in the Battle of the Notch on August 2 . Suffering mounting losses , the Korean People 's Army force in the west withdrew for several days to re @-@ equip and receive reinforcements . This granted both sides a reprieve to prepare for the attack on the Pusan Perimeter .
= = = Attack on Masan = = =
During the lull in fighting following the Battle of the Notch , Eighth Army commander Lieutenant General Walton Walker ordered the US 25th Infantry Division , under Major General William B. Kean , to take up defensive positions on the Pusan Perimeter southern flank west of Masan . By August 15 , the 25th Infantry Division had moved into these positions . Rough terrain west of Masan limited the choice of the positions . The mountain group west of Masan was the first readily defensible ground east of the Chinju pass . The 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) mountain ridges of Sobuk @-@ san dominated the area and protected the Komam @-@ ni @-@ Haman @-@ Chindong @-@ ni road , the only means of north @-@ south communication west of Masan .
To the north , from the Masan @-@ Chinju highway to the Nam River , were several easily defensible positions . The most favorable was the high ground near Chungam @-@ ni , which controlled an important junction connecting the Masan road with the road over the Nam River to Uiryong . It was essential for the US 25th Infantry Division 's right flank to connect with the left flank of the US 24th Infantry Division at the confluence of the Nam and the Naktong Rivers . Therefore , the 25th Infantry Division also moved to protect the Komam @-@ ni road intersection where the Chindong @-@ ni @-@ Haman road met the Masan @-@ Chinju highway .
Meanwhile , the NK 6th Division was ordered to await reinforcements before continuing the attack . From north to south , the division had its 13th , 15th , and 14th Regiments . The first replacements arrived at Chinju on about August 12 . Approximately 2 @,@ 000 unarmed South Koreans conscripted in the Seoul area joined the division by August 15 . At Chinju , the NK 6th Division issued them grenades and told the recruits they would have to pick up weapons from killed and wounded soldiers on the battlefield . Another group of 2 @,@ 500 replacements conscripted in the Seoul area joined the 6th Division on August 21 , bringing the division 's strength to approximately 8 @,@ 500 men . In the last week of August and the first week of September , 3 @,@ 000 more recruits conscripted in southwest Korea joined the division . The 6th Division used this last body of recruits in labor details and only later employed them as combat troops . As a part of the North Korean build @-@ up in the south , the untried NK 7th Division also arrived near Masan with another 10 @,@ 000 men . The 7th Division occupied key ports to protect the 6th Division against possible amphibious landings in its rear .
On August 31 , 1950 , the 25th Division held a front of almost 30 miles ( 48 km ) , beginning in the north at the Namji @-@ ri bridge over the Naktong River and extending west on the hills south of the river to the Nam 's confluence with it . It then bent southwest up the south side of the Nam to where the Sobuk @-@ san mountain mass tapered down in its northern extremity to the river . There the line turned south along rising ground to Sibidang @-@ san , crossed the saddle on its south face through which passed the Chinju @-@ Masan railroad and highway , and continued southward up to Battle Mountain and on to P 'il @-@ bong . From P 'il @-@ bong the line dropped down spur ridge lines to the southern coastal road near Chindong @-@ ni . The US 35th Infantry Regiment held the northern 26 @,@ 000 yards ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) of the division line , from the Namji @-@ ri bridge to the Chinju @-@ Masan highway . The regiment was responsible for the highway . The regiment 's weakest point was a 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) gap along the Naktong River between most of F Company on the west and its 1st Platoon to the east . This platoon guarded the Namji @-@ ri cantilever steel bridge on the division 's extreme right at the boundary with the US 2nd Infantry Division across the Naktong River . South of the highway , the US 24th Infantry Regiment held the high ground west of Haman , including Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong . Colonel John L. Throckmorton 's US 5th Infantry Regimental Combat Team held the southern spur of Sobuk @-@ san to the coastal road at Chindong @-@ ni . From Chindong @-@ ni some ROK Marine Corps units continued the line to the southern coast . Kean 's 25th Division command post was at Masan , the 35th Infantry command post was on the east side of the Chirwon @-@ Chung @-@ ni road , the 24th Infantry command post was at Haman and Throckmorton 's command post was at Chindong @-@ ni . By August 31 , the division was suffering manpower shortages , and a limited number of KATUSAs were brought in to replenish its ranks .
= = Battle = =
In the southern part of its sector , where the US 25th Infantry Division held the UN line , the NK I Corps planned a strong attack , coordinating it with an attack against the US 2nd Infantry Division to the north . The North Korean 6th and 7th Divisions received their attack orders on August 20 . The North Korean operations order called for the NK I Corps to assault all along the line at 22 : 00 on August 31 . The 6th Division , farthest south on the right flank , was to attack through Haman , Masan , and Chinhae and capture Kumhae , on the west side of the Naktong River delta 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Pusan , by September 3 . The division zone of attack was to be south of the Chinju @-@ Komam @-@ ni @-@ Masan highway . The 7th Division , next in line north of the 6th Division , was to attack north of the Masan highway , wheel left to the Naktong , and wait for the 6th Division on its right and the NK 9th Division on its left to join it . Part of the 7th Division was concentrated in the Uiryong area west of the Nam River . This plan pitted the 6th Division against the US 24th Infantry Regiment and the 7th Division against the US 35th Infantry Regiment . As a part of this plan , the NK 6th Division had been engaging the 24th Infantry at Battle Mountain for several weeks prior , to a stalemate . Kean , aware of a pending offensive and distrusting the 24th Infantry 's ability , began to compile a report on the regiment 's performance to determine how to improve its capabilities . The North Korean 6th Division struck the 24th Infantry at Haman on August 31 , and pushed it back after heavy engagements . The NK 6th Division and the US 24th Infantry Regiment remained locked in a bitter fight for the next week .
= = = North Korean crossing = = =
Meanwhile , the North Korean 7th Division troops committed all of their effort into attacking the US 35th Infantry line . At 23 : 30 on August 31 , a North Korean SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled high @-@ velocity gun from across the Nam fired shells into the position of G Company , 35th Infantry , overlooking the river . Within a few minutes , North Korean artillery was attacking all front @-@ line rifle companies of the regiment from the Namji @-@ ri bridge west . Under cover of this fire a reinforced regiment of the NK 7th Division crossed the Nam River and attacked F and G Companies , 35th Infantry . Other North Korean soldiers crossed the Nam on an underwater bridge in front of the paddy ground north of Komam @-@ ni and near the boundary between the 2nd Battalion , led by Lieutenant Colonel John L. Wilkins , Jr . , holding the river front and Lieutenant Colonel Bernard G. Teeter 's 1st Battalion holding the hill line that stretched from the Nam River to Sibidang @-@ san and the Chinju @-@ Masan highway . The 35th Infantry , facing shortages of materiel and reinforcements , was under @-@ equipped but nonetheless prepared for an attack .
At the river ferry crossing site in the low ground between these two battalions , the regimental commander placed 300 ROK National Police , expecting them to hold there long enough to serve as a warning for the rest of the forces . Guns from the flanking hills there could cover the low ground with fire . Back at Komam @-@ ni he held the 3rd Battalion ready for use in counterattack to stop an enemy penetration should it occur . Unexpectedly , the ROK police companies near the ferry scattered at the first North Korean fire . At 00 : 30 , North Korean troops streamed through this hole in the line , some turning left to take G Company in its flank and rear , and others turned right to attack C Company , which was on a spur of ground west of the Komam @-@ ni road . Elements of C and D Companies formed a defense line along the dike at the north edge of Komam @-@ ni where US tanks joined them at dawn . The North Koreans , however , did not drive for the Komam @-@ ni road fork 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of the river as the US commander , Lieutenant Colonel Henry Fisher had expected ; instead , they turned east into the hills behind 2nd Battalion .
The position of B Company , 35th Infantry , on the 1 @,@ 100 feet ( 340 m ) Sibidang @-@ san , flanked the Masan road 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Komam @-@ ni and gave the company a commanding view over the surrounding countryside . It was a key position in the 25th Division line , and Kean was aware the North Koreans would consider it important ground to target for attack . The North Korean preparatory barrage there lasted from 11 : 30 to midnight . Under this cover , two battalions of the NK 13th Regiment , 6th Division , moved up within 150 yards ( 140 m ) of the American foxholes . At the same time , North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks , SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled guns , and antitank guns moved toward Komam @-@ ni on the road at the foot of Sibidang @-@ san . An American M4A3 Sherman tank there destroyed a T @-@ 34 just after midnight , and a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch bazooka team destroyed a self @-@ propelled gun and several 45 mm antitank guns .
On the crest of Sibidang @-@ san , an antipersonnel minefield stopped the first North Korean infantry assault . More attacks followed in quick succession , all of which were repulsed by the US troops ' superior firepower . By 02 : 30 the B Company riflemen were so depleted of ammunition that they began stripping machine @-@ gun bullets from the ammunition belts and using them in their rifles . The 1st Platoon of C Company , at the base of the mountain behind B Company , climbed Sibidang @-@ san in 45 minutes with an ammunition resupply for the company . Just before dawn the North Korean attack subsided . Daylight revealed a vast amount of abandoned North Korean equipment scattered on the slope just below the crest , including 33 machine @-@ guns . Among the North Korean dead was the commanding officer of the NK 13th Regiment .
At daybreak on September 1 , a relief force of C Company headquarters troops , led by American tanks , cleared the road to Sibidang @-@ san and resupplied the 2nd Platoon , B Company , with ammunition just in time for it to repel another North Korean assault . This failed assault resulted in the killing of 77 and capturing of 21 North Koreans . Although the 35th Infantry held all its original positions , except that of the forward platoon of G Company , 3 @,@ 000 North Korean soldiers were behind its lines . The farthest eastern penetration reached the high ground just south of Chirwon overlooking the north @-@ south road there .
In the meantime , the NK 6th Division had made breakthroughs in the US 24th Infantry sector to the south , overwhelming the regiment and forcing it back . The 2nd Battalion , 24th Infantry , on the ridges overlooking Haman , was pushed back as its soldiers retreated without orders . Survivors from the 24th Infantry 's 1st and 2nd battalions later appeared in the 35th 's lines , and the regimental commanders found that the entire regiment had crumbled under North Korean attack . Kean ordered the 1st Battalion , 27th Infantry to move in and help restore the 24th 's position .
= = = North Korean infiltration = = =
In a counterattack after daylight , K Company and tanks had partially regained control of the ridges overlooking Haman , but not completely . Large numbers of North Koreans were behind the battle positions of the 35th Infantry as far as the Chirwon @-@ ni and Chung @-@ ni areas , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) east of Komam @-@ ni and the front positions . The North Koreans continued to cross the Nam River after daylight on September 1 in the general area of the gap between the 1st and 2nd Battalions . UN observation aircraft spotted an estimated four companies crossing there and directed fire of the 64th Field Artillery Battalion on the crossing force , which destroyed an estimated three @-@ fourths of it . Fighter planes then strafed the survivors . Later another large group of North Koreans were spotted in the open at the river later in the day and American aircraft directed artillery fire on the column , with an estimated 200 North Korean casualties .
The NK I Corps plan of attack below the Nam River was for its 6th Division to push east along the main Chinju @-@ Komam @-@ ni @-@ Masan highway through the 1st Battalion , 35th Infantry , and at the same time for major elements of its 7th Division to swing southeast behind the 2nd Battalion , 35th Infantry , and cut the Chirwon road . This road crossed the Naktong River over the cantilever steel bridge at Namji @-@ ri from the US 2nd Infantry Division zone and ran south through Chirwon to join the main Masan highway 8 miles ( 13 km ) east of Komam @-@ ni near the village of Chung @-@ ni , 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) northwest of Masan . These two avenues of approach , the Komam @-@ ni @-@ Masan highway and the Chirwon road converging at Chung @-@ ni , formed the axes of their attack plan .
US Engineer troops counterattacking up the secondary road toward Chirwon during September 1 made slow progress , and North Koreans stopped them in the early afternoon . The 35th Infantry was now surrounded by forces of the NK 6th and 7th Divisions , with an estimated three battalions of them behind its lines . Speaking later of the situation , Fisher said , " I never intended to withdraw . There was no place to go . I planned to go into a regimental perimeter and hold . "
= = = US 2 @-@ 27th Infantry counterattack = = =
By mid @-@ afternoon , Kean felt that the situation was a severe threat to the integrity of the division 's line . He ordered the 2nd Battalion , US 27th Infantry Regiment , to attack behind the 35th Infantry , because a large part of the division 's artillery there was under direct North Korean infantry attack . During the morning hours of September 1 , when the NK 7th Division troops had attacked , the first American unit they encountered was G Company , 35th Infantry , at the north shoulder of the gap . While some North Korean units peeled off to attack G Company , others continued on and engaged E Company , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) downstream from it , and still others attacked scattered units of F Company all the way to its 1st Platoon , which guarded the Namji @-@ ri bridge . There , at the extreme right flank of the 25th Division , this platoon drove off a North Korean force after a fierce fight . By September 2 , E Company had destroyed most of a North Korean battalion in heavy fighting .
Of all the 2nd Battalion units , G Company received the hardest blows . Before dawn of September 1 , North Korean troops had G Company platoons on separate hills under heavy assault . Shortly after 03 : 00 they overran the 3rd Platoon , Heavy Mortar Company , and drove it from its position . These mortarmen climbed Hill 179 and on its crest joined the 2nd Platoon of G Company . Meanwhile , the 3rd Platoon of G Company , on a low hill along the Nam River 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from its juncture with the Naktong River , was also under close quarters attack . After daylight , Captain LeRoy E. Majeske , G Company commander , requested artillery concentrations and air strikes , but they were slow to come . At 11 : 45 , the North Koreans had almost reached the crest of the hill , and only a narrow space separated the two forces . A few minutes later Majeske was killed , and Second Lieutenant George Roach , commanding the 3rd Platoon , again reported the situation and asked for an air strike . The US Air Force delivered the strike on the North Korean held side of the hill , and this checked the assaults . By this time many North Korean troops had captured and occupied foxholes in the platoon position and from there threw grenades into other parts of the position . One of the grenades killed Roach early in the afternoon . Sergeant First Class Junius Poovey , a squad leader , now assumed command . By 18 : 00 , Poovey had only 12 effective troops left in the platoon , 17 of the 29 men still living were wounded . With ammunition almost gone , Poovey requested and received authority to withdraw into the main G Company position . After dark , the 29 men , three of them carried on stretchers , withdrew , covered by the arrival of US tanks . The group reached the G Company position on Hill 179 at 23 : 30 .
= = = Stalemate = = =
While G Company held its positions on Hill 179 on September 2 against North Korean attack , 2nd Battalion , 27th Infantry started an attack northwest toward it at 17 : 00 from the Chung @-@ ni area . The battalion made slow progress against formidable North Korean forces . The night was extremely dark and the terrain along the Kuhe @-@ ri ferry road was mountainous . After fighting throughout the night , the battalion reached a position south of the original defensive positions of G Company , 35th Infantry the next day at 15 : 00 . A coordinated attack by US armor , artillery , air , and infantry got under way and by 18 : 00 the battalion had re @-@ established the battle line . In this attack the 2nd Battalion , 27th Infantry , killed 275 North Koreans and recovered a large part of the equipment G Company had lost earlier .
The 2nd Battalion , 27th Infantry remained on the regained positions during the night of September 3 . At 08 : 00 the next morning , G Company , 35th Infantry , relieved it on the regained positions and started its attack back up the supply road . While this was in progress , word came that the North Koreans had again driven G Company from its newly reestablished position . The 2 @-@ 27th Infantry turned around , attacked , and once more restored the G Company positions . By 12 : 00 September 4 , the 2 @-@ 27th Infantry again turned over these positions to G Company and resumed its attack to the rear along the road in the gap between the 1st and 2nd Battalions , 35th Infantry . Almost immediately it was in contact with North Korean forces . Soon North Korean machine @-@ guns were firing on the US troops from three directions . Torrential rains fell and observation became poor . By this time , the 2 @-@ 27th Infantry was running short of ammunition . The commander ordered the battalion to withdraw 500 yards ( 460 m ) to favorable terrain so that it could resupply .
Resupply proved to be a difficult task . The battalion had cleared the supply route two days previously in its attack to the G Company position but now it was closed again . The battalion commander requested air supply and the next morning , September 5 , eight transport planes accomplished the resupply and the 2nd Battalion , 27th Infantry , was ready to resume its attack to the rear . By evening it had cleared the supply road and adjacent terrain of North Korean penetration for a distance of 8 @,@ 000 yards ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) to the rear of G Company 's front @-@ line positions . There the 2 @-@ 27th Infantry received orders to halt and prepare to attack northeast to link up with the 1st Battalion , 27th Infantry .
= = = US 3 @-@ 27th Infantry moves up = = =
After 2 @-@ 27th Infantry had left the Chung @-@ ni area on September 2 in its attack toward G Company , the North Koreans attacked the 24th Infantry command post and several artillery positions . To meet this new situation , General Kean ordered the remaining battalion of the 27th Infantry , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel George H. DeChow , to attack and destroy the North Koreans operating there .
After an early morning struggle on September 3 against several hundred North Koreans in the vicinity of the artillery positions , DeChow 's battalion launched its attack at 15 : 00 over the high , rugged terrain west of the " Horseshoe , " as the deep curve in the Masan road was called , 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east of Komam @-@ ni . Its mission was to seize and secure the high ground dominating the Horseshoe , and then relieve the pressure on the 24th Infantry 's rear . Initially only one artillery piece was in position to support the attack . After the battalion advanced some distance , a North Korean force , estimated to number more than 1 @,@ 000 men , counterattacked it and inflicted heavy casualties , which included 13 officers . Additional US tanks moved up to help secure the exposed right flank and rear , and air strikes helped to contain the North Korean force . The battalion finally succeeded in taking the high ground .
The next morning , September 4 , instead of continuing the attack toward the 24th Infantry command post , 3rd Battalion , 27th Infantry was ordered to attack into the Komam @-@ ni area where North Korean troops were fighting in the US artillery positions . This attack got under way at 09 : 00 in the face of heavy small arms fire . In the afternoon , heavy rains slowed the attack , but after an all @-@ day battle , I and K Companies , with the help of numerous air strikes , captured the high ground dominating the Komam @-@ ni crossroads . Numerous casualties in the battalion had led Kean to attach C Company , 65th Engineer Combat Battalion , to it . The next day , September 5 , the 3rd Battalion , 27th Infantry turned its attack across rugged terrain toward Haman and drove through to the vicinity of the 24th Infantry command post . In its attack , the 3rd Battalion counted more than 300 North Korean dead in the area it traversed .
= = = Artillery attacked = = =
The series of events that caused Kean to change the direction of DeChow 's attack toward Komam @-@ ni began at 01 : 00 , September 3 . The 1st Battalion , 35th Infantry , protruded farther westward at this time than any other unit of the UN forces in Korea . Behind its positions on Sibidang @-@ san the main supply route and rear areas were in North Korean hands , and only in daylight and under escort could vehicles travel the road . On Sibidang @-@ san the battalion had held its original positions after the heavy fighting of September 1 , completely surrounded by barbed wire , booby traps , and flares , with all supporting weapons inside its tight perimeters . The battalion had the advantage of calling for protective artillery fire covering all approaches . An hour after midnight a North Korean assault struck the battalion . The fight there continued until dawn September 3 , when the 1st Battalion , 35th Infantry , counted 143 North Korean dead in front of its positions , and on that basis estimated that the total North Korean casualties must have been about 500 men . The 35th units also had the advantage of well @-@ constructed strong points throughout the battle which the North Koreans could not penetrate .
In this night battle the 64th Field Artillery Battalion , supporting the 1st Battalion , became directly involved in the fighting . About 50 North Koreans infiltrated before dawn to A Battery 's position and assaulted it . North Koreans employing submachine guns overran two artillery @-@ machine @-@ gun perimeter positions , penetrating to the artillery pieces at 03 : 00 . There , Captain Andrew C. Anderson and his men fought hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with the North Koreans . Some of the guns fell temporarily into North Korean hands but the artillerymen repulsed the attack , aided by the concentrations of fire from C Battery , 90th Field Artillery Battalion nearby , which cut off the North Koreans from reinforcements . In defending its guns in this night battle , A Battery lost seven men killed and 12 wounded .
Fighting in support of the Nam River front in the northern part of the 25th Division sector were five batteries of the 159th and 64th Field Artillery Battalions , firing 105 mm howitzers , and one battery of the 90th Field Artillery Battalion which fired 155 mm howitzers , for a total of 36 guns . One 155 mm howitzer fired from Komam @-@ ni to the area north of Chungam @-@ ni , the route for the NK 6th Division 's supplies . Another forward artillery piece kept the Iryong @-@ ni bridge over the Nam under fire . The 25th Division artillery estimated it killed approximately 1 @,@ 825 North Korean soldiers during the first three days of September . In this critical time , the US Fifth Air Force added its firepower to that of the division artillery in support of the ground force . Walker attributed the UN victory in this sector directly to the extensive air support his division received in the battle .
= = = North Koreans repulsed = = =
Bitter , confused fighting continued behind the 35th Infantry 's line for the next week . Battalions , companies , and platoons , cut off and isolated , fought independently of higher control and help except for airdrops which supplied many of them . Airdrops also supplied relief forces trying to reach the front @-@ line units . Tanks and armored cars drove to the isolated units with supplies of food and ammunition and carried back critically wounded on the return trips . In general , the 35th Infantry fought in its original battle line positions , while at first one battalion , and later two battalions , of the 27th Infantry fought toward it through the estimated 3 @,@ 000 North Koreans operating to its rear .
Although the 25th Division generally was under less pressure from North Korean units after September 5 , there were still severe local attacks . On September 6 , 1st Battalion , 27th Infantry , moved north from the Haman area to join 2nd Battalion in the cleanup of North Korean troops behind the 35th Infantry and below the Nam River . Caught between the 35th Infantry on its hill positions along the river and the attacking 27th Infantry units , large numbers of North Koreans were killed . Sixteen different groups reportedly were dispersed with heavy casualties during the day . By morning of September 7 there was clear evidence that survivors of the NK 7th Division were trying to escape across the Nam River . However the North Koreans launched another attack against the 35th Infantry , which it quickly repulsed . The 25th Infantry Division buried more than 2 @,@ 000 North Korean dead , killed between September 1 and 7 behind its lines . This number did not include those killed in front of its positions .
Heavy rains caused the Nam and Naktong Rivers to rise on September 8 and 9 , reducing the danger of new crossings . On September 8 , after the 35th Infantry had been guarding it for a week , American F @-@ 82 Twin Mustangs mistakenly bombed the Namji @-@ ri bridge over the Naktong and with one 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb destroyed the 80 feet ( 24 m ) center span . Only the bridges north of the junction of the Nam with the Naktong were supposed to be under aerial attack at this time . Some of the local commanders thought that had the North Koreans bypassed this bridge and crossed the Naktong farther east there would have been nothing between them and Pusan . However , North Korean attacks against 2nd Battalion , 35th Infantry occurred nightly . The approaches to the bridge on the north side were mined . At one time there were about 100 North Korean dead lying in that area . From September 9 to 16 , there were limited attacks on the 35th Infantry 's front but most of the North Koreans ' momentum had been broken and they could not muster strong attacks against the regiment again .
= = = North Korean withdrawal = = =
The UN counterattack at Inchon collapsed the North Korean line and forced them back on all fronts . On September 16 , however , 25th Infantry Division was still fighting North Korean forces behind its lines , and North Korean strong points existed on the heights of Battle Mountain , P 'il @-@ bong , and Sobuk @-@ san . Kean felt that the division could advance along the roads toward Chinju only when the mountainous center of the division front was clear . He therefore believed that the key to the advance of the 25th Division lay in its center where the North Koreans held the heights and kept the 24th Infantry Regiment under daily attack . The 27th Infantry on the left and the 35th Infantry on the right , astride the roads between Chinju and Masan held their positions and could not advance until the situation in front of the 24th Infantry improved .
On September 19 the UN discovered the North Koreans had abandoned of Battle Mountain during the night , and the 1st Battalion , 24th Infantry , moved up and occupied it . On the right , the 35th Infantry began moving forward . There was only light resistance until it reached the high ground in front of Chungam @-@ ni where hidden North Korean soldiers in spider holes shot at 1st Battalion soldiers from the rear . The next day the 1st Battalion captured Chungam @-@ ni , and the 2nd Battalion captured the long ridge line running northwest from it to the Nam River . Meanwhile , the North Koreans still held strongly against the division left where the 27th Infantry had heavy fighting in trying to move forward .
The North Koreans withdrew from the Masan area the night of September 18 – 19 . The NK 7th Division withdrew from south of the Nam River while the 6th Division sideslipped elements to cover the entire front . Covered by the 6th Division , the 7th had crossed to the north side of the Nam River by the morning of September 19 . Then the NK 6th Division had withdrawn from its positions on Sobuk @-@ san . The US units rapidly pursued them north , passing over the Battle Mountain positions , which were no longer of strategic importance .
= = Aftermath = =
The 35th Infantry suffered 154 killed , 381 wounded , and two missing during the battle . The 27th Infantry lost a total of 118 killed , 382 wounded , and one captured during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , however this included five killed and 54 wounded at the Battle of the Bowling Alley and around 150 casualties at the First Battle of Naktong Bulge . In support of the Nam River operations , the 64th Field Artillery Battalion suffered 16 killed , 27 wounded , one captured and five missing , the 159th Field Artillery Battalion lost 18 killed and 41 wounded , and the 90th Field Artillery Battalion 15 killed , 54 wounded and one missing . The regiment had performed so well in repulsing the North Koreans that Kean nominated it for a Presidential Unit Citation .
The North Korean troops suffered heavily in the fight , most becoming casualties in the attack . By mid @-@ September , the NK 7th Division was reduced to just 4 @,@ 000 men , a loss of 6 @,@ 000 from when it was committed to the perimeter . Only 2 @,@ 000 from the NK 6th Division returned to North Korea , a loss of 80 percent of its strength . Large groups of troops from the divisions were captured as they attempted to return to North Korea , including up to 3 @,@ 000 troops . The attacking force of over 20 @,@ 000 had been reduced to only 6 @,@ 000 by the end of the fights at Masan .
The fight at Masan remained a bitter stalemate during the entire six weeks of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter . Each side attempted several offensives on the other in an attempt to force a withdrawal , but the North Koreans were unable to pierce the UN perimeter , and the UN troops were unable to overwhelm the North Koreans to the point they were forced to withdraw . The battle itself was a tactical tie , since neither side could decisively defeat the other , however the UN units achieved their strategic goal of preventing the North Koreans from advancing further east and threatening Pusan . Instead , they were able to hold the line against repeated attacks until the Inchon attack , and were thus successful in defeating the North Korean army in subsequent engagements .
|
= Sikh diaspora =
The Sikh diaspora is the modern Punjabi Sikh migration from the traditional area of the Punjab region . Sikhism is ( de facto ) an ethnic religion but welcomes converts , the Punjab region being the historic homeland of Sikhism . The Sikh diaspora is largely a subset of the Punjabi diaspora .
The starting point of the diaspora is commonly accepted to have begun after the fall of the Sikh Empire in 1849 and the Empire 's subsequent annexation into the British Raj . The most famous personification of the Sikh diaspora was the first , Maharajah Duleep Singh , the last Emperor of the Sikhs who was coerced into a lifetime exile by the British Raj . Since Duleep Singh 's exile , the rate of Sikh migration from the Punjab has remained high ; however the destination for Punjabi Sikh migrants has changed during the ensuing 150 years . The development of the Punjabi Sikh diaspora concept has given diaspora Sikhs a conscious political and cultural identity , which forms a reference point for their ' Sikhism ' .
= = The Sikhs = =
With approximately 20 million worldwide , the Sikhs are adherents to the fifth largest organized religion in the world , Sikhism . The Sikhs make up 0 @.@ 39 % of the world population of which approximately 83 % live in India . Of the Indian Sikh community 19 @.@ 6 million , i.e. 76 % of all Indian Sikhs , live in the northern Indian State of Punjab ( India ) , where they form a majority 65 % of the population . Substantial communities of Sikhs , i.e. greater than 200 @,@ 000 , live in the Indian States / Union territories of Haryana , Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh , Delhi , Himachal Pradesh , Maharashtra , Uttarakhand and Jammu and Kashmir .
= = Historical migration patterns = =
The Sikhs as a political entity , distinct from other Indian traditions , can be said to have begun with the martyrdom of the fifth Sikh Guru , Guru Arjan Dev Ji in 1606 , Sikh distinction was further enhanced by the establishment of the Sikh ' Pure ' brotherhood or Khalsa ( ਖ ਼ ਾਲਸਾ ) , by Guru Gobind Singh Ji in 1699 . This gives the Sikhs , as an organized political grouping , a relatively recent history of around 400 years . Migrations of Sikhs during the era of the Gurus were limited to the boundaries of modern @-@ day India and Pakistan , and in particular restricted to the Sikh tribal heartland of the Punjab Region . The development of the Sikh Confederacy and the development of the Sikh Empire ( 1716 – 1849 ) , led to Sikhs migrating to conquered parts of their empire such as Ladakh and Peshawar . However these migrations were limited , transitory and unsustained , depending on the Empire 's fluctuating boundaries . During the time of the Sikh Empire , there was a net cultural immigration , with Napoleonic and British influences vying for the ' ear ' of the then Sikh Maharajah Ranjit Singh . With respect to the Sikh diaspora , the most important political aspect of this period was the historical establishment of a Sikh homeland ; the idea of a powerful Sikh state was a reality .
= = Annexation of the Punjab = =
Sikh migration from the Punjab began in earnest in the second half of the 19th century when the British Raj had successfully completed its annexation of the Punjab . The pivotal action in the British annexation was the lifetime exile of the then eleven @-@ year @-@ old Maharaja , Duleep Singh , thus making Singh the first ( although unwilling ) member of the Sikh diaspora .
Although a largely secular figure who did little for the Sikh body politic , Axel ( 2001 ) argues that Duleep Singh 's exile has had a major impact on the Sikh diaspora psyche . Axel ( 2001 ) says that Duleep Singh is the archetypal ' tragic hero ' figure in Sikh culture , " a King without a Kingdom , a Sikh separated from his people " ; the contrast between Duleep Singh and his strong ruler father , Maharaja Ranjit Singh Ji , makes Duleep 's exile even more ' galling ' for the Sikhs and results in a strong sense of communal injustice , which is a later trait in the diaspora 's development .
Having annexed the Sikh Kingdom , the British Raj preferentially recruited Sikhs in the Indian Civil Service and , in particular , the British Indian Army , which led to migration of Sikhs to different parts of British India and the British Empire . Semiskilled artisans were transported from the Punjab to British East Africa to help in the building of railways , while many Sikhs found themselves in Australia working as Ghans , or cameleers and as labourers on cane plantations .
= = 20th century = =
The Sikhs made tremendous contributions to Punjab from 1857 to 1947 . Sikhs founded the city of Rawalpindi . Sikh agricultural and entrepreneurial skills brought prosperity to Sheikhupura , Sialkot , Jhelum , Multan , Sargodha , Gujrat , Ludhiana , Amritsar , Jullundar . Lahore , the capital of undivided Punjab , had thriving Sikh neighborhoods .
The era of peace and prosperity turned into a nightmare in 1947 . The partition of Punjab between India and Pakistan was a seminal tragedy for Sikhs . The Sikh communities were practically wiped out from Lahore , Rawalpindi , Multan , Sialkot , Lyallpur , Jhelum , Gujrat , Sargodha , Sheikhupura and other districts of West Punjab . The birthplace of Sikhism , Nankana Sahib , was split away in West Punjab . Millions of Sikhs fled to freedom and safety in East Punjab in India . On the other hand , in East Punjab many Sikhs took revenge and slaughtered a great number of the Muslim population of Amritsar , Ludhiana , and Qadian in just three months . Other cities such as Gurdaspur , Faridkot , Ambala , Moga , Jalandhar , and Batala had large casualties against Muslims . Most of the Muslims in East Punjab were wiped out in the middle of 1948 , but some converted just to stay alive . Such intense violence in East Punjab had caused many villages and cities to go through construction .
In 1960s and beyond many Sikhs migrated to the UK and North America in search of economic opportunities . Some of the Sikhs who had settled in eastern Africa were expelled by Ugandan leader Idi Amin in 1972 . Sikhs are primarily an agrarian community and with the pressures of having only a limited amount of land , high birth rates and the desire to make a better living , the male offspring of Sikh farmers were encouraged to migrate to foreign countries . Subsequently the main ' push ' factor for Sikh migration has been economic with significant Sikh communities now being found in Canada , the United Kingdom , the United States , Malaysia , East Africa , Australia and Thailand .
= = Agitation for a homeland = =
Axel ( 2001 ) argues that the Sikh diaspora community , having established themselves in foreign countries , begin to fetishize the past and nurture idealized designs for their ' lost and imaginary ' Sikh empire . This comes into fruition to a certain degree with the establishment of Indian Punjab in 1966 as a Sikh majority state . However , Tatla ( 1998 ) argues that the marginalization and sense of grievance that Indian Sikhs were facing due to Indira Gandhi 's heavy @-@ handed tactics were amplified in the Sikh diaspora . Subsequently , the Sikh diaspora , especially in Canada and the UK become willing suppliers of logistical and financial support when the organic agitation for a separate Sikh nation , Khalistan , began in the late 1970s . The actions taken by the Indian government to counter the Sikh separatist movement , via 1984 's Operation Blue Star , had a seismic effect on the Sikh diaspora . Axel ( 2001 ) argues that the desecration of the Sikh 's holiest shrine , Harimandir Sahib , and the following Sikh Genocide in which thousands of Sikhs were massacred ; led to a resurgence in Sikh religiosity and a strengthening of ties with their Sikh brethren in Punjab . Diaspora Sikhs felt betrayed by India , and the events of 1984 defined their Sikhism and underlined a distinct commonality shared with other diaspora Sikhs . Mark Tully describes 1984 's Operation Blue Star as the Sikh 's ' 9 / 11 ' , this was certainly the case for diaspora Sikhs , who in the main could only watch on in horror as the events of 1984 played out on TV .
In 1971 Dr Jagit Singh Chohan , an ex @-@ minister in a short @-@ lived government of Akali dissidents , saw an alignment of like @-@ minded Sikhs . Chohan placed a half @-@ page advertisement in The New York Times of 12 October 1971 , making several claims about Punjab as a Sikh homeland . However , Chohan won little sympathy from ordinary Sikhs .
Tatla summarises the change in Sikh diaspora community leaders post 1984 a being a " painful transition from a self @-@ confident community with haughty discourse , to the self @-@ defensive strategies of a vulnerable minority " . Organisations such as the International Sikh Youth Federation ( ISYF ) , the Babbar Khalsa and the Council of Khalistan emerged within the diaspora , and these agencies rallied against " Hindu imperialism " or " Indian nationalism " and lobbied to join the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization UNPO aligning the Sikh cause with other ethnic groups seeking freedom , citing cases of Jews , Palestinians , Kurds , Balochis , Kashmiris and Sri Lankan Tamils .
Axel ( 2001 ) argues that the history of the Sikh diaspora , its psyche of grievance and the violence inflicted on it , means that the notion of the Sikh diaspora as a community today inevitably converges on the notion of Khalistan . In addition to this , Axel points out the ' nightmare ' scenario facing the Sikh diaspora ; the Indian state ' demands ' the ' Unity @-@ in @-@ Diversity ' model of ' rashtriya ekta ' ( national integration ) which Axel contends is signified by " the denial of difference through surrender , assimilation and integration " .
Since the formation of the Khalsa , the Sikhs have defined themselves though their ' separateness ' and have differentiated themselves philosophically and physically from other Indian religious communities , thus the process of ' rashtriya ekta ' is a threat to Sikhi itself . Any ' weakening ' or ' dilution ' Sikhi in the Punjab , is doubly painful for the Sikh diaspora for it means a corresponding weakness in Khalistan , which , both real and imaginary , epitomizes the Sikh diasporic place today .
= = Sikh identity today = =
Whilst the rate of Sikh migration from the Punjab has remained high , traditional patterns of Sikh migration that favored English speaking countries , particularly the United Kingdom , has changed in the past decade due to factors such as stricter immigration procedures . Moliner ( 2006 ) states that as a consequence of the ' fact ' that Sikh migration to the UK had " become virtually impossible since the late 1970s " , Sikh migration patterns altered to continental Europe . Italy has now emerged as a fast @-@ growing area for Sikh migration , with Reggio Emilia and the Vicenza province being areas of significant Sikh population clusters . The Italian Sikhs are generally involved in the areas of agriculture , agro @-@ processing , machine tools and horticulture . Canada has maintained a liberal immigration policy , and the Sikh community there is the second largest in proportion to the country 's population after only India , and about 2 @.@ 5 times the size of the American Sikh community . The largest North American Sikh community is thought to be located in South Vancouver , British Columbia and nearby Surrey , British Columbia , while Brampton , Ontario also has a large Sikh population . The Sikh migration to Australasia has also increased to a large extent in the first decade of the 21st century .
In the post @-@ 9 / 11 era , the Sikh diaspora in Europe and North America stand out as a visible minority often confused with radical Islamic groups because of their turbans . There have been numerous hate crimes targeted at Sikhs . France banned turban @-@ wearing Sikh students from publicly funded schools as part of a broader policy originally intended to restric Muslim head @-@ scarves . Western security think @-@ tanks quote the Air India bombing to justify profiling of Sikh travellers at airports . The soft influences of popular culture and the need for fitting in with peers are driving many young Sikhs to shed Khalsa symbols such as the turban and beard . Some second @-@ generation Sikhs growing up in the West do not have proficiency in the Punjabi language . On the other hand , small groups of Westerners have converted to Sikhism . There are now Sikh Gurduwaras ( equilvalent of churches and temples ) scattered across Europe , North America , Australia and Malaysia . The combination of these factors creates a new and more complex Sikh identity that may slowly emerge in the 21st century .
As globalisation progresses and India and the Punjab 's economies continue to expand , the question is whether the Sikh diaspora 's focus will shift from inward @-@ looking identity and Khalistan issues to outword @-@ looking global trade and homeland investment like the successful Jewish and Chinese diasporas .
|
= 2010 Nobel Peace Prize =
The 2010 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to imprisoned Chinese human rights activist Liu Xiaobo " for his long and non @-@ violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China " . The laureate , once an eminent scholar , was reportedly little @-@ known inside the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) at the time of the award due to official censorship ; he is a veteran of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 , and a co @-@ author of the Charter 08 manifesto for which he was sentenced to 11 years in prison on 25 December 2009 . Liu , who was backed by Václav Havel and Desmond Tutu , received the award among a record field of more than 200 nominees .
The decision , while widely praised by foreign intellectuals and politicians , was attacked by the Chinese government and the state media . A number of countries , including Saudi Arabia and Russia , also denounced the award and what they regarded as interference in China 's domestic affairs . Following the announcement , official censorship was applied within China — on the Internet , television , and in print media . The government strongly denounced the award , and summoned the Norwegian ambassador in Beijing to make a formal protest . The Chinese authorities arrested citizens who attempted to celebrate . Liu 's wife was put under house @-@ arrest before the decision of the Nobel Committee was announced .
Chinese diplomats moved to pressure other countries not to attend the award ceremony , which was scheduled for 10 December . Western missions in Oslo received warning letters from their Chinese counterparts ; the deputy foreign minister also warned countries of " the consequences " . In December , the Chinese foreign ministry continued the rhetorical assault , claiming " more than 100 countries and international organisations [ had ] expressed explicit support of China 's position " . In the end , 46 countries attended of the 65 invited ( People 's Republic of China and 19 other nations declined invitations ) . China 's official news agency , Xinhua , attacked the West for its " Cold @-@ War or even colonial mentality " , and for daring to " regard themselves as the judge , the teacher [ who ] assume that they can forever distort the fact and block the truth by using political maneuvers . " Strong rhetoric and denunciations of the West continued from official sources until after the ceremony .
Liu is the first person of Chinese nationality to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize , and the first to be awarded a Nobel Prize of any kind while residing in China . Liu is the third person to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize while in prison or detention after Germany 's Carl von Ossietzky ( 1935 ) and Burma 's Aung San Suu Kyi ( 1991 ) . As the laureate was absent , Liu 's place on the podium was unoccupied ; Norwegian actress Liv Ullmann read I Have No Enemies , an essay that Liu had written for his trial in December 2009 , in place of the acceptance speech .
= = Nomination and announcement = =
The Nobel Committee disclosed there were a record number of nominations in 2010 – a total of 237 , of which 38 were organisations . Although the committee has a policy of keeping nominations confidential for 50 years , some nominators made announcements . Among the nominees were Russian human rights activist Svetlana Gannushkina , the International Space Station , the Internet and its three founders Larry Roberts , Vint Cerf and Tim Berners @-@ Lee . Also on the list were Chinese dissidents Liu Xiaobo , Hu Jia , Gao Zhisheng , Chen Guangcheng , Bao Tong , and Rebiya Kadeer .
Liu was nominated by International PEN , the worldwide association of writers . Interested in Western philosophy , Liu made his reputation as a literary critic with a treatise on the state of modern Chinese literature : an article he published in 1986 that criticised Chinese writers for their dependence on the state , and their deficit in free @-@ thinking , caused a stir in the Chinese literary world . His challenging ideas caught the attention of the intellectuals ; he lectured all over China and abroad . He was in New York when the 1989 pro @-@ democracy movement erupted in China ; he returned immediately to China and spent most of his time amongst the protesters in Tiananmen Square . This , and his subsequent leadership role in the Charter 08 pro @-@ democracy manifesto for China , led the Chinese authorities to censor his views as subversive . Liu was jailed for 11 years on 25 December 2009 , for " inciting subversion of state power . " A Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman said " It would be completely wrong for the Nobel Prize committee to award the prize to [ Liu ] " . In January 2010 , Václav Havel and others — including the 14th Dalai Lama , André Glucksmann , Vartan Gregorian , New Zealand politician Mike Moore , Karel Schwarzenberg , Desmond Tutu and Grigory Yavlinsky — published an article endorsing Liu . A professor at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences , Xu Youyu , and others , addressed an open letter " to the European People " in support of Liu , while 14 exiled dissidents urged the Nobel Committee to pass over Liu 's nomination , arguing that Liu had maligned other dissidents , forsaken the oppressed Falun Gong and that his stance against the Chinese leadership had become too " soft " .
Agence France @-@ Presse reported that at a June meeting convened by the Chinese embassy in Oslo , Vice Foreign Minister Fu Ying warned the Nobel Institute director and secretary of the Nobel Committee , Geir Lundestad , that giving the prize to Liu Xiaobo would be seen as an " unfriendly gesture " that would have negative consequences for relations between Oslo and Beijing .
On 7 October 2010 , Norwegian television networks reported that Liu Xiaobo was the front @-@ running candidate for the Prize . Irish bookmaker Paddy Power paid out two days before the announcement following an increase in bets . Shortly before the announcement , Liu 's wife , Liu Xia , declined telephone interviews , saying the police were at her home . Her telephone went unanswered once the announcement was made . Nobel Committee chairman Thorbjørn Jagland made the announcement on 8 October 2010 in Oslo , mentioning that the choice of Liu had become clear early in the process . The monetary component of the prize would be 10 million Swedish kronor ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) .
The Norwegian Nobel Committee has decided to award the Nobel Peace Prize for 2010 to Liu Xiaobo for his long and non @-@ violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China . The Norwegian Nobel Committee has long believed that there is a close connection between human rights and peace . Such rights are a prerequisite for the ' fraternity between nations ' of which Alfred Nobel wrote in his will ... The campaign to establish universal human rights also in China is being waged by many Chinese , both in China itself and abroad . Through the severe punishment meted out to him , Liu has become the foremost symbol of this wide @-@ ranging struggle for human rights in China .
At 2 pm on the day of announcement , a crowd of about 100 journalists , supporters , and friends who had gathered outside the main entrance to the Beijing housing estate where the Lius resided were denied entry . The South China Morning Post reported that policemen stationed inside their apartment at the time of the announcement prevented Liu Xia from meeting with journalists and other well @-@ wishers . It was not immediately clear whether Liu Xiaobo was aware of the award . By that time , Liu Xia said she had been told she would be taken to Liaoning to see her husband in prison . Meetings and gatherings to celebrate in several cities were prevented or abruptly broken up by police ; one such celebration dinner in Beijing , attended by 20 people , was broken up by police , and the attendees were detained .
= = Reactions inside China = =
= = = Chinese media = = =
The Chinese media avoided the story of Liu 's Peace Prize , in marked contrast with their previous announcements of other recipients of Nobel Prizes . The official Xinhua News Agency downplayed all but the literature prize , and most other mainland news portals followed the Xinhua lead ; popular internet portals such as Sina.com and NetEase deleted pages dedicated to stories related to all five Nobel Prizes . According to a well @-@ informed Twitter user , cited by the China Media Project at the University of Hong Kong , the Information Office of the State Council issued a directive immediately after the announcement that " Liu Xiaobo " and " Peace Prize " would be prohibited search terms for microblog services across the country ; fora , blogs and other interactive media were forbidden from releasing any information . At 6 pm , the source said that although the official news release had been issued , all media were ordered by the Central Propaganda Department not to publish it .
Major domestic newspapers in China had coverage on their inner pages . Guangming Daily , Economic Daily , Beijing Daily , Beijing News , and Shanghai 's Wen Hui Bao published the Xinhua @-@ sanctioned report the following day . China Central Television 's main evening news programme , Xinwen Lianbo , did not report on it . Chinese journalists and dissidents said the Central Propaganda Department had instructed media to censor or otherwise under @-@ report on Liu Xiaobo and the peace prize award .
The Chinese government ordered the deletion of all print and broadcast stories on the topic ; In an editorial , the Communist Party – run Global Times attacked the Nobel Peace Prize as a " political tool of Western interests " that was being used to foment " endless political strife in Chinese society , causing a Soviet @-@ style breakup . " Another Global Times article said the award was " another expression of this prejudice , and behind it lies an extraordinary terror of China 's rise and the Chinese model " . It said the award was a concerted ideologically motivated attack on China 's economic interests by developed nations and foreign business interests who " even hope that China will one day collapse under the West 's ideological crusade . "
Foreign broadcast coverage , such as from the BBC and CNN , was blacked out whenever Liu was mentioned . In Guangdong , signal carriers for Hong Kong TVB were interrupted for approximately eight minutes during the 6 pm evening news programme , blocking the news item for the Nobel Peace Prize .
After a week of denunciation in China 's English @-@ language media , with most journals silent about the award except for perfunctory quotes from the foreign ministry , the country 's Chinese @-@ language media launched a concerted assault on Liu and the award , accompanied by renewed attacks in the English @-@ language media . Xinhua argued on 17 October that the Communist Party had made " unremitting efforts to promote and safeguard human rights " , and questioned how Liu 's actions had contributed to human rights progress for the Chinese people . The agency cited a journal from Saudi Arabia , and one from Russia , that had denounced the award ; it quoted the Pakistani Foreign Office as saying , " the politicization of the Nobel Peace Prize for the purposes of interference in the domestic affairs of states is not only contrary to the recognized principles of inter @-@ State conduct , but also a negation of the underlying spirit conceived by the founder of the Prize . " In what was described by Chinese media – watchers as a surprise because of its historical professionalism , China Youth Daily published an article containing Beijing students ' expressions of anger and disbelief over the decision to award the Nobel Peace Prize to Liu . The journal employed the traditional hard @-@ liner phrase " people with ulterior motives " ( 别有用心的人 ) — directed to at least one student . It further denounced the " farcical " Nobel decision to use the award as " a tool ... in their relentless effort to undermine China and frustrate its development " .
On 18 October , the Global Times published the results of a telephone poll of 866 Beijing , Shanghai , and Guangzhou residents , who , the journal said , were chosen at random : 507 of the respondents felt the committee owed the Chinese people an apology and should cancel the award to Liu ; more than half agreed Liu should remain incarcerated until he is paroled . The survey also showed " a low recognition of Liu among the public in China , as more than 75 percent of respondents had no idea who the winner of the Nobel Peace Prize was . " The Beijing Daily published an editorial on the day of the award ceremony entitled " Why not give the peace prize to Julian Assange ? " . It suggested that Assange , the head of WikiLeaks , was not awarded the prize because he could not " become a tool for Western forces in attacking countries with different ideologies ... even if this tool is serving out a prison sentence for violating the law . "
= = = Central government = = =
Following the announcement on 8 October 2010 , Xinhua relayed the Russian state @-@ owned news agency 's denunciation of the prize . China summoned the Norwegian ambassador in Beijing " to officially share their opinion , their disagreement and their protest . " A PRC foreign ministry spokesman accused politicians from " some countries " for using the award to further their own political agendas : " This is not only disrespect for China 's judicial system but also puts a big question mark on their true intention . " The ministry 's statement , labelling the decision " a blasphemy " , was carried on Chinese state television .
The Nobel Peace Prize should be awarded to people who contribute to national harmony , country @-@ to @-@ country friendship , advancing disarmament , and convening and propagandizing peace conferences . Liu was a criminal sentenced by the Chinese judicial authorities for violating Chinese law ... The Nobel committee 's decision to award such a person the peace prize runs contrary to and desecrates the prize .
China protested to Norway , saying that China – Norway relations had been damaged . A planned meeting in Beijing between Norwegian Fisheries Minister Lisbeth Berg @-@ Hansen and Chinese food control authorities was cancelled at the last minute , ostensibly because their counterparts had " other engagements " ; Norwegian officials said that a meeting , due to be held the same day between Berg @-@ Hansen and the Chinese vice @-@ minister for fisheries , had been cancelled in reaction to the award . Elsewhere , performances of a Norwegian musical starring Alexander Rybak scheduled for the following month also fell victim to the diplomatic fallout , according to the composer . In early December , Norway said its bilateral trade talks with China had been delayed indefinitely . Haakon Hjelde , Norway 's negotiator , reported that the postponement was not directly linked to the award , but Henning Kristofferson , director of international relations of the BI Norwegian School of Management , said it was fairly obvious that the PRC government would " never hold a high @-@ level meeting with Norway shortly before or after the award ceremony " , having made it plain that the award to Liu was " a big mistake . "
= = = Law enforcement = = =
In the days immediately preceding the award ceremony , foreign media reported that Liu 's home was under tight security . By what a correspondent for The Guardian called " a peculiar coincidence " , construction barriers were erected on both sides of the road at the southern entrance of the residential complex which obscured the estate . Police cars were positioned on every nearby street corner ; uniformed and plain @-@ clothes police officers patrolled outside the apartment block , and a radio surveillance vehicle was stationed at the entrance to the compound . Neighbouring businesses were affected : the owner of a nearby restaurant was quoted as saying government officials had told him to close the business temporarily .
Liu Xia was under house @-@ arrest almost immediately after the announcement , and was escorted to Liaoning to visit her imprisoned husband . She reported that she was denied visitors , her telephones were repeatedly down , and complained that even her elderly mother had not been able to get through to her . Visitors were denied entrance to her residential compound , including Norwegian diplomats who had tried to visit her on 12 October ; she was able to send out a few messages through Twitter . Chinese police stationed there cordoned off the area . Thus , journalists and well @-@ wishers were kept at bay for several hours after the announcement ; as she was being taken away to see her husband , Reuters heard her say " they are forcing me to leave Beijing " . Dissident groups reported on 18 October that numerous supporters and associates of Liu may have been detained by police — that Tiananmen Mother Ding Zilin , and her husband Jiang Peikun , had not been seen or heard of for four days , and that their phones were cut off . Writer Jiang Qisheng went missing just days after the Nobel announcement .
As exiled prominent activists and former activists were reportedly preparing to attend the award ceremony , some prominent individuals and activists inside China experienced travel problems . Economist Mao Yushi ( who had signed Charter 08 ) , Ai Weiwei , and the human @-@ rights lawyer Liu Xiaoyuan were all barred from outbound travel at Beijing 's airport , ostensibly because their departure from China could " endanger state security " . Liu 's lawyer , Mo Shaoping , and Peking University law professor He Weifang were stopped from boarding their flight to London in November . The South China Morning Post reported that even the spouses and children of some outspoken intellectuals experienced outbound travel restrictions . Ai speculated that the refusal to let him board a flight for Korea may have been directly connected with the following week 's prize @-@ giving ceremony . Chinese Human Rights Defenders also believed that " officials are increasing their efforts to bar prominent members of Chinese civil society from travelling internationally as the Nobel Peace Prize ceremony approaches . " The BBC , citing the UN , said there was information that China had detained at least 20 activists prior to the ceremony ; it reported sources saying that 120 more activists were subjected to house arrest , travel restrictions , forced relocations , or " other acts of intimidation " ahead of the ceremony ; external Chinese sources put the figure of people so restricted at approximately 270 .
= = = Liu Xia and Liu Xiaobo = = =
Liu Xia expressed her gratitude to the Nobel Committee , Liu 's proposers , and those who have been supporting him since 1989 , including the Tiananmen Mothers — family members or representatives of those who were killed , or had disappeared , in the military crackdown of the protests of 4 June 1989 . She said , " The prize should belong to all who signed Charter 08 and were jailed due to their support " .
Liu Xia informed the laureate of his award during a visit to Jinzhou Prison on 9 October 2010 , one day after the official announcement . She reported that Liu wept and dedicated the award to those who suffered as a result of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 , saying : " The award is first and foremost for the Tiananmen martyrs " After Ms. Liu returned home , she was put under house arrest and was watched by armed guards . She expressed the desire to attend the prize @-@ giving in Norway in December , but was sceptical of her chances of being allowed to do so . Liu Xia wrote an open letter to 143 prominent figures , encouraging them to attend the award ceremony in Oslo .
= = = Intellectuals = = =
John Pomfret of The Washington Post said a wide spectrum of Chinese and foreigners believed that Liu 's award " could actually resonate more deeply within China than any similar act in years " . The open letter by Xu Youyu et al , which described Liu as " a splendid choice " because of his advancement of human rights causes and the peaceful fight against social injustice , amassed signatures from about 200 mainland intellectuals and activists ; it was posted in Chinese , English , French and Japanese on websites hosted outside China . Artist and critic Ai Weiwei said that , although the regime ought to feel the most ashamed , " intellectuals who had drifted away from their public responsibilities " should bear some of that burden for betraying values they once strove for . Ai said that the Prize was a message from the international community to the Chinese government to respect universal human values , notwithstanding China 's economic performance . Writer Liao Yiwu , a close friend of Liu , described it as " a big moment in Chinese history " . Another writer , Yu Jie , said he spent the night awake with tears streaming down his face – " Twenty years ago Liu Xiaobo said that China needed someone with moral clarity about what China needs . Now he has become just that person , that he himself was looking for " , he said . Former Chinese diplomat Yang Hengjun described it as a strong signal to the Chinese government to speed up political reform " or you will have a lot of enemies around you and within you . "
Exiled 1989 student leader Wang Dan said he was " ecstatic " . Human rights lawyer Li Heping called the award " huge encouragement for the Chinese people ... an affirmation that there are people around the world who really care about human rights and the legal system in China , that the world hasn 't forgotten us . " He added that others , such as Gao Zhisheng , Chen Guangcheng , and Hu Jia , also deserved the prize . The Globe and Mail said that while many activists agreed he was worthy of the award , some radical reformers within Chinese democracy movement , such as Wei Jingsheng , see the moderate Liu as the wrong choice due to his advocacy of a gradual path to constitutional democracy in China .
Renmin University professor Zhang Ming felt the award would not have much direct impact . However , economist Mao Yushi believed that there were many factors affecting political reform in China . He stated that the prize was an impetus from the international community for the process of reform that was already under way , and that the impact of the award to Liu would be felt by the current generation of leaders , and beyond .
= = = Internet community = = =
Liu was once an eminent scholar , but was reportedly little @-@ known inside the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) at the time of the award due to official censorship . Those who had heard about Liu had mixed views about him . Some clearly supported the government position , whereas one university student was quoted as saying " George Orwell probably had no idea that what he wrote would end up being the reality of China now . " " Liu Xiaobo " and " Nobel Peace Prize " became the most searched terms among internet users in China . However , some time after the release of the official response from the Chinese Foreign Ministry , government censors screened the news item , and there were reports of searches in China using Chinese search engines returning error pages . Web searches using Chinese search engines for " Liu Xiaobo " in Chinese without attaching the words " Peace Prize , " gave information about Liu . Yet most sites found " Liu " plus " Peace Prize " yield only the official foreign ministry response . CNN reported that any mention of " Nobel Prize " on microblogging sites was censored . One person claimed that his SIM card was deactivated after he sent a text message to a relative about the Nobel Peace Prize . Accustomed to circumventing Chinese internet censorship , bloggers and forum @-@ users used variants of Liu 's name and posted subtle or cryptic messages to express their elation about the award or sarcasm towards the state . The statement on 8 October by renowned blogger Han Han consisted of only a pair of double quote marks .
Less than three weeks after the announcement of the award to Liu , the Nobel Peace Prize website came under a cyber attack . There was an attempt to hack into the computer of the secretary of the Nobel Committee , Geir Lundestad by a forged email on 3 November . A number of individuals received an email containing a trojan horse purportedly disguised as a pdf @-@ file invitation to the award ceremony from the Oslo Freedom Forum . Investigators traced both the attack and the email to an intermediate server reportedly in a Taiwanese university . Experts say the address had been falsified , and the exact origin was unknown ; it was emphasised that no link to any party in mainland China could be established . After activists posted photographs of a symbolic empty chair on Internet fora and noticeboards , censors responded by removing the images and making " empty chair " a banned search term .
= = = Hong Kong = = =
Many political groups — including the Democratic Party and the Hong Kong Journalists Association — welcomed the decision and congratulated Liu . The Journalists Association expressed their gratitude and encouragement for Liu 's award , and their hope for the early unconditional release of Liu . Hong Kong 's Chief Executive , Donald Tsang , and government ministers Leung Chun @-@ ying , and Gregory So , all declined to comment to the press .
The South China Morning Post in Hong Kong said Liu 's courage to stand up for the rights of all people — for the fourth time since the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests — made him worthy of joining the company of other similarly persecuted peace prize recipients such as Nelson Mandela : " Liu is just one of a long line of like @-@ minded Chinese citizens to be silenced . The award will be seen in many quarters as acknowledging their sacrifice for the values it upholds . " Hong Kong @-@ based Phoenix Television , which transmits throughout China by satellite , limited its report to the foreign ministry 's statement denouncing the honour .
About twenty activists held a celebration in front of the central government liaison office . Their celebration was broken up and the activists were arrested for assault after a guard was accidentally sprayed with champagne . A human rights monitor , and a Democratic Party legislator , denounced the " absurd " reaction of the police . The loyalist Speaker of Hong Kong 's legislature turned down an adjournment motion on 15 October submitted by Leung Kwok @-@ hung that called for the release of Liu on grounds that such debate " lacked urgency and would not produce irreversible consequences " . On 17 October , thirty supporters of the Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements in China — organisers of the annual commemoration of the 1989 Tiananmen protests — held a march to the central government liaison office , calling on the central government to release Liu and allow him to attend the prize @-@ giving in December . A candlelight ceremony was held in the city 's central business district to coincide with the award ceremony ; organisers said 1 @,@ 000 people attended .
The Chinese @-@ language press reported on rumours that Chinese officials had approached high @-@ level executives at TVB and CableTV , asking them not to broadcast the ceremony live on their channels ; executives affirmed their plans to broadcast — scheduling for the event was immutable . TVB News and now TV executives categorically denied having been contacted by Chinese authorities to pull the plug on coverage . An editorial in the South China Morning Post said : " this heavy @-@ handed reaction [ to Liu 's award ] is counterproductive to [ China 's ] image and the respect it wants as a peaceful superpower . Liu 's award did pose a dilemma , but having made its point at the outset Beijing had little further to gain . Attempts to meddle in the process did nothing to dignify its stand . "
= = = Taiwan = = =
One day after the award announcement , President Ma Ying @-@ jeou 's office urged China to exercise greater tolerance of dissidents ; the president himself pleaded for the release of Liu , to " solve major human rights incidents with honesty and confidence . " Forty @-@ eight non @-@ governmental organisations jointly issued a two @-@ page statement expressing optimism for political change in China . The statement said that the world " stands in solidarity with [ the ] Chinese people who share Liu 's vision for a strong , prosperous and above all , democratic , China . "
The Taipei Times said the award suggested strong support for China 's democracy movement , and predicted the inevitability of change . " The CCP needs to decide whether to attempt to obstruct democracy or facilitate its development . If it chooses the former then history will pass it by , just as it did the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . If , however , the CCP decides to embrace change then it could ... remain a political force " like the Kuomintang in Taiwan .
= = International reaction = =
= = = Norway = = =
In advance of an official Chinese response to the Nobel Committee 's decision , Norwegian foreign minister Jonas Gahr Støre said that a Chinese complaint to the Norwegian government would be in vain , since the committee is independent of the Norwegian government , even though it is appointed by the Parliament of Norway . This official position was reiterated to the People 's Republic of China by their Norwegian ambassador . After the announcement , Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg said the decision " directs a spotlight on the human rights situation in China , and underscores the links between development , democracy and universal human rights . " Norway summoned the Chinese ambassador to Norway to express its regret at China 's reaction , to urge for the release of Liu , and to remove restrictions on his wife . The Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten revealed that Foreign Minister Støre had a pre @-@ emptive meeting with Nobel Committee chairman Thorbjørn Jagland , about Liu as the expected recipient , two weeks before the announcement . According to anonymous sources within both the Foreign Ministry and the Nobel Committee itself , Støre is said to have raised certain " concerns " . The Norwegian press quoted Jagland as saying that this enquiry was of such a peculiar kind that he would have to present the Nobel Committee with the minutes of the meeting . Former Nobel Committee chairman Ole Danbolt Mjøs and a number of Norwegian researchers and politicians criticised Støre for breaching protocol and meddling in the work of the Committee .
Norwegian peace activist and author , Fredrik S. Heffermehl criticised the Nobel Committee for failing to follow Alfred Nobel 's dying wish to promote disarmament , by giving the award to Liu . Heffermehl said that less than 50 percent of the awards made after World War II had been made in accordance with Nobel 's will .
= = = Governments and politicians = = =
While the Cuban and Venezuelan governments were notably critical , leading politicians in the Western world welcomed the news and called for the release of Liu . Non @-@ aligned and developing countries such as Russia , Brazil and India , many Asian and Middle Eastern countries were silent . UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon recognised China 's " remarkable economic advances [ that have ] lifted millions out of poverty " , and said he hoped " any differences on this decision will not detract from advancement of the human rights agenda globally or the high prestige and inspirational power of the award " . President of the United States Barack Obama lauded Liu 's eloquence and courage , while his government called for his immediate release .
The European Union and member governments praised the decision , and also called on China to release Liu . European Commission President José Manuel Barroso stated that " the decision of the Nobel Peace Prize Committee is a strong message of support to all those around the world who , sometimes with great personal sacrifice , are struggling for freedom and human rights . " The Polish foreign ministry said it was appreciative of the decision to award Liu . Japan greeted the award and emphasised the need for respect of human rights , but did not call for Liu 's release ; Premier Naoto Kan told a parliamentary committee Liu 's release was " desirable " . The Australian prime minister , Julia Gillard , said Australia was strongly against Liu 's imprisonment , and " welcome [ d ] the fact that his work has been recognised internationally now with the Nobel Peace Prize " , while the Australian Greens leader Bob Brown described the decision as " inspiring " . Brown contrasted Norway 's courage with the " sheer ignorance and gutlessness of most of Australia 's politicians on the plight of campaigning democrats in China " . The Canadian prime minister Stephen Harper expressed his delight , and said he hoped the award " would cause our friends in the Chinese government to look seriously at that issue of his release from prison . "
However , Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez sided with China , saying the award should be given to those who " have done the most for fraternity between nations , the abolition or reduction of standing armies and promotion of peace congresses " . Pakistan and Cuba denounced the choice , saying Liu was exactly " the type of ' dissident ' that the United States has been designing for decades to use ... as fifth columns in those countries that they disagree with because those countries dissent from [ American ] hegemony . " The United Arab Emirates expressed regret over the " politically motivated " decision to award Liu , which it said was " against the UAE 's fundamental belief in respecting other nations ' sovereignty and non @-@ interference . "
On 8 December , the United States House of Representatives voted by 402 to 1 to congratulate Liu and honour his " promotion of democratic reform in China , and the courage with which he has borne repeated imprisonment ... and [ call ] on the government of China to cease censoring media and internet reporting of the award of the Nobel Peace Prize to Liu Xiaobo and to cease its campaign of defamation against Liu Xiaobo . " The Chinese Foreign Ministry responded by accusing US lawmakers of possessing an " arrogant and unreasonable attitude " and " lacking respect for China 's judicial sovereignty . " Ahead of the award ceremony , Barack Obama said " Mr Liu Xiaobo is far more deserving of this award than I was ... [ He ] reminds us that human dignity also depends upon the advance of democracy , open society , and the rule of law ... The values he espouses are universal , his struggle is peaceful , and he should be released as soon as possible . "
= = = Human rights groups and academics = = =
The Dalai Lama expressed confidence that China would one day enjoy responsible governance through the efforts of Liu and others calling for democracy and freedom . He praised the award as " the international community 's recognition of the increasing voices among the Chinese people in pushing China towards political , legal and constitutional reforms . " Former Polish president Lech Wałęsa said he was " very satisfied " , describing the award as " a challenge for China and the entire world , [ which ] must declare whether it is ready to help China enter a zone where there is respect for the principles and values " .
However , Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov , who were awarded the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics , attacked the Nobel committee as " retired Norwegian politicians who have spent all their careers in a safe environment , in an oil @-@ rich modern country . They try to extend their views of the world , how the world should work and how democracy works in another country . " They also felt that China should be given due credit for undisputed improvements in human rights and the economy over the last 10 years . Novoselov questioned : " What is a dictatorship ? It is not as if people are being constantly killed there , " The pair were rebutted by 2010 Nobel literature laureate Mario Vargas Llosa , who said it was a timely reminder that China was still a dictatorship and quite monolithic regarding politics , and that the award was " a tribute to all Chinese dissidents and all Chinese who want not just economic but also political growth and progress in China . "
Human Rights Watch said the 2010 award honours " all those in China who struggle daily to make the government more accountable " and " shatter [ s ] the myth where the Communist Party presents itself as the voice of the Chinese people " . Canadian academic Professor Josephine Chiu @-@ Duke believed that many Communist Party members were " hoping that China can be free , democratic and civilized " , and hoped that the award would " encourag [ e ] more Chinese to speak up . " Former British diplomat in Beijing , Kerry Brown , lamented that , economically powerful though China is , its sole Nobel laureate languished in prison .
The Secretary General of Amnesty International , said : " the Chinese government might see this is as a victory , but they would be mistaken ... Because , while the other chairs in the packed hall on the day of the awards ceremony will each hold only one person , Liu 's empty chair will hold ... the thousands of political prisoners and prisoners of conscience [ who were ] victims of prosecution and persecution simply for having the courage to voice their views . " On the other hand , in an article appearing in China Daily , David Gosset of the China Europe International Business School said the award was " a sad paradox , a prize without any real winner , which generates mistrust and perplexity when understanding and clarity are most needed " . Gosset believed that only citizens were able to define the exact terms and pace of democratisation in their own country , and lamented the " fallacy " of implicitly associating the PRC with German Nazism or South African apartheid , and emphasised that China , a developing country with a per capita GDP of $ 3 @,@ 700 , could hardly adopt the socio @-@ political standards of the developed world without attenuating its development . He also argued that the choice of Liu was divisive in view of China 's memory of Western imperialism , and of Alfred Nobel 's dying wish to reward a person " who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations " . Professor Sidney Rittenberg said : " One does not have to approve of Mr Liu 's imprisonment in order to disapprove of his choice as a Nobel laureate ... Not only have courageous , intelligent individuals like Mr Liu made no tangible contribution to China 's advance , not only have their activities and his choice for a Nobel Prize made life more difficult for China 's dissidents — but the main point is that his advocacy of a multiparty system for the China of today would almost certainly lead to disaster , if carried out . To wit , Iran after the overthrow of the shah . "
= = = Media = = =
State @-@ owned Russian news agency RIA Novosti immediately criticised the prize as a " political tool " — a denunciation swiftly picked up and relayed by Xinhua . Radio Free Europe reported Solidarnost ( in Russia ) planned to hold a public rally in support of Liu in Saint Petersburg , but the authorities refused permission . In the end , 10 activists staged a protest outside the Chinese consulate there .
In an editorial , The Guardian said " to many western ears , the clamour of China 's markets is louder than the pleas of its dissidents . The Nobel committee is one of few institutions with sufficient status to be heard around the world . Its most coveted prize can now amplify Mr Liu 's voice . " The Telegraph said that the award was justified not only by Liu 's own courage , but was " a rebuke to Western governments , so hypnotised by China 's riches and cowed by self @-@ interest that they have shut their eyes and ears to the regime 's abuses of human rights . "
The New York Times applauded the award : " Beijing is used to throwing its weight around these days — on currency , trade , the South China Sea and many other issues . Too many governments , and companies , are afraid to push back . Maybe someone in China ’ s leadership will now figure out that bullying is not a strategy for an aspiring world power . " The French daily , Libération , referred to Liu as " the Chinese Havel " , saying " the Chinese government wanted to show the world that nothing would stop it from silencing its critics . However , China is today a part of the international community , and must respect the norms it accepted when it signed up for UN membership . The pressure it exerted upon the Nobel prize committee not to award Liu is unacceptable . "
On the other hand , an article in The Guardian pointed out Liu 's support for " the total westernisation of China " amongst other policies , such as the US invasion of Iraq , and on the tenor of the debate in the West : " Liu Xiaobo 's politics have been reduced to a story of a heroic individual who upholds human rights and democracy . His views are largely omitted to avoid a discussion about them , resulting in a one @-@ sided debate . " Its survey of 500 press articles published in Hong Kong about Liu showed " only 10 were critical of the man or peace prize . "
News agencies reported the Confucius Peace Prize , established at the suggestion of Global Times in response to the award of the Nobel Peace Prize to a jailed dissident . The organiser denied any involvement of the Chinese government in the award and the Minister of Culture said they only became aware of the prize due to the press coverage . Hong Kong 's Ming Pao , which had obtained a copy of the letter from the organisers of the Confucius award to the ' winner ' , suggested that this was indeed unofficial – the letter did not bear the Ministry of Culture 's official seal . Die Welt said the rival award was " stupid " .
The Economist recalled how the Soviet Union prevented Andrei Sakharov from accepting his Nobel Peace Prize in 1975 , and suggested that Chinese leadership would probably have expected such a comparison . Both it and Die Welt made direct reference to the creation of a similar German National Prize for Art and Science by Nazi Germany after von Ossietzky was prohibited from leaving the country to collect the 1935 prize .
= = = Other Nobel Prize laureates = = =
4 December 2012 , 134 Nobel Prize laureates wrote to new General Secretary of Communist Party Xi Jinping , calling for the immediate release of Liu Xiaobo and the lifting of the house arrest of his wife Liu Xia .
= = Runup to the Award ceremony = =
= = = Diplomatic pressure = = =
In the lead @-@ up to the award ceremony , the Chinese authorities began a campaign through state media to criticise both Liu and the prize ; the Chinese foreign service in Beijing and abroad targeted Western government officials , urging them to stay away from the award ceremony in Oslo on 10 December and refrain from issuing any statements of support for Liu . At least two European embassies in Norway were sent letters by their Chinese counterparts , denouncing the prize for being an interference in China 's internal affairs and reaffirming their stance that Liu had committed crimes in China . One diplomat said his embassy 's letter from the Chinese embassy requested obliquely that they " refrain from attending any activity directed against China . " The Norwegian Nobel Committee said its invitation to the Chinese ambassador to attend the prize @-@ giving was returned unanswered . The Chinese Vice Foreign Minister also warned countries supporting Liu 's award that they would have to " take responsibility for the consequences " .
In December , the Chinese foreign ministry continued to denounce the award as " interference by a few clowns " . It said " more than 100 countries and international organisations [ had ] expressed explicit support of China 's position opposing this year 's peace prize . " However , according to the Nobel Committee , only the 65 countries with diplomatic missions were invited ; acceptances had been received from 46 countries , including the previously non @-@ committal India , while China and 19 others — Afghanistan , Algeria , Argentina , Cuba , Egypt , Iran , Iraq , Kazakhstan , Morocco , Nepal , Pakistan , Russia , Saudi Arabia , Sri Lanka , Sudan , Tunisia , Venezuela and Vietnam — declined invitations to the award ceremony " for various reasons " . On the eve of the award ceremony , China continued the rhetoric against the Nobel Committee and the West . A spokesman said : " We hope that those countries who have received invitations can tell right from wrong and uphold justice . It 's not an issue of human rights . It 's an issue of interfering in other countries ' internal affairs " ; the Nobel committee continued to be criticised for " encouraging crime " ; the Global Times repeated earlier suggestions that the award was a Western conspiracy against Beijing , a " charge against China 's ideology , aiming to undermine the benign surroundings for China 's future development . "
Colombia , Serbia , the Philippines and Ukraine initially announced they would not attend the ceremony , but later accepted the invitation . The Philippines ultimately did not attend : President Benigno Aquino III defended the Philippine non @-@ attendance as " in our national interest " ; the Philippine government , which had been heavily criticised in its national press for its decision , revealed its hope that China would show clemency to five Filipinos on death row for drug trafficking .
= = = Award ceremony = = =
The award ceremony , held as planned in Oslo City Hall on the afternoon of 10 December , was attended by about 1 @,@ 000 VIPs , diplomats and guests . Representing Norway were King Harald V , Queen Sonja and a number of politicians and officials ; among the 48 foreign dignitaries was the US House Speaker , Nancy Pelosi . The Chinese group was 46 @-@ strong , and included astrophysicist Professor Fang Lizhi , Yang Jianli , and exiled former Tiananmen student leaders Chai Ling , Wu 'erkaixi , Feng Congde , and Fang Zheng , whose legs were crushed by a tank ; the Hong Kong delegation comprised Albert Ho , Emily Lau , and Lee Cheuk @-@ yan . Outside the hall , pro @-@ democracy and human rights activists demonstrated ; about 50 China supporters held a protest outside the Norwegian Parliament .
The hall was decked with an immense portrait of Liu for the event . During the ceremony , the Nobel committee chairman Thorbjørn Jagland credited China 's leaders with the " extraordinary " economic transformation that has lifted millions of people out of poverty , but said they " must regard criticism as positive " considering the nation 's new status as a world power . Liu 's award marks the third occasion that the Prize has been bestowed upon a person in prison or detention , after Carl von Ossietzky ( 1935 ) and Aung San Suu Kyi ( 1991 ) ; Liu and Ossietzky were the only ones not to be present or represented by close family at the awards ceremony . The Nobel diploma and the prize were symbolically placed by Jagland on an empty chair meant for the absent laureate . Norwegian actress Liv Ullmann read I Have No Enemies , an essay by Liu written for his trial in December 2009 .
The proceedings were televised by the international media , but broadcast signals of CNN and BBC inside China were reportedly blocked . Images of and references to ' empty chair ' also became the target of official censorship . After the ceremony , the official Chinese news agency , Xinhua , continued the rhetoric against the award :
There are always some who cling to the Cold @-@ War or even colonial mentality , even in this 21st century . They regard themselves as the judge , the teacher , even though they have never been selected by the people of developing countries . They have never experienced the real life in developing countries , but they tend to act like the Savior wherever they go . They assume that they can forever distort the fact and block the truth by using political maneuvers .
Following the ceremony , an evening rally of more than 1 @,@ 000 people in Oslo called for Liu 's release . The marchers headed for the Grand Hotel , where laureates traditionally greet the crowd from the balcony . Assembled Chinese activists and dissidents said they were inspired by the award , that it was a much @-@ needed morale @-@ booster , and expressed hope that it would be a catalyst to resurrect the moribund Chinese pro @-@ democracy movement . Yang Jianli said : " The most important change is the change in people 's hearts ... this is the greatest achievement [ of this award ] , " The Global Times said of the ceremony : " It ’ s unimaginable that such a farce , the like of which is more commonly seen in cults , is being staged on the civilised continent of Europe " . On the other hand , a huge image with three empty chairs and five cranes adorned the front page the edition of 12 December of the Southern Metropolis Daily ; ambiguously , the headline read : " 2010 Asian Para Games Are Ready to Start Tonight in Guangzhou " . China Digital Times offered the interpretation that ' crane ' in Chinese ( he ) is a homonym for ' congratulations ' and the first character of ' peace ' .
The Nobel Peace Prize Concert to commemorate the 2010 prize was held on 11 December , the night following the award ceremony , as is the tradition . It was hosted by Denzel Washington and Anne Hathaway . The roster of confirmed performers announced before the award included Herbie Hancock , Florence and the Machine , Colbie Caillat , Elvis Costello . Those who were confirmed later included Barry Manilow , Jamiroquai , A. R. Rahman , India.Arie , Robyn and Sivert Høyem .
|
= Tropical Depression Five ( 2010 ) =
Tropical Depression Five was an Atlantic tropical cyclone that lasted for 12 hours , although its remnants persisted for almost another week . Its precursor was from a non @-@ tropical trough east of Florida , and on August 10 it developed in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico . It was the fifth depression of the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season . The system was declassified as a tropical cyclone the following day , a remnant circulation later moved over Louisiana and Mississippi , producing heavy rainfall and causing flooding . Along the Florida coast , the system produced heavy waves that contributed to two deaths . Moving inland , the remnants of the depression reached central Alabama before turning southward . The system nearly redeveloped into a tropical cyclone on August 16 after it again reached the Gulf of Mexico , but it became disorganized and turned northward into Mississippi . The depression twice caused BP to delay work in building a relief well to combat the Deepwater Horizon oil spill .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the depression were from a dissipating cold front that extended from the northeast Gulf of Mexico across Florida on August 7 , connected to a weak non @-@ tropical low pressure area located several hundred miles east @-@ southeast of Jacksonville , Florida . The system had disorganized convection – thunderstorms – and moved generally southwestward after drifting against the Gulf Stream . Conditions were initially unfavorable for development , due to strong upper @-@ level wind shear and land interaction . By late August 9 , the low reached the southeastern Gulf of Mexico , and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted a medium chance for tropical or subtropical development , due to an anticipated decrease in wind shear . The convection gradually increased and became better organized , and a Hurricane Hunters flight late on August 10 confirmed the development of Tropical Depression Five about 120 miles ( 190 km ) west of Fort Myers , Florida .
Upon being classified as a tropical cyclone , the tropical depression had a broad circulation and organized deep convection . It was located over very warm water temperatures , although the upper @-@ level environment was not conducive for significant intensification . Easterly wind shear was forecast , but the NHC anticipated the depression strengthening to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) before making landfall in Louisiana . Under the influence of a mid @-@ level ridge to its north , the depression was forecast to track generally northwestward . Early on August 11 , the convection diminished significantly due to the entrainment of dry air and vertical wind shear from a nearby upper @-@ level low . The circulation became difficult to locate ; however , conditions favored the redevelopment of the thunderstorm activity . One tropical cyclone prediction model forecast significant intensification to a minimum pressure of 968 mbar , and other models forecast the depression would reach hurricane status upon making landfall . As it continued to the northwest , the circulation remained broad and disorganized , and convection remained minimal . Late on August 11 , a Hurricane Hunters flight reported that the depression was no longer a tropical cyclone , and in post @-@ analysis , the NHC determined that the depression was only a tropical cyclone for 12 hours . Redevelopment was not anticipated .
The remnants of Tropical Depression Five moved ashore on Louisiana on August 12 , by which time the circulation had become better defined . A small circular area of convection was observed on radar approaching New Orleans , supported by diffluence from an anticyclone over Georgia . The system moved slowly , turning northeastward and tracking inland along southern Mississippi on August 13 . By late on August 14 , the remnants reached central Alabama and began to move southward due to a ridge to its north . The next day it reached the Florida Panhandle , and before the low reached open waters , the NHC assessed a 50 % chance for redevelopment due to favorable conditions . Early on August 16 , the low reached the Gulf of Mexico , and a Hurricane Hunters flight reported a weak circulation and convection that was disorganized and disassociated . Upper @-@ level conditions remained only marginally favorable , although the NHC noted that " only a small increase in organization would result in the formation of a tropical depression . " Early on August 18 , the remnants of the system dissipated over Southwestern Mississippi .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Prior to becoming a tropical cyclone , the system dropped locally heavy rainfall in portions of southern Florida . Palm Beach International Airport recorded 2 @.@ 25 inches ( 5 @.@ 7 cm ) on August 8 , a record for the date . The system spawned a weak tornado near Boca Raton , which downed a few trees and damaged shingles from one house . In Sarasota , high tides from the system affected 200 sea turtle nests , of which 20 had to be transported to a safer location . Once in the Gulf of Mexico , the developing system threatened the area affected by the Deepwater Horizon oil spill ; this prompted BP to stop operations temporarily in constructing a relief well . The same event occurred a week later when the depression was threatening to redevelop .
Upon issuing the first advisory on Tropical Depression Five , the NHC issued a tropical storm warning from Destin , Florida to Intracoastal City , Louisiana , including Lake Pontchartrain and New Orleans . Louisiana governor Bobby Jindal issued a state of emergency due to the threat from the depression . The remnants of the depression produced rough surf and riptides along the coast . In Panama City Beach , Florida , one man was hospitalized , and on Anna Maria Island , two elderly people died after being swept away by rip currents ; the deaths were believed to have been fatigue @-@ induced heart attacks , and not drowning . In the final advisory on the depression , the NHC noted the potential for the system to produce heavy rainfall across the southern United States . Accordingly , local National Weather Service offices issued flood watches for 12 Louisiana parishes and 8 Mississippi counties . While the depression moved through the region , it dropped heavy rainfall of up to 8 in ( 20 cm ) around the New Orleans area , flooding streets as well as entering one apartment complex . Rainfall from the system extended as far inland as Atlanta , Georgia , where thunderstorms damaged three houses .
As the remnants moved southward toward the Gulf of Mexico , its associated thunderstorms struck Mobile , Alabama and produced heavy rainfall , estimated up to 4 in ( 10 cm ) . The rainfall flooded several streets and damaged the city 's water line , and 1 @,@ 921 customers were left without power . When the remnants affected Mississippi a second time , the system dropped heavy rainfall that resulted in flash flooding near Sibley . The system caused about $ 1 million in damage after floodwaters washed out a bridge and entered several buildings . As the system approached Louisiana for a second time , local National Weather Offices issued a coastal flood watch and a flash flood watch . Sixteen hours of intense rainfall occurred in Avoyelles Parish , flooding at least 40 buildings . Lightning killed three cows and destroyed a house , and damage was estimated around $ 750 @,@ 000 . Further inland , the remnants interacted with a stationary cold front over central Tennessee , causing $ 22 million in damage after heavy rainfall affected bridges , roads , and properties .
|
= Netley Castle =
Netley Castle is a former artillery fort constructed in either 1542 or 1544 by Henry VIII in the village of Netley , Hampshire . It formed part of the King 's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and it defended Southampton Water near the Solent . The castle included a central , stone keep with two flanking gun platforms and was garrisoned by ten men . It was decommissioned during the English Civil War and by 1743 it was overgrown and in ruins . In the 19th century the property was gradually converted into a private house , being extended in a Gothic style , complete with octagonal towers . Between 1939 and 1998 it was used as a nursing home , until the high costs of maintenance led to its closure . Following an archaeological survey , it was then converted into nine residential flats . It is protected under UK law as a Grade II * listed building .
= = History = =
= = = 16th – 17th centuries = = =
Netley Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry then broke with Pope Paul III in order to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon and remarry . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , and he took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .
Netley Castle was built next to Southampton Water between the mouths of the Hamble and Itchen rivers , 250 metres ( 820 ft ) south @-@ west of the remains of Netley Abbey . Netley Abbey had been recently dissolved by Henry , and material from the site was reused to build the castle . William Paulet , later the Marquess of Winchester , was in charge of the construction , which took place in either 1542 or 1544 and Henry granted him various estates to pay for the support of the fort and its garrison . The castle took the form of a central keep , 19 @.@ 5 by 14 metres ( 64 by 46 ft ) across with deep embrasures along the battlements , and a gun platform on either side ; its design resembled that at nearby Southsea . It was initially garrisoned with two soldiers , six gunners and a porter , under the command of a captain .
It was still garrisoned in the mid @-@ 1620s and was probably still in active service at the start of the English Civil War between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament in 1642 . Captain Swaley , a Parliamentary naval commander , seized Netley at the end of that year and decommissioned it as a fortification . During the Interregnum , the castle was restored to use , due to concerns about a potential Royalist invasion , but was abandoned as obsolete after the restoration of Charles II to the throne . By the time that Alexander Pope visited in 1734 , the castle was overgrown and in ruins .
= = = 18th – 20th centuries = = =
William Chamberlayne inherited the castle in 1826 and built a crenellated tower on the south @-@ east end of the property the following year , inspired by a proposal by the antiquarian Horace Walpole that the castle be made habitable . A description of the castle around this time suggested it stood " in the midst of a thicket of trees , on a little hill close to the beach " and formed " a striking object seen from the water " . It became popular with artists , and J. M. W. Turner visited and sketched the castle and its new tower , probably in 1832 .
George Hunt leased the castle in 1841 and it was turned into a private house under the supervision of the architect George Guillame . Hunt remained at Netley until 1857 , by when the castle had an oriel window overlooking the sea , and the battlements had been blocked in to allow the construction of a second storey to the building . George Sherriff leased the castle between 1868 and 1873 , building a stone wall around the front of property .
Sir Henry Crichton bought the castle in 1881 , along with the surrounding gardens , orchards , pond and a boat house . The architect John Sedding remodelled the castle between approximately 1885 and 1890 , creating a Gothic styled house , adding another storey and a new wing . After Crichton 's death in 1922 his wife remained in the house until her death in 1936 , when the property and the surrounding grounds were sold at auction .
Middlesex County Council bought the castle in 1939 and converted it into a nursing home for elderly men ; it passed into the control of the National Health Service in 1948 and continued to be used as a nursing home . It proved expensive to maintain and the surrounding land was gradually sold off , until the Southampton University Hospital NHS Trust finally decided to close it in 1998 .
= = = 21st century = = =
Fairmist Limited , a firm of property developers , purchased Netley Castle in 2000 and converted it into nine private residential flats , at a cost of £ 1 @.@ 7 million , during which process an archaeological survey was made of the property . It is protected under UK law as a Scheduled Monument and a Grade II * listed building .
The castle is now approximately 62 by 14 metres ( 203 by 46 ft ) across and 13 @.@ 5 metres ( 44 ft ) tall , surrounded by 1 @.@ 54 hectares ( 3 @.@ 8 acres ) of land . The castle comprises three wings , with the original 16th @-@ century fort incorporated into the centre of the property . The north wing is three storeys tall , decorated in a restrained Gothic style and has an octagonal turret on one corner . The central range is two storeys tall , with round corner turrets and battlements . The southern wing is two storeys in height , with elaborate Gothic detailing and another , larger octagonal tower . The castle features a substantial staircase , fitted with a musical organ , and a wood @-@ panelled billiard room . Other buildings around the main castle include the converted boat house and a former ice house .
|
= 2009 Sylvania 300 =
The 2009 Sylvania 300 was the twenty @-@ seventh stock car race of the 2009 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series and the first in the ten @-@ race season @-@ ending Chase for the Sprint Cup . It was held on September 20 , 2009 at New Hampshire Motor Speedway in Loudon , New Hampshire before a crowd of 101 @,@ 000 people . The 300 @-@ lap race was won by Mark Martin of the Hendrick Motorsports team after starting from fourteenth position . Denny Hamlin finished second and Juan Pablo Montoya came in third .
Montoya , who initially held the pole position , was immediately passed by Tony Stewart . One lap later , Montoya reclaimed the lead . Chase for the Sprint Cup participants Hamlin and Kurt Busch were in the top ten for most of the race . Martin became the leader of the race , after the leaders made their pit stops . Martin retained the first position to win the race , his fifth of the 2009 season . There were eleven cautions and twenty lead changes among ten different drivers during the race .
The race was Martin 's fifth win of the season , as well as the fortieth of his career . After the race , Martin maintained his lead in the Drivers ' Championship , thirty @-@ five points ahead of Hamlin , who advanced to second , and equal on points with Johnson . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , thirty @-@ nine points ahead of Toyota and eighty @-@ one ahead of Dodge , with nine races of the season remaining . The race attracted 5 @.@ 04 million television viewers .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
New Hampshire Motor Speedway is one of ten intermediate tracks to hold NASCAR races , the others being Atlanta Motor Speedway , Charlotte Motor Speedway , Chicagoland Speedway , and Darlington Raceway as well as Homestead Miami Speedway , Kansas Speedway , Kentucky Speedway , Las Vegas Motor Speedway , and Texas Motor Speedway . The standard track at New Hampshire Motor Speedway is a four @-@ turn oval track , 1 @.@ 058 miles ( 1 @.@ 703 km ) long . The track 's turns are banked at two to seven degrees , while the front stretch , the finish line , and the back stretch are banked at one degree .
Before the race , Mark Martin led the Drivers ' Championship with 5 @,@ 040 points , followed by Tony Stewart and Jimmie Johnson who were tied for second place on 5 @,@ 030 points . Denny Hamlin , was 5 @,@ 020 points , was tied with Kasey Kahne , with Jeff Gordon , Kurt Busch and Brian Vickers all level with 5 @,@ 010 points . Carl Edwards , Ryan Newman , Juan Pablo Montoya and Greg Biffle rounded out the top twelve with 5 @,@ 000 points each . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with 190 points , thirty @-@ six points ahead of their rival Toyota in second . Dodge and Ford were tied on points in the battle for third place . Biffle was the race 's defending champion .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — one on Friday , and two on Saturday . The first session lasted 90 minutes , and the second 45 minutes . The final session lasted 60 minutes . During the first practice session , Montoya was fastest , placing ahead of Kevin Harvick in second and Clint Bowyer in third . Stewart took fourth position , and Martin placed fifth . Kurt Busch , A.J. Allmendinger , Kyle Busch , Johnson and Hamlin rounded out the top ten fastest drivers in the session .
Although forty @-@ five drivers were entered in the qualifier ; according to NASCAR 's qualifying procedure , only forty @-@ three could race . Each driver ran two laps , with the starting order determined by the competitor 's fastest times . Montoya clinched his second pole position of the season , with a time of 28 @.@ 545 . He was joined on the grid 's front row by Stewart . Kurt Busch qualified third , Hamlin took fourth , and Edwards started fifth . David Stremme , Martin Truex , Jr . , Bobby Labonte and Kyle Busch completed the top nine qualifiers . Jeff Gordon , one of the drivers in the Chase for the Sprint Cup , qualified tenth , while Harvick set the twelfth fastest time . The two drivers who failed to qualify for the race were Derrike Cope and Dexter Bean . After the qualifier Montoya said , " You know how these races go , " If it was a 10 @-@ lap shootout , I 'll say , ' Hey , we 're looking good . ' But it 's like 200 laps , 300 laps or something , or 400 , I don 't even know . It 's a bunch of laps . As long as I lead the last one I don 't care . "
On Saturday morning , Montoya was fastest in the second practice session , ahead of Truex in second , and Martin in third . Stremme ] ] was fourth quickest , and Johnson took fifth . Hamlin managed sixth . Kurt Busch , Biffle , Labonte and Kahne followed in the top ten . Of the other drivers in the Chase , Stewart was eighteenth fastest , while Edwards ended with twenty @-@ third fastest time . Later that day , Montoya paced the final practice session , ahead of Truex in second and Kurt Busch in third . Martin was fourth fastest , ahead of Johnson and Dale Earnhardt , Jr .. Hamlin was seventh fastest , Jeff Gordon eighth , Harvick ninth and Stewart tenth . Other Chase drivers included Kahne in fourteenth and Biffle in twentieth .
= = = Race = = =
The race , the twenty @-@ seventh of a total of thirty @-@ six in the 2009 season , began at 1 : 00 p.m. EDT and was televised live in the United States on ESPN . Around the start of the race , weather conditions were sunny with the air temperature around 67 ° F ( 19 ° C ) . Bishop Michael Cote began pre @-@ race ceremonies with the invocation . Universal Music Group Nashville recording artist Josh Turner performed the national anthem , and Tim Leach , Vice President of Sales , Service and Logistics for Sylvania , gave the command for drivers to start their engines . During the pace laps , Tony Raines had to move to the back of the grid because of him changing his engine .
Stewart acclelerated faster than Montoya off the line , getting ahead of him by the first turn . One lap later , Montoya reclaimed the lead by passing Stewart at turn one . Stremme moved into fourth on lap three , while Hamlin passed Stewart for the second position . Vickers , who began the race in twenty @-@ sixth , had moved up seven positions to nineteenth by lap five . By the sixth lap , Montoya had increased his lead over Stewart to 1 @.@ 4 seconds . Five laps later , Jeff Gordon moved into sixth position , while Edwards passed Labonte for eighth . By lap 15 , Montoya had a 2 @.@ 3 second lead over Stewart . Seven laps later , Stewart had reduced Montoya 's lead to 1 @.@ 1 seconds .
On lap 24 , Dave Blaney took his car to the garage because of an electrical problem . Seven laps later , Truex lost three positions after running seventh . On lap 37 , Stewart reclaimed the lead from Montoya . On the 39th lap , Michael McDowell drove to the garage because of brake problems . During the 43rd lap , Jeff Gordon passed Hamlin for fourth position . After starting the race in twenty @-@ third , Earnhardt moved up into fifteenth position by lap 46 . Four laps later , Stremme dropped to sixth position , after being passed by Edwards and Johnson . On lap 51 , Jeff Gordon passed Hamlin for the fourth position , while Mike Wallace took his car to the garage because of brake problems .
By lap 56 , Harvick and Labonte were running in nineteenth and twentieth , while Stewart 's lead was 1 @.@ 7 seconds by lap 63 . Three laps later , Kahne 's car suffered an engine problem , causing the first caution of the race . During the caution , all of the leaders elected to make pit stops . Montoya reclaimed the lead during the caution and maintained it at the restart . On lap 79 , Jeff Gordon passed Martin for the seventh position . By the 83rd lap , Montoya 's lead was 1 @.@ 8 seconds over Stewart . Two laps later , the second caution was given because of debris on the track at turn three . None of the leaders elected to make pit stops . Montoya maintained his lead at the restart , followed by Stewart and Hamlin .
On lap 92 , Stewart fell to fifth after contact with Hamlin , allowing Kurt Busch to move into second position one lap later . On lap 95 , Jeff Gordon passed Truex for twelfth position . By lap 101 , Montoya had a lead of 1 @.@ 2 seconds . Kurt Busch managed to close the gap to Montoya by 0 @.@ 7 seconds by lap 110 . On the 113th lap , Jeff Gordon passed Vickers to claim eleventh . Twelve laps later , Kurt Busch claimed the lead off Montoya . Five laps later , Jeff Gordon moved up to ninth , while Newman and Vickers moved up to tenth and eleventh respectively . On lap 131 , Earnhardt passed Martin for the tenth position .
By lap 138 , Kurt Busch had a 2 @.@ 4 second lead over Montoya . On lap 141 , the third caution was given as debris was spotted on the track . During the caution , all of the leaders made pit stops . At the lap 146 restart . Montoya became the leader , ahead of Hamlin and Kurt Busch . Two laps later , Hamlin moved into first , one lap after colliding with Montoya . On lap 153 , Montoya reclaimed the lead through turn four . Five laps later , Johnson passed Martin for the sixth position . Three laps later , the fourth caution was given after Erik Darnell spun sideways in turn two . Most of the leaders made pit stops ( which included a pit road collision between Kurt Busch and David Ragan ) , and Stewart became the leader at the lap 165 restart . Two laps after the restart , the fifth caution was given as a multi @-@ car collision occurred , as Joey Logano and Elliott Sadler collided , collecting Paul Menard , Michael Waltrip , Robby Gordon and John Andretti .
Stewart led on the restart ; On the next lap , the sixth caution was given as Jeff Burton spun sideways . At the lap 180 restart , Stewart was the leader , ahead of Johnson , Newman , Earnhardt and Hamlin . On the next lap , Johnson claimed the lead through turn one , while Sam Hornish , Jr. went to his garage due to oil issues . Two laps later , Earnhardt and Montoya moved up into third and fifth positions respectively . Five laps later , Montoya passed McMurray for the fourth position ; Earnhardt passed Stewart for second . By the 190th lap , Johnson had a lead of three seconds , while Montoya passed Stewart for third . On lap 193 , Allmendinger made contact with Stremme who spun into the wall at turn two , prompting the seventh caution . Most of the leaders made pit stops during the caution . Kurt Busch became the leader by the lap 197 restart , from Martin and Sadler .
On lap 199 , Burton and David Reutimann moved into third and fourth respectively after passing Sadler . Five laps later , Martin passed Kurt Busch to claim the lead . On lap 208 , Jeff Gordon had fell to fourteenth position after minor contact with Johnson , while Hamlin and Montoya moved into fourth and sixth positions respectively . Three laps later , Montoya moved into fifth after passing Reutimann . On the 219th lap , Johnson passed Sadler for the seventh position . Nineteen laps later , Johnson passed Montoya to take over fifth , while Hamlin passed Burton to claim the second position . On lap 243 , green flag pit stops began , as Martin was the first to pit , handing the lead back to Kurt Busch . On lap 248 , Hamlin became the new race leader after Kurt Busch came into pit road . Twenty @-@ one laps later , Kevin Harvick drove to pit road due to mechanical problems .
On lap 272 , Martin reclaimed the lead as the previous leaders had made their pit stops . Four laps later , the eighth caution was given because of debris on the track in turns three and four . Most of the drivers made pit stops during the caution , although Martin stayed out and remained the leader on the restart . After the restart , the ninth caution was given after Reutimann and Earnhardt made contact , causing Earnhardt to collide with the turn two wall . At the lap 287 restart , Martin remained the leader ahead of Kurt Busch . One lap later , Montoya moved up into third after passing Hamlin and Johnson . On lap 289 , Montoya passed Kurt Busch at the first turn for the second position . One lap later , Kurt Busch lost a further position when he was passed by Hamlin . On lap 292 , Martin had a 1 @.@ 1 second lead . Two laps later , the tenth caution came out after Allmendinger spun in turn two after he made contact with Marcos Ambrose . Martin led on the restart , followed by Montoya and Hamlin . On the final lap , Allmendinger spun sideways , bringing out the eleventh and final caution , and the field was frozen , with the finishing order determined by where the drivers were running at the moment of caution . The result gave Martin the victory , which was his fifth win of the 2009 season . Hamlin finished second , ahead of Montoya in third , Johnson in fourth , and Kyle Busch in fifth . Kurt Busch , Newman , Sadler , Biffle and Bowyer rounded out the top ten finishers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Martin appeared in victory lane to celebrate his fifth win of the season , and his first at the New Hampshire Motor Speedway , in front of 101 @,@ 000 who attended the race . Martin also earned $ 232 @,@ 750 in race winnings . Montoya was somewhat frustrated with the result , saying : " Martin just screwed me -- he just stopped the car on the apex , right on the bottom , and I had nowhere to go , " Montoya said . " I could have pushed him out of the way ... but I respect him a lot . " Martin was delighted with his victory : " Alan [ Gustafson ] won the race , Alan 's the man . This is a dream come true . ... We still have the lotto at Talladega [ Nov. 1 ] , and [ I ] think we 'll run OK at Martinsville . We finished [ seventh ] in the spring , but I don 't run good there -- but this is my hardest place . It 's a tough place . " Martin also argued that his driving did not cause the final caution : " Once you got the lead , you need to make sure you don 't drive it in there and turn it sideways ( and ) slide it up the racetrack . I mean , how stupid would I look then ? "
The race result kept Martin in the lead of the Drivers ' Championship with 5 @,@ 230 points . Hamlin , who finished second , moved into second , tied on points with Johnson on 5 @,@ 195 , twenty points ahead of Montoya and thirty ahead of Kurt Busch . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet maintained the lead with 199 points . Toyota remained second with 160 points . Dodge advanced to third with 118 and Ford was bumped to fourth with 117 . 5 @.@ 04 million people watched the race on television . The race took three hours , nine minutes and one second to complete ; because it ended under caution , no margin of victory was recorded .
Three days after the race , Joe Gibbs Racing were given penalties for Kyle Busch 's car . Joe Gibbs Racing 's penalty , for unauthorized alterations to the ride height of Kyle Busch 's car , included a fine of $ 25 @,@ 000 for crew chief Steve Addington , and the loss of 25 owner and driver points for Joe Gibbs and Kyle Busch respectively . Addington was also placed on probation until December 31 , 2009 .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
|
= Badajoz =
Badajoz ( Spanish pronunciation : [ baðaˈxoθ ] ; formerly written Badajos in English ) is the capital of the Province of Badajoz in the autonomous community of Extremadura , Spain . It is situated close to the Portuguese border , on the left bank of the river Guadiana . The population in 2011 was 151 @,@ 565 .
Conquered by the Moors in the 8th century , Badajoz became a Moorish kingdom , the Taifa of Badajoz . After the reconquista , the area was disputed between Spain and Portugal for several centuries with alternating control resulting in several wars including the Spanish War of Succession ( 1705 ) , the Peninsular War ( 1808 – 1811 ) , the Storming of Badajoz ( 1812 ) , and the Spanish Civil War ( 1936 ) . Spanish history is largely reflected in the town .
Badajoz is the see of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mérida @-@ Badajoz . Prior to the merger of the Diocese of Mérida and the Diocese of Badajoz , Badajoz was the see of the Diocese of Badajoz from the bishopric 's inception in 1255 . The city has a degree of eminence , crowned as it is by the ruins of a Moorish castle and overlooking the Guadiana river , which flows between the castle @-@ hill and the powerfully armed fort of San Cristobal . The architecture of Badajoz is indicative of its tempestuous history ; even the Badajoz Cathedral , built in 1238 , resembles a fortress , with its massive walls . Badajoz is home to the CD Badajoz and AD Cerro de Reyes football clubs and the AB Pacense basketball club . It is served by Badajoz Railway Station and Badajoz Airport .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient times = = =
Archaeological finds unearthed in the Badajoz area have been dated to the Bronze Age . Megalithic tombs are dated as far back as 4000 BC , while many of the steles found are from the Late Bronze Age . Other finds include weapons such as axes and swords , everyday items of pottery and utensils , and various items of jewellery such as bracelets . Archaeological excavations have revealed remnants from the Lower Paleolithic period . Artifacts have also been found at the Roman town of Colonia Pacencis in the Badajoz area , although a significant number of larger artifacts were found in Mérida .
With the invasion of the Romans , which started in 218 BC during the Second Punic War , Badajoz and Extremadura became part of the administrative district called Hispania Ulterior ( Farther Spain ) , which was later divided by Emperor Augustus into Hispania Ulterior Baetica and Hispania Ulterior Lusitania ; Badajoz became part of Lusitania . Though the settlement is not mentioned in Roman history , Roman villas such as the La Cocosa Villa have been discovered in the area , while Visigothic constructions have also been found in the vicinity .
= = = Founding to Middle Ages = = =
Badajoz attained importance during the reign of Moorish rulers such as the Umayyad caliphs of Córdoba , and the Almoravids and Almohads of North Africa . From the 8th century , the Umayyad dynasty controlled the region until the early 11th century . The official foundation of Badajoz was laid by the Muladi nobleman Ibn Marwan , around 875 , after he had been expelled from Mérida . Under Ibn Marwan , the city was the seat of an effective autonomous rebel state which was quenched only in the 10th century . In 1021 ( or possibly 1031 ) , it became the capital of a small Muslim kingdom , the Taifa of Badajoz ; with some 25 @,@ 000 inhabitants . Badajoz was known as Baṭalyaws ( Arabic : بَطَلْيَوْس ) during Muslim rule . The invasion of Badajoz by Christian rulers in 1086 under Alfonso VI of Castile , overturned the rule of the Moors . In addition to an invasion by the Almoravids of Morocco in 1067 , Badajoz was later invaded by the Almohads in 1147 .
Badajoz was captured by Alfonso IX of León on 19 March 1230 . Shortly after its conquest , in the time of Alfonso X the Wise of Castile , a bishopric see was established and work was initiated on the Cathedral of San Juan Bautista . In 1336 , during the reign of Alfonso XI of Castile , the troops of King Afonso IV of Portugal besieged the city . However , soon afterwards , the Castilian @-@ Leonese troops , which included Pedro Ponce de León the Elder and Juan Alonso Pérez de Guzmán y Coronel , second lord of Sanlúcar de Barrameda and son of Alonso Pérez de Guzmán , defeated the troops of Alfonso IV in the Battle of Villanueva de Barcarrota . Their victory forced the king of Portugal to desert the city and it fell into neglect .
In medieval times , the Sánchez de Badajoz family dominated the area as the lords of Barcarrota , near Badajoz , acquiring the property in 1369 when it was granted to Fernán Sánchez de Badajoz by Enrique II . They temporarily lost Barcarrota after a tiff with the Portuguese but soon regained control . Fernán Sánchez 's grandson of the same name , son of Garci Sánchez de Badajoz , was both lord of Barcarrota and Mayor of Badajoz in 1434 . Garci Sánchez de Badajoz , probably his son , was a notable writer , and one of his descendants , Diego Sánchez de Badajoz , was also a notable playwright ; his Recopilación en metro was published posthumously in 1554 .
The first hospital was founded in the town by Bishop Fray Pedro de Silva in 1485 . Those affected by the plague epidemic were treated here in 1506 . During the 16th century the city experienced a cultural renaissance thanks to personalities such as the painter Luis de Morales , the composer Juan Vázquez , the humanist Rodrigo Dosma , the poet Joaquin Romero de Cepeda , the playwright Diego Sánchez de Badajoz , the Dominican mystic Fray Luis de Granada and architect Gaspar Méndez . In 1524 , a board meeting between representatives of Spain and Portugal took place in the Old Town Hall in the city to clarify the status of their territorial arrangements , attended by Hernando Colón , Juan Vespucio , Sebastián Caboto , Juan Sebastián Elcano , Diego Ribeiro and Esteban Gómez . With reason to assert their rights to the Portuguese Crown , Philip II of Spain briefly moved his court to Badajoz in August 1580 . Queen Anne of Austria died in the city two months later , and on 5 December 1580 , Philip moved out of the city . From 1580 until 1640 , as a result of the absence of war , the city flourished once again . According to the historian Vicente Navarro del Castillo , some 428 residents of Badajoz contributed to the Spanish conquest of the Americas , including Pedro de Alvarado , Luis de Moscoso , Sebastián Garcilaso de la Vega y Vargas ( father of Inca Garcilaso ) and Hernán Sánchez de Badajoz . In 1640 the city was attacked during the Portuguese Restoration War .
= = = 1660 – 1811 = = =
The battle for control of the town and its fortress continued with attacks by the Portuguese in 1660 . In 1705 , during the Spanish War of Succession , Badajoz was controlled by the Allies following the death of the heirless King Charles II . It was taken by Spain , prompting Philip V , grandson of Louis XI of France , to take over the reins of Spain itself . In 1715 Portugal signed a peace agreement with Spain and surrendered its claims to Badajoz in lieu of Spain 's cession of Sacramento territory in the La Plata area in South America . The Peace Treaty of Badajoz was signed between Spain and Portugal on 6 June 1801 . The Portuguese , feeling that an attack by French troops stationed in Ciudad Rodrigo was imminent , agreed to cede Olivenza to Spain and declared that it would close its ports to British ships . This agreement was revoked in 1807 as its terms were breached when the Treaty of Fontainbleau was signed between Spain and France on 27 October 1807 .
During the Peninsular War , Badajoz was unsuccessfully attacked by the French in 1808 and 1809 . However , on 10 March 1811 , the Spanish commander , José Imaz , was bribed into surrendering to a French force under Marshal Soult . A British and Portuguese army , commanded by Marshal Beresford , endeavoured to retake it and on 16 May 1811 defeated a relieving force at Albuera , but the siege was abandoned the following month .
= = = The Storming of Badajoz ( 1812 ) = = =
In 1812 , Arthur Wellesley , Earl of Wellington ( and future duke ) , again attempted to take Badajoz , which had a French garrison of about 5 @,@ 000 men . Siege operations commenced on 16 March ; by early April , there were three practicable breaches in the walls . These were assaulted by two British divisions on 6 April , reputed to be " Wellington 's bloodiest siege " , with a loss of some 5 @,@ 000 British soldiers out of 15 @,@ 000 , after a five @-@ hour onslaught the storming of the breaches failed . The French also lost some 1 @,@ 200 of their 5 @,@ 000 soldiers in the battle . Despite the failure at the breaches , the castle and another section of undamaged wall had been attacked and the town was successfully taken by the British . Wellington wrote to Lord Liverpool , " The capture of Badajos affords as strong an instance of the gallantry of our troops as has ever been displayed , but I anxiously hope that I shall never again be the instrument of putting them to such a test as that to which they were put last night . " However , Wellington 's storming of San Sebastián in 1813 was much like that of Badajoz .
Pedro Caro , 3rd Marquis of la Romana , died at Badajoz on 23 January 1811 in a fit of apoplexy , seized at the moment when he was leaving his house to concert a plan of military operations with Lord Wellington . In the Siege of Badajoz , a detachment of the 45th Regiment of Foot ( later amalgamated with the 95th to form the Sherwood Foresters Regiment ) succeeded in getting into the castle first and the red coatee of Lt. James MacPherson of the 45th regiment was hoisted in place of the French flag to indicate the fall of the castle . This feat is commemorated on 6 April each year , when red jackets are flown on regimental flag staffs and at Nottingham Castle . Volume 23 of the Museum of Foreign Literature , Science and Art , published in 1833 , described Badajoz as " one of the richest and most beautiful towns in the south of Spain , whose inhabitants had witnessed its siege in silent terror for one and twenty days , and who had been shocked by the frightful massacre . " On 5 August 1883 there was an attempted revolt by the armed forces when a climate of confusion and chaos prevailed .
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
The Spanish Civil War in Badajoz in the 1930s was a gruesome affair . During the war , Badajoz was taken by the Nationalists in the Battle of Badajoz . Infamously , several thousand of the town 's inhabitants , both men and women , were taken to the town 's bullring after the battle and after machine guns were set up on the barriers around the ring , an indiscriminate slaughter began . On 14 August 1936 , hundreds of Republicans were shot at the Plaza de Toros . In the course of the night , another 1 @,@ 200 were brought in . Overall it is estimated that over 4 @,@ 000 people were murdered by the Nationalists after the battle . Even those who tried to cross the Portuguese border were captured and sent back to Badajoz . The troops who committed the killings at Badajoz were under the command of general Juan Yagüe , who , after the civil war , was appointed Minister of Aviation by Franco . For the actions of his troops at Badajoz , Yagüe was popularly known as the " Butcher of Badajoz " .
= = = Modern history = = =
After the war , the town continued to grow , although since 1960 it has suffered significant migrations to other Spanish regions and other European countries . During the following decades , the predominant economic activity of the city increasingly fell within the tertiary sector , and today Badajoz is a major commercial centre in southwestern Spain and an important bridge between Spain and Portugal for trade and cultural relations . On 6 November 1997 , a heavy flood devastated several neighbourhoods of the city , causing the deaths of 21 people and devastating the property of hundreds . The catastrophe was caused by the Atlantic extratropical trough crossing the Iberian Peninsula and inundating the Rivilla and Calamon brooks , which are usually dry . The neighbourhood of Cerro de Reyes , near the confluence of both streams , received the brunt of the damage caused by the flood .
= = Geography and climate = =
Badajoz is located in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula on the bank of the Guadiana River on the border with Portugal . It is the capital city of the province of the same name . It is 61 kilometres ( 38 mi ) from Mérida , 89 kilometres ( 55 mi ) from Cáceres , 217 kilometres ( 135 mi ) from Seville , 227 kilometres ( 141 mi ) east of Lisbon , and 406 kilometres ( 252 mi ) from Madrid . The newer part of the city is on the left bank of the river , with several industrial estates and the university hospital .
In geological terms , Badajoz is located in the South Submeseta . It was founded on the banks of the Guadiana River on a Paleozoic limestone hill , carved by the river . On this hill is the Alcazaba , one of the main sights of the city . The municipality of Badajoz contains soils derived from tertiary deposits , dating to the Paleozoic era . Its average altitude is 184 metres ( 604 ft ) above sea level . The highest points are located in the Cerro del Viento ( 219 metres ( 719 ft ) ) , at Fuerte San Cristóbal ( 218 metres ( 715 ft ) ) and Cerro de la Muela ( 205 metres ( 673 ft ) ) . The lowest point is the Guadiana River ( 168 metres ( 551 ft ) ) .
= = = Climate = = =
The climate of Badajoz has drastic changes between the summer and winter as seen in the chart below . Altitude of the measuring station is 203 metres ( 666 ft ) . The average annual temperature is 17 @.@ 1 ° C ( 62 @.@ 8 ° F ) . The average high temperature in July is 34 @.@ 8 ° C ( 94 @.@ 6 ° F ) whereas the coldest average low temperatures is 3 @.@ 3 ° C ( 37 @.@ 9 ° F ) in January . Average annual rainfall is 447 millimetres ( 17 @.@ 6 in ) , with December recording the maximum of 69 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 7 in ) and July is the driest month with rainfall of 0 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 020 in ) . Humidity level is at an annual average level of 64 % . The city receives an average 2 @,@ 860 hours of sunshine a year .
= = Demographics = =
In 1845 , the town of Badajoz had a population of 5 @,@ 628 people . As of 2010 , Badajoz has 150 @,@ 376 inhabitants . According to the 2010 census , Badajoz has 73 @,@ 074 men and 77 @,@ 312 women , representing a percentage of 48 @.@ 59 % and a 51 @.@ 41 % respectively . Compared to the statistics for the Extremadura region ( 49 @.@ 7 % and 50 @.@ 3 % ) , Badajoz city has a greater relative presence of women .
Although the city is the most populated of Extremadura , it has a relatively low population density ( 102 @.@ 30 hab / km ² ) , due to the extension of its municipality , one of the largest in Spain , with an area of 1 @,@ 470 km ² . It should be noted that in addition to the metropolitan centre the population includes districts , neighborhoods and towns with small populations , the most populous of which is Guadiana del Caudillo , which had 2 @,@ 524 people as of 2012 , but gained independence on 17 February 2012 .
Source : INE
Note : The increase shown in 2001 was reduced because of the independence of the municipalities of Valdelacalzada and Pueblonuevo del Guadiana in 1993 .
= = Administration = =
Badajoz was the birthplace of the statesman Manuel de Godoy , the duke of Alcudia ( 1767 – 1851 ) . Many of the provincial administration buildings are located in Badajoz , as well as the government buildings of the municipal administration . Politically , Badajoz belongs to the Spanish Congress Electoral District of Badajoz , which is the largest electoral district about of 52 districts in the Spanish Congress of Deputies in terms of geographical area and includes a significant part of the Extremadura region . The electoral district was first contested in modern times in the 1977 General Election . At the time of the 2011 election , Badajoz had six deputies representing the district in congress , four from the People 's Party @-@ United Extremadura party ( PP @-@ EU ) , and two from the Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party party ( PSOE ) .
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
= = = Districts = = =
= = Economy = =
Historically , frequent wars ravaged Badajoz 's economy and people were poor . Agricultural land was not fertile with no industry of any major importance in its territory . However , the historic monuments in the town and also in Mérida were major attractions to visitors , leading to the growth of tourism , and in recent years there has been some industrial development .
Badajoz primarily is now a commercial city , ranked 25th place in economic importance in Spain according to Spain 's Economic Yearbook for 2007 , published by Servicio de Estudios de La Caixa . Because of its location , the city shares a considerable transit trade with Portugal . The service sector is dominant in the city . The main shopping street is Menacho , where most national and international chains are located . The Centro Comercial Abierto Menacho is the largest outdoor shopping centre in Extremadura which has had several hundred thousand euros invested into it , and it is visited by thousands of Portuguese a year . Notable industries include manufacturing of linen , woollen and leather goods , hats , pottery , and soap . Trade thrives on customers from the province and Portugal . Because of the importance of such trading relations with the neighboring country , in 2006 , a new trade fair venue , Institución Ferial de Badajoz ( IFEBA ) was established in the suburbs near the bank of the Caia River . An economic and cultural centre , it has a wide range of markets from fish and various food stalls to health shops , " The Old Town area has been affected by this trade fair but is slowly recovering , with the opening of new stores .
The city 's industrial land on the western side of the river is concentrated almost entirely in a large industrial estate , El Nevero , located next to the A @-@ 5 ( one of the six radial roads in Spain with numbers A @-@ 1 @-@ A @-@ 6 ) , which is continually expanding , with a diversity of companies operating there . There are also other industrial estates in the suburbs and small businesses in neighborhoods like San Roque . In summer 2007 , the project to build the new 38 million euro headquarters of the Caja de Badajoz was made public , which began to be built in October 2008 and is currently in use . The Torre Caja Badajoz is a financial centre that has a building height of 88 metres ( 289 ft ) with 17 floors , now the tallest building in Extremadura . The city also has an airport , located 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) from the town centre , expanded in 2009 and a conference centre .
= = Notable landmarks = =
The city is studded with Moorish and medieval architecture , although its remnants of Roman and Visgothic architecture are not as prominent as in nearby Mérida . The Alcazaba fortress is the most notable structure in the city which attests to the Moorish culture in Badajoz . It was the only important fort on the southern Portuguese frontier during the 17th and 18th centuries and controlled the routes of southern Portugal and Andalusia and was a staging point for invasions against Portugal . It was occupied by the dukes of La Roca during the Christian period . It presently serves as the Archeological Museum of Badajoz . Many of Badajoz 's historical monuments which were in ruins have been refurbished . Its restaurants , pubs and nightlife are a major attraction for the Portuguese across the border . The 13th @-@ century Badajoz Cathedral ( converted from a mosque in 1238 ) is in the old city and its architecture is indicative of the tempestuous history of Badajoz , resembling a fortress , with its massive walls . Three of the cathedral 's windows are unique – one is in Gothic style , the second is Renaissance style and the third is in Platersque style .
= = = Municipal buildings = = =
Palacio de Congresos de Badajoz , the congressional palace , is the work of the architects José Selgas and Lucia Cano . Palacio Municipal houses the City Hall . The remains of the original City Hall building are in ruins . The current building dates to 1852 , and the clock was added in 1889 . In 1937 , the municipal architect , Rodolfo Martinez , renovated the building , with particular emphasis on stylistic uniformity , expanding its towers and changing its decorative elements . It features a balustrade , a central balcony and columns .
Badajoz has several municipal libraries serving the city and wider province , including the Biblioteca Pública Municipal A. Dominguez , Biblioteca Pública Municipal Bda. de Llera , Biblioteca Pública Municipal Cerro de Reyes , Biblioteca Pública Municipal Pardaleras , and the Biblioteca Pública Municipal San Roque .
= = = Historical sites = = =
= = = = Alcazaba = = = =
The Alcazaba , a Moorish citadel built in the 9th century by Ibn Marwan , was fortified by the Almohad caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf in 1169 , although there are traces of earlier work dating back to 913 and 1030 . The Alcazaba served as the primary residences for the rulers of the Taifa of Badajoz in the 11th and 12th centuries . The Almohad rulers were expelled in the 13th century at the hands of Alfonso IX of León . The Torre de Espantaperros has a height of 30 metres ( 98 ft ) and is built of mud and mortar . It has an octagonal plan with a quadrangular structure that once provided scenic views of the countryside . The name is attributed to the sharp ringing of a bell that was one installed in the tower . The building attached to it , built in the 16th century called La Galera , once served as city hall , then a prison and finally it is now the Archaeological Museum . A well @-@ tended garden surrounded this monument where archeological finds from the Visigothic , Roman , and other periods were found .
= = = Vauban fort = = =
The Vauban military fort was built in the 17th century during the war between Spain and Portugal that lasted from 1640 to 1668 as a defense measure to counter @-@ attack forces entering the city from the northwest and southeast . It is made of stone , brick and lime concrete . It has eight bastions built on the northern part of the fort as the Guadiana and Rivilla rivers on the south provided the defense . The bastions are named as the San Pedro , La Trinidad , the Santa María , the San Roque , the San Juan , the Santiago , the San José and the San Vicente .
= = = = La Giralda = = = =
La Giralda , located near Plaza de la Soledad , is a replica of the Giralda in Sevilla . The structure was completed in 1930 by a local businessman for commercial intent . Built in the neo @-@ Arab Andalusian regionalist style , it is decorated with ceramic tiles and metal work and has the symbol of Mercury embossed on it as symbol of commerce . In 1978 , Telefónica acquired the building and refurbished it , established operating offices . In 1998 , Telefónica vacated the structure , and four years later , offered the structure to potential buyers for € 4 @.@ 2 million . No buyer was uncovered , and Telefónica announced plans to reestablish local offices in the Giralda but later abandoned it . Various proposals for the local government to acquire the building have been made , including plans for appropriating an expansion of the Museum of Fine Arts , a regional cultural centre , and an Easter @-@ centric museum , Easter being a major touristic draw for the city .
= = = = Puerta Palmas = = = =
The Puerta de Palmas was built in 1551 . It has two cylindrical towers flanking the entrance door . Prince Philip II and Emperor Charles V and date of construction are mentioned on the outer side of the tower . The towers are fortified with battlements and they have two decorative cords at the top and bottom levels . Its entrance is east @-@ facing , and is double @-@ arched and is decorated with medallions of the shield of the Emperor Charles V. It was once used as a prison , but has since undergone many renovations and has been an entrance point to the city .
= = = = Real Monasterio de Santa Ana = = = =
The Real Monasterio de Santa Ana is a Christian monastery in Badajoz , declared a Bien de Interés Cultural site in 1988 . It is the headquarters of the Order of St. Clare in the city and lies in the heart of the old city . It was founded in 1518 by Ms. Leonor de Vega i Figueroa , under the blessing of Pope Leo X , and belonged to the jurisdiction of the Franciscan province of San Miguel . According to the tombstone in the grounds , Figueroa was abbess of the monastery for forty years until her death on April 17 , 1558 . She was buried in the grounds , until moved to the Cripta Real del Monasterio de El Escorial . The monastery underwent a major transformation in the 18th century although the original structure partly remains . Outwardly , part of the building has buttresses and a tower with two bells . On the vault of the chancel stands a lookout tower with a lattice brick convent , topped with pinnacles . The church of the monastery has a single nave which was rebuilt in the late 17th century , and the presbytery is covered by a late Gothic rib vault dated to the first half of the 16th century . The church contains numerous altarpieces , imagery , paintings , and silverware .
= = = Gardens = = =
The Jardines de la Galera date back to the 10th century . They are nestled between the Torre de Espantaperros and the Chemin de ronde , within the Alcazaba . Many Alhambran ruins still exist within the gardens , and have been open to the public since 2007 after the site was restored after being closed for more than thirty years . The etymology of the gardens stems from the fact that the gardens provided a respite for prisoners sentenced to the gallows in Seville . Plant species extant in the gardens include cinnamomum camphora , dichondra repens , ceiba speciosa , and trees of the myrtle , laurel , orange , lemon , and pomegranate . Other parks and gardens include Castelar , which has a central pond and several monuments dedicated to the romanticist writer Carolina Coronado and to Luis Chamizo Trigueros , la Legión , Rivillas y Calamón , San Fernando , and La Viña.The city also has a water and leisure park , called the Lusiberia .
= = = Museums = = =
The Museo Extremeño e Iberoamericano de Arte Contemporáneo ( MEIAC ) has collections of Spanish , Portuguese and Latin American artists . The building is located on the site of the old Pretrial Detention and Correctional centre , which had been built in the mid @-@ 1950s on the grounds of a former 17th @-@ century military stronghold , known as the Fort of Pardaleras . The Museo Provincial de Bellas Artes ( Provincial Museum of Fine Arts ) , the premier gallery of Extremadura , is set in two palatial 19th @-@ century homes next to the Plaza de la Soledad . It is 2 @,@ 000 square metres ( 22 @,@ 000 sq ft ) in size , with more than 1 @,@ 200 paintings and sculptures from the 16th to the 20th century representing over 350 artists such as Zurbarán , Luis de Morales , Caravaggio , Flemish painters , Francisco de Goya , Felipe Checa , Torre Isunza , Eugenio Hermoso , Adelard Covarsí , Antonio Juez Nieto , Francisco Pedraja Muñoz , Pablo Picasso , and Salvador Dalí , among others .
The Museo de la Ciudad " Luis de Morales " ( " Luis de Morales " City Museum ) was built in what may have been the home of the Renaissance painter Luis de Morales and contains many his paintings . The Museo Arqueológico Provincial ( Provincial Archaeological Museum ) is located within the fortress , containing pieces from all parts of the Province of Badajoz . The building houses the 16th @-@ century palace of the dukes of Feria . The collection is organized into six major areas : prehistory , early history , Roman , Visigoth , Medieval Islam and Christian . The elegant building is built of stone and brick masonry , and has four towers at the corners with a terraced facade . The interior is made up of Mudejar brick arches resting on octagonal columns .
The Museo Catedralicio ( Cathedral Museum ) is situated on the cathedral grounds . It provides a historical journey through the different stages of the building 's construction . It also features artifacts from the founding of the archdiocese to the present day . The collections include Filipino ivories , carvings and Flemish tapestries , the tombstone of Alfonso Suárez de Figueroa , and the Custodia Procesional del Corpus of 1558 . There are also works by Luis de Morales and Zurbarán . The Museo Taurino ( Bullfighting Museum ) is located in the city centre , organized by the Extremadurian Bullfighting Club . It includes posters , photographs and objects from the world of bullfighting . The Museo del Carnaval ( Carnival Museum ) opened in 2007 in the Menacho centre . Costumes of groups who participated over the years in the city 's carnival are exhibited in the museum . In 2008 , it joined the Extremadura network of museums .
= = = Plazas = = =
Plaza de España is in the centre of the city , the layout was designed by the city architect Rodolfo Martinez in 1917 and completed in 1920 . The large cathedral centers the historical area . Plaza de Cervantes is considered place of importance for the history of Badajoz . Parts of the square occupy an area which belonged to St. Andrew 's Church and its cemetery . It is decorated in white marble with a concentric mosaic of pointed stars dating to 1888 . Plaza Alta , recently restored , was for centuries the center of the city since it exceeded the limits of the Muslim citadel ; it was formerly known simply as " the square " . Spanish flamenco guitarist Paco de Lucía performed on the Plaza Alta on 10 July 2013 . La Giralda is located near Plaza de la Soledad .
= = = Residential buildings = = =
Casa Álvarez @-@ Buiza , a private house and commercial complex , was built in the San Juan district by Adel Franco Pinna between 1918 – 2 . The building located on the Plaza de La Soledad once housed the offices of the Bank of Spain . Artistic elements include the use of lime , brick and colorful ceramics with an Andalusian influence . Casa del Cordón is a private house , built in the late Gothic style of the early 16th century , and has mullioned windows . It currently houses the Archdiocese . Casa Puebla , built in 1921 , is one of the other designs of Pinna , who designed numerous buildings around Badajoz . It is one of the best examples of regional architecture in Andalusian style and the property has two facades , the main one featuring neo @-@ Renaissance elements .
= = = Cemeteries = = =
During the Visigoths period the burials , as noted from the archeological finds , were near the Picuriña , Pardaleras , and Cerro de Reyes sites . During the Arab period , burials were along the roads and near the eastern suburb of the Citadel , close to Cerro de la Muela and also in the area of Santiago bastion ; these locations were noted during recent excavations . Badajocenses Christians from the earliest centuries towards the end of 19th century buried their dead in or near churches .
Badajoz 's oldest two cemeteries are Cementerio de San Juan and Cementerio de Nuestra Señora de la Soledad . The cemeteries in active use are the Cementerio de San Juan , Cementerio Virgen de las Nieves de Balboa , Cementerio de la Inmaculada Concepción de Gévora , Cementerio San Isidro de Novelda , Cementerio Inmaculado Corazón de María de Valdebótoa and Cementerio Santiago Apóstol de Villafranco . The Cementerio de San Juan is the oldest of cemeteries still in service and is dated to earlier than1839 .
= = = Bridges = = =
The city of Badajoz is home to four bridges , all of which span the Guadiana .
The Puente de Palmas , also known as Puente Bobo , is the oldest bridge in Badajoz ; the masonry was first laid in 1460 , but a sudden rise in the river 's waters destroyed the structure in 1545 . It was rebuilt under D. Diego Hurtado de Mendoza , Governor of Badajoz , during the reign of Philip II of Spain . In 1603 , 16 of its 24 spans were destroyed by floods and were restored between 1609 and 1612 . The bridge was once again rebuilt in 1833 ; José María Otero was the engineer and Valentin Falcato , the architect . Further improvements were made during the early 21st century , when the number of spans was increased to 32 and towers were added at both ends giving a total length of 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) . The bridge reflects the city 's history with all the changes made to its spans , arches , pillars and buttresses over the centuries .
Puente de la Universidad is downstream of the old Palmas Bridge . It was built in 1960 . Puente de la Autonomía Extremeña was completed in 1990 and is located upstream of the Palmas Bridge , connecting to the major roads which lead to Madrid and to Highway N @-@ 435 Badajoz @-@ Fregenal de la Sierra Puente Real is a suspension bridge across the Guadiana , the fourth bridge in the city which was completed in 1994 The foundation stone was laid by the King of Spain in 1992 . It has six spans of viaducts of 32 metres ( 105 ft ) each in a total bridge length of 452 metres ( 1 @,@ 483 ft ) . It has a bicycle lane and links to the Elvas Avenue leading to Portugal and many other city centres .
= = Culture and education = =
While not a city renowned for its culture and art , many notable artists , musicians , and writers were born in the city . Hailing from the city in the arts are the actors Luis Alcoriza , Manuel de Blas , the writers Arturo Barea , Vicente Barrantes Moreno , José López Prudencio , Emilio Morote Esquivel , Jesús García Calderón , the singers Antonio Hormigo , Rosa Morena , Federico Cabo , Guadiana Almena , La Caita , Porrina de Badajoz and the pianists Cristóbal Oudrid and Esteban Sánchez , and painters such as Luis de Morales , Antonio Vaquero Poblador , Felipe Checa , Adelardo Covarsí Yustas , and many others . The Institución Ferial de Badajoz ( IFEBA ) , established in 2006 , has not only become an important economic centre but has become a prominent regional cultural centre , and aside from trading it also regularly hosts cultural events from horse racing to break dancing to paintballing to Caribbean dancing . The principal theatre in Badajoz is the Teatro López de Ayala , a grand white @-@ painted theatre with arched windows with a capacity of 800 seats . Performances of theatre , opera , concerts , and exhibitions are put on in the venue .
Like much of southern Spain , flamenco is very popular , and performances are regularly put on in Badajoz on the Plaza Alta and other venues . The classical music group Banda Municipal de Música , established in 1867 , also performs at such venues in Badajoz and the wider province ; as of 2013 it had 33 musicians . In 1998 the municipal government established the Municipal School of Music in Badajoz ( Escuelas Municipales de Música de Badajoz ) . As of 2013 , classes are held in four venues in the public schools of Enrique Segura Covasí , Luis de Morales , Santo Tomás de Aquino and Nuestra Señora de la Soledad , teaching some 600 students . The school teaches clarinet , flute , guitar , percussion , piano , saxophone , trumpet , violin , and singing . Cristóbal Oudrid ( 1825 – 1877 ) , one of the founding fathers of Spanish musical nationalism , was born in Badajoz , son of the resident military bandmaster . Rosa Morena , a well @-@ known flamenco @-@ pop singer who was popular in the 1970s , was born in the city and still lives there ; her most popular song is Échale guindas al pavo .
The festival known as " Feria de San Juan " is held every year from 23 June to 1 July at this border town , which is a major attraction not only for people of Spain but also to the Portuguese who cross the border to attend the one @-@ week festival . This festival also includes bull fights .
Badajoz is home to the Universidad de Extremadura ( UNEX ) Badajoz campus , situated on the west side of the river . The university was founded on 4 November 1968 , when the Faculty of Badajoz belonging to the University of Seville was established . Today , the University of Extremadura has branches in Badajoz , Cáceres , Mérida , and Plasencia . In 1971 the Council of Ministers approved the establishment of the College of Arts of Cáceres under the University of Salamanca . Secondary schools such as the Normal Schools of Education of Cáceres and Badajoz were integrated into the University in 1972 following the General Law of Education decree of 1970 . The Intermediate Technical School of Agricultural Engineering of Badajoz was founded in Badajoz 1968 , renamed the College of Agricultural Engineering in 1972 .
= = Religion = =
Badajoz is the see of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mérida @-@ Badajoz . Prior to the merger of the Diocese of Mérida and the Diocese of Badajoz , Badajoz was the see of the Diocese of Badajoz from the bishopric 's inception in 1255 . Christianity thus became the dominant religion in Badajoz and the see of the Diocese of Badajoz is based here at the Badajoz Cathedral ( Cathedral of St. John the Baptist ) , a gothic style building which was built in 1284 in the main plaza called the Plaza de España . It underwent extensive refurbishment during the 16th to 18th centuries . The paintings of Luis de Morales , a local artist of the Renaissance period , are exhibited in the cathedral . The tower of the cathedral , 41 metres ( 135 ft ) in height , was built in the gothic style in 1542 under architect Gaspar Méndez . Built with ashlar masonry , the windows are made of stone and carved . On two of its faces clocks were fixed during the renovations carried out in 1715 . The tower has a belfry and is fortified with battlements . In 1827 , Richard Alfred Davenport wrote a gushing description of the dean of the cathedral of Badajoz , remarking that he was " more learned than all the doctors of Salamanca , Coimbra , and Alcala , united ; he understood all languages , living and dead , and was perfect master of every science divine . "
Adoratrices is a small chapel dedicated to St. Joseph to commemorate the arrival of Christians along with King Alfonso IX of León . The Brotherhood of St. Joseph , founded in 1556 , functioned from this chapel . During the 19th @-@ century War of Independence the chapel was bombed and its importance declined during subsequent years . However , in 1917 it was refurbished in the neo @-@ Gothic style and now the convent Madres Adoratrices Esclavas del Santísimo y de la Caridad functions from here .
The San Andres and La Concepcion churches are of the 13th century . Other religious buildings include the Real Monasterio de Santa Ana , Convento de las Clarisas Descalzas , Convento de Carmelitas , Ermita de los Pajaritos , Ermita de la Soledad , Parroquia de la Concepción , Parroquia de San Agustín , Parroquia de San Andrés , Parroquia de San Juan Bautista , and the Parroquia de Santo Domingo . Ermita de la Soledad is a gothic style chapel , which was originally funded by Duke Francisco de Tutavilla y del Rufo of San Germán in 1664 in a different location . It fell into ruin and was rebuilt in its present location from 1931 . Parroquia de San Juan Bautista , situated in a large pink and white painted domed building dates to the 18th century , and was originally a Franciscan convent , funded by King João V of Portugal .
= = Sports and recreation = =
= = = Football = = =
The city formerly hosted CD Badajoz , which dissolved in 2012 after finishing the season in Segunda División B Group 1 . Now , the city 's main association football club is CD Badajoz 1905 , a new club formed in 2012 by disappeared CD Badajoz supporters which is currently playing in the Regional Preferente in Extremadura , the fifth level of competition of the Spanish league football , after promotion in the 2012 @-@ 13 season in the playoffs . Its stadium is Estadio Nuevo Vivero .
Cerro Reyes is currently unaffiliated with any league . Formerly , the club was a member of Segunda División B , having played their 2010 – 11 campaign in the division . The club plays at Estadio José Pache .
Another football club based in Badajoz is Badajoz CF , a member of Tercera División - Group 14 . UD Badajoz plays its home matches at Estadio Nuevo Vivero .
= = = Basketball = = =
Badajoz 's basketball club is AB Pacense , formed in 2005 from the remnants of Badajoz 's dissolved basketball clubs , including CajaBadajoz , Círculo Badajoz , and Habitacle . The club competes in the Liga EBA , and calls Polideportivo La Granadilla its home arena .
= = = Golf = = =
Badajoz plays host to two golf courses . One , the Don Tello Golf Course , ( Spanish : Club de Golf de Mérida Don Tello ) , is a 9 @-@ hole course constructed in 1994 . The course is described as " gentle and undulating " , set on the banks of the Guadiana River . The second , the Guadiana Golf Course , ( Spanish : Golf del Guadiana ) , is an 18 @-@ hole construct built in 1992 . The course is described as challenging , in part due to the 14 lacustrine features and abundance of trees on the course .
= = Transport = =
Badajoz Railway Station , ( Spanish : Estación de Tren de Badajoz ) , ( IATA : BQZ ) , situated in the north of the city , is the only railway station at Badajoz . The station accommodates long @-@ distance and medium @-@ distance trains , both operated by the public company RENFE . It is the last Spanish railway station before the Portuguese railway system . It is expected the station will be replaced by a new facility located at the border with Portugal with high @-@ speed services run by the Southwest – Portuguese corridor and the Madrid – Lisbon line .
Badajoz Airport , ( Spanish : Aeropuerto de Badajoz ) ( IATA : BJZ , ICAO : LEBZ ) , is located 13 km ( 8 mi ) east of the city centre . The civilian airport shares a runway and control tower with Talavera la Real Air Base ( Spanish : Base Aérea de Talavera la Real ) operated by the Spanish Air Force , named after the nearby municipality of Talavera la Real . The two aircraft reception facilities utilize a 2 @,@ 852 metre ( 9 @,@ 257 ft ) asphalt runway . The airport currently caters for two civil routes , one to Barcelona and the other to Madrid , both operated by Air Europa .
= = Healthcare = =
The first hospital founded in Badajoz in 1694 , was the Hospital de San Sebastián was founded .
Badajoz falls under the healthcare region of Área de Salud de Badajoz , which also includes the municipalities of Alburquerque , Alconchel , Barcarrota , Gévora , Jerez de los Caballeros , La Roca de la Sierra , Montijo , Oliva de la Frontera , Olivenza , Pueblonuevo del Guadiana , San Vicente de Alcántara , Santa Marta , Talavera la Real and Villanueva del Fresno , divided into 17 zones , seven of which are in Badajoz itself . The hospitals in Badajoz are Hospital Infanta Cristina , Hospital Perpetuo Socorro , Hospital Materno Infantil , while clinics include Clínica " Clideba " de Capio , Clínica " Caser " de Capio , and Clínica Extremeña de Salud . Hospital Infanta Crisitina lies beyond Puente Real on the left side of the river , next to the University of Extremadura .
= = Notable people = =
Manuel de Godoy , the Duke of Alcudia ( 1767 – 1851 )
Luis de Morales – painter
Pedro de Alvarado ( c . 1495 – 1541 ) – conquistador
Cristóbal Oudrid ( 1825 – 1877 ) , one of the founding fathers of Spanish musical nationalism
Rosa Morena – flamenco @-@ pop singer who was popular in the 1970s .
Francisco de Zurbaran Baroque Artist renowned for his powerful and realistic interpretation of monastic life in 17th @-@ century Spain .
= = Town twinning = =
|
= William Robinson Brown =
William Robinson " W. R. " Brown ( January 17 , 1875 – August 4 , 1955 ) was an American corporate officer of the Brown Company of Berlin , New Hampshire . He was also an influential Arabian horse breeder , the founder and owner of the Maynesboro Stud , and an authority on Arabian horses .
After graduating from Williams College , Brown joined the family corporation , then known as the Berlin Mills Company , and became manager of the Woods Products Division , overseeing the company 's woodlands and logging operations . He became an early advocate for sustainable forest management practices , was a member of the New Hampshire Forestry Commission from 1909 until 1952 , and served on the boards of several forestry organizations . As chair of the Forestry Commission , Brown helped send sawmills to Europe during World War I to assist the war effort . He was influenced by the Progressive movement , instituting employee benefits such as company @-@ sponsored care for injured workers that predated modern workers ' compensation laws . As a Republican , he served as a presidential elector for New Hampshire in 1924 .
Brown founded the Maynesboro Stud in 1912 with foundation bloodstock from some of the most notable American breeders of Arabian horses . He looked abroad for additional horses , particularly from the Crabbet Arabian Stud , and imported Arabian horses from England , France and Egypt . At its peak , Maynesboro was the largest Arabian horse breeding operation in the United States . In 1929 , he wrote The Horse of the Desert , still considered an authoritative work on the Arabian breed . He served as President of the Arabian Horse Club of America from 1918 until 1939 . Brown was a remount agent and had a special interest in promoting the use of Arabian horses by the U.S. Army Remount Service . To prove the abilities of Arabians , he organized and participated in a number of endurance races of up to 300 miles ( 480 km ) , which his horses won three times , retiring the U.S. Mounted Service Cup . This accomplishment occurred even though The Jockey Club donated $ 50 @,@ 000 to the U.S. Army to buy Thoroughbreds that tried but failed to beat the Arabians . Brown 's legacy as a horse breeder was significant . Today , the term " CMK " , meaning " Crabbet / Maynesboro / Kellogg " is a label for specific lines of " Domestic " or " American @-@ bred " Arabian horses , many of which descend from Brown 's breeding program . In 2012 , the Berlin and Coös County Historical Society held a 100th anniversary celebration of the stud 's founding .
Although Brown family members sold personal assets to keep the Brown Company afloat during the Great Depression , including Brown 's dispersal of his herd of Arabian horses in 1933 , the business went into receivership in 1934 . Brown remained in charge of the Woods Division through the company 's second bankruptcy filing in 1941 . He retired from the company in 1943 and died of cancer in 1955 . His final book , Our Forest Heritage , was published posthumously , and his innovations in forest management became industry standards .
= = Personal life = =
W. R. Brown was born in Portland , Maine , in 1875 to Emily Jenkins Brown and William Wentworth " W. W. " Brown . He was the youngest of the couple 's three sons , all of whom were avid horsemen . He also had two younger half @-@ brothers . He attended Phillips Andover Academy and Williams College , graduating from the latter in 1897 . He was a Kappa Alpha fraternity member who also managed the football and baseball teams at Williams . In 1915 , he married Hildreth Burton Smith , the granddaughter of former governor of Georgia , U.S. Senator and Confederate general John B. Gordon . The couple had five children : Fielding , Newell , Brenton , Nancy , and Frances . Brown lived in New Hampshire for the remainder of his life , in Berlin until 1946 and then Dublin . After a long illness , he died of cancer on August 4 , 1955 , and was buried at the Dublin cemetery . He was survived by his wife , his five grown children , and 15 grandchildren .
Brown 's family was strongly affiliated with Williams College ; W. R. and his two older brothers Herbert ( " H. J. " ) and Orton ( " O. B. " ) all attended Williams , as did sons Fielding and Brenton . Fielding also earned a Ph.D. at Princeton University and returned to Williams as the Charles L. MacMillan Professor of Physics before retiring to become an artist and sculptor . Daughter Frances married Nobel Prize – winning physicist Charles H. Townes and wrote a book , Misadventures of a Scientist 's Wife , about her life . Newell attended Princeton and served as the Federal Wages and Hours Administrator for the United States Department of Labor during the Eisenhower administration . Politically aligned with the Republican party , W. R. Brown was a presidential elector for New Hampshire in the 1924 election , voting for Calvin Coolidge .
= = Brown Company career = =
H. Winslow & Company , later called the Berlin Mills Company , was founded about 1853 , and W. W. Brown purchased an interest in 1868 . In 1881 , the company expanded from lumber into pulp and paper manufacturing . W. W. Brown obtained a controlling interest in the company by 1888 , becoming , along with his older two sons , the sole owners by 1907 . The corporation 's name was changed to the Brown Company in 1917 , removing the word " Berlin " because of the conflict with Germany in World War I.
W. R. Brown went to work for the company in 1897 after finishing college . His father , declaring he " wanted no kittens that couldn 't catch mice , " made W. R. find a job without family help . As a result , Brown started out selling the company 's lumber in Portland , Maine , earning nine dollars a week . He was promoted , returned to Berlin , and after a second promotion became the sawmill 's night superintendent . In that position , he developed a method of using exhaust steam to heat a pond that thawed and cleaned logs , speeding up mill production during the winter . Promoted to day superintendent , he organized a successful event on September 8 , 1900 to break the world 's record for lumber cut by the crew of a " one head rig " in an 11 @-@ hour shift , producing 221 @,@ 319 board feet , a record that still stood 85 years later . After this event , he declared that he " qualified with Father as one of the ' kittens ' . " His father , who had been out of town on the day of the record attempt , reviewed the results , inquired as to the amount of cut lumber that was actually shipped to customers , and then commented , " Hum , that was good . " His father promoted Brown to full general manager of the Woods Division in 1902 . He was an officer of the corporation , and managed the company 's timberlands as director of woods operations until 1943 . When Brown began his career , the company owned 400 @,@ 000 acres ( 160 @,@ 000 ha ) of land . At its peak , the company owned , and Brown supervised , 3 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 520 @,@ 000 ha ) , as many as 40 logging camps , plus an inland fleet of more than 30 boats . The loggers used at least 2500 horses to haul logs , and the company @-@ owned railroad had more than 800 freight cars .
The Brown family was later described as " progressive and ... ahead of their times " , and had innovative ideas about wood products manufacturing and scientific forest management . During Brown 's tenure , the company was one of the first to initiate modern forest management practices and to attempt to conserve the forest for future industry use . He was particularly critical of the damage done by portable sawmills . Brown understood that the pulp mills of his time were dependent on locally accessible timber , and concluded that sustainable practices were important to the industry . He built upon the sustainable forestry practices advocated by company forester Austin Cary , who had been recruited from the U.S. Forest Service . In 1919 , Brown set up a tree nursery on the north shore of Cupsuptic Lake that researched sustained yield practices and at its peak was the largest tree nursery in the United States . His innovations in forest management became industry standards ; researchers at Plymouth State College concluded that he " led the Brown company to international prominence as a source for scientific research and development . "
Brown was influenced by the Progressive movement as applied to business . He paid his workers above the prevailing wage , instituted safety programs , hired a doctor to care for loggers in the camps , and , prior to modern workers ' compensation laws , had the company pay for hospitalization of injured workers . He also attempted to improve camp conditions for the workers by banning card games and requiring the loggers to take showers , but those particular reform efforts " were not well received . " The Brown family took considerable interest in the city of Berlin . Various family members started a public kindergarten , built a community club with a gym , swimming pool , and bowling alley , provided soup to the sick , and gave Christmas presents to local children . Brown himself helped found a number of civic and business self @-@ help organizations including the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests , established in 1901 ; the New Hampshire Timberlands Owners Association , a fire @-@ protection group established in 1910 ; and similar fire @-@ protection groups in Maine and Vermont . He set up a series of effective forest @-@ fire lookout towers , possibly the first in the nation , and by 1917 had helped establish a forest @-@ fire insurance company . In 1909 , after helping draft the legislation creating New Hampshire 's State Forestry Department , he became a member of the New Hampshire Forestry Commission ; and its chair from 1910 until 1952 , playing a significant role in shaping the forestry practices and laws of the state . Brown also served on the boards of several industry groups , including the American Forestry Association , Society of American Foresters , Canadian Pulp and Paper Association , and the Forest Research Council . He represented the U.S. at the first World Forestry Congress held in Rome in 1926 .
During World War I , in his capacity as chair of the New England Forestry Commission , Brown worked with the War Industries Board to send 10 sawmills abroad . The equipment went to Scotland to meet Britain 's need for lumber . When the war effort in France subsequently required more than 73 million board feet of lumber per month , Brown was commissioned as a major to oversee sawmill operations there , but ultimately was not allowed to serve in France because of his poor vision , as he was partially blind in one eye .
The Great Depression had a significant impact on the Brown Company . Berlin at that time had a population of about 20 @,@ 000 people , most of whom either worked for the company or provided services to the families of company employees . The Brown family had borrowed heavily during the 1920s to fund expansion , and , as stated by a company employee , had become " complacent and overly optimistic . " The family 's nepotism may also have become a disadvantage . Reduced demand for the company 's products forced it to take out short @-@ term loans to provide operating capital , and by 1931 the international financial situation led to major losses in the value of the company 's bonds . As a result , in the winter of 1931 – 32 the Brown Company could not obtain the necessary financing for its logging operations , when it normally needed to employ 4 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 loggers to cut timber each winter . Family members sold off personal holdings to try to keep the company solvent , and W. R. Brown dispersed his entire herd of Arabian horses . In 1933 , he negotiated a cooperative financing plan with the City of Berlin and the State of New Hampshire , ratified by the state legislature , to fund the woods operations , keeping Berlin 's local residents employed . The company was nevertheless forced to file for bankruptcy in 1935 , after having gone into receivership the previous year . A court @-@ appointed president took over , but Brown continued as head of the Woods Division . Brown 's agreement with the City of Berlin lasted until 1941 , when the company again filed for bankruptcy . Ultimately the Brown family ceased to have a significant role on the board of directors and the company was sold to outside investors . Brown officially retired from the company in 1943 , but his brother O. B. remained on the board of directors until 1960 .
= = Arabian horse breeder = =
Brown bought his first Arabian horses in 1910 and founded the Maynesboro Stud near Berlin in 1912 . The farm was named after the original settlement in the area , Maynesborough , located in the White Mountains in an area also known as the Great North Woods Region . The main stallion barn , although moved from its original location , has been preserved and restored by the Berlin and Coös County Historical Society , which is also restoring the work horse barns of the Brown Company . On September 15 , 2012 , the society celebrated the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Maynesboro Stud .
At its peak , Maynesboro was the largest Arabian stud farm in the United States . In 1919 , Brown had 88 horses , some at his main farm in New Hampshire , and others at farms he owned in Decorah , Iowa , and Cody , Wyoming . He is credited as the breeder of 194 horses , and became known as one of the most knowledgeable breeders and authorities on Arabians . He served as President of the Arabian Horse Club of America , now part of the Arabian Horse Association , from 1918 until 1939 .
= = = Foundation stock = = =
As he built Maynesboro , Brown studied the pedigrees of almost every purebred Arabian in the USA at the time . He believed the Arabian was actually a separate subspecies of horse , a once @-@ popular but now discredited theory . He found that , even though developed in the desert , Arabians adapted well to the severe winter weather of his New England farm .
When he started Maynesboro , Brown obtained his original foundation bloodstock from his oldest brother , Herbert , who had purchased * Abu Zeyd , a stallion bred by the Crabbet Arabian Stud in England . * Abu Zeyd was considered the best son of his famous sire , Mesaoud . Herbert Brown obtained the stallion from the estate of Homer Davenport following Davenport 's death in 1912 . The Maynesboro stud also acquired 10 mares from the Davenport estate . Brown considered * Abu Zeyd an ideal representative of the Arabian breed , and when the stallion died , Brown donated the skeleton to the American Museum of Natural History . His other American purchases included most of the horses owned by Spencer Borden 's Interlachen Farms in Massachusetts , following Borden 's decision to disperse his herd . These horses included animals descended from the breeding program of Randolph Huntington , one of the first people in the United States to breed purebred Arabians . Brown also obtained Borden 's extensive collection of literary works on horsemanship , Arab culture , and the Arabian horse , which included 8th @-@ century Furusiyya manuscripts . Following this start , he looked abroad for additional bloodstock , eventually importing 33 horses into the United States .
= = = International purchases = = =
Many American breeders had purchased horses from the Crabbet Stud , which at the time Brown founded Maynesboro was owned by Lady Anne Blunt and Wilfrid Scawen Blunt . American breeders obtained some of Crabbet 's best Arabians during the early 1900s owing to the turmoil within the Blunt family . The couple separated in 1906 , and following Lady Anne 's death in 1917 , Blunt 's daughter Judith , Lady Wentworth , became involved in a rancorous and expensive estate battle with Wilfrid over the Crabbet lands and horses . Wilfrid , needing to appease creditors , sold many of the stud 's best horses to international buyers for low prices . Through an agent , Brown purchased 20 Crabbet horses in 1918 , although for reasons unknown , only 17 actually made it to Maynesboro ; he paid only £ 2727 for the entire lot . The most significant animal purchased was the well @-@ known stallion * Berk , who died in America after siring only four foals , much to the dismay of Lady Wentworth , who was trying to buy back the best breeding stock lost to Crabbet because of her father 's actions . Brown bought two additional Crabbet @-@ bred horses from England in 1923 , although not directly from Lady Wentworth .
One of the most notable Crabbet @-@ bred stallions Brown eventually kept at Maynesboro was * Astraled , who had come to America in 1909 . This horse had been sold by Wilfrid Blunt to an American buyer from Massachusetts , but after siring only two purebred foals in New England , was sold to the remount , shipped west , and lived in obscurity in Oregon , where he sired no purebred Arabian offspring . * Astraled was ultimately obtained by Brown in 1923 , who shipped the aged horse by rail from Idaho to New Hampshire . * Astraled only sired one foal crop at Maynesboro , but that group of foals included his most notable American @-@ bred son , Gulastra .
Brown traveled to Europe with the U.S. Army Remount Service in 1921 , visiting a number of major European studs in Austria , France , and Hungary . He met Lady Wentworth at Crabbet on the way home , but did not purchase any of her horses . He imported several Arabian mares from France in 1921 and 1922 , in part owing to France 's reputation for producing excellent cavalry horses .
In 1929 , Brown traveled to Egypt and Syria with Arabian expert Carl Raswan in search of desertbred horses . According to Brown 's wife , the two apparently did not get along well , and the five horses purchased during their journey somehow never made it to America . Following that trip , Brown wrote The Horse of the Desert , still considered to be one of the best works written about the Arabian horse .
In 1932 , Brown sent his stud manager Jack Humphrey to Egypt , where acting for Brown he bought two stallions and four mares from Prince Mohammed Ali . The Prince was known as a horseman and scholar , publishing a two @-@ volume treatise on the breeding of Arabian horses . Two of the mares purchased were daughters of Mahroussa , whom Brown described as " the most beautiful mare he ever saw " . The stallions were * Nasr , a successful race horse , and * Zarife .
= = = Endurance testing and remounts = = =
Brown was a remount agent , who served on the U.S. Remount Board , and his interest in improving the quality of horses used by the U.S. Cavalry may have been his motivation to breed Arabians . Spencer Borden shared Brown 's interest in Arabians as remount bloodstock . Seeking to prove the superior endurance and durability of Arabian horses to the U.S. Army Remount Service , Brown actively encouraged the participation of Arabians in endurance races . He had most of his horses trained to ride and drive . Many were used in endurance races , others shown , and at least one was a polo pony .
In 1918 , Brown set up a test ride in which he had two of his horses travel from Berlin to Bethel , Maine , a distance of 162 miles ( 261 km ) . They completed the ride in just over 31 hours including breaks ; each horse carried a rider and equipment weighing 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) in poor weather and on muddy roads . The horses were Kheyra , a purebred seven @-@ year @-@ old mare who weighed 900 pounds ( 410 kg ) , and Rustem Bey , a half @-@ Arab by Khaled out of a Standardbred mare of the Clay Trotting Horses line . Rustem Bey was taller and heavier than Kheyra . Both horses were examined by a veterinarian , assessed as being sound and fit to continue at the end of the ride , and showed no evidence of soreness 24 hours later . A third Arabian , Herbert Brown 's * Crabbet , was ridden by a military officer supervising the test , and that pair covered 95 miles ( 153 km ) in seventeen hours . The results of the test were reported in The New York Times .
Following the 1918 test , Brown helped organize the first U.S. Official Cavalry Endurance Ride in 1919 , which was won by his mare Ramla , who carried 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) . The race covered 306 miles ( 492 km ) in five days . The U.S. Remount Service requested the weight horses carried in 1920 be raised to 245 pounds ( 111 kg ) , and required horses to travel for about 60 miles ( 97 km ) a day for five days . Arabians won the highest average points of any breed , and although an Arabian horse did not win first place that year , Rustem Bey was second . In 1921 , with a weight requirement of 225 pounds ( 102 kg ) , again covering 300 miles ( 480 km ) in five days , Brown 's gelding * Crabbet won the race and Rustem Bey placed third , despite a donation of $ 50 @,@ 000 from The Jockey Club to the Army to buy the best Thoroughbreds possible in a failed attempt to beat the Arabians . Brown won again in 1923 with an Anglo @-@ Arabian named Gouya , thus retiring the U.S. Mounted Service Cup .
Brown used Arabian stallions owned by the remount service as breeding animals , and over time he also provided 32 of his own stallions to sire remounts . He advocated crossbreeding Arabians to improve other breeds . He concluded , however , that attempting to breed purebred Arabians for increased size resulted in a sacrifice in quality and Arabian type .
= = = Dispersal = = =
Brown sold all his horses in 1933 in an attempt to raise funds to keep the Brown Company solvent . They were bought by the Kellogg Ranch , Roger Selby , William Randolph Hearst 's San Simeon Stud , and " General " J. M. Dickinson of Traveler 's Rest Stud , who acquired most of the horses from Brown 's 1932 importation from Egypt . Dickinson in turn sold * Zarife to Wayne Van Vleet of Colorado in 1939 , and Azkar , the last foal bred by Brown , to a ranch in Texas . There Azkar was left to fend for himself on the open range as a herd stallion , but , a testament to the hardiness of Brown 's Arabians , he survived and was returned to the Arabian breeding world by Henry Babson . Dickinson sold the mare * Aziza to Alice Payne , who later owned * Raffles .
= = Legacy = =
Brown believed it was important to preserve the scenic value of New Hampshire 's forests . Between 1903 and 1911 , he helped with efforts to establish White Mountain National Forest . Among his many civic activities , Brown promoted early legislative efforts to protect public riding trails . He also helped New Hampshire acquire Franconia Notch and Crawford Notch as public lands , and established a river conservation group in Quebec .
A scholar of the Arabian horse , he collected a significant library of works on the breed , one of the largest collections in the United States . His papers are now kept by the Arabian Horse Owners Foundation ( AHOF ) . Today , the term " CMK " , meaning " Crabbet / Maynesboro / Kellogg " , is a label for specific lines of " Domestic " or " American @-@ bred " Arabian horses . It describes the descendants of horses imported to America from the desert or from Crabbet Park Stud in the late 1800s and early 1900s and then bred on in the US by the Hamidie Society , Huntington , Borden , Davenport , Brown , W. K. Kellogg , Hearst , or Dickinson .
|
= Hans Freeman =
Hans Charles Freeman AM FAA ( 26 May 1929 – 9 November 2008 ) was a German @-@ born Australian bioinorganic chemist , protein crystallographer , and Professor of Inorganic Chemistry who spent most of his career at the University of Sydney . His best known contributions to chemistry were his work explaining the unusual structural , electrochemical , and spectroscopic properties of blue copper proteins , particularly plastocyanin . He also introduced protein crystallography to Australia and was a strong advocate for programs to ensure Australian scientists have good access to " big science " facilities . Freeman has received numerous honours , including being elected a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science ( FAA ) and appointed a Member of the Order of Australia ( AM ) by the Australian Government . He was a charismatic lecturer who voluntarily continued teaching well into his formal retirement and imbued his students with a love of science .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years and education = = =
Hans Charles Freeman was born in Breslau in Germany in 1929 , the first and only son of Karl and Lotte Freeman . In 1938 , following a tip @-@ off from a Nazi party member , Karl decided to relocate his Jewish family to Australia . Karl brought his knowledge of detergents ( a novelty in Australia at the time ) to his new homeland , applying it to the problem of cleaning blood @-@ stained blankets that would otherwise be wasted . After the war , he founded K. H. Freeman Pty Ltd , a detergent and soap manufacturing company ; Hans spent many weekends working in the factory , gaining a practical insight into chemistry .
Hans adapted well to his new environment , quickly mastering his new language and demonstrating his outstanding scholastic ability . He was dux of his primary school , dux of Sydney Boys High in 1945 , and took his Bachelor 's degree with the university medal in chemistry in 1949 . He was one of the ten chemistry students in his class at Sydney Boys High to go on to become Professors of Chemistry . After receiving his MSc in 1952 under the supervision of Raymond Le Fevre FRS , Freeman attended Caltech on a Rotary Foundation Fellowship where , at the urging of Linus Pauling , he learned the fundamentals of crystallography . He received a PhD in 1957 for his work on the structure of biuret hydrate , where he completed most of the calculations for the crystal structure by hand .
= = = Personal life = = =
Freeman came to Australia with his parents and his sister , Eva . Following the death of his father in 1958 , he became a Director of K. H. Freeman Pty Ltd , which continues to operate today . He met Edith Siou in 1964 and they married in 1966 . They have two children , Maeva and Philip .
= = = Career = = =
Freeman was appointed to the faculty of the University of Sydney in 1954 as a Lecturer , working his way up until he was made the inaugural Professor of Inorganic Chemistry in 1971 . Freeman pioneered the use of computers in crystallography in Australia , working on SILLIAC ( the Australian cousin of the University of Illinois ' ILLIAC machine and Australia 's second computer ) after its installation in 1956 . His research group extended its interests beyond purely organic compounds and on to metal complexes ( such as copper biuret , one of the first bioinorganic substances to be structurally determined ) and went on to determine the structures of numerous metal complexes of amino acids and peptides .
In 1970 , the focus of Freeman 's research became protein crystallography and he turned his attention to the blue copper proteins ( cupredoxins ) and particularly the electron transport protein plastocyanin . The intensely blue colour of plastocyanin and its unusual redox properties had frustrated all attempts to synthesise a small molecule mimic . It was not until 1977 that his group finally determined the structure of plastocyanin crystallised from the poplar tree ( see diagram at right ) ; this was the first protein crystal structure determined in the southern hemisphere . Together with subsequent work in collaboration with Ed Solomon , this work led to understanding of the unusual geometry of the copper metal site ( see diagram at left ) as well as the spectroscopic and electrochemical properties characteristic of blue copper proteins .
Later in his career , Freeman developed an interest in the applications of EXAFS spectroscopy to metalloprotein structure , collaborating with both James Penner @-@ Hahn and Keith Hodgson . Working together , the Freeman and Hodgson groups were , in 1988 , the first to determine a new crystal structure of a protein using the multiple wavelength anomalous dispersion ( MAD ) method .
Throughout his career , Freeman was concerned about the influence of the tyranny of distance on the development of Australian science . For this reason , in 1972 Freeman and Alexander Boden AO , FAA , founded the Foundation for Inorganic Chemistry at the university to bring international scholars to the department to deliver a course for graduate students and give seminars for faculty . The inaugural Foundation scholar was nobel laureate Linus Pauling and the Foundation has brought many other eminent research chemists to Australia . The Foundation has thus functioned to increase Australian awareness of state of the art international research , increased international recognition of Australian research , and allowed graduate students to interact with leading chemists based in institutions far from Australia . Many of the students have gone on to post @-@ graduate or post @-@ doctoral positions with a Foundation scholar .
Freeman also provided advice to the Australian Government on the problem of access to " big science " facilities . This included making major contributions to the report Small Country - Big Science in his work for the Australian Science and Technology Council . The report emphasised the need for Australian researchers to have access to facilities such as synchrotron X @-@ ray and high intensity neutron sources , and led directly to the formation of the Australian Synchrotron Research Programme ( ASRP ) to fund access to such facilities . Freeman served as a board member of the ASRP until its functions were subsumed under the newly commissioned Australian Synchrotron in 2008 . The Australian expertise developed as a consequence of ASRP @-@ supported research led to the Australian Synchrotron being built a decade sooner than would have otherwise been the case .
Freeman retired from his Chair in 1997 , and was succeeded by Len Lindoy FAA . Nevertheless , he continued working in research and became Emeritus Professor of Chemistry and Emeritus Professor of Molecular and Microbial Biosciences . He also voluntarily continued teaching at first @-@ year level . His lecturing was described as " charismatic " and " teaching was a love and a privilege and never an obligation " for him .
= = Legacy = =
Freeman was principally responsible for the establishment of structural biology as a discipline in Australia . He founded the first protein crystallography laboratory in Australia ; today , there are more than 15 active research groups carrying out protein crystallography in Australia and New Zealand . Many former members of the Freeman research group have moved on to join one of these other groups . The groups interact through the Society of Crystallographers of Australia and New Zealand ( SCANZ ) ; Freeman was the Foundation President of then Society of Crystallographers of Australia , an organisation he was instrumental in forming in 1976 . Working as a crystallographer , Freeman 's major legacies are the understanding of plastocyanin and other blue copper proteins , and development of the MAD method as an extension of EXAFS spectroscopy . Freeman 's work in ensuring Australian scientists have access to " big science " facilities will continue to assist researchers into the future . His teaching also leaves a legacy of " generations of students imbued with a love of science " .
= = Honours and awards = =
Freeman was recognised for his professional achievements with Fellowships in the Royal Australian Chemical Institute ( RACI ) in 1968 , the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1984 , and the Australian Academy of Science in 1984 . Freeman 's contributions were also recognised by the Australian Government with a Centenary Medal in 2001 for " service to Australian society and science in chemistry " and with his appointment as a Member of the Order of Australia in June 2005 for " service to science and scientific research in the field of bio @-@ inorganic chemistry , particularly through the establishment and development of the discipline of crystallography in Australia " .
Freeman received numerous awards over his long career . In 1980 , Freeman received the Burrows Award , the premier award of the Inorganic Chemistry Division of the RACI . He was also awarded the 1999 Leighton Memorial Medal which is " the RACI 's most prestigious medal and is awarded in recognition of eminent services to chemistry in Australia in the broadest sense . " In 2007 , he received both the Australian Academy of Science 's Craig Medal and an RACI Distinguished Fellowship .
= = Most cited publications = =
The number of citations indicated for each of the following papers are from Web of Science data as at 22 June 2013 :
X @-@ Ray crystal @-@ structure analysis of plastocyanin at 2 @.@ 7 Å resolution --- 707 citations
Guss , J. M. ; Freeman , H. C. ( 1983 ) . " Structure of oxidised poplar plastocyanin at 1 @.@ 6 Å resolution " . J. Mol . Biol . 169 ( 2 ) : 521 – 563 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / S0022 @-@ 2836 ( 83 ) 80064 @-@ 3 . PMID 6620385 . --- 642 citations
Guss , J. M. ; Harrowell , P. R. ; Murata , M. ; Norris , V. A. ; Freeman , H. C. ( 1986 ) . " Crystal structure analyses of reduced ( CuI ) poplar plastocyanin at 6 pH values " . J. Mol . Biol . 192 ( 2 ) : 361 – 387 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / 0022 @-@ 2836 ( 86 ) 90371 @-@ 2 . --- 388 citations
Guss , J. M. ; Bartunik , H. D. ; Freeman , H. C. ( 1992 ) . " Accuracy and precision in protein @-@ structure analysis : restrained least @-@ squares refinement of the structure of poplar plastocyanin at 1 @.@ 33 Å resolution " . Acta Crystallogr . B 48 ( 6 ) : 790 – 811 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1107 / S0108768192004270 . PMID 1492962 . --- 257 citations
Kumar , V. ; Dooley , D. M. ; Freeman , H. C. ; Guss , J. M. ; Harvey , I. ; McGuirl , M. A. ; Wilce , M. C. J. ; Zubak , V. M. ( 1996 ) . " Crystal structure of a eukaryotic ( pea seedling ) copper @-@ containing amine oxidase at 2 @.@ 2 Å resolution " . Structure 4 ( 8 ) : 943 – 955 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / S0969 @-@ 2126 ( 96 ) 00101 @-@ 3 . --- 209 citations
|
= Russian submarine AG @-@ 22 =
The Russian submarine AG @-@ 22 was an AG @-@ class submarine , designed by the American Holland Torpedo Boat Company / Electric Boat Company , built for the Imperial Russian Navy during World War I. The submarine was fabricated in Canada , shipped to Russia and reassembled for service with the Black Sea Fleet . Her reassembly was completed in 1919 by the White Movement during the Russian Civil War , and she joined Wrangel 's fleet as it evacuated the Crimea in 1920 and was interned in Bizerte , Tunisia in 1921 . AG @-@ 22 was abandoned there and subsequently scrapped .
= = Description = =
AG @-@ 22 was a single @-@ hulled submarine , with a pressure hull divided into five watertight compartments . The submarine had a length of 150 feet 3 inches ( 45 @.@ 8 m ) overall , a beam of 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She displaced 355 long tons ( 361 t ) on the surface and 433 long tons ( 440 t ) submerged . The AG @-@ class submarines had a diving depth of 164 feet ( 50 @.@ 0 m ) and a crew of 30 officers and enlisted men .
The submarine had two three @-@ bladed propellers , each of which was driven by a 480 @-@ horsepower ( 360 kW ) diesel engine as well as a 640 @-@ horsepower ( 477 kW ) electric motors . This arrangement gave AG @-@ 22 a maximum speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) while surfaced and 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ; 12 @.@ 1 mph ) submerged . She had a range of 1 @,@ 750 nmi ( 3 @,@ 240 km ; 2 @,@ 010 mi ) at 7 knots ( 13 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 mph ) while on the surface and 25 nmi ( 46 km ; 29 mi ) at 3 knots ( 5 @.@ 6 km / h ; 3 @.@ 5 mph ) while submerged . Her fuel capacity was 16 @.@ 5 long tons ( 16 @.@ 8 t ) of fuel oil .
The AG @-@ class submarines were equipped with four 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes in the bow and carried eight torpedoes . For surface combat they had one 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) deck gun .
= = Construction and service = =
The Holland 602 design was widely exported during World War I and the Imperial Russian Navy ordered a total of 17 , in three batches , of a version known as the American Holland @-@ class ( AG in Russian for Amerikansky Golland ( American Holland ) ) . The submarines were to be built in Canada as knock @-@ down kits for assembly in Russia .
Steel for the first three submarines ( AG @-@ 21 , AG @-@ 22 , and AG @-@ 23 ) of the second batch ordered by the Russians was assembled in Saint John , New Brunswick by May 1916 . Five months later , they were sent to Vancouver by rail in sections where they were loaded into ships and shipped to Vladivostok . There they were loaded onto the Trans @-@ Siberian Railroad and transported to Nikolaev where they were assembled by the Russud Shipyard . Assembly was delayed by the unrest caused by the Russian Revolution and the subsequent Russian Civil War and was not completed until 1919 . By this time , Nikolaev was controlled by the Whites and they took AG @-@ 22 with them when they evacuated the Crimea in late 1920 as part of what came to be called Wrangel 's Fleet . They ultimately were granted asylum in Bizerte in February 1921 . AG @-@ 22 was abandoned there in November 1923 and subsequently scrapped .
|
= Comet Hale – Bopp =
Comet Hale – Bopp ( formally designated C / 1995 O1 ) is a comet that was perhaps the most widely observed of the 20th century and one of the brightest seen for many decades . It was visible to the naked eye for a record 18 months , twice as long as the previous record holder , the Great Comet of 1811 .
Hale – Bopp was discovered on July 23 , 1995 , at a great distance from the Sun , raising expectations that the comet would brighten considerably by the time it passed close to Earth . Although predicting the brightness of comets with any degree of accuracy is very difficult , Hale – Bopp met or exceeded most predictions when it passed perihelion on April 1 , 1997 . The comet was dubbed the Great Comet of 1997 .
= = Discovery = =
The comet was discovered independently on July 23 , 1995 by two observers , Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp , both in the United States .
Hale had spent many hundreds of hours searching for comets without success , and was tracking known comets from his driveway in New Mexico when he chanced upon Hale – Bopp just after midnight . The comet had an apparent magnitude of 10 @.@ 5 and lay near the globular cluster M70 in the constellation of Sagittarius . Hale first established that there was no other deep @-@ sky object near M70 , and then consulted a directory of known comets , finding that none were known to be in this area of the sky . Once he had established that the object was moving relative to the background stars , he emailed the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams , the clearing house for astronomical discoveries .
Bopp did not own a telescope . He was out with friends near Stanfield , Arizona observing star clusters and galaxies when he chanced across the comet while at the eyepiece of his friend 's telescope . He realized he might have spotted something new when , like Hale , he checked his star maps to determine if any other deep @-@ sky objects were known to be near M70 , and found that there were none . He alerted the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams through a Western Union telegram . Brian G. Marsden , who had run the bureau since 1968 , laughed , " Nobody sends telegrams anymore . I mean , by the time that telegram got here , Alan Hale had already e @-@ mailed us three times with updated coordinates . "
The following morning , it was confirmed that this was a new comet , and it was given the designation C / 1995 O1 . The discovery was announced in International Astronomical Union circular 6187 .
The comet may have been observed by ancient Egyptians during the reign of pharaoh Pepi I ( 2332 – 2283 BC ) . In Pepi 's pyramid in Saqqara is a text referring to an " nhh @-@ star " as a companion of the pharaoh in the heavens , where " nhh " is the hieroglyph for long hair .
= = Early observation = =
Hale – Bopp 's orbital position was calculated as 7 @.@ 2 astronomical units ( AU ) from the Sun , placing it between Jupiter and Saturn and by far the greatest distance from Earth at which a comet had been discovered by amateurs . Most comets at this distance are extremely faint , and show no discernible activity , but Hale – Bopp already had an observable coma . An image taken at the Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope in 1993 was found to show the then @-@ unnoticed comet some 13 AU from the Sun , a distance at which most comets are essentially unobservable . ( Halley 's Comet was more than 100 times fainter at the same distance from the Sun . ) Analysis indicated later that its comet nucleus was 60 ± 20 kilometres in diameter , approximately six times the size of Halley .
Its great distance and surprising activity indicated that comet Hale – Bopp might become very bright indeed when it reached perihelion in 1997 . However , comet scientists were wary – comets can be extremely unpredictable , and many have large outbursts at great distance only to diminish in brightness later . Comet Kohoutek in 1973 had been touted as a ' comet of the century ' and turned out to be unspectacular .
= = Perihelion = =
Hale – Bopp became visible to the naked eye in May 1996 , and although its rate of brightening slowed considerably during the latter half of that year , scientists were still cautiously optimistic that it would become very bright . It was too closely aligned with the Sun to be observable during December 1996 , but when it reappeared in January 1997 it was already bright enough to be seen by anyone who looked for it , even from large cities with light @-@ polluted skies .
The Internet was a growing phenomenon at the time , and numerous websites that tracked the comet 's progress and provided daily images from around the world became extremely popular . The Internet played a large role in encouraging the unprecedented public interest in comet Hale – Bopp .
As the comet approached the Sun , it continued to brighten , shining at 2nd magnitude in February , and showing a growing pair of tails , the blue gas tail pointing straight away from the Sun and the yellowish dust tail curving away along its orbit . On March 9 , a solar eclipse in China , Mongolia and eastern Siberia allowed observers there to see the comet in the daytime . Hale – Bopp had its closest approach to Earth on March 22 , 1997 at a distance of 1 @.@ 315 AU .
As it passed perihelion on April 1 , 1997 the comet developed into a spectacular sight . It shone brighter than any star in the sky except Sirius , and its dust tail stretched 40 – 45 degrees across the sky . The comet was visible well before the sky got fully dark each night , and while many great comets are very close to the Sun as they pass perihelion , comet Hale – Bopp was visible all night to northern hemisphere observers .
= = After perihelion = =
After its perihelion passage , the comet moved into the southern celestial hemisphere . The comet was much less impressive to southern hemisphere observers than it had been in the northern hemisphere , but southerners were able to see the comet gradually fade from view during the second half of 1997 . The last naked @-@ eye observations were reported in December 1997 , which meant that the comet had remained visible without aid for 569 days , or about 18 and a half months . The previous record had been set by the Great Comet of 1811 , which was visible to the naked eye for about 9 months .
The comet continued to fade as it receded , but is still being tracked by astronomers . In October 2007 , 10 years after the perihelion and at distance of 25 @.@ 7 AU from Sun , the comet was still active as indicated by the detection of the CO @-@ driven coma . Herschel Space Observatory images taken in 2010 suggest comet Hale – Bopp is covered in a fresh frost layer . Hale – Bopp was again detected in December 2010 when it was 30 @.@ 7 AU away from the Sun , and on August 7 , 2012 at a 33 @.@ 2 AU distance from the Sun . Astronomers expect that the comet will remain observable with large telescopes until perhaps 2020 , by which time it will be nearing 30th magnitude . By this time it will become very difficult to distinguish the comet from the large numbers of distant galaxies of similar brightness .
= = Orbital changes = =
The comet likely made its previous perihelion 4 @,@ 200 years ago . The comet 's orbit is almost perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic , which ensures that close approaches to planets are rare . However , in April 1996 the comet passed within 0 @.@ 77 AU of Jupiter , close enough for its orbit to be measurably affected by the planet 's gravity . The comet 's orbit was shortened considerably to a period of roughly 2 @,@ 533 years , and it will next return to the inner Solar System around the year 4385 . Its greatest distance from the Sun ( aphelion ) will be about 370 AU , reduced from about 525 AU .
Over many orbits , the cumulative effect of gravitational perturbations on comets with high orbital inclinations and small perihelion distances is generally to reduce the perihelion distance to very small values . Hale – Bopp has about a 15 % chance of eventually becoming a sungrazing comet through this process .
It has been calculated that the previous visit by Hale – Bopp occurred in July 2215 BC . The comet may have presented a similar sight to people then , as the estimated closest approach to Earth was 1 @.@ 4 AU , but no records of it have survived . Hale – Bopp may have had a near collision with Jupiter in early June 2215 BC , which probably caused a dramatic change in its orbit , and 2215 BC may have been its first passage through the inner Solar System .
The estimated probability of Hale @-@ Bopp 's striking Earth in future passages through the inner Solar System is remote , about 2 @.@ 5 × 10 − 9 per orbit . However , given that the comet nucleus is around 60 km in diameter , the consequences of such an impact would be apocalyptic . Weissman conservatively estimates the diameter at 35 km ; an estimated density of 0 @.@ 6 g / cm3 then gives a cometary mass of 1 @.@ 3 × 1019 g . At a probable impact velocity of 52 @.@ 5 km / s , impact energy can be calculated as 1 @.@ 9 × 1032 ergs , or 4 @.@ 4 × 109 megatons , about 44 times the estimated energy of the K @-@ T impact event .
= = Scientific results = =
Comet Hale – Bopp was observed intensively by astronomers during its perihelion passage , and several important advances in cometary science resulted from these observations . The dust production rate of the comet was very high ( up to 2 @.@ 0 × 106 kg / s ) , which may have made the inner coma optically thick . Based on the properties of the dust grains — high temperature , high albedo and strong 10 μm silicate emission feature — the astronomers concluded the dust grains are smaller than observed in any other comet .
Hale – Bopp showed the highest ever linear polarization detected for any comet . Such polarization is the result of solar radiation getting scattered by the dust particles in the coma of the comet and depends on the nature of the grains . It further confirms that the dust grains in the coma of comet Hale – Bopp were smaller than inferred in any other comet .
= = = Sodium tail = = =
One of the most remarkable discoveries was that the comet had a third type of tail . In addition to the well @-@ known gas and dust tails , Hale – Bopp also exhibited a faint sodium tail , only visible with powerful instruments with dedicated filters . Sodium emission had been previously observed in other comets , but had not been shown to come from a tail . Hale – Bopp 's sodium tail consisted of neutral atoms ( not ions ) , and extended to some 50 million kilometres in length .
The source of the sodium appeared to be the inner coma , although not necessarily the nucleus . There are several possible mechanisms for generating a source of sodium atoms , including collisions between dust grains surrounding the nucleus , and ' sputtering ' of sodium from dust grains by ultraviolet light . It is not yet established which mechanism is primarily responsible for creating Hale – Bopp 's sodium tail , and the narrow and diffuse components of the tail may have different origins .
While the comet 's dust tail roughly followed the path of the comet 's orbit and the gas tail pointed almost directly away from the Sun , the sodium tail appeared to lie between the two . This implies that the sodium atoms are driven away from the comet 's head by radiation pressure .
= = = Deuterium abundance = = =
The abundance of deuterium in comet Hale – Bopp in the form of heavy water was found to be about twice that of Earth 's oceans . If Hale – Bopp 's deuterium abundance is typical of all comets , this implies that although cometary impacts are thought to be the source of a significant amount of the water on Earth , they cannot be the only source .
Deuterium was also detected in many other hydrogen compounds in the comet . The ratio of deuterium to normal hydrogen was found to vary from compound to compound , which astronomers believe suggests that cometary ices were formed in interstellar clouds , rather than in the solar nebula . Theoretical modelling of ice formation in interstellar clouds suggests that comet Hale – Bopp formed at temperatures of around 25 – 45 Kelvin .
= = = Organics = = =
Spectroscopic observations of Hale – Bopp revealed the presence of many organic chemicals , several of which had never been detected in comets before . These complex molecules may exist within the cometary nucleus , or might be synthesised by reactions in the comet .
= = = Detection of argon = = =
Hale – Bopp was the first comet where the noble gas argon was detected . Noble gases are chemically inert and highly volatile , and since different noble elements have different sublimation temperatures , they can be used for probing the temperature histories of the cometary ices . Krypton has a sublimation temperature of 16 – 20 K and was found to be depleted more than 25 times relative to the solar abundance , while argon with its higher sublimation temperature was enriched relative to the solar abundance . Together these observations indicate that the interior of Hale – Bopp has always been colder than 35 – 40 K , but has at some point been warmer than 20 K. Unless the solar nebula was much colder and richer in argon than generally believed , this suggests that the comet formed beyond Neptune in the Kuiper belt region and then migrated outward to the Oort cloud .
= = = Rotation = = =
Comet Hale – Bopp 's activity and outgassing were not spread uniformly over its nucleus , but instead came from several specific jets . Observations of the material streaming away from these jets allowed astronomers to measure the rotation period of the comet , which was found to be about 11 hours 46 minutes .
= = = Binary nucleus question = = =
In 1997 a paper was published that hypothesised the existence of a binary nucleus to fully explain the observed pattern of comet Hale – Bopp 's dust emission observed in October 1995 . The paper was based on theoretical analysis , and did not claim an observational detection of the proposed satellite nucleus , but estimated that it would have a diameter of about 30 km , with the main nucleus being about 70 km across , and would orbit in about three days at a distance of about 180 km . This analysis was confirmed by observations in 1996 using Wide @-@ Field Planetary Camera 2 of the Hubble Space Telescope which had taken images of the comet that revealed the satellite .
Although observations using adaptive optics in late 1997 and early 1998 showed a double peak in the brightness of the nucleus , controversy still exists over whether such observations can only be explained by a binary nucleus . The discovery of the satellite was not confirmed by other observations . Also , while comets have been observed to break up before , no case has previously been found of a stable binary nucleus . Given the very small mass of this comet , the orbit of the binary nucleus would be easily disrupted by the gravity of the Sun and planets .
= = UFO claims = =
In November 1996 amateur astronomer Chuck Shramek of Houston , Texas took a CCD image of the comet , which showed a fuzzy , slightly elongated object nearby . When his computer sky @-@ viewing program did not identify the star , Shramek called the Art Bell radio program Coast to Coast AM to announce that he had discovered a " Saturn @-@ like object " following Hale – Bopp . UFO enthusiasts , such as remote viewing proponent Courtney Brown , soon concluded that there was an alien spacecraft following the comet .
Several astronomers , including Alan Hale , claimed the object was simply an 8 @.@ 5 @-@ magnitude star , SAO141894 , which did not appear on Shramek 's computer program because the user preferences were set incorrectly . Later , Art Bell even claimed to have obtained an image of the object from an anonymous astrophysicist who was about to confirm its discovery . However , astronomers Olivier Hainaut and David J. Tholen of the University of Hawaii stated that the alleged photo was an altered copy of one of their own comet images .
A few months later , in March 1997 , 39 members of the cult Heaven 's Gate committed mass suicide with the intention of teleporting to a spaceship they believed was flying behind the comet .
Nancy Lieder , a self @-@ proclaimed contactee who claims to receive messages from aliens through an implant in her brain , stated that Hale – Bopp was a fiction designed to distract the population from the coming arrival of " Nibiru " or " Planet X " , a giant planet whose close passage would disrupt the Earth 's rotation , causing global cataclysm . Although Lieder 's original date for the apocalypse , May 2003 , passed without incident , predictions of the imminent arrival of Nibiru continued by various conspiracy websites , most of whom tied it to the 2012 phenomenon .
= = Legacy = =
Its lengthy period of visibility and extensive coverage in the media meant that Hale – Bopp was probably the most @-@ observed comet in history , making a far greater impact on the general public than the return of Halley 's Comet in 1986 , and certainly seen by a greater number of people than witnessed any of Halley 's previous appearances . For instance , 69 % of Americans had seen Hale – Bopp by April 9 , 1997 .
Hale – Bopp was a record @-@ breaking comet — the farthest comet from the Sun discovered by amateurs , with the largest well @-@ measured cometary nucleus known after 95P / Chiron , and it was visible to the naked eye for twice as long as the previous record @-@ holder . It was also brighter than magnitude 0 for eight weeks , longer than any other recorded comet .
|
= Ben 's Chili Bowl =
Ben 's Chili Bowl is a landmark restaurant in Washington , D.C. , located at 1213 U Street , next to Lincoln Theatre , in the Shaw neighborhood of northwest D.C. It is known locally for its chili dogs , half @-@ smokes , and milkshakes , and has been an integral part of the neighborhood 's history since its founding in 1958 . It was frequented by both police and protesters during the 1968 Washington , D.C. riots , and is regularly visited by celebrities , such as Bill Cosby and Chris Tucker .
In January 2009 , Washington , D.C. Mayor Adrian Fenty took then @-@ President @-@ elect Barack Obama to eat at Ben 's as part of his welcome to the city .
= = History = =
Ben 's Chili Bowl was founded on August 22 , 1958 by Ben Ali , a Trinidadian @-@ born immigrant who had studied dentistry at nearby Howard University , and his fiancee , Virginian @-@ born Virginia Rollins . The two were married seven weeks after opening the restaurant . The building they chose was that of Washington 's first silent movie house , the Minnehaha , which was established in 1911 . The building is a contributing property to the Greater U Street Historic District . Most of the furniture in the restaurant is original to the 1950s . At the time , Washington was officially segregated , and U Street was known as " Black Broadway " . Many jazz greats of the day , such as Duke Ellington , Miles Davis , and Nat King Cole , would stop by the restaurant when they performed at U Street clubs .
The U Street corridor was devastated by the 1968 riots that followed the assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr . During the riots , black activist Stokely Carmichael , leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee , asked Ben to keep his restaurant open and the Alis obtained permission to stay open past curfew . The restaurant fed both the police officers and firemen working to impose order on the neighborhood , as well as the black activists . The violence and arson reached such an extent that Ben wrote " Soul Brother " in soap on the front window in the hopes that it would stop the angry mobs .
The destruction of so many businesses led to the flight of residents towards the suburbs and the economic decline of the neighborhood through the mid @-@ 1970s to mid @-@ 1980s . As the area became known for its drug addicts , Ben 's Chili Bowl reduced its staff to one employee . Ben and Virginia 's son Kamal recalled , " We stayed and had a following , because the Chili Bowl was like the neighborhood barbershop . People would sit here and chat . There was always a family presence and the locals protected us . " The restaurant stopped serving pies and cakes , which attracted addicts , while police conducted surveillance on drug dealers from an upstairs window of the building .
The extensive construction of the U Street Metro station across the street from the restaurant , completed in 1991 , forced still more U Street businesses to close , but Ben 's Chili Bowl stayed open to feed the construction workers . The Washington Post commented that Ben 's Chili Bowl is " probably the only business on this strip that survived both the 1968 riots and the construction phase of the Metro Green Line " . The Metro and lower crime rates helped the gradual revitalization and gentrification of the neighborhood . From the early 1990s , business revenues grew by 10 % annually , to $ 1 @.@ 5 million in 2005 , and the number of employees at the restaurant grew as well , to a staff of 20 .
In the summer of 2007 , the owners of Ben 's led a coalition of ten small local businesses to broker a deal with a local energy company to convert operations to 100 % wind energy . The New York Post quoted Nizam Ali as saying , “ We see this as part of being involved in what is good for the neighborhood , what ’ s good for the city .... It ’ s a good idea that helps the environment and , it turns out , makes economic sense for all of us . "
In 2008 , Ben 's Chili Bowl opened a second location in the newly built Nationals Park , though it has a more limited selection than the original restaurant .
On October 7 , 2009 , Ben died at the age of 82 . He and his wife , Virginia , had retired from the restaurant business , having passed daily operations of Ben 's Chili Bowl to their sons , Kamal and Nizam . Ali 's death was mourned in many ways throughout the city , including a written statement by Mayor Adrian Fenty , which read in part : " I am deeply saddened to hear of the passing of the founder and namesake of Ben ’ s Chili Bowl , one of the greatest treasures in the District of Columbia . Ben Ali was a man who invested his life in a small business that weathered many storms and became the soul of a neighborhood and the pride of our city . "
In 2009 , Ben 's sons , Nizam and Kamal , opened an upscale restaurant and bar , Ben 's Next Door , at 1211 U St , NW , adjacent to the original building . Featuring alcohol ( something not available in Ben 's ) , the restaurant 's goal is to " complement " Ben 's , according to Nizam , who says that the goal is to stay " true to ourselves " . The restaurant offers everything on the Ben 's Chili Bowl menu from 11am to closing , in addition to its own lunch , dinner , and late night menu .
= = Menu = =
Ben 's menu features the " original chili half @-@ smoke " as its " signature dish " . It is a one @-@ quarter pound half @-@ pork and half @-@ beef smoked sausage on " a warm steamed bun , " topped with mustard , onions and spicy homemade chili sauce . In addition to the pork @-@ beef half @-@ smokes and all pork or all beef hot dogs , the menu also features " healthy choice " items such as turkey burgers and turkey hot dogs ( " turkey dogs " ) , and vegetarian chili , burgers ( " veggie burgers " ) , and hot dogs ( " veggie dogs " ) . Chili ( both the beef variety and the all @-@ vegetarian variety ) is also available in various sizes . In addition to serving food for customers who eat inside or order for take @-@ out , the restaurant ships food nationwide .
Today , many of the restaurant 's sausages are produced in Baltimore , Maryland by the Manger Packing Corporation .
= = Customers and recognition = =
The Boston Globe described Ben 's diverse customers as " punk @-@ looking kids and fashionable business people and everyone in between " . In 2001 , Ben and Virginia 's son , Kamal , commented on the changes of what types of people were eating at the establishment : " You hear comments . Even the white customers . They want to think they 're the only whites who 'd been hip enough to go to the Chili Bowl . Now they look around and there are a lot of other whites and they are not so happy about it . "
The most famous regular customer is comedian Bill Cosby , who took his future wife to Ben 's when they were dating . He recalls that he first became a frequent visitor while serving in the Navy and stationed in Bethesda , Maryland in 1958 , and frequently visited the U Street jazz clubs . Cosby recalls that during some of his visits with Camille , who was then a student at the University of Maryland , he would " eat as many as six half @-@ smokes at a time . " Cosby returned to Ben 's in 1985 to hold a press conference in the restaurant to celebrate the success of his television series , The Cosby Show . He continues to stop by Ben 's while in town for servings of half @-@ smokes . A sign posted in the restaurant proclaimed that Bill Cosby is the only person who eats for free at Ben 's Chili Bowl . On November 3 , 2008 , a new sign was posted to add " the Obama family " .
Many other celebrities , including Chris Tucker and Bono , have visited over the years . When journalist Ted Koppel stopped hosting news program Nightline , he held his 2005 farewell party at the restaurant . Then @-@ President @-@ elect Barack Obama ate at Ben 's on January 10 , 2009 .
The Washington Post asserts , " By the late 1990s , no D.C. politician would dream of running for office without dropping into Ben 's . " Anthony A. Williams appeared at Ben 's immediately after his successful mayoral election .
However , celebrities at Ben 's are not limited to American citizens . In 1998 , former DC mayor Marion Barry described having traveled to Ghana and meeting the Mayor of Accra , an alumnus of Howard University , whose greeting was , " Glad to have you in Accra . Is Ben 's Chili Bowl still there ? " And when French President Nicolas Sarkozy and his wife Carla Bruni @-@ Sarkozy visited Washington , D.C. in March 2010 , they reportedly each had two of Ben 's half smokes during their visit to the restaurant .
Scenes from films including The Pelican Brief and State of Play have been filmed in the restaurant , and it has been in " dozens of TV shows . " The short film , Breakfast At Ben 's was filmed almost entirely in the restaurant . Additionally , it has been used in novels as the setting for fictional meetings — especially meetings that involve individuals from " different sides of the law " — as it was in George Pelecanos 's King Suckerman .
Ben and Virginia Ali were inducted into the D.C. Hall of Fame , and in 1999 , the alley adjacent to the restaurant was renamed " Ben Ali Way " . On the occasion of Ben Ali 's 2009 death , D.C. mayor Adrian Fenty released a statement calling the restaurant " one of the greatest treasures in the District of Columbia " .
The restaurant 's founders have been inducted into the D.C. Hall of Fame .
= = = In popular culture = = =
A Washington @-@ based episode of the Travel Channel 's Man v. Food ( S02E12 ) , which first aired in the summer of 2009 , featured Ben 's Chili Bowl as one of the stops . The host , Adam Richman , helped Nizam Ali prepare his chili before trying out a chili Half @-@ Smoke ; Richman sat in the same seat that President Barack Obama had sat in earlier in the year .
In the 2009 movie State of Play , reporter Cal McAffrey ( Russell Crowe ) visits Ben 's Chili Bowl and appears to be a regular customer . He orders his " regular " : Chili Cheese Burger , Chili Cheese Fry and a Chili Half @-@ Smoke . The scene features the sign : " List of who eats free at Ben 's : Bill Cosby , NO ONE ELSE " .
= = = Reviews = = =
In 2004 , the James Beard Foundation named Ben 's one of the " down @-@ home eateries that have carved out a special place on the American culinary landscape " . Michael Stern , a writer specializing in U.S. regional foods , penned a 2008 review raving " The half @-@ smoke is sensational ! " and " Ben 's serves one of the best sweet potato pies anywhere " , and describing the chili as " sensational stuff : thick , peppery , full @-@ flavored and positively addictive " . In January 2009 , food magazine Bon Appétit named Ben 's one of the country 's ten " Best Chili Spots " , asserting , " No reasonable discussion of great chili joints can take place without mention of this U Street institution . " In a 2016 Washington Post restaurant review , Ben 's received one star and the food was described as " awful . "
|
= Chai Trong @-@ rong =
Chai Trong @-@ rong ( Chinese : 蔡同榮 ; pinyin : Cài Tóngróng ; Wade – Giles : Tsài Tóngróng ; Pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī : Chhòa Tông @-@ êng ; 13 June 1935 – 11 January 2014 ) , sometimes known in English as Trong Chai , was a Taiwanese politician . He was a member of the Legislative Yuan , the national legislative body of the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) .
Born in Taiwan , Chai earned his master 's and doctorate degrees in the United States . He was a pro @-@ democracy advocate and founded the Association for a Plebiscite and Formosa TV .
A member of the Democratic Progressive Party ( DPP ) , Chai was elected a national @-@ level legislator multiple times . He took part in three of the DPP chairmanship elections . However , he lost all three of the elections .
= = Early life and education = =
Chai Trong @-@ rong was born on 13 June 1935 , in modern @-@ day Budai , Chiayi County , Taiwan . At the time , Taiwan was still part of the Empire of Japan . After the Second World War , his father served as Chiayi County council member for two terms .
After his graduation from the National Tainan First Senior High School , Chai attended the National Taiwan University ( NTU ) studying political science . He later switched his major to law and graduated from the NTU College of Law in 1958 . He was then conscripted and served in the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) Army for sixteen months .
In 1960 , Chai went to the United States and studied at the University of Tennessee , where he earned his master 's degree in political science . As a result of participating in the independence movement of Taiwan , Chai was placed on the Kuomintang 's black list and was unable to return to Taiwan . He continued studying and attended the University of Southern California , earning his doctorate in 1969 . In 1986 , Chai became a professor of political science at the City University of New York .
= = Entry into politics = =
Chai established the World United Formosans for Independence ( WUFI ) in 1970 and became its first president . Then in 1982 , he founded the Formosan Association for Public Affairs ( FAPA ) , serving as its first president as well .
Chai returned to Taiwan to in the name of attending a funeral in June 1990 . He was issued a new passport and joined the Democratic Progressive Party ( DPP ) shortly after his arrival . He founded the Association for a Plebiscite ( traditional Chinese : 公民投票促進會 ; simplified Chinese : 公民投票促进会 ; pinyin : Gōngmín Tóupiaò Cùjìnhùi ) in November . The goal of the association was to reform through the will of the people .
= = Legislative career = =
Chai was elected a legislator representing Chiayi City in 1992 . Although he was not reelected in 1995 running against Vincent Siew of the Kuomintang , he was elected into the Legislative Yuan again in the 1997 by @-@ election and reelected in 1998 , 2001 and 2004 . During these terms , Chai was involved in the National Defense , Overseas Compatriot Affairs , and Foreign Affairs Committees .
He supported the localization policies of the Chen Shui @-@ bian administration . In 2005 , he urged the Ministry of Education to get rid of contexts of " aboveboard Chinese " ( Chinese : 堂堂正正的中國人 ; a Chinese nationalistic term imposed by the Chiang Kai @-@ shek regime after World War II ) from the back cover of elementary school workbooks . In response to the Anti @-@ Secession Law of the People 's Republic of China , Chai and legislator Chuang He @-@ chi proposed draft for an " Anti @-@ Annexation Law . "
= = = Chairmanship campaigns = = =
Despite the fact that Chai was endorsed by renowned pharmacologist Chen @-@ Yuan Lee , he lost the DPP chairmanship election in 1996 . However , the resignation of Su Tseng @-@ chang as DPP chairperson in 2005 led to Chai 's decision to run again . He was the first in the party to register his candidacy .
Chai was one of the three candidates who registered . He was endorsed by vice president Annette Lu and foreign minister Mark Chen . The election was held in January 2006 . Former Secretary @-@ General of the Presidential Office Yu Shyi @-@ kun won with over 54 % of the votes while Chai received 36 % .
In 2008 , after the defeat of Frank Hsieh in the presidential election , DPP candidate Hsieh resigned as chairman and announced the date for the chairmanship election . Chai declared his candidacy on April 14 .
Although the DPP passed a resolution to ban all factions within the party in 2006 , the dissent between former members of different factions was still present and was thought to be one of the factors that led to DPP 's loss in the presidential election . Chai , along with Koo Kwang @-@ ming emphasized the importance of consolidating the party 's policy on independence , while Tsai Ing @-@ wen focused on the cooperation of former factions and expansion of the party 's support base .
Chai was supported by Tainan City mayor Hsu Tain @-@ tsair , but decided to withdraw from the race in May and gave his support to another candidate Koo Kwang @-@ ming . However , it was too late to officially withdraw from the election , and Chai received 5 percent of the votes .
= = Death = =
Chai died on 11 January 2014 due to a stroke .
|
= Flytoget =
Flytoget , the Airport Express Train ( Norwegian : Flytoget ) is a Norwegian high @-@ speed airport rail link connecting Oslo Airport , Gardermoen to Oslo Central Station in nineteen minutes . Run by Flytoget AS ( formerly NSB Gardermobanen AS ) , it operates on the high @-@ speed Gardermoen Line using sixteen GMB Class 71 electric trains . Normal service frequency is once every ten minutes , with four of the services each hour continuing westwards beyond Oslo Central . The extended services serve nine stops within Greater Oslo and take up to 60 minutes .
Flytoget transported 5 @.@ 4 million passengers in 2007 , a 34 @-@ percent market share of airport ground transport . The service , which has a top speed of 210 kilometres per hour ( 130 mph ) , is the only high @-@ speed rail service in Norway . Construction started in 1994 and high @-@ speed trains began serving Gardermoen Airport from the date of its opening on 8 October 1998 , although full operation using the 14 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 9 @.@ 0 mi ) Romerike Tunnel had to wait another ten and a half months after severe leaks caused by the tunnel 's construction led to the partial depletion of two lakes .
Formed in 1992 as a subsidiary of Norwegian State Railways , the company has been owned since 2001 by the Norwegian Ministry of Trade and Industry .
= = History = =
= = = Decisision for a new airport connection = = =
When the Parliament of Norway on 8 October 1992 decided to build a new central airport for Eastern Norway , they also decided that the main mode of ground transport should be by rail . While the previous airport , Oslo Airport , Fornebu , was located just outside the city limits , the new airport , Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , would be located 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) north of the city , outside the reach of existing public transport . The principle of the airport construction was that it was not to be footed by the tax payers ; the entire airport would be built with borrowed money through Oslo Lufthavn AS , a subsidiary of the Norwegian Airport Administration . The same principle was chosen for the airport rail link — the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) creating the limited company subsidiary NSB Gardermobanen AS , founded on 24 November 1992 , to perform the construction of the line . It would be able to charge train operators using the line , channeling the payments to cover down payments and interest of the debt used to build the railway . Profit margin was estimated to 7 @.@ 5 % .
= = = Construction = = =
Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , is not on the Trunk Line that runs north from Oslo . With heavy traffic and many small stops until Lillestrøm , and continuing north as single track , the Trunk Line would have to be supplemented by a parallel double track from Oslo , with a new route north of Kløfta to Eidsvoll ; the 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) north of the airport allowing trains operating on the Dovre Line to Lillehammer and Trondheim to access the airport . The 64 @-@ kilometre ( 40 mi ) line was named the Gardermo Line .
The Gardermo Line was the second attempt to build high @-@ speed rail in Norway , after the 35 @-@ kilometre ( 22 mi ) line from Ski to Moss on the Østfold Line . But no operation speeds exceeding 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) are achieved there due to short distances and limitations to rolling stock , making Gardermobanen the first real high @-@ speed railway line in Norway . Due to the domination of single track in Norway , the opening of the Gardermo Line increased the total length of double track in the kingdom by two @-@ thirds .
Construction started in 1994 . An agreement for purchase of sixteen three @-@ car electric multiple units was signed with Adtranz on 23 February 1995 . Parliament decided on 1 October 1996 that the construction company would also operate the new train service . The trains were delivered between 19 September 1997 and 30 January 1998 , costing NOK 1 @.@ 4 billion .
= = = Challenges = = =
The greatest challenge was the need to build the 14 @,@ 580 @-@ metre ( 47 @,@ 830 ft ) Romerike railway tunnel – Norway 's longest – beneath the geologically highly unstable Østmarka area between Etterstad , close to Oslo Central Station , and Lillestrøm . During construction , in 1997 , the water level in some lakes above the tunnel , including Lutvann and Nordre Puttjern , sank dramatically . After the leaks were discovered on 3 February 1997 , sanctions were imposed by the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate requiring the elimination of all leakages . At its worst , the tunnel was leaking 3 @,@ 000 litres ( 660 imp gal ) of water per minute .
Rhoca @-@ Gil sealant was used in an attempt to fix the leaks , but failed to work properly . Not only did it not polymerize , and therefore failed to staunch the leaks , but it also poisoned its surroundings with acrylamide . Manual fixing with concrete became necessary ; the fixing and cleaning up of the toxin delayed the building of the tunnel by one year . Further complications arose due to conflicts between NSB Gardermobanen and the construction company , Scandinavian Rock Group , with the latter at one instance stopping work for three weeks while the parties quarrelled in court .
Reports have shown a lack of inspection and reporting procedures during incidents that should have been addressed – but were never taken seriously – in 1995 . Construction of the tunnel caused damage to around sixty houses and an evaluation by the Ministry of Transport and Communications showed that NOK 500 million was spent on fixing the leaks and claimed that this was to a large extent an unnecessary expenditure which more efficient engineering procedures would have avoided . The report also criticized the administrative planning and organization of the overall construction of the railway .
Airport Express Trains began operating as soon as the new airport ( and the Lillestrøm to Gardermoen stretch of the new high @-@ speed line ) opened on 8 October 1998 ; however , for more than ten months they had to use the old Hovedbane ( Trunk Line ) between Oslo S and Lillestrøm , which restricted their frequency to just two trains per hour . Regular operations at full capacity , using the Romerike Tunnel , did not commence until 22 August 1999 .
= = = Reorganization = = =
Estimates for the project costs were NOK 4 @.@ 3 billion , ± 20 % , but by completion they had ended at NOK 7 @.@ 7 billion , of which NOK 1 @.@ 3 billion were related to the leakages . The rest of the line had a cost exceedings of NOK 0 @.@ 4 billion . The company had acquired financial costs of NOK 0 @.@ 9 billion , so the company owed NOK 10 @.@ 0 billion by 1999 , including money spent on the new trains .
The first steps of organizational restructure were taken 29 June 2000 , when the CEO of NSB , Osmund Ueland , was fired due to several incidents related to the operations of NSB — not just the Gardermo Line . Einar Enger took over as new CEO on 26 February 2001 .
The debt in NSB Gardermobanen had become unmanageable , and in April 2000 parliament accepted that it would not be possible to make the Gardermo Line — with the current structure — the profitable venture predicted in 1992 . From 1 January 2001 , the company changed name to Flytoget AS , retaining ownership of the trains and operations and kept as a subsidiary of NSB . The tracks and infrastructure were transferred to the Norwegian National Rail Administration ( Jernbaneverket ) , who owns the rest of the Norwegian railway network . All debt was restored and covered by the state , and a vehicle excise duty was implemented on the Gardermo Line to cover the management and maintenance of the line , to be paid by all users .
On 9 December 2002 , parliament decided that Flytoget AS would become a separate railway company from 1 January 2003 , owned directly by the Ministry of Transport and Communications . One year later the ownership was transferred to the Ministry of Trade and Industry as part of a cleanup of political overhaul between the departments . As part of the process , a new CEO , Thomas Havnegjerde , was appointed in June 2002 , and in January 2003 the new Chair , Endre Skjørestad — who took over the position form NSB 's director Einar Enger . Havnegjerde announced on 6 August 2008 that he would retire from his job before the end of the year . He was replaced by Linda Bernander Silseth on 10 November 2008 . On 30 August 2009 , two of three services to Asker were extended to Drammen . This followed upgrades to the Drammen Line , including the Lieråsen Tunnel , and a new parking lot at Drammen Station , in total costing NOK 20 million .
= = Operations = =
Departures operate every ten minutes from Oslo Central Station ( Oslo S ) to the airport - i.e. six trains pr. hour . Half of the trains originate in Drammen , making five intermediate stops before Oslo S , and again at Lillestrøm . Two start from Oslo S and go directly to Gardermoen without intermediate stops . One starts from Stabekk and calls at Lysaker , Skøyen , Nationaltheateret and Oslo S. On Saturdays , Sunday mornings and in most of July , Flytoget does not operate the direct trains from Oslo S or Stabekk — only the 20 @-@ minute headway all @-@ stop trains . While the services northeast from Oslo S to the airport use the high @-@ speed Gardermo Line , those westwards towards Asker use the Drammen Line built in 1870 – 72 and the Asker Line ; so while the 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) from Oslo S to the airport can be done in 19 minutes , the 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) from Asker to Oslo S takes 26 minutes . The latter does however include stops at five stations : Nationaltheatret , Skøyen , Lysaker , Sandvika and Asker .
Competition is offered from other means of ground transport and by NSB who operate trains from Oslo to the airport . This includes one hourly departure with line 450 of the Oslo Commuter Rail north to Eidsvoll and south to Oslo , Drammen and Kongsberg ; one regional train hourly north to Hamar and Lillehammer and south to Vestfold ; and four daily express trains to Trondheim calling Oslo Airport Station , including one night train ( although the express trains to Trondheim do not accept passengers only travelling between Oslo and Gardermoen ) .
The price of a ticket to Oslo is NOK 180 , though higher if departing from Sandvika , Asker and Drammen . Reduced fares with 50 % discount are offered to senior citizens , children , youth under 21 years , students , benefit recipients and military personnel . Flytoget tickets are not valid on NSB trains , and vice versa . NSB tickets are generally cheaper , though not for some groups with reduced fare ; for instance students are granted a greater discount with Flytoget than with NSB . Ticket can either be bought at vending machines or as e @-@ tickets ; there is no seat reservation .
Flytoget transported 5 @.@ 4 million passengers in 2007 , a 34 % market share of airport ground transport . Flytoget boasts a high service quality , with 96 % of departures arriving within 3 minutes of schedule and only 0 @.@ 4 % of departures canceled . Part of this is due to the airport express trains receiving priority over other trains in the limited capacity around Oslo . Flytoget was announced to have the most satisfied , and the fourth most loyal customers of all Norwegian companies in 2008 , by the customer satisfaction survey conducted by the Norwegian School of Management . The same year Flytoget was declared the best place of work in Norway by Great Place to Work . During the 2007 recruitment half of the newly educated train divers chose Flytoget over NSB , mostly due to higher wages .
= = = Stations = = =
= = = Incidents = = =
Several deaths have taken place on the route , but only one due to an accident . In 1999 , an employee of the National Rail Administration was killed by a train because it was operating at 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) instead of the temporarily reduced limit of 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) ; Flytoget was fined for not informing the engineer of the speed limit reduction . Several other deaths on the line have been classified as suicides , and so are not in the accident statistics ; they do however cause delays on all services for hours after the incident takes place .
In 2000 – 01 , Flytoget experienced three derailments with empty trains at Gardermoen ; one caused by the engineer falling asleep and two by the train passing a red light . No more such accidents occurred after automatic Train Control was installed in 2001 .
Delays have been experienced many times by travelers due to technical problems on the infrastructure . In particular the old line west of Oslo causes much delay , and the National Rail Administration performed during 2008 a NOK 100 million upgrade to the Oslo Tunnel to ensure better performance . But problems also incur on the new sections , regularly delaying service or capacity , and forcing Flytoget to operate fewer departures . In total 96 % of departures arrived within 3 minutes of schedule and 0 @.@ 4 % of departures were canceled in 2007 .
Pickpocketing has been a problem since the start ; even the Chief of Police in Oslo has been picked on the train . The train has also been the target of sabotage , and embezzlement for NOK 1 million by an employed ticket salesman , who found a way to print two tickets with the system only charging for one , by turning off and on the ticket printer .
When Al Gore came to Oslo to receive his Nobel Peace Prize on 7 December 2007 , he used the Airport Express Train to make his journey as environmentally friendly as possible . The company has initiated a program to ensure better diet for the employees ; this had made several lose weight and has reduced the level of sick leave from 12 to 8 % . In 2005 – 07 , a program to reduce the energy use of the trains through smarter operation reduced energy consumption by 15 % .
During the 2010 volcano air travel disruption , the Gardermoen airport was closed for a period , and the Flytoget trains were used by NSB instead , to give extra train capacity for long @-@ distance routes .
= = Rolling stock = =
The company operates sixteen Class 71 three @-@ car electric multiple units delivered in 1997 – 98 , and built domestically by Adtranz at Strømmen based on carbodies built in Adtranz factory in Kalmar . They are based on the Swedish X2 operated by SJ in their X 2000 intercity service , and developed by Kalmar Verkstad during the 1980s . The Class 71 are nearly identical to the NSB Class 73 , save the 71 @-@ series lacking one car and tilting mechanism , and a different interior . Both have chosen to not use the original locomotive design , instead installing one powered bogie in each car . The 71 @-@ series is built for a maximum operating speed of 210 kilometres per hour ( 130 mph ) , but has achieved higher speeds in test runs .
Among the features are pressure @-@ tight cabins to allow comfortable travel through tunnels at high speeds , and step @-@ free access to the cars . Instead , steps are inside the trains ; this has been criticized to be in non @-@ conformance with public accessibility policy . The multiple units can only operate in fixed sets of three cars , but up to three sets can be run in multiple . Flytoget regularly uses double sets to create six @-@ car trains . In 2008 – 09 , all units will be refit with an additional middle car by Bombardier Transportation , increasing capacity by 40 % to 244 seats .
Unlike the Class 71 , the sister trains in service with NSB were prone to trouble , having to operate on hundred @-@ year @-@ old infrastructure on cross @-@ mountain services ; the Class 71 has more lenient operating conditions thanks to better infrastructure . The only incident to ground all the BM71 trains occurred on the 17 June 2000 at Nelaug when a Class 73 train operated by NSB derailed because of stress on the axle . Unlike the NSB trains , the airport express trains were back in service the next day , while the 73 @-@ series had to wait another month . On 24 January 2004 a unit had to be taken out of service due to smoke from a stressed bearing — within days the bearings were replaced on all units .
= = Future = =
= = = New tracks = = =
In 2005 , the first part of the Asker Line opened between Sandvika and Asker , with new double track running parallel to the old Drammen Line , allowing quicker travel times to Asker . The second section , between Lysaker and Sandvika , was opened in 2011 , and reduced travel time west of Lysaker by about seven minutes . The project also included a full upgrade of Lysaker Station . There are plans to build two more tracks from Lysaker to Oslo Central Station , including a new tunnel under central Oslo . This project is not decided .
= = = New EMUs = = =
Flytoget has ordered eight new 4 @-@ car CAF Oaris EMUs from the Spanish manufacturer CAF . The trains are planned to start operation in 2018 . Even though the EMU 's maximum speed is 250 kilometres per hour ( 160 mph ) , the infrastructure limits the speed to 210 kilometres per hour ( 130 mph ) .
|
= Long @-@ billed thrasher =
The long @-@ billed thrasher ( Toxostoma longirostre ) is a medium @-@ sized resident songbird of South Texas and eastern Mexico . It bears a strong resemblance to its close relative the brown thrasher in appearance , calls , and various other behaviors ; however , the two species do not overlap in range except in the winter when the brown thrasher will temporarily reside in the northern range of the long @-@ billed .
The bird is a large sized mimid that is not especially wary , but it will take precautionary measures to prevent itself from being potential prey . Like other thrashers , it is named after its sweeping methods when searching for food , not for thrashing predators , although they are aggressive defenders of their territories .
= = Taxonomy = =
The specific name longirostre is derived from the Latin words longus long and rostrum bill .
There are two subspecies of the long @-@ billed thrasher . T. longirostre longirostre was first described in scientific literature by Frédéric de Lafresnaye in 1838 as Orpheus longirostris , while T. longirostre sennitti was described by Robert Ridgway a half @-@ century later .
T. c. sennitti ( Ridgway , 1888 ) Sennett 's thrasher . Range extends from southern ( particularly south central ) Texas to the Rio Grande Valley and the Mexican states of Tamaulipas and San Luis Potosi .
T. c. longirostre ( Lafresnaye , 1838 ) . Range is in eastern Mexico , within the states of Querétaro , Tamaulipas and Veracruz southward to Puebla .
Along with the brown thrasher and Cozumel thrasher , the three are part of a superspecies rufum clade . Plumage patterns and bill shapes were originally used for grouping , and the birds also were shown as closely related with genetic studies .
= = Description = =
This bird is slender and long @-@ tailed , averaging 26 @.@ 5 – 29 cm ( 10 @.@ 5 – 11 @.@ 5 in ) in length and about 70 g ( 2 @.@ 5 oz ) in weight . It is also a large sized thrasher that is close in size to the American robin .
T. c. sennitti is described with a grayish @-@ brown crown with a rufous color appearing in the back , rump , rear , and shoulder . Broad white tips located on the greater and lesser primary coverts and dullish @-@ brown with rufous brown edges on the primary and secondary coverts gives the closed wings an appearance wing with rufous colorings . The chin , throat , chest , and belly can appear to be white or a pale @-@ buffy white , although the chest and belly contain keenly blackish oval shapes . The underwing is buffy @-@ white . The iris is typically either orange or orange @-@ yellow , with a dull brown bill with its base of the lower mandible appear to be pinkish grey . T. c. curvirostre is similar with an exception to being smaller , darker , and have a red @-@ tinged appearance with buffy @-@ white underparts .
Juveniles have dusty streak marks on its rump , with buffy @-@ white undertail coverts .
= = = Similar species = = =
This thrasher shares a striking resemblance with the brown thrasher . However , there are a number of differences . Its face is more gray in contrast to the reddish appearance of the thrasher . The underparts are whiter , less buffy , and more robustly colored , an eye that appears more orange and beady , and generally a longer @-@ bill that is blacker and stands apart from the face . The long @-@ billed 's overall appearance has more contrasts in its pattern in comparison to the thrasher .
The sage thrasher , which shares some its distribution with the long @-@ billed , is smaller , grayer , and its rectrices are of a more distinguished white color .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
This species is a resident in southern Texas north to San Antonio and Aranas , south through north @-@ western Mexico to central Veracruz , east to eastern Coahuila , San Luis Potosi and Hildalgo . The breeding density is at the highest among the Rio Grande Valley . Although it was a resident in the lower Rio Grande Valley , a significant amount of the its habitat was destroyed for agricultural purposes , and its population decreased from the 1930s to the 1970s . Some human activity that has introduced former grassland areas is thought to some help the species , and still is a common resident in its range . Climate change has been suggested for some of its expansion In Texas as well , as there was some evidence of a northern and eastern migration of counties over a five decade span ( 1957 @-@ 2007 ) . With the exception of vagrants found in New Mexico and Colorado , the species is a permanent resident of its range .
= = Behavior = =
Long @-@ billed thrashers usually stay hidden on or near the ground , though it may sing from conspicuous perches . Whenever it searches for insects on the ground , it will energetically turn over ( " thrashing " ) leaves and other litter . It also can be spotted singing on exposed perches above its thornbush fortresses . Males generally are spotted singing from March until the mid @-@ summer , excluding instances of singing song snatches periodically to balance the year . It is generally not wary , possibly because is not easily approached . The flights of the long @-@ billed are generally close to the ground , short , erratic with exaggerated fluctuations . Long @-@ billed thrashers are staunch defenders of their territories ; it will defend its nest ferociously , including against humans .
The longest recorded lifespan of the species was one individual recovered on 30 September 1965 , at age 7 years and 3 months , after being banded ( on 24 Aug 1959 ) in Alamo , TX .
= = = Voice = = =
The song is warbling and resembles other thrashers ' songs but is especially rich and musical , though occasionally scratchy . Phrases are often repeated two to four times . A distinctive call is a " loud , rich whistle cleeooeep " or " mellow , whistled tweeooip or ooeh " ; other calls include " a loud sharp chak " and " a very rapid , sharp rattle chtttr " , and tsuck and verrs sounds during territorial disputes that resemble calls of its close relative the brown thrasher .
= = = Breeding = = =
The general nesting habitat of long @-@ billed thrashers is amongst dense vegetation with spiny shrubs and trees in order to make the nest inaccessible to potential predators . Nests have also been found in plants such as willows , mesquite , huisache , cacti , or yucca .
The nest is a bulky cup placed in thick low or mid @-@ height vegetation and made of materials such as twigs , straws , and grasses . The female lays 2 to 5 eggs described as bluish @-@ white with dense reddish @-@ brown and gray speckles ; the appearance is indistinguishable from the brown thrasher . Most of the egg laying for the long @-@ billed in Texas occurs in April and May , and May and June in Mexico , though dates have been as late as June and July , respectively . The eggs hatch over a period of 24 days . Unlike most thrashers , however , the hatching process is synchronous . Both parents are responsible for incubation , which lasts 13 or 14 days as well as feeding the fledglings . They are rarely victims of brood parasitism by the brown @-@ headed cowbird or bronzed cowbird .
= = = Feeding = = =
In order to locate food , it forages on the ground by rapidly sweeping its bill from side to side tossing leaf @-@ litter upwards and behind itself , then goes to scratching the ground for food . Their diet consists of invertebrates such as grasshoppers , beetles , and other insects , crustaceans , gastropods , and an adequate amount of vegetable matter , especially berries .
|
= Ceredigion =
Ceredigion ( / ˌkɛrᵻˈdɪɡiən / ; Welsh pronunciation : [ kɛrɛˈdɪɡjɔn ] ) is a county in Mid Wales . The county was created as Cardiganshire ( Welsh : Sir Aberteifi ) in 1282 in the area of the former Kingdom of Ceredigion . The historic county was abolished in 1974 and reconstituted in 1996 as Ceredigion . The county had a population of 75 @,@ 900 at the 2011 UK census . Aberystwyth , which is the largest town , is one of the two administrative centres ; the other being Aberaeron . Aberystwyth houses Aberystwyth University , Bronglais Hospital and the National Library of Wales . The inland town of Lampeter houses part of the University of Wales Trinity Saint David .
The county is mainly rural with large parts being hilly or mountainous land . There is level , low @-@ lying land on the coastal strip that runs along the margins of Cardigan Bay . There are a number of sandy beaches popular with visitors here , linked by the long @-@ distance Ceredigion Coast Path . More than half the population speak the Welsh language and the county is considered a centre of Welsh culture .
At one time , Ceredigion had more industry than it does today . Lead , silver and zinc were mined here , and many of the sailing ships trading round the coast of Wales were built here . However these industries dwindled over time , and the economy became almost completely dependent on dairying and the rearing of livestock , which were sent to the English market . During the last century , livestock farming has become less profitable , and the population of Cardiganshire has been in decline as people emigrated to more prosperous parts of Wales and to countries abroad . More recently , the population has started rising again as elderly people move into the county for retirement , and various government and European Union initiatives have encouraged tourism and other alternative sources of income .
= = History = =
Cardiganshire has been inhabited since prehistoric times ; 170 hill forts and enclosures have been identified across the county and there are many standing stones dating back to the Bronze Age . In pre @-@ Roman , and possibly Roman times , a part of southern Cardiganshire was in the territory of the Demetae and possibly part of that of the Ordovices . According to Nennius , a 10th @-@ century Welsh chronicler , Ceredig , son of the Welsh invader Cunedda , settled in the area in the 5th century . It remained a kingdom ruled by his descendants until it expanded and changed its name , first to Seisyllwg in the late 7th century and , after the union of Seisyllwg with the Kingdom of Dyfed , it was incorporated into Deheubarth in the mid 10th century .
Many pilgrims passed through Cardiganshire on their way to St Davids . Some came by sea and made use of the churches at Mwnt and Penbryn , while others came by land seeking hospitality at such places as Strata Florida Abbey . Both the abbey and Llanbadarn Fawr were important monastic sites of scholarship and education . Place names including ysbyty denote their association with pilgrims .
In 1282 , Edward I of England conquered the principality of Wales and divided the area into counties . The name Cardiganshire was an Anglicisation of the name for the historic kingdom of Ceredigion . One of thirteen traditional counties in Wales , Cardiganshire was also a vice @-@ county . Cardiganshire was split into the five hundreds ( administrative area ) of Genau 'r @-@ Glyn , Ilar , Moyddyn , Penarth and Troedyraur . In the 18th century there was an evangelical revival of Christianity , and non @-@ conformism became established in the county as charismatic preachers like Daniel Rowland of Llangeitho attracted large congregations . Every community built its own chapel or meeting house , and Cardiganshire became one of the centres of Methodism in Wales with the Aeron Valley being at the centre of the revival .
At this time Cardiganshire was largely cut off from the rest of Wales by poor communications , and the Industrial Revolution largely passed it by . In the uplands , wheeled vehicles were rare in the 18th century , and horses and sleds were still being used for transport . On the coast , trade in herrings and corn took place across the Irish Sea . In the 19th century , many of the rural poor emigrated to the New World from Cardigan , between five and six thousand leaving the town between 1790 and 1860 . Aberystwyth became the main centre for the export of lead and Aberaeron and Newquay did brisk coastal trade . The building of the railway from Shrewsbury in the 1860s encouraged visitors and hotels sprang up in the town to accommodate them .
This area of the county of Dyfed became a district of Wales under the name Ceredigion in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 , and since 1996 , has formed the county of Ceredigion . According to the 2001 census , Ceredigion has the fourth highest proportion of Welsh speakers in the population at 61 % ; only Gwynedd , the Isle of Anglesey and Carmarthenshire have a higher proportion .
= = Geography = =
Ceredigion is a coastal county , bordered by Cardigan Bay to the west , Gwynedd to the north , Powys to the east , Carmarthenshire to the south and Pembrokeshire to the south @-@ west . Its area is 1 @,@ 795 square kilometres ( 693 sq mi ) . In 2010 the population was 76 @,@ 938 , making it the second most sparsely populated county in Wales .
The main settlements are Aberaeron , Aberporth , Aberystwyth , Borth , Cardigan , Lampeter , Llanarth , Llanddewi Brefi , Llandysul , Llanilar , Llanrhystud , Llanon , New Quay , and Tregaron . The largest of these are Aberystwyth and Cardigan .
The Cambrian Mountains cover much of the east of the county ; this large area forms part of the desert of Wales . In the south and west , the surface is less elevated . The highest point is Pumlumon at 2 @,@ 467 feet ( 752 m ) , other Marilyns include Pen y Garn and Llan Ddu Fawr . On the slopes of Pumlumon five rivers have their sources : the Severn , the Wye , the Dulas , the Llyfnant and the Rheidol , the last of which meets the Afon Mynach in a 300 feet ( 91 m ) plunge at the Devil 's Bridge chasm . The largest river is the River Teifi which forms the border with Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire for part of its length . The towns of Lampeter , Llandysul , Newcastle Emlyn and Cardigan are all in the Teifi Valley , and each has communities on each side of the river , in different counties . Other significant rivers include the River Aeron which has its estuary at Aberaeron , and the River Ystwyth and the River Rheidol both of which reach the sea in Aberystwyth harbour .
Ceredigion 's 50 miles ( 80 km ) of coastline has sandy beaches . In 2011 Ceredigion 's beaches were awarded five Blue Flag Awards , four Green Coast Awards , and fourteen Seaside Awards . Ceredigion is one of only two places in the United Kingdom with a permanent presence of bottlenose dolphins . Another member of the fauna is the red kite ; these may be seen in various localities in the county , but at the Red Kite Feeding Centre near Tregaron , they are fed each day , and large numbers congregate along with hungry crows and other birds .
Ceredigion had the largest population growth of any county in Wales , with a 19 @.@ 5 % increase from 1991 to 2003 . Tourism and agriculture , chiefly hill farming , are the most important industries . In addition , two universities are within the county boundaries : Aberystwyth University and the Lampeter campus of the University of Wales , Trinity Saint David . The Welsh Plant Breeding Station is near Aberystwyth and linked to the University . The National Library of Wales , founded in 1907 , is also in Aberystwyth . Ceredigion is an extremely rural county ; the largest town , Aberystwyth , has fewer than 15 @,@ 000 permanent residents and the remainder of the population of the county is scattered over 150 small towns , villages and hamlets .
The county has no large commercial areas . The nearest substantial settlements are located at least 1 hour 45 minutes drive away . Approximate road distances from Ceredigion 's largest town , Aberystwyth , are : Swansea , 75 miles ( 121 km ) to the south ; Shrewsbury , 76 miles ( 122 km ) to the east , in the English county of Shropshire ; and Wrexham , 82 miles ( 132 km ) to the northeast . The capital , Cardiff , is over 100 miles ( 160 km ) from most parts of the county . Although Ceredigion and Gwynedd share a boundary , it is not possible to travel directly between the two by land as all road and rail links avoid the Dyfi estuary and pass through Dyfi Junction or Machynlleth in Powys .
Dylan Thomas lived in New Quay and Talsarn and frequented Aberaeron and Lampeter . The Dylan Thomas Trail runs through part of the county , linking the places associated with the poet . The Ceredigion Coast Path is a long @-@ distance footpath following the coastline from Cardigan to Ynyslas , a distance of about 60 miles ( 97 km ) . It can conveniently be divided into seven sections and has some spectacular scenery .
= = Local government = =
Between 1888 and 1974 , the county was governed by Cardiganshire County Council , which took over the functions of county administration from the Quarter Sessions court in 1889 . The county was abolished in 1974 by the Local Government Act 1972 — and it was succeeded by the district of Ceredigion in the new county of Dyfed . This district became a unitary authority on 1 April 1996 under the name of Cardiganshire ; to change its name back to Ceredigion the following day . It has , apart from minor realignments , identical borders to the former county .
A referendum was held on 20 May 2004 on whether to have a directly elected mayor for the county , the first in Wales . The Llais Ceredigion political initiative had been formed with this aim but the proposal was rejected .
= = Economy = =
Farming has traditionally been the basis of Cardiganshire 's economy , with dairying and stock @-@ rearing being the main occupations . Before the first railway was built in 1866 , the stock used to be herded over the mountains to England , where Rugby , Northampton and London were important destinations . At one time there was a sizeable mining industry in Cardiganshire , but the reserves of lead , silver and zinc became unprofitable to mine by the early part of the twentieth century . Shipping was also important in the county , with coal and lime being imported in coastal vessels , and mineral ores and oak bark for tanning being exported . Shipbuilding was an important industry with most of Wales ' sailing vessels being built in Cardiganshire .
Cardiganshire had a substantial population in the early modern period but this declined during the nineteenth century as wider social and economic developments affected all aspects of Cardiganshire life . Traditional industries were in decline , agriculture was in decline and it was becoming increasingly difficult for a still @-@ rising population to earn a living within their native parishes and communities . By the first half of the twentieth century , falling livestock prices and greater world competition made farming unprofitable and many residents of Cardiganshire moved to other parts of South Wales , where there were better employment opportunities , and many more emigrated to the United States , Canada , Patagonia and Australia . Another factor was that the owners of the great landed estates , who had for so long dominated the politics of the county , were in many cases heavily in debt . This second factor contributed to the loss of landowner influence in the running of the county , a trend that became very apparent at the first elections to the Cardiganshire County Council in 1889 .
By the second half of the twentieth century , the declining population trend had gone into reverse . Increasing numbers of retired people were arriving to make their home in the tranquil surroundings , and after the Beacham Commission in the 1960s , the British government realised that the rural way of life in parts of Wales was in crisis , and started to react . Through government initiatives and local actions , opportunities in tourism , rural crafts , specialist food shops , farmers ' markets and added @-@ value food products began to emerge . However , in 2011 , at 3 @.@ 1 % , Ceredigion still had one of the highest proportions of its population working in agriculture , forestry and fishing , close behind such other places as Orkney and Shetland . Another use for marginal land in exposed positions is the provision of renewable wind energy ; Cefn Croes Wind Farm near Devil 's Bridge has 39 turbines and a nominal capacity of 58 @,@ 500 kW .
Farm incomes have been in decline over the years and , as well as being a European Objective I area , in 2001 Ceredigion was designated a regional " Tourist growth area " by the Wales Tourist Board . There is little industry other than farming , so tourism plays an important part in the county 's economy . Visitors stay in hotels , guest houses and homes offering bed @-@ and @-@ breakfast , self @-@ catering cottages , caravans and camp sites , spending money in local shops , dine in local establishments and visit the county 's many attractions . Ceredigion prides itself on offering an unspoilt natural landscape , and Aberystwyth lays claim to being the capital of Welsh culture .
= = Sport and leisure = =
The main football team in the county is Aberystwyth Town F.C. which plays in the Welsh Premier League , its home matches being at the Park Avenue ground in the town . It has yet to come higher than third in the League but won the Welsh Cup in 1899 / 1900 and the Welsh Amateur Cup in 1930 / 31 , 1932 / 33 and 1969 / 70 . Cardigan Town Football Club , also known as the " Magpies " , play in Division 1 of the Ceredigion League which they won in 1968 / 69 , 1995 / 96 , 1999 / 2000 , 2000 / 01 and 2002 / 03 .
Leisure activities available in the county include beach activities , rambling , cycling , sea fishing , canoeing , sailing and horse riding . Many of the towns and villages along the coast have small harbours and facilities for sailing , dolphin watching and other maritime activities . The River Teifi is a renowned salmon fishing river and also has a series of rapids near Llandysul where canoeing , kayaking and white water rafting take place .
The county is rich in archaeological remains such as forts , earthworks and standing stones . Historic sites that can be accessed include Aberystwyth Castle and Cardigan Castle , as well as Strata Florida Abbey .
Other visitor attractions include the Cwmystwyth Mines , Devil 's Bridge , the Bwlch Nant yr Arian Forest Visitor Centre , Elvis Rock , Cors Caron ( Tregaron bog ) , the Vale of Rheidol Railway , Aberystwyth Cliff Railway .
The National Library of Wales is at Aberystwyth and there is information on local history at the Ceredigion Museum , also in Aberystwyth . There is also the technical museum Internal Fire – Museum of Power , which is at Tan @-@ y @-@ groes near the coast road . Stately homes in the county open to the public include the Hafod Estate and Llanerchaeron .
= = Transport = =
The Cambrian Line provides mainline railway services between Aberystwyth and Shrewsbury , where passengers can join services for London and elsewhere . Passengers can change at Dovey Junction railway station for trains to Pwllheli . There are no motorways in Ceredigion . The A487 coast road links Cardigan with Aberystwyth , passing close to Newquay and through Aberaeron , and the A44 goes eastwards from Aberystwyth to Rhayader , Leominster and Worcester . There are local bus services between the main centres of population , and long distance services between Aberystwyth and Cardiff . A bus service known as " Bwcabus " operates in the south of the county offering customised transport for rural dwellers .
There are no commercial airports but the West Wales Airport near the village of Aberporth is licensed for the deployment of civil and military unmanned aerial vehicles ( UAV ) s and is used for flying and testing these drones . There are no ports or ferry termini in the county but several of the coastal towns have facilities for yachts and small craft .
|
= Connotations ( Copland ) =
Connotations is a classical music composition for symphony orchestra written by American composer Aaron Copland . Commissioned by Leonard Bernstein in 1962 to commemorate the opening of Philharmonic Hall ( now David Geffen Hall at Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts ) in New York City , United States , this piece marks a departure from Copland 's populist period , which began with El Salón México in 1936 and includes the works he is most famous for such as Appalachian Spring , Lincoln Portrait and Rodeo . It represents a return to a more dissonant style of composition in which Copland wrote from the end of his studies with French pedagogue Nadia Boulanger and return from Europe in 1924 until the Great Depression . It was also Copland 's first dodecaphonic work for orchestra , a style he had disparaged until he heard the music of French composer Pierre Boulez and adapted the method for himself in his Piano Quartet of 1950 . While the composer had produced other orchestral works contemporary to Connotations , it was his first purely symphonic work since his Third Symphony , written in 1947 .
Connotations was received negatively upon its premiere for its harmonic assertiveness and compositional style . The overall impression at the time was that , as critic Alex Ross later phrased it , " Copland was no longer in an ingratiating mood . " The composer was accused by some critics of betraying his role as a tonal , populist composer to curry favor with younger composers and give the impression that his music still held contemporary relevance . Copland denied this accusation ; he asserted that he had written Connotations as a twelve @-@ tone work to give himself compositional options not available had he written it as a tonal one .
Part of the blame for Connotations ' initial failure has been ascribed by Copland biographer Howard Pollack , among others , to Bernstein 's " harsh and overblown " conducting . Bernstein , known in the classical music community as a long @-@ time champion of Copland 's music , had programmed the composer 's pieces more frequently with the New York Philharmonic than those of any other living composer . However , these performances were mainly of works from the composer 's populist period , with which the conductor was in full sympathy . He was less comfortable in pieces that were atonal or rhythmically disjunctive . While Bernstein might have performed the work purely out of service to an old friend , he was apparently unable to interpret this work persuasively . Subsequent performances with New York Philharmonic during its 1963 European tour and a 1999 all @-@ Copland concert showed that the situation had not changed . Bad acoustics might have also played a part in the work 's lack of success at its premiere .
More recent performances , led by conductors Pierre Boulez , Edo de Waart and Sixten Ehrling , have been acknowledged to show the music in a more positive light . Nevertheless , the overall reputation of the music remains mixed . Some critics , including composer John Adams , have remained critical of the work and considered Copland 's use of serial techniques detrimental to his later music . Others , which include critics Michael Andrews and Peter Davis , have seen Connotations as proof of Copland 's continued growth and inventiveness as a composer while not downplaying the work 's melodic and harmonic harshness and potential difficulty overall for listeners .
= = Background = =
Aaron Copland wrote Connotations to fulfill a commission from Leonard Bernstein for the opening concert of the New York Philharmonic 's new home in the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts . Since this hall was slated as the first part of Lincoln Center for completion , its inauguration was considered especially momentous . Among the guest list of 2600 for the first concert and the white @-@ tie gala which would follow it were John D. Rockefeller III ( chairman of Lincoln Center ) , Secretary of State Dean Rusk , Governor and Mrs. Nelson Rockefeller , United Nations Secretary General U Thant and prominent figures in the arts that included of Metropolitan Opera General Manager Rudolf Bing , violinist Isaac Stern and actress Merle Oberon . Noted composers would also attend included Samuel Barber , Henry Cowell , Roy Harris , Walter Piston , Richard Rodgers , William Schuman and Roger Sessions . United States President John F. Kennedy and his wife Jackie had also been invited . Their initial inability to attend caused some consternation , since they had voiced their support for American culture . At the last minute , Jackie Kennedy said she would be there .
Copland was one of ten internationally @-@ known composers who accepted invitations to contribute music for the opening . His would be the first new piece to be heard . Other compositions included the Eighth Symphony of American composer William Schuman , an Overture Philharmonique by French composer Darius Milhaud and " Andromache 's Farewell " for soprano and orchestra by American composer Samuel Barber . It would also be Copland 's first purely symphonic piece since his Third Symphony of 1947 , although he had penned orchestral works in a number of genres throughout the 1940s and 50s . According to Taruskin , Copland 's receipt of such a commission testified to both his status as a creative figure and his close relationship with the American public . This position was unique among " serious " American composers and derived from the populist works he had written in the 1930s and 40s . However , from the 1950s Copland 's public works — the ones for which he had developed his populist style — were increasingly written in what he called his " difficult " or " private " style . That style had become increasing non @-@ tonal .
Copland began sketching the work early in 1961 . To gain composing time , he cancelled his 1962 trip to Tanglewood and determined to stay at home the entire year . Even so , he accepted an invitation to revisit Japan early in 1962 for a United States State Department conference and combined the trip with conducting engagements in Seattle and Vancouver . By June 25 , Copland wrote to Mexican composer Cesar Chavez , " I am working day and night on my symphony for the Philharmonic commission . It is in three movements and I have just finished the last , the first being more than half done . " Copland then went to Mexico at Chavez 's invitation , partly to conduct but mainly to compose . From there , he wrote American composer Leo Smit on July 4 that he was not yet finished and was having trouble finding a title for the new work . He completed the piece in September 1962 , just in time for orchestra rehearsals .
When he considered the form the work would take , Copland wrote that he " concluded that the classical masters would undoubtedly provide the festive and dedicatory tone appropriate to such an occasion . " He therefore decided to offer " a contemporary note , " one that would reflect " the tensions , aspirations and drama inherent in the world today . " This tension , he explained in 1975 , " is inherent in the nature of the chordal structures , and in the general character of the piece . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Instrumentation = = =
Connotations is scored for full symphony orchestra with augmented percussion . The complete ensemble includes piccolo , three flutes ( third flute doubling second piccolo ) , two oboes , cor anglais , two clarinets , E @-@ flat clarinet , bass clarinet , three bassoons ( third bassoon doubling contrabassoon ) , six horns , four trumpets , four trombones , tuba , tympani , five percussionists ( glockenspiel , vibraphone , xylophone , conga drums , timbales , cymbals , metal sheet , tam @-@ tam , triangle , claves , temple block , woodblock , bass drum , snare drum , tenor drum ) , piano ( doubling celesta ) and strings .
= = = Form = = =
A typical performance of this work lasts 20 minutes .
Connotations is twelve @-@ tone , a style of composition which is among the first introduced , and certainly most well known , forms of musical Serialism . Through this technique , Copland wrote that he felt he could express " something of the tensions , aspirations and drama " of that time . The overall structure " comes closest to a free treatment of the baroque form of the chaconne , " the composer wrote , with a succession of variations " based on the opening chords and their implied melodic intervals . " These variations alternate fast and slow sections much in the way Copland had done with his Piano Variations of 1930 , which creates a complex structure overall . This structure , based on a straightforward ABCBA arch form , is reminiscent of Copland 's Nonet for strings , composed in 1960 . Copland biographer Howard Pollack calls the A sections " prophetic , tragic , " the B sections " jazzy , frentic [ sic ] " and the C section " pastoral , reflective . " While these are all moods long familiar to listeners of Copland 's music , Pollack asserts , " a new darkness hangs over the whole . The outer sections are grave ; the jazzy sections rather cheerless ; the pastoral contrast more weary than peaceful . The music often seems lost , uncertain , trapped . " The piece ends in a series of strict 12 @-@ note chords that Copland called " aggregates . "
= = = Significance of title = = =
Both Chavez and American composer David Diamond were confused initially about what musical form Connotations would take . The work 's title seemed to give no clear indication , they said , and Chavez told Copland that he found Connotations too abstract . Copland explained to both men and later wrote that , in selecting the title , he took the dictionary meaning of the word " connote " to imply or signify meanings in addition to the primary one as an impetus for musical exploration . The entire composition was derived from the " three harsh chords " with which it begins . Each of these chords contained four notes of the twelve @-@ note row upon which the work was based . " When spelled out horizontally , " the composer later wrote , they supplied him " with various versions of a more lyrical discourse . " This " skeletal frame of the row , " he told Diamond and Chavez , was the " primary meaning " and as such denoted the area which would be explored in the course of the piece . " The subsequent treatment , " he explained , " seeks out other implications — connotations that come in a flash or connotations that the composer himself may gradually uncover . " From there , the listener was " free to discover his or her own connotative meanings , including perhaps some not suspected by the author .
= = = Resemblance to other Copland works = = =
In the second edition of The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , Pollack labels Connotations as one of three orchestral works that Copland said was written in " the grand manner , " quoting the composer 's words about his Third Symphony . The other two works in this category were the Symphonic Ode and the Third Symphony . Pollack elaborates in his biography of the composer about the similarity of Connotations to the Ode in its overall length , single @-@ movement form , solemn tone and " hard @-@ edged " orchestration . Copland writes of the earlier two works of his intent to write " something different , " " grand and dramatic , " " a serious statement . " He also calls those works transitional pieces and anomalies that stand between different compositional styles of his oeuvre . All three works would prove , as musicologist William W. Austin notes and Pollack states about the symphony , " challenging to grasp . "
= = Reception = =
The premiere , on September 23 , 1962 , " sent shock waves through the world of music , " according to Alexander J. Morin , with a reaction by the initial audience , according to Taruskin , of near @-@ silence and incomprehension . Copland noted that the general impression " was that the premiere was not a congenial circumstance , " with the music not considered important as the sound of the new concert hall . His effort to present something not bland or traditional for such an occasion and distinguished audience " was not appreciated at the time . " Also , Taruskin states , Copland had become an emblem of success in the eyes of the American public . The fact he had written a twelve @-@ tone composition for such an occasion seemed a repudiation of the audience he had won through years of hard effort .
= = = Public = = =
The overall impression , as critic Alex Ross writes in his book The Rest is Noise , was that " Copland was no longer in an ingratiating mood ; some sudden rage welled up in him , some urge to confront the gala Lincoln Center audience with an old whiff of revolutionary mystique . " Copland himself remembers , " The acidulous harmonies of my score ... upset a good many people , especially those who were expecting another Appalachian Spring . " Jacqueline Kennedy was left unable to say anything other than " Oh , Mr. Copland " when taken backstage during intermission to meet with the composer . When Copland later asked Verna Fine , wife of American composer Irving Fine , what this meant , Fine answered , " Oh , Aaron , it 's obvious . She hated your piece ! " In Variety , Robert J. Landry called Connotations " an assault on [ the audience 's ] nervous systems " and added , " Seldom has this reviewer heard such outspoken comment in the lobbies after such dull response . It is strictly accurate to declare that an audience paying $ 100 a seat and in mood for self @-@ congratulation and schmaltz hated Copland 's reminder of the ugly realities of industrialization , inflation and cold war — which his music seems to be talking about . "
A minority of apparently more discerning listeners felt that Connotations was the right music for its time and place . Composer Arthur Berger states , " I think [ Copland ] wrote exactly the piece he wanted to write because he wanted to make a statement about the new Philharmonic Hall in New York — it wasn 't going to be a temple of easy listening , as it were , but a place for serious music @-@ making . " Minna Lederman Daniel , a music writer and editor of Modern Music magazine , told Copland , " I think Connotations was the right place for the people and the occasion — indeed the only one properly related to them . It sounds a good deal like certain aspects of the building — big , spacious , clear , long @-@ lined , and it sounds very like you ... To those familiar with your music , the characteristic , identifying moods are perfectly apparent . The special Copland eloquence is there . "
= = = Critics = = =
A few critics were positive . Louis Biancolli wrote in The New York Telegram that the work was " a turning point in [ Copland 's ] career , a powerful score in 12 @-@ tone style that has liberated new stores of creative energy . " John Molleson write for the New York Herald Tribune that while the new piece was " a difficult work and like most music difficult to understand at one hearing ... this piece has flesh where others have only skin , and there was a good deal of arresting lyricism . " Others , however , dismissed Connotations : Everett Helm thought it " unnecessarily strident , " Harriet Johnson " too long for its content " and Richard Franko Johnson " completely without charm . "
= = = Telecast = = =
The concert was telecast live by the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) to an audience of 26 million viewers . As part of its program , NBC asked Copland to talk to the television audience about Connotations . While the cameras alternated between shots of the composer and the manuscript score , Copland said , " It seems to me that there are two things you can do when listening to any new work . The most important thing is to lend yourself — or to put it another way — try to be as sensitive as you can to the overall feeling the new piece gives off . The second way is to listen with some awareness of the general shape of the new piece , realizing that a composer works with his musical materials just as an architect works with his building materials in order to construct an edifice that makes sense . " He then discussed the work briefly but in some detail .
To Copland 's surprise , his lecture was taken as an apologia , not an explanation , by the majority of the television audience . Moreover , vehement letters poured into NBC after the broadcast from across the United States . One read , " If last night is any criterion of what can be expected in Lincoln Center , it should be called ' Center of Jungle Culture . ' " Another read , " Dear Mr. Copland , Shame Shame Shame ! "
= = = European tour and first recording = = =
Bernstein conducted Connotations again during the first week of regular Philharmonic concerts in 1963 and included it among the pieces the orchestra played on its European tour that February . Despite the composer 's claim in Copland Since 1943 that " The European premiere was more successful than the New York reception , " reviews about Connotations remained mainly negative ; comments abounded about " mere din " and " dodecaphonic deserts . " When the London audience gave the work a lengthy ovation , Bernstein responded that he would conduct another Copland work as an encore . When cries of " Oh , oh " ensued , he added , " But this will be in a different style . " He then conducted " Hoe @-@ Down " from the ballet Rodeo .
A release of the New York performance by Columbia Records fared no better . Robert Marsh found the music " dreary " and " dull . " Irving Kolodin called it " rather relentlessly grim . " Everett Helm , who had been able to hear the work live before he sampled the recording , wrote , " Connotations for Orchestra sounded rather strident on September 23 ; on the disc it becomes ear @-@ piercing . " Bernstein rerecorded Connotations with the New York Philharmonic for Columbia in 1973 . This recording was released with Copland 's Inscape and Carter 's Concerto for Orchestra .
= = = Other factors in initial failure = = =
The composer admitted that Connotations possessed " a rather severe and somewhat intellectual tone . " However , while he did not expect it to be an immediate success , he had still hoped that the music 's intensity and drama might lend it some appeal . While Copland maintained that " It bothers me not at all to realize that my range as a composer includes both accessible and problematic works , " composer and musicologist Peter Dickinson notes " a tone of defensiveness " in this remark . Nevertheless , Connotations ' abrasiveness to many listeners might not have been the only factor in its initial failure .
= = = = Bernstein = = = =
The negative initial reaction to Connotations has also been claimed to have been due to Bernstein 's conducting . Bernstein was especially antipathetic toward works that were atonal or rhythmically disjunctive and " could not overcome a deep @-@ seated antipathy , an almost gut reaction " against them.Of the contemporary composers with whom he could relate , he had been " generous and enthusiastic " in his support of Copland . His frequent programming of Copland 's works during his tenure with the New York Philharmonic might , Adams suggests , have been partly in reaction against works of the twelve @-@ tone school . Now he was confronted with what American composer John Adams terms a " stridently dissonant , piss @-@ n @-@ vinegar " work " written in an idiom so alien to his own sensibilities , " the first performance of which he would not only conduct but would also be televised to a national audience . Pollack claims Bernstein might have found Connotations " boring " and kept it on the program solely out of duty to his old friend .
Despite Bernstein 's own musical antipathies , Adams claims the conductor generally remained open @-@ minded and curious enough " to try something at least once . " Among the world premieres of " difficult " works he led were Olivier Messiaen 's Turangalîla @-@ Symphonie in Boston in 1949 and Carter 's Concerto for Orchestra in New York in 1970 ; and despite his apparent lack of identification with Carter 's music , he described the composer in 1975 as " a brilliant mind and a supremely intelligent musician . " Bernstein conducted Connotations again during the first week of regular Philharmonic concerts in 1963 and included it among the pieces the orchestra played on its European tour in February 1963 . He would also commission a subsequent orchestral work from Copland , which became Inscape , and conduct Connotations again in an all @-@ Copland concert with the New York Philharmonic in 1989 . Even with this advocacy and the chance to familiarize himself at length , Connotations apparently remained a work that Bernstein did not conduct well . Critic Peter Davis , in his review of the 1989 performance , writes that while Connotations remained " admittedly not a very lovable piece , " in Bernstein 's hands it " sounded more fulsome than portentous . "
= = = = Acoustical problems with Philharmonic Hall = = = =
While Philharmonic Hall was being renovated in 1976 in an attempt to improve its sound , Harold C. Schonberg wrote , " For all we know , Connotations is a masterpiece . But one thing is certain — it did not make many friends for Lincoln Center in 1962 . " While admitting the work was " written in Copland 's austere , objective , abstract style , " he suggested that bad acoustics might have also played a part in the work 's failure at the premiere . The orchestra that night had been augmented by a large chorus to perform the first movement of Gustav Mahler 's Eighth Symphony , which pushed the orchestra forward , " out of its normal playing position ... The sound was bad , bad . The bass response was sorely deficient , the hall was plagued with echoes , the musicians on stage reported that they could not hear each other very well ( just great for ensemble ) and in general Philharmonic Hall sounded like a cheap hi @-@ fi set with the bass speakers out of the circuit .
= = = Composer efforts = = =
Copland conducted Connotations in 1966 , 1967 and 1968 around the United States . This included an engagement at the Musica Viva series in San Francisco and concerts with the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra , the National Symphony Orchestra in Washington D.C. and the Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra . " I spoke to the audiences , " Copland writes , " with humorous accounts of the work 's adverse effect on droves of letter writers , who had heard the original performance , in person or on TV . Then I asked the brass section to illustrate the opening chords , and the strings how they sounded . Before they knew it , the audience was sympathetic . My purpose was not to sell the work but to demonstrate it . "
= = = Boulez revival = = =
A decade after Bernstein premiered the work , Pierre Boulez , who had succeeded Bernstein as music director of the New York Philharmonic in 1971 , conducted Connotations with the orchestra for the ten @-@ year anniversary of Philharmonic Hall ( subsequently renamed Avery Fisher Hall ; later David Geffen Hall ) . According to Copland , ten years had allowed enough time to change audience perceptions for the better . In his review for The New York Times Harold C. Schonberg wrote that this time , the audience " did not rise in revolt " as it had in 1962 . He added , " The composer 's cause was helped by , if memory serves , a better performance than had been given in 1962 . Mr. Boulez revels in this kind of music , and he brought drama to it as well as a synthesizing quality . "
= = Analysis = =
Connotations was the first orchestral work in which Copland used serial principles of composition . Serial or twelve @-@ tone music , Copland stated , carried " a built @-@ in tenseness ... a certain drama ... a sense of strain or tension " inherent in its extended use of chromaticism . " These are new tensions , " he continued , " different from what I would have dreamt up if I had been thinking tonally . " To composer John Adams , Copland 's embrace of serial technique was not really such as stretch " because ever since the 1920s , he 'd already a piss- ' n @-@ vinegar penchant for sour intervals , like he did in the Piano Variations . " Contrary to the charge that would be made after Connotations ' premiere that Copland wrote a twelve @-@ tone work to impress younger composers , he had actually begun using the method at a time when few other American composers were doing so . While Copland 's first expressly serial works were his Piano Quartet of 1950 and Piano Fantasy and he noted that some critics ( whom he did not name ) had traced a similarity in those pieces to his Piano Variations of 1930 , he claimed in his 1967 " conversation " with Edward T. Cone that the Variations were " the start of my interest in serial writing ... Although it doesn 't use all twelve tones , it does use seven of them in what I hope is a consistently logical way . " Prior to that interview , few had related Copland 's early work to that of the founder of twelve @-@ tone composition , Arnold Schoenberg .
By the time he wrote Connotations , Copland had come to the view that serial composition was " like looking at a picture from a different point of view " and used it " with the hope that it would freshen and enrich my [ compositional ] technique . " Part of that changed viewpoint , Copland said , " was that I began to hear chords that I wouldn 't have heard otherwise . Heretofore , I had been thinking tonally , but this was a new way of moving tones about . " Serialism also allowed Copland a synthesis of serial and non @-@ serial practices that had long concerned Copland and he had previously felt impossible to attain . One challenge Copland said he faced while he composed Connotations was " to construct an overall line that had continuity , dramatic force and an inherent unity . " He stated that he had faced a similar challenge in his Orchestral Variations ( his orchestration of the Piano Variations ) . He added that while dodecaphonic techniques supplied " the building blocks " for Connotations , it was up to him to supply " the edifice " that these blocks would eventually form .
Critic Paul Henry Lang , among others , lamented Copland 's " yield to the conformism of 12 @-@ tone music . " As serial and serial @-@ inspired music was considered more academically viable than music utilizing common practice tonality ( especially in Europe ) , some contemporary critics felt that Copland was trying to retain his place at the apex of the American classical music scene by conforming to " academic standards . " Taruskin suggests that it might have appeared to these critics that Copland " had sacrificed his hard @-@ won , well @-@ nigh unique public appeal for what seemed ... an ' alienated ' modernist stance . " As the composer had been one of the first American composers to import the style from Europe — in the mid twenties — these critics may have overlooked the possibility that his " populist period " may have represented the more jarring deviation in his compositional style .
It had also been some time since a Copland piece had been appreciated widely by audiences . His opera The Tender Land had not fared well , either in its original or revised forms . Choreographer Jerome Robbins never produced Copland 's ballet Dance Panels , despite the fact that he had commissioned it . None of his major orchestral works from the 1960s — Connotations , Music for a Great City , Emblems and Inscape — made much of an impact with audiences . Nor do they fit in either the populist or modernist parts of Copland 's compositional output . Copland was aware that dodecaphonism did not hold as high a place as it had previously and writes , " By the sixties , serialism had been around for over fifty years ; young composers were not so fascinated with it anymore . " Nonetheless , he did not want to be pigeonholed . He told American composer Walter Piston in 1963 , " People always want to shove me into the American idea more than I really want . Nobody wants to be an ' American ' composer now as they did . " He told another friend , " Young composers today wouldn 't be caught dead with a folk tune ! " He heard a considerable amount of new music through his association with Tanglewood and might not have wanted to be left behind . At the same time , he might not have become totally at home with serialism . He confided to Verna Fine , " I don 't feel comfortable with the twelve @-@ tone system , but I don 't want to keep repeating myself . "
= = Ballet = =
Choreographer John Neumier , noted for his ballets based on literary themes , received permission from Copland to use music from Connotations , the Piano Variations and Piano Fantasy for a ballet , The Fall Hamlet ( The Hamlet Affair ) . Staged by the American Ballet Theatre on January 6 , 1976 , the title role was danced by Mikhail Barishnikov , Ophelia by Gelsie Kirkland , Gertrude by Marcia Haydée and Claudius by Erik Bruhn . The ballet was received poorly , due to ineffective choreography . Critic Bob Micklin noted , however , that Copland 's " prickly , restless music " reflected the ballet 's story very well .
= = Legacy = =
Despite its initial reception , Connotations was listed in 1979 by Billboard magazine among Copland works that continued to be programmed by orchestras , with subsequent performances by Pierre Boulez , Edo de Waart and Sixten Ehrling received positively . Reaction to the work itself remains mixed . Ross dismisses Connotations as a " barbaric yawp of a piece . " Morin calls it a " thorny , riveting patchwork " and listening to it " like the unrelenting pummeling of a prizefighter at times . " Adams calls its style " very simplistic ... strident " and " generally unpleasant sounding " and adds that " the rigor [ of twelve @-@ tone composition ] seemed more to cramp [ Copland 's ] natural spontaneity than to aid it . " Composer Kyle Gann calls Connotations " big , unwieldy ... and [ not ] that good ... Copland 's imagination seemed constrained by the technique . On a more positive note , Davis wrote after a performance of the work under Ehrling by The Juilliard Orchestra that while Connotations remains a " spiky " composition , Copland " adopts Schoenberg 's serial procedures to produce a sequence of typically pungent and exhilarating Coplandesque sonorities . " Desmond Shawe @-@ Taylor called the work " beautifully put together : full of energy , variety , thought " after he had heard Boulez conduct the piece . Michael Andrews wrote of Copland 's " mammoth , anxious and angry vision " and Barlett Naylor of " a majesty hidden in this dark piece " after both had heard de Waart 's performance .
= = Recordings = =
Along with Bernstein 's two performances , Copland recorded Connotations with the Orchestre National de France ( no longer available ) . More recently , The Juilliard Orchestra recorded the work under the direction of Sixten Ehrling for New World Records .
|
= La Isla Bonita =
" La Isla Bonita " ( English : The Beautiful Island ) is a song by American singer Madonna from her third studio album True Blue ( 1986 ) . It was released as the album 's final single on February 25 , 1987 by Sire Records . The instrumental version of the song was first offered to Michael Jackson before Madonna both accepted it and wrote the lyrics and melody . " La Isla Bonita " is noted for being the first Madonna song to have a Latino influence in it , with arrangements of Cuban drums and Spanish guitar , maracas , harmonicas and a mix of synthesized and real drumming . The lyrics of the song tell about a beautiful island and was a tribute to the beauty of the Latin people according to Madonna .
Following its release , " La Isla Bonita " received positive appreciation from critics . It also achieved worldwide popularity , topping the record charts in countries such as Austria , Canada , France , Germany and Switzerland . It became Madonna 's fourth number @-@ one single in the United Kingdom , giving her the record for most number @-@ one singles among female artists . In the United States , it reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100 chart .
In the accompanying music video , Madonna portrayed two opposite characters – a pious girl and a passionate Latina . The Latin style and the flamenco red dress she wore became a trend later . The song is one of the most performed live songs by Madonna , appearing in six of her world tours , the most recent being on the Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 – 16 ) . Madonna has regularly performed the song in its Spanish form , sometimes with tribal or folk songs and remixes to accompany it . The song has been covered by a number of artists including Mexican recording artist Byanka ( 1988 ) and French recording artist Alizée for her album Psychédélices ( 2008 ) .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
" La Isla Bonita " was written by Madonna , Patrick Leonard and Bruce Gaitsch . The song was previously written as a lament for the town of San Pedro in the island of Ambergris Caye in Belize and was offered to Michael Jackson for his Bad album , who , according to Gaitsch , turned it down . While working with Leonard on the True Blue album , Madonna accepted it in Jackson 's place and wrote the song 's lyrics and melody , thus earning herself a co @-@ writing credit .
" La Isla Bonita " was the first Madonna song to employ Spanish motifs , going so far as to include Spanish lyrics . The Spanish theme would reoccur throughout her career , manifesting itself in lyrics for " Who 's That Girl " ( 1987 ) , " Spanish Eyes " ( 1989 ) , " I 'm Going Bananas " ( 1990 ) , the Spanish version of " You 'll See " ( 1995 ) called " Verás " , " Be Careful ( Cuidado Con Mi Corazón ) " ( 1999 ) which was a duet with Ricky Martin , " Lo Que Siente La Mujer " – the Spanish version for " What It Feels Like for a Girl " ( 2001 ) , " Sorry " ( 2005 ) and " Spanish Lesson " from Hard Candy ( 2008 ) . Madonna described the song as her tribute to the " beauty and mystery of Latin American people " . According to her " Latin rhythms often dominate our uptempo compositions . It 's like we 're possessed . We both think that we were Latin in another life . "
= = Composition = =
" La Isla Bonita " is a Hispanic styled pop song . It is one of the characteristic works of the collaboration between Madonna and Patrick Leonard . The single mixes the sound of different instruments like Cuban drums and Spanish guitar , maracas and harmonicas and a mix of synthesized and real drumming . The song is written in the key of C ♯ minor and is set in the time signature of common time like most pop songs , moving at a moderate tempo of 95 beats per minute . The song starts with a musical introduction performed on a Cuban drum , before descending into synthesized beats and Spanish guitar fusion . Madonna sings the chorus in the same G ♯ 3 to C ♯ 5 range . After the second chorus there is a Spanish guitar interlude whence Madonna 's voice expands to F ♯ minor as she sings " I want to be where the sun warms the sky " and then comes down to a C ♯ minor when she sings " loves a girl " . There is another musical interlude with a harmonica and the song , after another chorus , ends with fading out and Madonna 's voice uttering the words " El dijo que te ama ( He said he loves you ) " .
The phrase " La Isla Bonita " translates to " The Beautiful Island " in English . The song has four lines sung in Spanish , a theme which Madonna later incorporated in her 1987 single " Who 's That Girl " . The lyrics begin by describing Madonna as a tourist who prays " that the days would last , they went so fast " simultaneously isolating the other Latin people as them ( " you can watch them go by " ) . In her book Women and popular music , author Sheila Whiteley said that the chorus of the song places its emphasis on the incantatory present participle ( " Tropical the island breeze , all of nature wild and free , this is where I long to be " ) . The song draws connotations from the supplicant before its explicit focus on the chorus .
The title and first line of the song refer to an island called San Pedro , held by some to be Ambergris Caye in Belize , referencing the town of San Pedro , which has since adopted the song 's title as the town 's principal nickname . However , Gaitsch has mentioned that at that time , Madonna was spending time in a U.S. town of the same name , and both Madonna and her then husband Sean Penn were good friends with a poet called San Pedro and novelist Charles Bukowski . Madonna herself has not clarified this in any interview . Instead , she referred the song as being a tribute to Latin America and its people , along with an island and to herself . In 2014 , while working on her thirteenth studio album Rebel Heart with producer Diplo , Madonna recorded a dubplate of " La Isla Bonita " with new lyrics for his Major Lazer project . Diplo premiered the full version of it in March 2015 during his show on BBC Radio 1 .
= = Critical reception = =
In a review for the album The Immaculate Collection , David Browne of Entertainment Weekly compared the song with the moves of Carmen Miranda on MTV . Slant Magazine music critic Sal Cinquemani , in a review for the True Blue album , called the song one of Madonna 's greatest , most influential and timeless songs . Author Maury Dean in his book Rock ' n ' Roll Gold Rush praised the song saying , " Madonna coos a Spanish lullaby . Sizzly romance blooms among the cozy sheltering palms . Tough tunes for most males to shrug off . "
Rikky Rooksby , in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna called the song " a little escapism " . Dawn Keetley in his book Public Women , Public Words called the song one of Madonna 's most perfect songs capturing her inner emotional life . William McKeen called the song " tranquil " and " Up on the Roof type imaginary escapes from the city snarl , the kind of Latin @-@ flavored sweets that Blondie could never resist . " Ken Barnes of Creem wrote the song is " no " Open Your Heart " , but its lilting ( yet reflective ) quality transcends the south @-@ of @-@ the @-@ border cliches . "
Jon Pareles of The New York Times said that " La Isla Bonita " was one of Madonna 's " friendlier " love songs . Don McLeese of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times believed that the song was the best song on the album , as well as the most memorable . Meanwhile , Steve Morse of The Boston Globe believed that it was one of her " prettier " songs . Joey Guerra of Houston Chronicle , while reviewing Madonna 's Sticky & Sweet Tour , called the song a true retro one . Marty Racine , from the same newspaper , believed that the song was one that stood out on the album . Los Angeles Daily News , when discussing Madonna 's style of music , believed that " La Isla Bonita " was a song that was " pointing in [ a ] welcome direction . "
= = Chart performance = =
" La Isla Bonita " debuted at number 49 and reached a peak of number four on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in May 1987 . The song was Madonna 's second number one single on the Adult Contemporary chart , following 1986 's " Live to Tell " . It became the 11th consecutive top @-@ five hit for Madonna , a feat surpassed only by the Beatles and Elvis Presley . The single also found success on the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart , where it peaked at number one . In Canada , the song debuted at number 74 for the issue dated April 4 , 1987 and reached the top of the chart in its tenth week on the issue dated June 6 , 1987 , remaining on the chart for 25 weeks . It placed at number 22 on the RPM Year @-@ end chart for 1987 .
In the United Kingdom , " La Isla Bonita " topped the UK Singles Chart for two weeks , giving Madonna her fourth number @-@ one single on the chart . She became the female artist with the most number @-@ one singles in the British chart history — a record that has since been maintained by Madonna to date . The single was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipment of 250 @,@ 000 copies of the single . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 435 @,@ 000 copies in the UK .
" La Isla Bonita " was Madonna 's first number one song in France , where it spent three weeks at the top spot in July 1987 . It was certified gold by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies . " La Isla Bonita " remains Madonna 's best @-@ selling single in France , selling over 771 @,@ 000 copies . Across Europe , it became her fourth number one hit from True Blue , topping the Eurochart Hot 100 for three weeks in 1987 . The song also peaked atop the charts in Switzerland , Belgium and Austria along with reaching the top @-@ five in Ireland , Italy , Netherlands , Norway and Sweden , and the top @-@ ten in Spain .
= = Music video = =
The music video was set in Los Angeles and was directed by Mary Lambert , who directed a number of Madonna 's 1980s videos , including those for " Borderline " , " Like a Virgin " and " Like a Prayer " . Benicio del Toro appeared in the video as a background character . The video first appeared on MTV on March 29 , 1987 . It starts with showing a number of Latin people dancing in a Spanish barrio as Madonna watches them from her window . She plays two different characters in the video : a boyishly @-@ dressed Catholic woman and a colorful Flamenco dancer . The characters are quite opposite in their portrayal , which is emphasized by two opposing settings for the characters . Firstly , the video shows a sparsely decorated room with an altar and pictures of Hispanic people on the wall . Madonna plays a pale @-@ looking pious girl wearing a white petticoat and her short hair brushed back . She cries in her room and reluctantly ignores the invitation of the Latinos in the street to join them .
The austerity and the passivity of the first character is however contrasted vividly with the passion and activity of the second character . Madonna in this portrayal wears a red voluminous extravagant Spanish style dress , which shows off her décolletage , with a middle parting in the skirt , while wearing red carnations in her hair . Complementing this passionate look , the second setting features a bright red room with red candles and candelabra . While the spiritual and submissive Madonna watches the Latinos and prays in her room , the passionate Madonna dances and leaves the room to join the dancers in the streets .
While both settings seem to suggest that Madonna 's characters live in the barrio and may be Latina themselves , the portrayal of Madonna in the dancing scenes ( lush , flashy , colorful ) contrasts with the Latinos in the street ( sparsely worn out dresses ) . She dances around and even flirts but does not get really involved with them as the last scene shows Madonna dancing off the screen . The video symbolizes the link between Latino culture and Catholicism . The two characters symbolize the restrained and passionate side of Catholicism , which author Rettenmund has described as Madonna 's take on the religion .
The Latinos in the video are portrayed as stereotypes as nonchalant people , unemployed adults , school deprived children and a crumbling barrio . However , the music video was critically appreciated for its utilization of Hispanic fashion as an icon of beauty and romanticism . Collen McDanell , in his book Material Christianity , noted Madonna 's use of Catholic objects in the video like the candlestands and home shrines , thereby giving them a new meaning according to her own . Author Douglas Kellner noted , " such ' multiculturalism ' and her culturally transgressive moves turned out to be highly successful moves that endeared her to large and varied youth audiences " . Madonna 's Spanish look in the video became popular and appeared in the fashion trends at that time in the form of boleros and layered skirts accessorizing with rosary beads and crucifix like the video .
= = Live performances = =
Madonna has performed " La Isla Bonita " on most of her world tours including the 1987 Who 's That Girl World Tour , the 1993 Girlie Show World Tour , the 2001 Drowned World Tour , the 2006 Confessions Tour , the 2008 @-@ 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour and the 2015 – 16 Rebel Heart Tour . She also sang it at the 2007 Live Earth benefit concert in London . In the Who 's That Girl tour , " La Isla Bonita " was performed as a part of the encore . Madonna came out on the stage in a bright red flamenco dress like the video and performed the song , assisted by her backup singers Niki Haris , Donna De Lory and Debra Parson . A Latino dancing with Angel Ferreira was also included . Two different performances of the song on this tour can be found on the videos : Who 's That Girl : Live in Japan , filmed in Tokyo , Japan , on June 22 , 1987 , and Ciao Italia : Live from Italy , filmed in Turin , Italy , on September 4 , 1987 . In the 1993 Girlie Show tour Madonna performed the song on top of a rising platform , after " I 'm Going Bananas " . She was dressed in a blue and white striped shirt while Haris and De Lory wore a similar outfit , but in black and red . One of the musicians walked around bare chest playing the acoustic guitar .
During her 2001 Drowned World Tour , Madonna performed " La Isla Bonita " in the Latin segment of the show , wearing a revealing black senorita 's dress and trousers , hair tied back and playing a Spanish guitar . She asked the crowd to join her while singing " olé ola " with the song . In the Confessions Tour , Madonna appeared on the stage in a purple white leotard with open hair and started singing the song . In the middle of the performance , she was joined by her backup dancers who , along with the singer , walked the length of the stage singing the chorus . The performance ends with Madonna lying down on the stage . The video backdrops showed a tropical paradise like the island San Pedro mentioned in the song .
Madonna performed " La Isla Bonita " during the 2007 Live Earth benefit concert at Wembley Stadium in London where she was joined by members of gypsy punk band Gogol Bordello for a crazed hoedown version of the song . Gogol Bordello had previously joined her on the 2006 Confessions Tour where the song was played as a dance / tribal remix with interventions from Eugene Hütz and Sergey Ryabtsev from Gogol Bordello . The song was once again added to the set list of her 2008 – 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour , as part of the Gypsy segment of the show , featuring the Arkady Gips band and the Romani @-@ Gypsy folk song " Lela Pala Tute . " The performance had Madonna wearing a short black skintight dress and knee @-@ high boots with pink fluorescent beads and necklaces . Along with " Lela Pala Tute " , there was a Mediterranean Street party with Greek dancing , another gypsy song called " Doli , Doli " and a flamenco solo performance . A flamenco version of the song was performed on the third section of the Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 – 16 ) . For the wardrobe , Madonna enlisted a Spanish tailoring company from Zaragoza for creating two bullfighter traje de luces costume , along with a cape and matador related costumes for her backing dancers . Jordan Zivitz of Montreal Gazette praised the performance for being " one of the only hits to retain its original form " .
= = Cover versions and popular culture appearance = =
French pop singer Alizée has performed " La Isla Bonita " during her first promotional tours in Europe in 2003 . In 2008 , a new studio version was recorded and included on the special edition of her album , Psychédélices , in Mexico . The song so far has gone on to become Alizée 's first top ten single on the Mexico national top ten airplay chart along with reaching number two in her native France . Indie psychedelic folk singer @-@ songwriter Jonathan Wilson recorded a cover for the 2007 Madonna tribute compilation Through the Wilderness .
In 1999 , female singer Deetah used elements of the song in her single " El Paraíso Rico " . The song was sampled by rapper Black Rob , in his 1999 song " Spanish Fly " ( included in his Life Story album ) featuring Jennifer Lopez . In the chorus of the song , Lopez sings the part which samples " La Isla Bonita " . Rapper Andre Nickatina sampled the song in " Son of an Angel " , which is featured on his 2001 album Unreleased . In 2004 , rapper Mase sampled and interpolated it for his song " My Harlem Lullaby " . A cover has also been performed by Finnish power metal band Twilight Guardians on their record Sin Trade .
On the Family Guy episode " The Father , the Son , and the Holy Fonz " when discussing Madonna at the end , one of the characters , Peter Griffin , calls her a liar for singing about a nonexistent place ( La Isla Bonita ) stating that he could not find it in a map . American artist Britney Spears recorded a track titled " Love 2 Love U " , which heavily samples " La Isla Bonita " . The track leaked on December 2 , 2011 . The song was also covered in the Fox TV show , Glee in the episode " The Spanish Teacher " . It was sung by Naya Rivera who plays the character Santana Lopez and Ricky Martin who guest stars in the episode . It was filmed and recorded in January , then was broadcast in February 2012 .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – lyrics , producer , vocals
Bruce Gaitsch – guitars ( Spanish and acoustic guitar )
Patrick Leonard – drum programming , keyboards , lyrics , producer
Johnathan Moffett – drums
Paulinho da Costa – percussion
Michael Verdick – audio mixing , engineer
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
|
= Magic , Witchcraft and the Otherworld =
Magic , Witchcraft and the Otherworld : An Anthropology is an anthropological study of contemporary Pagan and ceremonial magic groups that practiced magic in London , England during the 1990s . It was written by English anthropologist Susan Greenwood based upon her doctoral research undertaken at Goldsmiths ' College , a part of the University of London , and first published in 2000 by Berg Publishers .
Greenwood became involved in the esoteric movement during the 1980s as a practitioner of a feminist @-@ orientated form of Wicca . Devoting her doctorate to the subject , her research led her to join Kabbalistic orders and two Wiccan covens , during which she emphasised that she was both an " insider " ( a practising occultist ) and an " outsider " ( an anthropological observer ) . Reacting against the work of Tanya Luhrmann , who had authored the primary anthropological study of the London occult scene , Persuasions of the Witch 's Craft ( 1989 ) , Greenwood argued against studying magical beliefs from a western rationalist perspective , instead adopting a theoretical approach informed by phenomenology and relativism . Greenwood 's research focused on Pagan and magical conceptions of the " otherworld " . The book 's first chapter summarises the Pagan magical conception of the otherworld , and subsequent chapters detail Greenwood 's experiences with Kabbalistic magic and Wicca . The work goes on to discuss issues of psychotherapy and healing , gender and sexuality , and morality and ethics within London 's esoteric community , and the manner in which the community 's members ' views on these issues are influenced by their beliefs regarding an otherworld .
Magic , Witchcraft and the Otherworld was reviewed by various figures involved in both academia and the Pagan community including Douglas Ezzy and Phil Hine . Greenwood herself would go on to author several other books on the relationship between magic and anthropology .
= = Background = =
= = = Anthropological fieldwork into Paganism = = =
Prior to Greenwood 's work , several academic researchers working in the field of Pagan studies had published investigations of the Pagan community in the United States and the United Kingdom . First among these was the practicing Wiccan , journalist and political activist Margot Adler in her Drawing Down the Moon : Witches , Druids , Goddess @-@ Worshippers , and Other Pagans in America Today , published by Viking Press in 1979 . A second study was produced by anthropologist Tanya M. Luhrmann in Persuasions of the Witch 's Craft : Ritual Magic in Contemporary England ( 1989 ) , in which she focused on a Wiccan coven and several ceremonial magic orders based in London . Sociologist Allen Scarboro , psychologist Nancy Campbell and Wiccan literary critic Shirley Stave undertook fieldwork in the Ravenwood coven of Atlanta , Georgia , over several months across 1990 and 1991 as the basis for Living Witchcraft : A Contemporary American Coven , published by Praeger in 1994 , while anthropologist and Wiccan Loretta Orion investigated the Pagan movement in the East Coast and Midwest of the U.S. for Never Again the Burning Times : Paganism Revisited , published by Waveland Press in 1995 . 1997 saw the publication of Witchcraft and Paganism in Australia , authored by anthropologist Lynne Hume .
= = = Greenwood and her research = = =
As a child , Greenwood had found a greater spiritual connection with the natural world than with organised religion . During the late 1970s , she embraced second @-@ wave feminism and came across feminist forms of Pagan Witchcraft through Starhawk 's Dreaming the Dark ( 1982 ) . Attracted to this new religious movement , she undertook an undergraduate degree in anthropology and sociology at Goldsmiths ' College , where her final year research project focused on women 's spirituality . Exploring the topic in further depth , she devoted a PhD to the subject , thereby conducting the research underpinning Magic , Witchcraft and the Otherworld .
Although initially planning to gather data through formal taped interviews with participants , she rejected this method , believing it solidified her " outsider " status among the subculture she was studying . Instead , her data was collected through informal conversations with practitioners , during which she tried to make clear that she was an anthropologist and would use their comments in her work . Over the course of her research , Greenwood gained many friends within the city 's Pagan community , and became sexually and emotionally attached to one magician . Greenwood 's research was funded using grants from the University of London Central Research Fund and from the Economic and Social Research Council . She devoted the published work to her children , Adrian and Lauren .
= = Synopsis = =
Chapter one describes contemporary Paganism and defines " the otherworld " . It discusses London 's magical and Pagan subculture in the 1990s , and Greenwood 's relationship with it . Admitting to being an " insider " , she explores her mixed feelings at being both a practicing Pagan and an anthropological observer . The second chapter examines the community 's conceptions of the otherworld , explaining how they approach it through acts of visualisation and altered states of consciousness and their understandings of it as a realm of spiritual energy connected to dreams and the imagination . Discussing the relationship between anthropology and magic , Greenwood argues that it is impossible for anthropologists to truly understand beliefs regarding magic and the otherworld if they only view it through a western rationalist lens , instead arguing for a phenomenological or relativist perspective that accepts alternative views of the world .
In her third chapter , Greenwood examines her experiences among London 's ceremonial magicians , focusing on her training in the Hermetic Qabalah , a " magical language " for exploring the otherworld . Adopting Luhrmann 's concept of " interpretative drift " , she relates how she shifted her understanding of events to make sense of her magical experiences . However , in contrast to Luhrmann 's emphasis on how practitioners overcame their initial scepticism , Greenwood focuses on how these practitioners learn " the language of another mode of reality " through their experiences . Chapter four details Greenwood 's early involvement in Wicca , through three separate covens . Offering her thoughts on Wiccan invocations , she then discusses the faith 's approach to sexual polarity , pointing to the sexual underpinnings of the Great Rite and the Gnostic Mass as evidence . The chapter is rounded off with an explanation of how Wicca understands the natural world and a comparison between the religion and ceremonial magic .
Chapter five examines the attraction of magic for its practitioners , and its uses for psychotherapy and healing . Greenwood explores the ways in which occultists use magic as a rebellion against Christianity , and their construction of a " magical identity " , believing this to be " organized around a deep internal exploration of the self through an interaction with the otherworld " . She also looks at magic and the acquisition of power , and the sense of empowerment discovered by magicians who were former abuse victims . The sixth chapter focuses on notions of gender and sexuality , highlighting the widespread belief that sexual energy provides the power behind magic and discussing the contrasting views of Dion Fortune and Aleister Crowley on this issue ; the former emphasised harmony and balance between " masculine " and " feminine " magical forces , while the latter advocated " magical anarchy " or spiritual autonomy for each individual , irrespective of gender . Greenwood looks at contrasting views on these issues in High Magic ( ceremonial magic ) , Wicca and Feminist Witchcraft . Drawing upon the typologies advocated by sociologist of religion Susan J. Palmer , she argues that High Magic emphasises " sex polarity " , a situation in which men and women are seen as unequal and different , whereas Wicca holds to a position of " sex complementarity " , in which men and women are seen as different yet equal , and Feminist Witchcraft advocates " sex unity " , in which there is a tolerance of sexual ambiguity .
Chapter seven deals with conceptions of morality and ethics , arguing that whereas High Magic typically envisions a dualistic world view of good versus evil , Wicca adheres to a monistic worldview in which malevolence and benevolence are seen as intrinsic parts of the whole . Disagreeing with Luhrmann 's view that morality 's place in the occult is to hide the pseudo @-@ scientific nature of magic , Greenwood discusses how magic and witchcraft developed in Europe as a part of moral discourse . She looks at the internal source of morality in High Magic , explaining concepts such as that of the Qliphoth , before examining the internal source of morality in Wicca and Feminist Witchcraft .
= = Central arguments = =
Greenwood states that western esotericists have a holistic , animistic view of cosmology , considering the universe to be alive and interconnected with spiritual energies . According to such beliefs , many of these energies operate in " a time and space distinct from , but also very closely connected to , everyday reality " , and it is this area that is termed the " otherworld " in Pagan discourse . She relates that western esotericists believe in forces who inhabit this otherworld , and who are personalized as deities , animal guides , or spirit beings . She furthermore states that these individuals see themselves as microcosms of the universal macrocosm .
Greenwood highlights the practitioners ' belief that they can interact with this otherworld and the entities which inhabit it through rituals that facilitate their own altered states of consciousness . She notes that western magicians make use of mythology as a form of " cognitive map " to " structure their otherworldy experience " . She also notes that this otherworld is closely linked to dreams and the imagination in western magical belief .
Greenwood argues that the academic discipline of anthropology , being a product of the western rationalism developed during the Age of Enlightenment , is innately skeptical of claims for the existence of magic or an otherworld , either among non @-@ western cultures or western subcultures . In contrast to this attitude , she notes that anthropology is the discipline which first pointed out that " reality is culturally constructed " and that there are " multiple ways of experiencing the world " , including those which conceive of an otherworld existing alongside our own reality . For this reason , she argues that anthropologists wishing to understand a society that believes in and practices magic must first tentatively accept the existence of an otherworld , claiming that " it is inappropriate to use methods developed for the study of everyday reality to analyse the magical otherworld . "
= = Reception and recognition = =
= = = Academic = = =
Greenwood 's text was reviewed by Patric V. Giesler of Gustavus Adolphus College for peer @-@ reviewed academic journal American Ethnologist . Giesler describes Greenwood 's work as " provocative " , noting that it represents a " native 's account " of Paganism , with Greenwood being " a native gone anthropologist . " He characterises Greenwood 's experiences as religious or spiritual rather than magical , because none of the practices that she described involved manipulating beings or forces for an instrumental end ; the classic definition of magic . Unconvinced by her argument that practitioner 's notions of identity , gender and morality derived from their encounter with the otherworld , he considers other sources for such notions , but otherwise recommended the book .
The book was also reviewed by religious studies scholar Michael York of Bath Spa University for the Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion . Labelling it an " enormously engaging , provocative , and rich book " , he notes that readers may wish that Greenwood had more explicitly presented " the antipatriarchal assumptions and their shortcomings " of Feminist Witchcraft . Comparing it with Luhrmann 's Persuasions of the Witch 's Craft , York comments that it is a " discerningly astute , nonretreating , thoroughly enjoyable , and highly recommended work . "
Sarah M. Pike of the California State University , Chico reviewed the book for Culture and Religion : An Interdisciplinary Journal , describing it as an " accessible and personal account " . Believing that it made an " important contribution " to Pagan studies and the anthropological study of magic , she nevertheless thought that Greenwood 's subjective attitude was the book 's shortcoming as well as its strength . Pike finds problems in Greenwood 's insider @-@ outsider status , believing that it has not been sufficiently theorised , and that Greenwood was unaware of her own bias in favour of Feminist Witchcraft , which in turn affects her interpretation of other forms of Wicca and ceremonial magic . She also critiques the book 's lack of commentary or detailed analysis , complaining that many subsections lack conclusions .
Anthropologist Galina Lindquist of the University of Stockholm published a review in The Australian Journal of Anthropology , referring to Magic , Witchcraft and the Otherworld as " a welcome contribution " containing " valuable " ethnographic material . Noting that it joins the work of anthropologists like Jeanne Favret @-@ Saada , Paul Stoller , and E. Turner , Lindquist praises the manner in which Greenwood put contemporary practices into historical perspective , and how she illuminates the " strains and contradictions " within the magical milieu . She believes that Greenwood 's arguments would have been strengthened had she made use of a more in @-@ depth ethnographic study of magical morality , and considers it unfortunate that Greenwood had not touched on ritual studies .
= = = Pagan and esoteric community = = =
Greenwood 's work was independently reviewed by two separate individuals in The Pomegranate : A New Journal of Neopagan Thought – then a scholarly but not yet academic publication . The first reviewer , Daniel Cohen of Wood and Water magazine , praises Greenwood 's theoretical approach , claiming that she had been " braver " than Luhrmann in maintaining a " creative tension " as both an insider and outsider . Asserting that Greenwood 's use of anthropological terminology made for " hard reading " , he suspects that her use of the word " magician " would jar with many Pagans who would disagree with the manner in which she used it . In conclusion , he recommends it as a " valuable but inexpensive book " .
The Pomegranate 's second review came from Pagan studies scholar Douglas Ezzy of the University of Tasmania , who praises Greenwood 's research , theoretical approach and style of writing . He notes that her " truly ground breaking " approach in taking spiritual experiences seriously had " fascinated and thrilled " him , asserting that her work builds on the pioneering edited collection Being Changed by Jean @-@ Guy Goulet and David E. Young . Noting that Magic , Witchcraft and the Otherworld was " sometimes provocative " , he disagrees with some of Greenwood 's conclusions , but highlights that her arguments had made him think about these issues " in much sharper focus . "
Reviewing it for his own website , prominent chaos magician Phil Hine described Greenwood 's work as " fascinating " , arguing that it should interest students of anthropology as well as practising occultists . He praises the author 's descriptions of her own experiences within esoteric groups , and the manner in which she highlighted the power struggles that take place within them , before recommending it as " an engaging and thought @-@ provoking read " .
|
= Italian cruiser Calabria =
Calabria was a small protected cruiser built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1890s , intended for service in Italy 's overseas empire . She was laid down in 1892 , launched in 1894 , and completed in 1897 , and was armed with a main battery of four 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and four 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns . Calabria spent significant periods abroad , ranging from deployments to Chinese , North American , and Australian waters , in addition to periods in Italy 's East African empire . She saw action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1912 in the Red Sea , primarily bombarding Turkish ports in the area . Calabria was reclassified as a gunboat in 1921 , reduced to a training ship in 1924 , and sold for scrap at the end of the year .
= = Design = =
Calabria was designed by the Chief Engineer , Edoardo Masdea , and was intended for overseas service . She had a steel hull sheathed with wood and zinc to protect it from fouling during lengthy deployments abroad . The hull was 76 meters ( 249 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 81 m ( 266 ft ) long overall . It had a beam of 12 @.@ 71 m ( 41 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 05 m ( 16 @.@ 6 ft ) . Her normal displacement was 2 @,@ 453 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 414 long tons ; 2 @,@ 704 short tons ) but increased to 2 @,@ 660 t ( 2 @,@ 620 long tons ; 2 @,@ 930 short tons ) at full load . Calabria had a crew of between 214 and 254 officers and enlisted crew .
The cruiser was powered by two @-@ shaft vertical triple @-@ expansion engines with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired , cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers that were trunked into a single funnel amidships . The engines had an output of 4 @,@ 260 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 180 kW ) and produced a top speed of 16 @.@ 4 knots ( 30 @.@ 4 km / h ; 18 @.@ 9 mph ) . Calabria had a cruising radius of about 2 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 600 km ; 2 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Calabria was armed with a main battery of four 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 40 guns and four 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns , all mounted individually . Light armaments included eight 5 @.@ 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) L / 40 guns , eight 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 20 guns , and a pair of machine guns . She was also equipped with a pair of 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Armor protection consisted of a 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick deck ; her conning tower also received 50 mm of steel plating .
= = Service history = =
Calabria was built at the La Spezia dockyard , with her keel being laid down in February 1892 . She was launched on 20 September 1894 , and fitting @-@ out work was completed by mid @-@ 1897 ; the new cruiser was commissioned into the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) on 12 July . Calabria spent long periods abroad in her first decade of service . She was operating in Chinese waters in 1899 when the Boxer Rebellion broke out . She joined an international fleet that included representatives from the fleets of the Eight Nation Alliance in the mouth of the Hai River while a contingent of 475 soldiers traveled to Beijing to reinforce the Legation Quarter .
The ship was present on 20 May 1902 when the United States formally granted independence to the Republic of Cuba , following the Spanish – American War three years earlier . Calabria and the British cruiser HMS Psyche fired salutes to the United States cruiser USS Brooklyn . In March 1905 Calabria went on another cruise to American waters , this time to Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic . The visit represented an attempt at gunboat diplomacy , aimed at securing payments for debts to Italian nationals . Later in the year , Calabria visited Australia on a trip to show the flag . In October 1909 , Calabria took part in the Portola Festival in San Francisco , marking the 140th anniversary of the Portolà expedition , the first recorded European exploration of what became California .
= = = Italo @-@ Turkish War = = =
At the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Calabria was stationed in the Far East , but she was immediately recalled to reinforce the Italian colony of Eritrea . After arriving in East African waters , she joined the cruiser Puglia in bombarding the Turkish port of Aqaba on 19 November to disperse a contingent of Ottoman soldiers there . Hostilities were temporarily ceased while the British King George V passed through the Red Sea following his coronation ceremony in India — the ceasefire lasted until 26 November . Four days later , Calabria and the gunboat Volturno attacked a quarantine station near Perim .
In early 1912 , the Italian Red Sea Fleet searched for a group of seven Ottoman gunboats thought to be planning an attack on Eritrea , though they were in fact immobilized due to a lack of coal . Calabria and the Puglia carried out diversionary bombardments against Jebl Tahr , and Al Luḩayyah , while the cruiser Piemonte and the destroyers Artigliere and Garibaldino searched for the gunboats . On 7 January , they found the gunboats and quickly sank four in the Battle of Kunfuda Bay ; the other three were forced to beach to avoid sinking as well . The next day , the Italian warships sent a shore party to destroy the grounded gunboats . Calabria and the rest of the Italian ships returned to bombarding the Turkish ports in the Red Sea before declaring a blockade of the city of Al Hudaydah on 26 January . Calabria returned to Italy by April for refitting . The Ottomans eventually agreed to surrender in October , ending the war .
= = = Later career = = =
In 1914 , her armament was reduced ; the 15 cm guns were removed and two additional 12 cm guns were installed in their place . Two of the 5 @.@ 7 cm guns and six of the 3 @.@ 7 cm guns were also removed . The ship took a diplomatic mission from Massawa across the Red Sea to visit Hussein bin Ali , the recently @-@ proclaimed King of Hejaz , in Mecca in July 1917 . Calabria returned to East African waters in January 1918 on another mission to show the flag , particularly off the coast of Somalia . Stops included Aden and Djibouti . Calabria was reclassified as a gunboat in 1921 , and she saw her armament modified again ; a 15 cm gun was reinstalled , as were two of the 5 @.@ 7 cm guns . A 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) L / 39 autocannon was also added at this time . She served in this role for only a short time , and was reduced to a training ship for naval gunners in early 1924 . This duty ended quickly , and she was sold for scrap on 13 November 1924 .
|
= A Simple Plan ( film ) =
A Simple Plan is a 1998 American neo @-@ noir crime thriller film adapted by Scott B. Smith from his 1993 novel of the same name . Directed by Sam Raimi , the film stars Bill Paxton , Billy Bob Thornton and Bridget Fonda . Set in rural Minnesota , A Simple Plan follows Hank Mitchell ( Paxton ) and his brother Jacob ( Thornton ) , who , along with Jacob 's friend Lou ( Brent Briscoe ) , discover a crashed plane containing $ 4 @.@ 4 million in cash . The three men go to great lengths to keep the money a secret but begin to doubt each other 's trust , resulting in lies , deceit and murder .
Development of the film began in 1993 before the novel was published . Mike Nichols purchased the film rights , and the project was picked up by an independent film studio , Savoy Pictures . After Nichols stepped down , the film adaptation became mired in development hell ; during the troubled pre @-@ production , Ben Stiller and John Dahl turned down opportunities to direct the film . After Savoy closed in November 1995 , the project was sold to Paramount Pictures . John Boorman was hired to direct , but scheduling conflicts led to his replacement by Raimi . Principal photography began in January 1998 and concluded in March after 55 days ; filming took place in Wisconsin and Minnesota . The score was produced and composed by Danny Elfman .
A Simple Plan premiered at the 1998 Toronto International Film Festival , where it was met with critical acclaim . The film 's appearance at the festival preceded a limited release in the United States on December 11 , 1998 , followed by a general release in North America on January 22 , 1999 . It underperformed at the North American box office , grossing $ 16 @.@ 3 million on a $ 17 million production budget . Reviewers praised various aspects of the film 's production , including the storytelling , performances and Raimi 's direction . A Simple Plan earned multiple awards and nominations , among them two Academy Award nominations for Best Supporting Actor ( Thornton ) and Best Adapted Screenplay ( Smith ) .
= = Plot = =
Hank Mitchell and his wife Sarah live in rural Minnesota . One of the town 's few college graduates , Hank works in a feed mill , while his wife is a librarian . When Hank , his older , socially challenged brother Jacob and Jacob 's friend Lou chase a fox into the woods , they stumble upon a crashed airplane . Hank decides to look inside the plane where he discovers a dead pilot and a bag containing $ 4 @.@ 4 million in $ 100 bills . He suggests turning the money in but is persuaded not to by Jacob and Lou . Hank then proposes that he keep the money safe at his house until the end of winter . Sheriff Carl Jenkins drives by the area and notices the three men after they hide the money in Jacob 's pick @-@ up truck . Jacob mentions hearing a plane in the area to avoid suspicion . After Carl leaves , the three men decide to keep the money a secret , but Hank breaks the pact when he reveals the discovery to Sarah .
Sarah suggests that Hank and Jacob return a paltry sum of the money to the plane to avoid suspicion from local authorities . While travelling on foot to the woods , the brothers come across an old man on a snowmobile . Jacob , thinking that their cover is blown , bludgeons him . When the man regains consciousness , Hank suffocates him , then uses the snowmobile to drive his body off a bridge , making the murder look like an accidental death . The following night , Lou drunkenly demands some of the money from Hank , because he has spent recklessly since the discovery . When Hank refuses , Lou threatens to go to the authorities , having learned from Jacob about the old man 's murder .
Sarah advises that Hank and Jacob team up to plot against Lou . Much to Jacob 's dismay , the two brothers visit Lou at his home where Jacob has him drunkenly confess to the old man 's murder . Hank records the false confession with a tape recorder . Lou grows enraged when he realizes that the two have conspired against him and pulls a gun on them . Jacob grabs a rifle from his truck and kills Lou to save his brother . Hank then kills Lou 's wife with Lou 's shotgun when she appears with another gun . The two brothers avoid arrest after Hank concocts a rehearsed speech for himself and Jacob to tell the police .
Because Jacob mentioned hearing a plane in the woods , Carl asks the brothers to assist an FBI agent , Neil Baxter , in a search for the missing aircraft . Hank and Jacob meet with Baxter and Carl at the police station . Sarah grows skeptical of Baxter , whom she later discovers to be an impostor ; she contacts and warns Hank , who steals a handgun from Carl 's office . The four men head into the woods and split up . When he finds the plane , Baxter kills Carl , and engages in a gunfight with Hank . Hank manages to kill Baxter with the gun he had stolen . Hank starts to concoct another story to tell the authorities . Jacob however announces that he does not want to live with these bad memories ; he threatens to shoot himself to end it . He then encourages Hank to kill him instead and frame Baxter for the crime . After grappling with the decision , Hank kills Jacob .
At the police station , Hank tells his rehearsed story to real FBI agents . As Sarah predicted , the agents do not believe that Hank , an upstanding member of the community , would be capable of such wrongdoing . Although he is ruled out as a suspect , Hank is told that the money was part of a ransom and that many of the bills ' serial numbers were written down to track the cash . Hank realizes he cannot use the money without being caught ; he goes home and burns it all . In a closing narration , Hank reflects on his losses ; as he tries to move on with his life , the murderous events constantly haunt him .
= = Cast = =
Bill Paxton as Hank Mitchell
Billy Bob Thornton as Jacob Mitchell
Bridget Fonda as Sarah Mitchell
Brent Briscoe as Lou Chambers
Gary Cole as Neil Baxter
Jack Walsh as Tom Butler
Chelcie Ross as Sheriff Carl Jenkins
Becky Ann Baker as Nancy Chambers
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After Scott B. Smith had published a short story for The New Yorker , the magazine 's fiction editor learned of his then @-@ unpublished novel A Simple Plan before reading it and forwarding it to an agent . Shortly thereafter , Smith learned that Mike Nichols was interested in purchasing the film rights to his novel . Nichols spent a weekend reading the book , before contacting Smith 's agent , and finalizing a deal the following Monday morning . Nichols purchased the rights for his production company Icarus Productions for $ 250 @,@ 000 , with an additional $ 750 @,@ 000 to come later from a studio interested in pursuing the project . Smith ’ s manuscript of A Simple Plan was optioned for development at an independent film studio , Savoy Pictures . However , due to scheduling conflicts with a planned film adaptation of All the Pretty Horses , Nichols stepped down from the project .
After learning of the film adaptation from Nichols , Ben Stiller joined the project and signed a two @-@ picture directing deal with Savoy . He spent nine months working on the script with Smith . During preproduction , however , Stiller had a falling out with Savoy over budget disputes — among them was how Savoy ’ s reported $ 4 million offer to Nicolas Cage would affect the film ’ s budget . Stiller explained , ” The problem was Savoy . I don ’ t think they had a good understanding of how to make films happen . ” Unable to secure financing from another studio , Stiller left the production .
In January 1995 , John Dahl was announced to helm the film , with Cage set to appear in a starring role , and filming likely to start during the following summer in the southern hemisphere or in Canada during the following winter . In November 1995 , following a series of box office failures , Savoy announced that it was retreating from the film industry . The studio was later acquired by IAC / Interactive Corporation , whose chairman , Barry Diller , put A Simple Plan up for sale . This resulted in both Dahl and Cage leaving the project .
The project was purchased by Paramount Pictures , where producer Scott Rudin hired John Boorman to direct the film . Boorman cast Bill Paxton and Billy Bob Thornton in the lead roles of Hank and Jacob Mitchell , respectively . A Simple Plan marked the second on @-@ screen collaboration between Paxton and Thornton after One False Move ( 1992 ) . Thornton recalled , " I got a call from one of my agents who said , ' John Boorman wants you to do a script that I sent you a year ago and you never read , ' I said , ' Send it to me again , and this time I 'll really read it . ' Within the first two pages , I knew I wanted to do it . " Paxton learned of the novel A Simple Plan from his father five years before securing the role of Hank : " He said , ' You 'll love it . It 's got a lot of hair on it . You were born to play this part . ' I said , ' Dad , I 'll never get to do this . ' And for five years , there was a whole list of actors and directors who kind of marched through it . Billy Bob and I were set to do these roles in 1997 , and then it fell apart . That was the cruelest twist for an actor , to get a part you dreamed you 'd get and then they decide to scrap the whole thing . " Rudin considered casting Anne Heche as Hank 's wife Sarah Mitchell .
Boorman took part in location scouting , and filming was set to begin during the first week of January 1998 . When a second investor left the project , Paramount refused to fully finance the $ 17 million production itself . Although Boorman was able to secure financing , the studio feared that filming would not be finished before the end of winter . Boorman ran into scheduling conflicts , which resulted in him leaving the production . Paramount then hired Sam Raimi to direct the film . Smith said of Raimi , " I wasn 't familiar with Sam 's other work , but I met with him , and in talking to him I was very pleased . I felt like he understood the story . He understood the people . We grew up in the same area of the country . He knew what I was writing about and he knew how to tell the story in the right way . " Raimi did not have time to scout locations due to studio constraints ; he relied on the previous locations visited during Boorman 's involvement . In December 1997 , Bridget Fonda , who had previously collaborated with Raimi on Army of Darkness ( 1992 ) , was cast as Sarah Mitchell .
A Simple Plan was a co @-@ production between Paramount and Mutual Film Company . The film was co @-@ financed by Mutual and Newmarket Capital Group as part of a joint venture that was formed by the two companies . Mutual 's international partners — the United Kingdom 's BBC , Germany 's Tele @-@ München , Japan 's Toho @-@ Towa / Marubeni and France ’ s UGC @-@ PH — also co @-@ financed the film in exchange for distribution rights in their respective territories and equity stakes on the film on a worldwide basis . Paramount acquired the North American distribution rights .
= = = Writing = = =
The original script that Smith had written for Mike Nichols was 256 pages long — the equivalent of a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hour film . Smith said of the experience , " I wrote a horrible , amateurish draft ... which I think scared [ Nichols ] away from the project . " Smith kept Nichols 's suggested story setting : Because snow plays a crucial role , the film adaptation would take place in Minnesota , rather than in Ohio , where the book is set . After Nichols suggested that the story be set in the state , the Minnesota Film Board joined the project and remained with it throughout principal photography .
Following publication of A Simple Plan , Nichols eventually turned down the project during the script 's early draft stages . When Ben Stiller became involved , he and Smith spent nine months rewriting the script . Smith explained , " Ben was the one that showed me how to write a script . He worked with me and gave me the cue to visualize the movie and write down what I was picturing in my head . "
For the film adaptation , certain visual changes were made from the novel . Smith explained that one change involved the discovery of the crashed plane ; his script had the character Lou Chambers " throwing [ a ] snowball to uncover the plane ... In the book , they 're just walking and they find it . " Scott Rudin wanted to change the focus of the story to Hank and Jacob , and ordered Smith to shorten the screenplay to 120 pages . Smith explained , " I had to work to make Hank a more rational character , less evil . " The shortening of the script also resulted in the character of Sarah having a smaller role , and Jacob getting to live longer ( in the book , Jacob dies in a shootout at Lou 's house ) . After the role was secured by Billy Bob Thornton , Smith omitted the character 's overweight appearance from the novel . Smith described the film adaptation as being less violent than the book : " The book is much more violent than the movie , more graphic in its violence . It was [ Raimi ] ' s choice to be more restrained , to bring out the characters . "
= = = Filming = = =
= = = = Principal photography = = = =
Principal photography for A Simple Plan began on January 5 , 1998 , and concluded on March 13 , 1998 after 55 days . Filming was scheduled to begin in Delano , Minnesota , but due to climatic changes as the result of El Niño , the production was forced to temporarily relocate to northern Wisconsin to find the snow levels described in the script . The production began shooting in Ashland , Wisconsin , where most of the film 's exterior shots , and the road and woods near where the characters find the plane , were filmed . An actual plane , with one side cut open , was one of two planes used to depict the crashed aircraft . Patrizia Von Brandenstein was the film 's production designer , marking her second collaboration with Raimi , after The Quick and the Dead ( 1995 ) . Brandenstein found the weather conditions difficult during production , as she had to await good weather to complete the necessary exterior work . Describing the overall look of the film , she said , " We created a muted black @-@ and @-@ white color scheme to suggest a morality tale , the choices given between right and wrong . "
The production team returned to Minnesota , where it was plagued by a lack of snow . To solve this problem , the production put together an effects team whose sole responsibility was dealing with snow . This snow effects team created a combination of real snow and fake synthetic snow that was made from shaved ice . The home of Lou Chambers and his wife Nancy was filmed in an abandoned house in Delano , which cinematographer Alar Kivilo described as " a very difficult [ filming ] location with very low ceilings and no heating " . Brandenstein and the art department were tasked with designing the set inside the home .
The interior of the crashed plane , in which Hank discovers a dead pilot and the $ 4 @.@ 4 million in cash , was filmed on a soundstage . A second plane , designed to have frosted windows , was attached to a gimbal , about five feet off the ground . Kivilo explained , “ As [ Paxton ] crawls to the front of the plane , it tilts down . When he moves toward the back , it tilts in that direction . Since we were using an actual plane there was a limit to how much of the plane ’ s walls could be removed before it became structurally unsound . " Kivilo described the interior of the plane as " a very small , cramped shooting space . " To match the interior with footage shot in Wisconsin , the art department built a set with real trees and a painted backdrop . To depict Hank being attacked by a flock of crows inside the plane , puppets were used to attack Paxton as he appeared on screen , while two live crows were used to attack an animatronic replica of the actor . A separate soundstage was used to create two sets depicting the interiors of the Mitchell home , where Hank and his wife Sarah ( Fonda ) reside . The first set was the main floor an exterior entrance way , and the second was created for the upstairs bedrooms .
= = = = Cinematography = = = =
Upon reading the script , director of photography Alar Kivilo said that his first approach to making the film " was to make the look simple , allowing the characters to tell the story . Outwardly , the film is a thriller , but at the heart of it , this is a dark psychological drama of one man ’ s descent into hell . I knew the camera would have to take a back seat . ” Prior to his first meeting with Raimi , Kivilo 's inspiration for the look of the film came from the visual imagery in the 1967 film In Cold Blood and the work of photographer Robert Frank .
Kivilo contacted his agent to arrange a meeting with Raimi ; their first meeting occurred only three weeks prior to filming , during which Kivilo was also inspired by photographs taken during location scouting in Delano , Minnesota . He described the photographs as being " very stark , with white snow and black trees . They were very hard @-@ contrast , and reminded me of Japanese wood @-@ cut prints , with very simple and graphic images . " Raimi saw A Simple Plan as an opportunity to direct a character @-@ driven story that differed from his earlier works , which were highly stylized or dependent on intricate camera movements .
Kivilo originally wanted to shoot the film in widescreen , using the anamorphic format . " Sam and I had talked briefly in the beginning about going anamorphic , " he explained , " but because of the lack of prep time , a restricted budget and lack of lenses available , we decided against it . " Kivilo used Panavision Platinum cameras with the company 's Primo series of prime lenses to shoot the film . He used Eastman Kodak 5246 250ASA Vision film stock for all of the daylight scenes and tungsten @-@ balanced 5279 Vision 500T film stock for the night scenes .
Despite the intense weather conditions , Kivilo believed that the overcast skies created a " gray , somber , stark look . " He said , " This allowed me to eliminate the need to bring in heavy movie lights for the exteriors , complicating the logistics even more . Because the light would bounce off the snow , I would use big solids for negative fill to shape the light , adding just a bit of shiny card for the actors ’ eyes . I wanted to keep the snow very hot and retain a contrasty and stark look . " Kivilo also chose not to use any lighting for daytime exterior scenes . For exterior scenes shot during sunnier filming days , computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) was used to re @-@ create the overcast skies . Kivilo added that " CGI also helped to even out inconsistencies caused by the amount of snow falling from shot to shot . "
Kivilo explained that he and Raimi intended to use the camera to enhance the story with simplicity : “ Our opening sequence starts with quiet , poetic landscapes . White snow . Black trees . A black crow flying off . Symbolically , these are very fitting images . The crow is a symbol of greed and becomes a strong reoccurring visual theme later in the film . The choice of black and white foreshadows the battle between the conscious and the unconscious , which is such an important element in our story . We then show evocative images of an abandoned farm , [ Hank and Jacob ] Mitchell ’ s family home . A red tractor is parked in falling snow . A torn curtain flapping in the wind . These are innocent shots , before their world falls apart . ” Kivilo noted that “ the film ends with some of the exact frames of the abandoned farm that we saw in the title sequence . Because of what the characters have gone through , a totally new value is assigned to those shots . They feel different , evoking new emotions and yet physically they haven ’ t changed from when we first saw them ! "
Regarding scenes that take place in Lou 's home , Kivilo said , " Because the performances were so intense , Sam wanted to shoot the scene with at least two cameras , and sometimes three . Lighting for three cameras is a significant compromise , but it was one I was willing to make to lessen the emotional load on the actors . " In filming a confrontation involving Hank , Jacob and Lou , Kivilo said , “ Most of the lighting came from shallow soft boxes mounted into the low ceilings . We used two cameras throughout . The scene was such an odd mixture of dealing with dark human moments and very detailed technical considerations . Very draining for everybody . ” In depicting the resulting shootout , Kivilo 's intent was to " keep things quite sketchy in the lighting and not be clear about exactly what was happening . " The camera department lit a China ball from the ceiling to depict a dimly lit kitchen light that would reveal Nancy holding a shotgun . Flash photography guns were used to depict the muzzle flashes during the shootouts . Kivilo said , " Those flash guns are great because they have a long burn time and you don 't run the danger of having the flash occur between exposures . The flashes were daylight @-@ balanced , but we put double CTO on them to give them a slightly warmer feel . This was something that we had determined through testing in preproduction . "
= = = Music = = =
A Simple Plan 's film score was produced and composed by Danny Elfman , who was drawn to the project after learning that Raimi would be directing the film ; the film marked his third collaboration with Raimi . The instruments included alto and bass flutes , re @-@ tuned pianos and banjos , zithers , and hand drums .
Regarding the tonal quality of the score , Elfman explained , " ... there are 2 thematic areas , one of them was a flute ensemble . It was a fun orchestra for me to work with because there was really no brass , no percussion . It was just strings and flutes , lots of flutes , 9 of them , mostly alto and bass . That was kind of a fun different thing , very , very simple , sparse ensemble led by alto and bass flutes . The other part of it [ were ] these specially tuned pianos that I prepared before I started and specially tuned banjos so I worked the music around the sounds of these micro @-@ tuned piano chords and special banjo samples that I did myself . I tried to make the heart of it . Starting with these two odd tonal groups , I started composing the score . " The soundtrack album , titled A Simple Plan : Music from the Motion Picture Soundtrack , was released on January 26 , 1999 .
= = Release = =
A Simple Plan premiered at the 23rd Toronto International Film Festival on September 11 , 1998 . On December 11 , 1998 , the film opened in limited release at 31 theaters . Upon its limited release , A Simple Plan grossed $ 390 @,@ 563 in its first week of limited release , with an average of $ 12 @,@ 598 per theater . More theaters were added during the limited run , and on January 22 , 1999 , the film officially entered wide release by screening in 660 theaters across North America . The film ended its North American theatrical run on May 14 , 1999 , having grossed $ 16 @,@ 316 @,@ 273 , below its estimated production budget of $ 17 million .
= = = Criticial response = = =
A Simple Plan received critical acclaim from mainstream film critics . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes sampled 67 reviews , and gave the film a " Certified Fresh " score of 90 % , with an average score of 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 . The website 's consensus calls the film " A riveting crime thriller full of emotional tension . " Another review aggregator , Metacritic , assigned the film a weighted average score of 82 out of 100 , based on 28 reviews from mainstream critics , indicating " universal acclaim " .
Reviewing the film during the Toronto International Film Festival , Glen Lovell of Variety , compared A Simple Plan to Joel and Ethan Coen 's earlier film Fargo ( 1996 ) : " Both [ films ] are slices of life about outlandish crimes and Average Joe felons in over their heads , and both blend Grand Guignol and beautiful but foreboding snowscapes ... The key differences are in emphasis and tone : Fargo is deadpan noir ; A Simple Plan ... is a more robust Midwestern Gothic that owes as much to Poe as Chandler . "
In an " early review " of the film prior to its limited release , Roger Ebert and his colleague , Gene Siskel , gave the film a " Two Thumbs Up " rating on their syndicated television program Siskel and Ebert and the Movies . In a later episode , Ebert ranked A Simple Plan at number four on his list of the " Best Films of 1998 " . Online film critic James Berardinelli praised Billy Bob Thornton 's performance as being " the most striking that A Simple Plan has to offer . " He also praised the other performers , writing " Paxton 's part is deceptively complex in the way he shows how paranoia , greed , and deception can erode the conscience of even the best @-@ intentioned of men . Brent Briscoe plays Lou as the most untrustworthy and avaricious of souls . And Bridget Fonda offers solid support as a woman who stands by her man – when she 's not taking control of his life , that is . "
Sam Raimi was repeatedly praised for his direction . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the film was " lean , elegant , and emotionally complex – a marvel of backwoods classicism " and that it was " proof that Raimi , after the splatterific Evil Dead series and the lushly operatic Darkman , has now grown into a filmmaker of ravishing maturity and skill . " Siskel , writing for the Chicago Tribune , said that the film was " an exceedingly well @-@ directed genre picture by [ Raimi ] ... [ who ] does an excellent job of presaging the lethal violence that follows . From his very first images we know that bodies are going to start to pile up . " Janet Maslin of The New York Times called the film a " quietly devastating thriller directed by [ Raimi ] ... who makes a flawless segue into mainstream storytelling . " Edward Guthmann of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote , " ... for Raimi , whose mastery of visual effects has driven all of his previous films , A Simple Plan marks a tremendously successful break from the past . He 's drawn lovely , complex performances from Paxton and Thornton and proven that he can work effectively – and movingly – in a minor emotional key . "
While reviews of the film were mostly positive , A Simple Plan was not without its detractors . Regarding the plot and characters , Richard Schickel of Time wrote , " There 's neither intricacy nor surprise in the narrative , and these dopes are tedious , witless company . " Schlomo Schwartzberg of Boxoffice wrote , " Instead of unfolding as a subtle , powerful delineation of quiet desperation warping and destroying people 's lives through greed , A Simple Plan clutters up the story with unnecessary acts of violence and murder , and mainly stays on the surface , offering little more than cheap jolts of melodrama . "
= = = Accolades = = =
A Simple Plan garnered awards and nominations in a variety of categories with particular praise for its screenplay by Scott B. Smith and Billy Bob Thornton 's performance . At the 56th Golden Globe Awards , Thornton received a Best Supporting Actor nomination , but lost against Ed Harris , who received the award for his performance in The Truman Show . At the 71st Academy Awards , Thornton received an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor , but lost against James Coburn , who won the award for his performance in Affliction . Smith received an Oscar nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay , but lost to Bill Condon , who won for Gods and Monsters . In addition to receiving various awards and nominations , A Simple Plan was named one of the " Top 10 Films of 1998 " by the National Board of Review .
= = = Home video = = =
In North America , A Simple Plan was released on VHS and DVD formats on June 22 , 1999 . These home video releases were undertaken by Paramount Home Entertainment .
|
= Joseph 's Tomb =
Joseph 's Tomb ( Hebrew : קבר יוסף , Qever Yosef , Arabic : قبر يوسف , Qabr Yūsuf ) is a funerary monument located at the eastern entrance to the valley that separates Mounts Gerizim and Ebal , 300 metres northwest of Jacob 's Well , on the outskirts of the West Bank city of Nablus , near Tell Balata , the site of Shakmu in the Late Bronze Age and later biblical Shechem . One biblical tradition identifies the general area of Shechem as the resting @-@ place of the biblical patriarch Joseph , and his two sons Ephraim and Manasseh .
Joseph 's tomb has been venerated throughout the ages by Jews , Samaritans , Christians and Muslims . Post @-@ biblical records regarding the location of Joseph 's Tomb at this site date from the beginning of the 4th @-@ century AD . The present structure , a small rectangular room with a cenotaph , dates from 1868 , and is devoid of any trace of ancient building materials . While some scholars , such as Kenneth Kitchen and James K. Hoffmeier still affirm the essential historicity of the biblical account of Joseph , many others , such as Donald B. Redford , argue that the story itself has ‘ no basis in fact ’ .
Modern scholarship has yet to determine whether or not the present cenotaph is to be identified with the ancient biblical gravesite . No Jewish or Christian sources prior to the 5th century mention the tomb , and the structure originally erected over it appears to have been built by the Samaritans , for whom it was probably a sacred site . There is no archaeological evidence establishing the tomb to Joseph and for this reason the site is regarded as a ' relic tomb ' , established by later religious figures to reinforce a faith .
At key points in its long history , Joseph 's Tomb has witnessed intense sectarian conflict . Samaritans and Christians disputing access and title to the site in the early Byzantine period often engaged in violent clashes . After Israel captured the West Bank in 1967 , Muslims were prohibited from worship at the shrine and it was gradually turned into a Jewish prayer room . Interreligious friction and conflict from competing Jewish and Muslim claims over the tomb became frequent . Falling under the jurisdiction of the Palestinian National Authority ( PNA ) following the signing of the Oslo Accords , it remained under IDF guard with Muslims prohibited from praying there . At the beginning of the Al @-@ Aqsa Intifada in 2000 , just after being handed over to the PNA , it was looted and razed by a Palestinian mob . Following the reoccupation of Nablus during Israel 's Operation Defensive Shield in 2002 , Jewish groups returned there intermittently . Between 2009 and 2010 the structure was refurbished , with a new cupola installed , and visits by Jewish worshippers have resumed .
= = Early traditions = =
= = = Biblical source and early religious traditions = = =
The Torah provides four details regarding the traditions surrounding Joseph ’ s remains . The account in Genesis relates that , before his death , he had his brothers swear they would carry his bones out of Egypt to Canaan . He is then said to have been embalmed then placed in a coffin in Egypt . In Exodus , we are told that Moses fulfilled the pledge by taking Joseph 's bones with him when he left Egypt . In Joshua , Joseph ’ s bones are said to have been brought from Egypt by the Children of Israel and interred in Shechem .
The bones of Joseph , which the Children of Israel brought up out of Egypt , were buried in Shechem in a parcel of land Jacob bought from the sons of Hamor , father of Shechem , for a hundred pieces of silver ( qeśîṭâ ) .Joshua 24 : 32 .
The Bible does not identify a specific site in Shechem where his bones were laid to rest . The Genesis Rabba , a Jewish text written c . 400 – 450 CE , states that a burial site in Shechem is one of three for which the nations of the world cannot ridicule Israel and say " you have stolen them , " it having been purchased by Jacob . The rabbis also suggest that Joseph instructed his brothers to bury him in Shechem since it was from there he was taken and sold into slavery . Other Jewish sources have him buried either in Safed , or , according to an aggadic tradition , have him interred at Hebron according to his own wishes . The ambiguity is reflected in Islamic tradition which points to Nablus as being the authentic site , though some early Islamic geographers identified the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron as housing his tomb . The Qur 'an itself does not mention details of Joseph 's burial . Ali of Herat ( 1119 ) , Yaqut ( 1229 ) and Ibn Battuta ( 1369 ) all conserve both the Nablus and Hebron traditions . Later Muslim chroniclers also mention a third site purporting to be the authentic tomb , near Beit Ijza . The Hebron tradition is also reflected in some medieval Christian sources , such as the account by Srewulf ( CE 1102 ) who says that ' the bones of Joseph were buried more humbly than the rest , as it were at the extremity of the castle.'
= = = Modern scholarship on the narrative of Joseph ’ s bones = = =
Though the traditional biblical date for the narrative of Joseph ’ s life and death places him in Egypt in the middle of the Twelfth Dynasty , roughly comparable to the Hyksos invasion of Egypt , contemporary scholarship no longer accepts such a remote dating . The figure of Joseph itself is often taken to be a ‘ personification of a tribe ’ , rather than an historic person .
According to the Bible , Joseph was embalmed and buried in a coffin in Egypt , after having his people swear to carry his bones away . Later midrash identify his first entombment in a royal mausoleum , or as cast into the Nile . Moses is said to have gathered the bones and taken them with him during the Exodus from Egypt , using magic to raise the coffin , a tradition repeated by Josephus , who specifies that they were buried in Canaan at that time . Regarding his burial in Canaan , from Joshua it is evident that the portion Joseph received was an allotment near Shechem , not the town itself .
The majority of contemporary scholars believe the historicity of the events in the Joseph story cannot be demonstrated . In the wake of scholars like Hermann Gunkel , Hugo Gressmann and Gerhard von Rad , who identified the story of Joseph as primarily a literary composition , it is now widely considered to belong to the genre of romance , or the novella . As a novella it is read as reworking legends and myths , many of them , especially the motifs of his reburial in Canaan , associated with the Egyptian god Osiris , though some compare the burial of his bones at Shechem with the disposal of Dionysus ’ s bones at Delphi . The reworked legends and folklore were probably inserted into the developing textual tradition of the Bible between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE . Most scholars place its composition in a genre that flourished in the Persian period of the Exile .
For Schenke , the tradition of Joseph 's burial at Shechem can only be understood as a secondary , Israelitic historical interpretation woven around a more ancient Canaanite shrine in that area . Wright has indeed argued that , ' the patriarch Joseph was not an Israelite hero who became Egyptianised , but an Egyptian divinity who was Hebraised.'
= = = Schenke 's hypothesis = = =
Hans @-@ Martin Schenke , starting from an analysis of John 4 : 4 – 6 , in which Jesus encounters a Samaritan woman at the town Sychar , made an extensive analysis of the ancient sources , together with an examination of the site . The curiosity of the Gospel text for scholars lies in the mention of an otherwise unattested town in the field , and the failure of the text to refer to Joseph 's Tomb , despite mentioning the field Jacob allotted to Joseph , and Jacob 's well . In Schenke 's view , from the beginning of the Hellenistic period down to the 1st century CE , when the author of John 's gospel was presumably writing , the grave commemorating Joseph stood by Jacob 's Well . This grave was shifted , together with the sacred tree and Jacob 's field , sometime between that date and the earliest testimony we have in the Bordeaux itinerary in 333 CE . , which locates it elsewhere , by Shechem / Tel Balāṭa .
= = History of the identification and use of the site = =
= = = Pilgrim accounts = = =
The Itinerarium Burdigalense ( 333 CE ) notes : ‘ At the foot of the mountain itself , is a place called Sichem . Here is a tomb in which Joseph is laid , in the parcel of ground which Jacob his father gave to him . " Eusebius of Caesarea in the 4th @-@ century records in his Onomasticon : " Suchem , city of Jacob now deserted . The place is pointed out in the suburb of Neapolis . There the tomb of Joseph is pointed out nearby . " Jerome , writing of Saint Paula 's sojourn in Palestine writes that ' turning off the way ( from Jacob 's well ) , she saw the tombs of the twelve patriarchs ' Jerome himself , together with the Byzantine monk George Syncellus , who had lived many years in Palestine , wrote that all twelve patriarchs , Joseph included , were buried at Sychem .
Both Theodosius I and Theodosius II ordered a search for Joseph ’ s bones , much to the utter dismay of the Samaritan community . An imperial commission was dispatched to retrieve the bones of the Patriarchs around 415 CE , and on failing to obtain them at Hebron , sought to at least secure Joseph ’ s bones from Shechem . No gravestone marked the exact site , possibly because the Samaritans had removed one to avoid Christian interference . The officials had to excavate the general area where graves abound and , on finding an intact marble sepulchre beneath an empty coffin , concluded that it must contain Joseph ’ s bones , and sent the sarcophagus to Byzantium , where it was incorporated into Hagia Sophia . Jerome reports that apparently the Christians had intended to remove Joseph 's bones to their city , but a column of fire rose skyward from the tomb scaring them away . The Samaritans subsequently covered the tomb with earth rendering it inaccessible .
Christian pilgrim and archdeacon Theodosius ( 518 – 520 ) in his De situ terrae sanctae mentions that ' close to Jacob 's Well are the remains of Joseph the Holy ' . The Madaba Mosaic Map ( 6th century ) designates a site somewhat problematically with the legend – ' Joseph 's ' ( τὸ τοῦ Ὶωσήφ ) – where the usual adjective ' holy ' ( hagios ) accompanying mentions of saints and their shrines is lacking .
Crusader and medieval sources generally are , according to Hans @-@ Martin Schenke , highly misleading regarding exactly where the tomb was situated . He concluded that in the Middle Ages , as earlier , various groups ( Jews , Samaritans , Christians and Moslems ) at different periods identified different things in different places all as Joseph ’ s tomb Sometimes Balata , with its spring , seems indicated , as in the following two examples , which identify the tomb not as a structure , but as something by a spring and under a tree . It was evidently a site for Muslim pilgrimage at that time .
In 1173 the Persian traveller al @-@ Harawi paid homage at the tomb , and wrote :
There is also near Nâblus the spring of Al Khudr ( Elias ) , and the field of Yûsuf as Sadik ( Joseph ) ; further , Joseph is buried at the foot of the tree at this place . ’
Around the year 1225 , Yaqut al @-@ Hamawi wrote :
There is here a spring called ‘ Ain al Khudr . Yûsuf ( Joseph ) as Sadik – peace be on him ! - was buried here , and his tomb is well known , lying under the tree .
as did Benjamin of Tudela — who wrote that the Samaritans in Nablus were in possession of it . William of Malmesbury describes it as overlaid with white marble , next to the mausolea of his brothers . Menachem ben Peretz of Hebron ( 1215 ) writes that in Shechem he saw the tomb of Joseph son of Jacob with two marble pillars next to it — one at its head and another at its foot — and a low stone wall surrounding it . Ishtori Haparchi ( 1322 ) places the tombstone of Joseph 450 meters north of Balāta , while Alexander de Ariosti ( 1463 ) and Francesco Suriano ( 1485 ) associate it with the church over Jacob ’ s well . Samuel bar Simson ( 1210 ) , Jacob of Paris ( 1258 ) , and Johannes Poloner ( 1422 ) locate it by Nablus . Gabriel Muffel of Nuremberg discerns a tomb to Joseph in a monument to the west of Nablus , halfway between that city and Sebaste . Mandeville ( 1322 ) and Maundrell ( 1697 ) , among others , also mention its existence , although it is debatable as to whether any of these reports refer to the currently recognised location . Samuel ben Samson ( 1210 ) appears to place the tomb at Shiloh . Mandeville ( 1322 ) locates it ' nigh beside ' Nablus as does Maundrell ( 1697 ) , but the indications are vague . Maundrell describes his sepulchre as located in a small mosque just by Nablus , which does not fit the present location .
Although the Koran does not mention details of Joseph 's burial , Islamic tradition points to Nablus as being the authentic site . However , some early Islamic geographers identified the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron as housing his tomb . While Ali of Herat ( 1119 ) , Yaqut ( 1229 ) and Ibn Battuta ( 1369 ) all report the Hebron traditions , they also mention the existence of a tomb of Joseph at Nablus . Later Muslim chroniclers even mention a third site purporting to be the authentic tomb , near Beit Ijza .
= = = 19th @-@ century accounts = = =
William Cooke Taylor ( 1838 ) describes the biblical parcel of ground Jacob gave to Joseph as situated on plain of Mukhna , and identifies the tomb as an oriental weli structure at the entrance to the valley of Nablus , to the right near the base of Mt Ebal . The sarcophagus , he suggests , lies underneath or somewhere else in the vicinity of this plain , and comments :
'The present monument ... is a place of resort , not only for Jews and Christians , but Mohammedans and Samaritans ; all of whom concur in the belief that it stands on the vertiable spot where the patriarch was buried.'
In 1839 , the Jewish traveller Loewe based his identification of the tomb as near Jacob 's Well by a topographical argument . Scripture , he argued , calls the place neither an emek ( valley ) nor a shephelah ( plain ) , but a ' portion of field ' ( chelkat hasadeh ) , and concluded : ' in the whole of Palestine there is not such another plot to be found , a dead level , without the least hollow or swelling in a circuit of two hours . ' In 1839 , it was recorded that Jews frequently visited the tomb and that many inscriptions in Hebrew were visible on the walls . The site was " kept very neat and in good repair by the bounty of Jews who visited it . "
John Wilson ( 1847 ) writes that the tomb lies about two or three hundred yards to the north of Jacob 's Well , across the valley . He describes it as ' a small solid erection in the form of a wagon roof , over what is supposed to be the patriarch ’ s grave , with a small pillar or altar at each of its extremities , sometimes called the tombs of Ephraim and Manasseh , and the middle of an enclosure without a covering . Many visitors names , in the Hebrew and Samaritan characters , are written on the walls of this enclosure . ' One of the inscriptions is said to intimate the tomb 's repair by a Jew from Egypt , Elijah son of Meir , around 1749 . Wilson adds that ' The Jews of Nablus take upon themselves the duty of keeping the tomb in order . They applied to us for a subscription to aid in making some repairs and we complied with their request ' . These Hebrew and Samaritan inscriptions were still visible on the white plastered walls as late as 1980 , as were small lamps in an internal recess , probably donated by Jews during the 18th and 19th centuries .
Rabbi Joseph Schwarz ( 1850 ) who had lived in Palestine for 16 years , identified the village of Abulnita , ' about 2 English miles east of Shechem ' , as the site ' where Joseph lies buried ' . Western travellers to Palestine in the 19th century described their impressions of the site in travelogues . John Ross Browne ( 1853 ) writes : ' We also visited the reputed site of Joseph 's Tomb . A rude stone building covers the pretended sepulcher ; but the best authorities deny that there was any evidence that Joseph was buried here . ' Howard Crosby also visited the site during 1851 . He designated it , ' the so @-@ called tomb of Joseph , ' describing it as ' a plain white Santon 's tomb , or Wely , such as is everywhere seen in Mohammedan countries , excepting that this one is roofless , and consequently lacks the usual white dome . In the interior , a vine grows from a corner , and spreads upon a trellis over the tomb , forming a pleasant bower . ' Louis Félicien Joseph Caignart de Saulcy and Edouard de Warren ( 1853 ) describe it as ' a small Mussulman oualy ( weli , i.e. chapel ) [ ... ] said to be the tomb of Joseph , ' noting it was just to the east of what the Arabs called Bir @-@ Yakub , Jacob 's Well . Hackett noted in 1857 that the tomb is placed diagonally to the walls , instead of parallel , and found ' the walls of the interior covered with the names of pilgrims , representing almost every land and language ; though the Hebrew character was the most prominent one . ' Thomson noted in 1883 that ' the entire building is fast crumbling to ruin , presenting a most melancholy spectacle . ' Being exposed to the weather , ' it has no pall or votive offering of any kind , nor any marks of respect such as are seen at the sepulchres of the most insignificant Muslim saints . ' During the late 19th century , sources report the Jewish custom of burning small articles such as gold lace , shawls or handkerchiefs , in the two low pillars at either end of the tomb . This was done in " memory of the patriarch who sleeps beneath " .
= = = = Detailed survey by Conder , 1878 – 89 = = = =
Claude R. Conder provides a detailed description of the site in his works Tent Work in Palestine ( 1878 ) , Survey of Western Palestine ( 1881 ) and Palestine ( 1889 ) .
The enclosure
It is located on the road @-@ side from Balata to ‘ Askar , at the end of a row of fine fig trees . The open courtyard surrounding the tomb measures about 18 foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) square . The plastered , whitewashed walls , about 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) thick , are in good repair and stand 10 foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high . Entrance to the courtyard is from the north through the ruin of a little square domed building . There are two Hebrew inscriptions on the south wall . An additional English inscription notes that the structure was entirely rebuilt at the expense of the English consul at Damascus by early 1868 .
The tomb itself measures 6 foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) long and stands 4 foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) high . It consisted of a long narrow plastered block with an arched roof , having a pointed cross section . The tomb is not in line with the walls of the courtyard , which have a bearing of 202 ° , nor is it in the middle of the enclosure , being nearest to the west wall . Two short plastered pedestals with shallow cup @-@ shaped hollows at their tops stand at the head and foot of the tomb . The hollows are blackened by fire due to the Jewish custom of burning offerings of shawls , silks or gold lace on the pillar altars . Both Jews and Samaritans burn oil lamps and incense in the pillar cavity .
Conder also questions the fact that the tomb points north to south , inconsistent with Muslim tombs north of Mecca . This fact did not however diminish Muslim veneration of the shrine :
" The tomb points approximately north and south , thus being at right angles to the direction of Moslem tombs north of Mecca . How the Mohammedans explain this disregard of orientation in so respected a Prophet as " our Lord Joseph , " I have never heard ; perhaps the rule is held to be only established since the time of Mohammed . The veneration in which the shrine is held by the Moslem peasantry is , at all events , not diminished by this fact . "
= = = Confusion over competing shrine = = =
In the course of pin @-@ pointing the location of the tomb , the Reverend H.B. Hackett in Sir William Smith 's A dictionary of the Bible ( 1863 ) mentions the existence of two tombs bearing an association to Joseph in Nablus . In addition to the one close to the well , ( location of Conder 's survey ) , he describes another exclusively Muslim tomb in the vicinity , about a quarter of a mile up the valley on the slope of Mt . Gerizim . He is not able to conclude which of the tombs is that of the biblical Joseph , but cites Arthur Penrhyn Stanley ( 1856 ) that at the Muslim tomb " a later Joseph is also commemorated at the sanctuary . " Stanley himself writes that the little mosque on Gerizim 's north @-@ eastern slopes is known by various names including Allon Moreh ( Oak of Allon ) , Aharon Moreh ( Ark of Moreh ) and Sheykh al @-@ Amad ( Saint of the Pillar ) which he suggests commemorate biblcal traditions . Stanley also quotes Buckingham , who mentions that the Samaritans maintain that the alternative tomb belongs to a certain Rabbi Joseph of Nablus . John Mills ( 1864 ) writes that claims of the tomb belonging to Rabbi Joseph of Nablus are unfounded , the structure being called by the Samaritans " The Pillar " in commemoration of the pillar set up by Joshua . Mills rather identifies the supposed rabbi 's tomb with a mosque named after a Muslim saint , Sheikh el @-@ Amud ( " Saint of the Pillar " ) , but further claims that the association is ' only a modern invention of the Mohammedans ' . A book published in 1894 , also questions the existence of a tomb to Rabbi Joseph of Nablus , calling it ' a Mohammedan legend , imposed upon inquisitive travellers by unscrupulous guides ' since ' the present Samaritans known of no Joseph 's tomb but the generally accepted one ' .
By the 1860s , many Jews and Muslims had come to see the limestone structure as housing the tomb of the biblical Joseph , and it was referred to in Arabic as " Qabr en @-@ Nabi Yūsuf " ( " Tomb of the Prophet Joseph " ) . A decorative cloth photographed in 1917 , draped over the tomb itself , asserted this perception . Palestinians are also said to regard the site as the burial place of Yūsuf Dawiqat , an Islamic sheikh . It has been claimed that this tradition is an innovation in response to Israeli control of the site since the 1970s .
= = = After 1967 = = =
Before 1967 , the tomb was still located in a field in the village of Balata on the outskirts of Nablus . Local residents apparently believed the structure entombed a 19th @-@ century cleric who was reputed to have healed the sick by reciting Koranic verses . Although the building did not function as a mosque , it was used by childless couples who would pray there for children , and young boys would take their first ritual haircut inside . After the capture of Nablus and the rest of the Palestinian territories in the 1967 war , Jewish settlers began to frequent the site , and by 1975 , Muslims were prohibited from visiting the site . After a settler was stabbed in Nablus in 1983 , other settlers demonstrated by taking over Joseph 's tomb for three days in a bid to force the government 's hand into using an iron fist . In the mid @-@ 1980s a yeshiva named Od Yosef Chai , ( Joseph Still Lives ) , affiliated with some of the more militant Jewish settlements , and headed by Yitzhak Ginsburg , was built at the site beside an Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) military outpost , apparently on the model of settler success in establishing a presence at the Tomb of the Patriarchs in Hebron . All Muslims including those living nearby were forcefully denied access . An initial attempt in 1994 to transform the site into a Jewish religious centre failed . Shulamit Aloni , minister for culture and education in the Rabin government , outraged religious activists at the time by asserting , on the basis of archeological evidence , that the site was only 200 years old , and the tomb that of Sheikh Yūsuf ( Dawiqat ) , a Sufi holy man who died in the 18th century . Her views were challenged by Benny Katzover who replied that she had been misled by archeologists , and he had experts to back the traditional ascription . In 1997 Torah scrolls were brought in , the prayer niche facing Mecca was covered , and the site was declared a synagogue and yeshiva . Attaching the religious tradition surrounding the story of Joseph to the site , the settlers received protection from the IDF to transform this place of Muslim worship into one of their own . A curfew lasting 24 hours was once imposed by the IDF on Nablus 's 120 @,@ 000 inhabitants to allow a group of settlers and 2 Likud Knesset members to pray at the site . On the traditional anniversary of Joseph 's death on the 27th of Tammuz , hundreds of Jews would arrive at the site .
On December 12 , 1995 , in accordance with the Oslo Accords , jurisdiction of Nablus was handed over to the Palestinian National Authority , though Israel retained control of several religious sites , one of which was Joseph ’ s Tomb , thus sanctioning the fraught situation . Settler apprehensions that the area might be returned to Palestinians worked to enhance the status of Joseph 's tomb as a centre of pilgrimage . The Interim Agreement stipulated that : ' Both sides shall respect and protect the religious rights of Jews , Christians , Muslims and Samaritans concerning the protection and free access to the holy sites as well as freedom of worship and practice . ' The tomb , resembling a fortified military post with a small functioning yeshiva , became a frequent flash point . On September 24 , 1996 ( Also called Sukkut 1996 events part of the Western wall riots ( 1996 ) ) , after the opening of an exit for the Hasmonean Tunnel under the Ummariya madrasah , which Palestinians interpreted as a signal Benjamin Netanyahu was sending that Israel was to be the sole sovereign of Jerusalem , the PNA called for a general strike and a wave of protests broke out throughout the West Bank . In clashes , 7 Palestinians were killed and 253 wounded in the West Bank while six Israeli soldiers were killed at the tomb , and parts of the adjacent yeshiva were ransacked . Jews continued to worship at the site under limited protection of the Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) , often dressed as civilians easily mistaken for settlers . During , The site had been attacked by gun fire , and hundreds of Palestinian stormed the compound , Israeli border control took control over the compound but Palestinian security services requested to take control over the positions and the control was passed to Palestinian security services. in the following hours the mob put cars outside the compound ablaze entered the tomb and removed the Morus tree , the last known image of the Morus tree [ 1 ] was taken during 2006 .
Over the year and a half between 1999 and 2000 , the IDF , seconded by the Shin Bet and the Israeli Border Police , had asked the government to evacuate the tomb . In September 2000 , in the wake of Ariel Sharon ’ s controversial visit to the Temple Mount , the Al @-@ Aqsa Intifada broke out , and Nablus turned into conflict zone , in part after its governor ’ s son was shot dead during a clash with Israeli soldiers . The Palestinians targeted the site , reportedly on the grounds that it was better for the shrine to belong to no one than to be appropriated by just one religion , burning the yeshiva to the ground , incinerating its books and painting the dome green , an act which led to retaliation with Jewish vandalism of three mosques in Tiberias and Jaffa . After the death of an Israeli border policeman the head of the IDF ’ s southern command , Brigadier @-@ General Yom @-@ Tov Samia , threatened to resign if the government kept control of the tomb , since retaining control of it was ‘ patently illegal . ’ Prime Minister Ehud Barak eventually complied with the request and the site was handed over to the Palestinian police on October 7 , 2000 . Israeli newspapers framed the return of the site as a humiliating defeat for the nation . The tomb was pillaged and torched by Palestinian protesters hours after its evacuation . The next morning , the bullet @-@ riddled body of rabbi Hillel Lieberman of Elon Moreh , a cousin of Senator Joseph Lieberman , was found on the outskirts of Nablus , where he had gone to check damage to the tomb . Joseph ’ s Tomb embodied a key Zionist theme : the return from exile to one ’ s homeland , and the Palestinian assault has been interpreted as challenging the credibility of claims to the site . The PA began to repair it the next day . Palestinian spokesperson Hanan Ashrawi claimed that Judaism 's connection with the tomb was ' fabricated ' . The mayor of Nablus Ghassan Shakaa was reported as saying Jewish worshippers would not be permitted to pray there until an international organization or third party determines whether the site is holy to Moslems or Jews .
Israeli military officials said the Palestinians intended to build a mosque on the ruins of the site . The statement came after workers repairing the tomb painted the site 's dome green , the colour of Islam . A Palestinian Authority spokesman denied the allegations and said that Arafat had ordered the renovations and for the synagogue to be rebuilt . Ghassan Shakaa , the mayor , claimed that city officials simply wanted to return the building to the way it looked before it came into Israeli hands in the 1967 Mideast war . Under intense U.S. and international pressure the dome was repainted white .
= = = Since 2000 = = =
After the events of October 2000 , the IDF prohibited Israeli access to the tomb . As a result of Operation Defensive Shield , Nablus was reoccupied by the IDF in April 2002 , with severe damage to the historic core of the city , where 64 heritage buildings suffered serious damage or were destroyed . Some Breslov hasidim and others began to take advantage of the new circumstances to visit the site clandestinely under the cover of darkness , evading army and police checkpoints . Eventually Joseph ’ s tomb was once more open to visits . In May 2002 , Israeli soldiers mistakenly opened fire on a convoy of settlers taking advantage of an ongoing incursion in Nablus to visit the tomb . Seven settlers were arrested by the army for illegally entering a combat zone . As a result of Operation Defensive Shield , the tomb was retaken by the IDF and shortly afterwards , in response to numerous requests , they renewed guarded tours of the tomb . One day every month at midnight as many as 800 visitors were allowed to pray at the gravesite . These visits were designed to prevent unauthorized and unprotected clandestine visits , mainly by Breslav Hassidim . However , in October , citing security reasons , Israel re @-@ imposed a ban on Jewish pilgrims obtaining special permits and travelling to the tomb .
In February 2003 it was reported in the Jerusalem Post that the grave had been pounded with hammers and that the tree at its entrance had been broken ; car parts and trash littered the tomb which had a " huge hole in its dome . " Bratslav leader Aaron Klieger notified and lobbied government ministers about the desecration , but the IDF said it had no plans to secure or guard the site , claiming such action would be too costly .
In February 2007 , thirty five Knesset members ( MKs ) wrote to the army asking them to open Joseph 's Tomb to Jewish visitors for prayer . In May 2007 , Breslov hasidim visited the site for the first time in two years and later on that year , a group of hasidim found that the gravesite had been cleaned up by the Palestinians . In the past few years the site had suffered from neglect and its appearance had deteriorated , with garbage being dumped and tires being burned there .
In early 2008 , a group of MKs wrote a letter to the Prime Minister asking that the tomb be renovated : " The tombstone is completely shattered , and the holy site is desecrated in an appalling manner , the likes of which we have not seen in Israel or anywhere else in the world . " In February , it was reported that Israel would officially ask the Palestinian Authority to carry out repairs at the tomb , but in response , vandals set tires on fire inside the tomb . In December 2008 , Jewish workers funded by anonymous donors painted the blackened walls and re @-@ built the shattered stone marker covering the grave .
As of 2009 , monthly visits to the tomb in bullet @-@ proof vehicles under heavy IDF protection are organised by the Yitzhar based organization Shechem Ehad . In late April 2009 , a group of Jewish worshipers found the headstone smashed and swastikas painted on the walls , as well as boot prints on the grave itself .
In August 2010 , it was reported that the IDF and the Palestinian Authority reached an agreement on renovating the site . Israel 's chief rabbis , Yona Metzger and Shlomo Amar , visited and prayed at the tomb along with 500 other worshippers , the first such visit by a high @-@ ranking Israeli delegation in 10 years .
On 24 April 2011 , Palestinian Authority police officers opened fire on three cars of Israeli worshipers after they finished praying at Joseph 's tomb . An Israeli citizen was killed and three others were wounded . The fatality was identified as Ben @-@ Joseph Livnat , 25 , the nephew of Culture Minister Limor Livnat . Both the Israel Defense Forces and Palestinian Authority ordered investigations into the incident . According to an initial investigation , three cars full of Israelis entered the compound of Joseph 's tomb without coordination with the Israeli military or Palestinian security forces and then tried to break through a Palestinian Authority police checkpoint . The IDF investigation concluded that the Palestinian police officers had acted " maliciously " and with the intent to harm the Jewish worshipers . IDF Chief of Staff Benny Gantz added that they fired " without justification and with no immediate threat to their lives . "
On 7 July 2014 , Palestinians tried to burn down Joseph 's tomb while protesting . Palestinian Authority security forces were able to stop the protesters before they were able to burn it down . On December 22 , 2014 , Jews who were visiting the tomb to light candles for the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah discovered that the site had been vandalized . Lights were broken and electrical wiring had been cut . It was the first time Jews were allowed to visit the tomb in over a month .
On 16 October 2015 , amid a wave of violence between Palestinians and Israelis , dozens of Palestinians overran the tomb and a group of them set it on fire with petrol bombs . Palestinian security forces dispersed them and extinguished the flames ; and although the tomb itself was not apparently damaged , the women 's section was reported to be heavily damaged . Israeli security forces later arrived at the scene . According to a Palestinian official , the Palestinians had attempted to set up barricades in the area to prevent home demolitions by the Israeli Army , but a group of them proceeded to attack the tomb .
At 2 a.m. on the night of 18 October 2015 , a group of 30 Jews , on instruction from Rabbi Eliezer Berland , went to the tomb without permits , in contravention of a standing IDF order , to clean and paint the compound that was burned three days before . As they were attacked by local Palestinians , six of them were bruised by beatings , and one of their vehicles was burnt . They claimed that the Palestinian police , who had detained them , had also beaten them , before they were handed over to the Israeli army , which had been called to extract the others .
|
= 26th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 26th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . Originally raised in April 1915 for service in World War I as part of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) , it was assigned to the 7th Brigade and consisted of personnel recruited from the states of Queensland and Tasmania . The battalion fought at Gallipoli in the latter stages of that campaign before being withdrawn to Egypt in late 1915 . In mid @-@ 1916 , it was sent to Europe where it served in the trenches of the Western Front in France and Belgium for the rest of the war , fighting in most of the battles that the Australians took part in between 1916 and 1918 . At the end of the war it was disbanded in May 1919 as part of the demobilisation of the AIF .
During the inter @-@ war years , the 26th Battalion was re @-@ raised as a part @-@ time unit of the Citizens Forces , known as the 26th Battalion ( Logan and Albert Regiment ) , based in Queensland . In 1934 , the 26th was merged with another Queensland @-@ based infantry battalion , the 15th Battalion , to become the 15th / 26th Battalion . The two units were subsequently delinked in 1939 when the new 26th Australian Infantry Battalion was raised in Queensland as Australia mobilised for war .
The battalion was assigned to the 11th Brigade at this time and used in various garrison roles in the early part of World War II before a detachment was sent to the Dutch East Indies as part of Merauke Force in 1943 . Later in the war , the entire 26th Battalion , along with the rest of the 11th Brigade , was committed to the Bougainville campaign where they saw action against the Japanese from late 1944 until the end of hostilities in August 1945 . After the war , the 26th Battalion was used to guard Japanese prisoners on Rabaul , remaining there until March 1946 , before returning to Australia for demobilisation . It was subsequently disbanded in August 1946 .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
The 26th Battalion was originally raised in April 1915 as part of the all volunteer Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . Drawing recruits from Tasmania and Queensland , the battalion concentrated at Enoggera , Queensland , where it formed part of the 7th Brigade , which was attached to the 2nd Division . The battalion 's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel George Ferguson . With an authorised strength of 1 @,@ 023 men , after a short period of basic training , the battalion 's first draft – consisting of two companies of Queenslanders – embarked for overseas in May . They were followed by the two Tasmanian companies in late June . Further training was undertaken in Egypt , after which the battalion was sent to Gallipoli when the 2nd Division was despatched to the peninsula to reinforce the troops that had been fighting there since April . The 26th Battalion landed on 12 September . By that time , the campaign had become a costly stalemate and shortly after their arrival , as winter came and conditions worsened , the decision was made to evacuate the peninsula . As a result , the battalion did not take part in any major actions , and fulfilled only a defensive role , defending positions such as " Courtney 's Post " , " Steel 's Post " and " Russell 's Top " , before it was withdrawn from the peninsula on 12 December . Casualties during this first campaign amounted to 26 killed and 96 wounded . In addition , over 500 personnel were evacuated as sick with about half returning to duty .
After the evacuation , the 26th Battalion returned to Egypt where the AIF was reorganised and expanded before being sent to Europe . The 26th arrived in France in March 1916 , taking its place in the trenches along the Western Front the following month . In early June , alongside the 28th Battalion , they took part in the first raid undertaken by Australians in France , attacking German trenches around Bois Grenier . Their first major battle came around Pozières between July and August , after which the battalion was sent along with the entire 2nd Division to a quieter sector in Belgium having suffered over 650 casualties . After this , in November they were moved south to the Somme Valley and throughout the month the 26th participated in two attacks around a position known as " The Maze " , a salient to the east of Flers . Both of these attacks ultimately proved fruitless , grinding to a halt in the muddy conditions , and resulting in over 300 casualties . At the end of November , Lieutenant Colonel Reginald Travers took command of the battalion .
The harsh winter of 1916 – 17 was spent occupying defensive positions along the front and training behind the lines . Christmas was spent in the trenches around Amiens , but in early January 1917 , the 26th Battalion was transferred to the Ancre Valley and then to Le Sars later in the month . As the German Army withdrew towards the Hindenburg Line , the 26th was involved in a number of actions at Warlencourt and Lagnicourt in March . During the fighting around Lagnicourt , Captain Percy Cherry led his company into the village , capturing several positions before helping to hold off several German counterattacks ; he was later awarded the Victoria Cross posthumously . Later , in May they joined the Second Battle of Bullecourt , where they were used mainly in a support role during the initial attack , being held back as part of the 2nd Division 's reserve . During the attack , a company from the 26th was detached to help bolster the 5th Brigade , and later it was thrust into the line to help defend the gains after a German counterattack fell on the 6th Brigade 's left flank . After Bullecourt , the battalion was moved to Belgium again , where they joined the battles at Menin Road and Brooseinde Ridge in September and October . During the first attack , the 26th was in support of the 28th Battalion , but later it led the 7th Brigade 's follow up attack on the second line of defences around Broodseinde . Combined casualties for the two battles were over 400 killed or wounded .
In early 1918 , after the fighting on the Eastern Front ended following the collapse of Tsarist Russia , the Germans transferred a large number of divisions to the Western Front and subsequently launched a major offensive that became known as the Spring Offensive . In April 1918 , after the Allies had been pushed steadily back , the 26th Battalion was transferred from the Messines sector south to the Somme and committed to the fighting along with other Australian units . The 26th undertook defensive tasks throughout April and May in various locations including Baizieux , Camon and Ribemont , during which time over a 100 casualties were suffered before the German offensive was eventually halted . After this , throughout June and July the battalion launched a number of " peaceful penetration " operations to take small amounts of the German front line during the lull that followed prior to the final Allied offensive of the war . The first came around Morlancourt on 10 June , while another was undertaken around Monument Wood , near Villers @-@ Bretonneux , on 17 July 1918 . It was during this raid that Lieutenant Albert Borella earned the battalion 's second Victoria Cross of the war . The battalion was also credited with capturing the first German tank taken by Allied forces – " Mephisto " – during a similar operation a few days earlier . A few months later , in August , the Allies launched their Hundred Days Offensive , which ultimately brought an end to the war . On the opening day of the offensive , the 26th led the 7th Brigade 's attack around Villers @-@ Bretonneux . After a period in reserve , in late August they advanced on the brigade 's left during an attack at Biaches which saw the Allies push towards the Somme River . The following month they took part in the attack on Mont St Quentin , during which they experienced heavy machine @-@ gun fire .
After the Somme was crossed , the 26th joined an attack around Grandcourt and Lormisset on 3 October 1918 , part of the " Beaurevoir Line " , which was the third and final line of the Hindenburg Line defences . During the attack , the 26th followed up the initial gains made in the 7th Brigade 's sector by the 25th Battalion , and attacked the second line of German defences around Grandcourt , suffering 123 casualties , including 21 killed . Shortly after this , the 26th received a batch of reinforcements from the 25th Battalion , which was subsequently disbanded . Nevertheless , the fighting along the Beaurevoir Line was the 26th Battalion 's last contribution to the war and they were withdrawn to Berteaucort for a rest shortly afterwards . They did not return to the front line before the armistice was declared in November and were subsequently disbanded on 31 May 1919 . The battalion 's last commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel William Davis , who took command of the battalion in mid @-@ October 1918 and remained in command until it was disbanded .
During the course of the 26th Battalion 's involvement in the war it lost 877 men killed and 2 @,@ 745 men wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : two Victoria Crosses ( VCs ) , one Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) , four Distinguished Service Orders ( DSOs ) including one Bar , 25 Distinguished Conduct Medals ( DCMs ) , 26 Military Crosses ( MCs ) including three Bars , 96 Military Medals ( MMs ) including four Bars , four Meritorious Service Medals ( MSMs ) , and 37 Mentions in Despatches ( MIDs ) .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
In 1921 , following the completion of the demobilisation process , the AIF was disbanded and the Citizens Forces , Australia 's part @-@ time military force which was responsible for the defence of Australia , was reorganised to perpetuate the battle honours and traditions of the AIF by renumbering the units of the Citizens Force to adopt the numerical designations of their related AIF units . This process had partially commenced in late 1918 , with the introduction of a regimental system within the Citizen Forces , but was adjusted in 1921 when the Citizens Force was reorganised to replicate the AIF 's divisional structure resulting in the formation of single battalions from each regiment . Upon formation during the war , the units of the AIF had been raised from men drawn from the recruitment territory of already established Citizens Force units and as a consequence many AIF units retained links to Citizens Force units from where they drew the majority of the initial intake of personnel . As a result of the reorganisation in 1921 , the 26th Battalion was re @-@ raised as a part @-@ time unit of the Citizens Force , drawing personnel from several battalions of the 26th Infantry Regiment , which traced its history back through the 9th ( Logan and Albert ) Infantry , which had been formed in 1912 . In 1927 , territorial titles were adopted by the units of the Citizens Force , and the battalion adopted the title of the " Logan and Albert Regiment " . It also adopted the motto , Nunquam non Paratus , meaning " Never Unprepared " .
Initially , the Citizens Forces was maintained using a mixture of voluntary and compulsory service . In 1929 , following the election of the Scullin Labor government , the compulsory training scheme was abolished and replaced with an all volunteer force known as the " Militia " . The decision to suspend compulsory training , coupled with the economic downturn of the Great Depression meant that the manpower of many Militia units dropped considerably and the decision was made to amalgamate a number of units . The 26th Battalion was not initially affected , but in 1934 it was merged with the 15th Battalion to form the 15th / 26th Battalion . These two battalions remained linked until just prior to World War II , when on 16 June 1939 , they were split and a new 26th Battalion was raised in Queensland , near Hughenden , within the 1st Military District . Upon re @-@ forming , the battalion was placed under the command of one of the Australian Army 's most decorated soldiers , Lieutenant Colonel Harry Murray , a World War I Victoria Cross recipient . The battalion 's second @-@ in @-@ command was another Victoria Cross recipient , Major Edgar Towner .
= = = World War II = = =
Following the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , the 26th Battalion undertook a series of training camps around northern Queensland as it began to re @-@ establish its numbers . Between September and November , it was based around Kissing Point , Queensland , before moving to Townsville in February 1940 , and then south of Bowen the following month . At this time , it was placed under the command of the 11th Brigade , along with the 31st and 51st Battalions , both of which were Queensland @-@ based Militia battalions . In mid @-@ 1940 , the battalion 's strength fluctuated as compulsory service was reintroduced and drafts of national servicemen marched in for short periods of training , while volunteers were released to join the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) and other services . Many of the initial recruits came from Italian @-@ Australian families from north Queensland , but as the battalion grew , reinforcements from other Australian states arrived during 1942 and early 1943 .
Throughout 1941 and 1942 , the battalion undertook defensive duties in various locations around Queensland , including Charters Towers , Bohle River , and Alligator Falls . On 17 August 1942 , Murray relinquished command and was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel John Abbott . In October , the 26th moved to Kuranda , near Barron Falls , and as reinforcements arrived , began training to prepare for deployment overseas . In May 1943 , the battalion moved to Cairns where they embarked on the transport Katoomba and sailed to Horn Island . ' A ' Company was detached at this time to Merauke Force in the Dutch East Indies , becoming the first Militia unit to serve outside of Australian territory . Several other platoons were dispatched to other islands around the Torres Strait . Between August 1943 and November , defensive duties were undertaken on the mainland around the Cape York Peninsula , before the battalion returned to Horn Island .
In July 1944 , the 26th Battalion was withdrawn to Australia on board the transport Taroona , and after leave reconstituted at Strathpine , Queensland , and began training for further operations . Gazetted as an AIF unit , which meant it could be deployed outside Australian territory , during December 1944 the battalion deployed to Bougainville as Australian troops from the 3rd Division relieved American forces around Torokina . The Australians subsequently launched three drives on the island in the northern , southern and central areas . Initially , the 26th Battalion was committed to the fighting in the central sector of the island conducting patrolling operations around Numa Numa before being withdrawn to Torokina at the end of January 1945 . In February that year , Lieutenant Colonel Bernard Callinan assumed command , taking over from Abbott .
The 26th was then deployed to the Soraken Plantation area , using a series of amphibious landings to clear the area before a brief rest after which they began clearing north towards Ratsua and Ruri Bay , taking over from the 55th / 53rd Battalion . Determined Japanese resistance along the Ratsua front resulted in an amphibious landing by a company from the 31st / 51st Battalion around Porton Plantation , in an effort to outflank Ratsua . Following a series of mishaps , the company that landed around Porton became heavily engaged , and while efforts were made to evacuate them , the 26th Battalion and the rest of the 31st / 51st Battalion attempted to break through from Ratsua . They were unable to penetrate the Japanese lines , however , as they came up against Japanese defenders that were determined to resist because they were unable to withdraw any further along the peninsula . In late June , the 26th Battalion was relieved by the 27th Battalion and sent back to Torokina for rest . Hostilities ceased in August , and the following month the 26th Battalion was sent to Rabaul for garrison duty . In December , Lieutenant Colonel Allan Cameron took command of the battalion .
In March 1946 , the 26th Battalion returned to Australia . After this , the battalion experienced a high turn @-@ over of personnel , with over 2 @,@ 500 men passing through the battalion at this time , as men were discharged or transferred to other units . Command of the battalion also changed a couple of times , with Lieutenant Colonel Peter Webster taking over on 22 March , before he handed over to Lieutenant Colonel Eric Barnes . The battalion was finally disbanded on 28 August 1946 , but ' A ' Company remained in existence as a holding company until 25 September 1946 when the last member marched out .
During the course of the battalion 's involvement in the war , it lost 40 men killed in action or died on active service and 110 wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one DSO , two MBEs , one George Medal , one British Empire Medal , five MCs , eight MMs , and 14 MIDs .
= = Alliances = =
The 26th Battalion held the following alliances :
United Kingdom – Cameronians ( Scottish Rifles ) ( 1928 – 51 ) ;
Canada – The Perth Regiment ( 1932 – 53 ) ;
New Zealand – The Otago Regiment ( 1932 – 54 ) ;
South Africa – Witwatersrand Rifles ( 1932 – 53 ) .
= = Commanding Officers = =
The following officers commanded the 26th Battalion :
World War I
Lieutenant Colonel George Andrew Ferguson ;
Lieutenant Colonel Reginald John Albert Travers ;
Lieutenant Colonel William MacIntyre Davis .
World War II
Lieutenant Colonel Henry William ( Harry ) Murray ;
Lieutenant Colonel John Noel Abbott ;
Lieutenant Colonel Bernard James Callinan ;
Lieutenant Colonel Allan Gordon Cameron ;
Lieutenant Colonel Peter Glyn Clifton Webster ;
Lieutenant Colonel Eric Barnes .
= = Battle honours = =
The 26th Battalion was awarded the following battle honours :
World War I : Somme 1916 , ' 18 ; Pozières ; Bullecourt ; Ypres 1917 ; Menin Road ; Polygon Wood ; Broodseinde ; Poelcappelle ; Passchendaele ; Amiens ; Albert 1918 ; Mont St Quentin ; Hindenburg Line ; Beaurevoir ; France and Flanders 1916 – 18 ; Gallipoli 1915 ; Egypt 1915 – 16 .
World War II : Bonis – Porton ; South @-@ West Pacific 1943 – 45 ; Liberation of Australian New Guinea .
In 1961 , the battalion – although no longer on the Australian Army 's order of battle – was entrusted with the three battle honours awarded to the 2 / 26th Battalion for its service with the 2nd AIF during World War II . The honours it inherited at this time were : Malaya 1941 – 42 ; Johore ; and Singapore Island .
|
= Yellowstone fires of 1988 =
The Yellowstone fires of 1988 together formed the largest wildfire in the recorded history of Yellowstone National Park in the United States . Starting as many smaller individual fires , the flames quickly spread out of control with increasing winds and drought and combined into one large conflagration , which burned for several months . The fires almost destroyed two major visitor destinations and , on September 8 , 1988 , the entire park was closed to all non @-@ emergency personnel for the first time in its history . Only the arrival of cool and moist weather in the late autumn brought the fires to an end . A total of 793 @,@ 880 acres ( 3 @,@ 213 km2 ) , or 36 percent of the park was affected by the wildfires .
Thousands of firefighters fought the fires , assisted by dozens of helicopters and fixed @-@ wing aircraft which were used for water and fire retardant drops . At the peak of the effort , over 9 @,@ 000 firefighters were assigned to the park . With fires raging throughout the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and other areas in the western United States , the staffing levels of the National Park Service and other land management agencies were inadequate for the situation ; over 4 @,@ 000 U.S. military personnel were soon brought in to assist in fire suppression efforts . The firefighting effort cost $ 120 million ( $ 240 million in 2016 ) . No firefighters died while fighting Yellowstone fires , though there were two fire @-@ related deaths outside the park .
Before the late 1960s , fires were generally believed to be detrimental for parks and forests , and management policies were aimed at suppressing fires as quickly as possible . However , as the beneficial ecological role of fire became better understood in the decades before 1988 , a policy was adopted of allowing natural fires to burn under controlled conditions , which proved highly successful in reducing the area lost annually to wildfires .
In contrast , in 1988 , Yellowstone was overdue for a large fire , and , in the exceptionally dry summer , the many smaller " controlled " fires combined . The fires burned discontinuously , leaping from one patch to another , leaving intervening areas untouched . Large firestorms swept through some regions , burning everything in their paths . Tens of millions of trees and countless plants were killed by the wildfires , and some regions were left looking blackened and dead . However , more than half of the affected areas were burned by ground fires , which did less damage to hardier tree species . Not long after the fires ended , plant and tree species quickly reestablished themselves , and natural plant regeneration has been highly successful .
The Yellowstone fires of 1988 were unprecedented in the history of the National Park Service , and many questioned existing fire management policies . Media accounts of mismanagement were often sensational and inaccurate , sometimes wrongly reporting or implying that most of the park was being destroyed . While there were temporary declines in air quality during the fires , no adverse long @-@ term health effects have been recorded in the ecosystem and contrary to initial reports , few large mammals were killed by the fires , though there has been a reduction in the number of moose which has yet to rebound . Losses to structures were minimized by concentrating firefighting efforts near major visitor areas , keeping property damage down to $ 3 million ( $ 6 million as of 2016 ) .
= = Fire management policy development in the United States = =
In the eastern United States , with its significant rainfall , wildfires are relatively small and have rarely posed great risk to life and property . As white settlements moved further west into drier areas , the first large scale fires were encountered . Range fires on the Great Plains and forest fires in the Rocky Mountains were far larger and more destructive than what had ever been seen in the east . A number of catastrophic fire events over the years greatly influenced fire management policies .
The worst loss of life in United States history due to a wildfire occurred in 1871 when the Peshtigo Fire swept through Wisconsin , killing more than 1500 people . The Santiago Canyon Fire of 1889 in California and especially the Great Fire of 1910 in Montana and Idaho contributed to the philosophy that fire was a danger that needed to be suppressed . The Great Fire of 1910 had burned 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 12 @,@ 000 km2 ) , destroyed a number of communities and killed 86 people , and this event prompted various land management agencies to emphasize wildfire suppression . U.S. Government land agencies , including the National Park Service , generally followed the fire management policies established by the U.S. Forest Service , which oversees the majority of the nation 's forestlands .
Before the middle of the 20th century , most forest managers believed that fires should be suppressed at all times . By 1935 , the U.S. Forest Service 's fire management policy stipulated that all wildfires were to be suppressed by 10 A.M. the morning after they were first spotted . Firefighting crews were established throughout public lands , and generally staffed by young men during fire seasons . By 1940 , firefighters known as smokejumpers would parachute out of airplanes to extinguish flames in remote locations . By the beginning of World War II , over 8 @,@ 000 fire lookout towers had been constructed in the United States . Though many have been torn down due to increased use of airplanes for fire spotting , three are still used each year in Yellowstone . Firefighting efforts were highly successful , with the area burned by wildfires reduced from an annual average of 30 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 120 @,@ 000 km2 ) during the 1930s , to between 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @,@ 100 km2 ) and 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 km2 ) by the 1960s . The need for lumber during World War II was high and fires that destroyed timberland were deemed unacceptable . In 1944 , the U.S. Forest Service developed an ad campaign to help educate the public that all fires were detrimental , using a cartoon black bear named Smokey Bear . This iconic firefighting bear can still be seen on posters with the catchphrase " Only you can prevent forest fires " . Early posters of Smokey Bear misled the public into believing that western wildfires were predominantly human @-@ caused . In Yellowstone , human @-@ caused fires average between 6 and 10 annually , while 35 wildfires are ignited by lightning .
Some researchers , as well as some timber companies and private citizens , understood that fire was a natural state of affairs in many ecosystems . Fire would help clean out the understory and dead plant matter , allowing economically important tree species to grow with less competition for nutrients . Native Americans would often burn woodlands to reduce overgrowth and increase grasslands for large prey animals such as bison and elk . As early as 1924 , environmentalist Aldo Leopold argued that wildfires were beneficial to ecosystems , and were necessary for the natural propagation of numerous tree and plant species . Over the next 40 years , increasing numbers of foresters and ecologists concurred about the benefits of wildfire to ecosystems . In 1963 , a group of ecologists consulted by the National Park Service released a report recommending that wildfires should be allowed to periodically burn to restore the environmental balance in parks . The Wilderness Act of 1964 helped to address the role of fire as a natural part of ecosystems . By 1968 , the National Park Service had adjusted its fire management policies to reflect changing attitudes . The service determined that fires that started naturally ( by lightning ) would be permitted to burn if they posed little risk to human life and property . The service also decreed that under prescribed conditions , controlled burns would be deliberately set to restore balance to ecosystems . Fire ecology became better understood after many forests had aged to maturity and were overdue for a large scale burn .
From 1972 , the National Park Service began allowing natural fires in Yellowstone to burn under controlled conditions . Fires of this type were referred to as prescribed natural fires . Between 1972 and 1987 , a total of 235 prescribed natural fires burned a relatively small 33 @,@ 759 acres ( 137 km2 ) under the directives of the new policy . Of these , only 15 spread to more than 100 acres ( 0 @.@ 4 km2 ) . The five years prior to 1988 were much wetter than normal and this may have reduced the area of the fires during that period . The prescribed natural fire policy appeared to be an effective way to manage fires , especially in the Yellowstone region .
= = Contributing factors to the fires = =
Formal fire recordkeeping in Yellowstone began in 1931 , when the Heart Lake Fire burned 18 @,@ 000 acres ( 73 km2 ) . Despite its small extent , it was the largest fire in the period from when the park was created until 1988 . Research indicates that only two or three large fires occur on the Yellowstone Plateau every 1 @,@ 000 years . The previous major Yellowstone fire was in the early to mid @-@ 18th century , well before the arrival of white explorers .
Yellowstone forests are dominated by the lodgepole pine and are eventually replaced by other tree species after 80 to 100 years as a forest matures . In Yellowstone , a very short growing season due to high altitude and relatively poor soils allows the lodgepole pine to reach ages approaching three hundred years before other trees such as Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir become established . The lodgepole pines found throughout the Yellowstone Plateau high country grow in uninterrupted dense stands averaging similar ages in various groupings . Though trees normally found in more mature forests do occur , they are not found in large stands as in other forests in the Rocky Mountains . By the 1980s much of the lodgepole pine forests in Yellowstone were between 200 and 250 years old and approaching the end of their lifecycle .
The mountain pine beetle killed a number of trees in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem from the late 1960s through the mid @-@ 1980s . This created a heterogeneous forest in which old surviving trees were mixed with younger trees of various ages . This mixed stand structure may have provided ladder fuels that contributed to the fires . In addition , the winter season of 1987 – 1988 was drier than usual , with the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem receiving only 31 % of the normal snowpack . However , April and May 1988 were very wet and the abundant moisture greatly aided grass and understory development . By June , the rainfall stopped and little was recorded in the entire Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem for the next four months . By July , the worst drought in the history of Yellowstone National Park began . Grasses and plants which grew well in the early summer soon turned to dry tinder . Relative humidity levels fell further , desiccating the forest . Fuel moisture content in dead and fallen timber was recorded as low as 5 % . By mid @-@ August , humidity levels were averaging below 20 % and were recorded as low as 6 % on one occasion . To compound the lack of rainfall , the majority of Yellowstone 's soils are rhyolitic volcanic rocks and soils which have poor moisture retention . A series of strong but dry storm fronts also led to the rapid spread of a number of the largest fires .
Accumulated fuel , old forests , and unabated and exceptionally dry conditions spelled trouble for Yellowstone . However , foresters and fire ecologists predicted a normal fire season for the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and anticipated normal rainfall for July . History provided little evidence to suggest that 1988 would be any different from the previous 100 plus years the park had existed . But , as major fires started to break out throughout the Rocky Mountain region , the media began to take notice . Twenty small fires started in Yellowstone by July and of those , eleven went out on their own . The remainder were closely monitored in accordance with the prescribed natural fire policies . By July 15 fires throughout the entire Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem had burned 8 @,@ 500 acres ( 34 km2 ) and though this was not out of the ordinary , media focus on fires raging throughout the American west influenced the decision by the park officials to initiate fire suppression efforts on July 15 . Within a week after suppression efforts commenced , the fires had spread to include almost 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 km2 ) on the parkland alone .
= = Major fires in Yellowstone in 1988 = =
Almost 250 different fires started in Yellowstone and the surrounding National Forests between June and August . Seven of them were responsible for 95 % of the total burned area . At the end of July , the National Park Service and other agencies had fully mobilized available personnel , and yet the fires continued to expand . Smaller fires burned into each other , propelled by dry storms which brought howling winds and dry lightning strikes but no rain . On August 20 , the single worst day of the fires and later dubbed " Black Saturday " , more than 150 @,@ 000 acres ( 610 km2 ) were consumed during one of many firestorms . Ash from the firestorms throughout the park drifted as far away as Billings , Montana , 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the northeast . The wind driven flames jumped roads and firelines , and burning embers started new fires a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) or more ahead of the main fires . Ground fires raced the fuel ladder to the forest canopy and became crown fires with flames over 200 feet ( 61 m ) high . On that single day , more Yellowstone land burned than in all other fires combined since the establishment of the park . Throughout the summer , fires made huge advances of 5 to 10 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 to 16 @.@ 1 km ) a day , and there were even occasions when more than 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) in one hour were recorded .
One large group of fires was known as the Snake River Complex . These fires were in the southern section of the park , in the headwaters region of the Yellowstone and Snake Rivers . The largest fire in the group was the Shoshone fire which was started by lightning on June 23 . The prescribed natural burn policy was still in effect , and at first no efforts were made to suppress this fire . It smoldered with little movement for several weeks , then rapidly started expanding towards the northeast on July 20 .
The Red fire started near Lewis Lake on July 1 and like the Shoshone fire , advanced little for several weeks . The fire then moved northeast on July 19 and combined with the Shoshone fire in August . As these two fires advanced towards the Grant Village area , evacuations were ordered so fire fighting crews could concentrate on structure protection . In the midst of a large lodgepole pine forest , the Grant Village complex was the first major tourist area impacted that season . A number of small structures and some of the campground complex were destroyed . After the Red and Shoshone fires combined , they were referred to as the Shoshone fire , since it was much larger .
The Mink fire started in Bridger @-@ Teton National Forest from lightning on July 11 , and burned north following the Yellowstone River valley , after firefighters forced the fire away from private lands . The Mink fire eventually burned sections inside the park after July 23 , but was deemed to be a low risk since it was in a very remote section of the park .
The third largest fire was the Huck fire , which started after a tree fell on a power line on August 20 near Flagg Ranch . This fire burned primarily in the John D. Rockefeller , Jr . Memorial Parkway , crossing Yellowstone 's southern border on August 30 . The Snake River Complex of fires burned more than 140 @,@ 000 acres ( 567 km2 ) before they were extinguished by wet weather in the fall . One of the most striking events of this fire complex occurred on August 23 when firestorms swept across the Lewis River Canyon , propelled by winds of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) and gusting to 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) .
The Mist fire started on July 9 in the eastern section of the park in the Absaroka Mountains . Two days later , the Clover fire started in the same region and both fires combined and were renamed as the Clover Mist fire on July 20 . Burning in rugged terrain , this fire was very difficult to fight and on August 20 , the fire advanced from the south towards the small town of Cooke City , Montana and continued to threaten the town for several more weeks . The Clover Mist fire eventually consumed more than 140 @,@ 000 acres ( 567 km2 ) .
The Storm Creek fire started on June 14 well north of the park in the Absaroka @-@ Beartooth Wilderness , and for almost two months seemed to pose little threat to Yellowstone . Then , on August 20 , the fire moved rapidly to the south also threatening the town of Cooke City , this time from the north . An effort to bulldoze a wide fire break and set backfires to try to starve the fires of combustibles almost led to disaster when an unexpected change in wind direction brought the fires to within a hundred yards of parts of the town , forcing evacuations on September 6 .
The other major fire located in the northern section of the park was the Hellroaring fire . Started in Gallatin National Forest on August 15 from embers from an unattended campfire , the fire initially moved north , but then turned around a few days later and moved south , threatening the area near Tower Junction .
In the northwest , the Fan fire started on June 25 and was originally considered a threat to the town of Gardiner , Montana , just outside the park 's north entrance . It was the most successfully fought of all the 1988 fires . Though the fire was not contained for a couple of months , by mid @-@ August it was no longer considered a threat to lives and property .
The largest fire in the park was the North Fork fire , both in terms of damage to structures and of area burned . The fire started on July 22 when a man cutting timber dropped his cigarette in Caribou @-@ Targhee National Forest just outside the park 's western border . The North Fork fire was the only major fire that was fought from the beginning since it started after the prescribed fire policy was halted on July 15 . The fire spread towards the northeast and by the end of the first week of August was threatening Madison Junction and nearby campground facilities . The fire then raced towards Norris Junction on August 20 . Firefighters there used water and foam to keep the structures from being consumed by the blaze . The fire continued its westward advance along the Yellowstone Plateau and on August 25 reached visitor facilities at Canyon , where land management agencies and the U.S. military put forth enormous efforts to protect structures . The eastern flank of the fire calmed down for several days , then down @-@ sloping winds off the Yellowstone Plateau forced flames along the west side of the fire towards the town of West Yellowstone , Montana . There , private citizens assisted assigned personnel in soaking hundreds of acres of forestland to protect both the town and an electrical power substation . The fire burned a substantial section of forest along the Madison River valley .
Between September 5 and 7 , a dry front pushed flames along the southern section of the North Fork fire towards the large Old Faithful visitor complex adjacent to the Upper Geyser Basin . All non @-@ emergency personnel were ordered to be evacuated ; however , political issues influenced National Park Service management directives and the complex was not completely closed to incoming tourists , with some visitors still arriving at Old Faithful not long before the main firestorm hit by mid afternoon . An all out aerial bombardment with air tankers dropping fire retardant failed . Firefighters concentrated on structure protection , especially those of historical significance such as the Old Faithful Inn , using fire engines and portable water pumping systems to keep the roofs and other surfaces of the structures wet . 1 @,@ 200 firefighters including 120 military personnel dug fire lines and cleared away brush near structures . Winds crested up to 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) as the fire approached from the west .
The fires spread to forested sections near to , but generally away from major structures , but 19 small structures were destroyed and there was also extensive damage to an old dormitory . The fire was so intense that vehicles left near the fire had their wheels melted , windshields shattered and paint scorched . Though most of the Old Faithful complex had been spared , the park service decided that for the first time , the entire park would be closed to non @-@ emergency personnel on September 8 . The night of the 9th and the morning of the 10th of September , the North Fork fire jumped a fireline along its northeastern flank and approached Mammoth Hot Springs where a large concentration of historical structures as well as the Park Headquarters is located . Rain and snow arrived in time to slow the fires before they threatened the complex . By the time the North Fork fire finally died down , it was responsible for 60 % of the burned area within the park ; more than 400 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 600 km2 ) .
Colder weather , bringing with it rain and snow on September 11 calmed the fires down substantially throughout the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem . Though the fires continued to burn well into the middle of November , they never again posed an immediate risk to life or property . Many fire crews were sent home , but additional manpower continued to arrive at Yellowstone to rehabilitate areas that had been affected by the firefighting efforts . Hundreds of miles of firelines , helicopter landing zones and fire camps needed to be restored to a more natural state , and thousands of hazardous dead trees needed to be cut down to protect roads and buildings . Finally , on November 18 , all fires in Yellowstone were officially declared out .
= = Fighting the fires = =
1988 was a big year for wildfires in the western United States , with more than 72 @,@ 000 fires reported during the year , including 300 rated as major . Firefighting employees and equipment were stretched to the limit , and consequently , over 6 @,@ 000 U.S. Military personnel assisted in the fire fighting efforts nationwide , with more than 600 assigned to Yellowstone . At the height of the fires , over 9 @,@ 000 firefighters and support personnel were assigned to Yellowstone at one time , and by the time the fires finally went out , more than 25 @,@ 000 had been involved in the fire suppression efforts . Crews would normally work for 2 to 3 weeks , be sent home , and then return for one or two more tours of duty . The normal workday was as long as 14 hours . Assignments included digging firelines , watering down buildings , clearing undergrowth near structures , and installing water pumps . Hundreds of firefighters were assigned to engine crews , as much of the firefighting effort was aimed at protecting structures . No firefighters died in the park as a result of the fires , but one firefighter and an aircraft pilot died in separate incidents outside the park . A number of firefighters were treated for various injuries with the more common complaints being fatigue , headaches , and smoke inhalation . A few firefighters were exposed to noxious fumes from sulfur emissions from a geothermal area .
Firefighters created 655 miles ( 1 @,@ 054 km ) of fireline by hand and 137 miles ( 220 km ) with mechanized equipment such as bulldozers . Most of the bulldozer work was done on the North Fork fire . Some other fires were too remote or in too steep terrain for the safe operation of heavy equipment , and bulldozers were prohibited from many areas because of the impact they have on surface features . Additionally , the thin , unstable ground near the park 's geothermal features could not be trusted to support the weight of heavy equipment . Bulldozers are rarely used on fires in U.S. National Parks .
Some 120 helicopters and fixed @-@ wing aircraft were used to combat the inferno . Aircraft logged over 18 @,@ 000 hours of flight time and dropped 1 @.@ 4 million U.S. gallons ( 5 @.@ 3 ML ) of fire retardant and 10 million U.S. gallons ( 38 ML ) of water on the fires .
More than 100 fire engines were assigned to the fire . Structural fire engines were used in building complexes , where a number are stationed permanently as in urban settings . Smaller wildland fire engines suitable for movement over rough terrain were deployed throughout the park .
$ 120 million was spent fighting the fires , while structure loss was estimated at $ 3 million . Later analysis has shown that , aside from concentrated fire suppression efforts near major tourist facilities , the firefighting work failed to stop what was likely an unstoppable force .
= = Impacts on the park = =
= = = Vegetation and wildlife = = =
The fires in Yellowstone left a mosaic of areas greatly affected and others less so . Inside fire perimeters , large expanses of forest were completely untouched . There were three major types of burning . From an aesthetic viewpoint , the most destructive fires were the canopy crown fires that in many places obliterated entire forests . Crown fires accounted for about 41 percent of all the area that burned . Mixed fires burned both the canopy and vegetation on the ground , or burned one or the other as they spread through the forest . Ground fires spread slowly along the ground , consuming smaller plants and dead plant material ; some ground fires burned for longer duration and intensity , contributing to the loss of many trees whose canopies were never directly burned .
The recovery from the fires began almost immediately , with plants such as fireweed appearing in a matter of days after a fire had passed . While surrounding national forests did some replanting and even dispersed grass seed by airplane , the regeneration in Yellowstone was generally so complete that no replanting was even attempted . Though some small plants did not immediately reassume their pre @-@ fire habitats , most did , and the vast majority of plants regrew from existing sprouts which survived the heat from the fires . There was a profusion of wildflowers in burned areas , especially between two and five years after the fires .
Seeds had little distance to travel , even in severely burned areas . Much of the most badly burned forest was within 160 to 650 feet ( 49 to 198 m ) of less affected areas . Still , most regeneration of the plants and trees came from immediate sources , either above or below ground . Lodgepole pines generally do not disperse their seeds more than 200 feet ( 61 m ) , so seed dispersal from less burned parts apparently had little effect on more severely burned areas . In regions that did experience complete burnouts , the average depth of charred soil was only about half an inch ( 14 mm ) , so few roots , even of grasses , were killed by the fire . This allowed rapid regeneration throughout the ecosystem .
The predominant tree in Yellowstone , the lodgepole pine , fared poorly from the fires , except in areas where the heat and flames were very mild . The lodgepole pine is serotinous and often produces pine cones that remain closed and will not disperse seeds unless subjected to fire . Research of test plots established after the fires indicated that the best seed dispersal occurred in areas which had experienced severe ground fires , and that seed dispersal was lowest in areas which had only minor surface burns . Regions with crown fires sometimes had the highest rates of regeneration of lodgepole pine after 5 years . However , the rate of lodgepole regeneration was not uniform , with some areas seeing extremely high densities of new growth while other areas had less . Stands of dead lodgepole killed by the fires may persist for decades , rising above new growth and providing habitat for birds and other wildlife .
Aspen became more widespread after the fires , occupying areas that had been dominated by conifers . It had long been believed that aspen regenerated by sprouting from existing roots rather than by seed dispersal . However , aspen sprouts appeared two years after the fires as far as 9 miles ( 14 km ) from the nearest known aspen trees . Aspen is a preferred grazing food for elk and many of the newer aspen are consequently small , except in areas that are harder for elk to get to . The resurgence of aspen after the fires was a contrast to pre @-@ fire events , as aspen had been increasingly scarce in the park . This might be a temporary event as conifers continue to grow and eventually crowd out other tree species .
Contrary to media reports and speculation at the time , the fires killed very few park animals — surveys indicated that only about 345 elk ( of an estimated 40 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 ) , 36 mule deer , 12 moose , 6 black bears , and 9 bison had perished . Of 21 grizzlies that were radio @-@ collared and had home ranges where the fires happened , only one was believed to have been lost . Grizzlies were observed in burned areas more often than unburned areas the following year , feeding on the proliferation of roots and foliage as well as on ants which thrived due to all the dead wood . Moose had been declining in the northern sections of the park since the 1960s , but the decline became more obvious after the fires . Unlike elk , which are primarily grazers and tend to eat grasses , moose are more likely to be browsers , consuming primarily woody food sources , particularly willow and subalpine fir , which were temporarily reduced by the fires . All ungulates experienced a high initial mortality the winter after the fires , but this has been attributed to a severe winter more than the fires themselves . However , moose populations , unlike other ungulates , have not rebounded in subsequent years . Rodents likely experienced the highest mortality of all mammals due not only to heat and smoke they could not easily escape , but also because of the reduction in forest cover , allowing would @-@ be predators less difficulty in spotting them .
Approximately 100 dead fish were reported in two streams after fire retardant was accidentally dropped on them . Aside from a temporary decrease in a few species of aquatic insects , no long @-@ term impact has been observed on aquatic life in any of Yellowstone 's rivers or lakes .
The Recovery of Yellowstone National Park ( burned areas are red )
= = = Air and water = = =
The smoke and airborne particulates from the fires posed a threat to local communities on several occasions . Smoke and particulates were especially high in Gardiner , Montana . There , monitoring stations maintained by the Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences and the park recorded 19 days where recommended allowable particulate concentrations were exceeded . This was also the case near fires , and on 7 occasions at Mammoth , Montana , the location of the park headquarters . In no other surrounding communities were particulates found to be above acceptable levels . Smoke and haze made driving difficult and sometimes even dangerous . A number of fire fighters were treated at clinics for smoke and dust inhalation and a few for inadvertently inhaling fumes from a sulfur ignition near one of the geothermal areas .
In the aftermath of the fires , erosion was a particular concern , especially as the rains were heavy the following year . Helicopters dropped millions of gallons of water on the fires , and water retrieval from a few small creeks actually dropped the water level temporarily . Stream flow was also affected by water @-@ pumping operations . The more than a million gallons of ammonium phosphate based fire @-@ retardant material polluted some streams , but this too was transient and had no long term ill effects on water quality . Fire fighting foams used on wildfires differ from those used for other situations such as fuel fires . They are very low in toxicity and were believed to have completely dispersed by the spring of 1989 .
= = = Structure damage = = =
The park service gave priority to life and property in their efforts to suppress the fires . Of the more than 1 @,@ 000 structures located in the park , only 67 were destroyed . There were 400 structures in the Old Faithful complex and only 19 of these were destroyed , 12 of which were concessionaire housing units and relatively inexpensive to replace . Major tourist locations in the park such as the one at Old Faithful were heavily staffed by fire fighting crews and equipment , especially at times of immediate danger . Fire fighters used a variety of methods to establish safe zones in and near these complexes , yet every single visitor complex was evacuated by non @-@ critical personnel at least once during the fires .
Of the 38 backcountry patrol cabins used by park rangers and park staff , the only one lost to the fires was at Sportsman Lake , and it was rebuilt the following summer . However , fires did a lot of damage to numerous campgrounds , backcountry bridges , and 10 miles ( 16 km ) of power lines and 300 utility poles . Some of the boardwalks used to keep tourists elevated above geothermal areas were also destroyed , but were quickly replaced .
= = Media coverage = =
Since Yellowstone is one of the most famous national parks in the world , news coverage was extensive and sometimes sensational . Federal officials sometimes had only limited information to present to the media . The National Park Service received some 3 @,@ 000 media requests , not all of which the two park public information officers were able to grant , even with the assistance of a staff of over 40 employees . 16 more park personnel were assigned the role of liaisons with the media where fire fighting manpower was concentrated . By the time the fires were under control in mid @-@ November , the park was still receiving 40 to 70 media requests daily . Media coverage of the fires brought the National Park Service more national attention than it had ever received , and the 1988 fire season has been called one of the most important events in the history of that agency .
Lack of understanding of wildfire management by the media led to some sensationalist reporting and inaccuracies . Some news agencies gave the impression that most of the park was being destroyed . On August 30 , an ABC News interview with Stanley Mott , apparently a tourist , incorrectly identified him as the Director of the National Park Service ( William Mott ) . In another story , The New York Times stated that the Park Service policy was to allow natural fires to burn themselves out , whereas that of the U.S. Forest Service was to suppress all such fires — a mischaracterization of the policies of both agencies . The media also had some difficulty distinguishing between these two completely separate agencies . Sources quoted by The Washington Post , USA Today , and the Chicago Tribune later stated that comments attributed to them were fabricated , and one source commented that a September 8 , 1988 report by the Chicago Tribune had more errors than facts . On the same day , The Washington Post associated the smoke and presence of military vehicles and helicopters overhead with the 1968 events in Da Nang , Vietnam , giving the impression of catastrophe . The fires had been very active in late July . In early August , fire managers reached a conclusion that the fires would not likely expand much further , due to a lack of fuel , and the Director of the National Park Service declared on August 11 that the fires were contained . When this optimistic announcement was followed by Black Saturday on August 20 , and the firestorm that threatened the Old Faithful complex in early September , the media were again highly critical of the park service and their policies .
= = Fire management since 1988 = =
As a result of research conducted after the fires , a new fire management plan for Yellowstone was implemented in 1992 . The plan observed stricter guidelines for managing natural fires , increased the staffing levels of fire monitors and related occupations , and allocated greater funding for fire management . By 2004 , further amendments to the wildland fire management plan were added . According to the 2004 plan , natural wildfires are allowed to burn , so long as parameters regarding fire size , weather , and potential danger are not exceeded . Those fires that do exceed the standards , as well as all human @-@ caused fires , are to be suppressed . These changes are primarily updates of the 1972 fire management plan and continue to emphasize the role of fire in maintaining a natural ecosystem , but apply stricter guidelines and lower levels of tolerance .
Increased fire monitoring through ground based and aerial reconnaissance has been implemented to quickly determine how a particular fire will be managed . Fire monitors first determine whether a fire is human @-@ caused or natural . All human @-@ caused fires are suppressed since they are unnatural , while natural fires are monitored . Fire monitors map the fire perimeter , record local weather , and examine the types of fuels burning and the amount of fuel available . Additionally , they investigate the rate of spread , flame lengths , fuel moisture content , and other characteristics of each fire . Monitors relay the information they gather to fire managers who then make determinations on future actions .
Land management employees remove dead and hazardous fuels from areas as prioritized by the Hazard Fuels Reduction Plan . This is to ensure fires have less opportunity to threaten lives , historical structures , and visitor facilities . As of 2007 , fuel is reduced within 400 feet ( 120 m ) of structures and other high @-@ priority locations .
Foresters and ecologists argue that large controlled burns in Yellowstone prior to the fires would not have greatly reduced the area that was consumed in 1988 . Controlled burns would quickly become uncontrolled if they were allowed to burn with the intensity that many tree and plant communities need for proper regeneration . Consequently , natural fires , rather than controlled burns , are the park 's primary maintenance tool . Since the late 1970s , some 300 natural fires have been allowed to burn themselves out . In rare circumstances , natural fires are supplemented by controlled burns that are deliberately started to remove dead timber under conditions which allow fire fighters an opportunity to carefully control where and how much wood fuel is consumed .
Greater cooperation between federal and state agencies on a national level has been coordinated through the National Interagency Fire Center . Though primarily a collaborative effort between federal agencies to develop a national level fire policy , the center also aids local and state governments in addressing their fire management issues . Universally accepted priorities include management directives which allow natural fires to burn unhindered under prescribed conditions . As in the 1988 fires , protection of lives and property continue to take precedence in all fire fighting efforts .
The most important lesson learned is that a number of ecosystems , including the one that contains Yellowstone , are specially adapted to large and intense wildfires . This was widely thought to be the case well before 1988 , and the wildfires of that year drove the conclusion home . While large destructive fires are unacceptable in regions with extensive encroachment by communities , they are mandatory in a region such as the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , if it is to be maintained in a natural manner .
|
= Washington State Route 230 =
State Route 230 ( SR 230 ) is a legislated , but unconstructed , state highway to be located in Adams and Whitman counties in the U.S. state of Washington . The highway would begin at a junction with concurrent highways Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) and U.S. Route 395 ( US 395 ) in Ritzville and travel east to an intersection with SR 23 in Ewan . Plans for the first highway first emerged in 1945 , to be studied after the conclusion of World War II , however no action has been taken on construction of the highway .
= = Route description = =
The highway is legislated to begin in Ritzville at a junction with concurrent highways I @-@ 90 and US 395 and travel east through a mixture of farm and desert landscapes , crossing over the Adams – Whitman county line in the process . A junction with SR 23 near Ewan is to be the eastern terminus of the highway . Currently travelers wishing to travel between the two communities take the freeway to Sprague , then head southeast along SR 23 .
= = History = =
The highway was first proposed in 1945 , with the support of the Ritzville Chamber of Commerce and senator Elmer C. Huntley of Colfax . An earmark of just over $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 51 @.@ 3 million in 2015 ) was set aside for the project to be used after the war . The proposed highway 's designation was changed to the current designator , SR 230 , after the 1964 state highway renumbering . The legal definition of SR 23 , the highway 's proposed eastern terminus , was changed during the 1987 legislative session to remove a reference of a junction with SR 230 .
= = Major intersections = =
|
= Koala =
The koala ( Phascolarctos cinereus , or , inaccurately , koala bear ) is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia . It is the only extant representative of the family Phascolarctidae and its closest living relatives are the wombats . The koala is found in coastal areas of the mainland 's eastern and southern regions , inhabiting Queensland , New South Wales , Victoria , and South Australia . It is easily recognisable by its stout , tailless body and large head with round , fluffy ears and large , spoon @-@ shaped nose . The koala has a body length of 60 – 85 cm ( 24 – 33 in ) and weighs 4 – 15 kg ( 9 – 33 lb ) . Pelage colour ranges from silver grey to chocolate brown . Koalas from the northern populations are typically smaller and lighter in colour than their counterparts further south . These populations possibly are separate subspecies , but this is disputed .
Koalas typically inhabit open eucalypt woodlands , and the leaves of these trees make up most of their diet . Because this eucalypt diet has limited nutritional and caloric content , koalas are largely sedentary and sleep up to 20 hours a day . They are asocial animals , and bonding exists only between mothers and dependent offspring . Adult males communicate with loud bellows that intimidate rivals and attract mates . Males mark their presence with secretions from scent glands located on their chests . Being marsupials , koalas give birth to underdeveloped young that crawl into their mothers ' pouches , where they stay for the first six to seven months of their lives . These young koalas , known as joeys , are fully weaned around a year old . Koalas have few natural predators and parasites , but are threatened by various pathogens , such as Chlamydiaceae bacteria and the koala retrovirus , as well as by bushfires and droughts .
Koalas were hunted by indigenous Australians and depicted in myths and cave art for millennia . The first recorded encounter between a European and a koala was in 1798 , and an image of the animal was published in 1810 by naturalist George Perry . Botanist Robert Brown wrote the first detailed scientific description of the koala in 1814 , although his work remained unpublished for 180 years . Popular artist John Gould illustrated and described the koala , introducing the species to the general British public . Further details about the animal 's biology were revealed in the 19th century by several English scientists . Because of its distinctive appearance , the koala is recognised worldwide as a symbol of Australia . Koalas are listed as of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . The Australian government lists populations in Queensland and New South Wales as Vulnerable . The animal was hunted heavily in the early 20th century for its fur , and large @-@ scale cullings in Queensland resulted in a public outcry that initiated a movement to protect the species . Sanctuaries were established , and translocation efforts moved to new regions koalas whose habitat had become fragmented or reduced . The biggest threat to their existence is habitat destruction caused by agriculture and urbanisation .
= = Etymology = =
The word koala comes from the Dharug gula . Although the vowel ' u ' was originally written in the English orthography as " oo " ( in spellings such as coola or koolah ) , it was changed to " oa " , possibly in error . The word is mistakenly said to mean " doesn 't drink " . Because of the koala 's resemblance to a bear , it was often miscalled the koala bear , particularly by early settlers . Other names like monkey bear , native bear , and tree @-@ bear have also been used . Indigenous names include cullawine , koolawong , colah , karbor , colo , coolbun , boorabee , burroor , bangaroo , pucawan , banjorah , and burrenbong ; many of these mean " no drink " . The generic name , Phascolarctos , is derived from the Greek words phaskolos " pouch " and arktos " bear " . The specific name , cinereus , is Latin for " ash coloured " .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The koala was given its generic name Phascolarctos in 1816 by French zoologist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville , who would not give it a specific name until further review . In 1819 , German zoologist Georg August Goldfuss gave it the binomial Lipurus cinereus . Because Phascolarctos was published first , according to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , it has priority as the official name of the genus . French naturalist Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest proposed the name Phascolartos fuscus in 1820 , suggesting that the brown @-@ coloured versions were a different species than the grey ones . Other names suggested by European authors included Marodactylus cinereus by Goldfuss in 1820 , P. flindersii by René Primevère Lesson in 1827 , and P. koala by John Edward Gray in 1827 .
The koala is classified with wombats ( family Vombatidae ) and several extinct families ( including marsupial tapirs , marsupial lions and giant wombats ) in the suborder Vombatiformes within the order Diprotodontia . The Vombatiformes are a sister group to a clade that includes macropods ( kangaroos and wallabies ) and possums . The ancestors of vombatiforms were likely arboreal , and the koala 's lineage was possibly the first to branch off around 40 million years ago during the Eocene .
The modern koala is the only extant member of Phascolarctidae , a family that once included several genera and species . During the Oligocene and Miocene , koalas lived in rainforests and had less specialised diets . Some species , such as the Riversleigh rainforest koala ( Nimiokoala greystanesi ) and some species of Perikoala , were around the same size as the modern koala , while others , such as species of Litokoala , were one @-@ half to two @-@ thirds its size . Like the modern species , prehistoric koalas had well developed ear structures which suggests that long @-@ distance vocalising and sedentism developed early . During the Miocene , the Australian continent began drying out , leading to the decline of rainforests and the spread of open Eucalyptus woodlands . The genus Phascolarctos split from Litokoala in the late Miocene and had several adaptations that allowed it to live on a specialised eucalyptus diet : a shifting of the palate towards the front of the skull ; larger molars and premolars ; smaller pterygoid fossa ; and a larger gap between the molar and the incisor teeth .
During the Pliocene and Pleistocene , when Australia experienced changes in climate and vegetation , koala species grew larger . P. cinereus may have emerged as a dwarf form of the giant koala ( P. stirtoni ) . The reduction in the size of large mammals has been seen as a common phenomenon worldwide during the late Pleistocene , and several Australian mammals , such as the agile wallaby , are traditionally believed to have resulted from this dwarfing . A 2008 study questions this hypothesis , noting that P. cinereus and P. stirtoni were sympatric during the middle to late Pleistocene , and possibly as early as the Pliocene . The fossil record of the modern koala extends back at least to the middle Pleistocene .
= = = Genetics and variations = = =
Traditionally , three distinct subspecies have been recognised : the Queensland koala ( P. c. adustus , Thomas 1923 ) , the New South Wales koala ( P. c. cinereus , Goldfuss 1817 ) , and the Victorian koala ( P. c. victor , Troughton 1835 ) . These forms are distinguished by pelage colour and thickness , body size , and skull shape . The Queensland koala is the smallest of the three , with shorter , silver fur and a shorter skull . The Victorian koala is the largest , with shaggier , brown fur and a wider skull . The boundaries of these variations are based on state borders , and their status as subspecies is disputed . A 1999 genetic study suggests that the variations represent differentiated populations with limited gene flow between them , and that the three subspecies comprise a single evolutionarily significant unit . Other studies have found that koala populations have high levels of inbreeding and low genetic variation . Such low genetic diversity may have been a characteristic of koala populations since the late Pleistocene . Rivers and roads have been shown to limit gene flow and contribute to the genetic differentiation of southeast Queensland populations . In April 2013 , scientists from the Australian Museum and Queensland University of Technology announced they had fully sequenced the koala genome .
= = Description = =
The koala is a stocky animal with a large head and vestigial or non @-@ existent tail . It has a body length of 60 – 85 cm ( 24 – 33 in ) and a weight of 4 – 15 kg ( 9 – 33 lb ) , making it among the largest arboreal marsupials . Koalas from Victoria are twice as heavy as those from Queensland . The species is sexually dimorphic , with males 50 % larger than females . Males are further distinguished from females by their more curved noses and the presence of chest glands , which are visible as hairless patches . As in most marsupials , the male koala has a bifurcated penis , and the female has two lateral vaginas and two separate uteri . The male 's penile sheath contains naturally occurring bacteria that play an important role in fertilisation . The female 's pouch opening is tightened by a sphincter that keeps the young from falling out .
The pelage of the koala is thicker and longer on the back , and shorter on the belly . The ears have thick fur on both the inside and outside . The back fur colour varies from light grey to chocolate brown . The belly fur is whitish ; on the rump it is dappled whitish , and darker at the back . The koala has the most effective insulating back fur of any marsupial and is highly resilient to wind and rain , while the belly fur can reflect solar radiation . The koala 's curved , sharp claws are well adapted for climbing trees . The large forepaws have two opposable digits ( the first and second , which are opposable to the other three ) that allow them to grasp small branches . On the hindpaws , the second and third digits are fused , a typical condition for members of the Diprotodontia , and the attached claws ( which are still separate ) are used for grooming . As in humans and other primates , koalas have friction ridges on their paws . The animal has a sturdy skeleton and a short , muscular upper body with proportionately long upper limbs that contribute to its climbing and grasping abilities . Additional climbing strength is achieved with thigh muscles that attach to the shinbone lower than other animals . The koala has a cartilaginous pad at the end of the spine that may make it more comfortable when it perches in the fork of a tree .
The koala has one of the smallest brains in proportion to body weight of any mammal , being 60 % smaller than that of a typical diprotodont , weighing only 19 @.@ 2 g ( 0 @.@ 68 oz ) . The brain 's surface is fairly smooth , typical for a " primitive " animal . It occupies only 61 % of the cranial cavity and is pressed against the inside surface by cerebrospinal fluid . The function of this relatively large amount of fluid is not known , although one possibility is that it acts as a shock absorber , cushioning the brain if the animal falls from a tree . The koala 's small brain size may be an adaptation to the energy restrictions imposed by its diet , which is insufficient to sustain a larger brain . Because of its small brain , the koala has a limited ability to perform complex , unfamiliar behaviours . For example , when presented with plucked leaves on a flat surface , the animal cannot adapt to the change in its normal feeding routine and will not eat the leaves . The koala 's olfactory senses are normal , and it is known to sniff the oils of individual branchlets to assess their edibility . Its nose is fairly large and covered in leathery skin . Its round ears provide it with good hearing , and it has a well @-@ developed middle ear . A koala 's vision is not well developed , and its relatively small eyes are unusual among marsupials in that the pupils have vertical slits . Koalas make use of a novel vocal organ to produce low @-@ pitched sounds ( see social spacing , below ) . Unlike typical mammalian vocal cords , which are folds in the larynx , these organs are placed in the velum ( soft palate ) and are called velar vocal cords .
The koala has several adaptations for its eucalypt diet , which is of low nutritive value , of high toxicity , and high in dietary fibre . The animal 's dentition consists of the incisors and cheek teeth ( a single premolar and four molars on each jaw ) , which are separated by a large gap ( a characteristic feature of herbivorous mammals ) . The incisors are used for grasping leaves , which are then passed to the premolars to be snipped at the petiole before being passed to the highly cusped molars , where they are shredded into small pieces . Koalas may also store food in their cheek pouches before it is ready to be chewed . The partially worn molars of middle @-@ aged koalas are optimal for breaking the leaves into small particles , resulting in more efficient stomach digestion and nutrient absorption in the small intestine , which digests the eucalyptus leaves to provide most of the animal 's energy . A koala sometimes regurgitates the food into the mouth to be chewed a second time .
Unlike kangaroos and eucalyptus @-@ eating possums , koalas are hindgut fermenters , and their digestive retention can last for up to 100 hours in the wild , or up to 200 hours in captivity . This is made possible by the extraordinary length of their caecum — 200 cm ( 80 in ) long and 10 cm ( 4 in ) in diameter — the largest proportionally of any animal . Koalas can select which food particles to retain for longer fermentation and which to pass through . Large particles typically pass through more quickly , as they would take more time to digest . While the hindgut is proportionally larger in the koala than in other herbivores , only 10 % of the animal 's energy is obtained from fermentation . Since the koala gains a low amount of energy from its diet , its metabolic rate is half that of a typical mammal , although this can vary between seasons and sexes . The koala conserves water by passing relatively dry faecal pellets high in undigested fibre , and by storing water in the caecum .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The koala 's geographic range covers roughly 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ( 390 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , and 30 ecoregions . It extends throughout eastern and southeastern Australia , encompassing northeastern , central and southeastern Queensland , eastern New South Wales , Victoria , and southeastern South Australia . The koala was introduced near Adelaide and on several islands , including Kangaroo Island and French Island . The population on Magnetic Island represents the northern limit of its range . Fossil evidence shows that the koala 's range stretched as far west as southwestern Western Australia during the late Pleistocene . They were likely driven to extinction in these areas by environmental changes and hunting by indigenous Australians .
In Queensland , koalas are unevenly distributed and uncommon except in the southeast , where they are numerous . In New South Wales , they are abundant only in Pilliga , while in Victoria they are common nearly everywhere . In South Australia , koalas were extirpated by 1920 and subsequently reintroduced . Koalas can be found in habitats ranging from relatively open forests to woodlands , and in climates ranging from tropical to cool temperate . In semi @-@ arid climates , they prefer riparian habitats , where nearby streams and creeks provide refuge during times of drought and extreme heat .
= = = Foraging and activities = = =
Koalas are herbivorous , and while most of their diet consists of eucalypt leaves , they can be found in trees of other genera , such as Acacia , Allocasuarina , Callitris , Leptospermum , and Melaleuca . Although the foliage of over 600 species of Eucalyptus is available , the koala shows a strong preference for around 30 . They tend to choose species that have a high protein content and low proportions of fibre and lignin . The most favoured species are Eucalyptus microcorys , E. tereticornis , and E. camaldulensis , which , on average , make up more than 20 % of their diet . Despite its reputation as a fussy eater , the koala is more generalist than some other marsupial species , such as the greater glider . Since eucalypt leaves have a high water content , the koala does not need to drink often ; its daily water turnover rate ranges from 71 to 91 ml / kg of body weight . Although females can meet their water requirements from eating leaves , larger males require additional water found on the ground or in tree hollows . When feeding , a koala holds onto a branch with hindpaws and one forepaw while the other forepaw grasps foliage . Small koalas can move close to the end of a branch , but larger ones stay near the thicker bases . Koalas consume up to 400 grams ( 14 oz ) of leaves a day , spread over four to six feeding sessions . Despite their adaptations to a low @-@ energy lifestyle , they have meagre fat reserves and need to feed often .
Because they get so little energy from their diet , koalas must limit their energy use and sleep 20 hours a day ; only 4 hours a day are spent in active movement . They are predominantly active at night and spend most of their waking hours feeding . They typically eat and sleep in the same tree , possibly for as long as a day . On very hot days , a koala may climb down to the coolest part of the tree which is cooler than the surrounding air . The koala hugs the tree to lose heat without panting . On warm days , a koala may rest with its back against a branch or lie on its stomach or back with its limbs dangling . During cold , wet periods , it curls itself into a tight ball to conserve energy . On windy days , a koala finds a lower , thicker branch on which to rest . While it spends most of the time in the tree , the animal descends to the ground to move to another tree , walking on all fours . The koala usually grooms itself with its hindpaws , but sometimes uses its forepaws or mouth .
= = = Social spacing = = =
Koalas are asocial animals and spend just 15 minutes a day on social behaviours . In Victoria , home ranges are small and have extensive overlap , while in central Queensland they are larger and overlap less . Koala society appears to consist of " residents " and " transients " , the former being mostly adult females and the latter males . Resident males appear to be territorial and dominate others with their larger body size . Alpha males tend to establish their territories close to breeding females , while younger males are subordinate until they mature and reach full size . Adult males occasionally venture outside their home ranges ; when they do so , dominant ones retain their status . When a male enters a new tree , he marks it by rubbing his chest gland against the trunk or a branch ; males have occasionally been observed to dribble urine on the trunk . This scent @-@ marking behaviour probably serves as communication , and individuals are known to sniff the base of a tree before climbing . Scent marking is common during aggressive encounters . Chest gland secretions are complex chemical mixtures — about 40 compounds were identified in one analysis — that vary in composition and concentration with the season and the age of the individual .
Adult males communicate with loud bellows — low pitched sounds that consist of snore @-@ like inhalations and resonant exhalations that sound like growls . These sounds are thought to be generated by unique vocal organs found in koalas . Because of their low frequency , these bellows can travel far through air and vegetation . Koalas may bellow at any time of the year , particularly during the breeding season , when it serves to attract females and possibly intimidate other males . They also bellow to advertise their presence to their neighbours when they enter a new tree . These sounds signal the male 's actual body size , as well as exaggerate it ; females pay more attention to bellows that originate from larger males . Female koalas bellow , though more softly , in addition to making snarls , wails , and screams . These calls are produced when in distress and when making defensive threats . Young koalas squeak when in distress . As they get older , the squeak develops into a " squawk " produced both when in distress and to show aggression . When another individual climbs over it , a koala makes a low grunt with its mouth closed . Koalas make numerous facial expressions . When snarling , wailing , or squawking , the animal curls the upper lip and points its ears forward . During screams , the lips retract and the ears are drawn back . Females bring their lips forward and raise their ears when agitated .
Agonistic behaviour typically consists of squabbles between individuals climbing over or passing each other . This occasionally involves biting . Males that are strangers may wrestle , chase , and bite each other . In extreme situations , a male may try to displace a smaller rival from a tree . This involves the larger aggressor climbing up and attempting to corner the victim , which tries either to rush past him and climb down or to move to the end of a branch . The aggressor attacks by grasping the target by the shoulders and repeatedly biting him . Once the weaker individual is driven away , the victor bellows and marks the tree . Pregnant and lactating females are particularly aggressive and attack individuals that come too close . In general , however , koalas tend to avoid energy @-@ wasting aggressive behaviour .
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
Koalas are seasonal breeders , and births take place from the middle of spring through the summer to early autumn , from October to May . Females in oestrus tend to hold their heads further back than usual and commonly display tremors and spasms . However , males do not appear to recognise these signs , and have been observed to mount non @-@ oestrous females . Because of his much larger size , a male can usually force himself on a female , mounting her from behind , and in extreme cases , the male may pull the female out of the tree . A female may scream and vigorously fight off her suitors , but will submit to one that is dominant or is more familiar . The bellows and screams that accompany matings can attract other males to the scene , obliging the incumbent to delay mating and fight off the intruders . These fights may allow the female to assess which is dominant . Older males usually have accumulated scratches , scars , and cuts on the exposed parts of their noses and on their eyelids .
The koala 's gestation period lasts 33 – 35 days , and a female gives birth to a single joey ( although twins occur on occasion ) . As with all marsupials , the young are born while at the embryonic stage , weighing only 0 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 02 oz ) . However , they have relatively well @-@ developed lips , forelimbs , and shoulders , as well as functioning respiratory , digestive , and urinary systems . The joey crawls into its mother 's pouch to continue the rest of its development . Unlike most other marsupials , the koala does not clean her pouch .
A female koala has two teats ; the joey attaches itself to one of them and suckles for the rest of its pouch life . The koala has one of the lowest milk energy production rates in relation to body size of any mammal . The female makes up for this by lactating for as long as 12 months . At seven weeks of age , the joey 's head grows longer and becomes proportionally large , pigmentation begins to develop , and its sex can be determined ( the scrotum appears in males and the pouch begins to develop in females ) . At 13 weeks , the joey weighs around 50 g ( 1 @.@ 8 oz ) and its head has doubled in size . The eyes begin to open and fine fur grows on the forehead , nape , shoulders , and arms . At 26 weeks , the fully furred animal resembles an adult , and begins to poke its head out of the pouch .
As the young koala approaches six months , the mother begins to prepare it for its eucalyptus diet by predigesting the leaves , producing a faecal pap that the joey eats from her cloacum . The pap is quite different in composition from regular faeces , resembling instead the contents of the caecum , which has a high concentration of bacteria . Eaten for about a month , the pap provides a supplementary source of protein at a transition time from a milk to a leaf diet . The joey fully emerges from the pouch for the first time at six or seven months of age , when it weighs 300 – 500 g ( 11 – 18 oz ) . It explores its new surroundings cautiously , clinging to its mother for support . By nine months , it weighs over 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) and develops its adult fur colour . Having permanently left the pouch , it rides on its mother 's back for transportation , learning to climb by grasping branches . Gradually , it spends more time away from its mother , and at 12 months it is fully weaned , weighing around 2 @.@ 5 kg ( 5 @.@ 5 lb ) . When the mother becomes pregnant again , her bond with her previous offspring is permanently severed . Newly weaned young are encouraged to disperse by their mothers ' aggressive behaviour towards them .
Females become sexually mature at about three years of age and can then become pregnant ; in comparison , males reach sexual maturity when they are about four years old , although they can produce sperm as early as two years . While the chest glands can be functional as early as 18 months of age , males do not begin scent @-@ marking behaviours until they reach sexual maturity . Because the offspring have a long dependent period , female koalas usually breed in alternate years . Favourable environmental factors , such as a plentiful supply of high @-@ quality food trees , allow them to reproduce every year .
= = = Health and mortality = = =
Koalas may live from 13 to 18 years in the wild . While female koalas usually live this long , males may die sooner because of their more hazardous lives . Koalas usually survive falls from trees and immediately climb back up , but injuries and deaths from falls do occur , particularly in inexperienced young and fighting males . Around six years of age , the koala 's chewing teeth begin to wear down and their chewing efficiency decreases . Eventually , the cusps disappear completely and the animal will die of starvation .
Koalas have few predators ; dingos and large pythons may prey on them , while birds of prey ( such as powerful owls and wedge @-@ tailed eagles ) are threats to young . They are generally not subject to external parasites , other than ticks in coastal areas . Koalas may also suffer mange from the mite Sarcoptes scabiei , and skin ulcers from the bacterium Mycobacterium ulcerans , but neither is common . Internal parasites are few and largely harmless . These include the tapeworm Bertiella obesa , commonly found in the intestine , and the nematodes Marsupostrongylus longilarvatus and Durikainema phascolarcti , which are infrequently found in the lungs . In a three @-@ year study of almost 600 koalas admitted to the Australian Zoo Wildlife Hospital in Queensland , 73 @.@ 8 % of the animals were infected with at least one species of the parasitic protozoal genus Trypanosoma , the most common of which was T. irwini .
Koalas can be subject to pathogens such as Chlamydiaceae bacteria , which can cause keratoconjunctivitis , urinary tract infection , and reproductive tract infection . Such infections are widespread on the mainland , but absent in some island populations . The koala retrovirus ( KoRV ) may cause koala immune deficiency syndrome ( KIDS ) which is similar to AIDS in humans . Prevalence of KoRV in koala populations suggests a trend spreading from the north to the south of Australia . Northern populations are completely infected , while some southern populations ( including Kangaroo Island ) are free .
The animals are vulnerable to bushfires due to their slow movements and the flammability of eucalypt trees . The koala instinctively seeks refuge in the higher branches , where it is vulnerable to intense heat and flames . Bushfires also fragment the animal 's habitat , which restricts their movement and leads to population decline and loss of genetic diversity . Dehydration and overheating can also prove fatal . Consequently , the koala is vulnerable to the effects of climate change . Models of climate change in Australia predict warmer and drier climates , suggesting that the koala 's range will shrink in the east and south to more mesic habitats . Droughts also affect the koala 's well @-@ being . For example , a severe drought in 1980 caused many Eucalyptus trees to lose their leaves . Subsequently , 63 % of the population in southwestern Queensland died , especially young animals that were excluded from prime feeding sites by older , dominant koalas , and recovery of the population was slow . Later , this population declined from an estimated mean population of 59 @,@ 000 in 1995 to 11 @,@ 600 in 2009 , a reduction attributed largely to hotter and drier conditions resulting from droughts in most years between 2002 and 2007 . Another predicted negative outcome of climate change is the effect of elevations in atmospheric CO2 levels on the koala 's food supply : increases in CO2 cause Eucalyptus trees to reduce protein and increase tannin concentrations in their leaves , reducing the quality of the food source .
= = Human relations = =
= = = History = = =
The first written reference of the koala was recorded by John Price , servant of John Hunter , the Governor of New South Wales . Price encountered the " cullawine " on 26 January 1798 , during an expedition to the Blue Mountains , although his account was not published until nearly a century later in Historical Records of Australia . In 1802 , French @-@ born explorer Francis Louis Barrallier encountered the animal when his two Aboriginal guides , returning from a hunt , brought back two koala feet they were intending to eat . Barrallier preserved the appendages and sent them and his notes to Hunter 's successor , Philip Gidley King , who forwarded them to Joseph Banks . Similar to Price , Barrallier 's notes were not published until 1897 . Reports of the first capture of a live " koolah " appeared in The Sydney Gazette in August 1803 . Within a few weeks Flinders ' astronomer , James Inman , purchased a specimen pair for live shipment to Joseph Banks in England . They were described as ' somewhat larger than the Waumbut ( Wombat ) ' . These encounters helped provide the impetus for King to commission the artist John Lewin to paint watercolours of the animal . Lewin painted three pictures , one of which was subsequently made into a print that was reproduced in Georges Cuvier 's The Animal Kingdom ( first published in 1827 ) and several European works on natural history .
Botanist Robert Brown was the first to write a detailed scientific description of the koala in 1814 , based on a female specimen captured near what is now Mount Kembla in the Illawarra region of New South Wales . Austrian botanical illustrator Ferdinand Bauer drew the animal 's skull , throat , feet , and paws . Brown 's work remained unpublished and largely unnoticed , however , as his field books and notes remained in his possession until his death , when they were bequeathed to the British Museum ( Natural History ) in London . They were not identified until 1994 , while Bauer 's koala watercolours were not published until 1989 . British surgeon Everard Home included details of the koala based on eyewitness accounts of William Paterson , who had befriended Brown and Bauer during their stay in New South Wales . Home , who in 1808 published his report in the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , gave the animal the scientific name Didelphis coola .
The first published image of the koala appeared in George Perry 's ( 1810 ) natural history work Arcana . Perry called it the " New Holland Sloth " on account of its perceived similarities to the Central and South American tree @-@ living mammals of genus Bradypus . His disdain for the koala , evident in his description of the animal , was typical of the prevailing early 19th @-@ century British attitude about the primitiveness and oddity of Australian fauna :
" ... the eye is placed like that of the Sloth , very close to the mouth and nose , which gives it a clumsy awkward appearance , and void of elegance in the combination ... they have little either in their character or appearance to interest the Naturalist or Philosopher . As Nature however provides nothing in vain , we may suppose that even these torpid , senseless creatures are wisely intended to fill up one of the great links of the chain of animated nature ... " .
Naturalist and popular artist John Gould illustrated and described the koala in his three @-@ volume work The Mammals of Australia ( 1845 – 63 ) and introduced the species , as well as other members of Australia 's little @-@ known faunal community , to the general British public . Comparative anatomist Richard Owen , in a series of publications on the physiology and anatomy of Australian mammals , presented a paper on the anatomy of the koala to the Zoological Society of London . In this widely cited publication , he provided the first careful description of its internal anatomy , and noted its general structural similarity to the wombat . English naturalist George Robert Waterhouse , curator of the Zoological Society of London , was the first to correctly classify the koala as a marsupial in the 1840s . He identified similarities between it and its fossil relatives Diprotodon and Nototherium , which had been discovered just a few years before . Similarly , Gerard Krefft , curator of the Australian Museum in Sydney , noted evolutionary mechanisms at work when comparing the koala to its ancestral relatives in his 1871 The Mammals of Australia .
The first living koala in Britain arrived in 1881 , purchased by the Zoological Society of London . As related by prosecutor to the society , William Alexander Forbes , the animal suffered an accidental demise when the heavy lid of a washstand fell on it and it was unable to free itself . Forbes used the opportunity to dissect the fresh female specimen , thus was able to provide explicit anatomical details on the female reproductive system , the brain , and the liver — parts not previously described by Owen , who had access only to preserved specimens . Scottish embryologist William Caldwell — well known in scientific circles for determining the reproductive mechanism of the platypus — described the uterine development of the koala in 1884 , and used the new information to convincingly place the koala and the monotremes into an evolutionary time frame .
Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester , visited the Koala Park Sanctuary in Sydney in 1934 and was " intensely interested in the bears " . His photograph , with Noel Burnet , the founder of the park , and a koala , appeared in The Sydney Morning Herald . After World War II , when tourism to Australia increased and the animals were exported to zoos overseas , the koala 's international popularity rose . Several political leaders and members of royal families had their pictures taken with koalas , including Queen Elizabeth II , Prince Harry , Crown Prince Naruhito , Crown Princess Masako , Pope John Paul II , US President Bill Clinton , Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev , South African President Nelson Mandela , Prime Minister Tony Abbott , and Russian President Vladimir Putin .
= = = Cultural significance = = =
The koala is well known worldwide and is a major draw for Australian zoos and wildlife parks . It has been featured in advertisements , games , cartoons , and as soft toys . It benefited the national tourism industry by over an estimated billion Australian dollars in 1998 , a figure that has since grown . In 1997 , half of visitors to Australia , especially those from Korea , Japan , and Taiwan , sought out zoos and wildlife parks ; about 75 % of European and Japanese tourists placed the koala at the top of their list of animals to see . According to biologist Stephen Jackson : " If you were to take a straw poll of the animal most closely associated with Australia , it 's a fair bet that the koala would come out marginally in front of the kangaroo " . Factors that contribute to the koala 's enduring popularity include its childlike body proportions and teddy bear @-@ like face .
The koala is featured in the Dreamtime stories and mythology of indigenous Australians . The Tharawal people believed that the animal helped row the boat that brought them to the continent . Another myth tells of how a tribe killed a koala and used its long intestines to create a bridge for people from other parts of the world . This narrative highlights the koala 's status as a game animal and the length of its intestines . Several stories tell of how the koala lost its tail . In one , a kangaroo cuts it off to punish the koala for being lazy and greedy . Tribes in both Queensland and Victoria regarded the koala as a wise animal and sought its advice . Bidjara @-@ speaking people credited the koala for turning barren lands into lush forests . The animal is also depicted in rock carvings , though not as much as some other species .
Early European settlers in Australia considered the koala to be a prowling sloth @-@ like animal with a " fierce and menacing look " . At the beginning of the 20th century , the koala 's reputation took a more positive turn , largely due to its growing popularity and depiction in several widely circulated children 's stories . It is featured in Ethel Pedley 's 1899 book Dot and the Kangaroo , in which it is portrayed as the " funny native bear " . Artist Norman Lindsay depicted a more anthropomorphic koala in The Bulletin cartoons , starting in 1904 . This character also appeared as Bunyip Bluegum in Lindsay 's 1918 book The Magic Pudding . Perhaps the most famous fictional koala is Blinky Bill . Created by Dorothy Wall in 1933 , the character appeared in several books and has been the subject of films , TV series , merchandise , and a 1986 environmental song by John Williamson . The first Australian stamp featuring a koala was issued by the Commonwealth in 1930 . A television ad campaign for Australia 's national airline Qantas , starting in 1967 and running for several decades , featured a live koala ( voiced by Howard Morris ) , who complained that too many tourists were coming to Australia and concluded " I hate Qantas " . The series has been ranked among the greatest commercials of all time .
The song " Ode to a Koala Bear " appears on the B @-@ side of the 1983 Paul McCartney / Michael Jackson duet album Say Say Say . A koala is the main character in Hanna @-@ Barbera 's The Kwicky Koala Show and Nippon Animation 's Noozles , both of which were animated cartoons of the early 1980s . Food products shaped like the koala include the Caramello Koala chocolate bar and the bite @-@ sized cookie snack Koala 's March . Dadswells Bridge in Victoria features a tourist complex shaped like a giant koala , and the Queensland Reds rugby team has a koala as its mascot . The Platinum Koala coin features the animal on the reverse and Elizabeth II on the obverse .
= = = Conservation issues = = =
In 2008 , the International Union for Conservation of Nature listed the koala under Least Concern for the following reasons : " Its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category " . Australian policy makers declined a 2009 proposal to include the koala in the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 . In 2012 , the Australian government listed koala populations in Queensland and New South Wales as Vulnerable , because of a 40 % population decline in the former and a 33 % decline in the latter . Populations in Victoria and South Australia appear to be abundant ; however , the Australian Koala Foundation argues that the exclusion of Victorian populations from protective measures is based on a misconception that the total koala population is 200 @,@ 000 , whereas they believe it is probably less than 100 @,@ 000 .
Koalas were hunted for food by Aboriginals . A common technique used to capture the animals was to attach a loop of ropey bark to the end of a long , thin pole , so as to form a noose . This would be used to snare an animal high in a tree , beyond the reach of a climbing hunter ; an animal brought down this way would then be killed with a stone hand axe or hunting stick ( waddy ) . According to the customs of some tribes , it was considered taboo to skin the animal , while other tribes thought the animal 's head had a special status , and saved them for burial .
The koala was heavily hunted by European settlers in the early 20th century , largely for its thick , soft fur . More than two million pelts are estimated to have left Australia by 1924 . Pelts were in demand for use in rugs , coat linings , muffs , and as trimming on women 's garments . Extensive cullings occurred in Queensland in 1915 , 1917 , and again in 1919 , when over one million koalas were killed with guns , poisons , and nooses . The public outcry over these cullings was probably the first wide @-@ scale environmental issue that rallied Australians . Novelist and social critic Vance Palmer , writing in a letter to the The Courier @-@ Mail , expressed the popular sentiment :
" The shooting of our harmless and lovable native bear is nothing less than barbarous ... No one has ever accused him of spoiling the farmer 's wheat , eating the squatter 's grass , or even the spreading of the prickly pear . There is no social vice that can be put down to his account ... He affords no sport to the gun @-@ man ... And he has been almost blotted out already from some areas . "
Despite the growing movement to protect native species , the poverty brought about by the drought of 1926 – 28 led to the killing of another 600 @,@ 000 koalas during a one @-@ month open season in August 1927 . In 1934 , Frederick Lewis , the Chief Inspector of Game in Victoria , said that the once @-@ abundant animal had been brought to near extinction in that state , suggesting that only 500 – 1000 remained .
The first successful efforts at conserving the species were initiated by the establishment of Brisbane 's Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary and Sydney 's Koala Park Sanctuary in the 1920s and 1930s . The owner of the latter park , Noel Burnet , became the first to successfully breed koalas and earned a reputation as the foremost contemporary authority on the marsupial . In 1934 , David Fleay , curator of Australian mammals at the Melbourne Zoo , established the first Australian faunal enclosure at an Australian zoo , and featured the koala . This arrangement allowed him to undertake a detailed study of its diet in captivity . Fleay later continued his conservation efforts at Healesville Sanctuary and the David Fleay Wildlife Park .
Since 1870 , koalas have been introduced to several coastal and offshore islands , including Kangaroo Island and French Island . Their numbers have significantly increased , and since the islands are not large enough to sustain such high koala numbers , overbrowsing has become a problem . In the 1920s , Lewis initiated a program of large @-@ scale relocation and rehabilitation programs to transfer koalas whose habitat had become fragmented or reduced to new regions , with the intent of eventually returning them to their former range . For example , in 1930 – 31 , 165 koalas were translocated to Quail Island . After a period of population growth , and subsequent overbrowsing of gum trees on the island , about 1 @,@ 300 animals were released into mainland areas in 1944 . The practice of translocating koalas became commonplace ; Victorian State manager Peter Menkorst estimated that from 1923 to 2006 , about 25 @,@ 000 animals were translocated to more than 250 release sites across Victoria . Since the 1990s , government agencies have tried to control their numbers by culling , but public and international outcry has forced the use of translocation and sterilisation , instead .
One of the biggest anthropogenic threats to the koala is habitat destruction and fragmentation . In coastal areas , the main cause of this is urbanisation , while in rural areas , habitat is cleared for agriculture . Native forest trees are also taken down to be made into wood products . In 2000 , Australia ranked fifth in the world by deforestation rates , having cleared 564 @,@ 800 hectares ( 1 @,@ 396 @,@ 000 acres ) . The distribution of the koala has shrunk by more than 50 % since European arrival , largely due to fragmentation of habitat in Queensland . The koala 's " vulnerable " status in Queensland and New South Wales means that developers in these states must consider the impacts on this species when making building applications . In addition , koalas live in many protected areas .
While urbanisation can pose a threat to koala populations , the animals can survive in urban areas provided enough trees are present . Urban populations have distinct vulnerabilities : collisions with vehicles and attacks by domestic dogs kill about 4 @,@ 000 animals every year . Injured koalas are often taken to wildlife hospitals and rehabilitation centres . In a 30 @-@ year retrospective study performed at a New South Wales koala rehabilitation centre , trauma ( usually resulting from a motor vehicle accident or dog attack ) was found to be the most frequent cause of admission , followed by symptoms of Chlamydia infection . Wildlife caretakers are issued special permits , but must release the animals back into the wild when they are either well enough or , in the case of joeys , old enough . As with most native animals , the koala cannot legally be kept as a pet in Australia or anywhere else .
= = = Urban myth = = =
The drop bear is an imaginary creature in contemporary Australian folklore featuring a predatory , carnivorous version of the koala . This hoax animal is commonly spoken about in tall tales designed to scare tourists . While koalas are typically docile herbivores , drop bears are described as unusually large and vicious marsupials that inhabit treetops and attack unsuspecting people ( or other prey ) that walk beneath them by dropping onto their heads from above .
|
= Millie Knight =
Millie Knight ( born 15 January 1999 ) is a Paralympic athlete and student who competes at international level for ParalympicsGB in alpine skiing in the slalom and giant slalom events with a sighted guide , currently Jennifer Kehoe . When Knight was one year old , she contracted toxocariasis , diagnosed at age three , and which resulted in the loss of most of her vision by the age of six . She joined the Great Britain paralympic skiing team in 2012 , and progressed to compete at international @-@ level events . Knight and Ferrier have competed together since February 2013 , winning several times . Knight was the flagbearer at the 2014 Winter Paralympics opening ceremony , her debut Paralympics , in Sochi where , at the age of 15 , she was the youngest person ever to compete for ParalympicsGB at the Winter Paralympic games .
= = Early life and education = =
Knight was born on 15 January 1999 in Canterbury , Kent . She lived on a farm with many animals , and at the age of one , she contracted the disease toxocariasis . When Knight was three , doctors examaining her eyes noticed scars on her right retina . A few trips to Great Ormond Street resulted in a diagnosis of toxocariasis , a condition developed when humans , most often young children , inadvertently consume the eggs of Toxocara , a roundworm parasite found in cat and dog faeces , which can in turn contaminate soil . The parasites , in rare circumstances such as Knight 's , migrate into the eyes , leading to vision problems . Her retina was treated with steroids and regular antibiotics . The disease was dormant until she was six , when she lost much of her vision , resulting in her being only partially sighted ; in her left eye she has 10 @-@ 20 % peripheral vision , and in her right eye she has 5 % .
As of 2014 Knight is studying for her GCSEs in tandem with her sporting career . She is enrolled at King 's School in Canterbury ; her first year studying there was 2013 @-@ 14 . The school allowed Knight two months away to compete at the Sochi Paralympics .
= = Skiing career = =
In 2006 at the age of seven , shortly before Knight lost the majority of her sight , she had been to France on a skiing holiday and was encouraged to try the sport by her mother . Her mother was Knight 's first sighted guide until late January 2013 for financial reasons . The pair competed together in visually impaired ( VI ) races .
In November 2012 , at age 13 , Knight began training with Great Britain 's Paralympic development squad . She raced at the Europa Cup in slalom and giant slalom. in spring 2013 . Her sighted guide at the Games , Rachael Ferrier , joined Knight in 2013 . Ferrier , who was 18 when she competed at Sochi , was a Glasgow Ski Instructor and racer who had been skiing since the age of seven prior to meeting Knight . Together the pair won two silver medals that year in the International Paralympic Committee Alpine Ski races at Landgraaf . In December 2013 , the pair won a medal at Pitztal , and then went on to win two gold medals at the annual International Paralympic Committee Alpine Skiing event , the RollRinn in Innsbruck , Austria , in January 2014 .
Knight competes in class B2 due to her lack of complete vision , a classification between being blind and visually impaired . She has been coached by Euan Bennet since 2011 , but is also assisted by national coach Tony McAllister . Knight is sponsored by SportsAid , and featured in their " I Will " advertising campaign .
= = = 2014 Paralympics = = =
Knight 's debut Paralympics was the 2014 Winter Paralympics in Sochi ; competing at the age of 15 made her the youngest ParalympicsGB competitor at any Winter Paralympics . She was the flag bearer at the opening ceremony for ParalympicsGB , carryinging the flag at the Fisht Olympic Stadium , an honour Knight described as " a surprise " . She competed for ParalympicsGB in the slalom on 14 March , completing both of her runs , and finishing fifth , and competed in the giant slalom on 16 March , again finishing fifth . There was not any significant expectation on Knight at the 2014 Paralympics , as her target is the 2018 Winter Paralympics in Pyeongchang .
Following the Sochi games , it was announced in April 2014 that Knight would participate in the Queen 's Baton Relay on 5 June 2014 , carrying the Baton in Kent .
The following year Knight travelled to Canada to compete at the 2015 IPC Alpine Skiing World Championships in Panorama Mountain Village in British Columbia . Her sighted guide from Sochi , Ferrier , had by this time enrolled at university and had left the sport allowing Knight to be reunited with her previous guide Jennifer Kehoe . Prior to the Championships Knight had won two gold medals on the World Cup tour and hopes were high that she may medal in the absence of British Paralympic champion Kelly Gallagher . At Panorama Knight took part in the two technical events , the slalom and giant slalom , as she was still too young to compete in the speed events . In her first event , the giant slalom , Knight took the lead in the first run with a time of 1 : 12 @.@ 90 , but despite bettering this time in her second run with 1 : 11 @.@ 49 , she was beaten into silver medal place by a third of a second by Russia 's Aleksandra Frantseva . Two days later Knight took part in the slalom , winning bronze , Britain 's only two medals of the games .
|
= Louis Lipsett =
Major General Louis James Lipsett CB , CMG ( 14 June 1874 – 14 October 1918 ) , was a senior officer in the British Army and Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War . He commanded the 3rd Canadian Division during some of the bitterest battles of the war , taking over in 1915 after his predecessor was killed . He himself was killed in action less than a month before the end of the war during a reconnaissance mission observing German positions along the River Selle .
A highly experienced officer , Lipsett had previously seen action in the Tirah Campaign and the Second Boer War with the British Army , serving as an officer with the Royal Irish Regiment . He was later instrumental in developing military training and education throughout Canada and expanding the shore defences of British Columbia in response to the threat of the German East Asian Cruiser Squadron under von Spee . An experienced and capable officer , Lipsett was popular with both his men and his superiors and his death was considered " a deplorable loss to the Division " .
= = Early military career = =
Born in Ballyshannon , County Donegal , Ireland , to Richard and Etty Lipsett in June 1874 , Lipsett was raised in Merthyr Tydfil , Wales , and Bedford , England , following his father 's death in 1887 . He was educated at Bedford School and took the Sandhurst entrance examination against the wishes of his tutors , entering the college and graduating 35th from his class of 120 . In 1894 , Lipsett was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Royal Irish Regiment , and took ship to India where he served for the next five years on the Northwest Frontier , participating in the Tirah Campaign against the Afridi . During these campaigns he conducted himself with distinction , being promoted to lieutenant but also contracting a near @-@ fatal bout of cholera .
In 1899 he and his regiment were ordered to South Africa for service in the Second Boer War . Although he did not serve in any significant actions Lipsett performed his duties well , in 1901 was promoted to captain and on his return to England in 1903 was recommended to the Staff College , Camberley . In 1905 he returned to South Africa as a staff officer ( Deputy @-@ Assistant Adjutant and Quartermaster @-@ General ) , to aid in the reconstitution of colonial government , a task he performed until 1907 , when he was posted back to his regiment . Based at Aldershot , Lipsett conducted both regimental business and operated as an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the commander of the 2nd Division , Theodore Edward Stephenson .
In 1911 , Lipsett responded to the call from the Colonial Office for young staff officers to operate in colonial military academies , as military education had been standardised throughout the British Empire in 1909 . Lipsett was sent to Canada and promoted to major ( in 1913 ) , working hard to improve training in the Dominion . He instigated numerous new training courses and special schools , establishing close ties with the Canadian military establishment and personally training most of the next generation of Canadian staff officers and generals .
= = First World War = =
At the outbreak of the First World War Lipsett was dispatched to British Columbia , the Pacific coastline of which was largely undefended and was believed to be at risk from the German East Asian Cruiser Squadron under Maximilian von Spee , which had embarked on a raiding campaign in the Pacific Ocean that would culminate in the Battle of Coronel and the Battle of the Falkland Islands . Lipsett recognised that there was no immediate threat to the Canadian coast and calmed fears whilst simultaneously organising the local militia forces and deploying the two submarines purchased by provincial Premier Richard McBride . His task completed in British Columbia , Lipsett took over command and training of the 8th Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force . A friend recalled that as a commanding officer he was " always accessible and charming in manner , yet there was that about him which made him respected and no one ever presumed on his kindness , except the few old soldiers , who with their war ribbons up , and uncanny intuition , never failed to touch a soft spot in his heart . "
In 1915 the 8th Battalion joined the British Army in France as part of the 3rd Canadian Division . At the Second Battle of Ypres his troops faced the brunt of the German assault , involving the first use of poison gas in modern warfare . Lipsett is credited with issuing the first order to counteract the effects of poison gas , when he ordered his men to urinate on strips of cloth and tie them to their faces to neutralise the chlorine . Lipsett 's battalion was instrumental in holding the line during the action and he was consequently rewarded by being made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George , promoted to acting brigadier @-@ general and given command of the Canadian 2nd Brigade , which he trained during the spring of 1916 to conduct major trench raids on German lines .
= = = 3rd Canadian Division = = =
On 2 June 1916 , Lipsett 's commanding officer Malcolm Mercer was killed by enemy shellfire at Mount Sorrel in Belgium and Lipsett was given an acting promotion to replace him in command of the 3rd Canadian Division , and a brevet promotion to Lieutenant @-@ Colonel . The Canadian Minister of Militia and Defence Minister Sir Sam Hughes attempted to have him removed from the division in favour of Hughes ' son Garnet , but Lipsett was so highly regarded in the Canadian military establishment that General Byng overruled Hughes . Lipsett led his division through the worst of the campaigns in 1916 , including extensive operations during the Battle of the Somme . He received promotion to substantive Lieutenant @-@ Colonel in February 1917 , and in April 1917 Lipsett 's division was instrumental in the Canadian success at the Battle of Vimy Ridge . The following September however the division took heavy casualties in bitter fighting at the Battle of Passchendaele . After each of these battles , Lipsett was forced to reconstitute and retrain his units with fresh drafts , so severe were the casualties the division took . In August , 1918 he was involved in the planning and execution of an assault on German positions by the entire Canadian Corps which is known as the Battle of Amiens which was completely successful and for which he was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath . Through the rest of the month he was engaged in combat with the division , but at the start of September Arthur Currie and Douglas Haig arranged his transfer to the command of the British 4th Division in order that the Canadian Corps be entirely officered by Canadians .
= = = Death = = =
Although Lipsett was unhappy about the transfer , he acquiesced and took energetic command of the division during the Hundred Days Offensive . On 14 October 1918 , whilst planning an assault at Saulzoir in France he was crawling along a bank overlooking the River Selle with several officers of his own staff and some of the 49th Division , when at about 3 : 15 in the afternoon the party was spotted and a German machine gun opened fire from across the river . The party went to ground but a single bullet struck Lipsett in the face . He was able to stagger back to his own lines but there collapsed from massive blood loss and never regained consciousness . He was the last British general to be killed during the First World War . Lipsett was buried the following day in Quéant Communal Cemetery at a funeral attended by dozens of officers from the British and Canadian armies in France . The burial party was provided by the 8th Battalion , C.E.F. and amongst the mourners was the Prince of Wales . After the war he was posthumously awarded the Croix d 'officier de la Legion d 'honneur and the Croix de Guerre by the French government .
Lipsett is remembered in the Dictionary of Canadian Biography as " arguably the best " Canadian officer of the Great War , " a shrewd and thoughtful tactician whose pre @-@ war professional dedication paid off under fire from Ypres to Amiens " and who " set an example of fearlessness and disregard of danger to those under him at all times and in all places ; in fact to lead and not to follow was the ideal which he set for himself and lived up to the end . "
|
= Attachment theory =
Attachment theory is a psychological model that attempts to describe the dynamics of long @-@ term and short @-@ term interpersonal relationships between humans . However , " attachment theory is not formulated as a general theory of relationships . It addresses only a specific facet " ( Waters et al . 2005 : 81 ) : how human beings respond within relationships when hurt , separated from loved ones , or perceiving a threat . Essentially all infants become attached if provided any caregiver , but there are individual differences in the quality of the relationships . In infants , attachment as a motivational and behavioral system directs the child to seek proximity with a familiar caregiver when they are alarmed , with the expectation that they will receive protection and emotional support . John Bowlby believed that the tendency for primate infants to develop attachments to familiar caregivers was the result of evolutionary pressures , since attachment behavior would facilitate the infant 's survival in the face of dangers such as predation or exposure to the elements .
The most important tenet of attachment theory is that an infant needs to develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for the child 's successful social and emotional development , and in particular for learning how to effectively regulate their feelings . Fathers or any other individuals , are equally likely to become principal attachment figures if they provide most of the child care and related social interaction . In the presence of a sensitive and responsive caregiver , the infant will use the caregiver as a " safe base " from which to explore . It should be recognized that " even sensitive caregivers get it right only about 50 percent of the time . Their communications are either out of synch , or mismatched . There are times when parents feel tired or distracted . The telephone rings or there is breakfast to prepare . In other words , attuned interactions rupture quite frequently . But the hallmark of a sensitive caregiver is that the ruptures are managed and repaired . "
Attachments between infants and caregivers form even if this caregiver is not sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them . This has important implications . Infants cannot exit unpredictable or insensitive caregiving relationships . Instead they must manage themselves as best they can within such relationships . Based on her established Strange Situation Protocol , research by developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth in the 1960s and 1970s found that children will have different patterns of attachment depending primarily on how they experienced their early caregiving environment . Early patterns of attachment , in turn , shape — but do not determine — the individual 's expectations in later relationships . Four different attachment classifications have been identified in children : secure attachment , anxious @-@ ambivalent attachment , anxious @-@ avoidant attachment , and disorganized attachment . Attachment theory has become the dominant theory used today in the study of infant and toddler behavior and in the fields of infant mental health , treatment of children , and related fields . Secure attachment is when children feel they can rely on their caregivers to attend to their needs of proximity , emotional support and protection . It is considered to be the best attachment style . Separation anxiety is what infants feel when they are separated from their caregivers . Anxious @-@ ambivalent attachment is when the infant feels separation anxiety when separated from the caregiver and does not feel reassured when the caregiver returns to the infant . Anxious @-@ avoidant attachment is when the infant avoids their parents . Disorganized attachment is when there is a lack of attachment behavior . In the 1980s , the theory was extended to attachment in adults . Attachment applies to adults when adults feel close attachment to their parents and their romantic partners .
= = Infant attachment = =
Within attachment theory , attachment means " a biological instinct in which proximity to an attachment figure is sought when the child senses or perceives threat or discomfort . Attachment behaviour anticipates a response by the attachment figure which will remove threat or discomfort " . Such bonds may be reciprocal between two adults , but between a child and a caregiver these bonds are based on the child 's need for safety , security and protection , paramount in infancy and childhood . John Bowlby begins by noting that organisms at different levels of the phylogenetic scale regulate instinctive behavior in distinct ways , ranging from primitive reflex @-@ like " fixed action patterns " to complex plan hierarchies with subgoals and strong learning components . In the most complex organisms , instinctive behaviors may be " goal @-@ corrected " with continual on @-@ course adjustments ( such as a bird of prey adjusting its flight to the movements of the prey ) . The concept of cybernetically controlled behavioral systems organized as plan hierarchies ( Miller , Galanter , and Pribram , 1960 ) thus came to replace Freud 's concept of drive and instinct . Such systems regulate behaviors in ways that need not be rigidly innate , but — depending on the organism — can adapt in greater or lesser degrees to changes in environmental circumstances , provided that these do not deviate too much from the organism 's environment of evolutionary adaptedness . Such flexible organisms pay a price , however , because adaptable behavioral systems can more easily be subverted from their optimal path of development . For humans , Bowlby speculates , the environment of evolutionary adaptedness probably resembles that of present @-@ day hunter @-@ gatherer societies for the purpose of survival , and , ultimately , genetic replication . Attachment theory is not an exhaustive description of human relationships , nor is it synonymous with love and affection , although these may indicate that bonds exist . Some infants direct attachment behaviour ( proximity seeking ) toward more than one attachment figure almost as soon as they start to show discrimination between caregivers ; most come to do so during their second year . These figures are arranged hierarchically , with the principal attachment figure at the top . The set @-@ goal of the attachment behavioural system is to maintain the accessibility and availability of the attachment figure . " Alarm " is the term used for activation of the attachment behavioural system caused by fear of danger . " Anxiety " is the anticipation or fear of being cut off from the attachment figure . If the figure is unavailable or unresponsive , separation distress occurs . In infants , physical separation can cause anxiety and anger , followed by sadness and despair . By age three or four , physical separation is no longer such a threat to the child 's bond with the attachment figure . Threats to security in older children and adults arise from prolonged absence , breakdowns in communication , emotional unavailability , or signs of rejection or abandonment .
= = = Behaviours = = =
The attachment behavioural system serves to achieve or maintain proximity to the attachment figure . Pre @-@ attachment behaviours occur in the first six months of life . During the first phase ( the first eight weeks ) , infants smile , babble , and cry to attract the attention of potential caregivers . Although infants of this age learn to discriminate between caregivers , these behaviours are directed at anyone in the vicinity . During the second phase ( two to six months ) , the infant increasingly discriminates between familiar and unfamiliar adults , becoming more responsive toward the caregiver ; following and clinging are added to the range of behaviours . Clear @-@ cut attachment develops in the third phase , between the ages of six months and two years . The infant 's behaviour toward the caregiver becomes organized on a goal @-@ directed basis to achieve the conditions that make it feel secure . By the end of the first year , the infant is able to display a range of attachment behaviours designed to maintain proximity . These manifest as protesting the caregiver 's departure , greeting the caregiver 's return , clinging when frightened , and following when able . With the development of locomotion , the infant begins to use the caregiver or caregivers as a " safe base " from which to explore . Infant exploration is greater when the caregiver is present because the infant 's attachment system is relaxed and it is free to explore . If the caregiver is inaccessible or unresponsive , attachment behaviour is more strongly exhibited . Anxiety , fear , illness , and fatigue will cause a child to increase attachment behaviours .
After the second year , as the child begins to see the caregiver as an independent person , a more complex and goal @-@ corrected partnership is formed . Children begin to notice others ' goals and feelings and plan their actions accordingly . For example , whereas babies cry because of pain , two @-@ year @-@ olds cry to summon their caregiver , and if that does not work , cry louder , shout , or follow .
= = = Tenets = = =
Common attachment behaviours and emotions , displayed in most social primates including humans , are adaptive . The long @-@ term evolution of these species has involved selection for social behaviors that make individual or group survival more likely . The commonly observed attachment behaviour of toddlers staying near familiar people would have had safety advantages in the environment of early adaptation , and has similar advantages today . Bowlby saw the environment of early adaptation as similar to current hunter @-@ gatherer societies . There is a survival advantage in the capacity to sense possibly dangerous conditions such as unfamiliarity , being alone , or rapid approach . According to Bowlby , proximity @-@ seeking to the attachment figure in the face of threat is the " set @-@ goal " of the attachment behavioural system .
Bowlby 's original account of a sensitivity period during which attachments can form of between six months and two to three years has been modified by later researchers . These researchers have shown that there is indeed a sensitive period during which attachments will form if possible , but the time frame is broader and the effect less fixed and irreversible than first proposed . With further research , authors discussing attachment theory have come to appreciate that social development is affected by later as well as earlier relationships . Early steps in attachment take place most easily if the infant has one caregiver , or the occasional care of a small number of other people . According to Bowlby , almost from the first many children have more than one figure toward whom they direct attachment behaviour . These figures are not treated alike ; there is a strong bias for a child to direct attachment behaviour mainly toward one particular person . Bowlby used the term " monotropy " to describe this bias . Researchers and theorists have abandoned this concept insofar as it may be taken to mean that the relationship with the special figure differs qualitatively from that of other figures . Rather , current thinking postulates definite hierarchies of relationships .
Early experiences with caregivers gradually give rise to a system of thoughts , memories , beliefs , expectations , emotions , and behaviours about the self and others . This system , called the " internal working model of social relationships " , continues to develop with time and experience . Internal models regulate , interpret , and predict attachment @-@ related behaviour in the self and the attachment figure . As they develop in line with environmental and developmental changes , they incorporate the capacity to reflect and communicate about past and future attachment relationships . They enable the child to handle new types of social interactions ; knowing , for example , that an infant should be treated differently from an older child , or that interactions with teachers and parents share characteristics . This internal working model continues to develop through adulthood , helping cope with friendships , marriage , and parenthood , all of which involve different behaviours and feelings . The development of attachment is a transactional process . Specific attachment behaviours begin with predictable , apparently innate , behaviours in infancy . They change with age in ways that are determined partly by experiences and partly by situational factors . As attachment behaviours change with age , they do so in ways shaped by relationships . A child 's behaviour when reunited with a caregiver is determined not only by how the caregiver has treated the child before , but on the history of effects the child has had on the caregiver .
= = Attachment classification in children : The Strange Situation Protocol = =
The most common and empirically supported method for assessing attachment in infants ( 11 months @-@ 17 months ) is the Strange Situation Protocol , developed by Mary Ainsworth as a result of her careful in @-@ depth observations of infants with their mothers in Baltimore , USA ( see below ) . The Strange Situation Protocol is a research tool that was not intended for diagnostic purposes . While the procedure may be used to supplement clinical impressions , the resulting classifications should not be confused with the psychiatric diagnosis ' Reactive Attachment Disorder ( RAD ) ' . The clinical concept of RAD differs in a number of fundamental ways from the theory and research driven attachment classifications based on the Strange Situation Procedure . The idea that insecure attachments are synonymous with RAD is , in fact , not accurate and leads to ambiguity when formally discussing attachment theory as it has evolved in the research literature . This is not to suggest that the concept of RAD is without merit , but rather that the clinical and research conceptualizations of insecure attachment and attachment disorder are not synonymous .
The ' Strange Situation ' is a laboratory procedure used to assess infants ' pattern of attachment to their caregiver by introducing an unexpected threat , two brief separations from the mother followed by reunion . In the procedure , the mother and infant are placed in an unfamiliar playroom equipped with toys while a researcher films the procedure through a one @-@ way mirror . The procedure consists of eight sequential episodes in which the infant experiences both separation from and reunion with the mother as well as the presence of an unfamiliar person ( the Stranger ) . The protocol is conducted in the following format unless modifications are otherwise noted by a particular researcher :
Episode 1 : Mother ( or other familiar caregiver ) , Baby , Experimenter ( 30 seconds )
Episode 2 : Mother , Baby ( 3 mins )
Episode 3 : Mother , Baby , Stranger ( 3 mins )
Episode 4 : Stranger , Baby ( 3 mins or less )
Episode 5 : Mother , Baby ( 3 mins )
Episode 6 : Baby Alone ( 3 mins or less )
Episode 7 : Stranger , Baby ( 3 mins or less )
Episode 8 : Mother , Baby ( 3 mins )
Mainly on the basis of their reunion behaviour ( although other behaviors are taken into account ) in the Strange Situation Paradigm ( Ainsworth et al . , 1978 ; see below ) , infants can be categorized into three ' organized ' attachment categories : Group B ( later called ' secure ' ) , Group A ( later called ' anxious avoidant ' ) , and Group C ( later called ' anxious ambivalent ' ) . There are subclassifications for each group ( see below ) .
Beginning in 1970 , a series of expansions were added to Ainsworth ’ s original patterns . They include the following : B4 ( 1970 ) , A / C ( 1985 ) D / disorganized ( 1986 ) , B5 ( 1988 , 1992 ) A + , C + , & Depressed ( 1992 , 2010 ) . At later ages , additional categories have been described . Each of these patterns reflects a different kind of attachment relationship of the infant with the mother / caregiver . An infant may have a different pattern of attachment to each parent as well as to alternate caregivers . Pattern of attachment is thus not a part of the infant , but is characteristic of the protective and comforting quality of a specific relationship . These attachment patterns are associated with behavioral patterns and can help further predict a child 's future personality .
= = Attachment patterns = =
" The strength of a child 's attachment behaviour in a given circumstance does not indicate the ' strength ' of the attachment bond . Some insecure children will routinely display very pronounced attachment behaviours , while many secure children find that there is no great need to engage in either intense or frequent shows of attachment behaviour . "
= = = Secure attachment = = =
A toddler who is securely attached to his or her parent ( or other familiar caregiver ) will explore freely while the caregiver is present , typically engages with strangers , is often visibly upset when the caregiver departs , and is generally happy to see the caregiver return . The extent of exploration and of distress are affected , however , by the child 's temperamental make @-@ up and by situational factors as well as by attachment status . A child 's attachment is largely influenced by their primary caregiver 's sensitivity to their needs . Parents who consistently ( or almost always ) respond to their child 's needs will create securely attached children . Such children are certain that their parents will be responsive to their needs and communications .
In the traditional Ainsworth et al . ( 1978 ) coding of the Strange Situation , secure infants are denoted as " Group B " infants and they are further subclassified as B1 , B2 , B3 , and B4 . Although these subgroupings refer to different stylistic responses to the comings and goings of the caregiver , they were not given specific labels by Ainsworth and colleagues , although their descriptive behaviors led others ( including students of Ainsworth ) to devise a relatively ' loose ' terminology for these subgroups . B1 's have been referred to as ' secure @-@ reserved ' , B2 's as ' secure @-@ inhibited ' , B3 's as ' secure @-@ balanced ' , and B4 's as ' secure @-@ reactive ' . In academic publications however , the classification of infants ( if subgroups are denoted ) is typically simply " B1 " or " B2 " although more theoretical and review @-@ oriented papers surrounding attachment theory may use the above terminology .
Securely attached children are best able to explore when they have the knowledge of a secure base ( their caregiver ) to return to in times of need . When assistance is given , this bolsters the sense of security and also , assuming the parent 's assistance is helpful , educates the child in how to cope with the same problem in the future . Therefore , secure attachment can be seen as the most adaptive attachment style . According to some psychological researchers , a child becomes securely attached when the parent is available and able to meet the needs of the child in a responsive and appropriate manner . At infancy and early childhood , if parents are caring and attentive towards their children , those children will be more prone to secure attachment .
= = = Anxious @-@ ambivalent attachment = = =
Anxious @-@ ambivalent attachment is also misnamed as ' resistant attachment ' . In general , a child with an anxious @-@ ambivalent pattern of attachment will typically explore little ( in the Strange Situation ) and is often wary of strangers , even when the parent is present . When the mother departs , the child is often highly distressed . The child is generally ambivalent when she returns . The anxious @-@ ambivalent strategy is a response to unpredictably responsive caregiving , and the displays of anger ( ambivalent resistant ) or helplessness ( ambivalent passive ) towards the caregiver on reunion can be regarded as a conditional strategy for maintaining the availability of the caregiver by preemptively taking control of the interaction .
The C1 ( ambivalent resistant ) subtype is coded when :
" ... resistant behavior is particularly conspicuous . The mixture of seeking and yet resisting contact and interaction has an unmistakably angry quality and indeed an angry tone may characterize behavior in the preseparation episodes ... "
The C2 ( ambivalent passive ) subtype is coded when :
" Perhaps the most conspicuous characteristic of C2 infants is their passivity . Their exploratory behavior is limited throughout the SS and their interactive behaviors are relatively lacking in active initiation . Nevertheless , in the reunion episodes they obviously want proximity to and contact with their mothers , even though they tend to use signalling rather than active approach , and protest against being put down rather than actively resisting release ... In general the C2 baby is not as conspicuously angry as the C1 baby . "
Research done by McCarthy and Taylor ( 1999 ) , found that children with abusive childhood experiences were more likely to develop ambivalent attachments . The study also found that children with ambivalent attachments were more likely to experience difficulties in maintaining intimate relationships as adults .
= = = Anxious @-@ avoidant attachment = = =
An infant with an anxious @-@ avoidant pattern of attachment will avoid or ignore the caregiver — showing little emotion when the caregiver departs or returns . The infant will not explore very much regardless of who is there . Infants classified as anxious @-@ avoidant ( A ) represented a puzzle in the early 1970s . They did not exhibit distress on separation , and either ignored the caregiver on their return ( A1 subtype ) or showed some tendency to approach together with some tendency to ignore or turn away from the caregiver ( A2 subtype ) . Ainsworth and Bell theorised that the apparently unruffled behaviour of the avoidant infants was in fact a mask for distress , a hypothesis later evidenced through studies of the heart @-@ rate of avoidant infants .
Infants are depicted as anxious @-@ avoidant when there is :
" ... conspicuous avoidance of the mother in the reunion episodes which is likely to consist of ignoring her altogether , although there may be some pointed looking away , turning away , or moving away ... If there is a greeting when the mother enters , it tends to be a mere look or a smile ... Either the baby does not approach his mother upon reunion , or they approach in ' abortive ' fashions with the baby going past the mother , or it tends to only occur after much coaxing ... If picked up , the baby shows little or no contact @-@ maintaining behavior ; he tends not to cuddle in ; he looks away and he may squirm to get down . "
Ainsworth 's narrative records showed that infants avoided the caregiver in the stressful Strange Situation Procedure when they had a history of experiencing rebuff of attachment behaviour . The infant 's needs were frequently not met and the infant had come to believe that communication of emotional needs had no influence on the caregiver . Ainsworth 's student Mary Main theorised that avoidant behaviour in the Strange Situational Procedure should be regarded as " a conditional strategy , which paradoxically permits whatever proximity is possible under conditions of maternal rejection " by de @-@ emphasising attachment needs . Main proposed that avoidance has two functions for an infant whose caregiver is consistently unresponsive to their needs . Firstly , avoidant behaviour allows the infant to maintain a conditional proximity with the caregiver : close enough to maintain protection , but distant enough to avoid rebuff . Secondly , the cognitive processes organising avoidant behaviour could help direct attention away from the unfulfilled desire for closeness with the caregiver — avoiding a situation in which the child is overwhelmed with emotion ( ' disorganised distress ' ) , and therefore unable to maintain control of themselves and achieve even conditional proximity .
= = = Disorganized / disoriented attachment = = =
Ainsworth herself was the first to find difficulties in fitting all infant behaviour into the three classifications used in her Baltimore study . Ainsworth and colleagues sometimes observed " tense movements such as hunching the shoulders , putting the hands behind the neck and tensely cocking the head , and so on . It was our clear impression that such tension movements signified stress , both because they tended to occur chiefly in the separation episodes and because they tended to be prodromal to crying . Indeed , our hypothesis is that they occur when a child is attempting to control crying , for they tend to vanish if and when crying breaks through . " Such observations also appeared in the doctoral theses of Ainsworth 's students . Crittenden , for example , noted that one abused infant in her doctoral sample was classed as secure ( B ) by her undergraduate coders because her strange situation behavior was " without either avoidance or ambivalence , she did show stress @-@ related stereotypic headcocking throughout the strange situation . This pervasive behavior , however , was the only clue to the extent of her stress . " . Beginning in 1983 , Crittenden offered A / C and other new organized classifications ( see below ) . Drawing on records of behaviours discrepant with the A , B and C classifications , a fourth classification was added by Ainsworth 's colleague Mary Main . In the Strange Situation , the attachment system is expected to be activated by the departure and return of the caregiver . If the behaviour of the infant does not appear to the observer to be coordinated in a smooth way across episodes to achieve either proximity or some relative proximity with the caregiver , then it is considered ' disorganised ' as it indicates a disruption or flooding of the attachment system ( e.g. by fear ) . Infant behaviours in the Strange Situation Protocol coded as disorganised / disoriented include overt displays of fear ; contradictory behaviours or affects occurring simultaneously or sequentially ; stereotypic , asymmetric , misdirected or jerky movements ; or freezing and apparent dissociation . Lyons @-@ Ruth has urged , however , that it should be more widely " recognized that 52 % of disorganized infants continue to approach the caregiver , seek comfort , and cease their distress without clear ambivalent or avoidant behavior . "
There is rapidly growing interest in disorganized attachment from clinicians and policy @-@ makers as well as researchers . However , the disorganized / disoriented attachment ( D ) classification has been criticised by some for being too encompassing , including Ainsworth herself . In 1990 , Ainsworth put in print her blessing for the new ' D ' classification , though she urged that the addition be regarded as " open @-@ ended , in the sense that subcategories may be distinguished " , as she worried that too many different forms of behaviour might be treated as if they were the same thing . Indeed , the D classification puts together infants who use a somewhat disrupted secure ( B ) strategy with those who seem hopeless and show little attachment behaviour ; it also puts together infants who run to hide when they see their caregiver in the same classification as those who show an avoidant ( A ) strategy on the first reunion and then an ambivalent @-@ resistant ( C ) strategy on the second reunion . Perhaps responding to such concerns , George and Solomon have divided among indices of disorganized / disoriented attachment ( D ) in the Strange Situation , treating some of the behaviours as a ' strategy of desperation ' and others as evidence that the attachment system has been flooded ( e.g. by fear , or anger ) . Moreover , Crittenden argues that some behaviour classified as Disorganized / disoriented can be regarded as more ' emergency ' versions of the avoidant and / or ambivalent / resistant strategies , and function to maintain the protective availability of the caregiver to some degree . Sroufe et al. have agreed that " even disorganised attachment behaviour ( simultaneous approach @-@ avoidance ; freezing , etc . ) enables a degree of proximity in the face of a frightening or unfathomable parent . " However , " the presumption that many indices of ' disorganisation ' are aspects of organised patterns does not preclude acceptance of the notion of disorganisation , especially in cases where the complexity and dangerousness of the threat are beyond children 's capacity for response . " For example , " Children placed in care , especially more than once , often have intrusions . In videos of the Strange Situation Procedure , they tend to occur when a rejected / neglected child approaches the stranger in an intrusion of desire for comfort , then loses muscular control and falls to the floor , overwhelmed by the intruding fear of the unknown , potentially dangerous , strange person . "
Main and Hesse found that most of the mothers of these children had suffered major losses or other trauma shortly before or after the birth of the infant and had reacted by becoming severely depressed . In fact , 56 % of mothers who had lost a parent by death before they completed high school subsequently had children with disorganized attachments . Subsequent studies , whilst emphasising the potential importance of unresolved loss , have qualified these findings . For example , Solomon and George found that unresolved loss in the mother tended to be associated with disorganised attachment in their infant primarily when they had also experienced an unresolved trauma in their life prior to the loss .
= = = Later patterns and the dynamic @-@ maturational model = = =
Techniques have been developed to allow verbal ascertainment of the child 's state of mind with respect to attachment . An example is the " stem story " , in which a child is given the beginning of a story that raises attachment issues and asked to complete it . For older children , adolescents and adults , semi @-@ structured interviews are used in which the manner of relaying content may be as significant as the content itself . However , there are no substantially validated measures of attachment for middle childhood or early adolescence ( approximately 7 to 13 years of age ) . Some studies of older children have identified further attachment classifications . Main and Cassidy observed that disorganized behavior in infancy can develop into a child using caregiving @-@ controlling or punitive behaviour in order to manage a helpless or dangerously unpredictable caregiver . In these cases , the child 's behaviour is organised , but the behaviour is treated by researchers as a form of ' disorganization ' ( D ) since the hierarchy in the family is no longer organised according to parenting authority .
Patricia McKinsey Crittenden has elaborated classifications of further forms of avoidant and ambivalent attachment behaviour . These include the caregiving and punitive behaviours also identified by Main and Cassidy ( termed A3 and C3 respectively ) , but also other patterns such as compulsive compliance with the wishes of a threatening parent ( A4 ) .
Crittenden 's ideas developed from Bowlby 's proposal that " given certain adverse circumstances during childhood , the selective exclusion of information of certain sorts may be adaptive . Yet , when during adolescence and adulthood the situation changes , the persistent exclusion of the same forms of information may become maladaptive " .
Crittenden proposed that the basic components of human experience of danger are two kinds of information :
1 . ' Affective information ' – the emotions provoked by the potential for danger , such as anger or fear . Crittenden terms this " affective information " . In childhood this information would include emotions provoked by the unexplained absence of an attachment figure . Where an infant is faced with insensitive or rejecting parenting , one strategy for maintaining the availability of their attachment figure is to try to exclude from consciousness or from expressed behaviour any emotional information that might result in rejection .
2 . Causal or other sequentially @-@ ordered knowledge about the potential for safety or danger . In childhood this would include knowledge regarding the behaviours that indicate an attachment figure 's availability as a secure haven . If knowledge regarding the behaviours that indicate an attachment figure 's availability as a secure haven is subject to segregation , then the infant can try to keep the attention of their caregiver through clingy or aggressive behaviour , or alternating combinations of the two . Such behaviour may increase the availability of an attachment figure who otherwise displays inconsistent or misleading responses to the infant 's attachment behaviours , suggesting the unreliability of protection and safety .
Crittenden proposes that both kinds of information can be split off from consciousness or behavioural expression as a ' strategy ' to maintain the availability of an attachment figure ( See section above on Disorganized / disoriented attachment for distinction of " Types " ) : " Type A strategies were hypothesized to be based on reducing perception of threat to reduce the disposition to respond . Type C was hypothesized to be based on heightening perception of threat to increase the disposition to respond . " Type A strategies split off emotional information about feeling threatened and type C strategies split off temporally @-@ sequenced knowledge about how and why the attachment figure is available . By contrast , type B strategies effectively utilise both kinds of information without much distortion . For example : a toddler may have come to depend upon a type C strategy of tantrums in working to maintain the availability of an attachment figure whose inconsistent availability has led the child to distrust or distort causal information about their apparent behaviour . This may lead their attachment figure to get a clearer grasp on their needs and the appropriate response to their attachment behaviours . Experiencing more reliable and predictable information about the availability of their attachment figure , the toddler then no longer needs to use coercive behaviours with the goal of maintaining their caregiver 's availability and can develop a secure attachment to their caregiver since they trust that their needs and communications will be heeded .
= = = Significance of patterns = = =
Research based on data from longitudinal studies , such as the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and the Minnesota Study of Risk and Adaption from Birth to Adulthood , and from cross @-@ sectional studies , consistently shows associations between early attachment classifications and peer relationships as to both quantity and quality . Lyons @-@ Ruth , for example , found that " for each additional withdrawing behavior displayed by mothers in relation to their infant 's attachment cues in the Strange Situation Procedure , the likelihood of clinical referral by service providers was increased by 50 % . " There is an extensive body of research demonstrating a significant association between attachment organizations and children 's functioning across multiple domains . Early insecure attachment does not necessarily predict difficulties , but it is a liability for the child , particularly if similar parental behaviours continue throughout childhood . Compared to that of securely attached children , the adjustment of insecure children in many spheres of life is not as soundly based , putting their future relationships in jeopardy . Although the link is not fully established by research and there are other influences besides attachment , secure infants are more likely to become socially competent than their insecure peers . Relationships formed with peers influence the acquisition of social skills , intellectual development and the formation of social identity . Classification of children 's peer status ( popular , neglected or rejected ) has been found to predict subsequent adjustment . Insecure children , particularly avoidant children , are especially vulnerable to family risk . Their social and behavioural problems increase or decline with deterioration or improvement in parenting . However , an early secure attachment appears to have a lasting protective function . As with attachment to parental figures , subsequent experiences may alter the course of development . Studies have suggested that infants with a high @-@ risk for Autism Spectrum Disorders ( ASD ) may express attachment security differently from infants with a low @-@ risk for ASD . Behavioral problems and social competence in insecure children increase or decline with deterioration or improvement in quality of parenting and the degree of risk in the family environment . Some authors have questioned the idea that a taxonomy of categories representing a qualitative difference in attachment relationships can be developed . Examination of data from 1 @,@ 139 15 @-@ month @-@ olds showed that variation in attachment patterns was continuous rather than grouped . This criticism introduces important questions for attachment typologies and the mechanisms behind apparent types . However , it has relatively little relevance for attachment theory itself , which " neither requires nor predicts discrete patterns of attachment . " There is some evidence that gender differences in attachment patterns of adaptive significance begin to emerge in middle childhood . Insecure attachment and early psychosocial stress indicate the presence of environmental risk ( for example poverty , mental illness , instability , minority status , violence ) . Environmental risk can cause insecure attachment , while also favouring the development of strategies for earlier reproduction . Different reproductive strategies have different adaptive values for males and females : Insecure males tend to adopt avoidant strategies , whereas insecure females tend to adopt anxious / ambivalent strategies , unless they are in a very high risk environment . Adrenarche is proposed as the endocrine mechanism underlying the reorganization of insecure attachment in middle childhood .
= = Changes in attachment during childhood and adolescence = =
Childhood and adolescence allows the development of an internal working model useful for forming attachments . This internal working model is related to the individual 's state of mind which develops with respect to attachment generally and explores how attachment functions in relationship dynamics based on childhood and adolescent experience . The organization of an internal working model is generally seen as leading to more stable attachments in those who develop such a model , rather than those who rely more on the individual 's state of mind alone in forming new attachments .
Age , cognitive growth , and continued social experience advance the development and complexity of the internal working model . Attachment @-@ related behaviours lose some characteristics typical of the infant @-@ toddler period and take on age @-@ related tendencies . The preschool period involves the use of negotiation and bargaining . For example , four @-@ year @-@ olds are not distressed by separation if they and their caregiver have already negotiated a shared plan for the separation and reunion .
Ideally , these social skills become incorporated into the internal working model to be used with other children and later with adult peers . As children move into the school years at about six years old , most develop a goal @-@ corrected partnership with parents , in which each partner is willing to compromise in order to maintain a gratifying relationship . By middle childhood , the goal of the attachment behavioural system has changed from proximity to the attachment figure to availability . Generally , a child is content with longer separations , provided contact — or the possibility of physically reuniting , if needed — is available . Attachment behaviours such as clinging and following decline and self @-@ reliance increases . By middle childhood ( ages 7 – 11 ) , there may be a shift toward mutual coregulation of secure @-@ base contact in which caregiver and child negotiate methods of maintaining communication and supervision as the child moves toward a greater degree of independence .
= = Attachment in adults = =
Attachment theory was extended to adult romantic relationships in the late 1980s by Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver . Four styles of attachment have been identified in adults : secure , anxious @-@ preoccupied , dismissive @-@ avoidant and fearful @-@ avoidant . These roughly correspond to infant classifications : secure , insecure @-@ ambivalent , insecure @-@ avoidant and disorganized / disoriented .
Securely attached adults tend to have positive views of themselves , their partners and their relationships . They feel comfortable with intimacy and independence , balancing the two . Anxious @-@ preoccupied adults seek high levels of intimacy , approval and responsiveness from partners , becoming overly dependent . They tend to be less trusting , have less positive views about themselves and their partners , and may exhibit high levels of emotional expressiveness , worry and impulsiveness in their relationships . Dismissive @-@ avoidant adults desire a high level of independence , often appearing to avoid attachment altogether . They view themselves as self @-@ sufficient , invulnerable to attachment feelings and not needing close relationships . They tend to suppress their feelings , dealing with rejection by distancing themselves from partners of whom they often have a poor opinion . Fearful @-@ avoidant adults have mixed feelings about close relationships , both desiring and feeling uncomfortable with emotional closeness . They tend to mistrust their partners and view themselves as unworthy . Like dismissive @-@ avoidant adults , fearful @-@ avoidant adults tend to seek less intimacy , suppressing their feelings .
Two main aspects of adult attachment have been studied . The organization and stability of the mental working models that underlie the attachment styles is explored by social psychologists interested in romantic attachment . Developmental psychologists interested in the individual 's state of mind with respect to attachment generally explore how attachment functions in relationship dynamics and impacts relationship outcomes . The organisation of mental working models is more stable while the individual 's state of mind with respect to attachment fluctuates more . Some authors have suggested that adults do not hold a single set of working models . Instead , on one level they have a set of rules and assumptions about attachment relationships in general . On another level they hold information about specific relationships or relationship events . Information at different levels need not be consistent . Individuals can therefore hold different internal working models for different relationships .
There are a number of different measures of adult attachment , the most common being self @-@ report questionnaires and coded interviews based on the Adult Attachment Interview . The various measures were developed primarily as research tools , for different purposes and addressing different domains , for example romantic relationships , parental relationships or peer relationships . Some classify an adult 's state of mind with respect to attachment and attachment patterns by reference to childhood experiences , while others assess relationship behaviours and security regarding parents and peers .
= = History = =
= = = Maternal deprivation = = =
The early thinking of the object relations school of psychoanalysis , particularly Melanie Klein , influenced Bowlby . However , he profoundly disagreed with the prevalent psychoanalytic belief that infants ' responses relate to their internal fantasy life rather than real @-@ life events . As Bowlby formulated his concepts , he was influenced by case studies on disturbed and delinquent children , such as those of William Goldfarb published in 1943 and 1945 .
Bowlby 's contemporary René Spitz observed separated children 's grief , proposing that " psychotoxic " results were brought about by inappropriate experiences of early care . A strong influence was the work of social worker and psychoanalyst James Robertson who filmed the effects of separation on children in hospital . He and Bowlby collaborated in making the 1952 documentary film A Two @-@ Year Old Goes to the Hospital which was instrumental in a campaign to alter hospital restrictions on visits by parents .
In his 1951 monograph for the World Health Organisation , Maternal Care and Mental Health , Bowlby put forward the hypothesis that " the infant and young child should experience a warm , intimate , and continuous relationship with his mother in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment " , the lack of which may have significant and irreversible mental health consequences . This was also published as Child Care and the Growth of Love for public consumption . The central proposition was influential but highly controversial . At the time there was limited empirical data and no comprehensive theory to account for such a conclusion . Nevertheless , Bowlby 's theory sparked considerable interest in the nature of early relationships , giving a strong impetus to , ( in the words of Mary Ainsworth ) , a " great body of research " in an extremely difficult , complex area . Bowlby 's work ( and Robertson 's films ) caused a virtual revolution in hospital visiting by parents , hospital provision for children 's play , educational and social needs and the use of residential nurseries . Over time , orphanages were abandoned in favour of foster care or family @-@ style homes in most developed countries .
Following the publication of Maternal Care and Mental Health , Bowlby sought new understanding from the fields of evolutionary biology , ethology , developmental psychology , cognitive science and control systems theory . He formulated the innovative proposition that mechanisms underlying an infant 's emotional tie to the caregiver ( s ) emerged as a result of evolutionary pressure . He set out to develop a theory of motivation and behaviour control built on science rather than Freud 's psychic energy model . Bowlby argued that with attachment theory he had made good the " deficiencies of the data and the lack of theory to link alleged cause and effect " of Maternal Care and Mental Health .
= = = = Ethology = = = =
Bowlby 's attention was first drawn to ethology when he read Konrad Lorenz 's 1952 publication in draft form ( although Lorenz had published earlier work ) . Other important influences were ethologists Nikolaas Tinbergen and Robert Hinde . Bowlby subsequently collaborated with Hinde . In 1953 Bowlby stated " the time is ripe for a unification of psychoanalytic concepts with those of ethology , and to pursue the rich vein of research which this union suggests . " Konrad Lorenz had examined the phenomenon of " imprinting " , a behaviour characteristic of some birds and mammals which involves rapid learning of recognition by the young , of a conspecific or comparable object . After recognition comes a tendency to follow .
Certain types of learning are possible , respective to each applicable type of learning , only within a limited age range known as a critical period . Bowlby 's concepts included the idea that attachment involved learning from experience during a limited age period , influenced by adult behaviour . He did not apply the imprinting concept in its entirety to human attachment . However , he considered that attachment behaviour was best explained as instinctive , combined with the effect of experience , stressing the readiness the child brings to social interactions . Over time it became apparent there were more differences than similarities between attachment theory and imprinting so the analogy was dropped . Ethologists expressed concern about the adequacy of some research on which attachment theory was based , particularly the generalisation to humans from animal studies . Schur , discussing Bowlby 's use of ethological concepts ( pre @-@ 1960 ) commented that concepts used in attachment theory had not kept up with changes in ethology itself . Ethologists and others writing in the 1960s and 1970s questioned and expanded the types of behaviour used as indications of attachment . Observational studies of young children in natural settings provided other behaviours that might indicate attachment ; for example , staying within a predictable distance of the mother without effort on her part and picking up small objects , bringing them to the mother but not to others . Although ethologists tended to be in agreement with Bowlby , they pressed for more data , objecting to psychologists writing as if there were an " entity which is ' attachment ' , existing over and above the observable measures . " Robert Hinde considered " attachment behaviour system " to be an appropriate term which did not offer the same problems " because it refers to postulated control systems that determine the relations between different kinds of behaviour . "
= = = = Psychoanalysis = = = =
Psychoanalytic concepts influenced Bowlby 's view of attachment , in particular , the observations by Anna Freud and Dorothy Burlingham of young children separated from familiar caregivers during World War II . However , Bowlby rejected psychoanalytical explanations for early infant bonds including " drive theory " in which the motivation for attachment derives from gratification of hunger and libidinal drives . He called this the " cupboard @-@ love " theory of relationships . In his view it failed to see attachment as a psychological bond in its own right rather than an instinct derived from feeding or sexuality . Based on ideas of primary attachment and Neo @-@ Darwinism , Bowlby identified what he saw as fundamental flaws in psychoanalysis : the overemphasis of internal dangers rather than external threat , and the view of the development of personality via linear phases with regression to fixed points accounting for psychological distress . Bowlby instead posited that several lines of development were possible , the outcome of which depended on the interaction between the organism and the environment . In attachment this would mean that although a developing child has a propensity to form attachments , the nature of those attachments depends on the environment to which the child is exposed .
From early in the development of attachment theory there was criticism of the theory 's lack of congruence with various branches of psychoanalysis . Bowlby 's decisions left him open to criticism from well @-@ established thinkers working on similar problems .
= = = = Internal working model = = = =
The philosopher Kenneth Craik had noted the ability of thought to predict events . He stressed the survival value of and natural selection for this ability . This internal working model allows a person to try out alternatives mentally , using knowledge of the past while responding to the present and future . Bowlby applied Craik 's ideas to attachment , when other psychologists were applying these concepts to adult perception and cognition .
An infant 's internal working model is developed in response to the infant 's experience of the outcomes of his or her proximity @-@ seeking behaviors . If the caregiver is accepting of these proximity @-@ seeking behaviors and grants access , the infant develops a secure organization ; if the caregiver consistently denies the infant access , an avoidant organization develops ; and if the caregiver inconsistently grants access , an ambivalent organization develops .
A parent 's internal working model that is operative in the attachment relationship with her infant can be accessed by examining the parent 's mental representations . Recent research has demonstrated that the quality of maternal attributions as markers of maternal mental representations can be associated with particular forms of maternal psychopathology and can be altered in a relative short time @-@ period by targeted psychotherapeutic intervention .
= = = = Developments = = = =
In the 1970s , problems with viewing attachment as a trait ( stable characteristic of an individual ) rather than as a type of behaviour with organising functions and outcomes , led some authors to the conclusion that attachment behaviours were best understood in terms of their functions in the child 's life . This way of thinking saw the secure base concept as central to attachment theory 's logic , coherence , and status as an organizational construct . Following this argument , the assumption that attachment is expressed identically in all humans cross @-@ culturally was examined . The research showed that though there were cultural differences , the three basic patterns , secure , avoidant and ambivalent , can be found in every culture in which studies have been undertaken , even where communal sleeping arrangements are the norm .
Selection of the secure pattern is found in the majority of children across cultures studied . This follows logically from the fact that attachment theory provides for infants to adapt to changes in the environment , selecting optimal behavioural strategies . How attachment is expressed shows cultural variations which need to be ascertained before studies can be undertaken ; for example Gusii infants are greeted with a handshake rather than a hug . Securely attached Gusii infants anticipate and seek this contact . There are also differences in the distribution of insecure patterns based on cultural differences in child @-@ rearing practices . The scholar Michael Rutter in 1974 studied the importance of distinguishing between the consequences of attachment deprivation upon intellectual retardation in children and lack of development in the emotional growth in children . Rutter 's conclusion was that a careful delineation of maternal attributes needed to be identified and differentiated for progress in the field to continue .
The biggest challenge to the notion of the universality of attachment theory came from studies conducted in Japan where the concept of amae plays a prominent role in describing family relationships . Arguments revolved around the appropriateness of the use of the Strange Situation procedure where amae is practiced . Ultimately research tended to confirm the universality hypothesis of attachment theory . Most recently a 2007 study conducted in Sapporo in Japan found attachment distributions consistent with global norms using the six @-@ year Main and Cassidy scoring system for attachment classification .
Critics in the 1990s such as J. R. Harris , Steven Pinker and Jerome Kagan were generally concerned with the concept of infant determinism ( nature versus nurture ) , stressing the effects of later experience on personality . Building on the work on temperament of Stella Chess , Kagan rejected almost every assumption on which attachment theory etiology was based . Kagan argued that heredity was far more important than the transient developmental effects of early environment . For example , a child with an inherently difficult temperament would not elicit sensitive behavioural responses from a caregiver . The debate spawned considerable research and analysis of data from the growing number of longitudinal studies . Subsequent research has not borne out Kagan 's argument , possibly suggesting that it is the caregiver 's behaviours that form the child 's attachment style , although how this style is expressed may differ with the child 's temperament . Harris and Pinker put forward the notion that the influence of parents had been much exaggerated , arguing that socialisation took place primarily in peer groups . H. Rudolph Schaffer concluded that parents and peers had different functions , fulfilling distinctive roles in children 's development . Psychoanalyst / psychologists Peter Fonagy and Mary Target have attempted to bring attachment theory and psychoanalysis into a closer relationship through cognitive science as mentalization . Mentalization , or theory of mind , is the capacity of human beings to guess with some accuracy what thoughts , emotions and intentions lie behind behaviours as subtle as facial expression . It has been speculated that this connection between theory of mind and the internal working model may open new areas of study , leading to alterations in attachment theory . Since the late 1980s , there has been a developing rapprochement between attachment theory and psychoanalysis , based on common ground as elaborated by attachment theorists and researchers , and a change in what psychoanalysts consider to be central to psychoanalysis . Object relations models which emphasise the autonomous need for a relationship have become dominant and are linked to a growing recognition within psychoanalysis of the importance of infant development in the context of relationships and internalised representations . Psychoanalysis has recognised the formative nature of a child 's early environment including the issue of childhood trauma . A psychoanalytically based exploration of the attachment system and an accompanying clinical approach has emerged together with a recognition of the need for measurement of outcomes of interventions .
One focus of attachment research has been the difficulties of children whose attachment history was poor , including those with extensive non @-@ parental child care experiences . Concern with the effects of child care was intense during the so @-@ called " day care wars " of the late 20th century , during which some authors stressed the deleterious effects of day care . As a result of this controversy , training of child care professionals has come to stress attachment issues , including the need for relationship @-@ building by the assignment of a child to a specific care @-@ giver . Although only high @-@ quality child care settings are likely to provide this , more infants in child care receive attachment @-@ friendly care than in the past . A natural experiment permitted extensive study of attachment issues as researchers followed thousands of Romanian orphans adopted into Western families after the end of the Nicolae Ceauşescu regime . The English and Romanian Adoptees Study Team , led by Michael Rutter , followed some of the children into their teens , attempting to unravel the effects of poor attachment , adoption , new relationships , physical problems and medical issues associated with their early lives . Studies of these adoptees , whose initial conditions were shocking , yielded reason for optimism as many of the children developed quite well . Researchers noted that separation from familiar people is only one of many factors that help to determine the quality of development . Although higher rates of atypical insecure attachment patterns were found compared to native @-@ born or early @-@ adopted samples , 70 % of later @-@ adopted children exhibited no marked or severe attachment disorder behaviours .
Authors considering attachment in non @-@ Western cultures have noted the connection of attachment theory with Western family and child care patterns characteristic of Bowlby 's time . As children 's experience of care changes , so may attachment @-@ related experiences . For example , changes in attitudes toward female sexuality have greatly increased the numbers of children living with their never @-@ married mothers or being cared for outside the home while the mothers work . This social change has made it more difficult for childless people to adopt infants in their own countries . There has been an increase in the number of older @-@ child adoptions and adoptions from third @-@ world sources in first @-@ world countries . Adoptions and births to same @-@ sex couples have increased in number and gained legal protection , compared to their status in Bowlby 's time . Issues have been raised to the effect that the dyadic model characteristic of attachment theory cannot address the complexity of real @-@ life social experiences , as infants often have multiple relationships within the family and in child care settings . It is suggested these multiple relationships influence one another reciprocally , at least within a family .
Principles of attachment theory have been used to explain adult social behaviours , including mating , social dominance and hierarchical power structures , in @-@ group identification , group coalitions , and negotiation of reciprocity and justice . Those explanations have been used to design parental care training , and have been particularly successful in the design of child abuse prevention programmes .
While a wide variety of studies have upheld the basic tenets of attachment theory , research has been inconclusive as to whether self @-@ reported early attachment and later depression are demonstrably related .
= = Biology of attachment = =
In addition to longitudinal studies , there has been psychophysiological research on the biology of attachment . Research has begun to include neural development , behaviour genetics and temperament concepts . Generally , temperament and attachment constitute separate developmental domains , but aspects of both contribute to a range of interpersonal and intrapersonal developmental outcomes . Some types of temperament may make some individuals susceptible to the stress of unpredictable or hostile relationships with caregivers in the early years . In the absence of available and responsive caregivers it appears that some children are particularly vulnerable to developing attachment disorders .
In psychophysiological research on attachment , the two main areas studied have been autonomic responses , such as heart rate or respiration , and the activity of the hypothalamic – pituitary – adrenal axis . Infants ' physiological responses have been measured during the Strange Situation procedure looking at individual differences in infant temperament and the extent to which attachment acts as a moderator . There is some evidence that the quality of caregiving shapes the development of the neurological systems which regulate stress .
Another issue is the role of inherited genetic factors in shaping attachments : for example one type of polymorphism of the gene coding for the D2 dopamine receptor has been linked to anxious attachment and another in the gene for the 5 @-@ HT2A serotonin receptor with avoidant attachment . This suggests that the influence of maternal care on attachment security is not the same for all children . One theoretical basis for this is that it makes biological sense for children to vary in their susceptibility to rearing influence .
= = Practical applications = =
As a theory of socioemotional development , attachment theory has implications and practical applications in social policy , decisions about the care and welfare of children and mental health .
= = = Child care policies = = =
Social policies concerning the care of children were the driving force in Bowlby 's development of attachment theory . The difficulty lies in applying attachment concepts to policy and practice . In 2008 C.H. Zeanah and colleagues stated , " Supporting early child @-@ parent relationships is an increasingly prominent goal of mental health practitioners , community @-@ based service providers and policy makers ... Attachment theory and research have generated important findings concerning early child development and spurred the creation of programs to support early child @-@ parent relationships . "
Historically , attachment theory had significant policy implications for hospitalised or institutionalised children , and those in poor quality daycare . Controversy remains over whether non @-@ maternal care , particularly in group settings , has deleterious effects on social development . It is plain from research that poor quality care carries risks but that those who experience good quality alternative care cope well although it is difficult to provide good quality , individualised care in group settings .
Attachment theory has implications in residence and contact disputes , and applications by foster parents to adopt foster children . In the past , particularly in North America , the main theoretical framework was psychoanalysis . Increasingly attachment theory has replaced it , thus focusing on the quality and continuity of caregiver relationships rather than economic well @-@ being or automatic precedence of any one party , such as the biological mother . Rutter noted that in the UK , since 1980 , family courts have shifted considerably to recognize the complications of attachment relationships . Children tend to have attachment relationships with both parents and often grandparents or other relatives . Judgements need to take this into account along with the impact of step @-@ families . Attachment theory has been crucial in highlighting the importance of social relationships in dynamic rather than fixed terms .
Attachment theory can also inform decisions made in social work , especially in humanistic social work ( Petru Stefaroi ) , and court processes about foster care or other placements . Considering the child 's attachment needs can help determine the level of risk posed by placement options . Within adoption , the shift from " closed " to " open " adoptions and the importance of the search for biological parents would be expected on the basis of attachment theory . Many researchers in the field were strongly influenced by it .
= = = Clinical practice in children = = =
Although attachment theory has become a major scientific theory of socioemotional development with one of the widest research lines in modern psychology , it has , until recently , been less used in clinical practice .
This may be partly due to lack of attention paid to clinical application by Bowlby himself and partly due to broader meanings of the word ' attachment ' used amongst practitioners . It may also be partly due to the mistaken association of attachment theory with the pseudoscientific interventions misleadingly known as " attachment therapy " .
= = = = Prevention and treatment = = = =
In 1988 , Bowlby published a series of lectures indicating how attachment theory and research could be used in understanding and treating child and family disorders . His focus for bringing about change was the parents ' internal working models , parenting behaviours and the parents ' relationship with the therapeutic intervenor . Ongoing research has led to a number of individual treatments and prevention and intervention programmes . They range from individual therapy to public health programmes to interventions designed for foster caregivers . For infants and younger children , the focus is on increasing the responsiveness and sensitivity of the caregiver , or if that is not possible , placing the child with a different caregiver . An assessment of the attachment status or caregiving responses of the caregiver is invariably included , as attachment is a two @-@ way process involving attachment behaviour and caregiver response . Some programmes are aimed at foster carers because the attachment behaviours of infants or children with attachment difficulties often do not elicit appropriate caregiver responses . Modern prevention and intervention programmes have proven successful .
= = = = Reactive attachment disorder and attachment disorder = = = =
One atypical attachment pattern is considered to be an actual disorder , known as reactive attachment disorder or RAD , which is a recognised psychiatric diagnosis ( ICD @-@ 10 F94.1 / 2 and DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR 313 @.@ 89 ) . Against common misconception , this is not the same as ' disorganised attachment ' . The essential feature of reactive attachment disorder is markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness in most contexts that begins before age five years , associated with gross pathological care . There are two subtypes , one reflecting a disinhibited attachment pattern , the other an inhibited pattern . RAD is not a description of insecure attachment styles , however problematic those styles may be ; instead , it denotes a lack of age @-@ appropriate attachment behaviours that may appear to resemble a clinical disorder . Although the term " reactive attachment disorder " is now popularly applied to perceived behavioural difficulties that fall outside the DSM or ICD criteria , particularly on the Web and in connection with the pseudo @-@ scientific attachment therapy , " true " RAD is thought to be rare .
" Attachment disorder " is an ambiguous term , which may be used to refer to reactive attachment disorder or to the more problematical insecure attachment styles ( although none of these are clinical disorders ) . It may also be used to refer to proposed new classification systems put forward by theorists in the field , and is used within attachment therapy as a form of unvalidated diagnosis . One of the proposed new classifications , " secure base distortion " has been found to be associated with caregiver traumatization .
= = = Clinical practice in adults and families = = =
As attachment theory offers a broad , far @-@ reaching view of human functioning , it can enrich a therapist 's understanding of patients and the therapeutic relationship rather than dictate a particular form of treatment . Some forms of psychoanalysis @-@ based therapy for adults — within relational psychoanalysis and other approaches — also incorporate attachment theory and patterns . In the first decade of the 21st century , key concepts of attachment were incorporated into existing models of behavioural couple therapy , multidimensional family therapy and couple and family therapy . Specifically attachment @-@ centred interventions have been developed , such as attachment @-@ based family therapy and emotionally focused therapy .
Attachment theory and research laid the foundation for the development of the understanding of " mentalization " or reflective functioning and its presence , absence or distortion in psychopathology . The dynamics of an individual 's attachment organization and their capacity for mentalization or conceptualization can play a crucial role in the capacity to be helped by treatment .
|
= Forensic chemistry =
Forensic chemistry is the application of chemistry and its subfield , forensic toxicology , in a legal setting . A forensic chemist can assist in the identification of unknown materials found at a crime scene . Forensic specialists in this field have a wide array of different methods and instruments to help identify unknown substances . Specific methods common to the field include high @-@ performance liquid chromatography , gas chromatography @-@ mass spectrometry , atomic absorption spectroscopy , Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy , and thin layer chromatography . The range of different methods is important due to the destructive nature of some instruments and the number of possible unknown substances that can be found at a scene . If possible , nondestructive methods should always be attempted first to preserve evidence and to determine the best protocol for when a destructive method is used .
Along with other forensic specialists , forensic chemists commonly testify in court as expert witnesses regarding their findings . The work performed by forensic chemists is bound by a set of standards that have been proposed by various agencies and governing bodies , including the Scientific Working Group on the Analysis of Seized Drugs . In addition to the standard operating procedures proposed by the group , specific agencies have their own standards regarding the quality assurance and quality control of their results and their instruments . In order to ensure the accuracy of what they are reporting , forensic chemists routinely check and verify that their instruments are working correctly and are still able to detect and measure various quantities of different substances .
= = Role in investigations = =
Forensic chemists ' investigations can provide directions for investigators to look in , and they can confirm or refute investigators ' suspicions . In cases where an unknown material is found at the scene , the identification of the substance can tell investigators what to look for during their search . For example , during fire investigations , forensic chemists can determine if an accelerant such as gasoline or kerosene was used ; if so , this suggests that the fire was intentionally set . Forensic chemists can also narrow down the suspect list to people who would have access to the substance used in a crime . For example , in explosive investigations , the identification of RDX or C @-@ 4 would indicate a military connection as those substances are military grade explosives . On the other hand , the identification of TNT would create a wider suspect list , since it is used in both the military and by demolition companies . During poisoning investigations , the detection of specific poisons can give detectives an idea of what to look for when they are interviewing potential suspects . For example , a death caused by ricin would tell investigators to look for the precursors to ricin , the seeds of the castor oil plant , while a death from strychnine would tell investigators to look for a strychnine tree or online purchases of the seeds .
Forensic chemists also help to confirm or refute investigators ' suspicions in drug or alcohol cases . Since the instruments used by forensic chemists can detect substances down to a very low level , the quantity of that substance is relevant to the investigation . This can be important in crimes such as driving under the influence as there is a specific blood alcohol content cutoff where penalties begin or increase . In suspected overdose cases , the quantity of the drug found in the person 's system can confirm or rule out overdose as the cause of death .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Throughout history , the availability of poisons allowed individuals to commit murder with relative ease . Arsenic , nightshade , hemlock , strychnine , and curare were all historically used poisons . With no method to accurately determine if a particular chemical was present , poisoners were frequently never punished for their crimes . It was not until the early 19th century that chemists were able to effectively detect poisons for the first time . In 1836 , one of the first major contributions to forensic chemistry was introduced by James Marsh . He created the Marsh test for arsenic detection which was subsequently used successfully in a murder trial . It was also during this time that forensic toxicology began to be recognized as a distinct field . Mathieu Orfila , the " father of toxicology " , made great advancements to the field during the early 19th century . He helped develop tests that could determine the presence of blood and was one of the first to use microscopy in the analysis of blood and semen . Orfila was also the first chemist to successfully classify different chemicals into categories such as corrosives , narcotics , and astringents .
The next advancement in the detection of poisons came in 1850 when a valid method for detecting vegetable alkaloids in human tissue was created by chemist Jean Stas . Stas ' method was quickly adopted and used successfully in court to convict Count Hippolyte Visart de Bocarmé of murdering his brother @-@ in @-@ law by nicotine poisoning . Stas was able to successfully isolate the alkaloid from the organs of the victim proving Count Bocarmé murdered his brother @-@ in @-@ law . Stas 's protocol was subsequently altered to incorporate tests for caffeine , quinine , morphine , strychnine , atropine , and opium .
The wide range of instrumentation for forensic chemical analysis also started during this time period . In 1859 , chemist Robert Bunsen and physicist Gustav Kirchhoff invented the first spectroscope . Their experiments with spectroscopy showed that specific substances created a unique spectrum when exposed to a specific wavelength of light . Using spectroscopy , the two scientists were able to identify substances based on their spectrum , providing a method of identification for unknown materials . Another crucial advancement in the field was invented in 1906 by botanist Mikhail Tsvet : he developed paper chromatography , an early predecessor to thin layer chromatography , in order to separate and examine the plant proteins that make up chlorophyll . The ability to separate mixtures into their individual components allows forensic chemists to examine the parts of an unknown material against a database of known products . By matching the retention factors for the separated components with known values , materials can be identified . Over time , chromatography techniques have become more sophisticated with the introduction of liquid and gas chromatography .
= = = Modernization = = =
Modern forensic chemists rely on numerous instruments in order to identify unknown materials found at a crime scene . The 20th century saw many advancements in technology that allowed chemists to detect smaller amounts of material more accurately . The first major advancement in this century came during 1930s with the invention of a spectrometer that could measure the signal produced with infrared ( IR ) light . Early IR spectrometers used a monochromator and could only measure light absorption in a very narrow wavelength band . It was not until the coupling of an interferometer with an IR spectrometer in 1949 by Peter Fellgett that the complete infrared spectrum could be measured at once . Fellgett also used the Fourier transform , a mathematical method that can break down a signal into the individual frequencies that make it up , to make sense of the enormous amount of data received from the complete infrared analysis of a material . Since then , Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy ( FTIR ) instruments have become critical in the forensic analysis of unknown material because they are nondestructive and extremely quick to use . Spectroscopy was further advanced in 1955 with the invention of the modern atomic absorption ( AA ) spectrophotometer by Alan Walsh . AA analysis can detect specific elements that make up a sample along with their concentrations , allowing for the easy detection of heavy metals such as arsenic and cadmium .
Advancements in the field of chromatography arrived in 1953 with the invention of the gas chromatograph by Anthony T. James and Archer John Porter Martin , allowing for the separation of volatile liquid mixtures with components which have similar boiling points . Nonvolatile liquid mixtures could be separated with liquid chromatography ; however substances with similar retention times could not be resolved until the invention of high @-@ performance liquid chromatography ( HPLC ) by Csaba Horváth in 1970 . Modern HPLC instruments are capable of detecting and resolving substances whose concentrations are as low as parts per trillion .
One of the most important advancements in forensic chemistry came in 1955 with the invention of the gas chromatography @-@ mass spectrometry ( GC @-@ MS ) by Fred McLafferty and Roland Gohlke . The coupling of a gas chromatograph with a mass spectrometer allowed for the identification of a wide range of substances . GC @-@ MS analysis is widely considered the " gold standard " for forensic analysis due to its sensitivity and versatility along with its ability to quantify the amount of substance present .
= = Methods = =
Forensic chemists rely on a multitude of instruments in order to identify unknown substances found at a scene . Different methods can be used to determine the identity of the same substance , and it is up to the examiner to determine which method will produce the best results . Certain aspects that forensic chemists must be aware of when performing an examination are the length of time a specific instrument will take to examine a substance and the destructive nature of that instrument . If possible , nondestructive methods should always be attempted first in order to preserve the evidence for further examination . Nondestructive techniques can also be used to narrow down the possibilities , making it more likely that the correct method will be used the first time when a destructive method is used .
= = = Spectroscopy = = =
The two main standalone spectroscopy techniques for forensic chemistry are FTIR and AA spectroscopy . FTIR is a nondestructive process that uses infrared light to identify a substance . The attenuated total reflectance sampling technique eliminates the need for substances to be prepared before analysis . The combination of nondestructiveness and zero preparation makes ATR FTIR analysis a quick and easy first step in the analysis of unknown substances . To facilitate the positive identification of the substance , FTIR instruments are loaded with databases that can be searched for known spectra that match the unknown 's spectra . However , FTIR analysis of mixtures , while not impossible , presents specific difficulties due to the cumulative nature of the response . When analyzing an unknown that contains more than one substance , the resulting spectra will be a combination of the individual spectra of each component . While common mixtures have known spectra on file , novel mixtures can be difficult to resolve , making FTIR an unacceptable means of identification . However , the instrument can be used to determine the general chemical structures present , allowing forensic chemists to determine the best method for analysis with other instruments . For example , a stretch of alkyl groups will result in a peak between 2 @,@ 950 and 2 @,@ 850 wavenumbers ( cm − 1 ) .
Atomic absorption spectroscopy ( AAS ) is a destructive technique that is able to determine the elements that make up the analyzed sample . AAS performs this analysis by subjecting the sample to an extremely high heat source , breaking the atomic bonds of the substance , leaving free atoms . Once atomized , radiation in the form of light is passed through the sample forcing the atoms to jump to a higher energy state . Forensic chemists can test for each element by using a corresponding wavelength of light that forces that element 's atoms to a higher energy state during the analysis . For this reason , and due to the destructive nature of this method , AAS should be used as a confirmatory technique after earlier , preliminary , tests have indicated the presence of a specific element in the sample . The concentration of the element in the sample is proportional to the amount of light absorbed when compared to a blank sample . AAS is useful in cases of suspected heavy metal poisoning such as with arsenic , lead , mercury , and cadmium . Determining the concentration of the substance in the sample can determine if heavy metals were the cause of death .
= = = Chromatography = = =
Spectroscopy techniques are useful when the sample being tested is pure , or a very common mixture . When an unknown mixture is being analyzed it must be broken down into its individual parts . Chromatography techniques can be used to break apart mixtures into their components allowing for each part to be analyzed separately . Thin layer chromatography ( TLC ) is a quick alternative to more complex chromatography methods . TLC can be used to analyze inks and dyes by extracting the individual components . This can be used to investigate notes or fibers left at the scene since each company 's product is slightly different and those differences can be seen with TLC . The only limiting factor with TLC analysis is the necessity for the components to be soluble in whatever solution is used to carry the components up the analysis plate . This solution is called the mobile phase . The forensic chemist can compare unknowns with known standards by looking at the distance each component traveled . This distance , when compared to the starting point , is known as the retention factor ( Rf ) for each extracted component . If each Rf value matches a known sample , that is an indication of the unknown 's identity .
High @-@ performance liquid chromatography can be used to extract individual components from a mixture dissolved in a solution . HPLC is used for nonvolatile mixtures that would not be suitable for gas chromatography . This is useful in drug analysis where the pharmaceutical is a combination drug since the components would separate , or elute , at different times allowing for the verification of each component . The eluates from the HPLC column are then fed into various detectors that can further analyze the substances . The most common type of detector is an ultraviolet @-@ visible spectrometer while the most discerning detector is a mass spectrometer . The choice of which detector a lab uses depends on its funding and the precision needed for the type of work it performs .
Gas chromatography ( GC ) performs the same function as liquid chromatography , but it is used for volatile mixtures . In forensic chemistry , the most common GC instruments use mass spectrometry as their detector . GC @-@ MS can be used in investigations of arson , poisoning , and explosions in order to determine exactly what was used . In theory , GC @-@ MS instruments can detect substances whose concentrations are in the femtogram ( 10 − 15 ) range . However , in practice , due to signal @-@ to @-@ noise ratios and other limiting factors , such as the age of the individual parts of the instrument , the practical detection limit for GC @-@ MS is in the picogram ( 10 − 12 ) range . GC @-@ MS is also capable of quantifying substances which can be used by forensic chemists to determine the effect the substance would have on an individual . GC @-@ MS instruments need around 1 @,@ 000 times more of the substance to quantify the amount than they need simply to detect it ; the limit of quantification is typically in the nanogram ( 10 − 9 ) range .
= = Forensic toxicology = =
Forensic toxicology is the study of the pharmacodynamics , or what a substance does to the body , and pharmacokinetics , or what the body does to the substance . In order to accurately determine the effect a particular drug has on the human body , forensic toxicologists must be aware of various levels of tolerance that an individual can build up as well as the therapeutic index for various pharmaceuticals . Toxicologists are tasked with determining whether any toxin found in a body was the cause of an incident , contributed to the incident , or was at too low a level to have had an effect . While the determination of the specific toxin can be time consuming due to the number of different substances that can cause injury or death , certain clues can narrow down the possibilities . For example , carbon monoxide poisoning would result in bright red blood while death from hydrogen sulfide would cause the brain to have a green hue .
Toxicologists are also aware of the different metabolites that a specific drug could break down into inside the body . For example , a toxicologist can confirm that a person took heroin by the presence in a sample of 6 @-@ monoacetylmorphine , which only comes from the breakdown of heroin . The constant creation of new drugs , both legal and illicit , forces toxicologists to keep themselves apprised of new research and methods to test for these novel substances . The stream of new formulations means that a negative test result does not necessarily rule out drugs . In order to avoid detection , illicit drug manufacturers frequently change the chemicals ' structure slightly . These compounds still have the same effect on the body but are not picked up with an instrumentation database search . As new compounds are discovered , tests are created and entered into the instrument 's library . For this reason , toxicologists study the different symptoms specific drug classes can have on a person . Even if the test comes back negative , symptoms can present cause for a further search . Substances , and their residues , found during this search can be tested and compared to the original sample , creating a new method to be stored for later use .
= = Standards = =
In order to maintain a high level of professionalism within the forensic fields , guidelines have been set up by various governing bodies regarding the standards that should be followed by practicing forensic scientists . For forensic chemists , the Scientific Working Group for the Analysis of Seized Drugs ( SWGDRUG ) presents recommendations for the quality assurance and quality control of tested materials . In the identification of unknown samples , protocols have been grouped into three categories based on the possibility for a false positives . Instruments and protocols in category A are considered the best for uniquely identifying an unknown material , followed by categories B and then C. In order to ensure the accuracy of identifications SWGDRUG recommends that multiple tests using different instruments be performed on each sample , and that one category A technique and at least one other technique be used . If a category A technique is not available , or the forensic chemist decides not to use one , SWGDRUG recommends that at least three techniques be used , two of which must be from category B. Combination instruments , such as GC @-@ MS , are considered two separate tests as long as the results are compared to known values individually . For example , the GC elution times would be compared to known values along with the MS spectra . If both of those match a known substance , no further tests are needed .
Standards and controls are necessary in the quality control of the various instruments used to test samples . Due to the nature of their work in the legal system , chemists must ensure that their instruments are working accurately . To do this , known controls are tested consecutively with unknown samples . By comparing the readouts of the controls with their profiles the instrument can be confirmed to have been working properly at the time the unknowns were tested . Standards are also used to validate the instrument 's limit of detection and quantification for various common substances . Calculated quantities must fall within the range tested by the standards in order to be confirmed . If they fall outside of this range the instrument must be tested to ensure that it can accurately measure that quantity .
|
= William Beverley =
William Beverley ( 1696 – 1756 ) was an 18th century legislator , civil servant , planter and landowner in the Colony of Virginia . Born in Virginia , Beverley — the son of planter and historian Robert Beverley , Jr . ( c . 1667 – 1722 ) and his wife , Ursula Byrd Beverley ( 1681 – 1698 ) — was the scion of two prominent Virginia families . He was the nephew of Peter Beverley ( 1668 – 1728 ) , Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses , and the grandson of wealthy Virginia planter William Byrd I ( 1652 – 1704 ) of Westover Plantation . Beverley 's mother died shortly before her 17th birthday ( when he was a toddler ) , and he was sent to England .
After his education in England he began a career in public service as the Clerk of Court for Essex County ( 1716 – 1745 ) and in the Virginia House of Burgesses , representing Orange ( 1736 – 1738 ) and Essex Counties ( 1742 – 1749 ) . Beverley also served on the Virginia Governor 's Council in 1750 .
He inherited a large estate after his father 's death in 1722 , amassing significant landholdings throughout Virginia from which he received revenue from tobacco production and rent from 119 tenants . His development of the 118 @,@ 941 @-@ acre ( 481 @.@ 34 km2 ) Beverley Manor tract in present @-@ day Augusta County encouraged further settlement west of the Blue Ridge Mountains . Beverley was commissioned by Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , for an expedition with Peter Jefferson to establish the Fairfax Line of the Northern Neck Proprietary .
= = Early life and education = =
Beverley was born in 1696 , the only child of Robert Beverley , Jr . ( c . 1667 – 1722 ) and his wife , Ursula Byrd Beverley ( 1681 – 1698 ) . Robert Beverley , Jr . , of the Beverley Park plantation in King and Queen County , was a wealthy planter who participated in the Knights of the Golden Horseshoe Expedition and was the first native @-@ born historian of colonial Virginia ; he wrote the History of the Present State of Virginia in 1705 , the first known history of Virginia . William Beverley 's uncle , Peter ( 1668 – 1728 ) , was Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses . His mother , the daughter of William Byrd I ( 1652 – 1704 ) and Maria Horsmanden Byrd of Westover Plantation , was affectionately known as " Little Nutty " by her family . She died on October 31 , 1698 , shortly before her 17th birthday , and was buried in Jamestown . Through his paternal grandmother , Margaret Boyd Beverley , William Beverley was a great @-@ grandson of Scottish noble James Boyd , 9th Lord Boyd ( died 1654 ) . After his mother 's death Beverley was sent to England , where he was educated .
= = Political career = =
After his education was completed , Beverley returned to Virginia and began a career in public service . He was the Clerk of Court for Essex County for 29 years ( 1716 – 1745 ) , when the first Essex County courthouse was on Beverley 's Blandfield estate . Beverley was also an Essex County judge from 1720 to 1740 . He was a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses in Williamsburg , elected to represent Orange ( 1736 – 1738 ) and Essex Counties ( 1742 – 1749 ) . During his first term as Orange County burgess , Beverley served with Robert Green . He represented Essex County with James Ganett until 1747 , after which he served with William Daingerfield until 1749 . Beverley 's appointment as county lieutenant and commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the militias of Augusta and Orange Counties in 1741 was confirmed in the Orange County Court on November 3 , 1741 . In 1750 he was appointed to the Virginia Governor 's Council , the upper house of Virginia 's colonial legislature , replacing John Custis IV ( father @-@ in @-@ law of Martha Dandridge Custis ) . Beverley 's appointment to the Governor 's Council fulfilled an ambition which his father was unable to achieve .
= = Agricultural pursuits and landholdings = =
Beverley inherited a large estate after his father 's death in 1722 , and continued speculating in land . He received income from tobacco production and rent from tenant farmers . Although by 1745 Beverley 's estate produced 57 hogsheads ( about 26 @,@ 000 kg ) of tobacco , the income from his 119 tenants in Caroline , Culpeper , Orange and King and Queen Counties was far more lucrative .
After his marriage to Elizabeth Bland about 1725 Beverley lived at Blandfield , a 3 @,@ 450 @-@ acre ( 14 @.@ 0 km2 ) estate along the Rappahannock River in Saint Anne 's Parish of Essex County which he named for his wife 's family . Blandfield was granted by patent to his grandfather , Robert Beverley , Sr. , in 1683 as part of a 100 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 400 km2 ) tract . Construction of Beverley 's first , Georgian @-@ style mansion at Blandfield ( which is no longer standing ) probably began around 1750 . Blandfield had wharves on the Rappahannock from which the plantation 's tobacco was shipped across the Atlantic .
In addition to agriculture and land tenancy , Beverley received additional revenue from land sales in western Virginia . The easing of restrictive land laws by the Virginia colonial government allowed him to establish his own terms with settlers on his lands , and he initially sold parcels in the Shenandoah Valley . On September 6 , 1736 , Beverley , John and Richard Randolph and John Robinson were deeded a land patent by Sir William Gooch , 1st Baronet on behalf of the crown for a 118 @,@ 941 @-@ acre ( 481 @.@ 34 km2 ) tract at the headwaters of the South Fork Shenandoah River in present @-@ day Augusta County . On September 16 the Randolphs and Robinson transferred sole ownership of the tract to Beverley , who planned to survey and sell it ; the tract , which became known as Beverley Manor , encouraged further settlement west of the Blue Ridge Mountains . He commissioned James Patton , a ship captain from Ulster , to recruit Irish and Scotch @-@ Irish immigrants to purchase and settle his Augusta County land . On August 8 , 1737 , Beverley wrote to Patton , " I should be very glad if you could import families enough to take the whole off from our hands at a reasonable price and tho ' the order mentions families from Pensilvania [ sic ] , yet families from Ireland will do as well " . In 1738 he authorized John Lewis of northern Ireland , the father of Thomas Lewis , to show and sell his land in Augusta County and donated a lot in Staunton for the construction of the Augusta County Courthouse ten years later .
By 1743 Beverley wished to receive a land grant of 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 km2 ) in the Northern Neck Proprietary on the Shenandoah and the South Branch Potomac rivers from Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , planning to raise horses and cattle and divide the Northern Neck land for tenants . He and others , including John Robinson and his father ( also named John ) , purchased 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 km2 ) on the Greenbrier River in 1745 for speculation and settlement . Beverley 's land sales totaled 42 @,@ 119 acres ( 170 @.@ 45 km2 ) by 1744 , and by his death in 1756 he had sold 80 @,@ 455 acres ( 325 @.@ 59 km2 ) and made a profit of £ 2 @,@ 647 .
According to his 1756 will , Beverley owned land in Essex , Isle of Wight , King and Queen and Prince William Counties ; 14 @,@ 174 acres ( 57 @.@ 36 km2 ) in Caroline County , including the Pewmazeno and Beverley Chace properties and land lots in Port Royal ; a land tract of 4 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 km2 ) , known as Elkwood , in Culpeper County , and lots in the towns of Falmouth and Fredericksburg . According to historian Turk McCleskey , the land grants to Beverley from the Governor 's Council on behalf of the crown " reflected the Council 's recognition both of his elite connections and of his demonstrated leadership abilities " .
= = Business pursuits = =
Beverley owned and operated a tavern at Caroline Court House in Caroline County , and participated in trade with the West Indies . He wrote to a Barbadian merchant in 1739 , " I am very conveniently situated for the sale of Negroes , rum , sugar & Mollasses [ sic ] " . Beverley sold Barbadian salt in Virginia and shipped Virginia maize to Barbados . A partial inventory of his estate in 1745 listed 65 slaves on four plantations , cattle , hogs , sheep and horses . In 1763 Beverley 's son , Robert , reported that his father 's estate earned " about £ 1800 Currency , all plantation expenses deducted " .
= = Fairfax Line expedition = =
In 1746 Beverley was commissioned by Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , to represent him in an expedition with Peter Jefferson ( father of Thomas Jefferson ) through western Virginia to mark the Fairfax Line of the Northern Neck Proprietary , supervising the work of Jefferson and the other surveyors . The following year , he and the other participants in the Fairfax Line expedition reconvened at Jefferson 's Tuckahoe plantation to draft a map ( which became known as the Fry @-@ Jefferson Map ) of the Northern Neck Proprietary .
= = Personal life and family = =
Beverley married Elizabeth Bland ( born May 26 , 1706 ) around 1725 . Elizabeth was the daughter of Richard Bland and Elizabeth Randolph Bland of Jordan 's Point , and the sister of statesman Richard Bland . Beverley and his wife had four children : one son and three daughters — Robert Beverley ( 1740 – 1800 ) , Elizabeth Beverley Mills , Ursula Beverley Fitzhugh and Anna Beverley . Beverley took an active role in his children 's education , traveling to England in 1750 to enroll his son , his nephew Robert Munford III and another young man at Wakefield Grammar School .
Three of Beverley 's children married into prominent Virginia families . Robert married Maria Carter , daughter of Landon Carter and Maria Byrd Carter of Sabine Hall , Richmond County . Elizabeth married James Mills , a merchant in Hobbs Hole , and Ursula married William Fitzhugh . Anna was unmarried at Beverley 's death in 1756 .
Beverley , an Anglican , had a close relationship with Anglican minister and parson Robert Rose of Saint Anne 's Parish . Blandfield was in the parish , and his family attended Anglican ( and later Episcopal ) services at a church near the estate . On April 3 , 1750 Beverley provided a lot in Staunton for the Anglican Augusta Parish Church , which was completed in 1763 and succeeded by the present Trinity Episcopal Church .
= = Death and legacy = =
After Beverley 's death in 1756 , his son Robert was his designated heir at law . His wife Elizabeth inherited his plantations in Essex County , including the Blandfield estate and his " slaves , cattle , horses , hogs , and sheep " on the plantations . Beverley divided a large part of his fortune among his children and their spouses , bequeathing £ 500 to his daughter Elizabeth and leaving her husband , James Mills , " Money & slaves " valued at £ 1 @,@ 000 . Ursula also received £ 500 and her husband , William Fitzhugh , £ 1 @,@ 000 . Anna was unmarried at the time of Beverley 's death ; his will instructed Robert to maintain his sister until her marriage or her twenty @-@ first birthday , when she would receive her inheritance . Robert inherited the remainder of the plantations and other lands , including the Beverley Manor tract in Augusta County and lots in the town of Staunton . Beverley Manor , an Augusta County magisterial district south of Staunton , is a namesake of the Beverley Manor patent . After his mother 's death Robert also inherited Beverley 's Essex County properties , including Blandfield ( where he built the present Georgian mansion on the site of his father 's residence between 1769 and 1773 ) . Blandfield was owned by Beverley 's descendants until its 1983 sale .
|
= Turtle Rock Studios =
Turtle Rock Studios is an American video game developer founded in March 2002 by Michael Booth . It was acquired by Valve Corporation in 2008 , but was re @-@ founded in 2011 as an independent company by Phil Robb and Chris Ashton . Turtle Rock Studios is involved in the creation of original titles as well as the provision of consulting services to the digital entertainment industry .
The company 's most notable games are the first Left 4 Dead , which was published by Valve , and Evolve , which was originally set to be published by THQ but was later published by 2K Games . The founder of the company had worked for Westwood Pacific , and assisted in the development of the Counter @-@ Strike series . The company expanded from six employees to more than seventy staff members in 2011 to 2014 , and opened a subsidiary company called Turtle Rock Garage in 2011 , which specialized in developing casual games .
= = History = =
= = = Prior to founding = = =
Turtle Rock Studios was initially founded by Michael Booth . Prior to the company 's establishment , Booth , Phil Robb and Chris Ashton worked for Westwood Pacific and participated in the development of real @-@ time strategy games like Command & Conquer : Red Alert . Ashton , who had also worked for Presto Studios , was impressed by Counter @-@ Strike , which was a popular mod of Half @-@ Life , and decided to join the mod team as a texture artist . Eventually , Seattle @-@ based Valve Corporation , the publisher of Half @-@ Life , purchased the mod , and Ashton left Westwood to join Valve . Robb and Booth remained at Westwood Studios and worked on Command & Conquer : Yuri 's Revenge and Command & Conquer : Generals , but left the company after it was acquired by Electronic Arts , as Robb considered EA 's acquisition of Westwood had resulted in the studio losing all its personality .
= = = Turtle Rock 1 @.@ 0 = = =
Turtle Rock Studios was officially founded in 2002 . The team of about six people had limited resources so set up work space in Booth 's garage . The name " Turtle Rock " derived from the name of a neighbourhood where Booth lived . The team eventually expanded the studio and rented an office , and continued the development of Condition Zero . The game was officially released in 2004 . Satisfied with the work done by Turtle Rock , Valve continued to contract them to work on the Xbox version of Counter @-@ Strike , as well as the next installment of the series , Counter @-@ Strike : Source , and Half @-@ Life 2 : Deathmatch . Upon the release of Source , the company wanted to work on a new game , and gained support from Valve . The team later chose to design a first @-@ person wizard combat game .
As the team had developed only competitive multiplayer games before , they wanted to design a game that encouraged and supported co @-@ operative gameplay between players ; a game that would allow family and friends to play together instead of against each other , citing Secret of Mana as an example . The team decided to use source code from Counter @-@ Strike to develop a mod called Terror @-@ Strike , which is a scenario where players fight against bots , which are equipped only with knives and act like zombies . They also changed the texture of the game to create a gritty , dark atmosphere . It was not conceived as a full @-@ budget project at that time . Meanwhile , the wizard combat game was scrapped as the team considered the project over @-@ complicated and " geeky " ; they decided to use the cancelled project as a prototype to work on the zombie game . The idea of developing a zombie game grew after the team watched 28 Days Later , a critically acclaimed zombie film . The film helped the team brainstorm ideas for their zombie game . After that , the team decided to remove all the Counter @-@ Strike content and started developing the zombie game , in which players have to plant zombie bait and kill all the zombies present in the level . The focus later shifted to evacuating and surviving in a zombie @-@ infested area . The project was later presented to Valve , which helped the game 's funding and publishing . The project 's name was Left 4 Dead , and its development began in 2005 . The title was officially announced on November 20 , 2006 , and was released in November 2008 for Microsoft Windows and the Xbox 360 .
= = = Valve South = = =
On January 10 , 2008 , before the release of Left 4 Dead , Valve Corporation announced that it had purchased Turtle Rock in an effort to expand the company 's console market . Gabe Newell , founder and president of Valve Corporation , added that it was an easy decision for the company to make , as they had high expectations for Left 4 Dead and considered themselves having a long @-@ term relationship with Turtle Rock . After being acquired by Valve , Turtle Rock served as Valve 's in @-@ house satellite development team , and was renamed Valve South .
With the establishment of Valve South , nine to eleven employees moved to work at Valve 's headquarters in Seattle . After their departure , Valve felt that the size of the team at Valve South was too small to allow it to operate as a triple A studio , and that coordination between the two studios was difficult as they were physically far apart from each other . Meanwhile , Turtle Rock felt that the team 's communication with Valve was lacking , and they were dissatisfied with " Valve Time " and the slow progression of projects . As a result , Newell proposed that Turtle Rock to be split from Valve , and that Valve South be shut down after the shipment of Left 4 Dead . Valve retained the rights to the Left 4 Dead franchise , while allowing the name " Turtle Rock " and its logo to be used again by the original team . This news was later confirmed by Doug Lombardi of Valve on June 3 , 2009 .
= = = Turtle Rock 2 @.@ 0 = = =
After being formally closed , the remaining team members including Ashton , and Robb decided to restart Turtle Rock as an independent company on March 17 , 2010 . On the same day , Turtle Rock Studios put up a new website announcing they had reformed and were once again working on video games . They released an iPhone automotive maintenance app named Garage Buddy and began hiring for a full @-@ scale project . Upon the company 's reestablishment , Booth left the company , and Robb and Ashton were requested to share the position of studio head . Ashton initially declined it , but eventually accepted and partnered with Robb to lead the studio . Both of them considered themselves developers not managers , and they found the task of running Turtle Rock a tough challenge . At that time , there were about 13 staff members in the studio . The team later rented a warehouse and re @-@ designed it to accommodate them .
Despite being shut down by Valve , Turtle Rock still maintained a relatively close working relationship with it . The studio was contracted by Valve to work on the post @-@ launch content for Left 4 Dead and its sequel Left 4 Dead 2 , which was developed in @-@ house by Valve , and worked on Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive during its early phase of development . Eventually , the studio decided to split away from the two franchises to work on something new . On June 2 , 2010 , Turtle Rock Studios announced the formation of a new division within Turtle Rock called Turtle Rock Garage , a small division based solely on casual games . On September 22 , 2010 , Digital Development Management announced they were representing Turtle Rock Studios to find publishers for their games .
The concept of their next project had begun prior to the development of Left 4 Dead . Inspired by the asymmetrical mode of Left 4 Dead , and hunting games like Cabela 's Big Game Hunter , the team wanted to create a game where prey could strike back at hunters . The concept eventually became Evolve , and was the company 's next full @-@ scale project . Turtle Rock pitched the game to multiple publishers including Valve . Most of them were not supportive of the idea of an asymmetrical multiplayer video game ; Valve was also not interested in the project . These companies thought that Turtle Rock was too small to handle a Triple @-@ A project . Publisher THQ decided to accept the game and help with its funding . THQ 's then president Danny Bilson , and Jason Rubin , were very enthusiastic about the idea of having an asymmetrical multiplayer game like Evolve . Rubin once hoped that Turtle Rock could develop a free @-@ to @-@ play business model for the game . This idea was later scrapped , and resulted in some significant changes in terms of the game 's gameplay and cast . On May 26 , 2011 , THQ officially announced they would be publishing Turtle Rock 's next major title . On June 10 , 2011 , THQ described Turtle Rock 's next title as " wild " .
At that time , THQ had already been in a financial crisis that had begun in 2010 , and eventually declared bankruptcy on December 19 , 2012 . Their game , Evolve , was listed , alongside other unannounced titles from : Relic Entertainment , Vigil Games , and THQ Studios Montreal in court documents filed by THQ . With THQ unable to continue its publishing and funding roles , an auction was held for other publishers to acquire these titles . Publishers interested in the game visited Turtle Rock Studio to see their " secret project " . The company 's founders felt frustrated , and Rubin later suggested that Turtle Rock bid $ 250 @,@ 000 for its own project , which Ashton described as " what [ they ] had in the bank " . However , they were outbid by Take @-@ Two Interactive , which paid $ 11 million to acquire the game and to secure the rights to the entire franchise . According to Turtle Rock , they were " super excited " to work with Take @-@ Two . The game was set to be published under Take @-@ Two 's publishing label 2K Games , and was formally introduced on January 7 , 2014 by gaming magazine Game Informer . During the game 's development , the team 's size expanded to 75 staff members . Originally the game was to be released in October 2014 , however 2K later delayed the release date to allow Turtle Rock to further polish the game . Evolve was eventually released worldwide on February 10 , 2015 , for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 , and Xbox One platforms .
= = = Future = = =
In May 2016 , Turtle Rock announced that the company was working on a new intellectual property . The studio would also consider releasing titles via Steam 's early access program , which allows players to provide feedback on unfinished games or products as they are being developed .
= = List of games = =
Turtle Rock Studios is best known for their work on Valve Corporation 's Counter @-@ Strike and Left 4 Dead franchises . Works include :
= = = Left 4 Dead = = =
Left 4 Dead is a first @-@ person shooter survival horror video game released in November 2008 for Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 . Turtle Rock led the game 's development , with assistance provided by publisher Valve . It puts emphasis on co @-@ operative gameplay , in which players must fight against zombies in order to complete levels . In addition , the game features an asymmetrical multiplayer mode called Versus mode , in which players fight against a zombie which is controlled by another player . The game was built atop the most advanced version of the Source Engine available at the time and introduced version 2 of Turtle Rock 's AI technology , which had since been updated from the AI used for the bots in Condition Zero . The game was released on Microsoft Windows and the Xbox 360 in November 2008 . The game received critical acclaim . The PC version of the game received an 89 out of 100 from Metacritic , a review aggregator . The title was thought to have redefined co @-@ operative gameplay . The success of Left 4 Dead led Valve to develop Left 4 Dead 2 , the next installment in the series . Alongside its sequel , the franchise had collectively sold 12 million copies as of October 1 , 2012 .
= = = Evolve = = =
Evolve was Turtle Rock 's next major project after Left 4 Dead . Published by 2K Games and powered by CryEngine 3 , the title is an asymmetrical multiplayer game which pits four players , who play as hunters in a first @-@ person perspective , against a player who plays as a monster in a third @-@ person view . An alpha version of the game was released on January 15 , 2015 . The full version was released on February 10 , 2015 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . While the game received generally positive reviews , its extensive list of downloadable content available at launch caused controversy . Nevertheless , the game shipped 2 @.@ 5 million copies as of May 18 , 2015 , and was considered as another " permanent IP " by owner Take @-@ Two Interactive .
= = Philosophy = =
The team 's founders enjoy playing co @-@ operative multiplayer games and are passionate about them , as they allow players to play alongside each other instead of against each other . In addition , they found it more fun than the typical competitive multiplayer experience . However , they thought that this type of game was not well @-@ developed , and often encouraged players to complete objectives alone . As a result , the company decided to develop a game which tasks players to deploy strategy and work with other players , leading to the development of both Left 4 Dead and Evolve .
The company 's management and staff enjoy a close relationship . Any staff member can play a game , provide feedback , suggest improvements , and even criticize it , regardless of their position . The team thought that they were " open " with their games . As a result , instead of holding a press conference to explain the game to critics , they choose to invite people to play it in the studio . This practice allows them to see " people leaving with a smile " , enabling them to gauge the real reactions of players and to see whether the game is welcomed or not . They also hope that through early access , they can introduce their games to a wide audience , and share the experience with the community prior to the game 's official launch .
|
= Kill Switch ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Kill Switch " is the eleventh episode of the fifth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered in the United States on the Fox network on February 15 , 1998 . It was written by William Gibson and Tom Maddox and directed by Rob Bowman . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Kill Switch " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 1 , being watched by 18 @.@ 04 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics , with several complimenting Mulder 's virtual experience .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully become targets of a rogue AI capable of the worst kind of torture while investigating the strange circumstances of the death of a reclusive computer genius rumored to have been researching artificial intelligence .
" Kill Switch " was co @-@ written by cyberpunk pioneers William Gibson and Tom Maddox . The two eventually wrote another episode for the show : season seven 's " First Person Shooter " . " Kill Switch " was written after Gibson and Maddox approached the series , offering to write an episode . Reminiscent of the " dark visions " of filmmaker David Cronenberg , the episode contained " many obvious pokes and prods at high @-@ end academic cyberculture . " In addition , " Kill Switch " contained several scenes featuring elaborate explosives and digital effects , including one wherein a computer @-@ animated Scully fights nurses in a virtual hospital . " Kill Switch " deals with various " Gibsonian " themes , including : alienation , paranoia , artificial intelligence , and transferring one 's consciousness into cyberspace , among others .
= = Plot = =
At a diner in Washington , D.C. , a man tries to access files on a laptop computer , but is repeatedly denied . Meanwhile , several drug dealers receive anonymous phone calls about the whereabouts of their competitors ; they are told that they are at the same diner . Two U.S. Marshals receive a similar phone call about an escaped prisoner . The drug dealers arrive in pairs as the man attempts to gain access to the files . Just as he does , the two Marshals appear and order everyone onto the floor , causing a shootout .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) arrive and identify the bodies of the drug dealers . Mulder also identifies the man with the laptop as Donald Gelman , " a Silicon Valley folk hero " who aspired to create an artificial intelligence . Mulder takes Gelman 's laptop and finds a CD inside . When he puts it into the car stereo , it plays " Twilight Time " by The Platters . However , the agents take it to the Lone Gunmen , who discover that the disc contains a large quantity of encrypted data . The trio , however , are unable to decipher it . Upon Scully 's suggestion , they access Gelman 's e @-@ mail account and find a message sent by someone named Invisigoth , saying that someone named David is missing .
The message contains a BIC code for an intermodal shipping container , which Mulder and Scully locate . When they approach it , a woman attempts to flee but is captured by Scully . The container turns out to be full of state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art computer equipment . The woman , the " Invisigoth " ( Kristin Lehman ) they 've been looking for , warns the agents that a laser @-@ armed Defense Department satellite has pinpointed their location . They quickly leave the area as the container is destroyed . Invisigoth , whose real name turns out to be Esther Nairn , tells the agents that Gelman succeeded in creating an artificial intelligence . She reveals that once the AI locates an enemy , it destroys them using the satellite . According to Esther , Gelman was creating " Kill Switch " , a virus that could destroy the AI . However , the AI learned of Gelman 's plans and killed him by luring the drug dealers and the police to the diner . The only way to destroy the AI is to find the computer on which it is stored . It turns out that David is Esther 's friend , and also worked with Gelman .
Mulder uses a government source to find a secret T3 line in Fairfax County , Virginia , one that the AI uses to access the Internet . He also finds the trailer that is connected to the T3 line . Meanwhile , Esther forces Scully to drive to David 's house . However , they find that the house has been destroyed . Esther admits that she and David had been planning to transfer their consciousness into cyberspace to enter the AI . Gelman , however , thought the idea was too dangerous . Esther also admits that she and David were in love , and were having an affair behind Gelman 's back . Meanwhile , Mulder finds much computer hardware inside the trailer . He also finds David ’ s dead body , with a virtual reality helmet on his head . Suddenly , Mulder is constrained by moving cables and wires , and experiences a strange vision in which he is in a hospital where nurses threaten to amputate his limbs unless he reveals Kill Switch 's location . Meanwhile , the AI locates Scully and Esther driving near a swing bridge . They become trapped on the bridge after the AI manipulates its drawing mechanism , causing Scully to persuade Esther to throw the laptop into the water . Just as it hits the water it is destroyed by the defense satellite 's laser strike .
Scully and Esther find the trailer in which Mulder is trapped . Esther reveals that she still has the CD on which the Kill Switch is stored . Scully puts it into the drive into the AI , which then releases Mulder . She gets him out of the trailer , but Esther stays inside . She uses the satellite to locate the trailer 's position , causing the missile to destroy the trailer , killing her . Mulder tells Scully that Esther 's consciousness probably joined the AI . Later , the Lone Gunmen get a strange message on their computer reading , " Bite me " . Just before the credits , we see a trailer in North Platte , Nebraska similar to the one where the AI lived , with automatic security cameras monitoring a boy who approaches the trailer to retrieve a football .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by acclaimed cyberpunk novelist William Gibson , together with fellow science fiction author Tom Maddox . The authors and long @-@ time friends had discussed various collaborations before and approached the production company with an offer to write an episode . The result was " Kill Switch " , which first aired on February 15 , 1998 . The episode made frequent appearances in reruns and its success encouraged Gibson to continue working in television , resulting in his writing of a second episode " First Person Shooter " — again in collaboration with Maddox — which aired on FOX two years later on February 27 , 2000 . " Kill Switch " deals with recurrent Gibsonian themes : alienation , paranoia , the will to survive , emergent technology , the evolution of artificial intelligence , virtual reality , and transferring one 's consciousness into cyberspace . The Vancouver Sun author Alex Strachan later compared many of the episode 's themes to that of Gibson 's books , most notably in his novels Neuromancer , Mona Lisa Overdrive , and Virtual Light .
" Kill Switch " was written outside the mytharc of the series as a standalone story , which Gibson intended to be reminiscent of the " dark visions " of filmmaker David Cronenberg and to contain " many obvious pokes and prods at high @-@ end academic cyberculture . " Gibson 's initial idea for the episode eventually evolved into the episode 's final act . This was later combined with Maddox 's idea of a deserted house with shuttered windows , surrounded by a chain @-@ link fence . The episode involved the merging of human and artificial intelligence on the World Wide Web , a concept that had been floating around cyber @-@ futuristic circles at the time . The episode 's rewriting and revision process took a significant amount of time and it was over a year before the episode was completed due to other priorities that series creator Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz had . When they were finally available , they made some revisions to the script , including upping Esther 's attitude and Mulder and Scully 's reactions to her . A scene involving Scully trying on a fake nose ring was deleted from the script . Gibson originally started watching the series on the suggestion of his daughter , 15 years old at the time . During filming , Gibson spent a majority of his time on the set only " because [ his ] daughter insisted on being there . "
= = = Filming and effects = = =
According to executive producer Frank Spotnitz , " Kill Switch " was the single most expensive episode that was filmed in Vancouver . In addition , the episode took a total of 22 days to film . The episode 's bridge scenes were filmed at the Westham Island Bridge , which spans Canoe Pass , British Columbia . The location had been discovered by Carter during a technical survey for the prior fifth season episode " Schizogeny " . Because the bridge was the sole means to access part of the Fraser River farming community in the area , filming was heavily restricted . Logistical issues with the bridge itself , such as restrictions on how many people could stand on the bridge at a time , also posed troubles for filming . Permission to film the scene wherein Esther throws the laptop into the river and it is subsequently vaporized by a laser strike from an orbiting weapons platform satellite required thirty days to obtain . The abandoned house that Mulder discovers was filmed at a historical landmark known locally as " Read House " .
The episode contained several scenes featuring elaborate explosives . The scene featuring a missile destroying a shipping container was originally scheduled to be filmed at one of Vancouver 's waterfront facilities . After permission for detonating explosive had been cleared by the city , the port rescinded its permission , claiming that the shot was not in its " best interests " . The special effects crew for The X @-@ Files decided to ship in as many containers as they could to a recycling center in the adjacent city of Burnaby , where filming went off " without a hitch " . The destruction of the trailer was filmed adjacent to the Boundary Bay Airport . After the explosion , the series received several complaints from people living as far as ten miles away from " ground zero " , complaining about the explosion and shockwave . The robot that attacked Mulder was inspired by the NASA Mars Rover . It was battery powered and cost $ 23 @,@ 000 to create and operate . The producers contracted with SPOT , a French @-@ owned commercial satellite surveillance company to obtain the satellite photos of the Washington D.C. area used in the episode .
A freelance computer artist created a 3 @-@ D image of Scully for the scene where she is fighting the nurses in the virtual hospital . Gillian Anderson was very pleased with the scene . She later noted that " I happened to be in good shape at the time and was just raring [ sic ] to get in there and be taking those half @-@ naked nurses out with some karate chops . " David Duchovny was not as exuberant ; when showed the script and directed to " be impressed with [ Scully 's ] karate skills " , he responded that " But I have no arms . I 've lost my arms . Why would I care about Scully 's karate ? " Dean Haglund later called the sequence " one of the great fight scenes , ever " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Kill Switch " premiered on the Fox network on February 15 , 1998 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 1 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 18 @.@ 04 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Kill Switch " received largely positive reviews from critics . Francis Dass of New Straits Times was positive toward the episode , calling it " excellent " . John Keegan of Critical Myth gave the episode an 8 out of 10 , and wrote " Overall , this episode puts Gibson ’ s genre credibility to good use by taking standard concepts of cyberpunk and applying them to the series . " He did note that there are " a few minor characterization issues " , and that " not all of the concepts are pulled together as tightly as they could be " , but other than those points , he concluded that it was " solid and [ ... ] enjoyable " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . The two wrote that its themes were " fresh and new " and that the plot had " real heart to it " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B + and wrote that , while " William Gibson ’ s cyberpunk milieu wouldn ’ t necessarily seem to be the best fit for The X @-@ Files " , the episode " weirdly benefits from the lack of staff oversight . " He noted that it featured many elements to its plot , but was " a rare example of an X @-@ Files episode that works , [ despite the fact that ] it tries to do too much . " VanDerWerff was complimentary towards the story and called it " propulsive " ; he was particularly praise @-@ worthy of the fact that Scully was featured heavily in the episode . He cited the scene wherein a virtual Scully roundhouse kicks a group of nurses as one of the best shots in the episode , and called it a " hysterical moment " . Brett Love of TV Squad stated that it is his favorite episode of The X @-@ Files , considering it a " great story " and describing it as a " tough one to beat " . Paula Vitaris of Cinefantastique gave the episode a positive review and awarded it three stars out of four . Vitaris praised the episode 's directing and noted that the entry was " a great improvement over The X @-@ Files 's earlier A.I. episode , first season 's " Ghost in the Machine " . Vitaris cited " Mulder 's virtual experience " as the " highlight of the episode " .
= = = Awards = = =
" Kill Switch " earned an Emmy Award by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for Outstanding Picture Editing - Series .
|
= Patrice Chéreau =
Patrice Chéreau ( French : [ pa.tʁis ʃe.ʁo ] ; 2 November 1944 – 7 October 2013 ) was a French opera and theatre director , filmmaker , actor and producer . In France he is best known for his work for the theatre , internationally for his films La Reine Margot and Intimacy , and for his staging of the Jahrhundertring , the centenary Ring Cycle at the Bayreuth Festival in 1976 . Winner of almost twenty movie awards , including the Cannes Jury Prize and the Golden Berlin Bear , Chéreau served as president of the jury at the 2003 Cannes festival .
From 1966 , he was artistic director of the Public @-@ Theatre in the Parisian suburb of Sartrouville , where in his team were stage designer Richard Peduzzi , costume designer Jacques Schmidt and lighting designer André Diot , with whom he collaborated in many later productions . From 1982 , he was director of " his own stage " at the Théâtre Nanterre @-@ Amandiers at Nanterre where he staged plays by Jean Racine , Marivaux and Shakespeare as well as works by Jean Genet , Heiner Müller and Bernard @-@ Marie Koltès .
He accepted selected opera productions , such as : the first performance of the three @-@ act version of Alban Berg 's Lulu , completed by Friedrich Cerha , at the Paris Opera in 1979 ; Berg 's Wozzeck at the Staatsoper Berlin in 1994 ; Wagner 's Tristan und Isolde at La Scala in 2007 ; Janáček 's From the House of the Dead , shown at several festivals and the Metropolitan Opera ; and , as his last staging , Elektra by Richard Strauss , first performed at the Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence Festival in July 2013 . He was awarded the Europe Theatre Prize in 2008 .
= = Career = =
Chéreau was born in Lézigné , Maine @-@ et @-@ Loire . His father Jean @-@ Baptiste Chéreau was a painter , his mother Marguerite Pelicier a graphic designer . He attended school in Paris . Early on he was taken to the Louvre and became interested in the arts , cinema , theatre and music . At age 12 , he designed stage sets for plays . He became well known to Parisian critics as director , actor , and stage manager of his high @-@ school theatre ( lycée Louis @-@ le @-@ Grand ) . At 15 , he was enthusiastically celebrated as a theatre prodigy . In 1964 , at the age of 19 , he began directing for the professional theatre . While studying at the Sorbonne , he professionally staged Victor Hugo 's L 'Intervention , and subsequently dropped out of the university .
= = = 1966 : Sartrouville = = =
In 1966 , Chéreau was appointed artistic director of the Public @-@ Theatre in the Parisian suburb of Sartrouville . With " idealism and inventiveness " , he made the theatre a " municipal commodity " , presenting not only theatre but also " cinema , concerts , poetry productions , lectures and debates about everything from politics to pot " . His theatrical team included costume designer Jacques Schmidt , stage designer Richard Peduzzi and lighting designer André Diot , with all of whom he collaborated in many later productions .
In 1968 , he directed The Soldiers by Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz at the Festival of Youth Theatre in Nancy . In 1969 , he staged his first opera production , Rossini 's L 'italiana in Algeri for the Spoleto Festival , again with his Sartrouville team . The following year he established a close artistic relationship with the leadership of the Piccolo Teatro in Milan , Paolo Grassi and Giorgio Strehler . There , he staged Pablo Neruda 's " revolutionary oratorio " The Splendour and Death of Joaquin Murieta . In 1970 , he directed Shakespeare 's Richard II at the Théâtre de France . His first staging for the Paris Opera was in 1974 Offenbach 's Les contes d 'Hoffmann . He showed Hoffmann , sung by Nicolai Gedda , as a " sensitive poet for whom love is beyond reach , ... a drunken loser " . In 1975 , he worked in Germany for the first time directing Edward Bond 's Lear , set in an " industrial landscape strewn with piles of slag , with Lear as a Baron Krupp in evening dress and top hat " . He commented on the " macabre " production : " Just as some people feed on hope , I feed on despair . For me it is a spur to action . " Also in 1975 , his directorial debut film was the thriller La Chair de l 'orchidée , based on James Hadley Chase 's 1948 novel The Flesh of the Orchid , sequel to No Orchids for Miss Blandish ( 1939 ) . The film assembled a starry cast including Edwige Feuillère , Simone Signoret , Alida Valli and Charlotte Rampling " in the [ Miss Blandish ] role giving a performance of extraordinary intensity . It was an almost operatic version of the misunderstood 1948 British film . "
= = = 1976 : Bayreuth = = =
In 1976 , Chéreau staged Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen at the Bayreuth Festival to celebrate the festival 's centenary , termed the Jahrhundertring . The production , celebrating 100 years after Wagner 's work had been performed for the first time as a cycle at the first Bayreuth Festival , became known as the Jahrhundertring ( Centenary Ring ) . Chéreau collaborated with conductor Pierre Boulez , who had recommended him to the festival direction . The French team revolutionised the understanding of Wagner in Germany , as music critic Eleonore Büning wrote in her obituary in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung . Chéreau set the scene in the time of the composition , with a critical view of the time 's capitalism , industrialism and spiritual background . As Büning and others pointed out , the staging left a standard for productions of the Ring Cycle to follow . Gerhard R. Koch mentioned in his obituary that the unity of direction , scene and light was new for Bayreuth and suggested a critical view on capitalism heading towards fascism .
In 1977 , when heldentenor René Kollo had broken his leg , Chereau acted the role of Siegfried on stage while Kollo sang from the wings .
The Ring production , filmed for television in 1980 , initially provoked controversy , but was celebrated after its final performance in 1980 with a 45 @-@ minute standing ovation . Chéreau disliked grand opera , but said : " After Bayreuth , I felt the need to work on a theatrical project of some breadth ... I have never put on little things . I am interested only in spectacles that rise above themselves " . He first considered Goethe 's Faust but then directed in 1981 Henrik Ibsen 's Peer Gynt for Villeurbane and Paris , aiming at " an incandescence of theatrical experience , a global spectacle " .
= = = 1979 : Paris = = =
Chéreau directed the first performance of the three @-@ act version of Alban Berg 's Lulu , completed by Friedrich Cerha , at the Paris Opera on 24 February 1979 , again conducted by Boulez and with sets by Peduzzi , with Teresa Stratas singing the title role . The scene is set in the time of the composition , around 1930 . Koch observes frequent topics of hunt , and love colder than death ( Verfolger und Verfolgte , und Liebe ... kälter als der Tod ) . Dr. Schön , a powerful newspaper manager , is reminiscent of supporters of Hitler .
= = = 1982 : Amandiers = = =
From 1982 , Chéreau was director of " his own stage " at the Théâtre Nanterre @-@ Amandiers at Nanterre . In 1981 already he staged there Ibsen 's Peer Gynt . He was the first to show several plays by Bernard @-@ Marie Koltès , including Combat de nègre et de chiens and Quai Ouest ( 1985 ) , Dans la solitude des champs de coton ( 1986 ) and Le Retour au désert ( 1988 ) . He directed Marivaux ' La Fausse suivante in 1985 and Shakespeare 's Hamlet in 1989 , also works by Jean Genet , Heiner Müller and Jean Racine . He staged Mozart 's Lucio Silla in 1984 , for Amandiers , but also for La Monnaie and La Scala .
At the Odéon he staged in 1992 Le Temps et la Chambre by Botho Strauss . He directed Dans la solitude des champs de coton again in 1995 , shown at Ivry , the Wiener Festwochen and the Brooklyn Academy of Music . He staged in 2011 Jon Fosse 's Je suis le vent in an English version , I Am the Wind , by Simon Stephens at the Young Vic Theatre , with Tom Brooke and Jack Laskey .
= = = 1983 : more films = = =
In 1983 , Chéreau directed the film The Wounded Man ( L 'Homme Blessé ) , a more personal project for him . He and his co @-@ writer , Hervé Guibert , worked for six years on the scenario , which tells of a love affair between an older man involved in prostitution and a teenage boy , a dark view in the context of HIV / AIDS . His 1994 film was La Reine Margot , based on the 1845 historical novel of the same name by Alexandre Dumas . It won the Jury Prize and Best Actress Award ( Virna Lisi ) at Cannes , as well as five César Awards . Set in the 16th @-@ century , depicting the conflict between Catholics and Protestants in France , it shows battles and the St Bartholomew 's day massacre . A scene of the queen with the head of her lover is reminiscent of the opera Salome , uniting cult and obsession ( " Einheit von Kult und Obsession " ) , as Koch remarks . The film was Chéreau 's longest , most expensive production , and his greatest financial success . " [ I ] t was erotic and violent , and offers poured in from Hollywood , " but , he said , " I was always being offered films based in the Renaissance and involving a massacre . I even had an offer from the UK to do a film about Guy Fawkes . " He refused similar offers : " It 's useless to repeat something you already did . "
= = = 1993 : opera internationally = = =
Chéreau 's staging of Berg 's Wozzeck was shown from 1993 to 1999 at the Théâtre du Châtelet and the Staatsoper Berlin , conducted by Daniel Barenboim , with Franz Grundheber in the title role and Waltraud Meier as Marie . It was filmed in 1994 . A review notes the " presentation of even the smallest roles as deeply @-@ considered characters " . His staging of Mozart 's Don Giovanni was shown from 1994 to 1996 at the Salzburg Festival .
In 1998 , he directed the film Those Who Love Me Can Take the Train , a " melodramatic , sentimental and emptily wordy ... about the interplay of assorted characters on their way to the funeral of a misanthropic , bisexual minor painter ( Jean @-@ Louis Trintignant ) . " The final scene reflects the cemetery of Limoges to the music of Mahler 's Tenth Symphony . Chéreau 's only English @-@ language film , Intimacy ( 2001 ) , based on short stories by Hanif Kureishi ( who also wrote a novel of the same title in 1998 ) , was played by English actors , including Timothy Spall and Marianne Faithfull , and deals with " the possessiveness of a musician from London who regularly meets a woman for sexual encounters " . It " was a tale of sexual obsession which sparked a debate about unsimulated sex on screen . But , Chéreau said , ' It is not like a porno film , not at all erotic sometimes , but it is beautiful because it is life . ' " In 2003 , he directed His Brother ( Son frère ) , centred " on the relationship between two estranged brothers , one gay , the other straight . They come together when the latter suffers from a potentially fatal blood disease . The hospital processes are shot unflinchingly , without sentimentality , which makes this meditation on mortality even more moving . " Koch notes the similarity of a scene when the moribund is shaved for a last futile surgery he lies on a table similar to Mantegna 's Dead Christ . In 2003 Chéreau served at Cannes as president of the jury .
His staging of Mozart 's Così fan tutte was shown in 2005 and 2006 in Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence , the Opéra National de Paris and the Wiener Festwochen . In 2007 , he staged Wagner 's Tristan und Isolde at La Scala , conducted by Daniel Barenboim . He had stayed away from the opera because he regarded it as " predominantly a musical rather than a theatrical work " , but his " sombre , subtle direction – with Waltraud Meier an acutely vulnerable Isolde – was intensely moving " .
He directed Leoš Janáček 's From the House of the Dead , again conducted by Boulez , first shown at the Vienna Festival in 2007 , and later at the Holland Festival , the Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence Festival , the Metropolitan Opera ( his debut there in 2009 ) and La Scala . Chéreau 's last film was Persécution ( 2009 ) , " a gloomy , episodic film " about a man who is " haunted by a love @-@ hate relationship with his girlfriend " . His last production was Elektra by Richard Strauss , conducted by Esa @-@ Pekka Salonen , shown at the Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence Festival in July 2013 and scheduled for the MET 's 2015 – 16 season . A review noted : " The clichés of Fascist brutality and expressionist exaggeration are astutely avoided : this is a situation that involves human beings , not caricatures , in a visually neutral environment of bare walls , windows and doors ( designed by Richard Peduzzi ) which is also blackly portentous in atmosphere . "
= = Life and death = =
Chéreau was in a long @-@ term relationship with his lover and favorite actor Pascal Greggory . He was not interested in gay topics , saying : " I never wanted to specialise in gay stories , and gay newspapers have criticised me for that . Everywhere love stories are exactly the same . The game of desire , and how you live with desire , are the same . "
Chéreau died in Paris on 7 October 2013 from lung cancer . He was 68 years old .
= = Europe Theatre Prize = =
Chéreau was awarded the Europe Theatre Prize in 2008 , in the Edition XII of the prize . The " Reason for award " noted :
A natural @-@ born artist with a clear calling , Patrice Chéreau is one of those rare examples of a person who manages to succeed in all the expressive arts . ... Patrice Chéreau is an actor himself with the indispensable support of a team of creative collaborators , including the great set designer Richard Peduzzi , costume designer Jacques Schmidt and lighting designer André Diot . Drawn through his analysis of Brecht towards a correct naturalism , Chéreau has discovered and revived a number of little known texts , not least thanks to the many languages he has mastered . His extraordinary critical interpretation of Marivaux broke through the playwright ’ s sunny surface to reveal him as a forward @-@ looking , harsh social critic . ... Meanwhile , Chéreau shifted from theatre to opera , ... a scandalous reinterpretation of Wagner ’ s Ring at Bayreuth ... He reached the height of his career during his many years at the Théâtre des Amandiers in Nanterre , where he developed a new model of expression , discovered and launched one of the great dramatists of our time , Bernard Marie Koltès , whose major works he directed , including Combat de nègre et de chiens and Solitude des champs de coton , as well as Shakespeare , Peer Gynt , Heiner Müller , and the historic revival of Les paravents by Genet . Chéreau eventually turned to cinema , which he found more expressive of the truth of life that he so values .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Director = = =
= = = Producer = = =
( for his company " Azor Films " )
= = = Actor = = =
= = = Film awards and nominations = = =
Main sources :
Patrice Chéreau . Awards at the Internet Movie Database .
Patrice Chéreau . Awards at Allmovie .
|
= Navajo weaving =
Navajo rugs and blankets ( Navajo : diyogí ) are textiles produced by Navajo people of the Four Corners area of the United States . Navajo textiles are highly regarded and have been sought after as trade items for over 150 years . Commercial production of handwoven blankets and rugs has been an important element of the Navajo economy . As one expert expresses it , " Classic Navajo serapes at their finest equal the delicacy and sophistication of any pre @-@ mechanical loom @-@ woven textile in the world . "
Navajo textiles were originally utilitarian blankets for use as cloaks , dresses , saddle blankets , and similar purposes . Toward the end of the 19th century , weavers began to make rugs for tourism and export . Typical Navajo textiles have strong geometric patterns . They are a flat tapestry @-@ woven textile produced in a fashion similar to kilims of Eastern Europe and Western Asia , but with some notable differences . In Navajo weaving , the slit weave technique common in kilims is not used , and the warp is one continuous length of yarn , not extending beyond the weaving as fringe . Traders from the late 19th and early 20th century encouraged adoption of some kilim motifs into Navajo designs .
= = Purpose = =
The original function of Navajo weaving was to produce clothing : " shoulder robes , rectangular panel or wrap @-@ around @-@ dresses , semi @-@ tailored shirts , breechcloths , and a variety of belts , shoulder robes , sashes , hair ties , and garters . " The production of weaving flourished after the mid 1800s for trade with the white settlers .
= = History = =
= = = Pueblo influence = = =
The Navajo may have learned to weave from their Pueblo Indian neighbors when they moved into the Four Corners region during the year 1000 A.D. Some experts contend that the Navajo were not weavers until after the 17th century . The Navajo obtained cotton through local trade routes before the arrival of the Spanish , after which time they began to use wool . The Pueblo and Navajo were not generally on friendly terms due to frequent Navajo raids on Pueblo settlements , yet many Pueblo sought refuge with their Navajo neighbors in the late 17th century to evade the conquistadors in the aftermath of the Pueblo Revolt . This social interchange is the probable origin of the distinctive Navajo weaving tradition . Spanish records show that Navajo people began to herd sheep and weave wool blankets from that time onward .
The extent of Pueblo influence on Navajo weaving is uncertain . As Wolfgang Haberland notes , " Prehistoric Puebloan textiles were much more elaborate than historic ones , as can be seen in the few remnants recovered archaeologically and in costumed figures in pre @-@ contact kiva murals . " Haberland suggests that the absence of surviving colonial @-@ era Pueblo textile examples make it impossible to do more than conjecture about whether the creative origins of Navajo weaving arose from Navajo culture or were borrowed from the neighboring people .
= = = Early records = = =
Written records establish the Navajo as fine weavers for at least the last 300 years , beginning with Spanish colonial descriptions of the early 18th century . By 1812 , Pedro Piño called the Navajo the best weavers in the province . Few remnants of 18th @-@ century Navajo weaving survive ; the most important surviving examples of early Navajo weaving come from Massacre Cave at Canyon de Chelly , Arizona . In 1804 , a group of Navajo were shot and killed there , where they were seeking refuge from Spanish soldiers . For a hundred years the cave remained untouched due to Navajo taboos until a local trader named Sam Day entered it and retrieved the textiles . Day separated the collection and sold it to various museums . The majority of Massacre Cave blankets feature plain stripes , yet some exhibit the terraces and diamonds characteristic of later Navajo weaving .
= = = Wider commerce = = =
Commerce expanded after the Santa Fe Trail opened in 1822 , and greater numbers of examples survive . Until 1880 , all such textiles were blankets as opposed to rugs . In 1850 , these highly prized trade items sold for $ 50 in gold , a huge sum at that time .
Railroad service reached Navajo lands in the early 1880s and resulted in considerable expansion of the market for Navajo woven goods . According to Kathy M 'Closkey of the University of Windsor in Ontario , Canada , " wool production more than doubled between 1890 and 1910 , yet textile production escalated more than 800 % " . Purchases of manufactured yarn compensated for the deficit in wool production . Federal government reports affirmed that this weaving , which was performed almost exclusively by women , was the most profitable Navajo industry during that era . Quality declined in some regards as the weavers attempted to keep up with demand . However , in today society an average price of a rug goes for about $ 800 @.@ 00 .
Several European @-@ American merchants influenced Navajo weaving during the next decades . The first to advertise Navajo textiles in a catalog was C. N. Cotton in 1894 . Cotton encouraged professional production and marketing among his peers and the weavers whose work they handled . Another trader named John . B. Moore , who settled in the Chuska Mountains in 1897 attempted to improve the quality of textiles he traded . He attempted to regulate the cleaning and dyeing process of artisans who did business with him , and shipped wool intended for higher grade weaving outside the region for factory cleaning . He limited the range of dyes in textiles he traded and refused to deal fabric that had included certain commercially produced yarns . Moore 's catalogs identified individual textile pieces rather than illustrating representative styles . He appears to have been instrumental in introducing new motifs to Navajo weaving . Carpets from the Caucasus region were popular among Anglo @-@ Americans at that time . Both the Navajo and the Caucasus weavers worked under similar conditions and in similar styles , so it was relatively simple for them to incorporate Caucasus patterns such as an octagonal motif known as a gul .
Traders encouraged the locals to weave blankets and rugs into distinct styles . They included " Two Gray Hills " ( predominantly black and white , with traditional patterns ) , " Teec Nos Pos " ( colorful , with very extensive patterns ) , " Ganado " ( founded by Don Lorenzo Hubbell ) , red dominated patterns with black and white , " Crystal " ( founded by J. B. Moore ) , Oriental and Persian styles ( almost always with natural dyes ) , " Wide Ruins , " " Chinle , " banded geometric patterns , " Klagetoh " , diamond type patterns , " Red Mesa " and bold diamond patterns . Many of these patterns exhibit a fourfold symmetry , which is thought by Professor Gary Witherspoon to embody traditional ideas about harmony or Hozh .
= = = Recent developments = = =
Large numbers of Navajo continue to weave commercially . Contemporary weavers are more likely to learn the craft from a community college course , as opposed to family . A Navajo woman struggles and sacrifices , but for some this is their only source of income . Contemporary Navajo textiles have suffered commercially from two sets of pressures : extensive investment in pre @-@ 1950 examples and price competition from foreign imitations . Modern Navajo rugs are indeed notable for their high prices .
= = Construction = =
= = = Wool and yarn = = =
In the late 17th century , the Navajo acquired the Iberian Churra , a breed of sheep from Spanish explorers . These animals were developed into a unique breed by the Navajo , today called the Navajo @-@ Churro . These sheep were well @-@ suited to the climate in Navajo lands , and that produced a useful long @-@ staple wool . Hand @-@ spun wool from these animals was the main source of yarn for Navajo blankets until the 1860s , when the United States government forced the Navajo people to relocate at Bosque Redondo and seized their livestock . The 1869 peace treaty that allowed the Navajo to return to their traditional lands included a $ 30 @,@ 000 settlement to replace their livestock . The tribe purchased 14 @,@ 000 sheep and 1 @,@ 000 goats .
Mid @-@ 19th century Navajo rugs often used a three @-@ ply yarn called Saxony , which refers to high @-@ quality , naturally dyed , silky yarns . Red tones in Navajo rugs of this period come either from Saxony or from a raveled cloth known in Spanish as bayeta , which was a woolen manufactured in England . With the arrival of the railroad in the early 1880s , another machine @-@ produced yarn came into use in Navajo weaving : four @-@ ply aniline dyed yarn known as Germantown because the yarn was manufactured in Pennsylvania .
Among the locally produced yarns for Navajo textile , indiscriminate breeding from 1870 @-@ 1890 caused a steady decline in wool quality . Increasing proportions of brittle kemp can be found in well @-@ preserved examples from the period . In 1903 , federal agents attempted to address the problem by introducing Rambouillet rams into the breeding population . The Rambouillet is a French breed that produces good meat and heavy , fine @-@ wool fleeces . The Rambouillet stock , were well adapted to the Southwestern climate , but their wool was less suitable to hand spinning . Short @-@ stapled Rambouillet wool has a tight crimp , which makes hand spinning difficult . The higher lanolin content of its wool necessitated significantly more scouring with scarce water before it could be dyed effectively . From 1920 to 1940 , when Rambouillet bloodlines dominated the tribe 's stock , Navajo rugs have a characteristically curly wool and sometimes a knotted or lumpy appearance .
In 1935 , the United States Department of the Interior created the Southwestern Range and Sheep Breeding Laboratory to address the problems Rambouillet stock had caused for the Navajo economy . Located at Fort Wingate , New Mexico , the program 's aim was to develop a new sheep bloodline that simulated the wool characteristics of the 19th @-@ century Navajo @-@ Churro stock and would also supply adequate meat . The Fort Wingate researchers collected old Navajo @-@ Churro stock from remote parts of the reservation and hired a weaver to test their experimental wool . Offspring of these experiments were distributed among the Navajo people . World War II interrupted the greater part of this effort when military work resumed at Fort Wingate .
= = = Coloration = = =
Prior to the mid @-@ 19th century , Navajo weaving coloration was mostly natural brown , white , and indigo . Indigo dye was obtained through trade and purchased in lumps .
By the middle of the century , the palette had expanded to include red , black , green , yellow , and gray which signifies different aspects of the earth as defined by different locations of the reservation . Navajo used indigo to obtain shades from pale blue to near black and mixed it with indigenous yellow dyes such as the rabbit brush plant to obtain bright green effects . Red was the most difficult dye to obtain locally . Early Navajo textiles use cochineal , an extract from a Mesoamerican beetle , which often made a circuitous trade route through Spain and England on its way to the Navajo . Reds used in Navajo weaving tended to be raveled from imported textiles . The Navajo obtained black dye through piñon pitch and ashes .
After railroad service began in the early 1880s , aniline dyes became available in bright shades of red , orange , green , purple , and yellow . Gaudy " eyedazzler " weaves dominated the final years of the 19th century . Navajo weaving aesthetics underwent rapid change as artisans experimented with the new palette and a new clientele entered the region whose tastes differed from earlier purchasers . During the later years of the 19th century , the Navajo continued to produce earlier styles for traditional customers while they adopted new techniques for a second market .
= = = Weaving = = =
Traditional Navajo weaving used upright looms with no moving parts . Support poles were traditionally constructed of wood ; steel pipe is more common today . The artisan sits on the floor during weaving and wraps the finished portion of fabric underneath the loom as it grows . The average weaver takes anywhere from 2 months to many years to finish a single rug . The size greatly determines the amount of time spent weaving a rug . The ratio of weft to warp threads had a fine count before the Bosque Redondo internment and declined in the following decades , then rose somewhat to a midrange ratio of five to one for the period 1920 @-@ 1940 . 19th @-@ century warps were colored handspun wool or cotton string , then switched to white handspun wool in the early decades of the 20th century .
= = Cultural perspectives = =
Weaving plays a role in the creation myth of Navajo cosmology , which articulates social relationships and continues to play a role in Navajo culture . According to one aspect of this tradition , a spiritual being called " Spider Woman " instructed the women of the Navajo how to build the first loom from exotic materials including sky , earth , sunrays , rock crystal , and sheet lightning . Then " Spider Woman " taught the Navajo how to weave on it .
Use of traditional motifs sometimes leads to the mistaken notion that these textiles serve a purpose in Navajo religion . Actually these items have no use as prayer rugs or any other ceremonial function , and controversy has existed among the Navajo about the appropriateness of including religious symbolism in items designed for commercial sale . The financial success of purported ceremonial rugs led to their continued production .
= = = Schools of Thought = = =
Ganado Red
Two Grey Hills
Red Mesa
Tec Nos Pos
Klagetoh
Chinle
Crystal
Burntwater
= = Critical study = =
Until recently , anthropologists have dominated the study of Navajo textiles . Most historic examples of these works belong to ethnological collections rather than fine art collections , which mean items have been exhibited and analyzed with an eye toward normative or average works rather than emphasizing technical or artistic excellence . These priorities have artificially inflated the market value for items of inferior craftsmanship . In general , this tendency has affected most non @-@ European art to some degree .
Other factors that have hindered art criticism of Navajo textiles include the common distinction between fine art and applied art and the scholarly theory among some archaeologists and art historians that pure artistic expression cannot exist among non @-@ literate peoples .
|
= Vestgrensa ( station ) =
Vestgrensa ( originally Ullevål Haveby ) was a light rail station on the Sognsvann Line of the Oslo Metro in Norway . It opened on 10 October 1934 , and was located between Blindern and Ullevål stadion stations . The station was rebuilt when the Sognsvann Line was upgraded from light rail to metro standard in the early 1990s . It was closed on 22 August 1999 , when it was replaced by the new station Forskningsparken .
= = History = =
Ullevål Haveby station opened on 10 October 1934 , when Akersbanerne had built a light rail line from Majorstuen to Sognsvann . The line was double @-@ tracked from Majorstuen to Korsvoll ( now Østhorn ) , and single @-@ tracked from there to Sognsvann . On 21 February 1939 , the section from Korsvoll to Sognsvann was upgraded to double tracks , and the station Korsvoll had its name changed to Østhorn . Ullevål Haveby station changed also name , to Vestgrensa , to avoid confusion with the northbound Ullevål stadion station .
Vestgrensa was part of Holmenkolbanen 's operating network until 1975 , when the municipality of Oslo bought all the company 's stock . In the early 1990s , the stations on the Sognsvann Line were upgraded to metro standard , which involved a heightening and lengthening of the platforms , and installation of a third rail power supply and a new signaling system . The electrified third rail made it impossible for passengers to cross at track level , and under- or overpasses had to be built at all stations .
In 1992 , the transport authorities of Oslo decided to close Nordberg and Frøen stations , on the grounds that these stations were too expensive to maintain . The platforms at Vestgrensa were moved a few metres to adjust to the metro trains . Seven years later , on 22 August 1999 , Vestgrensa was closed and replaced with the newly opened Forskningsparken Station .
= = Location = =
Vestgrensa was located in the Ullevål Hageby neighbourhood in Oslo , between the Oslo Innovation Center ( Norwegian : Forskningsparken ) and the football stadium Ullevaal Stadion . The station was positioned on an elevated embankment , some metres from a bridge over a pedestrian walkway also named Vestgrensa . The station served the residential area in Ullevål Hageby , as well as the University of Oslo at Blindern . A scout hut was in many years located close to the station .
|
= Burger King products =
When the predecessor of international fast food restaurant chain Burger King ( BK ) first opened in 1953 , its menu predominantly consisted of hamburgers , French fries , soft drinks , milkshakes , and desserts . After being acquired by its Miami , Florida franchisees and renamed in 1954 , BK began expanding its menu by adding the Whopper sandwich in 1957 , and has since added non @-@ beef items such as chicken , fish , and vegetarian offerings , including salads and meatless sandwiches . Other additions include a breakfast menu and beverages such as Icees , juices , and bottled waters . As the company expanded both inside and outside the United States , it introduced localized versions of its products that conform to regional tastes and cultural or religious beliefs . To generate additional sales , BK occasionally introduces limited @-@ time offers of special versions of its products , or brings out completely new products intended for either long- or short @-@ term sales . Not all of these products and services have been successful ; in 1992 , Burger King introduced limited table service featuring special dinner platters , but this concept failed to generate interest and was discontinued .
The company introduced the first iteration of its breakfast menu , along with the company 's " Specialty Sandwich " product line , in a 1978 menu expansion . The products were some of the first designed by a fast food restaurant chain that were intended to capture the adult market , members of which would be willing to spend more on a higher @-@ quality product . The expanded Burger King menu was part of a plan by then @-@ company president Donald N. Smith to reach the broadest possible demographic market to better compete with McDonald 's , and to fend off then newcomer Wendy 's , who had a growing market share . The plan was successful : the company 's sales increased by 15 percent . Despite another menu expansion in 1985 , the company 's market gains diminished due to neglect of the brand at the hands of then @-@ parent Pillsbury and its successors , Grand Metropolitan and Diageo . When the company was sold to a group led by TPG Capital in 2004 , the trend of targeting an expanded audience was renewed under a plan by its then @-@ CEO Brad Blum . During Blum 's tenure , the company added several products that featured higher @-@ quality ingredients and other menu fare that again attempted to appeal to the adult palate and demographic . As in the past , not all of these products met corporate sales expectations , or in the case of several of its larger offerings , resulted in negative publicity due to nutritional concerns . With the purchase of the company in 2010 by 3G Capital , the company again began another revamp of its product line by phasing out some products , introducing new ones and redesigning others including its flagship Whopper sandwich .
Like its menu , the equipment the company cooks its hamburgers with has also evolved as the company grew . The burgers have always been broiled mechanically ; the original unit , called an Insta @-@ Broiler , was one of two pieces of equipment the founders of Insta @-@ Burger King purchased before opening their new restaurant . The Insta @-@ Broiler worked by cooking 12 burger patties in a wire basket , allowing the patties to be cooked from both sides simultaneously . With the acquisition of the chain by its Miami franchisees came an improved unit dubbed a " Flame Broiler " . Designed by the new owners , it featured stationary burners that cooked the meat on a moving chain . The unit broke down less often , while maintaining a similar cooking rate . The cooking format remained for the next 40 years until Burger King developed a new , variable speed broiler that could handle multiple items with different cooking rates and times . These new unit began testing in 1999 and eventually evolved into the two models the company deployed system @-@ wide in 2008 – 2009 . Accompanying these new broilers was new food @-@ holding equipment and a computer @-@ based product monitoring system for its cooked products . The new system allows for more concise tracking of product quality , while giving its users a method to streamline costs by more precisely projecting sales and product usage .
= = History = =
= = = Sandwiches and entrées = = =
When the predecessor to the modern Burger King , Insta @-@ Burger King , opened in 1953 in Jacksonville , Florida , the company 's menu consisted predominantly of hamburgers , French fries , soft drinks , and desserts . Insta @-@ Burger King was acquired in 1954 by two of its franchisees , James McLamore and David Edgerton , who renamed it Burger King . Under its new ownership , the company continued to develop its core menu , cooking techniques , and equipment . In 1957 McLamore and Edgerton created BK 's signature item , the Whopper , as a way to differentiate BK from other burger outlets at the time . The Whopper is a 4 oz ( 110 g ) hamburger with lettuce , tomato , mayonnaise , pickle , and ketchup , that was priced at 29 ¢ . The sandwich was designed to give the customer a larger product with better value than competitors , who were selling burgers with an average price of 15 ¢ . As Burger King 's flagship product , the Whopper has been expanded beyond the original sandwich into a line of sandwiches all made with the same ingredients . The Whopper sandwich has undergone several modifications in its recipe over the years , with a change from a plain bun to a sesame seed roll in the early 1970s and a change in patty size in the mid @-@ 1980s being two of the most notable . Since its inception , the Whopper has become synonymous with Burger King and become the focus of much of its advertising . The company has even named its kiosk @-@ style restaurants " Whopper Bars " .
In 1978 , Donald N. Smith was hired from McDonald 's to help restructure the corporate operations of Burger King to better compete against his former company as well as the then up @-@ and @-@ coming chain , Wendy 's . As part of an operational overhaul he dubbed " Operation Phoenix " , one of his first changes to the company 's menu was to add the Burger King specialty sandwich line in 1979 . This line — with many non @-@ hamburger sandwiches , including chicken and fish — significantly expanded the breadth of the BK menu . It was one of the first attempts by a major fast food chain to target a specific demographic , in this case adults aged between 18 and 34 years , members of which were presumably willing to spend more on a higher quality product . The new products were successful , and the company 's sales increased by 15 percent . While most of the line has since been discontinued , the company 's Original Chicken Sandwich is still offered in all of its global markets , and the ham and cheese sandwich is a regional offering .
BK Chicken Tenders made their debut in a menu revision and expansion in 1985 to address the absence of a chicken @-@ based finger product akin to McDonald 's Chicken McNuggets . The product had to be temporarily withdrawn because of limited availability of chicken meat ; it was re @-@ introduced about six months later . Originally made with sliced fillets of chicken , the product was changed to a formed chopped @-@ chicken product several years later . In 1987 , BK rolled out the Burger Bundles , a pack of six mini burger sliders , similar to White Castle was brought back later as the " Burger Buddy " . Fish Tenders were introduced to complement Chicken Tenders during a menu expansion in 1989 . The new fish product , sold in the same style of container as the Chicken Tenders , was an order of fish sticks with Tartar sauce for dipping . Portion sizes were similar to those of the Chicken Tenders . Fish Tenders were discontinued in 1990 .
The company introduced its first broiled chicken sandwich , the BK Broiler , in 1990 . The sandwich included a dill @-@ ranch mayonnaise and was served on an oat @-@ bran roll . In 1998 , BK reformulated the BK Broiler into a larger , more male @-@ oriented sandwich : a larger chicken patty with mayonnaise served on a Whopper bun . In 2002 , BK changed the name of the sandwich to Chicken Whopper and added a smaller Chicken Whopper Jr. sandwich . The company replaced the Chicken Whopper line with another broiled sandwich line in 2003 , the BK Baguette line . The chicken sandwich , served on a fresh cooked baguette roll , and came in several varieties , all of which were topped with a series of ingredients that were low in fat . They were sold in the United States at one time , but are now sold only in the European market . The failed Baguette line was replaced in North America with the current grilled chicken iteration , the TenderGrill sandwich .
Although Wendy 's was the first to have a value menu in 1989 , Burger King decided to offer its own value menu in 1998 . This menu featured seven products : the Whopper Jr . , a five @-@ piece Chicken Tenders , a bacon cheeseburger , medium @-@ sized French fries , medium soft drink , medium onion rings , and a small milkshake – all priced at 99 ¢ ( USD ) . In 2002 and 2006 , BK revamped its value menu by adding and removing several products such as chili and the Rodeo Cheeseburger . Many of these items , such as Chili , tacos , the Sourdough burger ( a product similar to the Whopper Jr . , but with sourdough bread ) , and Chicken Tender sandwiches have since been discontinued , modified , or relegated to regional menu options .
Returning to the practice of targeting the adult demographic as it had in 1978 , BK introduced several new products to its menu in 2003 . The new products included new or revamped chicken sandwiches , a new salad line , and its BK Joe brand of coffee . The first of these items was the TenderCrisp chicken sandwich , an entirely new sandwich which featured a fried 5 @.@ 2 oz ( 150 g ) whole @-@ muscle chicken breast on a corn @-@ dusted roll . The sandwich was part of then @-@ CEO Greg Brenneman 's plans to bolster the company 's revived " Have it your way " advertising program , which was designed to draw younger people to its stores . Some items , including the Enormous Omelet Sandwich line and the BK Stacker line , brought negative attention due the large portion size , amounts of unhealthy fats , and the presence of trans @-@ fats . At the time , many of the products featured higher @-@ quality ingredients like whole chicken breast , Angus beef , Cheddar cheese , and pepper jack cheese . Not all the products new products introduced under Blum 's tenure met corporate sales expectations , the Baguette Chicken sandwiches being an example . Others products , such as Burger King 's line of " indulgent " burgers originally called the Angus Burger , have undergone multiple reformulations . The Angus Steak burger was originally based around a 5 oz ( 140 g ) frozen patty ; despite high expectations from the company , the sandwich fared poorly . After a reformulating program , it was relaunched in 2008 as the 5 oz ( 140 g ) Angus Steakhouse burger . With the introduction of a new multifunction broiler capable of cooking a more diverse set of products , Burger King replaced the Angus Steakhouse burger with the 7 oz ( 200 g ) Steakhouse XT burger in 2009 . In 2011 , the company discontinued selling the product in the North American market , replacing it with the Chef 's Choice Burger . The Chef 's Choice Burger was removed in 2012 . 2014 saw the introduction of the newest attempt at introducing a premium burger to the company 's portfolio with the introduction of the A.1. Ultimate Cheeseburger in North America .
The Burger Bundles returned in 2011 with beef and chicken patty options .
= = = Ancillaries = = =
During 1997 , BK revamped its French fries in North America . The improved fries were coated with a layer of potato @-@ based starch , giving the fries a crisp shell that maintained its texture longer . The company introduced them in a series of advertisements that claimed the new fries tasted better than McDonald 's fries in consumer taste comparisons . Other ads featured Mr. Potato Head in a series of demographically @-@ targeted commercials . The fries were in research and development for over two years and already had been available in several markets when the advertising campaign began . In Europe , BK also sells potato wedges , a type of French fry that is thick @-@ cut and wedge @-@ shaped . In 1991 , the company introduced Twister fries , spiral @-@ cut fries with a spicy coating , as part of a promotional push . Part of the product 's appeal was they were served in a paper drink cup as opposed to the normal fry carton . The product was designed as a short @-@ term promotion that would be periodically reintroduced .
In 2002 , Burger King offered " Shake ' em up Fries " , which included a bag of fries and a packet of spices . The customer would add the spices to the fries and then shake the bag until the fries were coated .
Beyond French fries , the company has introduced several other side products over the course of its existence . Onion rings have been part of the menu for the majority of BK history . Originally made from whole , sliced onions , they were reformulated into a formed product made from onion paste in 2001 as part of a menu revamp . In the same 2001 menu revamp , the company added an onion ring @-@ specific dipping sauce , and emphasized it again during its 99 ¢ BK Value Menu introduction in 2002 . As part of its BK Cravers value menu introduction in 2005 , the company briefly sold jalapeño poppers accompanied by a side of ranch dressing as part of its national menu . The same menu added mozzarella sticks with a side of marinara sauce ; the mozzarella sticks have since been relegated to a regional menu item in the United States , but are sold on the national menu in Canada .
= = = Breakfast = = =
One of Smith 's significant contributions to the menu was the addition of a breakfast product line as part of the 1978 product line expansion . Up until that point , breakfast was not a market Burger King had served . Other than the addition of the Croissan 'Wich in 1983 , the breakfast menu remained almost identical to the McDonald 's offerings until a menu revamp in 1986 . This expansion introduced BK 's A.M. Express product line , which included French toast sticks and mini @-@ muffins . The new breakfast line was designed to be portable , because studies had shown that an increasing percent of consumers were eating breakfast on the go . Shortly after the introduction of the French toast stick products , BK partnered with Lender 's Bagels to introduce a bagel breakfast sandwich . The new product was designed to drive sales in the morning by piquing customer 's curiosity with a new taste . The product was tested for several months in BK 's original home territory of Miami before a national roll @-@ out .
In the late 1990s , BK co @-@ branded several of its breakfast products with former parent Pillsbury ; Pillsbury produced a fresh @-@ baked biscuit product for the chain in 1996 and miniature cinnamon rolls called Cini @-@ Minis in 1998 . As part of the cachet built into the products , Burger King advertises that products are cooked fresh in the restaurant each morning .
With the effects of the late @-@ 2000s recession reducing breakfast traffic to the stores , Burger King announced that it was making the first wholesale changes to its breakfast line @-@ up in many years . In early 2010 , Burger King tested a new group of breakfast products under its new BK Brunch product line ; a reintroduced English muffin sandwich , a sandwich featuring ciabatta bread , a pair of breakfast bowls , and a non @-@ alcoholic mimosa . In September , a slightly modified variation of the menu was taken national during one of the largest menu expansions in the company 's history . Chief Marketing Officer Mike Kappitt said breakfast produced 12 percent of the company 's income , but that was only half of what McDonald 's made . Part of the expansion was a major advertising campaign that encouraged people to change their minds about skipping breakfast at a time of high unemployment . 3G Capital has continued the expansion of the breakfast program with the introduction of Quaker Oats Company oatmeal to its menu in late 2011 . Oatmeal has been shown to be a popular addition to breakfast menus industry @-@ wide due to its low cost , ease in preparation and perception as a healthy , whole @-@ grain option . Analysts from industry analytic firm Technomic stated that it was a good move for Burger King to add a winning product to its menu , but that it should have tried to be more creative by adding other , similar products such as grits .
= = Regionalization = =
As the company expanded both inside and outside the United States , it introduced localized versions of its products that conform to regional tastes and cultural or religious beliefs . In countries with predominantly Islamic populations , such as Saudi Arabia , pork is not served due to Muslim dietary laws . In Muslim countries , meat is slaughtered using the halal method and labeled as such . Similar adaptations also occurred in Israel , where kosher dietary laws forbid the mixture of meat and dairy products . Before the company exited the country in 2010 , many of its locations in Israel were fully kosher .
In many international markets , BK offers products or condiments that fit local tastes . For example , in Canada , BK offers poutine gravy and vinegar for its French fries , and peri @-@ peri sauce is available as a sandwich topping in the United Kingdom . Hungry Jack 's , Burger King 's Australian franchise , offers the " Aussie burger " with fried egg , beetroot , and other Australian flavors . In Asian markets , dark @-@ meat chicken is preferred over white meat , and poultry products sold in these markets often are advertised as such . One of the more regionally differentiated lines of products is the company 's dessert offerings . In the United States , BK offers several desserts , including Otis Spunkmeyer chocolate @-@ chip cookies , apple pie slices , Hershey 's Sundae pie slices ( a type of chocolate creme pie ) , and a rotating pie as part of its dessert menu . Internationally the company sells turnovers , tortas , Cini @-@ Minis , muffins , brownies , and vanilla soft @-@ serve ice cream in cones and sundaes . In most markets where BK sells ice cream , it also sells a mix @-@ in dessert under various names . Some of these international dessert products differ from the domestic products in terms of preparation ; an example is the pies sold in Asian countries that are fried , turnover @-@ style , instead of the deep @-@ dish tart style associated with American sweet @-@ filled pies .
= = Preparation methods = =
Burger King cooks its foods in one of four ways : broiling , deep frying , baking , or microwaving . As noted in its mottos and advertisements , BK cooks its burgers and grilled chicken on an automated grill , while its other chicken products , fish , sides , and breakfast sausage are deep @-@ fried in vegetable oil . BK prepares its biscuits , cinnamon rolls , and cookies by baking in a convection oven and microwaves its BK Veggie burger patty .
= = = Broiling = = =
The predecessor to Burger King , Insta @-@ Burger King , began deploying the original broiling device in 1952 when its owners , Matthew Burns and Kieth Kramer , acquired the rights to George Read 's Inst @-@ Shake and Insta @-@ Broiler machines . The Insta @-@ Broiler cooked the burgers in a wire basket between two broilers , allowing the burgers to be cooked on both sides simultaneously . The machine was capable of cooking over 400 patties per hour , which allowed the company to grow rapidly . When McLamore and Edgarton opened their first Insta @-@ Burger King location in Miami , they revamped the unit into what they called a " flame broiler " – the forerunner of the modern unit used by Burger King today . After the acquisition of Insta @-@ Burger King in 1954 , the pair contracted the construction of the newly designed flame broilers to the SaniServ company of Indianapolis , Indiana , for the initial run of broilers . Eventually , the company moved the manufacturing contract for the broiler units to Nieco Automatic Broilers of Windsor , California , who manufactured all subsequent units until the start of the 2000s .
When the time came for the company to develop a new broiler , it turned to its equipment manufacturer , Nieco , and St. Louis , Missouri @-@ based Duke Manufacturing . Burger King 's goal was to maintain the company 's trademark flame broiling method while allowing more product options on a flexible cooking platform . The solutions that Nieco and Duke devised met that goal by using control features during cooking . The cooking methods employed by the two manufacturing companies vary in their methods ; Nieco employed two chains , one that maintained a single speed and cooking temperature , and another that had a flexible speed setting and variable temperature control . Duke 's solution utilizes an oven that cooks according to preset parameters for time and temperature , one heterogeneous product batch at a time . The first batch @-@ style broiler was introduced in April 1999 and was tested in @-@ store in central Wisconsin during the summer of 1999 .
Beyond the flexibility of the new broilers , the new equipment has several features intended to decrease operational costs . A more efficient design of the burners in the Nieco units produces a 30 percent reduction in energy consumption . The Duke units produce a $ 4 @,@ 000 - $ 5 @,@ 000 annual savings on energy compared to the original units , which ran approximately at full capacity all day . The units are so fuel @-@ efficient that in many US states , the company and its franchises qualify for energy @-@ efficiency rebates . However , and issue arose in September 2011 when the state of Washington department of health warned Burger King of issues with the Duke units . In multiple incidents in seven counties throughout the state , the Duke units were found to have cracked heat spreaders which resulted in under cooked products . Additionally , there was foreign material contamination caused by loose insulation resulting from the cracks as well as other issues . Upon notification , Burger King released a statement that the company has notified franchisees and corporate @-@ owned stores operating the Duke units with orders to repair the problem immediately . Additional training for operators was also ordered .
= = = Kitchen equipment = = =
Before any products are sold , the company pre @-@ cooks the ingredients and holds them in a heated holding cabinet . To ensure that product consistency is maintained and to reduce the amount of products discarded as waste , Burger King utilizes a computerized monitoring system created by Integrated Control Corp , or ICC . The system , called Kitchen Minder , monitors time and temperature in the cabinets and notifies staff and managers when to prepare more food and discard older products . Initially developed from 1998 to 2000 , the system is designed to work with a holding cabinet system that was developed by Duke . The initial test designs were time @-@ consuming to program because each bay in the holding units had to be programmed manually . This meant several minutes were required for each product , which added up to several hours to program up to six units with eight bays each . When BK finally deployed the system in 2001 , the updated units utilized a Palm Pilot to configure the units using a custom program designed to easily configure the units via Infrared or serial port . A kitchen flow software system that helps centralize information about the system was deployed in 2007 ; combined with the new equipment , it helped further reduce costs for the company and its franchises by calculating projected sales and actual usage . Along with the holding system , Burger King deployed newer high @-@ speed toasters to decrease make times ; the new toasters , while faster , require more maintenance , which increases overall labor costs .
= = = Sandwich preparation = = =
During periods of high @-@ volume sales , BK will pre @-@ prepare high @-@ demand items such as hamburgers and cheeseburgers ; during slower periods all sandwiches are made to order . The Whopper sandwiches , premium sandwiches and BK Veggies are all made when ordered .
= = Demographic targeting = =
= = = Value = = =
BK targets " value @-@ oriented " customers with its BK Value Menu . In the United States , this menu contains products that are usually priced in the $ 1 @.@ 00 to $ 1 @.@ 49 range . In non @-@ US markets , the BK Value Menu typically takes on a different name , with prices set to reflect the approximate value of one US dollar . Internationally , the company is standardizing its value menu under the King Deals banners that features items for sale at € 1 @.@ 00 in the EU and one dirham in Dubai . In all the markets , the value menu usually includes smaller sandwiches and entrées , small @-@ sized side orders , small @-@ sized drinks , and desserts . In the United States , the value menu has a breakfast offering in the same format as the lunch / dinner value menu .
= = = Children = = =
As with all major fast food vendors , BK has a menu that specifically targets children . The company introduced its child @-@ oriented product line in North America during the summer of 1990 with an advertising program called the Burger King Kid 's Club . In the United States , the meal is called the Kids Club Meal and it is primarily positioned against the popular Happy Meal from McDonald 's . The meal includes an entrée , a side order , beverage , and a toy . The toy is usually a product tie @-@ in with a movie or popular television show . The entrée and side offerings differ from market to market , as does portion size .
In the North American market , BK further divides its children 's menu into three segments : toddler , kids , and " tween " . The only difference between the first two groups is the prize offering ; the toddler will receive an age @-@ appropriate toy . The toys were originally designed by Kentwood , Michigan @-@ based Sassy Inc . , and were introduced in 2000 as a supplement to the company 's existing children 's line . Burger King changed its toddler toy designer to Hudson , Ohio @-@ based Little Tikes in 2003 .
The tween offering , introduced in 1999 , is called the Big Kids Meal . The Big Kids Meals consist of a double hamburger , a double cheeseburger , or a six @-@ piece serving of Chicken Tenders plus a small order of fries , and a 16 US fl oz ( 470 ml ) drink , and a toy . Further additions to the line included a six @-@ piece serving of the company 's Chicken Fries product . The introduction of the Big Kids Meal was not without controversy . McDonald 's challenged Burger King 's use of the name in a federal suit that claimed McDonald 's had used the name first . According to the filing , McDonald 's stated the company had used the term in a limited manner in Michigan in 1998 as part of a promotion in Detroit . The suit was judged to be without merit and dismissed in a summary judgment .
= = = Adult = = =
To appeal to the adult market , BK offers several sandwiches and other products made with higher @-@ quality ingredients such as whole @-@ breast chicken fillets , Angus beef , and other " premium " ingredients . These sandwiches are usually served on a better @-@ quality roll , such as baguettes or corn @-@ dusted potato rolls . Through 2009 and 2010 , the company added other higher @-@ end product such as barbecued ribs , grilled fish , an improved grilled chicken sandwich , kebabs , and an extra @-@ thick burger called the Steakhouse XT . Several industry publications claimed that these new offerings disrupt the differentiation between the fast @-@ food and casual @-@ dining markets with a combination of taste , competitive pricing , speed of service , and convenience . The adult @-@ oriented products of Burger King and it competitors have been criticized by restaurant industry commentators as a temporary blip . The " indulgent " products are seen as blurring the lines between the fast @-@ food and casual @-@ dining market segments and , while they draw in newer customers looking for value , the effect may only be temporary . Once the economic instabilities of the late @-@ 2000s recession fade , customers may return to such casual chains as Chili 's and leave the fast food chains back where they started in terms of customer numbers and profits .
BK targets specific sub @-@ groups within the adult market . Products like the BK Stacker and BK XXL are aimed at late teen to young adult males ; health @-@ conscious individuals are offered products such as salads , grilled chicken , and veggie burgers . Products such as the BK Veggie , a meatless burger initially introduced in 2002 , target the female and health @-@ oriented demographic using a co @-@ branded marketing program and a patty produced by the Kellogg Company 's Morningstar Farms division . Another sub @-@ market in this group is on @-@ the @-@ go parents and commuters ; The company 's BK Chicken Fries — French @-@ fry cut pieces of breaded chicken — is specifically targeted to this segment . First introduced in 2005 , the product was successful enough that Burger King expanded the marketing of chicken fries to the children 's demographic with a kid 's meal version of the product in 2007 . The meal was launched with a cross @-@ promotion in conjunction with Nickelodeon 's SpongeBob SquarePants . The series of commercials raised the ire of the American Family Association due to perceived nudity concerns .
= = = The " Superfan " = = =
One particular market target that was of importance to the company was identified as the " Superfan " . The superfan was a demographic group that included individuals that are 18 to 49 years old , primarily male , who would visit a fast @-@ food restaurant five times a month and eat fast food 16 times a month . Burger King and their competitors hope to attract this group because of the large sums of money that they represent ; an increase in sales to this group could drive an increase in global sales . While superfans accounted for less than 20 percent of Burger King 's customer base , they accounted for nearly 50 percent of the company 's business . By focusing on this demographic group , the company could increase sales more readily ; it was easier to generate more repeat visits by this demographic than it was to coax new customers to switch from other chains . The company has used advertising featuring its mascot , the Burger King , in tandem with new product rollouts such as its BK Wrapper product to help generate an increased number of visits by this client segment .
With the slowing of the global economy due to the financial crisis of 2007 @-@ 2010 , the company experienced a downside of focusing so much on this demographic group . The high unemployment of the recession , coupled with healthier eating habits , drove many customers away from fast food towards the fast @-@ casual segment or forced them to stop eating out . Analysts have stated that by focusing its marketing and advertising programs on men , BK alienated women and children . Morgan Stanley analyst John Glass stated , " Maybe catering to the super fan was the correct strategy to kick @-@ start the business , but maybe they relied on that for too long ... "
To help counter the perceived male bias of its superfan target group , the company expanded the definition in early 2010 to cover individuals of both sexes , all ages , and households who frequent fast food within the stated time frame . Throughout 2010 , the company added newer calorie @-@ conscious " Positive Steps " combo meals that were advertised in female @-@ oriented media , as well as a continuing cross @-@ promotional tie @-@ in with the female @-@ oriented Twilight film series . 3G Capital 's new management team eliminated the focus on the superfan after its acquisition the company in 2010 , concentrating on a more broad demographic base that includes women and more health conscious customers .
= = Nutrition = =
One of the company 's first forays into healthier products was in 1983 with introduction of its salad bar . The salad bar met with light to moderate success , but the company 's franchise holders complained of high operating costs and a poor return on investment . Part of the product , a pita salad , was quickly dropped from the salad bar , as were plans to use the bar unit to boost breakfast sales . In 1987 the company augmented its salad bar with a test line of prepackaged salads , including chef and garden salads . The salad bar was eventually eliminated in favor of packaged salads . In 1990 , BK introduced a new salad line accompanied by a licensing agreement with Paul Newman 's Newman 's Own , Inc . , whose salad dressings accompanied the products . Burger King revamped its salad line again in 2004 , with the introduction of its Fire Grilled Salad products . Burger King sought to differentiate this line of salads by packaging the warm meat toppings — a choice of grilled shrimp or broiled chicken — separately from the cold salad ; this added the appearance of an additional layer of freshness . Currently in the United States , the salads are pre @-@ made off @-@ site . They are sold with two toppings and Ken 's Foods Ken 's Steakhouse brand salad dressing . Internationally , the salads vary in composition and style from market to market . In all markets , salads are one of the items targeted at female and health @-@ conscious consumers . In parts of Europe , salads are sold under the " King Delight " or " LA Range " banner .
As a response to recent obesity trends in the United States and other nations , Burger King modified its menu and food preparation practices . In addition to offering lower @-@ fat menu item such as salads , the company has updated its nutrition guides to include dietary guidelines and other nutritional data . One of its reactions to the concerns over trans @-@ fats was to initiate a program in January 2008 to phase out added trans @-@ fat in its products , and to switch to pure vegetable oils that are free of hydrogenated fats . The program ended in early 2009 with a complete changeover to the new oils . Most , but not all , of the products contain no added trans @-@ fats ; some products , such as the beef used in the hamburgers , still contain naturally @-@ occurring trans @-@ fats .
To address concerns over the increase in childhood obesity in Western nations and accusations of unhealthy offerings for children by groups such as the Center for Science in the Public Interest , the company created a nutritional program called " BK Positive Steps " that is aimed at children and their families . The program began with the introduction of products such as broiled Chicken Tenders , Kraft Macaroni and Cheese , and apple " fries " , which are French cut apples served in a fry box that are featured in a new low @-@ fat Kid 's Club Meal . According to a statement by Burger King , the new Kid 's Club meals contain no more than 560 calories per meal , less than 30 percent of calories from fat , less than 10 percent of calories from saturated fat , no added trans fats , and no more than 10 percent of calories from added sugars . Additional changes to its menu were announced in May 2009 , including the reduction of sodium levels in its Chicken Tenders product by approximately 33 percent ; a switch to non @-@ fat milk products in the U.S. ; and adding calcium @-@ fortified apple juice to its beverage line @-@ up . The broiled Chicken Tenders product is only sold in the UK / Ireland market . The product line has been expanded to include a boiled mini chicken sandwich for the kid 's meals in this region .
The company has adapted its menu to accommodate different dietary lifestyles by adding several vegetarian options , including salads , the BK Veggie sandwich , and its deep @-@ fried spicy bean burger that is sold in Burger King 's international locations . The majority of these products do not qualify as vegan due to the presence of egg or dairy products ; an example is the BK Veggie , which is approved by the British Vegetarian Society . Society guidelines do not require their approved products to be vegan , and allow ovo @-@ lacto @-@ vegetarian ingredients . The Veggie Burger is widely sold in other countries , sometimes under different names ( for example , it is called a " Country Burger " in Germany ) . Burger King added low @-@ carb variants of several of its products in 2004 that are in accordance with low @-@ carb diets such as the Atkins diet and the South Beach Diet . Low @-@ carbohydrate preparation consists of eliminating the bread and serving the product in a bowl with silverware .
In January 2010 , BK began to publish a list of which of their products that contain gluten and added menu options designed to help those afflicted with Celiac disease as part of its " Positive Steps " nutrition program . A company representative stated that it understands that its guests have individual dietary needs , and as part of its " Have It Your Way " promise , Burger King offers menu items for individuals with gluten sensitivity . BK food is prepared with several known food allergens , including wheat , milk , soy , and eggs .
= = Products = =
The range of products sold usually depends on the time of day . Lunch items such as hamburgers and fries are traditionally not served during breakfast time . However , some BK stores do sell food under their " Burgers for Breakfast " program . While for several years the company dictated hours to its franchisees in the United States , that changed with the sale of the company in 2010 . The new owners relaxed the mandated hours for stores to be open from 6 am to midnight Monday through Saturday and 7 am to midnight on Sundays ; franchises were encouraged to stay open later or for 24 hours in markets that could support the business .
= = = Packaging = = =
Burger King 's product packaging has undergone many changes over the years . Unlike McDonald 's , the company never used the clamshell style box made of Styrofoam , so when the environmental concerns over Styrofoam came to a head in the late 1980s , the company touted its use of paperboard boxes for its sandwiches . When McDonald 's moved to eliminate its styrofoam packaging , Burger King ran several sarcastically @-@ worded ads in national newspapers stating that it had always wrapped its sandwiches in waxed paper ; they welcomed McDonald 's " to the club " . To cut back on the amount of paper that the company used , the paperboard box was mostly eliminated in 1991 ; it was replaced with waxed paper . Paperboard boxes are still used for its " finger food " products like Chicken Tenders and Fries , French toast sticks , and desserts .
In 2004 , the company committed itself to a redesign of its entire packaging line that tied the packaging into its irreverent advertising campaign created by Crispin , Porter + Bogusky . Each product 's packaging included a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek commentary about the product itself . Alex Bogusky , partner and executive creative director of CP + B , stated that BK decided " to create a dialogue with the consumer " by utilizing the large areas of white space found on its packaging at the time . All of its sandwich wrappers , cartons , tray liners , bags , breakfast platters , chili cups , condiments , and regional product packaging received what was described as " quirky ad copy " specifically targeting the 18 – 34 @-@ year @-@ old male demographic segment . Besides the humorous commentary , the company also created sniglet @-@ type names for things that would appear in its products , such as a " ringer " – a single onion ring that had been accidentally included in an order of fries .
Starting with the introduction of its BK Chicken Fries product in 2005 , BK began adapting some of its product packaging so that it could be placed in an automotive cup holder . The BK Chicken Fry box , while square in shape , will sit comfortably in the cup holder and its top , when opened , forms a small tray that is designed to hold dipping sauce . Burger King credits the design of this box with helping to make its Chicken Fries the most popular adult @-@ oriented chicken product in the United States . It has since added a trademarked and patented round French fry container which it calls the " FryPod " , which is a paper cup made from 50 percent recycled materials that is designed to fit in an automotive cup holder . The package design won an honorable mention at a packaging industry design competition . BK 's large and King sized beverage containers are made from molded HDPE plastic with a funnel @-@ like shaped bottom that allows the oversized cups to fit in cup holders .
Union Packaging , a minority @-@ owned , Philadelphia @-@ based paper products company , has supplied much of the packaging for Burger King 's North American operations since winning its first contract in 2000 . The original $ 15 million contract was for paperboard " clamshell " containers and covered 1 @,@ 250 BK locations in the United States . Union was instrumental in the development of the FryPod carton , and its efforts earned the company a supplier of the year award from Burger King in 2007 .
= = = Reformulations = = =
Over time , the company reformulates various products in an attempt to boost sales of the product or to improve the taste , appearance , or physical consistency of the product . One such example of this is the BK Big Fish , the company 's fish sandwich offering in North America . Burger King 's original fish sandwich , introduced as early as the late 1960s in some markets , was called the Whaler ; it was a smaller fish sandwich made with tartar sauce and lettuce served on the small sesame seed roll BK used for their hamburgers . When Burger King introduced its broiled chicken sandwich in 1990 , the BK Broiler , it changed the fish sandwich 's breading to a panko style , began serving it on an oatmeal @-@ dusted roll that was used for the broiled chicken sandwich , and renamed the product the Ocean Catch sandwich . When BK reformulated the BK Broiler , the company also reformulated the Ocean Catch as the BK Big Fish in its current configuration . The sandwich was again briefly reformulated after the phase @-@ out of the Baguette sandwiches , and was reintroduced as the Big Fish in 2005 .
One of the company 's larger product reformulations came in March 2011 . The company updated the recipe of its 25 + year @-@ old Chicken Tender product line by reformulating the breading and spice mixture while updating the shape . The new formulation was described by the company as being " more broadly appealing " to the palate of its customers according to statement released by the company . Nation 's Restaurant News analyst John Barone stated that the change may also be due to an industry wide move to chicken @-@ based product as a result of raising commodity prices , forcing restaurants to turn towards chicken @-@ based offerings due to the elevated pork and beef prices occurring during the previous year . He added that chicken breast costs have been down or flat during the same period , making it a more appealing choice to companies . The new product push was accompanied with a product tie @-@ in with the movie Hop aimed at the youth market , an adult @-@ oriented advertising campaign pushing convenience and product customization and a nationwide coupon mailing in the United States . Online advertising was emphasized with the release a Facebook gaming application it called the " Tender 8 " .
= = = Limited time offers = = =
To generate additional sales , BK will occasionally introduce limited time offers ( LTO ) that are versions of its core products or new products intended for either long- or short @-@ term sales . Many of these LTO products focus on core menu products such as the Whopper , which has featured variations such as the Texas Double Whopper with added jalapeños , bacon , and pepperjack cheese . Other LTOs include all @-@ new sandwiches like the Chick 'n Crisp sandwich ( now a permanent item in many regions ) and test products such as the company 's Great American Burger , which was an attempt at a premium sandwich in 2003 . It was made with a Whopper patty and several new ingredients , including a bakery @-@ style bun ; peppered bacon ; whole @-@ leaf , as opposed to shredded , lettuce ; seasoned mustard ; and a special sauce . The burger was served with American cheese , mayonnaise , tomato , and onions . A similar burger was tested in Wisconsin in 1999 . That Great American burger featured a single 8 oz ( 230 g ) burger patty and different toppings . It was designed to be cooked on a forerunner of the current batch broiler .
Other LTO products sought to expand existing product lines with new base ingredients . The company 's 1992 offering , a Meatloaf Specialty Sandwich , was introduced as part of a push into limited table service . Other LTO variants in its Specialty Sandwich line included an Italian sausage sandwich served in one of three ways : with onions and peppers ; parmigiana @-@ style with mozzarella cheese and marinara sauce ; or with all four ingredients . Steak sandwiches were made from steak fillets or later , restructured beef . Other offerings were a ham and cheese sandwich with mayonnaise , lettuce , and tomato , and a veal parmigiana sandwich .
= = = Trends = = =
The company is not above following trends within the fast food and fast casual industry ; two of examples of this can be seen in some of its former products . The company 's first wrap product , called a BK Wrapper , was introduced in North America as a breakfast option in April 2008 , with a lunch / dinner version offered in September 2008 . These products were in response to industry trends towards products that are easier to consume on the go , and to trends that began in 2007 regarding smaller foods . Originally a limited time offer , the lunch / dinner version of this product was sold as a regional item through late 2009 , when they were eliminated due to weakening sales . The 2009 introduction of BK Burger Shots , Burger King 's version of sliders , was part of a wider trend in the restaurant industry for this type of sandwich . European locations sell them as the BK Six Pack . The variation sold in the UK and Ireland is called the Angus 6 Pack ; it is six small burgers that are attached together . In the United States they are based on the Burger Bundles / Burger Buddies products of the 1980s , which were originally inspired by the similar products sold at White Castle and Krystal ,
= = = Licensed products = = =
In 2007 , Burger King began licensing its logo and items to outside companies for non @-@ Burger King products . A licensed products company , Broad Street Licensing Group , and its manufacturing partner , the Inventure Group , introduced the first products in the fall of that year : flavored potato crisps in two flavors , flame @-@ broiled burger and French fries with ketchup . Inventure added a third flavor , onion rings , in 2008 . A second licensed product , the company 's child @-@ oriented BK Fresh Apple Fries , was licensed for sale in supermarkets in 2009 to the Cruch Pak company . The company stated that while the products are important in providing brand identity , they will not be concentrating their resources on them , and will be investing the licensing fees into the company 's marketing fund . Industry pundits have criticized the company for this scheme , with Rob Frankel , author of the book The Revenge of Brand X , stating " just because you can do something does not mean you should . "
The licensing deals have proven successful . Broad Street has expanded the product line to seventeen countries across the globe while increasing selection to more than a half dozen products designed to mimic the flavors of some of Burger King 's core menu products . The success of the product line and licensing deals garnered the companies an award for " Brand Extension of the Year " from License ! Global magazine , and earned them a nomination for " Best Corporate License of the Year " from the Licensing Industry Merchandisers Association .
ConAgra Foods entered into a licensing agreement with Burger King in 2009 for a new line of microwavable French fry products . The new products are King Krinkz , which are seasoned crinkle @-@ cut fries ; King Kolossalz , an extra @-@ large package of fries ; and King Wedgez , seasoned potato wedges . The products were slated to be released in September 2009 . The packaging is designed to resemble BK 's FryPod fry container .
= = = Failed products = = =
Burger King has introduced several new products that performed well in testing , but did not catch on with the public . The failure of the BK Baguette line of sandwiches is an example a product that did not meet corporate expectations ; another earlier failure was the Bull 's @-@ eye Barbecue Burger . The sandwich consisted of two side @-@ by @-@ side hamburger patties , American cheese , and bacon , with Bull 's @-@ eye Barbecue brand barbecue sauce . The sandwich was served on the same 7 in ( 18 cm ) roll as the Specialty Sandwiches . Later it was sold as a traditional @-@ style double cheeseburger .
In 1992 , during its time under the ownership of Britain @-@ based Grand Metropolitan , Burger King experimented with table service . After 4 pm , customers would place their order at the counter , and their order would be brought to them at their table . Customers were given complimentary popcorn to eat while waiting for their meal . To coincide with the offering , a series of meals called the Dinner baskets were introduced . The dinner baskets included the Whopper Dinner Basket , Steak Sandwich Dinner Basket , Fried Chicken Dinner Basket , and Shrimp Dinner Basket . In the New England region of the United States , BK sold a Fried clam Basket . The dinner came with two sides , including a choice of a side salad , cole slaw , French fries , or baked potato . Lasting approximately a year , the sit @-@ down restaurant concept was abandoned in 1994 in favor of the original quick @-@ service formula .
Another failed product , this time under Grand Metropolitan 's successor Diageo , was the BK Back Porch Grillers line of burgers that featured a spiced and flavored patty served on a bakery @-@ style roll . There were two varieties : The Regular served with mayonnaise , whole leaf iceberg lettuce , tomato and grilled onions , and the Bacon Cheddar , with bacon and smoked cheddar cheese . There was one LTO variety , the Black Stack Griller , made with Black Strap Barbecue sauce ( a strong molasses @-@ flavored sauce ) , bacon , lettuce , and tomato , to promote Men in Black II . The Griller patty was flavored so that it had a taste similar to a hamburger that had been grilled over a charcoal @-@ fired grill .
One of its international failures was the BK Crown Jewels line of sandwiches , originally sold in New Zealand . These larger , adult @-@ oriented sandwiches were made with fried and grilled chicken or a Whopper patty and a variety of toppings and served on a Kaiser roll . Toppings included a mango lime sauce , avocado , aioli , a Cajun spiced sauce , and relish . Originally successful , the sandwiches piqued the interest of Burger King 's corporate offices and were being considered for a potential global rollout . However , interest in the product faded and they were discontinued .
Introduced as a direct challenge of corporate rival McDonald 's , the Big King was Burger King 's response to the Big Mac and had a similar style and taste . The sandwich was originally introduced in 1993 under the name Double Supreme during its testing stage . The name was switched to Big King when it was introduced nationally in 1997 , and again to the King Supreme when reintroduced in 2002 . The sandwich was discontinued in the North American market in the mid @-@ 2000s . In November 2013 , Burger King brought the Big King back to the North American market as a permanent menu item . The Big King sandwich 's recipe is exactly the same as the original 1990s recipe , including a three @-@ piece roll . The Big King sandwich is also sold in many of the company 's international markets in several forms .
= = Suppliers and purchasing = =
= = = Purchasing guidelines for meat = = =
Like many of its competitors , BK has been targeted by various animal welfare groups , such as PETA , over the treatment of the animals it uses in the manufacture of its ingredients . In a concession to these groups , BK agreed to adopt a series of policies for its suppliers for several of its raw animal products . The company has established a preference for purchasing eggs and pork @-@ based products from those suppliers that use cage @-@ free production methods .
= = = = 2001 Guidelines = = = =
As part of its 2001 guidelines , Burger King stated that it would begin conducting announced and unannounced inspections of the slaughterhouses for all of its meat suppliers and take action against facilities that fail those inspections . It would establish animal @-@ handling verification guidelines for all the slaughterhouses of its suppliers . The company would require its suppliers to confine no more than five hens in each battery cage , that the birds be able to stand fully upright , and require the presence of two water drinkers per cage . It would stop purchasing from suppliers who engage in the forced molting of hens , develop auditing procedures for the handling of " broiler " chickens , and institute humane handling procedures for chickens at slaughterhouses . It would begin purchasing pork from farms that do not confine sows to stalls .
Per the conditions of its agreement with the groups , the company filed a petition in 2002 with the Food and Drug Administration requesting the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) step up enforcement of the Humane Slaughter Act of 1958 . The USDA agreed with the request , stating " it is granting your petition and is developing a proposed rule that addresses the issue of humane handling . " The USDA failed to indicate when it intended to publish the proposal in the Federal Register and solicit public comment , which would be the first step before the agency drafts a final rule .
= = = = 2008 Guidelines = = = =
The company amended its purchasing guidelines in 2008 . It announced that it would expand its pork purchasing guidelines by requiring 10 % of its pork products be purchased from suppliers who do not use gestation crates , metal enclosures that confine sows and restrict the animal 's movement , and double that amount by the end of the year . It would also immediately begin purchasing 2 % of its eggs from producers whose hens are not confined to small wire battery cages , and double that amount by the end of that year . It agreed with PETA that the company would issue a statement that it would be give purchasing preference to egg suppliers that do not use battery cages and to those poultry suppliers that utilize or upgrade to controlled atmosphere killing , which is considered to be a more humane method of chicken and turkey slaughter .
= = = = 2012 Guidelines = = = =
A third round of guidelines was issued in April 2012 when the company announced that it would begin phasing in a plan to stop purchasing poultry and pork products from suppliers that caged animals . With this announcement , Burger King became the first American Fast food company to promise to purchase 100 % of its eggs from companies that did not utilize wire battery cages and pork from suppliers that did not use gestational cages for sows . This is an increase of the percentage of cage free products from 9 % of egg purchases and 20 % of pork purchases the company made in 2008 . The plan should be completed by 2017 .
= = = Food = = =
= = = = Condiments = = = =
The H.J. Heinz Company is a significant supplier of condiments to Burger King . The relationship between the two companies dates back into the twentieth century , and they have worked together on several programs such as the 2001 promotional tie @-@ in with the movie Shrek . Heinz provided an LTO Blastin ' Green EZ Squirt colored ketchup and an apple flavored " ooze " dipping sauce for distribution with the Shrek @-@ branded kid 's meals . Heinz has become a primary supplier of ketchup in the United States , Mexico , and Great Britain , while supplying various sauces in several European countries .
Kraft foods has supplied many of its products to BK over the years . Several of its condiment lines have found their way into BK menu items . Two Kraft products were involved in direct tie @-@ ins : the Bull 's @-@ Eye BBQ Burger in 2005 and the A @-@ 1 Steakhouse XT sandwich in 2010 . In both cases , Burger King prominently used the names of the Kraft products , A1 Steak Sauce and Bull 's @-@ Eye Barbecue Sauce , in the names of the sandwiches . Kraft has supplied several of Burger King 's children 's products , including a Jell @-@ O brand dessert during BK 's Teletubbies promotion in 1999 , and the Kraft macaroni and cheese used in its lower @-@ fat kid 's meals introduced in 2009 .
= = = = Proteins = = = =
During the late 1960s , Tyson Foods was devising new methods to broaden their market , including introducing smaller consumer packaging and landing military contracts . The company expanded its commercial division by offering new products to McDonald 's and Burger King . Tyson 's McDonald 's product eventually evolved into Chicken McNuggets while Burger King 's product became the basis of its chicken sandwiches . For their 2010 rib promotion , Tyson was Burger King 's pork supplier . Despite a production @-@ significant lead time , the estimated four @-@ month product supply lasted Burger king less than three months .
A 1996 E. Coli outbreak at one of Burger King 's largest beef providers , Hudson Foods , gave Tyson Foods one of its largest business coups . Hudson was one of the largest poultry providers in the United States and one of Tyson 's largest competitors when they moved into beef processing at the behest of Burger King . Once it had secured a contract with Burger King , Hudson opened a beef processing plant in Nebraska . When the plant was identified as the source of an E. Coli breakout in 1996 , Burger King abandoned the company as a supplier .
Lopez Foods , Inc. of Oklahoma City is a supplier of beef to the Burger King . While Lopez 's primary customer is McDonald 's , the company supplies BK as well .
= = = = Sides and desserts = = = =
McCain Foods became a supplier of potato products to the company in 1998 , shortly after an agreement with farmers in Maine to supply potatoes for use in the fast food market .
Edwards Baking provides Burger King with prepackaged pies and pie @-@ style desserts while providing oversight and assistance with the chain 's dessert products . BK is one of Edwards ' major national contracts , where the company provides Burger King with assistance in marketing programs , point @-@ of @-@ purchase advertising materials , market research , and other resources . Edwards has a full @-@ time staff assigned to Burger King 's headquarters in Miami . Before Edwards became Burger King 's primary baked goods supplier , the chain had a contract with Awrey Bakeries of Livonia , Michigan , for its line of pre @-@ packaged breakfast products . Burger King sold a line of Awrey products including danish , doughnuts , and birthday cakes .
= = = Beverages = = =
= = = = Soft drinks = = = =
Traditionally Burger King has sold soft drinks from the Coca @-@ Cola Company in its home market . In 1983 , PepsiCo garnered the $ 444 million beverage supplier contract from its rival , and , in the midst of extreme market debate over the future of the contract , had it renewed for a second term in 1987 . The company won the contract by strengthening the marketing and advertising program ties between Burger King and itself . The contract lasted three more years when , partially based upon Pepsi 's growth as a restaurant operator with its Tricon Restaurants division , Burger King moved its beverage contract back to Coca @-@ Cola .
Since 1990 , Burger King has continued using Coca @-@ Cola as its beverage supplier , renewing its contract in several times . The Coca @-@ Cola contract is not without its problems ; the 1999 contract called for the Coca @-@ Cola branded Icee products to be made a permanent menu item in all American locations . After the rollout , it was discovered that Coca @-@ Cola employees had faked product test information to bolster prospective sales numbers in an effort to entice franchisees to enroll in a summertime advertising push . Several Coke employees were terminated , and Coca @-@ Cola changed the in @-@ store promotional materials to emphasize the Icee name . The 2003 contract officially extended the relationship between the two companies so that Coca @-@ Cola was the exclusive supplier of soft drinks for the company . Before this , individual international franchises would negotiate their own contracts with their company of choice . The 2003 contract gave Coca @-@ Cola new access to the 3 @,@ 000 operating or planned restaurants on the Asia @-@ Pacific rim , in Europe , and in South and Central America . The purchase of Burger King by 3G Capital lead to a change in the beverage contract for the Caribbean and Latin America markets . 3G , which owns AmBev and is the producer and distributor of PepsiCo products in the region , started cross @-@ licensing between its two companies in April 2011 and switched to Pepsi in these markets .
In 1999 , Burger King added a second soft drink supplier contract with the Dr Pepper Snapple Group to include Dr Pepper to its beverage line up in North American restaurants .
Burger King 's supply contracts for non @-@ carbonated beverages are separate from the ones for its sodas . When the company first chose to introduce a bottled water product , it chose Nestlé 's Poland Spring brand over Coke 's Dasani . When the contract expired in 2003 , BK moved to Pepsi 's Aquafina , the top @-@ selling brand at the time . In 2008 Burger King renewed its relationship with Nestlé by entering into an agreement to sell Pure Life bottled water products . BK moved away from Pepsi 's Tropicana brand juices in 2001 when it went with Coca @-@ Cola 's Minute Maid brands for the North America market . With the introduction of its Positive Steps nutrition program for children , the company turned to the Hershey Company to provide Hershey 's branded low @-@ fat milk in its North American stores . BK is utilizing a popular brand name to promote its products in a move to draw customers ' attention to itself and its meal programs .
= = = = Coffee = = = =
Produced by Sara Lee 's Douwe Egberts brand , BK Joe was Burger King 's coffee line that was first introduced in 2001 in North America and later in parts of Europe . Advertised as being made from Arabica coffee , the product was made using Douwe 's Cafitesse system , a platform that eschews coffee brewed from ground beans in favor of a beverage made from a coffee concentrate with hot water added . Sara Lee claims the advantage of the system is that each cup of coffee is made at the time of order with minimal waste and labor . The product was not designed to compete with products from companies such as Starbucks , but was intended to appeal to customers who seek a consistent cup of coffee .
Despite the investment in the Douwe Egbert product , Burger King announced it would be phasing out the Cafitesse system in the United States in the summer of 2010 in favor of Starbucks ' Seattle 's Best brand of coffee . Throughout the summer of 2010 , BK added several new coffee @-@ based products to the new coffee line in an initial effort to bring in more customers during the morning sales period . The new coffee products , including flavored coffees and iced coffee drinks , are available all day to compete with McDonald 's McCafé coffee line . Every Friday during November 2010 , Burger King gave away free 12 US fl oz ( 350 ml ) cups of Seattle 's Best Coffee to encourage people to try its breakfast and coffee lines . The company predicted the number of free cups of coffee would number between two and four million .
= = = = Alcoholic drinks = = = =
For many years Burger King has sold beer in several of its international locations , such as Germany , but not in its home territory . The company began to sell beer at its BK Whopper Bar limited service concept restaurants in Miami , New York , and Los Angeles in 2010 . The company is selling products from SABMiller and Anheuser @-@ Busch , including Budweiser , Bud Lite , and Miller Lite in aluminum bottles designed to maintain temperature . The move , designed to target the important 30 @-@ and @-@ under demographic , has been called risky by industry analysts because the company is known as a fast food purveyor and not as an alcoholic beverages seller . Other industry consultants have disagreed with the assessment , believing that the move is timely because the company is growing with its aging customer base .
= = = Distributors = = =
For many years Burger King owned and operated its own distribution system , known originally as Distron . Distron , founded shortly after establishment of Burger King , primarily served the company @-@ owned stores and 50 – 60 percent of franchised stores . Franchise groups were free to purchase supplies from one of seventeen independent distribution systems , often operated by larger franchise groups such as Carrols Restaurant Group . The Distron setup remained relatively stable until BK was purchased from Pillsbury by Grand Metropolitan . Grand Met originally planned to sell it after the purchase , but ended up reorganizing the division into two separate groups for procurement ( Burger King Purchasing [ BKP ] ) and distribution ( Burger King Distribution Services [ BKDS ] ) . The move resulted in the layoff of over a hundred staff members .
In 1992 , Burger King and its franchises formed Restaurant Services Inc . ( RSI ) , an independent purchasing cooperative , which covered 100 percent of BK stores in the United States . The creation of RSI was based on a proposal by then @-@ CEO Barry Gibbons create an organization that would be autonomous from BK corporate operations , provide full financial disclosure to participants on pricing issues and revenues , and enjoy the participation of the entire chain to maximize the benefits of volume purchasing . The format of RSI was based on the system employed by KFC for its distribution system and was operated in a similar manner . Two weeks after the formation of the co @-@ operative , Grand Met sold the physical assets of BKDS to Canadian @-@ based buyout firm Onex Corporation and folded BKP into RSI .
Currently the company utilizes independent distributors such as Maines Paper and Food Service and Sysco for supplying North American stores with food and paper products .
|
= 1953 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1953 Atlantic hurricane season was the first time an organized list of female names was used to name Atlantic storms . It officially began on June 15 , and lasted until November 15 , although activity occurred both before and after the season 's limits . The season was active with fourteen total storms , six of which developed into hurricanes ; four of the hurricanes attained major hurricane status , or a Category 3 or greater on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale .
The strongest hurricane of the season was Carol , although by the time it struck Atlantic Canada it was much weaker . Both hurricanes Barbara and Florence struck the United States ; the former crossed the Outer Banks and impacted much of the east coast , and Florence struck a sparsely populated region of the Florida Panhandle without causing much damage . Bermuda was threatened by three hurricanes within two weeks . In addition to the hurricanes , Tropical Storm Alice developed in late May and left several fatalities in Cuba . The final named storm of the season , Hazel , produced additional rainfall in Florida after previous flooding conditions . There were several unnamed storms , the last of which dissipated on December 9 .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Alice = = =
A tropical storm developed east of Nicaragua on May 25 , executing a counterclockwise loop over Central America . After weakening over land , Alice re @-@ intensified over the western Caribbean , moving over western Cuba on May 21 with winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . On June 1 , it entered the Gulf of Mexico , and later executed another loop off the northwest coast of Cuba . Alice quickly weakened due to a cold front , and advisories were discontinued by June 3 . While near Cuba , Alice produced drought @-@ breaking rainfall that caused flooding and several unofficial drowning deaths .
After passing near Cuba , Alice turned to the north and restrengthened to peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) ( in fact , it is possible Alice briefly reached hurricane intensity but data was inconclusive ) . It again weakened before making landfall near Panama City Beach on June 6 as a minimal tropical storm , and Alice dissipated shortly thereafter . Alice brought heavy rainfall to Florida , peaking at 13 @.@ 48 inches ( 342 mm ) in Lake Placid . Near where it made landfall , the storm dropped light rainfall , and there were no reports of damage in the state . Alice was the first North Atlantic tropical cyclone to have a female name . It was also one of 22 tropical or subtropical cyclones on record in the month of May .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
= = = Hurricane Barbara = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Storm Barbara over the Bahamas on August 11 . It intensified as it moved north @-@ northwestward , becoming a hurricane by the next day , and reaching peak winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) just south of Cape Hatteras on August 13 . Barbara moved over the Outer Banks , passing between Morehead City and Ocracoke , and it turned and accelerated to the northeast . Steadily weakening and losing tropical characteristics , the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone late on August 15 . It turned northward , crossing eastern Nova Scotia and dissipating over Labrador on August 16 .
Before Barbara struck the Outer Banks , officials ordered evacuations for a few islands , and several thousand tourists voluntarily left the region . Wind gusts reached 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) at Hatteras and Nags Head . Torrential rainfall fell across the state and extended northward into Virginia , peaking at 11 @.@ 1 in ( 280 mm ) near Onley along the Eastern Shore of Virginia . Across the region , the hurricane left flooding and downed trees , some of which survived the Great Atlantic Hurricane of 1944 . Monetary damage from Barbara was estimated around $ 1 @.@ 3 million ( 1953 USD , $ 11 @.@ 5 million 2016 USD ) , mostly from the crop damage . Newspaper reports indicated there were seven deaths in the country ; two additional deaths occurred offshore Atlantic Canada when a dory sunk .
= = = Hurricane Carol = = =
On August 28 , a tropical wave developed into a tropical depression near Cape Verde . After moving west @-@ southwestward , it turned to the northwest , intensifying into a tropical storm on August 31 and into a hurricane on September 2 . Passing northeast of the Lesser Antilles , Carol rapidly intensified to Category 5 intensity , reaching peak winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) on September 3 , making it the strongest hurricane of the season . It gradually weakened , bypassing Bermuda on September 6 and producing high waves . Carol later turned to the north @-@ northeast , brushing Cape Cod and causing boating accidents across New England . Four people were killed in the region . Fishing losses totaled around $ 1 million ( 1953 USD , $ 8 @.@ 84 million 2016 USD ) .
After bypassing New England , Carol brushed western Nova Scotia before moving ashore near Saint John , New Brunswick as a minimal hurricane . As it moved ashore , it produced hurricane conditions in eastern Maine , one of only six Atlantic hurricanes to do so . In Nova Scotia , several boats were wrecked or washed ashore , with one drowning death reported . High seas caused coastal flooding , while strong winds downed large areas of trees . Heavy losses to the apple crop occurred in Annapolis Valley , totaling $ 1 million ( 1950 CAD , $ 9 @.@ 15 million 2016 USD ) . Carol later dissipated southwest of Greenland on September 9 .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
On August 29 , a tropical storm developed near Isla de la Juventud , south of the western tip of Cuba . It moved erratically , first quickly northwestward through Cuba , followed by a turn to the east across southern Florida . While moving through the state , the storm dropped heavy rainfall , reaching 4 @.@ 67 in ( 119 mm ) at Fort Lauderdale Beach ; similar rainfall was observed in the northern Bahamas . Although one Weather Bureau forecaster described the system as " wide and flat " , the storm gradually organized over the western Atlantic Ocean . On August 31 , after turning to the northwest , the storm reached peak winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , although it weakened to a tropical depression before moving ashore near Savannah , Georgia on September 1 . It turned to the north over land , and dissipated over Kentucky on September 3 .
= = = Hurricane Dolly = = =
The origins of Dolly were from a tropical wave that moved through the eastern Caribbean Sea , producing 10 in ( 250 mm ) in Saint Thomas in the U.S. Virgin Islands . The rains closed schools and government buildings around San Juan , Puerto Rico , and flooding was reported in Guayama , Yabucoa , and Patillas . On September 8 , a tropical storm developed north of Puerto Rico , which moved slowly west @-@ southwestward before turning to the north . It quickly intensified , and after Hurricane Hunters reported an eye , Dolly reached hurricane status on September 9 . At that time , hurricane warnings were issued in the Bahamas , although the storm turned away from the archipelago . It intensified to peak winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) on September 10 , as reported by aircraft .
Dolly weakened as it accelerated northeastward , although it still threatened to strike Bermuda with strong winds . As a result , the United States Air Force ordered all of the planes on the island to fly to the mainland . After continued weakening , Dolly passed over the island on September 11 , producing only gale @-@ force winds , rains , and little to no damage . It deteriorated into a tropical storm on September 12 and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone later that day . The remnants of Dolly later turned eastward , dissipating just west of Portugal on September 17 .
= = = Hurricane Edna = = =
Shortly behind Dolly , another tropical wave spawned a tropical depression over the Lesser Antilles on September 15 . As it moved through the region , it produced unsettled conditions across the northeast Caribbean . Dolly quickly intensified as it tracked northwestward , attaining hurricane status on September 15 and peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) the next day . After peaking , the hurricane turned to the northeast and maintained most of its intensity for a few days . It passed just north of Bermuda early on September 18 with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , before beginning a steady weakening trend as it accelerated . By September 19 , Edna completed the transition into an extratropical cyclone , lasting another day before dissipating west of Ireland .
Before Edna struck Bermuda , the islanders were well @-@ prepared due to being previously impacted by hurricanes Carol and Dolly , and they boarded up their homes . The hurricane caused " considerable damage " , with wind gusts reaching 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) . The winds downed trees , blocking roads , and also caused disruptions to the power and water services . During its passage , Edna produced heavy rainfall and also damaged several roofs . There were three injuries on the island .
= = = Tropical Storm Eight = = =
A tropical depression formed in the western Gulf of Mexico on September 14 and moved eastward . The storm produced heavy seas across the region , which damaged two small boats . After turning to the northeast , the storm reached peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , followed by executing a clockwise loop from September 16 through September 18 . After maintaining peak winds for about five days , the storm weakened , by which time it curved to the northeast . On September 20 , it moved ashore in Taylor County , Florida and later crossed the state . The storm dissipated on September 21 just off the Georgia coast .
= = = Hurricane Florence = = =
Florence developed on September 23 near Jamaica from a tropical wave . While passing that island , it produced heavy rainfall that blocked roads . It intensified to hurricane status on September 24 while passing through the Yucatán Channel , and while doing so left heavy damage in western Cuba . After turning north and entering the Gulf of Mexico , Florence quickly intensified to peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . It gradually weakened before making landfall on September 26 as a minimal hurricane in a sparsely populated region of the Florida Panhandle .
Before Florence hit the United States Gulf Coast , about 10 @,@ 000 people evacuated Panama City , Florida , and the Weather Bureau issued timely warnings that was credited in preventing any deaths or major injuries . Winds reached 84 mph ( 135 km / h ) at Eglin Air Force Base , and the heaviest rainfall was 14 @.@ 71 in ( 374 mm ) in Lockhart , Alabama . The combination of winds and heavy rainfall left crop damage in the Florida panhandle and southeastern Alabama , although coastal damage was not severe . Overall , 421 houses were damaged and another three were destroyed , with monetary damage estimated around $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1953 USD , $ 1 @.@ 77 million 2016 USD ) . After landfall , Florence quickly transitioned into an extratropical cyclone , and as it continued across the southeastern United States it produced moderately heavy rainfall . It dissipated on September 28 southeast of New England .
= = = Hurricane Gail = = =
On October 2 , a tropical wave spawned a tropical depression about 815 mi ( 1310 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Cape Verde islands . The depression quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Gail , and the next day , a ship encountered the storm , reporting a minimum pressure of 986 mbar ( 29 @.@ 12 inHg ) . As the ship crossed through the center , it reported winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , indicating Gail attained hurricane status . Initially believed to have dissipated and reformed as a new unnamed storm on October 5 , in reality Gail continued northwest and then meandered around the central Atlantic before being absorbed by a front on October 12 .
= = = Tropical Storm Eleven = = =
On October 3 , a tropical storm developed near the southern coast of Cuba . It moved northwestward , crossing the island before turning to the northeast . Early on October 5 , the storm brushed southeastern Florida , producing gusty winds and rainfall . The threat of the storm prompted small craft warnings from the Florida Keys through South Carolina . As it accelerated northeastward , the storm strengthened slightly to maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , before becoming extratropical on October 6 . Two days later , the remnants moved over Atlantic Canada with winds of 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) , producing flooding rainfall that washed out several roads . The storm caused two deaths after it wrecked a boat in Broad Cove , Nova Scotia . Later , the cyclone passed south of Greenland before dissipating southwest of Iceland on October 10 .
= = = Hurricane Hazel = = =
The twelfth tropical storm and the final named storm of the season formed in the Yucatán Channel on October 7 . Given the name Hazel , the storm tracked north @-@ northeastward , then northeastward through the Gulf of Mexico while gradually intensifying . On October 9 , Hazel strengthened into a hurricane made landfall just north of Fort Myers , Florida at its peak intensity of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Peak wind gusts were 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , with a minimum pressure of 987 @.@ 0 mb ( 29 @.@ 15 inHg ) reported in Okeechobee City . The storm crossed the state in about six hours , during which it weakened slightly back to a tropical storm . Over the western Atlantic Ocean , Hazel re @-@ intensified to its peak winds , although by late on October 10 it transitioned into an extratropical storm between North Carolina and Bermuda . The remnants continued northeastward , dissipating southeast of Newfoundland on October 12 . On Sable Island , the storm produced heavy winds and rain .
Due to the fairly light winds across Florida , damage from Hazel was minor , estimated around $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 1953 USD , $ 2 @.@ 21 million 2016 USD ) . During its passage , the storm spawned a tornado in St. James City that destroyed several homes , and there were indications of another tornado in Okeechobee City . The primary impact from Hazel was from its rainfall , peaking at 10 @.@ 53 inches ( 267 mm ) in Daytona Beach . The rains added to previous flooding conditions across the state , causing a record flood stage along the St. Johns River that flooded 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of highway . Overall flooding damage was estimated up to $ 10 million ( 1953 USD , $ 88 @.@ 4 million 2016 USD ) , but it was impossible to determine how much was due to Hazel .
= = = Tropical Storm Thirteen = = =
A tropical storm developed on November 23 about 460 mi ( 740 km ) northeast of Barbuda in the Lesser Antilles . It moved northeastward , strengthening to peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on November 24 . It later turned sharply to the west as it began a weakening trend , followed by a curve to the north . The cyclone dissipated on November 26 about 450 mi ( 725 km ) east @-@ northeast of Bermuda , without ever affecting land .
= = = Tropical Storm Irene = = =
The final tropical cyclone of the season developed on December 7 about 705 mi ( 1735 km ) east @-@ northeast of the Lesser Antilles as a tropical depression . It tracked generally westward , briefly intensifying into a tropical storm on December 8 . The next day it dissipated about 270 mi ( 435 km ) north of the Lesser Antilles .
= = Storm names = =
These names were used to name storms during the 1953 season . The list was the same for the 1954 season as well . Initially , all female names were used ; it was not until the 1979 season that male and female names were used in alternating order . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . All storm names were named for the first time . No names were retired .
|
= I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) =
" I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " is a song written by composer Alan Menken and lyricist David Zippel for Walt Disney Pictures ' 35th animated feature film Hercules ( 1997 ) . Included on the film 's soundtrack , the song is performed by American actress and singer Susan Egan in her role as the film 's heroine Meg , while singers Cheryl Freeman , Lillias White , Vaneese Y. Thomas , LaChanze and Roz Ryan provide girl group @-@ style backup vocals as the Muses . However , only Egan and Freeman are credited as vocalists on the track .
" I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B and doo @-@ wop ballad reminiscent of the 1950s that incorporates both Motown and teen pop influences . Stylistically similar to the songs of American girl groups The Ronettes and The Supremes , its lyrics are about denying having romantic feelings for someone and parody those of traditional love songs . In the film 's musical sequence , Meg realizes that she has reluctantly begun to fall in love with Hercules but constantly refuses to admit this , while the Muses insist that she stop denying her true feelings for him and embrace them . " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " was written to replace a slower ballad Menken had originally penned for Meg , entitled " I Can 't Believe My Heart " ; the song was abandoned because Meg 's animator Ken Duncan felt that it was not appropriate for her personality . Menken based " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " on songs he had written for his musical Little Shop of Horrors .
" I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " has been positively received by both film and music critics , who enjoyed its girl group @-@ inspired arrangement , as well as Egan 's sultry delivery and the song 's refreshing difference from traditional Disney ballads ; some critics even dubbed it the film 's best song . While not one of Disney 's most popular songs , " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " has since developed a reputation as one of the studio 's most underrated . American singer Belinda Carlisle recorded a pop rock version of " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " for the film 's soundtrack . American girl group The Cheetah Girls eventually covered the song in 2005 .
= = Background and context = =
" I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " was written by composer Alan Menken and lyricist David Zippel . Menken had originally composed a " soaring " ballad entitled " I Can 't Believe My Heart " for Meg to perform , which would have served as a solo for the heroine intended to depict her falling in love with Hercules . However , Meg 's supervising animator Ken Duncan disagreed with Menken 's song because he believed that the character was simply " too tough " and " hardened by life " to perform such a soft ballad . The writers also agreed that Meg " wasn ’ t a ballad kind of girl . " Therefore , Menken was prompted to write " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " , the style of which he based on girl group songs he had written for his musical Little Shop of Horrors , with which " I Can 't Believe My Heart " was ultimately replaced . Although she had liked the original song , actress and singer Susan Egan , who voices Meg , agreed that the much slower " I Can 't Believe My Heart " was not a suitable number for her character to perform because it was " too straightforward and literal " , whereas " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " expresses a similar meaning , only " the way Meg would — without admitting any of it . "
Egan joked that although " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " was " fun " to perform , she felt much more " white " than usual recording alongside the five singers cast as the Muses , who provide the song 's back up vocals . Familiar with singers Cheryl Freeman , Lillias White , Vaneese Y. Thomas , LaChanze and Roz Ryan 's Broadway work , Egan felt intimated by their powerful voices and riffing abilities . Egan recalled , " Alan would say , ' Okay Lillias ( White ) , just do a riff over there and LaChanze , you do a little something over here and Susan , just at the end , get from this note to this note and just do a riff . ' I raise my hand and I 'm like , ' Umm , can you plunk it out on the piano ? ' He looks at me like , ' Are you kidding ? ' " While it took Egan half an hour to solidify only one of her riffs , the other singers recorded multiple takes of theirs within that same time ; Egan was greatly humbled by the experience . On the film 's soundtrack , only Egan and Freeman are credited as vocalists on the track . Menken also produced the song . While Danny Troob arranged the song , Michael Kosarin conducted the orchestration .
Recognized as Meg 's signature song , " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " has been identified as the character 's " big moment of romantic realization " in Hercules . Prior to " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " , the audience has only been exposed to Meg 's cynicism ; the song finally reveals that Meg 's cynicism is actually a reaction to her romantic side . " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " reveals that the character has fallen in love too fast before , and explains that she is afraid of repeating the same mistake once more with Hercules . Despite her best efforts , the character realizes that she has in fact begun to develop feelings for Hercules much to her chagrin , but at first refuses to admit this ; the song allows Meg to " work through her denial " . " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " resembles an " admonishing " exchange between Meg and the Muses . Finally , the character 's resistance eventually proves futile and she ultimately relents . Tracy Dye of Bustle described the scene : " Joined by The Muses , Meg attempts to vehemently deny her amour for Hercules " . Writing for film critic Eric D. Snider 's website , Kimber Kay joked that Meg " tries her best to give a top 40 rendition of her solo song , but it gets stolen by the magnificent Muses . " Additionally , the musical number predicts that one of Hercules ' most difficult challenges will be trying to change Meg 's opinion of him . Writing for The Daily Dot , Aja Romano cited the song as Meg 's " I Want " song .
= = Music and lyrics = =
At a length of two minutes and twenty seconds , " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " was written in the key of C major at a tempo of 100 beats per minute , and is performed " freely " in the style of a mellow 1950s girl group song . Featuring " sultry " vocals by Egan , the pop song adheres to " the R & B motif " Menken demonstrates throughout the entire film , incorporating doo @-@ wop this time around . Featuring " cooing shooby @-@ doos and sha @-@ la @-@ las " by the Muses , who perform " gospel @-@ tinged " back up vocals and riffs on the track , Jeffrey Gantz of the Boston Phoenix compared Egan 's " soaring " vocals to those of girl group The Ronettes . Describing " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " as " a traditional Disney [ heroine 's ] lament , " Vulture.com 's Lindsey Weber acknowledged its " unique Motown edge " , comparing the Muses ' vocals to those of girl group The Supremes . Musically , Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic described the teen pop @-@ influenced " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " as " the closest the Herculean villa ever comes to approximating a Broadway show " . Combined , Egan and the Muses ' vocals span two octaves , from the low note of G3 to the high note of C5 . While acknowledging the uniqueness of Egan 's singing voice , one critic also observed that she lacks the vocal range of the actresses who voiced Ariel from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) and Belle from Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) . Meanwhile , Chelsea Fagan of Thought Catalog described Egan 's voice as both " sarcastic " and " smoky " .
Lyrically , the love song is about denial , specifically one 's reluctance to fall in love and succumb to romantic clichés ; Meg deciphers how cliché , insufficient and false love can feel . " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " parodies " classic " love songs , and differs in style from love songs usually featured in Disney films by offering " a unique spin " . Rob Burch of The Hollywood News dubbed " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " an " anti @-@ love song " . Described as an " emotional barnstormer " , the song begins with Egan singing the lyrics " If there 's a prize for rotten judgment I guess I 've already won that " , which is followed by " Been there , done that " . Thought Catalog 's Chelsea Fagan believes that this verse " sums up in four lines everything that we ’ ve ever tried to convey while on our third drink out at the bar with the girls " , joking , " I believe this song would come shortly after dancing in a circle with all women , but just before the tearful texting of your ex " , while inspiring listeners to exclaim " You go , girl " .
The song expresses " the hesitancy savvy women everywhere feel when trying to stop themselves from falling head over heels " . Gantz described the Muses ' lyrics " Face it like a grown @-@ up / When ya gonna own up / That ya got got got it bad ? " as " admonishing " . Calling the song a " self @-@ aware ballad " , The Oxford Companion to the American Musical : Theatre , Film , and Television author Thomas S. Hischak observed that its lyrics are " filled with sly anachronisms " . Meanwhile , in his book The Disney Song Encyclopedia , Hischak referred to " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " as a " contradictory love song ... in which Meg denies her true feelings yet admits that she is quite taken with the brawny and naive hero Hercules " , additionally observing the Muses ' " oohs " and " ahs . " According to D23 , " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " is a love song " For those who don ’ t want to admit their hearts ’ desires , " as the protagonist refuses to admit her true feelings for her love interest until the very last lyric . Despite being a parody of love songs , " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " is nonetheless considered to be a love song itself .
= = Reception = =
" I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " has garnered positive reviews from both film and music critics , some of whom even identified it as the film 's best song . Aja Romano of The Daily Dot hailed the song as Hercules ' highlight that " satisfies us every time " . Writing for Indiewire , Greg Ehbar cited " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " as his favorite , describing the song as one of the film 's " truly great tunes " . Ella Ceron of Thought Catalog called the song " a pop song made on Olympus . " Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic was especially kind towards the song , which he hailed as " the ultimate pantheon of Grecian achievement " . Tan continued , " the five Muses prov [ e ] that their pillow talk skills are right up there with the best of them " , concluding , " The track also works well as an alternative to modern pop 's teenage heartbreak music ... be sure to ditch Hilary Duff and play this instead " . Tracy Dye of Bustle hailed the song as " one of Disney 's most addictive pieces of ear @-@ candy , " appreciating the fact that " it veers from the typical love @-@ laced ballads we 're used to . " Rob Burch of The Hollywood News called " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " a " refreshing change of pace " .
Beamly ranked the song fifth on its list of " The Best Ever Disney Songs " , with author Sophie Hall dubbing Meg " The Celine Dion of the cartoon world " . BuzzFeed ranked " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " 14th in its " Definitive Ranking Of The 102 Best Animated Disney Songs " . Meanwhile , BuzzFeed also ranked the song Disney 's ninth greatest love song , while D23 ranked it 10th in a similar article . " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " is also considered to be one of Disney 's most underrated songs , with the New York Post including it on their list . Moviepilot included the song in a similar article , with author Jeremiah Paul describing it as a " hidden gem " which " should have been another classic " , while praising Egan 's performance .
= = Cover versions = =
To promote the film , American singer Belinda Carlisle recorded a pop rock version of " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " in 1997 , which was included on the film 's soundtrack in alongside Egan 's original . Produced by Gary Wallis and Toby Chapman , Carlisle 's rendition was released as a single in both France and Germany . American girl group The Cheetah Girls covered the song in 2005 ; their version was included on the Disney @-@ themed compilation album Disneymania 3 . Their cover was released as a single . An abridged version of " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " appears on stage in the jukebox musical Disney 's on the Record , performed by Andrew Samonsky , with Meredith Inglesby , Andy Karl , Tyler Maynard and Keewa Nurullah providing backup vocals .
|
= 1933 Texas tropical storm =
The 1933 Texas tropical storm produced record rainfall in the south @-@ central United States in July of the 1933 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the third storm of the season , developing on July 14 near the Lesser Antilles . While moving westward through the Caribbean Sea , the cyclone passed just south of Jamaica on July 16 . The storm dropped heavy rainfall on the island that caused flooding and road washouts . On July 18 , the storm struck Belize and later moved across the Yucatán Peninsula . Initially it was believed that the storm continued into Mexico and dissipated while another storm formed to its northeast , but it was discovered in 2012 that the storm followed one continuous track .
On July 23 , the storm struck southeastern Texas at its peak intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . It moved inland and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . Turning eastward , the storm dropped torrential rainfall in eastern Texas and western Louisiana , peaking at 21 @.@ 3 in ( 540 mm ) in Logansport , Louisiana . Several stations reported record rainfall , including Shreveport , Louisiana where its 24 ‑ hour amount remained the highest daily total as of 2008 . High rains left about $ 1 @.@ 5 million in crop damage between two Texas counties . The rains caused rivers to exceed their banks , forcing evacuations and road closures .
= = Meteorological history = =
On July 14 , a tropical depression developed near Saint Kitts . Initially it moved west @-@ northwestward before turning to the west , and on July 15 it passed south of Hispaniola . That day , ships in the region confirmed the presence of a closed circulation . The depression was assessed to have intensified into a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on July 16 , before passing just south of Jamaica later that day . After affecting the island , the storm turned to the west @-@ southwest , reaching peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) early on July 18 . Later that day , a ship reported a pressure of 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) , which was adjusted to 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) to compensate a bias in the ship 's barometer . Around 1500 UTC on July 18 , the storm made landfall near Belize City , Belize at its peak intensity .
After moving ashore , the storm quickly weakened into a tropical depression while crossing the Yucatán Peninsula . Late on July 19 , it emerged into the Bay of Campeche . It turned to the northwest due to a ridge moving eastward , and the system re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm on July 21 . At around 0800 UTC on July 23 , the storm moved ashore on Matagorda Bay in southeastern Texas with winds of about 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . The storm again weakened to a tropical depression shortly after landfall , before turning to the north and north @-@ northeast . On July 24 , the cyclone began interacting with a cold front , and became extratropical . It tracked slowly eastward across eastern Texas and northern Louisiana due to a high pressure area to the north . It later moved along the Mississippi River , and early on July 27 , the front absorbed the depression along the border of Arkansas and Mississippi .
= = Impact = =
While passing south of Jamaica , the storm produced the heavy rainfall in the month of July in at least 40 years , which overflowed rivers . Both Kingston and Saint Andrew Parish reported 9 in ( 230 mm ) , causing flooding and landslides . The storm washed out roads , most of them unpaved , and one bridge was wrecked ; this disrupted the regional transportation . The storm also cut telegraph lines between Kingston and the eastern portion of the island . It later moved across Belize and the Yucatán Peninsula , although no stations reported gale force winds or low pressures .
Despite being a weak tropical cyclone , the storm dropped heavy rainfall in eastern Texas and northwestern Louisiana . Some areas received 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) in as little as six hours , and about 50 @,@ 000 sq mi ( 130 @,@ 000 km2 ) reported 10 @.@ 4 in ( 260 mm ) . The highest rainfall total was 21 @.@ 3 in ( 540 mm ) in Logansport , Louisiana . As of 2009 , this was the seventh highest total on record in the state , although three of the amounts were from the same storm . Logansport also reported a 24 ‑ hour total of 18 in ( 460 mm ) , which set the record for the highest daily rainfall total there in July . A secondary rainfall maxima of 19 @.@ 4 in ( 490 mm ) was observed in Shreveport , of which 12 @.@ 4 in ( 310 mm ) of rain fell in 24 hours ; this was the highest daily total on record for the site , and remains the highest as of 2008 . Alexandria also broke its 24 ‑ hour rainfall record in July with a total of 9 @.@ 75 in ( 248 mm ) on July 25 . Heavy rains spread into southern Arkansas and northwestern Mississippi .
High rains in eastern Texas , totaling over 10 in ( 250 mm ) , flooded roads in Shelby and Panola counties ; damage in the two counties collectively totaled $ 1 @.@ 5 million . Storm @-@ related flooding washed out a bridge in Henderson and portions of the Santa Fe Railway line between Carthage and Longview . Five people required rescue after being trapped in a fast @-@ moving river . The rains in the region were considered the heaviest in 17 years , and leaving severe damage to corn , cotton , and watermelon crops . Similarly , the floods damaged cotton and other crops in northern Louisiana , totaling several million dollars in losses . The rains caused many streams to exceed their banks , including one creek near Converse that flooded roads and railways . The floods forced families to evacuate in low @-@ lying areas of northern Louisiana . The rainfall in Shreveport caused the worst floods related to a tropical cyclone on record . While the storm was dropping heavy rainfall , it produced thunderstorms and gusty winds along the Texas and Louisiana coastlines . A severe thunderstorm related to the storm damaged roofs and windows in Alexandria , Louisiana .
|
= 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony =
The opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympic Games took place on the evening of Friday 27 July in the Olympic Stadium , London . As mandated by the Olympic Charter , the proceedings combined the formal ceremonial opening of this international sporting event ( including welcoming speeches , hoisting of the flags and the parade of athletes ) with an artistic spectacle to showcase the host nation 's culture . The 2012 Games were formally opened by Queen Elizabeth II . The spectacle was entitled Isles of Wonder and directed by Academy Award @-@ winning British film director Danny Boyle .
Prior to London 2012 there had been considerable apprehension about Britain 's ability to stage an opening ceremony that could reach the standard set at the Beijing Summer Games of 2008 . The 2008 ceremony had been noted for its scale , extravagance and expense , and hailed as the " greatest ever " . It had cost £ 65m , whereas London spent an estimated £ 27m ( out of £ 80m budgeted for its four ceremonies ) , which was nevertheless about twice the original budget . However , the ceremony was immediately seen as a tremendous success , widely praised as a " masterpiece " and " a love letter to Britain " .
The ceremony began at 21 : 00 BST and lasted almost four hours . It was watched by an estimated worldwide television audience of 900 million , becoming the most @-@ viewed Olympic opening ceremony in both the UK and US . The content had largely been kept secret before the performance , despite involving thousands of volunteers and two public rehearsals . The principal sections of the artistic display represented Britain 's Industrial Revolution , National Health Service , literary heritage , popular music and culture , and were noted for their vibrant storytelling and use of music . Two shorter sections drew particular comment , involving a filmed cameo appearance of the Queen , and a live performance by the London Symphony Orchestra joined by comedian Rowan Atkinson . These were widely ascribed to Britain 's sense of humour . The ceremony featured children and young people in most of its segments , reflecting the ' inspire a generation ' aspiration of London 's original bid for the Games .
The BBC released footage of the entire opening ceremony on 29 October 2012 , edited by Danny Boyle and with background extras , along with more than seven hours of sporting highlights and the complete closing ceremony .
= = Preparations = =
The London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games ( LOCOG ) approached Danny Boyle to be the director of the ceremony in June 2010 , and he immediately accepted . Boyle explained that there had been four things that made him take the job : he was a big Olympics fan , he lived a mile from the Stadium and so felt invested in the area , his late father 's birthday was on the ceremony 's date , and he felt his ' Oscar clout ' would enable him to push through what he wanted to do . He said it " felt weirdly more like a ... civic or national responsibility " to take the job .
Boyle acknowledged that the extravagance of the 2008 opening ceremony was an impossible act to follow — " you can 't get bigger than Beijing " — and that this realisation had in fact liberated his team creatively . He said " .. obviously I 'm not going to try and build on Beijing , because how could you ? We can 't , and you wouldn 't want to , so we 're going back to the beginning . We 're going to try and give the impression that we 're rethinking and restarting , because they 've ( opening ceremonies ) escalated since Los Angeles in 1984 . They 've tried to top themselves each time and you can 't do that after Beijing . " Beijing 's budget had been £ 65m , whereas London 's final budget was £ 27m , which was twice the original provision . The London stadium had the same number of seats as Beijing 's , but was half the size ; this intimacy of scale meant that Boyle felt he could achieve something personal and connecting .
The different sections of the ceremony were designed to reflect aspects of British history and culture , with the title Isles of Wonder partly inspired by Shakespeare 's play The Tempest ( particularly Caliban 's ' Be not afeard ' speech ) , and partly by the G. K. Chesterton aphorism : " The world shall perish not for lack of wonders , but for lack of wonder . "
In July 2010 Boyle started brainstorming ideas with designer Mark Tildesley , writer Frank Cottrell Boyce and costume designer Suttirat Anne Larlarb . They considered " what was essentially British " , with the non @-@ British Larlarb able to offer a view of what the world thought Britain meant . Cottrell Boyce had given Boyle a copy of Pandaemonium , ( named after the capital of Hell in Paradise Lost ) by Humphrey Jennings , which collated contemporary reports from the industrial revolution . It had become traditional during the opening ceremony to ' produce ' the Olympic rings in a spectacular manner . Cottrell Boyce commented " Danny had a very clear idea that in the first 15 minutes you had to have a great , startling image that could go around the world ; it had to climax with something that made people go ' Oh my God ! ' " . Boyle decided that " the journey from the pastoral to the industrial , ending with the forging of the Olympic rings " would be that image .
The ten distinct chapters on which the team started work were gradually compressed into three principal movements : the violent transition from ' Green and Pleasant Land ' to the ' Pandemonium ' of industrial revolution , a salute to the NHS and children 's literature , and a celebration of pop culture , technology and the digital revolution .
When Boyle returned to work on the ceremony in the spring of 2011 he asked Rick Smith of Underworld , with whom he had worked on several film projects as well as his theatrical production of Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein , to be the musical director . At the same time the team moved to the Three Mills studio complex in east London , where a 4x4 metre scale model of the stadium was built . For security reasons , a single CGI @-@ assisted version of the ceremony was kept on editor Sascha Dhillon 's laptop ; anyone needing it had to come to the studio .
The cast included professional performers and 7 @,@ 500 volunteers . Boyle considered the volunteers to be " the most valuable commodity of all " . In November 2011 they auditioned at Three Mills , and rehearsals began in earnest in spring 2012 at an open @-@ air site at Dagenham ( the abandoned Ford plant ) , often in foul weather . Although key contributors had to sign non @-@ disclosure agreements and some elements were codenamed , Boyle placed immense trust in the volunteers by asking them simply to " save the surprise " and not leak any information . Further volunteers were recruited to help with security and marshalling , and to support the technical crew . Three weeks before the ceremony , Mark Rylance , who was to have taken a leading part , pulled out after a family bereavement and was replaced by Kenneth Branagh .
The Olympic Bell , the largest harmonically tuned bell in the world , weighing 23 tonnes , had been cast in brass under the direction of Mears & Stainbank by Royal Eijsbouts of the Netherlands , and hung in the Stadium . It was inscribed with a line from Caliban 's speech in The Tempest : " Be not afeard , the isle is full of noises " .
Boyle gave significant emphasis to the London 2012 theme ' inspire a generation ' and devised a programme relying heavily on children and young people , and built around themes that would relate to the young . 25 schools in the six original East London host boroughs were used to recruit child volunteers for the performance , and 170 sixth formers ( 16 – 18 @-@ year @-@ olds ) , between them speaking more than 50 languages , were recruited from their colleges .
On 12 June 2012 at a press conference , Boyle had promised a huge set of rural Britain , which was to include a village cricket team , farm animals , a model of Glastonbury Tor , as well as a maypole and a rain @-@ producing cloud . His intention was to represent the rural and urban landscape of Britain . The design was to include a mosh pit at each end of the set , one with people celebrating a rock festival and the other the Last Night of the Proms . Boyle promised a ceremony with which everyone would feel involved ; he said , " I hope it will reveal how peculiar and contrary we are – and how there 's also , I hope , a warmth about us " . Some of the set was designed with real grass turf and soil . The use of animals ( 40 sheep , 12 horses , 3 cows , 2 goats , 10 chickens , 10 ducks , 9 geese and 3 sheep dogs , looked after by 34 animal handlers ) drew some criticism from People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) . Boyle , who was being advised by the RSPCA , assured PETA that the animals would be well cared for . After the press conference , much commentary in the UK Press was negative and attracted " hundreds of comments online completely supporting ... the view that the opening ceremony would be a disaster . "
The overwhelming majority of the music used was British . The team worked next door to the office of the musical director for the closing ceremony , David Arnold , and so hearing each other 's music there was a scramble to claim a particular song first . A.R. Rahman , who worked with Boyle on Slumdog Millionaire and 127 Hours , composed a Punjabi song ' Nimma Nimma ' to showcase Indian influence in the UK , according to Boyle 's wishes . More Indian music was also scheduled for inclusion in the medley . Paul McCartney was to be the ceremony 's closing act .
Sebastian Coe was instrumental in asking the Queen to take part in the film sequence . Danny Boyle first pitched the idea to Coe , who loved it . Coe asked Princess Anne , a British member of the IOC and of LOCOG , what she thought , and she told Coe to ask the Queen . So he took it to his friend the Queen 's Deputy Private Secretary . Boyle had two suggestions to play the Queen : either a lookalike , or a world @-@ class actress such as Helen Mirren , filmed in a house that could double as Buckingham Palace . He was therefore surprised to hear that the Queen would be happy to play herself , and wanted a speaking part . Filming took place in late March 2012 , and Happy and Glorious , as well as the opening film sequence Journey along the Thames , was produced by the BBC .
Changes were still being made to the programme in the final days before the ceremony : a BMX bike section was dropped due to time constraints , and the ' Pandemonium ' and ' Thanks .. Tim ' sections were edited down . In 2016 Boyle recounted how he had come under pressure from junior minister Jeremy Hunt to cut back the NHS section , which he had saved only by threatening to resign and take the volunteers with him .
Two full dress and technical rehearsals took place in the Olympic stadium , on 23 and 25 July , in front of an audience of 60 @,@ 000 comprising volunteers , cast members ' families , competition winners , and others connected to the Games . Boyle asked them not to ' spoil the surprise ' ( # savethesurprise ) for the billions who would watch on the Friday night .
= = Officials and guests = =
Seated in the Royal Box were the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh , the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall and other members of the British Royal Family . They were accompanied by Rowan Williams , Archbishop of Canterbury ; David Cameron , the Prime Minister , with his wife Samantha ; former Prime Ministers John Major , Tony Blair , and Gordon Brown ; and London Mayor Boris Johnson . Officials of the Olympic movement included Jacques Rogge , President of the IOC , and Sebastian Coe , Chairman of LOCOG .
International guests included Queen Margrethe II of Denmark , Queen Sofia of Spain , Princess Sirindhorn of Thailand , First Lady of the United States Michelle Obama , Prime Minister of Russia Dmitry Medvedev , President of Brazil Dilma Rousseff , Prince Willem @-@ Alexander and Princess Máxima of the Netherlands , Prime Minister of Jamaica Portia Simpson @-@ Miller , Prime Minister of Australia Julia Gillard , President of Singapore Tony Tan , Prime Minister of Turkey Recep Erdogan , Prime Minister of Bangladesh Sheikh Hasina , the President of the Federal Republic of Germany Joachim Gauck , the President of Italy Giorgio Napolitano , and Irish Taoiseach Enda Kenny .
= = Proceedings = =
= = = Prologue = = =
At exactly 20 : 12 ( 8 : 12 pm ) the Red Arrows performed a flypast over the Olympic Stadium and then over the concert in Hyde Park . This concert featured artists selected to represent the four nations of the United Kingdom : Duran Duran , Stereophonics , Snow Patrol and Paolo Nutini .
The prologue celebrated Britain 's maritime heritage , and was accompanied by extracts from the BBC Radio Shipping Forecast and maritime images on the big screens . The audience held up blue sheeting to simulate the sight and sound of the ocean . Frank Turner performed three songs ( " Sailor 's Boots " , " Wessex Boy " and " I Still Believe " ) on the model of Glastonbury Tor , joined by Emily Barker , Ben Marwood and Jim Lockey , as well as his regular backing band the Sleeping Souls . LSO On Track ( an orchestra of 80 young musicians from ten East London boroughs together with 20 LSO members ) then performed Edward Elgar 's " Nimrod " from the Enigma Variations .
= = = Countdown ( 21 : 00 – 21 : 04 BST ) = = =
The ceremony began at 9pm after a one @-@ minute ' 60 to 1 ' countdown film made up of shots of numbers , such as those on house doors , street nameplates , London buses and market labels .
A two @-@ minute film Journey along the Thames , directed by Boyle and produced by the BBC , opened the ceremony . To the sound of " Surf Solar " by Fuck Buttons , it followed the River Thames from its source to the heart of London , juxtaposing images of contemporary British life with pastoral shots and flashes of scenes from the stadium . The characters Ratty , Mole and Toad from The Wind in the Willows were briefly seen , as was a ' Monty Python hand ' pointing towards London on umbrellas , and an InterCity 125 train passing the Olympic rings as crop circles in a field . At Battersea Power Station a Pink Floyd pig was flying between the towers ; the clock sound from another Pink Floyd song " Time " was heard passing Big Ben . The soundtrack included clips from the theme tune of The South Bank Show , " London Calling " by The Clash , and the Sex Pistols ' " God Save the Queen " as the film followed the route of the band 's infamous cruise down the River Thames during the Silver Jubilee . After lifting to an aerial view of East London mirroring the title sequence of the BBC soap opera EastEnders , to the sound of the drum beats from the closing theme , the film flashed down through the Thames Barrier , into Bow Creek , and then below surface through a London Underground train and station , historic footage of Isambard Kingdom Brunel 's Thames Tunnel , and through the Rotherhithe Tunnel . It then switched to a sequence filmed outside the stadium shortly before the ceremony , superimposed with posters from all the previous Summer Olympics except 1900 Paris , 1936 Berlin , 1984 Los Angeles , and 1996 Atlanta , to a recording of " Map Of The Problematique " by Muse . This ended with a live shot of three cast members holding posters for the 2012 competition .
There was then a 10 @-@ second countdown in the stadium , with children holding clusters of balloons that burst simultaneously with the audience shouting out the numbers .
Bradley Wiggins , who had won the Tour de France five days earlier , opened the ceremony by ringing the Olympic Bell that hung at one end of the stadium . Four upper @-@ atmosphere balloons were released , each expected to carry a set of Olympic rings and a camera up to the mid @-@ stratosphere .
= = = Green and Pleasant Land ( 21 : 04 – 21 : 09 ) = = =
At the beginning the stadium contained a rural scene including the model of Glastonbury Tor , a model village and a water wheel , replete with live animals ( removed shortly before the ceremony began ) , and actors portraying working villagers , football and cricket players . This represented the ancient and mythical past . Youth choirs began a cappella performances of the informal anthems of the four nations of the UK : " Jerusalem " ( for England , sung by a live choir in the stadium and beginning with a solo from 11 @-@ year @-@ old Humphrey Keeper ) , " Danny Boy " ( from the Giant 's Causeway in Northern Ireland ) , " Flower of Scotland " ( from Edinburgh Castle in Scotland ) , and " Bread of Heaven " ( from Rhossili Beach in Wales – sung in English ) . These were inter @-@ cut with footage of notable Rugby Union Home Nations ' tries and England 's winning drop goal from the 2003 Rugby World Cup Final and live shots from the stadium . During the singing the cast mimed various rural activities ; this section of the performance was billed as " a reminder and a promise of a once and future better life " .
As the last choir performance concluded , vintage London General Omnibus Company stagecoaches entered , carrying businessmen and early industrialists in Victorian dress and top hats , led by Kenneth Branagh as Brunel . The 50 men stepped down from the carriages and surveyed the land approvingly . After walking onto the Glastonbury Tor , Brunel delivered Caliban 's " Be not afeard " speech , reflecting Boyle 's introduction to the ceremony in the programme and signifying an aspiration of new industry or a new era in Britain . This anticipated the next section of the ceremony .
= = = Pandemonium ( 21 : 09 – 21 : 25 ) = = =
This section encapsulated British economic and social development from rural economy through Industrial Revolution to the 1960s .
Proceedings were suddenly interrupted by a loud shout , recorded by volunteers during the rehearsals , followed by drumming ( the pre @-@ recorded drumming amplified by 965 cast members drumming on inverted household buckets and bins ) and Underworld 's " And I Will Kiss " , led by Evelyn Glennie . The three @-@ tonne oak tree on top of the Glastonbury Tor lifted , and industrial workers emerged from both the Tor 's brightly lit interior and the entrances to the stadium , to swell the cast to a total of 2 @,@ 500 volunteers . So began what Boyle had called the " biggest scene change in theatre history " and something he had been advised against attempting . As the cast rolled away the grass and other rural props , seven smoking chimney stacks with accompanying steeplejacks rose from the ground , along with other industrial machinery : five beam engines , six looms , a crucible and a water wheel ( one of the few items left from the rural scene ) . Boyle said that this section celebrated the " tremendous potential " afforded by the advancements of the Victorian era . It also included a minute 's silence in remembrance of the loss of life of both World Wars , featuring British ' Tommies ' and shots of poppies , during which the names of the Accrington Pals were shown on the stadium screens . Unprompted , members of the audience stood in respect during this segment .
Volunteers paraded around the stadium representing some of the groups that had changed the face of Britain : the woman 's suffrage movement , the Jarrow Crusade , the first Caribbean immigrants arriving in 1948 on board the Empire Windrush , a 1970s DJ float , the Nostalgia Steel Band , and The Beatles as they appeared on the cover of Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . Also included were real @-@ life Chelsea Pensioners , the Grimethorpe Colliery Band , and a group of Pearly Kings and Queens .
Workers began casting an iron ring . As the noise level and tension built , driven by the relentless rhythm of the music and the drumming , participants mimed repetitive mechanical movements associated with industrial processes such as weaving . Four glowing orange rings gradually began to be carried high above the stadium toward its centre on overhead wires , and then the ring seemingly being cast and forged in the arena began to lift . The five rings converged , still glowing and accompanied by steam and firework effects to give the impression that they were of hot metal . When the five rings formed the Olympic symbol above the stadium , they ignited and rained fire in silver and gold . The image of the Olympic rings in flame became the iconic image of the ceremony , reproduced in newspapers and web stories around the world .
= = = Happy and Glorious ( 21 : 25 – 21 : 35 ) = = =
A short film directed by Boyle and produced by the BBC , called Happy and Glorious ( after a line in the national anthem ) , featured the character James Bond , played by the current Bond actor Daniel Craig , entering the front gate of Buckingham Palace in a London black cab . His entrance ( accompanied by an arrangement of Handel 's ' The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba ' ) is noticed by Brazilian children ( a nod to Rio de Janeiro , the next summer Games host city ) in the throne room . Bond escorted Queen Elizabeth II ( who played herself , acknowledging Bond with the words , " Good evening , Mr Bond " ) out of the building and into a waiting AgustaWestland AW139 helicopter . The helicopter flew across London , above the cheers of a crowd on The Mall , past Nelson 's Column , doubling back to the Palace of Westminster with an animated Winston Churchill statue in Parliament Square , and then along the Thames past the London Eye , St Paul 's Cathedral , the financial district City of London ( with 30 St Mary Axe in the background ) , and then passed through Tower Bridge , accompanied by the Dambusters March . The film finished with Bond and the Queen apparently jumping from a helicopter live above the stadium accompanied by the James Bond Theme . The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh , along with Rogge , were then introduced to the audience . The Queen was wearing the same dress as in the film , as if she had just arrived with James Bond .
For the scenes with the helicopter , the Queen was doubled by actress Julia McKenzie , and for the parachute jump by BASE jumper and stuntman Gary Connery wearing a dress , hat , jewellery and with a handbag . Bond was played by Mark Sutton . The helicopter had flown to the stadium from Stapleford Aerodrome in Essex , piloted by Marc Wolff .
The Union Flag was then raised by members of Her Majesty 's Armed Forces , while the first and third verses of the national anthem were performed a cappella by the Kaos Signing Choir for Deaf and Hearing Children .
= = = Second to the right , and straight on till morning ( 21 : 35 – 21 : 47 ) = = =
The first part of this sequence celebrated the National Health Service ( " the institution which more than any other unites our nation " , according to the programme ) , which had been founded in the year of the previous London Games in 1948 . Music was by Mike Oldfield . 600 dancers , all of whom were NHS staff , along with 1 @,@ 200 volunteers recruited from British hospitals , entered along with children on 320 hospital beds , some of which functioned as trampolines . They started a short jive routine . Watching from the tor were specially invited hospital staff and nine child patients from Great Ormond Street Hospital . The blankets on the beds illuminated , then the beds were arranged to depict a child 's face with a smile and a tear ( Great Ormond Street Hospital Children 's Charity logo ) and the acronym ' GOSH ' , then changed into the initials ' NHS ' , turning into the shape of a crescent moon as the children were hushed to sleep and read a book by a nurse .
The sequence then moved on to celebrate British children 's literature . J. K. Rowling began by reading from J. M. Barrie 's Peter Pan ( whose copyright was given to Great Ormond Street Hospital ) . The Child Catcher appeared amongst the children , followed by large puppet representations of some villains from children 's literature : the Queen of Hearts , Captain Hook , Cruella de Vil and Lord Voldemort . Minutes later , 32 women playing Mary Poppins descended on flying umbrellas , as the villains deflated and the actors resumed dancing . The music for this sequence included partially rearranged sections from Tubular Bells ( with a giant set of tubular bells at the rear of the stage ) , Tubular Bells III and , after the villains had been driven away by the Mary Poppins characters , In Dulci Jubilo . During this performance the children in pyjamas jumped up and down on their brightly lit beds , creating a memorable image amid the darkness of the stadium .
The sequence concluded with a pale , gigantic baby 's head and a rippling sheet as its body , in the centre of the arena , celebrating the Scottish pioneers of obstetric ultrasound imaging .
= = = Interlude ( 21 : 47 – 21 : 52 ) = = =
Simon Rattle was then introduced to conduct the London Symphony Orchestra in a performance of Vangelis 's " Chariots of Fire " , as a tribute to the British film industry . Rowan Atkinson appeared , as a Mr. Bean @-@ like character , ( but not actually Bean , according to both Atkinson and Danny Boyle ) comically playing a repeated note on a synthesizer . He then lapsed into a filmed dream sequence in which he joined the runners from the film Chariots of Fire , beating them in their iconic run along West Sands at St Andrews by riding in a car , rejoining the race and tripping the front runner .
= = = Frankie and June say ... thanks Tim ( 21 : 52 – 22 : 09 ) = = =
This sequence celebrated British popular music and culture , paying homage to each decade since the 1960s . To the accompaniment of the BBC newsreel theme ' Girls in Grey ' and the theme song from The Archers , a young mother and son arrive in a Mini Cooper at a full @-@ size replica of a modern British house . The 1987 " don 't worry about a hurricane " weather forecast by Michael Fish was shown on the big screens as rain suddenly poured on the house , followed by " Push the Button " , by Sugababes . In the centre of the arena the sides of another house , three times larger , were used as screens to show clips from various British TV programmes , music videos and films , including A Matter of Life and Death ( June is named for its protagonist ) , as well as Gregory 's Girl , Kes , The Snowman , The Wicker Man , Four Weddings and a Funeral , Spanish TV show Cuéntame cómo pasó , and Boyle 's own Trainspotting . A large group of dancers , centred around Frankie and June ( 19 @-@ year @-@ old Henrique Costa and 18 @-@ year @-@ old Jasmine Breinburg ) on a night out , performed to an assortment of British popular songs arranged broadly chronologically , beginning with " Going Underground " by The Jam , suggesting their ride on the London Underground . During this track images of the Underground were projected onto the house and former London Mayor Ken Livingstone was briefly seen . Throughout the sequence cast members were seen texting each other or placing social networking status updates on the Internet . Frankie and June first notice each other as a snippet from " Wonderful Tonight " by Eric Clapton plays , but when Frankie saw that June had dropped her phone on the Tube , he set off to return it ( communicating using last number redial to her sister 's phone ) .
An extended dance sequence followed , with songs including " My Generation " by The Who , " ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction " by the Rolling Stones , " My Boy Lollipop " sung by Millie Small , " All Day and All of the Night " by the Kinks , " She Loves You " by the Beatles ( with footage of the band performing the song ) , " Trampled Under Foot " by Led Zeppelin , " Starman " by David Bowie , " Bohemian Rhapsody " by Queen ( during which the sound of the TARDIS from Doctor Who could be heard ) , " Pretty Vacant " by the Sex Pistols ( during which dancers on power jumpers wearing large heads with Mohawk hairstyles performed a pogo dance , and the lyrics to the song were spelled out in LED lights around the stadium ) , " Blue Monday " by New Order , " Relax " by Frankie Goes to Hollywood ( during which Frankie , asked by June for his name , replied by revealing one of the band 's " Frankie say ... " T @-@ shirts ) , " Back to Life ( However Do You Want Me ) " by Soul II Soul , " Step On " by Happy Mondays , " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " by Eurythmics , " Firestarter " by The Prodigy , and " Born Slippy .NUXX " by Underworld , ending with the cast singing " I 'm Forever Blowing Bubbles " as Frankie and June walked towards each other . A sequence from the film Four Weddings and a Funeral was projected behind them ; when they kissed , a montage of memorable kisses from film and real life was shown ( including the lesbian kiss from Brookside , which in some countries , including Saudi Arabia , then became the first lesbian kiss ever shown on pre @-@ watershed television ) . , while Song 2 by Blur was played . A live performance of " Bonkers " by Dizzee Rascal followed , along with a further sequence in which all the cast ( and Britain 's Got Talent fame dancing duo Signature ) attend a party at June 's house whilst Amy Winehouse 's " Valerie " , Muse 's " Uprising " , and Tinie Tempah 's " Pass Out " played .
At the close the larger house was raised to reveal Tim Berners @-@ Lee working at a NeXT Computer , like the one on which he invented the World Wide Web . He tweeted ' This is for everyone ' , instantly spelled out in LED lights around the stadium . The programme explained " Music connects us with each other and with the most important moments in our lives . One of the things that makes those connections possible is the World Wide Web " . Boyle wanted to honour Berners @-@ Lee for making the World Wide Web free and available to everyone ( hence the tweet ) , rather than making a commercial profit from it .
= = = Abide with Me ( 22 : 09 – 22 : 20 ) = = =
A filmed sequence showed extracts from the torch relay around the UK , to the music " I Heard Wonders " by David Holmes . This then cut live to show David Beckham driving a dramatically illuminated motor boat down the River Thames and under Tower Bridge , to fireworks and the sound of London air raid sirens , while footballer Jade Bailey held on to the torch in the boat . This section had been rehearsed on 24 July 2012 when the close @-@ up shots were pre @-@ recorded , and was directed by Stephen Daldry .
There was then a tribute to " .. friends and family of those in the stadium who cannot be here tonight " , including the victims of the ' 7 / 7 ' 2005 London bombings ( on the day after London had been awarded the Games ) . Photos of people who had died were displayed on screens as a memorial , accompanied by an excerpt from Brian Eno 's ambient work " An Ending ( Ascent ) " .
The hymn " Abide with Me " was then sung by Emeli Sandé while a group of dancers choreographed by and including Akram Khan performed a contemporary dance on the theme of mortality .
= = = Welcome ( 22 : 20 – 00 : 00 ) = = =
The Parade of Nations of athletes ( drawn from the 10 @,@ 490 competing ) and officials from 204 nations ( and also the " Independent Olympic Athletes " ) was led , according to custom , by the Greek team , followed by other competing countries in alphabetical order , and finally the host nation Great Britain . Each of the 205 teams entered the stadium led by their flagbearer , accompanied by a child volunteer carrying a copper petal ( later revealed to be part of the cauldron ) and a young woman carrying a sign with the country 's name in English ( and wearing a dress made from fabric printed with photos of people who had applied to be Olympic volunteers ) .
The parade was accompanied by mainly British popular songs , including " Galvanize " by Chemical Brothers , " West End Girls " by Pet Shop Boys , " The Hindu Times " by Oasis , " Rolling in the Deep " by Adele , " Stayin ' Alive " by the Bee Gees and both " Where the Streets Have No Name " and " Beautiful Day " by Irish band U2 , with Great Britain entering to David Bowie 's song " " Heroes " " . This soundtrack was assembled by DJ and producer High Contrast .
Music with a fast rhythm of 120 bpm was used in an attempt to keep the teams walking quickly around the stadium , and this was reinforced by the drummers in the stadium ; nevertheless the parade part of the programme took 1 hour 40 minutes to complete , compared to the 1 hour 29 minutes estimated in the official media guide . Once all of the athletes were inside the stadium , 7 billion small pieces of paper were dropped from a Westland helicopter , each piece representing one person on Earth .
Each nation 's flag was planted on the Glastonbury Tor .
= = = Bike a.m. ( 00 : 00 – 00 : 07 BST 28 July ) = = =
Once the athletes had gathered in the centre of the stadium , the Arctic Monkeys performed " I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor " and The Beatles ' " Come Together " , the latter whilst 75 cyclists circled the stadium with wings lit by LEDs representing Doves of Peace . Doves were traditionally released at Olympic opening ceremonies , although real birds have not been used since 1992 . A single dove cyclist , his beak painted yellow in honour of Bradley Wiggins , appeared to fly out of the stadium .
= = = Let the Games Begin ( 00 : 07 – 00 : 24 ) = = =
The formal part of the ceremony was introduced by Sebastian Coe , speaking from the Glastonbury Tor surrounded by flags of the participating nations , who welcomed the watching world to London . He expressed pride in being British and part of the Olympic movement , and said that the Olympics " brings together the people of the world ... to celebrate what is best about mankind " . He continued to speak of the " truth and drama " of sport , and then thanked Britain for " making all this possible " . Rogge responded by thanking London , stating that it was the third time that London had held the Games , the first time in 1908 at short notice when Rome was unable to do so ( after a volcanic eruption ) , and secondly in 1948 three years after the end of World War II . Rogge thanked the thousands of volunteers , to huge cheers . He announced that for the first time in Olympic history , every team had female participants . Rogge acknowledged the important role that the UK had played as " the birthplace of modern sport " , codifying the " fair play " ethos of sport , and in building sport into the school curriculum . He enjoined the athletes to play fairly and be drug @-@ free , according to the values of Baron de Courbertin , reminding them that they were role models who would " inspire a generation " . After expressing these sentiments again briefly in French , he invited the Queen to open the Games .
The Queen declared the competition officially open , immediately followed by a trumpet fanfare based on a theme from Tubular Bells by Mike Oldfield and then a fireworks display . The 2012 ceremony was the second time the Queen had opened an Olympic Games , the first being the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal in her capacity as Queen of Canada .
The Olympic Flag was carried by eight people chosen from around the world as symbols of the Olympic values : Ban Ki @-@ moon ( as UN general secretary ) , Sally Becker ( for courage ) , Doreen Lawrence ( chosen for her " tireless thirst for justice " ) , Haile Gebrselassie ( for his " fight against poverty " ) , Leymah Gbowee ( as " a great peacemaker " ) , Shami Chakrabarti ( for " her integrity " ) , Daniel Barenboim ( for bringing " harmony in place of discord " ) , and Marina Silva ( as UN Champion of the Earth ) . The flag paused in front of Muhammad Ali ( invited to represent ' respect , confidence , conviction , dedication , generosity and spiritual strength ' ) , who held it for a few moments . Ali , who had lit the flame at the 1996 Atlanta Games , was accompanied by his wife Lonnie and appeared frail . The flag was received by a colour guard of Her Majesty 's Armed Forces and hoisted to the Olympic Hymn , performed by the LSO and the Grimethorpe Colliery Band . The Olympic Oaths were taken by taekwondo athlete Sarah Stevenson on behalf of the athletes , by British AIBA Referee Mik Basi on behalf of the officials , and by Eric Farrell on behalf of the coaches .
= = = There Is a Light That Never Goes Out ( 00 : 24 – 00 : 38 ) = = =
This section was named after a song by The Smiths . The motorboat driven by David Beckham arrived with the Olympic Flame via the Limehouse Cut and the Lee Navigation . Steve Redgrave lit his torch from that on the boat , and carried it into the stadium through an honour guard of 500 of the construction workers who had built the Olympic Park . He passed the flame on to a team of seven young people , each nominated by a famous British Olympian to convey the 2012 Games ' aim to ' inspire a generation ' . Six of the team were athletes , and the seventh was a volunteer young ambassador .
The teenagers made a lap of the stadium taking turns to carry the torch , while Alex Trimble , lead singer of Two Door Cinema Club , performed ' Caliban 's Dream ' with the Dockhead Choir , Only Men Aloud , Elizabeth Roberts , and Esme Smith . This had been written especially for the ceremony by Rick Smith of Underworld .
Each young athlete was greeted by their nominating Olympian and presented with their own torch , which was then lit from the Olympic flame . They jogged through a corridor formed between the assembled athletes to the centre of the stadium , where the 204 copper petals ( each inscribed with the name of the team it accompanied during the parade ) were now seen in a circular formation attached to long pipes ( the petals were to accompany each team home after the competition , as a souvenir ) . The young athletes lit some of the petals , and when the flame had spread to all of them , the pipes rose slowly from the floor of the stadium and converged to form the cauldron . The cauldron lighters were ( nominator in brackets ) :
Callum Airlie ( Shirley Robertson )
Jordan Duckitt ( Duncan Goodhew )
Desiree Henry ( Daley Thompson )
Katie Kirk ( Mary Peters )
Cameron MacRitchie ( Steve Redgrave )
Aidan Reynolds ( Lynn Davies )
Adelle Tracey ( Kelly Holmes )
The cauldron designed by Thomas Heatherwick was described as " one of the best @-@ kept secrets of the opening ceremony " : until this point , neither its design and location nor who would light it had been revealed .
This section of the ceremony was witnessed by 260 of Britain 's greatest Olympians , including six medal winners from 1948 .
= = = And in the end ( 00 : 38 – 00 : 46 ) = = =
A flurry of spectacular fireworks accompanied by Pink Floyd 's song " Eclipse " , was supported by images of memorable Olympic victories on the big screens , and the LED pixels were used to show Jesse Owens running . The climax of this section was a live view from one of the balloons launched three and a half hours earlier , of the Olympic rings 34 kilometres ( 21 mi ) above the Earth . The stadium was then lit up by searchlights piercing the smoke ( another iconic London image ) of the fireworks , the Orbit tower was illuminated , and Paul McCartney and his band performed the entirety of " The End " , and then " Hey Jude " , with its chorus sung by the audience to close the ceremony at 00 : 46 BST .
= = Music = =
The eclectic range of music was chosen to showcase almost exclusively British music with pieces representing the UK 's four nations . The programme included classical works by British composers such as Hubert Parry , and performances by UK choirs and orchestras . The focus was mainly on music of the 1960s onwards , causing one Chinese journalist to ask " Will this be the most rock and roll opening ceremony ever ? " .
Rick Smith and Underworld composed pieces especially for the ceremony , including ' And I Will Kiss ' performed by Evelyn Glennie and drummers during the ' Pandemonium ' section , and ' Caliban 's Dream ' heard during the lighting of the cauldron . Underworld 's original pieces were favourably reviewed . Writing in The Guardian , Michael Hann said " Underworld ... had a bit of a triumph : the builds and fades they learned in the world of dance music lent the sometimes overwhelming visual spectacle a sense of structure " .
Musical motifs were used to bind the whole programme together : for example , the ' whistling ' theme first heard during the minute 's silence embedded within " And I Will Kiss " returned frequently — behind the fury as the ring was being forged , emerging triumphant as the five rings came together , and again later as the main theme of ' Caliban 's Dream ' as the flame paraded the stadium with the young athletes .
Bells were a theme of the opening day of the Olympics , starting at 8.12am with artist Martin Creed 's Work No. 1197 : All the Bells , when bells were rung across the UK including 40 strikes of Big Ben . " The sound of bells is the sound of England " , Boyle had told volunteers during rehearsal . Much of the music for the ceremony contained ' bell ' references , linking to the large bell forged for the ceremony and evoking bells as " the sound of freedom and peace " . Modified sequences based on the traditional British eight @-@ bell peal underlay ' And I Will Kiss ' and carried through into the Tubular Bells / NHS section , with handbells and a tolling large bell featured on ' Caliban 's Dream ' and at key points in the ceremony . A handbell chime also played after the close as the stadium emptied .
Boyle approached many of the artists personally , to see if they would be interested in performing , and he also flew to Barbados for an hour @-@ long meeting with Mike Oldfield . A few turned him down , including Elvis Costello and David Bowie , and a well @-@ known group Boyle has not named " wanted £ 20 @,@ 000 and would not budge " , and so were not used . Artists performing at the ceremony were paid a nominal £ 1 fee to ensure their contracts were legally binding . Welsh drum and bass DJ High Contrast mixed and sequenced the music for the athletes ' parade .
The pre @-@ recorded soundtrack Isles of Wonder was released for download on iTunes at midnight of 28 July 2012 with the 2 @-@ disc CD released on 2 August . Within two days the download album had topped the iTunes album charts in Britain , France , Belgium and Spain , and reached No. 5 in the United States , as well as being at No. 5 in the British album charts . Rick Smith 's concluding comment in the CD cover notes was " The isle is full of noises . The soundtrack writes itself . "
= = Technical aspects = =
The main loading of the stadium started on 10 May and took place during ten weeks of what was the wettest summer for a hundred years , posing considerable challenges . Dismantling the staging took just 60 hours .
The infield staging area was 2 @.@ 5 metres high , and had to accommodate elements to be revealed during the ceremony , such as the chimneys and beam engines from ' Pandemonium ' , and the cauldron . To ensure that it remained secret , the cauldron was installed and tested at night .
The stadium was rigged with a one million watt sound system and more than 500 speakers . Some 15 @,@ 000 square metres ( 3 @.@ 7 acres ) of staging and 12 @,@ 956 props were used , as well as 7 @,@ 346 square metres ( 1 @.@ 815 acres ) of turf including crops .
70 @,@ 799 25 centimetre ( 10 inch ) pixel panels were placed around the stadium , including between every seat . Each panel connected to a central computer and was fitted with nine full @-@ colour LED pixels by Tait Technology . These enabled the audience to participate in broadcasting images during the performance , such as of a 1960s go @-@ go dancer , a London Underground train , and a representation of the birth of the internet . The audience was also able to wave with the paddles to create a twinkling effect . These animations were designed by 59 Productions and the video animations were produced by Chinese animation company Crystal CG . The 2D to 3D transformation and mapping of video content onto the LED panels was performed by Avolites Media media server consoles .
Technical director Piers Shepperd masterminded the complex change from rural to industrial during ' Pandemonium ' . The seven inflatable chimneys were made by Airworks , and varied in height ( three were 22 @-@ metre ( 72 ft ) , two were 23 @-@ metre ( 75 ft ) and two were 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) high ) . They were made with soft fabric , the outer layer of which had a printed brick pattern . Each contained four industrial fans at the base to inflate them , and a smoke machine near the mouth , and were hoisted into the air from the overhead rigs . Life @-@ size beam engines were constructed onstage by teams of stage hands and members of the Volunteer Staging Team . At the climax of the ' Pandemonium ' , in the Olympic ring forging scene , amber lights lit in sequence created the illusion of a 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) molten steel river , with pyrotechnic smoke and dry ice as the steam . The original grass floor surface had been removed to reveal a giant stylised map of London .
Working alongside the professional crew were over 800 volunteers ; some were production arts students from British drama schools . Many volunteers had been working on the Olympic and Paralympic ceremonies since early 2012 at the Three Mills Studios and Dagenham rehearsal sites , before moving to the Olympic Stadium on 16 June .
The thousands of cast were cued and co @-@ ordinated by verbal directions received through earphones ( ' in @-@ ear monitors ' ) , and adjustments were made during the performance : for example during Pandemonium extra volunteers were directed to make sure all the turf was cleared from the arena on time . The earphones also carried a continuous electronic metronomic four @-@ beat to keep all performers walking and moving in time with the music .
In July 2013 it was revealed that on the morning of the ceremony , Britain 's surveillance headquarters GCHQ had detected a credible cyber attack threat that would have killed the lighting system in the stadium . Counter @-@ measures were taken , and in the afternoon contingency plans were discussed with government ministers at a meeting in the Cabinet Office briefing room . However , this attack never materialised .
= = Ceremony key team = =
= = TV coverage = =
The BBC 's coverage started at 19 : 00 and continued uninterrupted until 00 : 50 . The BBC audience averaged about 24 @.@ 46 million viewers and peaked at approximately 26 @.@ 9 million . This was the largest average audience for any broadcast since 1996 and one of the top 20 most @-@ watched UK television broadcasts of all time . David Stringer of Associated Press described the coverage as " a success ... so far , the BBC 's ambitious – and technically tricky – Olympic plan has worked almost without a flaw . " Euan Ferguson of The Observer commented that " Coverage of the Olympics so far ... has been near perfect . " However , Clive James was critical of the build @-@ up programme . Commentators for the BBC were Gary Lineker , Gabby Logan , Huw Edwards , Hazel Irvine and Trevor Nelson , the latter criticised by Andy Dawson of the Daily Mirror as floundering " like a ventriloquist 's dummy pumped full of low @-@ grade ketamine " . Private talks were held between Boyle and BBC commentators in the run @-@ up to the ceremony . Boyle was unhappy with a voiceover being imposed on the ceremony , which he wanted viewers to be able to enjoy without commentary . The BBC offered several options including ' no commentary ' coverage for both its TV and online transmissions .
Nearly 41 million US viewers watched NBC 's coverage of the event . Criticism was levelled at its decision to tape @-@ delay this broadcast , and not make a live version available even to cable and web users . There were frequent interruptions by commercial breaks . Many US viewers looked for other ways to watch ( such as the live BBC feed ) , despite both NBC and the IOC vowing to crack down on unauthorised streams . More significant criticism was levelled at NBC for cutting to a Ryan Seacrest interview with Michael Phelps during the ' memorial wall ' tribute including commemoration of the victims of the 7 / 7 London bombings , which was seen as disrespectful and insensitive . An NBC spokesman said the network had left out that segment because its programming was " tailored for the US audience " . There was also criticism of commentators Matt Lauer and Meredith Vieira for suggesting that the Queen had actually jumped out of a helicopter . Vieira and Lauer admitted to not knowing that Tim Berners @-@ Lee was the inventor of the World Wide Web , as she commented " If you haven 't heard of him , we haven 't either " , before co @-@ host Matt Lauer told the audience to Google him . These failings were picked up on Twitter during the broadcast with the hashtag # nbcfail . Commentary by Bob Costas and Lauer during the Parade of Nations was also criticised for their negative opinions about some countries ' political environments and for leaving out information about the athletes , which was seen as " smug American elitism " . It was noted that they spoke about some countries with " outright condescension " .
The ceremony was recorded by three separate broadcasters : the BBC , the Olympic Broadcasting Services ( directed by the Finnish state broadcaster YLE on behalf of the OBS ) , and by independent production company Done and Dusted , hired by LOCOG and working under Boyle 's direction . This was the first time that an independent production company had been used for an Olympic ceremony . This situation led to some tension , as Boyle wanted more artistic control and felt he was getting no co @-@ operation from the OBS . He criticised the OBS coverage during his commentary for the BBC DVD . In addition , the BBC filmed some of the pre @-@ recorded parts of the ceremony . The filming was directed for television by Hamish Hamilton , who described it as " easily the most difficult job of my life " .
The BBC released footage of the entire ceremony on 29 October 2012 , edited by Danny Boyle and with background extras , filling more than one disc of a five DVD or Blu @-@ ray disc set , which also contained more than seven hours of sporting highlights as well as the complete closing ceremony . A ' BBC commentary @-@ free ' option for the opening ceremony is available on the DVD , as well as a commentary track by Danny Boyle and Frank Cottrell Boyce . In contrast the NBC DVD only has highlights of the opening ceremony .
= = Reviews = =
The Times described the ceremony as " a masterpiece " , with The Daily Telegraph saying it was " brilliant , breathtaking , bonkers and utterly British " . The BBC 's chief sports writer Tom Fordyce called it " eccentric " and " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " , saying " no @-@ one expected ... it would be quite so gloriously daft , so cynicism @-@ squashingly charming and , well , so much pinch @-@ yourself fun . " Two weeks after the ceremony Jonathan Freedland of The Guardian wrote that " Boyle 's spectacular , so beautifully executed and ingeniously conceived it lingers in the mind even as the closing draws near , stood apart from its predecessors thanks not only to its humour and eccentricity , but also because it had something to say . " Writing in The Observer , Jackie Kay commented that " it seemed that Boyle had invented a new kind of opening ceremony , a concept ceremony , one that embraces big ideas as passionately as it does technical flamboyancy " . The Stage said that " Danny Boyle 's spectacular and moving Olympics Opening Ceremony was undoubtedly the theatrical highlight of 2012 " .
Although praise came from across the political spectrum , a few on the British political right were unhappy . Daily Mail columnist Rick Dewsbury was critical of the Grime music and portrayal of the NHS and of mixed @-@ race families . Aidan Burley , a Conservative MP , denounced the ceremony on Twitter as " leftie multicultural crap " . Burley 's comments were dismissed by many fellow Conservatives , including David Cameron and Boris Johnson .
Foreign reaction was overwhelmingly positive . The New York Times said the ceremony was " hilariously quirky ... a wild jumble of the celebratory and the fanciful ; the conventional and the eccentric ; and the frankly off @-@ the @-@ wall . " Forbes called it Boyle 's " love song to Britain " , while Sports Illustrated noted its political aspects , calling it " a celebration of protest and dissent " . The Sydney Morning Herald said it was " an unforgettable start ... at once subversive and sublime " and The Times of India said " London presented a vibrant picture of Great Britain 's rich heritage and culture . " The Chinese news agency Xinhua described the ceremony as " dazzling " and an " eccentric and exuberant celebration of British history , art and culture " . Chinese artist Ai Weiwei praised the ceremony for its " human touch " , saying " In London , they really turned the ceremony into a party ... such a density of information about events and stories and literature and music ; about folktales and movies . "
Russian President Putin said the ceremony was " wonderful and unforgettable " . Dmitry Medvedev said " It was an exceptional spectacle , very well prepared and quite rich ... it succeeded in creating a very British atmosphere ... they managed to find the right language ... to communicate . " Panos Samaras of Greece 's NET said " it was more like a big musical , a rock opera ... than an Olympics ceremony " . French sports newspaper L 'Équipe wrote that it " took the classic from such events and had fun with them " whilst Le Parisien said it " was magnificent , inventive and offbeat drawing heavily on the roots of British identity " . Germany 's Die Welt hailed it as " spectacular , glitzy but also provoking and moving " .
Chinese news CCTV @-@ 4 said the ceremony was a " stunning feast for the eyes " . South Korea 's Yonhap said it was " by turns dramatic , imaginative , humorous and solemn " and " weaved the story of the country 's past , present and future " . Singapore 's Straits Times said it was a " grand show " noteworthy for both " scale " and " authenticity " . The Australian Daily praised a " glorious pandemonium devoted to London 's thriving , chaotic energy ... deliberately revelling in the chaos of Britain 's free society and popular culture " . France 's Le Figaro said it reflected " the best contributions that Britain has given to the world ... its sense of humour , its music , and of course sport " . The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation said it was a " rocking , rollicking , sometimes quiet and brooding ceremony . " Qatar 's The Peninsula said London did a " spectacular job " making the ceremony a " memorable event " .
In an end of the year review , British magazine Q said " It could all have been so different . As the London 2012 Summer Olympics approached , the tide of scepticism seemed almost irreversible . There was the heavy @-@ handed sponsorship , the draconian security , the ticketing problems , the ballooning budget , and the lurking fear that the Opening Ceremony might be , in director Danny Boyle 's pungent description , ' shite ' . It took less than four hours on the night of Friday 27 July to turn the whole country around . Not only was the ceremony demonstrably not shite , it was the most surprising , moving , spectacular cultural event this country had ever seen ... modern Britain , in all its berserk , multi @-@ faceted glory . "
The writer of the ceremony , Frank Cottrell Boyce , said : " People around us thought it might need defending , so I was told to do press the next morning . I was completely surprised [ by the positive response ] . A lot of people were surprised . But I don 't think Danny was surprised . Danny never blinked . At no point did he show any feeling that it was going to be anything but amazing . And he was right . "
= = Awards and accolades = =
Won the ' Beyond Theatre ' award at the Evening Standard Theatre Awards , November 2012 . A ' roar of delight ' went up from the audience when it was announced that the creative team had won the award .
Won the " Theatre Event of the Year " at the Whatsonstage.com theatre awards , February 2013 . This was decided by public vote . Boyle accepted the award along with some of the volunteer performers .
Won the " NME Award for Music Moment of the Year " at the NME Awards in February 2013 .
Won the prestigious Judges ' Award for Danny Boyle at the Royal Television Society Awards , March 2013 . The ceremony was described as " the most surprising , dazzling , original night of television of the year " .
Won the Award in Design Craft and Innovation at the Royal Television Society Awards , March 2013 , which went to the production team .
Won the Best Director ( Multi @-@ Camera ) award at the BAFTA Television Craft Awards , which went to Hamish Hamilton and Tapani Parm , April 2013 .
Nominated The ceremony was one of the nominations for the Radio Times Audience Award at the BAFTA Television Awards , held in London on 12 May 2013 . The production team was also nominated for the Television Sport and Live Events 2013 Award .
The ceremony was nominated in five categories at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards , 22 September 2013 in Los Angeles :
Won Outstanding Art Direction for Variety or Nonfiction Programming . The nominees were Mark Tildesley ( Production Designer ) , Suttirat Anne Larlarb ( Production Designer ) and Danny Boyle ( Art Director ) .
Nominated Outstanding Picture Editing for Short @-@ Form Segments and Variety Specials . Sascha Dhillon ( Editor ) was nominated for the " Happy and Glorious " segment .
Nominated Outstanding Lighting Design / Lighting Direction for a Variety Special . The nominees were Patrick Woodroffe ( Lighting Designer ) , Adam Bassett ( Lighting Director ) , Al Gurdon ( Director of Photography ) and Tim Routledge ( Moving Light Programmer ) .
Nominated Outstanding Special Class Programs - 2013 .
Nominated Outstanding Directing for a Variety Special . The nominees were Hamish Hamilton ( director of the overall televising ) and Bucky Gunts ( director of the NBC coverage ) .
In December 2012 the culture critic of The Guardian picked the ceremony as " best art event of the year " . A British public survey by Samsung voted it the second most inspiring television moment of all time , second only to the 1969 moon landing . A Digital Spy survey of more than 25 @,@ 000 overwhelmingly voted the ceremony as the entertainment highlight of 2012 .
The ceremony was the second most @-@ mentioned entertainment event on the internet in 2012 , with just over 6 million mentions , coming second to the Grammy Awards . The BBC reported that it was the most requested item from 2012 on its iPlayer on @-@ demand service , with 3 @.@ 3 million requests .
Boyle was offered a knighthood in late 2012 , but turned it down , saying " I 'm very proud to be an equal citizen and I think that 's what the Opening Ceremony was actually about . "
= = Legacy = =
The ceremony was identified by some commentators as precipitating a new mood in the United Kingdom : it " had barely finished before it had become a byword for a new approach , not only to British culture but to Britishness itself . Politicians would soon be referring to it , using it as shorthand for a new kind of patriotism that does not lament a vanished Britain but loves the country that has changed . Boyle 's ceremony was hailed from ( almost ) all sides ... for providing a nation that had grown used to mocking its myriad flaws with a new , unfamiliarly positive view of itself ... It was , perhaps , this lack of cynicism that people responded to ... So used to British irony and detachment , it felt refreshing to witness an unembarrassed , positive case for this country . Boyle himself says this was the most important thing he took away from the Olympic experience : " How important it is to believe in something . You might make a fool of yourself and people will go , ' How can you believe in that , you stupid idiot ? ' But if you believe in something , you carry people with you . "
Business leaders also took inspiration from the event , admiring its risk @-@ taking and creative freedom , as well as the trust placed in and loyalty inspired from the workers and volunteers . In February 2013 the BBC 's Head of Drama Ben Stephenson told an audience of writers , commissioners and producers that he " wanted them to seek inspiration from the opening ceremony of the London Olympics " which , he said , " had scale and brilliance and , above all , had succeeded not in spite of its Britishness but because of its Britishness , delighting viewers here and around the world by rooting itself in the authentic stories and spirit of these islands . " Steve Coogan told Frank Cottrell Boyce that he felt it was " like the emperor 's new clothes in reverse ... it made irony and postmodernism feel tired and past its sell @-@ by date " , and Russell T Davies told Boyce : " It changed my idea of the possible . "
Reviewing the 2014 Winter Olympics opening ceremony at Sochi , Russia , Owen Gibson of The Guardian observed that with his ' complex , intimate snapshot of " who we were , who we are and who we wish to be " ' , Boyle ' rewrote the rule book for opening ceremonies ' .
|
= Conspiracy ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" Conspiracy " is the 25th episode of the syndicated American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , originally aired on May 9 , 1988 , in the United States . The premise was conceived by the show 's creator Gene Roddenberry in a single sentence overview titled " The Assassins " , being expanded into a thirty page story by Robert Sabaroff . From this , the teleplay was produced by Tracy Tormé and the episode directed by Cliff Bole .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship USS Enterprise @-@ D. Following a meeting with a fellow Captain , the strange behavior of high @-@ ranking officers leads Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) and the crew of the Enterprise to uncover a conspiracy of senior Starfleet officers possessed by parasitical aliens who are preparing to invade the United Federation of Planets .
Numerous make @-@ up effects were created by make @-@ up supervisor Michael Westmore , including an exploding head using raw meat . There were concerns by producers that some of the effects were too graphic , but after a viewing by a staff member 's son , they decided to broadcast it uncut . The episode has subsequently been included in some best episode lists of the series , and won one of three Primetime Emmy Awards for The Next Generation 's first season . Controversial when originally broadcast , it was initially banned from broadcast in the United Kingdom , and required a warning before airing in Canada .
= = Plot = =
While the Enterprise is en route to Pacifica on a scientific mission , Captain Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) receives a highly confidential message from an old friend , Captain Walker Keel ( Jonathan Farwell ) of the USS Horatio . Keel refuses to discuss his concerns , even though the frequency he is using is supposed to be a secure channel , and insists on a face @-@ to @-@ face meeting . Once they arrive at Dytallix B for this secret meeting , the crew discover the Horatio and two other Federation ships already present . Picard beams alone to the surface and is met by Captain Keel and the other captains . Keel reports strange orders from Starfleet headquarters and what he implies are suspicious deaths of Starfleet officers , and expresses concern of a conspiracy . Picard refuses to accept this without proof , but Keel warns him to remain wary . When the captain returns to the Enterprise , he is challenged by Counselor Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) about keeping his contact with Keel secret . Picard is skeptical about the conspiracy , but says that he trusts his old friend completely . The Enterprise resumes its previous journey . Picard has Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) review all orders issued by Starfleet Command in the past six months . While the ship is still on its way to Pacifica , a disturbance is detected in nearby space . Upon investigating this , the Enterprise discovers a mass of debris that surely must be the shattered remains of the Horatio . Data completes his study and finds several strange orders from the senior levels of Starfleet . Picard informs his senior staff of the conspiracy theory , and orders the Enterprise to Earth .
As it approaches Earth , the Enterprise receives no response from Starfleet Command . Eventually , a transmission is received from a trio of Starfleet admirals : Savar ( Henry Darrow ) , Arron ( Ray Reinhardt ) and Admiral Quinn ( Ward Costello ) , who recently made an inspection of the Enterprise ( in " Coming Of Age " ) . They are surprised by the Enterprise 's presence , but invite Captain Picard and Commander Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) to dinner . Quinn requests to beam aboard the Enterprise for a tour . Captain Picard recalls being warned by Quinn about some kind of threat to Starfleet when he was last aboard . Upon the admiral 's arrival , Picard discusses matters with him and comes to believe that he is an impostor , or under some sort of alien influence . After warning Riker of his concerns and asking him to watch Quinn , the captain beams down to Starfleet headquarters to attend the dinner . On arrival , Picard is greeted by the other two Admirals who are accompanied by Quinn 's assistant , Lt. Commander Remmick ( Robert Schenkkan ) . Meanwhile , Riker visits Quinn 's quarters on the Enterprise and questions him about what he has in the small box he brought with him . Quinn tells Riker of a superior life form within the box . Riker attempts to leave but Quinn throws Riker across the room . A security team arrives to subdue Quinn , who is able to withstand a great amount of phaser @-@ fire before he collapses . The ship 's chief medical officer , Dr. Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) , finds a small protrusion on the back of his neck . She discovers that a bug @-@ like parasite has latched itself onto Quinn 's brain and is controlling him . Dr. Crusher warns Picard of this incident when he contacts the ship in private . He is advised that the infected person can only be stopped by a phaser set to ' kill ' : the captain points out that he is unarmed . He then has no choice but to go in to dinner with his three superiors .
A bowl of living larvae is served at the meal , to Picard 's disgust . He attempts to leave , only to find Riker blocking his way . The commander appears to be controlled by the parasite Quinn brought to the Enterprise . When the others see a prosthetic protrusion on the back of Riker 's neck , he is accepted as one of them and allowed to dine . They reveal that the parasites are seeking to take over Starfleet , using humanoids as hosts . When he is about to put a handful of the larvae in his mouth , Riker suddenly produces a phaser and fires on one of the Admirals . Picard picks up a fallen weapon and the two Enterprise officers subdue the infected , causing parasites to leave the hosts and flee . One of the parasites scurries under a closed door and Picard and Riker follow it . They find Remmick ingesting the parasite to join several others inside him . Picard and Riker fire upon Remmick , destroying his body but freeing a giant parasite ; the two continue to fire until it is destroyed .
Later , Dr. Crusher reports that the other parasites , including the one in Quinn , have shriveled up as they are unable to survive without the creature that was inside Remmick . As they help to settle matters with Starfleet headquarters , they find that before Remmick was killed , he had sent a signal to a distant quadrant of the galaxy . The signal is thought to be a homing beacon .
= = Production = =
Gene Roddenberry originated the idea for the episode in a single @-@ sentence proposal entitled " The Assassins " . Robert Sabaroff expanded this idea to thirty pages , but his version was seen as too expensive . Tracy Tormé was then given the job of rewriting it , but some producers thought the new version was too dark until Roddenberry saw it and endorsed the new version . In one of the original versions , it was a faction within Starfleet who were conspirators rather than alien parasites , but Roddenberry did not like showing Starfleet itself in such a dark manner . The premise was based on the Iran – Contra affair .
The director of the episode , Cliff Bole , was a school friend of makeup supervisor Michael Westmore . The scene with Remmick at the end of the episode was added in post @-@ production , as it was originally scripted to have Riker and Picard come face to face with a full @-@ sized mother creature . The part where the parasite enters Remmick 's throat reportedly took many takes because the bulging effect was made by Westmore blowing into air bladders under a false neck , and Bole kept trying to make Westmore hyperventilate from the exertion . The parasites themselves were created by Makeup & Effects Laboratories from a design by Rick Sternbach . A mold of Paul Newman 's face was filled with raw meat and then blown up to create the effect used when Picard and Riker fire on Remmick , but both Rick Berman and Peter Lauritson were concerned that it was too graphic . Dan Curry invited his six @-@ year @-@ old son to watch the episode in order to test how children would react to it ; the boy reportedly liked it so much that he suggested the creation of a Remmick action figure whose head would blow up by pressing a button . This resulted in Berman deciding to air the episode uncut with the full sequence included .
Several props and effects seen in the episode were reproduced from the Star Trek movies , including the shots of Earth and Spacedock One and the painting used of Starfleet Command . The doors to the room where dinner is served were later reused from season 2 onwards on the set for Ten @-@ Forward . The episode also features two first appearances ; the Ambassador class starship was mentioned for the first time ( the Horatio was a member of this class , as was the Enterprise @-@ C ) and it also marks the first time that a Bolian had been seen on Star Trek , the species having been named after the episode 's director . Although the parasites never appeared again on screen in any Star Trek series , they reappear in the Deep Space Nine relaunch novels , where they are revealed to be mutated Trill symbiotes .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Conspiracy " aired in broadcast syndication within the United States during the week commencing May 13 , 1988 . It received Nielsen ratings of 9 @.@ 4 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was a decrease of 0 @.@ 3 ratings points from the previous episode , " We 'll Always Have Paris " and was less than the 10 @.@ 2 rating received by the following episode , " The Neutral Zone " . Due to the nature of the content , a warning was aired before " Conspiracy " was screened in Canada . It was initially banned by the BBC in the United Kingdom , but was later aired on BBC Two in an edited form . The episode was nominated alongside " Coming of Age " for Best Makeup at the 40th Primetime Emmy Awards , winning the award , one of three Emmys won by the show that year .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched Star Trek : The Next Generation after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido for Tor.com described the episode as " a nasty episode that doesn 't quite cohere into the level of nasty it could " , but that the series " doesn ’ t do horror / action all that often , and it serves as a good change of pace if nothing else " . He gave " Conspiracy " a score of four out of ten . Zack Handlen , who reviewed the episode for the A.V. Club , thought that while " Conspiracy " was a " hard episode to forget " , it was not quite as good as he remembered and did not quite " fit " with the rest of the season . He thought that certain parts of the plot were " idiotic " , and the Admirals reminded him of a " Bond villain convention " . He gave the episode an overall grade of B , writing , " fingers crossed that next time we encounter a danger this sinister , the writers know how to handle it " .
" Conspiracy " was included as an honorable mention in a list of the best episodes of Star Trek : The Next Generation by Mike Antonucci of the San Jose Mercury News . It was also included in a list of the best and worst episodes by Scott Thill at Wired magazine as one of the best , describing the reactions to the episode as " polarizing " , and suggesting that " Conspiracy " might be worthy of becoming a plot in a future film by J. J. Abrams . Total Film also suggested the episode as a potential plot for the film that would become Star Trek Into Darkness , and described it as " easily one of the greatest episodes of Star Trek : The Next Generation " . In 2012 , David Brown of Radio Times called " Conspiracy " " a definite high point " in the first season and included it on a list of The Next Generation 's greatest moments .
The episode was released on VHS cassette in the U.S. on May 26 , 1993 . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 . " Conspiracy " was released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
|
= Wipeout 3 =
Wipeout 3 ( stylised as wip3out in Europe and Japan , and as wipEout 3 in North America ) is a futuristic racing video game developed by Psygnosis and published by Sony Computer Entertainment exclusively for the PlayStation . The title is the fourth game in the Wipeout series , and was released in Europe and North America in September 1999 . Players control extremely fast anti @-@ gravity ships and use weapons to force other contenders out of the race . The game was re @-@ released in Europe as Wipeout 3 : Special Edition in August 2000 , which contained additional tracks and content .
Psygnosis hired design studio The Designers Republic to create a simple colour scheme and design for in @-@ game menus and race courses , to create what a Psygnosis staff member called " a believable future " . The game is one of the few PlayStation titles to run in high @-@ resolution mode , offering crisper graphics and visuals . Wipeout 3 's soundtrack is composed of electronica tracks selected by DJ Sasha and features contributions by Orbital and The Chemical Brothers .
The game was positively received on release ; critics lauded the graphics , music , and minimalist design elements . The high level of Class , perceived lack of new content and courses , and lack of new game features were seen as the game 's primary faults . Despite generally good press , the game was a financial disappointment . Wipeout 3 was the last title in the series to appear on the PlayStation ; the next entry , Wipeout Fusion , was released exclusively for the PlayStation 2 platform in 2002 .
= = Gameplay = =
Wipeout 3 is a racing game that retains the same basic elements of its predecessors , and introduces players to the F7200 Anti @-@ Gravity Race League . Set in 2116 , Players control futuristic anti @-@ gravity ships owned by racing corporations and pilot them on eight circuits ( plus four hidden prototype tracks ) . Each craft is equipped with an energy shield that absorbs damage sustained on the track ; if the shield is disabled , the player 's craft can be knocked out of the race . Shields are regenerated in a pit lane that is set apart from the main course . The less time spent in the pit lane , the less the shield will regenerate .
In addition to shields , each racing craft contains air brakes for navigating tight corners , as well as " Hyperthrust " option . Players can activate Hyperthrust to increase their speed , but Using Hyperthrust drains energy from the shields , making the craft more vulnerable .
Scattered across each raceway are weapon grids that bestow random power @-@ ups or items . Wipeout 3 adds new weapons in addition to the five retained from previous games . Several weapons are defensive ; for example , the gravity shield protects the craft from attacks and collisions for a time period . Offensive weapons are also available ; craft can use rockets , Multi @-@ Missiles and mines to disable competitors . Players can use an auto @-@ pilot power @-@ up to safely coast through difficult turns .
The default game mode awards medals to the top three finishing hovercraft . Each contestant must reach checkpoints on the course within a certain amount of time , or be ejected from the race . Winning consecutive gold medals unlocks New Tracks and Team . Wipeout 3 features several other game modes , including challenges to complete courses in a set time . In the " Eliminator " mode , players gain points for destroying competitors and finishing laps . The " Tournament " mode has players compete on several tracks , with points being awarded on race placement . Players can engage in two @-@ player racing via a split @-@ screen option .
= = Development = =
In developing the next entry in the Wipeout series , developer Psygnosis retained many of the developers of the original game to preserve the distinctive racing experience of earlier games . At the same time , Psygnosis sought to make the game more accessible to new players of the fast @-@ paced racer , and kept early courses easier for these players ; the difficulty was adjusted for later courses so that experts still experienced a challenge . Wipeout 3 was the first Wipeout game to take advantage of PlayStation controllers with analogue sticks , used to offer smoother control of the player 's craft .
Psygnosis turned to the graphic design studio The Designers Republic to assist in development . The Designers Republic , known for its underground techno album covers , provided " visual candy " to Wipeout 3 's graphics , designing the game 's icons , billboards , color schemes , and custom typefaces . The look and feel of the futuristic courses was bounded by a desire to retain a believable sensibility ; Wipeout 3 lead artist Nicky Westcott said that " [ Psygnosis ] tried to make it look like a believable future , instead of making the sky toxic orange with 10 moons flying around and the world gone mad . It 's very low @-@ key [ and ] a lot more refined . "
= = = Music = = =
Wipeout 3 , continuing the tradition set by the first game , contains electronica offerings from various artists , including The Chemical Brothers , Orbital , and the Propellerheads . Psygnosis ' development manager , Enda Carey , focused on bringing together music early in the game 's development cycle , instead of as an afterthought or last @-@ minute addition to the game . Unlike previous soundtracks , Psygnosis selected a single music director , DJ Sasha , who worked with artists to create a cohesive soundtrack . Sasha included several of his own tracks made specifically for the game . The game disc is a Mixed Mode CD that allows Wipeout 3 's soundtrack to be played in a standard compact disc player . To promote Wipeout 3 and its game music , Psygnosis sponsored a Global Underground tour for Sasha . Game pods featuring Wipeout 3 were placed at parties and venues , accompanied by a tie @-@ in marketing campaign .
= = Reception = =
Overall , critical reception of Wipeout 3 was positive ; the game has an aggregate average of 87 % based on 29 reviews at Game Rankings , and a metascore of 89 at Metacritic . IGN named Wipeout 3 the most accessible game of the series , and in 2007 the title was named the 92nd best game by the site . Despite generally positive reviews of the game , Wipeout 3 was not a commercial success .
The fast @-@ paced gameplay and graphics were singled out as strong features of the game . Jack Schofield of The Guardian was surprised by the level of detail , stating that the " graphics are better than you 'd expect the [ PlayStation ] to deliver " . Both GamePro and Game Revolution reviewers praised the new game features , specifically the new weapons and ability to challenge friends via splitscreen . The Designer Republic 's style was consistently praised as helping to make the racing locales seem real , though David Goldfarb of the magazine International Design stated that the " techno @-@ meets @-@ Nihonpop @-@ art visuals " had been executed better in previous entries of the series . Wipeout 3 's soundtrack and sound effects were also lauded .
A major fault reviewers found with Wipeout 3 was the steep learning curve of the game . David Canter of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune described the difficulty progression as " ludicrous " , with the tournament game mode going from " easy as pie to tough as nails " . Though the use of the analogue stick was positively noted as helping to increase control over the onscreen craft , GamePro found that proper handling required large amounts of patience and practice .
Reviewers who gave Wipeout 3 lower marks noted a sense of disappointment that the series broke little new ground . Stuart Miles of The Times admitted Wipeout 3 was a good game , but felt that he had been expecting much more from the sequel : " It 's as if the programmers have concerned themselves more with the overall look and feel , rather than further developing the existing gameplay . " Alistair Wallace of Gamasutra , in a retrospective on Wipeout 2097 , remembered that " I enjoyed [ Wipeout 3 ] because it was more of the same and I loved it , but I think the series ran out of its innovation . Doing loop the loops isn 't a big deal really . " GameSpot summed up its review of the game by judging Wipeout 3 an excellent racer , but not able to beat Wipeout 2097 as the best futuristic racing game of all time .
= = Re @-@ release and sequel = =
A special edition of Wipeout 3 was released exclusively in Europe on 14 July 2000 . Wipeout 3 Special Edition featured many minor changes to gameplay , such as different craft physics , auto @-@ loading of saves and AI bugfixes . In addition , eight courses from previous Wipeout titles ( three from Wipeout and five from Wipeout 2097 ) plus two hidden prototype circuits previously only available in the Japanese version of Wipeout 3 , were added giving total of 22 tracks . Special Edition also allowed for four @-@ person multiplayer , using two televisions and two PlayStation consoles . Wipeout 3 was the last game in the series made for the PlayStation . The next entry in the Wipeout series , entitled Wipeout Fusion , was released in 2002 exclusively for the PlayStation 2 . The game introduced new tracks , ships , and weaponry , as well as enhanced artificial intelligence .
|
= Dan McGann =
Dennis Lawrence " Dan " McGann ( July 15 , 1871 – December 13 , 1910 ) , also known as Cap McGann , was a professional baseball player who played first base in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) from 1896 to 1908 . He was a member of the NL pennant @-@ winning Brooklyn Superbas in 1899 and New York Giants in 1904 and 1905 . He was also a member of the 1905 World Series champions .
After beginning his professional career in minor league baseball in 1895 , McGann played in MLB for the Boston Beaneaters ( 1896 ) , Baltimore Orioles ( 1898 ) , Brooklyn Superbas ( 1899 ) , Washington Senators ( 1899 ) , and St. Louis Cardinals ( 1900 – 1901 ) of the National League ( NL ) before jumping to the rival American League to play for the Baltimore Orioles in 1902 . He returned to the NL , playing for the New York Giants ( 1902 – 1907 ) and Boston Doves ( 1908 ) . In 1909 – 10 , he played for the Milwaukee Brewers in the American Association .
McGann had a troubled personal life . He suffered from depression , and several members of his family committed suicide . After the 1910 season , with rumors of McGann signing with another minor league team , McGann committed suicide with a firearm .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career ( 1891 – 1897 ) = = =
McGann began his professional baseball career in minor league baseball with a team representing his hometown , Shelbyville , Kentucky , in 1891 . He also played for Kentucky teams representing Harrodsburg in 1892 , Lexington in 1893 , and Maysville in 1894 . McGann played for the Norfolk Clams / Crows of the Class @-@ B Virginia State League in 1895 and the Lynchburg Hill Climbers of the Class @-@ B Virginia League in 1896 . He initially played all positions except for pitcher , catcher , and first baseman .
In August 1896 , the Boston Beaneaters of the National League ( NL ) purchased McGann from Lynchburg to fill in for injured second baseman Bobby Lowe . McGann batted .322 with the Beaneaters , hitting for power , but he committed 21 errors in 43 games . The Beaneaters released him following the completion of the season . McGann played the 1897 season with the Toronto Canucks of the Class @-@ A Eastern League . He moved to first base and batted .354 , leading the Eastern League with 20 triples .
= = = Major League Baseball ( 1898 – 1908 ) = = =
The Washington Senators of the NL purchased McGann , Butts Wagner , Bob McHale and Cooney Snyder from Toronto for $ 8 @,@ 500 ( $ 241 @,@ 774 in current dollar terms ) on September 22 , 1897 . The Senators traded McGann with Gene DeMontreville and Doc McJames to the Baltimore Orioles of the NL for Doc Amole , Jack Doyle and Heinie Reitz that December . He played one season with the Orioles , in which he batted .301 with 106 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 1898 , good for fifth place in the NL .
When Orioles manager Ned Hanlon was hired to manage the Brooklyn Superbas during the 1899 season , receiving an ownership stake in the team to do so , he assigned several of his star players , including McGann , Joe McGinnity , Joe Kelley , Hughie Jennings and Willie Keeler to the Superbas . McGann finished second on the team in RBIs with 106 , behind Kelley .
McGann batted .243 for the Superbas through July 14 , 1899 , when they traded him with Aleck Smith to the Senators for Deacon McGuire . For the Senators , McGann batted .343 during the rest of the 1899 season . Short on money , the Senators sold McGann and Gus Weyhing to the St. Louis Cardinals for $ 5 @,@ 000 ( $ 142 @,@ 220 in current dollar terms ) on March 9 , 1900 . McGann left the Cardinals before the end of 1901 season , for unknown reasons . The Cardinals replaced McGann with Bill Richardson .
With the formation of the American League ( AL ) as a competitor to the NL , McGann joined many fellow NL players who jumped to the AL . Following Cardinals teammate John McGraw , who became player @-@ manager of the Baltimore Orioles of the AL before the 1901 season , McGann signed with the Orioles .
However , the Orioles struggled with debt . Joe Kelley , star player for the Orioles and son @-@ in @-@ law of part @-@ owner John Mahon , reported that the team owed as much as $ 12 @,@ 000 ( $ 328 @,@ 200 in current dollar terms ) . Unable to afford that debt , Mahon purchased shares of the team from Kelley and John McGraw . With this , Mahon became the majority shareholder , owning 201 of the team 's 400 shares . On July 17 , 1902 , Mahon sold his interest in the Orioles to Andrew Freedman , principal owner of the Giants , and John T. Brush , principal owner of the Cincinnati Reds , also of the NL . That day , Freedman released McGann , McGraw , Cy Seymour , Roger Bresnahan , Joe Kelley , Joe McGinnity , and Jack Cronin from their contracts with Orioles . Freedman signed McGann , Bresnahan , McGinnity and Cronin to the Giants , joining McGraw , who had signed with the Giants ten days earlier . Brush signed Seymour and Kelley to the Reds .
With the Giants , McGraw installed McGann at first base , moving Christy Mathewson to pitcher . McGann stole 36 bases in the 1903 season . After the season , McGann and some of his Giants teammates threatened to quit the team due to the treatment of Brush , now the Giants owner , for allegedly going back on a promise to provide the Giants with a monetary bonus for having the Giants finish in the top three of the NL and a share of the gate receipts from exhibition games , in which they were paid $ 56 @.@ 35 ( $ 1 @,@ 484 in current dollar terms ) , though Brush allegedly had made over $ 200 @,@ 000 ( $ 5 @,@ 267 @,@ 407 in current dollar terms ) . McGann and Jack Warner were rumored to join McGinnity in an outlaw league in California .
McGann stole 42 bases in 1904 , finishing fourth in the NL . He stole five bases on May 27 , 1904 , setting an NL record . McGann 's record stood until Davey Lopes stole five bases in a game in 1974 , and Otis Nixon stole six in a game in 1991 . McGann led the team with a .286 batting average and six home runs that season . Though the Giants won the NL pennant in 1904 , they refused to compete in the 1904 World Series . Brush and McGraw refused to face the AL champion Boston Pilgrims , following their altercations with Johnson .
McGann developed a reputation as a fighter in 1905 . On April 21 , 1905 , in a game against the Philadelphia Phillies , McGann punched catcher Fred Abbott after McGann was thrown out at home plate . Abbott hit McGann in the back with the ball , resulting in both players being ejected from the game . McGann batted .299 with 14 triples in 1905 as the Giants won NL pennant for the second consecutive year . Competing in the 1905 World Series , a series the Giants won over the Philadelphia Athletics in five games , McGann contributed with his bat and glove . Although McGann batted .235 in the series , he recorded four RBIs on three hits in a Game Three victory .
McGann was briefly suspended by NL president Harry Pulliam for fighting on May 16 , 1906 . McGann finished first in the NL fielding percentage at first base from 1903 through 1906 . He also served as Giants ' team captain . Despite this , rumors began to circulate that the Giants were looking to trade McGann , which the team denied .
Before the 1907 season , a report surfaced that the Giants would shift Mike Donlin from the outfield to first base , in order to replace McGann . Donlin denied the claim . McGann suffered a broken wrist when he was hit by a pitch thrown by Andy Coakley of the Cincinnati Reds during spring training in 1907 .
McGann returned to the Giants out of shape midway through the 1907 season , although he did bat .298 that season . That winter , trade rumours began to swirl that the Giants would trade him to the Reds . Instead , the Giants traded McGann to the Boston Doves with Frank Bowerman , George Browne , Bill Dahlen and Cecil Ferguson for Al Bridwell , Tom Needham and Fred Tenney on December 13 , 1907 . Tenney , also a first baseman , was designated as McGann 's replacement at first . When a reporter asked McGraw about McGann and Tenney , pointing out that both first basemen were 36 years old , McGraw replied that Tenney had taken better care of himself .
Despite discussion of appointing McGann player @-@ manager of the Doves , the role was assigned to Kelley . Agreeing to terms with George Dovey , president of the Doves , McGann played 135 games during the 1908 season , but batted only .240 . During an April 1908 game between the Doves and the Giants , McGraw insulted McGann as slow , referring to him as a " damned ice wagon " , noting " that 's how the Giants lost a lot of games last season " . After the game , McGann went to the Giants ' hotel , waited for McGraw to return from the theatre , and fought him in a billiard room . Dovey released McGann from the Doves after the 1908 season .
= = = Later career ( 1909 – 1910 ) = = =
McGann signed with the Milwaukee Brewers of the Class @-@ A American Association for the 1909 season . He played for Milwaukee in 1909 and 1910 , batting only .225 in 1910 , his career low . There were reports McGann might sign with the Oakland Oaks of the Pacific Coast League or a team in Louisville , Kentucky , near his Shelbyville home in 1911 . McGann 's career was ended , however , by his death in December 1910 .
= = Personal life = =
McGann invested in real estate and financial holdings near his Shelbyville home during his career . At the time of his death , his property was assessed to be worth approximately $ 40 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 015 @,@ 857 in current dollar terms ) .
= = Family = =
McGann suffered from severe clinical depression , a condition which ran throughout his family . One of McGann 's sisters committed suicide in 1890 after their mother died . On New Year 's Eve in 1907 , one of McGann 's brothers died as a result of an accidental shooting . In 1909 , another of McGann 's brothers committed suicide .
= = Death = =
On December 13 , 1910 , McGann committed suicide by shooting himself in the heart at a Louisville hotel . At the time of his death , he was 39 years old , and reportedly had been " in the best of health and humor " when last seen . McGann was survived by two sisters , who , despite the family history of suicide , believed their brother had been murdered , as a diamond ring valued at $ 800 ( $ 20 @,@ 317 in current dollar terms ) McGann had been seen wearing was missing .
|
= Planet of the Dead =
" Planet of the Dead " is the second of five special episodes of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who broadcast between Christmas 2008 and New Years Day 2010 . It was simultaneously broadcast on BBC One and BBC HD on 11 April 2009 . The specials served as lead actor David Tennant 's denouement as the Tenth Doctor . He is joined in the episode by actress Michelle Ryan , who plays Lady Christina de Souza , a one @-@ off companion to the Doctor . The episode was co @-@ written by Russell T Davies and Gareth Roberts , the first writing partnership since the show 's revival in 2005 .
The episode depicts Christina fleeing the police from a museum robbery by boarding a bus that accidentally travels from London to the desert planet of San Helios , trapping her , the Doctor , and several passengers on board the damaged vehicle . After the bus driver dies trying to return to Earth , the Unified Intelligence Taskforce , headed by Captain Erisa Magambo ( Noma Dumezweni ) and scientific advisor Malcolm Taylor ( Lee Evans ) , attempt to return the bus while preventing a race of metallic stingray aliens from posing a threat to Earth . At the end of the episode , one of the passengers delivers a warning to the Doctor which foreshadows the remaining three specials .
" Planet of the Dead " was the first Doctor Who episode to be filmed in high definition , after a positive reaction to the visual quality of spin @-@ off series Torchwood and the financial viability of HDTV convinced the production team to switch formats . To ensure that the desert scenes looked as realistic as possible , the production team filmed in Dubai for three days , sending several props , including a 1980 double @-@ decker Bristol VR bus , to the United Arab Emirates for filming . After the bus was unintentionally damaged in Dubai by a shipping container , Davies rewrote the script to explain the damage in the narrative .
The audience gave the episode an Appreciation Index of 88 — considered excellent .
= = Plot = =
A young , beautiful , thrill @-@ seeking burglar , Lady Christina de Souza , steals a gold chalice once belonging to King Æthelstan from a London museum and narrowly evades the police by hopping on a 200 bus . The Doctor , who is tracking down a wormhole , joins her shortly before the bus suddenly passes through the wormhole and arrives on the desert planet of San Helios . The Doctor shows the passengers the wormhole and deduces the bus protected them like a Faraday cage . The bus driver tries to go through despite the Doctor 's warnings . Seeing the driver 's skeleton coming out on the other side of the wormhole , the police call in UNIT , commanded by Captain Erisa Magambo and aided by scientific adviser Malcolm Taylor . The Doctor manages to contact UNIT on a passenger 's mobile phone and talks to Malcolm , who impresses him with his understanding of the wormhole .
The Doctor and Christina quickly get to know the handful of other passengers on the bus : Angela , Barclay , Nathan , Lou and Carmen , who has low @-@ level psychic abilities . The Doctor and Christina decide to scout the planet , spotting an approaching storm , while Nathan and Barclay try to fix the bus . The Doctor and Christina encounter a couple of Tritovores , a species resembling anthropomorphic flies , who take them to their wrecked spaceship .
The Tritovores explain that they were making a routine goods collection with San Helios when they crashed , and that the planet very recently housed a hundred billion inhabitants and a thriving ecosystem . At the request of the Doctor , the Tritovores send a probe to investigate approaching cloud and discover a large swarm of stingray @-@ like aliens who create wormholes by flying at terrific speed around planets , and are protected by their metal exoskeletons . They destroy the ecosystems of all the planets they visit as their biological imperative . The Doctor suspects that Earth may be the stingrays ' next target due to the wormhole they passed through before , and makes to hasten their return to Earth .
Christina uses her burglary skills to retrieve a crystal that powers the spaceship , together with the clamps attached to it . During this the Doctor discovers and recognizes the stolen gold chalice in her backpack , telling her that he knows she must have stolen it , but while he disapproves of the theft , he admits to her that it would be hypocritical to be too harsh on her about it , because , after all , he stole his TARDIS from his own people back in the day . Meanwhile , Christina accidentally awakens several stingrays that had caused the ship to crash in the first place , costing the life of the two Tritovores . Captain Magambo , who has also worked out that the earth is threatened , and that the wormhole is growing in size , orders Malcolm to close the wormhole but he refuses even at gunpoint to sacrifice the Doctor .
The Doctor throws away the crystal and attaches the clamps to the bus 's wheels and steering wheel . He finds the systems are incompatible and convinces Christina to let him use gold from the chalice of Æthelstan to connect the bus to the spaceship technology . The Doctor reveals that the clamps are anti @-@ gravity clamps . This allows the bus to fly through the wormhole , with the stingrays in hot pursuit . Taylor closes the wormhole but three of the stingrays manage to pass through it . After UNIT shoots down the stingrays and the passengers have been debriefed , Christina pleads with the Doctor to let her travel with him , but he refuses because he has no wish to lose another companion .
The characters part ways again . The Doctor recommends that UNIT hire Barclay and Nathan . Christina is arrested by the police for the theft and Carmen has a premonition that visibly unnerves the Doctor :
You be careful , because your song is ending , sir . It is returning , it is returning through the dark . And then Doctor ... oh , but then ... he will knock four times .
As a final act of kindness , the Doctor uses his sonic screwdriver to release Christina from her handcuffs , allowing her to escape in the bus . The pair part on good terms as she flies away and the Doctor leaves in his TARDIS .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
Russell T Davies co @-@ wrote the episode with Gareth Roberts , the first writing partnership for the show since its 2005 revival . " Planet of the Dead " was a departure from Roberts ' usual stories — Roberts had previously only written pseudo @-@ historical stories — and instead consisted of wild science fiction elements from his literary career and teenage imagination . The episode had no clear concept — such as Shakespeare and witches in " The Shakespeare Code " or Agatha Christie and a murder mystery in " The Unicorn and the Wasp " — and instead was a deliberate " clash [ of concepts ] with many disparate elements " . Roberts explained he was cautious to ensure that each element had to " feel precise and defined ... like we meant that " , citing the serial Arc of Infinity as an example where such control was not enforced . The episode includes a common feature of Davies ' writing in that there is no clear antagonist : the Tritovore are eventually sympathetic to the protagonists and the stingrays are only following their biological imperative .
Unlike the Christmas specials , the theme of Easter was not emphasised in the story ; the episode only contained a " fleeting mention " of the holiday instead of " robot bunnies carrying baskets full of deadly egg bombs " . The episode 's tone word — " joyous " — was influenced by Davies ' realisation that " every story since ' The Fires of Pompeii ' [ had ] a bittersweet quality " and his subsequent desire to avoid the recurring theme . The starting point for the story was Roberts ' first novel The Highest Science . Davies liked the image of a train on a desert planet and rewrote the train as a bus . Davies nevertheless emphasised it was not an " adaptation as such " because tangential elements were constantly being conceived and added .
Michelle Ryan 's casting as Lady Christina de Souza was confirmed by the BBC on 23 January 2009 and attracted media attention owing to Ryan 's recent relatively high @-@ profile roles in EastEnders , Jekyll , Bionic Woman and Merlin . Ryan stated that she is " a huge fan of Doctor Who and [ was ] very excited to be joining David Tennant and the Doctor Who team . " Davies commented that " Michelle is one of the most sought after young actors in the country " and that they were " delighted to announce that she [ would ] be joining the team . " Ryan described her casting as a " real honour " , noting that she " love [ s ] the character " .
Ryan was rumoured to be in line for a role as full @-@ time companion to the incoming Eleventh Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and her casting in " Planet of the Dead " , combined with her previous working history with incoming Executive Producer Steven Moffat - the two working together on Jekyll , fuelled speculation that she might return to Doctor Who accompanying the Eleventh Doctor in Series 5 . Ryan herself has said that she is open for a return to the character , however , stating that she is a commitment phobe at the moment and with regards to her character she views her as " someone who is around for this one @-@ time adventure " . " It had been reported that Ryan auditioned to replace Billie Piper in the companion role when her character , Rose Tyler , left in 2006 , but was unsuccessful . Ryan subsequently stated that this was false .
Ryan was interviewed by BBC News about her role as Lady Christina . Ryan praised her colleagues and the " family atmosphere " on set and described Doctor Who as " really something special to do " . On 9 April 2009 , Ryan guested on Steve Wright in the Afternoon on BBC Radio 2 and on The Justin Lee Collins Show on ITV2 to promote " Planet of the Dead " . After a showing of a trailer for the episode on The Justin Lee Collins Show , Ryan described the " fantastic " time she had filming in Cardiff and in Dubai .
Ryan 's character Lady Christina de Souza is an adrenaline junkie and thief . Christina is a typical Doctor Who companion , Davies electing to draw parallels from the Time Lady Romana rather than new series companion Rose Tyler . Roberts described her as an " adventuress " who is " upper class and glam , suited and booted , and extremely intelligent " which the Doctor could relate to because they both rejected their heritages . The episode 's director James Strong described the character as reverting to a traditional romantic @-@ based companionship — rather than the platonic companionship of Donna Noble ( Catherine Tate ) in the fourth series — while still being a unique companion :
It 's back to basics : she 's probably more of a traditional , romantic kind of Thomas Crown Affair kind of heroine , if you like . [ ... ] It echoes to me of Rose , in that there may be a good old fashioned romantic connection between them . She 's young , she 's beautiful , she 's sexy , but whereas Rose was a very ordinary , normal girl , Lady Christina is a lady , she comes from a very privileged , very elite background . She 's different to any of the companions we 've ever had in that she doesn 't particularly want to get caught up with the Doctor . She 's got her own thing going on , so she 's very much a match for the Doctor and very much an equal . Often in an adventure the Doctor will take control and everyone will do what he says . She 's very much in control – the two of them are in a sparring way , battling against each other to get through this adventure .
Comedian Lee Evans plays Professor Malcolm Taylor , a UNIT scientist devoted to his predecessor , the Doctor . Davies created Evans ' character to serve as a foil for Noma Dumezweni 's pragmatic character Captain Erisa Magambo , who previously appeared in the episode " Turn Left " . Roberts noted after writing the episode that Evans ' character had unintentionally become a " loving " caricature of Doctor Who fandom .
The episode was influenced by several works : Davies described " Planet of the Dead " as " a great big adventure , a little bit Indiana Jones , a little bit Flight of the Phoenix , a little bit Pitch Black . " ; the relationship between the Doctor and Christina was influenced by 1960s films such as Charade and Topkapi , which included Cary Grant and Audrey Hepburn " being witty and sophisticated together , and then running for their lives " ; and the Tritovore were influenced by 1950s and 1970s science fiction B @-@ movies such as The Fly and Davies ' habit of including aliens that were recognisable to the audience as animals from Earth , such as the Judoon . Carmen 's warning evoked memories of the Ood 's warning to the Doctor and Donna in the fourth series episode " Planet of the Ood " . Tennant explained the prophecy meant that the Doctor 's " card [ had become ] marked " and the three specials would thus be darker — characterising " Planet of the Dead " as the " last time the Doctor gets to have any fun " — and that the subject of the prophecy was not the obvious answer :
David Tennant
Really , from this moment on , the Doctor 's card is marked . Because when we come back in " The Waters of Mars " , it 's all become a little bit darker .
Julie Gardner
And as we know , David , he really does knock four times .
Tennant
Yeah , absolutely , and if you think you 've figured out what that means , you 're wrong !
Gardner
But when you do figure it out , it 's a sad day .
= = = Filming = = =
Pre @-@ production on the four specials started on 20 November 2008 — four days before scheduled — because the episode 's overseas filming in Dubai required the extra planning time . Two weeks later , the production team was on a recce for the special and the final draft of the script was completed . The production team examined overseas locations to film the episode because they wanted the scenery to feel " real " and thought that they would be unable to film on a Welsh beach in winter . After examining countries such as Morocco and Tunisia , the production team decided to film in Dubai because the area was more amicable to the filming industry and viable filming locations were nearer to urban areas than other locations .
Production began on 19 January in Wales . The special was the first Doctor Who episode to be filmed in high @-@ definition television resolution . The move to HD had previously been resisted for two major reasons : when the show was revived in 2005 , high @-@ definition television had not been adopted by an adequate portion of the audience to be financially viable ; and special effects were considerably more expensive to create in high @-@ definition than in standard @-@ definition . " Planet of the Dead " was used as a switch to HD because of the show 's reduced schedule in 2009 and because the filming crew had become experienced with the equipment while they were filming Torchwood .
Filming began at the National Museum Cardiff , which doubled for the history museum depicted in the episode 's first scene . To portray the tunnel the bus travelled into , the Queen 's Gate Tunnel of the A4232 road in Butetown was closed for four nights to accommodate filming . The last major piece of filming in Wales took place in the closed Mir ( formerly Alphasteel ) steelworks in Newport , which doubled almost unaltered for the Tritovore spaceship . Scenes set in London 's Oxford Street were filmed at St Mary Street , Cardiff . Filming took place at the peak of the February 2009 Great Britain snowfall , where the sub @-@ zero temperatures slowed filming and had a visible effect on the cast . To accommodate for the adverse conditions , Davies included a line in the script that specified that the Tritovore spaceship cooled as external temperatures increase .
Filming in Dubai took place in mid @-@ February 2009 . Two weeks previously , one of the two 1980 Bristol VR double @-@ decker buses bought for filming had been substantially damaged when a crane accidentally dropped a container in Dubai City Port . After an emergency discussion by the production team , they agreed that the damage was unintentionally artistic and decided to include the damaged bus in the episode ; instead of shipping the spare bus from Cardiff — which would have delayed the already hurried filming schedule — the production team decided to partially reconstruct the bus in Dubai , damage the spare bus in Cardiff to match the bus in Dubai , and rewrite part of the script to accommodate and mention the damage to the bus . James Strong recalled the reaction of the production team to the damage to the bus in an issue of Doctor Who Magazine :
One morning in the first week of February , I was leaving my flat when Julie Gardner phoned . She said , " there 's been a little accident with the bus [ ... ] it 's a disaster ; the bus is fucked . " When I got into the office , I was handed a photograph — and my initial reaction was absolute horror . We called an emergency meeting . Russell came in [ ... ] and we discussed our options . We had bought an identical London bus to film on in Cardiff , so could we send that out to Dubai ? We could have got it out in time if it 'd left Cardiff , literally , the next day , but we 'd have had to find a third bus , an exact replica , to film on in Cardiff a week later . It had taken us a month to find the one we had . It was even mooted that we 'd have to forget Dubai and opt for a beach in the UK . But Russell 's response was " Okay , let 's embrace it . Let 's say that the bus was damaged on its way to the alien planet . [ ... ] He wove it into the narrative . We 're not trying to hide the damage at all . In fact , we show it off , enhancing it with special effects , smoke and sparks . It works rather marvellously . That London bus , damaged and smoking , in the middle of the desert — yeah , it looks incredible , especially in gorgeous hi @-@ def .
The damaged bus was not the only problem to filming in Dubai : the first of the three days was afflicted by a sandstorm which left most of the footage shot unusable . The production team then struggled to complete three days of filming in two days ; the last day was compared to " filming Lawrence of Arabia " . To complete the episode 's filming , interior scenes in the bus were filmed in a studio in Wales . To disguise the fact they were using a translite , a 360 @-@ degree background image , Strong utilised often @-@ avoided techniques such as muddied windows and lens flares ; the latter also served to create a warmer environment for the viewer . After filming ended , editing and post @-@ processing took place until two days before transmission , leaving the BBC to resort to using an unfinished copy to market the episode .
= = = 200th story = = =
" Planet of the Dead " was advertised as Doctor Who 's 200th story . Writer Russell T Davies admitted that the designation was arbitrary and debatable , based upon how fans counted the unfinished serial Shada , the season @-@ long fourteen @-@ part serial The Trial of a Time Lord , and the third series finale consisting of " Utopia " , " The Sound of Drums " and " Last of the Time Lords " . Davies personally disagreed about counting The Trial of a Time Lord as one serial — arguing that it " felt like four stories " to him — and grouping " Utopia " with its following episodes , but agreed that it was only an opinion which did not override any others . Gareth Roberts inserted a reference to the landmark — specifically , the bus number is 200 — and Davies emailed the show 's publicity team to advertise the special as such . Doctor Who Magazine 's editor Tom Spilsbury acknowledged the controversy in the magazine 's 407th issue , which ran a reader survey of all 200 stories .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
Overnight figures estimated that the special was watched by 8 @.@ 41 million people , a 39 @.@ 6 % share of the audience . An additional 184 @,@ 000 watched the programme on BBC HD , the channel 's highest rating at that time . The initial showing had an Appreciation Index of 88 : considered excellent . A BBC One repeat , two days later , gained an overnight figure of 1 @.@ 8 million viewers . The special was therefore the second most watched programme of the day , beaten only by the premiere of the new series of Britain 's Got Talent . The final viewing figure for the initial broadcast was 9 @.@ 54 million viewers on BBC One and 200 @,@ 000 viewers on BBC HD , making it the fifth most watched programme of the week and the most watched programme aired on BBC HD at that time . Including repeats in the following week and viewings on the BBC iPlayer , 13 @.@ 89 million viewers watched the episode in total .
The episode received average critical reviews . Simon Brew of science fiction blog Den of Geek said the episode was " by turns ambitious and predictable " but " still quite entertaining " . The first part of the review mentioned an objection from his wife that the bus trapped in the sand " [ looked ] really fake " , despite the episode being actually filmed in Dubai , and then mentioned Brew 's appreciation of the concept of people stranded in the desert and concluded that " made a fair fist of it " . Brew positively reviewed Michelle Ryan 's performance — comparing her performance to be on par to her role in Bionic Woman rather than her role as Zoe Slater in EastEnders — and Lee Evans ' performance as Malcolm Taylor , calling him the highlight of the episode because of his dialogue . He closed his review by saying that " ' Planet of the Dead ' was passable enough " : he thought it " never really gelled " for him ; but he thought it was overall entertaining and was excited for the remaining three specials as a result of Carmen 's prophecy .
Charlie Jane Anders of io9 " mostly loved ' Planet Of The Dead ' " , commenting that it was a standard Russell T Davies script :
POTD was pretty much everything you 've come to expect from Russell T. Davies ' Who : crazy adventures , slightly cartoony characters , clever dialogue , moments of sheer silly fun , a childlike solemnity , a miraculous save , bombastic music , and one woman who 's held up as being the most special person ever .
It didn 't hurt that POTD had all the elements of a cracking good story : The Doctor and friends trapped on an alien planet , on the other side of the universe , with no easy way to get home . Alien creatures who might be hostile . A deadly swarm coming to tear our heroes apart . And UNIT on the other side of the wormhole , trying to come to grips with this almost unimaginable threat .
She compared it to two previous episodes , " The Impossible Planet " and " Midnight " , both of which she enjoyed . She criticised three aspects of the episode : Lady Christina , who was the " first [ Russell T Davies ] heroine who actually filled [ her ] with revulsion " , leaving her hoping that the character would be killed off @-@ screen , Malcolm 's reluctance to close the wormhole and the implausibility of only three stingrays travelling through it . She thought that the episode was " a pretty solid adventure with a cool set of monsters " .
Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of entertainment website Digital Spy gave the episode two stars out of five . He characterised the episode as being " as hollow as a big chocolate Easter egg " because it was " lacking in the enthralling drama and compelling characterisation that has been the lynchpin of the Russell T Davies era " . His main criticism was towards Ryan 's character , describing the romantic tension between Christina and the Doctor as " feeling forced " and arguing that Ryan was " utterly unconvincing " as Christina . Conversely , he was appreciative of Strong 's direction and the UNIT subplot . Specifically , he approved of Evans ' performance , noting that " the fact that Malcolm names a unit of measurement after himself is both inspired and hilarious " . His review ended by describing the episode as " lifeless for much of the hour " and expressing his hope that the ambiguous entity from Carmen 's premonition would " hurry up " .
Orlando Parfitt of IGN gave the episode a 7 @.@ 1 ( Good ) rating out of ten . Parfitt called it a " straightforward story " that did not elevate to the level of excitement typically seen in Doctor Who until the episode 's climax , instead describing the majority of the story as being " taken up with Tennant and Ryan standing in the desert , swapping flirtatious banter in between proclaiming how dire their situation is " , and criticised the writing of the part of the episode where the bus was on San Helios , claiming that plot devices such as the Tritovore or Taylor being held at gunpoint and ordered to close the wormhole as " feel [ ing ] forced and unnaturally shoe @-@ horned into the script " . His praise of the episode went to Ryan and Evans : although he thought of Christina as a " shameless Lara Croft ripoff " , he said that the character " still proves a sexy and wise @-@ cracking counterpart to the Doctor " ; and Evans ' acting alongside Dumezweni highlighted his " undeniably great comic acting " as opposed to his " love @-@ it @-@ or @-@ hate @-@ it " stand @-@ up comedy . The last paragraph of his review focused on the climax , which he thought was " a cracker [ that ] just @-@ about makes up for the previously plodding plot " , and described the entire episode as having " enough enjoyable moments " to entertain fans before the transmission of " The Waters of Mars " .
" Planet of the Dead " was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form , but lost to " The Waters of Mars " .
= = = International broadcast = = =
The special aired in Canada in July on Space , and in the US on BBC America on 26 July 2009 . In Australia , the Special aired 31 May 2009 , on ABC1 . In South Africa , the Special aired on 18 October 2010 , on BBC Entertainment .
= = Soundtrack = =
Selected pieces of score from this special , as composed by Murray Gold , were included in the specials soundtrack on 4 October 2010 , released by Silva Screen Records .
= = = Filming locations = = =
|
= Tropical Storm Haishen ( 2008 ) =
Tropical Storm Haishen was the twentieth officially recognized tropical storm of the 2008 Pacific typhoon season . The tropical depression that was to become Tropical Storm Haishen formed late on November 14 , as a minor tropical depression to the south of the Ogasawara Islands , however the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) did not start issuing advisories on it until early the next day . As the JMA were starting to issue advisories on the minor tropical depression , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) reported that it was not expected to become a significant tropical cyclone within 24 hours as they anaylised the depression as subtropical . During that afternoon the JMA upgraded the depression to a full tropical depression while the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert on the developing depression as it had become Tropical . That evening , the JMA reported that the depression had become a tropical storm and named it as Haishen while the JTWC designated Haishen as Tropical Depression 25W . Early on November 16 , the JTWC upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and then both the JMA and the JTWC declared it had reached its peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . At this time , the JTWC reported that there were signs in satellite imagery that Haishen had started its extratropical transition and then issued their final advisory 12 hours later . The JMA continued to issue advisories on Haishen for another 24 hours , when they declared that Haishen had become an extratropical low . The extratropical low then raced across the Pacific Ocean and crossed the International Dateline later that day . There were no casualties or Impact reported from Haishen as it remained out to sea throughout its life .
= = Meteorological history = =
On November 14 , the JMA reported that a minor tropical depression had formed 490 km ( 300 mi ) to the southeast of Iwo To , despite the JTWC noting the tropical cyclone formation was unlikely within the next 24 hours due to lack of deep convection . Later that day , the JMA designated the low as a full tropical depression while later that afternoon as deep convection persisted along the eastern portion of a low level circulation center , indicating the storm developed a fully warm tropical core . Despite increased vertical wind shear , the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert on the system . During that evening the JMA upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and named it Haishen whilst , the JTWC designated Haishen as Tropical Depression 25W while it was located 900 km ( 560 mi ) to the east of Iwo To . Early on November 16 , Haishen attained its peak intensity of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . Traveling along the north portion of a subtropical ridge to the southeast of the system , dry air began to take toll on the system . The JTWC then issued their final warning later that day as they thought that Haishen was rapidly taking on extratropical characteristics as it had lost most of its deep convection . However , the JMA kept issuing advisories on Haishen for another 24 hours before following suit . The extratropical low of Haishen accelerated towards the International Dateline and crossed into the central Pacific later that day . As an extratropical low , the system briefly reintensified .
= = Preparations , impact and naming = =
As Haishen remained out over open waters for the duration of its existence , there was no impact on any land @-@ masses .
The name Haishen was submitted to the World Meteorological Organisation 's Typhoon Committee by the People 's Republic of China and was one of the original names submitted for use from January 1 , 2000 . The name Haishen is Chinese for the God of the sea and was last used in the 2002 Pacific typhoon season .
|
= Louis Riel ( comics ) =
Louis Riel is a historical biography in comics by Canadian cartoonist Chester Brown , published as a book in 2003 after serializion in 1999 – 2003 . The story deals with Métis rebel leader Louis Riel 's antagonistic relationship with the newly established Canadian government . It begins shortly before the 1869 Red River Rebellion , and ends with Riel 's 1885 hanging for high treason . The book explores Riel 's possible schizophrenia — he believed God had named him Prophet of the New World , destined to lead the Métis people to freedom .
The work is noted for its emotional disengagement , its intentionally flat dialogue , and a minimalist drawing style inspired by that of Harold Gray 's comic strip Little Orphan Annie . Unusual for comics of the time , it includes a full scholarly apparatus : a foreword , index , bibliography , and end notes . The lengthy , hand @-@ lettered appendix provides insight into Brown 's creative process and biases and highlights where he changed historical facts to create a more engaging story , such as incorporating a conspiracy theory not widely accepted by historians . Brown became interested in the issue of property rights while researching the book , which led to a public change in his politics from anarchism to libertarianism .
Although Brown intended it to be published only in book form , his publisher had him first serialize Louis Riel as a comic book , which lasted ten issues . The series was the first comic book to receive a grant from the Canada Council for the Arts . It won a favourable critical reception and three Harvey Awards . The serialization sold poorly , but the book version was a surprise bestseller . Its success played a major part in gaining shelf space for serious graphic novels in mainstream North American bookstores .
= = Overview = =
Subtitled " A Comic @-@ Strip Biography " , Louis Riel looks at Métis rebel leader Louis Riel and his leadership in the Red River and North @-@ West rebellions . It does not attempt a complete retelling of Riel 's life — it omits long periods and ignores many aspects of his personality . Instead the focus is on his " antagonistic relationship with the Canadian government " from 1869 to 1885 . The story comprises 241 pages of the 271 @-@ page book , and is supplemented with a complete scholarly apparatus : a foreword , bibliography , index , map section and extensive end notes . It has strong historiographical elements , detailing in the appendix the research done and choices made by the author in developing a story .
Brown grew up in the Canadian province of Quebec , where the majority speaks French , and where Riel is often considered a martyr . However Brown , who grew up speaking only English , said he was largely ignorant of Riel 's story until he read Maggie Siggins ' 1994 biography Louis Riel : A Life of Revolution . Many of Brown 's favourite topics are entwined in Louis Riel : anti @-@ authoritarianism , outsider religion , insanity , and accuracy and objectivity in nonfiction . A central incident in the book is an eight @-@ panel sequence in which Riel has a revelatory experience on a hilltop in Washington , D.C. He experiences visions and talks to God , who declares him Prophet of the New World and instructs him to lead his people to freedom . On the cover of the book , however , we see Riel standing alone in the wilderness , staring into the sky , leaving open the question of whether what he witnessed was real .
= = Background = =
In 1995 , Brown published the anti @-@ psychiatry comics essay " My Mom was a Schizophrenic " , in which he examines society 's role in mental illness , and questions the medical profession 's accepted beliefs about it . The six @-@ page strip came with two pages of end notes gathered from his research . Brown enjoyed this project and thought he would like to take on another in which he could " cram a lot of research into a comic strip " . When he came across Siggins ' biography of Riel , he had been working on the experimental Underwater series , a project on which he felt he had lost his way . His father died in late 1997 , and he decided he did not " want to waste [ his ] time with projects that weren 't working out " . In 1998 , he turned his attention to Riel , putting the unpopular Underwater series on hold .
While researching , Brown came across two books by political scientist Tom Flanagan : Louis " David " Riel : " Prophet of the New World " ( 1996 ) and Louis Riel and the Rebellion : 1885 Reconsidered ( 2000 ) . Brown found " Prophet of the New World " particularly intriguing as it dealt with Riel 's religious ideas while reevaluating his alleged diagnosis of mental illness , two topics Brown had especial interest in , as he had previously made " eccentric " adaptations of the Gospel , and comics dealing with his mother 's schizophrenia . He also came across books by researcher Don McLean and historian Douglas N. Sprague that advanced the conspiracy theory that the 1885 North @-@ West Rebellion was deliberately provoked by Prime Minister John A. Macdonald to gain support for the building of the transcontinental railway .
Brown had gained a reputation for improvised storytelling by the time he began work on Louis Riel . With Underwater , he had intended to write a script , but in the end chose to improvise . He found the results unsatisfactory , and decided to write a full script beforehand for his next project . The script for Louis Riel came to over 200 pages .
Brown 's was not the first depiction of the Métis leader in comics . James Simpkins , a Canadian cartoonist best known for Jasper the Bear , made a mildly anti @-@ Riel two @-@ page strip in 1967 , and Pierre Dupuis produced a French @-@ language two @-@ page summary in 1979 . A 23 @-@ page pro @-@ Riel strip appeared in Canadian History Comic Book No. 2 : Rebellion in 1972 . In 1980 , Italian artist Hugo Pratt created a character called Jesuit Joe who was supposed to have descended from Riel . Publishing house Les Éditions des Plaines published two books on Riel : Robert Freynet 's 58 @-@ page Louis Riel en bande dessinée ( " Louis Riel in Comics " ) in 1990 , and Zoran and Toufik 's Louis Riel , le père du Manitoba ( " Louis Riel , the Father of Manitoba " ) in 1996 , both in French . Riel also played a secondary role in the 1995 comic album Le crépuscule des Bois @-@ Brûlés ( " The Twilight of Bois @-@ Brûlés " ) .
= = Plot = =
The government of the new Dominion of Canada ( established 1867 ) , under Prime Minister John A. Macdonald , has made a deal with the Hudson 's Bay Company to purchase Rupert 's Land — vast tracts of land in northern North America . The French @-@ speaking Métis — people who are half Native , half white , and inhabit parts of Rupert 's Land — dispute that their land can be sold to the Canadians without their consent . In the Red River settlement , the Métis , led by Louis Riel , dodge political manoeuverings on the part of Lieutenant Governor William McDougall and some of the English @-@ speaking settlers , while seizing Fort Garry . After an armed standoff at English @-@ speaking settler John Schultz 's home , the Métis declare a provisional government and vote Riel their president , with an even number of French and English representatives . Schultz escapes from prison and rounds up a number of men with the intention of freeing the prisoners from Fort Garry , but when Riel lets the prisoners go , Schultz 's men set out for home . On the way , a number of them pass Fort Garry , where they are captured and imprisoned . One of the prisoners , Thomas Scott , relentlessly quarrels with the guards , showering them with racial epithets . Eventually , the provisional government convicts him of treason and executes him by firing squad . The remaining prisoners are released , and the provisional government enters into negotiations with Ottawa , which results in the founding of the province of Manitoba . They are unable to get an amnesty for the execution of Scott , however . The Canadian army arrives , ostensibly to keep the peace . Riel flees to the U.S. , and the anglophone population assumes governance .
Schultz takes control of Manitoba , and the government of Ontario offers a cash reward for Riel 's capture , dead or alive . Macdonald secretly sends Riel money to disappear , as his death would lose him votes in Quebec but allowing him to live would cost him votes in English Canada . Riel flees from town to town in the U.S. as bounty hunters try to track him down . In 1873 , he returns to the Manitoba and wins a seat in the federal Parliament in a by @-@ election . He fears actually sitting in parliament because there is still a bounty on his head , and continues to live in hiding . In 1874 , he wins his seat again . Schultz wins a seat in the settlement as well , however , and Alexander Mackenzie has become Prime Minister , running on promises not to grant the rebels an amnesty . Riel is expelled from Parliament for failing to sit , but wins his seat again in the next by @-@ election . The frustrated government finally extends an amnesty to the rebels — all except Riel , whose amnesty is conditional on a five @-@ year banishment from Canada . During his exile , he has a visionary experience on a hilltop in Washington , D.C. , in which God names him David , the Prophet of the New World , and tells him to lead the Métis to freedom . In 1876 , Riel is secretly committed by a friend to a lunatic asylum near Montréal under a false name .
Over the next several years , the Métis , unhappy with the Canadian government 's handling of their land rights , move farther west across the Prairies . There as well , they see their petitions to the government repeatedly ignored and their rights trampled on . Finally , after being ignored for too long , the Métis search for Riel in Montana , in the hope that his return will force the Canadians to take their claims seriously . He is reluctant at first , as he has started a family and settled down as a schoolmaster . In the hopes that he will get money from the Canadian government for his tenure administering the Red River settlement ( by this time known as Winnipeg ) , he moves his family to Batoche ( now in Saskatchewan ) in mid @-@ 1884 . Macdonald has returned to the prime ministership and conspires with George Stephen , president of the financially burdened Canadian Pacific Railway , to use the situation to gain support for finishing the railway . By inciting a violent revolt amongst the Métis , the government can justify funding the railway to move troops to the Prairies . The Métis under Riel respond with arms as intended . Riel declares " Rome has fallen ! " and breaks from the Catholic Church . He breathes the Holy Spirit into his followers , thereafter known as the Exovedate . Tensions build until the bloodshed at the Battle of Duck Lake , where Riel and his followers drive back the North @-@ West Mounted Police . Macdonald takes this as a cue to send two thousand troops to the area . At the Battle of Fish Creek , the outnumbered Métis manage to drive back the Canadians , but at the Battle of Batoche , while Riel is increasingly immersed in religious activities , the Métis finally suffer defeat . In the hope that his trial will provide an opportunity to get the Métis ' story to the public , Riel surrenders instead of fleeing .
In July 1885 , Riel is put on trial in Regina for his role as leader in the North @-@ West Rebellion . Against his will , Riel 's lawyer tries unsuccessfully to defend him on grounds of insanity . He is found guilty of high treason . Though the jury pleads for mercy , he is sentenced to hang . In response to the pleas of Quebeckers to pardon Riel , Macdonald responds , " He shall hang though every dog in Quebec bark in his favour " . After reconciling himself with the Church , Riel is hanged in Regina on 16 November 1885 . In the aftermath , the remaining rebels receive a pardon , Macdonald and Stephen continue in their success , and Riel 's wife dies .
= = Primary characters = =
= = = Louis Riel = = =
Riel ( 1844 – 85 ) was a French @-@ speaking Métis politician from a devoutly Catholic background . He founded and named the Province of Manitoba ( a Cree word meaning " the god that speaks " ) . He led the two Métis rebellions against the Canadian government : the Red River Rebellion of 1869 – 70 and the North @-@ West Rebellion of 1885 . Following the latter , he was hanged for high treason . Riel remains an ambiguous and controversial figure in Canadian history , and Brown 's depiction maintains that ambiguity .
Riel is depicted as charismatic . He is Montréal @-@ educated and speaks English , which makes him a natural leader to the Métis , though his leadership is flawed — he ignores the military advice of his peers in battle , placing his faith in God that the Métis will defeat the Canadians . Brown depicts him as having a messianic complex and possibly having schizophrenia . He is unsure of himself , averse to bloodshed , and easily convinced to flee to the U.S. to avoid capture .
= = = John A. Macdonald = = =
Macdonald ( 1815 – 91 ) was the first Prime Minister of Canada , in office 1867 – 73 , and again 1878 – 91 . Brown depicts the Prime Minister in the role of scheming villain and caricatures his features in an absurd manner , giving him an extremely oversized nose and showing him as a drunk . He is a man of ambitions and will not let anyone stand in the way of his legacy . In the appendix , however , Brown discloses that he does not see Macdonald as the villain he has portrayed in the book . Brown 's distrust of big government leads him to push the conspiracy theory side of the story to Macdonald 's detriment , but , in the end , he states that he " would rather have lived in a state run by John A. Macdonald than one run by Louis Riel " .
= = Style = =
" My ... one goal was to make the artwork look as much as the artwork in Little Orphan Annie as possible , I was trying to draw like Harold Gray "
Louis Riel is noted for its emotional restraint , and intentionally flat and expository dialogue . To critic Rich Kreiner the book " has been rigorously scrubbed of staged drama and crowd @-@ pleasing effects " . It avoids manipulation of the reader by invoking sympathy or sentiment . Brown takes a distanced approach and relies faithfully on his source material — he focuses on the concrete and corporeal and eschews techniques of speculation such as thought balloons . This includes his presentation of Riel 's mystical experiences , which Brown presents plainly and without interpretation of its reality or lack thereof .
The book makes frequent deliberate use of silent panels , focused on imagery with the narrative moved forward by the characters ' actions . Riel 's " despairs over the decisions he makes " are expressed through pictures , as Brown had come to believe that historical comics had been too " narration @-@ heavy " . He wanted Louis Riel " to show what the medium is capable of " , and made use of greater panel @-@ to @-@ panel continuity . While the grid of panels gives a feeling of page symmetry , the pages are not composed as a unit — scenes change anywhere on the page with little regard to page layout .
Printed on yellowish paper , each page conforms strictly to a rhythmic six @-@ panel grid , in contrast to the free placement of panels that characterized Brown 's autobiographical period . Tone and mood are set by the composition of the panels , as during Riel 's trial when all tonal variation is dropped , and the white figures are placed against a heavy black background , which emphasizes the claustrophobic atmosphere .
Brown makes the language barriers that separate the characters visual by having Riel drop the letter " h " in his dialogue ( e.g. " over t 'e last several days " ) and by putting French @-@ language dialogue in ⟨ chevron brackets ⟩ and Cree language dialogue in ⟨ ⟨ double @-@ chevrons ⟩ ⟩ . He shows Riel , who was an educated and sophisticated speaker of French , struggling with English . These touches emphasize that English was not yet a dominant language in the regions in which the story unfolds . Brown uses consistent semantics in his speech balloons ; the size and weight of the dialogue varies according to speech patterns , and sound effects vary according to how close they are to the reader .
Brown 's drawing style had always changed from project to project . He frequently cited Harold Gray of Little Orphan Annie as the primary influence on the drawing style of Louis Riel — restrained artwork which avoids extreme closeups , and blank @-@ eyed characters with large bodies , small heads , and oversized noses . Gray 's drawing and compositional style was well suited to the subject of Louis Riel . Gray often used his strip as a public platform for politics , and Louis Riel was also very public and outward @-@ looking . This approach is in great contrast to the inward @-@ looking comics Brown had previously been known for — notably his autobiographical work . His cross @-@ hatching style was reminiscent of the editorial cartoonists of Riel 's time . Gray 's outdoor scenes were inspired by the Illinois plains of Gray 's youth , terrain similar to that of Manitoba and Saskatchewan .
Brown also acknowledges significant debts to Jack Jackson 's historical comics , Hergé 's The Adventures of Tintin , and the extremely exaggerated style of Larry Gonick 's Cartoon History of the Universe . He says he referred to Jack Hamm 's How to Draw Animals when drawing the horses that appear frequently throughout the book , which were rendered running with their legs splayed , as an artist may have depicted them in the days before the influence of Eadweard Muybridge 's photographs of bodies in motion . Brown drew each of the 1325 panels separately on watercolour paper on a block of wood he placed on his lap in lieu of a drawing table , which allowed him seamlessly to rearrange , insert , and delete panels as he saw fit . The drawings were finished using both a thin ink brush ( no larger than size 0 ) and dip pen with a Hunt 102 nib and black ink .
= = = Appendices = = =
When he began Louis Riel , Brown had increasingly been making use of notes and appendices in his work , beginning with his researching and annotating the 1994 comics essay , " My Mom was a Schizophrenic " . He added appendices to the 1998 collection of short strips , The Little Man , and the 2002 reprinting of I Never Liked You . In Louis Riel , the appendix totalled 23 pages , along with a bibliography and an index . Alan Moore 's use of extensive end notes in his and Eddie Campbell 's From Hell , another fictional reconstruction of a historical event , influenced Brown 's appendices . In the comics essay " Dance of the Gull Catchers " which closes the From Hell appendices , Moore metaphorically reveals to the reader the myriad choices he could have made from the available historical evidence when putting together his version of the Jack the Ripper story .
Allowing him to " tell the best story and tell the truth " , Brown 's notes were self @-@ reflexive , and drew attention to the artistic choices he made when putting together the book . Brown makes explicit the inaccuracies in the book , as when he realized his drawings of William McDougall did not match up with descriptions of him by biographers as a " portly " and " heavily built man " . Brown chose not to redraw McDougall 's scenes , deciding he " could live with that level of inaccuracy " . He also admits that he deliberately changed some of the historical details , as when he has Prime Minister Macdonald in talks with the Hudson 's Bay Company in London — Macdonald was not in London at that time and did not directly participate in the negotiations . In other instances , Brown noted where he paid special care to historical details : the dialogue of Riel 's trial comes directly from court transcripts . Brown makes clear in his notes the amount of research undertaken for the book , emphasizing both its authenticity and his desire to show the different aspects of Riel 's ambiguous story . Many of his changes were made for space considerations , as he intended to limit the book to about two hundred pages .
The notes range from nearly insignificant details to major discrepancies and deliberate distortions . They have a self @-@ deprecatory tone that is common in North American comics , tracing its roots to the awkwardly self @-@ aware underground comix of the 1960s and 1970s . They also reveal Brown 's process in shaping the story from conflicting sources . He acknowledges some of the more capricious details . He explains he was not committed to the conspiracy theory he presented , but included it in order to present Macdonald in a certain light : " [ V ] illains are fun in a story " , he said , and he was " trying to tell this tale in an engaging manner " . He also included a " Major @-@ General Thomas Bland Strange " in an 1885 meeting at which the general was not actually present . Brown explains that he included Strange because he was amused by the Major @-@ General 's name .
= = Publication history = =
Brown originally meant Louis Riel to be published in book form , but his publisher , Chris Oliveros , convinced him to serialize it first . Drawn and Quarterly published the ten comic @-@ book instalments from 1999 until 2003 . Brown was granted CA $ 6000 by the Canadian Council for the Arts in 2001 to assist in its completion . The full volume appeared in hardcover in 2003 and softcover in 2006 . The book sold out its first printing in two months , went through multiple printings , and had sold fifty thousand copies by the beginning of 2011 . The original serialization sold poorly , which made the book 's success a surprise .
The comic book and the collection both came with an extensive appendix , and the collection came with a bibliography and an index , all hand @-@ lettered by Brown . The collection 's appendix came to 22 pages .
In the original serialization , as the series progressed the influence of Harold Gray became stronger . The characters ' heads became smaller while their bodies and hands grew larger , with Riel appearing " like the Hulk in a wool suit " after his hilltop religious revelation . Brown redrew many of the earlier drawings to make them consistent with the later ones in the collected edition . He added backgrounds , redrew , added or deleted panels to improve page rhythms or make chapter divisions cleaner , and reshaped or relettered word ballons . Dialogue remained intact for the most part , although the slur " frog " for the French @-@ speaking Métis was replaced with " half @-@ breed " .
In 2012 , Drawn and Quarterly first began offering comics in e @-@ book format , prompted in part by Brown . His Louis Riel and Paying for It were the first two books made available , though Brown is a print @-@ lover who professes little interest in e @-@ books , or computers in general . The non @-@ exclusive deal was made with Toronto @-@ based Kobo Inc . A tenth @-@ anniversary edition in 2013 included sketches and other supplemental material .
French and Italian editions appeared in 2004 — the Italian from Coconino Press and the French from the Belgian publisher Casterman . To appeal to francophones in Europe , where Riel is not well known , Casterman had the book titled Louis Riel : l 'insurgé ( " Louis Riel : Rebel " ) . The Montreal @-@ based publisher La Pastèque obtained the rights to the book and re @-@ released it as Louis Riel with a different cover in 2012 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Though not the first work of biography in comics , Louis Riel was the first completed of its length and depth . The book sold well , and became the first graphic novel to reach Canada 's non @-@ fiction bestseller list . A critical and commercial success , it was especially popular with libraries and schools . Comics academic Jeet Heer states that it has perhaps sold more copies in Canada than any other graphic novel . Publishers Weekly called it " a strong contender for the best graphic novel ever " , Time magazine included it in its annual Best Comix list in 2003 , and , in 2009 , the Toronto Star placed it on its list of the ten best books of " The Century So Far " . It is regularly cited as being at the forefront of a trend in historical graphic novels , along with Art Spiegelman 's Maus and Marjane Satrapi 's Persepolis .
Especially in Canada , Louis Riel brought Brown out of the fringes into the mainstream , and also attracted more serious attention to graphic novels . It was the first work of comics to receive a grant from the Canada Council for the Arts ( although Brown 's libertarian politics have led him to condemn the government for handing out grants ) , and helped pave the way for the Council 's special category for graphic novels . The book was optioned for a movie by Bruce McDonald and another film director , though the project never started filming .
Researching Riel had a significant impact on Brown 's thinking . When he started the book , he considered himself an anarchist . His intention was to write an anti @-@ government book , and had a bias in Riel 's favour — despite what Brown considered Riel 's own political conservatism — as Riel opposed the government . Over the course of drawing the book , he came to sympathize more with Macdonald . His reading led him in 1998 to The Noblest Triumph : Property and Prosperity Through the Ages by Tom Bethell , which led him change his own politics to favour libertarianism . He later ran for parliament as representative of the Libertarian Party of Canada , to the dismay of his friends . At one point , after Brown had started drawing the book , he tried to rewrite the script to reflect his changed perspective , but found it too difficult and stayed with the original script . He revealed his new beliefs only in the appendix .
Reviewer Dennis Duffy commended Brown 's research , but stated Brown " often cheats " in assigning forethought to Macdonalds action unattested in historical documents . Critic Rich Kreiner found that Brown 's disengaged approach to Louis Riel invited a reader @-@ response approach to reading it . As an example , it was the impetus for an in @-@ depth , three @-@ part interview conducted by Dave Sim in the pages of his comic book Cerebus , which Sim uses as an opportunity to apply his own indiosyncratic views to an interpretation of events in Brown 's book .
= = Adaptations = =
The Montreal @-@ based RustWerk ReFinery using puppetry adaptated the book as Louis Riel : A Comic @-@ Strip Stage Play . It was set to début in early 2016 .
= = = Awards = = =
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = Journals and magazines = = = =
= = = = Newspapers = = = =
= = = = Web = = = =
|
= Threes =
Threes ! is an indie puzzle video game by Sirvo , an independent development team consisting of game designer Asher Vollmer , illustrator Greg Wohlwend , and composer Jimmy Hinson . The game was released on February 6 , 2014 , for iOS devices and later ported to Android , Xbox One , and Windows Phone . In Threes , the player slides numbered tiles on a grid to combine addends and multiples of three . The game ends when there are no moves left on the grid and the tiles are counted for a final score .
The basic game was prototyped in a single night , but the team spent over half a year iterating through variations on the idea with visual themes such as sushi and chess . By the end of the game 's 14 @-@ month development , the team returned to the game 's simple principles and numbers theme .
The game received what video game review score aggregator Metacritic described as " universal acclaim " . Reviewers found the game " charming " and " addictive " and compared it to Drop7 , Stickets , and Triple Town . Eurogamer and TouchArcade awarded the game perfect scores , with the latter calling Threes " about as close as it gets to a perfect mobile game " . Other developers released similar games and clones within weeks of the game 's launch . Apple Inc. named Threes the best iPhone game of 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
The player slides numbered tiles on a four @-@ by @-@ four grid to combine addends and multiples of three . For example , ones and twos merge to become a single " three " tile , two threes merge into " six " , and two sixes merge into " 12 " . Swiping the screen up , down , left , or right moves all of the tiles on the grid in that direction and adds a new tile to the grid in the same direction . The color of the incoming tile is shown onscreen . Players can preview moves by sliding the grid without letting go . Each kind of number tile has its own personality , and new kinds of number tiles are introduced with a screen full of confetti when first unlocked .
Games of Threes typically last several minutes and end when no moves remain on the grid ( usually when gridlocked with a single high number tile and many low number tiles ) . When a game is finished , there is no " game over " screen , but players receive a final score based on the rarity of the tiles ( rather than the tile number values ) . The object of the game is to earn a high score . Outside of the game , players can review their scores and set Game Center challenges .
= = Development = =
Threes was conceived by game designer Asher Vollmer , who worked on the game with artist Greg Wohlwend and composer Jimmy Hinson . The three , as Sirvo LLC , had previously collaborated on the 2012 iOS word game Puzzlejuice . Wohlwend had worked on games including Ridiculous Fishing and Hundreds . Threes development began before Ridiculous Fishing 's March 2013 release . Vollmer presented an idea similar to the final product in its simplicity : pair tiles as multiples of three . Vollmer considered Drop7 an inspiration for the game , and played it for two years before making his game . The first Threes prototype was written in a single night . With Wohlwend , the two @-@ man development team spent at least half a year of the game 's 14 @-@ month development iterating on this main idea .
Some of the iterations included new numberless visual themes and new game mechanics such as a monster who ate tiles and a wall that blocked certain movements . Early Threes designs had no inclination towards minimalism : the pair felt that the game needed to appear more complex so as to interest players . Wohlwend sent Vollmer designs including sushi @-@ themed tiles that paired fish and rice , a chess theme that paired chess pieces , themes about animals , broccoli and cheese soup , military insignia , hydrogen atoms , and textile patterns . Their test audiences were confused by the close to two dozen themes tested in total . Vollmer commented that these ideas made the game feel " unwieldy and unnatural " and that he always preferred the game when the changes were reverted . They received a " wake @-@ up call " from fellow game designer Zach Gage , who encouraged them to return from their foray into complexity . The final game returned to its original theme of numbers . Speaking in retrospect , Wohlwend said the game " always wanted to be simple " . He noted that players " think math " upon seeing the game 's numbers , though the game is more about " spatial relationships " and just happens to have a " number theme " .
When returning to the fundamental and original game concept — pairing tiles as multiples of three — the developers felt their experiments informed their final game development decisions . The theme of individual tile personalities extended to the final version , as tiles have faces and express emotions when paired . For example , the 384 tile has a pirate personality with a large tooth and a pirate eyepatch . Wohlwend has said that the number tiles grow in character with their size . The idea for character faces beneath the cards remained from previous theme iterations , and the character voices were provided by indie game developers . Of the development process , Wohlwend called it " tough and frustrating and sometimes hard to see if it was worth it " . Vollmer credited thatgamecompany for teaching him applicable lessons of restraint during his time there .
The game was released by Sirvo for iOS on February 6 , 2014 , and ported by indie developer Hidden Variable Studios for Android on March 12 , 2014 . The team chose to release for iOS first due to the small team 's difficulty testing across Android platforms . Hidden Variable also developed an Xbox One version , which was originally announced at Microsoft 's E3 2014 press conference , and released on December 5 , 2014 . The release supports the console 's " snap mode " ( to play in the corner of the screen while the player watches something else ) as well as online leaderboards and a " night mode " darker palette option . A free Windows Phone version was released on April 27 , 2015 , and a free web browser version in December 2015 . The browser release does not include advertisements , unlike the free smartphone releases . In a post @-@ release infographic , Sirvo wrote that the average game length was 20 minutes , even though they designed the game 's sessions to not last longer than 10 minutes . They also reported that 93 percent of players in China used unlicensed copies of the game .
= = Reception = =
The game received what video game review score aggregator Metacritic described as " universal acclaim " , with a 92 % rating based on 19 reviews . Eurogamer and TouchArcade awarded the game perfect scores , with the latter calling Threes " about as close as it gets to a perfect mobile game " . It was an honorable mention in the 2014 Independent Games Festival 's Excellence in Design category . The game reached the top of the Apple App Store paid app sales chart shortly after its release . Re / code reported that it " dominated " the chart in the following weeks and became one of the 25 highest grossing apps on the App Store . It later won a 2014 Apple Design Award and was named Apple 's best iPhone game of 2014 . Reviewers found the game " charming " and " addictive " . They compared the game with the luck of Drop7 , the challenge of Stickets , and the " match @-@ by @-@ combining " mechanics in Triple Town . Reviewers also praised the simplicity of the tutorial and noted how their attention on combining large number tiles contrasted with their need to watch the board 's movements as a whole .
Ben Kuchera of Polygon wrote that the game was " a brilliant little puzzler " and commented on the difficulty of designing such an accessible minimalist game . Dan Ryckert of Game Informer noted that the game had all of the qualities of a successful mobile game : accessibility of short game sessions , easy to learn and tough to master gameplay , room to make and try strategies , and gameplay mechanics suited for touchscreens . He added that his progressive play strategy adaptations for higher scores made the game joyful . Ars Technica 's Kyle Orland wrote that he expects the game to join Drop7 and Super Hexagon on his phone for the rest of his life and Crypt of the Necrodancer designer Ryan Clark called Threes the best iOS game he had ever played .
Mark Sorrell of Eurogamer compared the game 's " profoundly and offensively banal " aesthetic to a " hipster restaurant " with good food but a smug ambiance , citing the soundtrack 's " whimsy " and the art style 's similarity to iOS game Letterpress . He praised the game 's mechanics . TouchArcade compared the game 's scaffolding mechanics to the turn @-@ based roguelike Hoplite , and The Verge 's Andrew Webster compared the game 's addictive mechanics to Sudoku and its style to Letterpress and Spelltower . Nick Statt of CNET thought the game had Tetris 's beauty and Dots 's visual appeal . He cited the game as an example of " flow " design principles at work , where the game is designed for players to enter a state of focus and self @-@ awareness . Re / code 's Eric Johnson called the game a descendant of Sudoku , Dots , and Rush Hour . Pocket Gamer 's Mark Brown thought the game 's randomness kept its gameplay interesting and MAME creator Nicola Salmoria wrote an artificial intelligence to play the game .
Edge wrote that the game " can feel a little insubstantial " in its lack of gameplay variety , though its " charm and craft " will make players return . They wrote that the soundtrack is cheerful and memorable with an " indie romcom feel " . TouchArcade added that the soundtrack " fits the game perfectly " and recommended playing the game with sound activated so as to hear the tiles ' personalities . CNET thought the music became repetitive , but that the tile voices were " a little creepy " without the soundtrack . Garrett Martin of Paste wrote that he heard the influence of Jon Brion and alluded to Paul Thomas Anderson 's early films . Comparing Threes to Hundreds as the " quirky American cousin " to Hundreds 's " European art film " , Martin found Threes more whimsical in nature and extended Ian Bogost 's statements in The Atlantic about video games as " haute couture ... design objects " to Threes .
= = Legacy = =
Outside developers released clones of Threes within weeks of its release , including a browser @-@ based version , an " unofficial sort @-@ of @-@ knockoff " Android app ( Fives ) , and another iPhone game , 1024 , which advertised itself as " No need to pay for Threes " and was later ported to a browser version . A later clone of 1024 , the fast @-@ paced browser game 2048 , became popular online and spawned " dozens of parodies " . Journalists , including those at the Los Angeles Times , did not acknowledge the game 's connection to Threes . The Threes team was " puzzled " by the popularity of these releases , especially those that did not credit their game for the idea . They criticized 2048 's game design and compared the game as the Commander Keen to their Super Mario Bros. in a 45 @,@ 000 @-@ word post outlining their full 14 @-@ month development process . Gamasutra 's Leigh Alexander described the situation as a " unique tragedy " .
|
= Bungie =
Bungie , Inc. is an American video game developer located in Bellevue , Washington , United States . The company was established in May 1991 as Bungie Software Products Corporation by University of Chicago undergraduate student Alex Seropian , who later brought in programmer Jason Jones after publishing Jones ' game Minotaur : The Labyrinths of Crete . Originally based in Chicago , Illinois , the company concentrated primarily on Macintosh games during its early years and created two very successful video game franchises called Marathon and Myth . A West Coast offshoot produced the PC and console title Oni .
Microsoft acquired Bungie in 2000 ; the project it was working on was repurposed into a launch title for Microsoft 's Xbox console , called Halo : Combat Evolved . Halo became the Xbox 's " killer application " , selling millions of copies and spawning a billion dollar franchise . On October 5 , 2007 , Bungie announced that it had split from Microsoft and become a privately held independent company , Bungie LLC ( Microsoft retained ownership of the Halo franchise IP ) .
Among Bungie 's side projects are Bungie.net , the company 's official website , which includes company information , forums , and statistics @-@ tracking and integration with many of its games . Bungie.net also serves as the platform from which Bungie sells company @-@ related merchandise out of the Bungie Store and runs other projects , including Bungie Aerospace , its charitable organization , the Bungie Foundation , a podcast , and online publications about game topics . The company is known for its informal and dedicated workplace culture , and recently signed a ten @-@ year publishing deal with Activision . Their first project together was the 2014 first @-@ person shooter , Destiny .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
In the early 1990s , Alex Seropian was pursuing a mathematics degree at the University of Chicago , as the university did not offer undergraduate degrees in computer science . Seropian 's first video game was a Pong clone called Gnop ! ( Pong spelled backwards ) . Seropian released Gnop ! free of charge , though a few players paid Seropian for the source code . Living at home shortly before graduation , his father 's wishes for him to get a job convinced Seropian to start his own game company instead . Seropian founded Bungie in 1991 to publish Operation : Desert Storm . Seropian culled funding from friends and family , assembling the game boxes and writing the disks himself . Operation : Desert Storm sold 2 @,@ 500 copies , and Seropian looked for another game to publish .
Seropian met programmer Jason Jones in an artificial intelligence course at the University of Chicago . Jones was a longtime programmer who was porting a game he wrote , called Minotaur , from an Apple II to the Apple Macintosh platform . Jones recalled , " I didn 't really know [ Alex ] in the class . I think he actually thought I was a dick because I had a fancy computer . " Seropian and Jones partnered to release the role @-@ playing video game as Minotaur : The Labyrinths of Crete in 1992 ; while Jones finished the coding , Seropian handled design and publicity . The game relied on a then @-@ uncommon internet modems and AppleTalk connections for play and sold around 2 @,@ 500 copies , but it developed a devoted following .
The team focused on the Macintosh platform , not Windows @-@ based personal computers , because the Mac market was more open and Jones had been raised on the platform . While Jones was responsible for many of the creative and technical aspects , Seropian was a businessman and marketer . " What I liked about [ Seropian ] was that he never wasted any money , " Jones recalled . With no money to hire other personnel , the two assembled Minotaur boxes by hand in Seropian 's apartment . While the pair remained low on funds — Seropian 's wife was largely supporting him — the modest success of Minotaur gave the duo enough money to develop another project .
Inspired by the shooter game Wolfenstein 3D , Jones wrote a 3D game engine for the Mac . Bungie 's next game was intended to be a 3D port of Minotaur , but Jones and Seropian found that Minotaur 's top @-@ down perspective gameplay did not translate well to the 3D perspective , and did not want to rely on modems . Instead , they developed a new storyline for the first @-@ person shooter that became Pathways into Darkness , released in 1993 . Jones did all the coding , with his friend Colin Brent creating the game 's art . The game was a critical and commercial success , winning awards including Inside Mac Games ' " Adventure Game of the Year " and Macworld 's " Best Role @-@ Playing Game . "
Pathways beat sales expectations and became Bungie 's first commercial success . Bungie moved from a one @-@ bedroom apartment to a studio in Chicago 's South Side on South Halsted Street ; Seropian and Jones 's first full @-@ time employee , Doug Zartman , joined in May 1994 to provide support for Pathways , but became Bungie 's public relations person , honing Bungie 's often sophomoric sense of humor and irreverence . Bungie composer Martin O 'Donnell remembered that the studio 's location , a former girl 's school next to a crack house , " smelled like a frat house after a really long weekend " and reminded staff of a locale from the Silent Hill horror video games .
= = = Marathon , Myth and Oni = = =
Bungie 's next project began as a sequel to Pathways into Darkness , but evolved into a futuristic first person shooter called Marathon . Not only did it introduce the rocket jumping mechanic to gamers for the first time ( then known as " hopping " ) , it was the first control system where players could use the mouse to look up and down as well as pan side @-@ to @-@ side . Pathways had taught Bungie the importance of story in a game , and Marathon featured computer terminals where players could choose to learn more about the game 's fiction . The studio became what one employee termed " your stereotypical vision of a small computer @-@ game company — eating a lot of pizza , drinking a lot of Coke " while the development team worked 14 hours every day for nearly six months .
After showing the game at the Macworld Expo , Bungie was mobbed with interest and orders for the game . The game was not finished until December 14 , 1994 ; Jones and a few other employees spent a day at a warehouse assembling boxes so that some of the orders could be filled before Christmas . The game was a critical and commercial success , and is regarded as a relatively unknown but important part of gaming history . It served as the Mac alternative to DOS PC @-@ only games like Doom and System Shock . The game 's volume of orders was unprecedented for the studio , who found that its old method of mail or phone orders could not scale to the demand and hired another company to handle the tens of thousands of orders . Marathon also brought Bungie attention from press outside the small Mac gaming market .
The first game 's success led to a sequel , Marathon 2 : Durandal . The series introduced several elements , including cooperative mode , which made their way to later Bungie games . The game was released November 24 , 1995 , and outsold its predecessor . When Bungie announced its intention to port the game to the Windows 95 operating system , however , many Mac players felt betrayed , and Bungie received a flood of negative mail . Seropian saw the value of moving into new markets and partnering with larger supply chains , although he lamented the difficult terms and " sucky " contracts distributors provided . The game released on Windows 95 in September 1996 .
Marathon Infinity was released the following year .
After Marathon , Bungie moved away from first @-@ person shooters to release a strategy game , Myth : The Fallen Lords . The games stressed tactical unit management as opposed to the resource gathering model of other combat strategy titles . The Myth games won several awards and spawned a large and active online community . Myth : The Fallen Lords was the first Bungie game to be released simultaneously for both Mac and Windows platforms .
The success of Myth enabled Bungie to change Chicago offices and establish a San Jose , California based branch of the studio , Bungie West , in 1997 . Bungie West 's first and only game would be Oni , an action title for the Mac , PC and PlayStation 2 .
= = = Halo and buyout = = =
In 1999 , Bungie announced its next product , Halo , originally intended to be a third @-@ person shooter game for Windows and Macintosh . Halo 's public unveiling occurred at the Macworld Expo 1999 keynote address by Apple 's then @-@ interim @-@ CEO Steve Jobs ( after a closed @-@ door screening at E3 in 1999 ) .
On June 19 , 2000 , soon after Halo 's preview at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2000 , Microsoft announced that it had acquired Bungie Software and that Bungie would become a part of the Microsoft Game Division under the name Bungie Studios . Halo would be developed as an exclusive , first @-@ person shooter title for the Xbox . The reasons for Bungie accepting Microsoft 's offer were varied . Jones stated that " I don 't remember the details exactly , it was all a blur . We 'd been talking to people for years and years — before we even published Marathon , Activision made a serious offer . But the chance to work on Xbox — the chance to work with a company that took the games seriously . Before that we worried that we 'd get bought by someone who just wanted Mac ports or didn 't have a clue . " Martin O 'Donnell , who had joined Bungie as an employee only ten days before the merger was announced , remembers that the stability of the Xbox as a development platform was not the only benefit . Around the same time , it was discovered that Asian versions of Myth II could entirely erase a player 's hard drive ; the glitch led to a massive recall of the games right before they shipped , which cost Bungie nearly one million dollars . O 'Donnell stated in a Bungie podcast that this recall created some financial uncertainty , although accepting the offer was not something " Bungie had to do . " Seropian and Jones had refused to accept Microsoft 's offer until the entire studio agreed to the buyout .
As a result of the buyout , the rights to Myth and Oni were transferred to Take @-@ Two Interactive as part of the three @-@ way deal between Microsoft , Bungie and Take @-@ Two ; most of the original Oni developers were able to continue working on Oni until its release in 2001 . Halo : Combat Evolved , meanwhile , went on to become a critically acclaimed hit , selling more than 6 @.@ 5 million copies , and becoming the Xbox 's flagship franchise .
Halo 's success led to Bungie creating two sequels . Halo 2 was released on November 9 , 2004 , making more than $ 125 million on release day and setting a record in the entertainment industry . Halo 3 , the final installment in the original Halo trilogy , was released on September 25 , 2007 and surpassed Halo 2 's records , making $ 170 million in its first twenty @-@ four hours of release .
= = = Independent company = = =
On October 1 , 2007 , Microsoft and Bungie announced that Bungie was splitting off from its parent and becoming a privately held limited liability company named Bungie , LLC . As outlined in a deal between the two , Microsoft would retain a minority stake and continue to partner with Bungie on publishing and marketing both Halo and future projects , with the Halo intellectual property belonging to Microsoft .
While Bungie planned on revealing a new game at E3 2008 , Bungie studio head Harold Ryan announced that the unveiling was canceled . Almost three months later , Bungie announced that the new game was a prequel and expansion to Halo 3 titled Halo 3 : Recon . The next month , Bungie changed game 's title from Halo 3 : Recon to Halo 3 : ODST . At E3 2009 , Bungie and Microsoft revealed the company was developing another Halo @-@ related game , Halo : Reach , for release in 2010 . Reach was the last game in the Halo franchise to be developed by Bungie .
Bungie continued expanding , though it did not commit to details about new projects and ship dates . The company grew from roughly 120 employees in May 2008 to 165 in June 2009 , outgrowing the studio Microsoft developed . Ryan helped redesign a former multiplex movie theater in Bellevue into new Bungie offices , with 80 @,@ 000 square feet ( 7 @,@ 400 m2 ) replacing the 41 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 800 m2 ) the company occupied previously .
On April 29 , 2010 , Bungie announced that it was entering into a 10 @-@ year publishing agreement with publisher Activision Blizzard . Under Bungie 's agreement with Activision , new intellectual property developed by Bungie will be owned by Bungie , not Activision , in a deal similar to the EA ( Electronic Arts ) Partners Program .
On June 30 , 2011 , Bungie announced the " Bungie Aerospace " project ( Slogan " Per audacia ad astra " meaning " Boldly to the stars " . ) The project is intended to provide independent game developers with publishing , resources , and support , including access to the Bungie.net platform . On November 18 , 2011 , Bungie Aerospace published its first game , Crimson : Steam Pirates , for iOS , developed by startup video game developer Harebrained Schemes . In addition to publishing and distributing Crimson , Bungie Aerospace also provided players with statistical support and a dedicated discussion forum on Bungie.net.
On February 17 , 2013 , Bungie announced Destiny , which launched for the PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , Xbox 360 , and Xbox One platforms on September 9 , 2014 .
On January 27 , 2016 , Ryan stepped down as president and Pete Parsons , who had been the company 's chief operating officer and executive producer since 2002 , became its chief executive officer .
= = Bungie.net = =
Bungie.net serves as the main official portal for interaction between company staff and the community surrounding Bungie 's games . When Bungie was bought by Microsoft , the site was originally seen as in competition with Microsoft 's own Xbox.com site , but community management eventually won out as the bigger concern . The site has been redesigned several times .
During Bungie 's involvement with the Halo franchise , the site recorded statistics for each game played . This information included statistics on each player in the game , and a map of the game level showing where kills occurred , called " heatmaps . " On January 31 , 2012 , Bungie announced that , as of March 31 , 2012 , Bungie.net would no longer update Halo game statistics and Halo player service records , host new user @-@ generated Halo content , or operate Halo 's " Bungie Pro " service . Bungie 's cessation of these services on March 31 completed the transition process of all data for Halo games being managed by 343 Industries . Currently , Bungie.net records player 's statistics for their game franchise Destiny . In addition to the collection of data and the management of Destiny player 's accounts , the website serves as a form of communication between Bungie and the community .
While Bungie had long provided places for fans to congregate and talk about games , as well as releasing new information and screenshots over Bungie.net , it historically had made less effort and been less successful at providing access to the inside workings of Bungie and its staff . As part of a move to become more familiar with fans , Bungie recruited recognized and respected voices from the fan community , including writers Luke Smith , Eric Osborne , and others . The developer hosts a podcast where staff members are interviewed in a round @-@ table , informal atmosphere .
Bungie also has an iOS and Google Play application that allows stat @-@ tracking for their game Destiny on the go .
= = Culture = =
Martin O 'Donnell described Bungie 's workplace culture as " a slightly irreverent attitude , and not corporate , bureaucratic or business @-@ focused " ; artist Shi Kai Wang noted that when he walked into Bungie for an interview , " I realized that I was the one who was over @-@ dressed , [ and ] I knew this was the place I wanted to work . " Frank O 'Connor comically noted that at a Gamestop conference , the Bungie team was told to wear business casual , to which O 'Connor replied " We [ Bungie ] don 't do business casual . "
This informal , creative culture was one of the reasons Microsoft was interested in acquiring Bungie , although game designer Jordan Weisman said that Microsoft came close to destroying the company 's development culture , as it had with the now @-@ defunct FASA Studio . Studio head Harold Ryan emphasized that even when Bungie was bought by Microsoft , the team was still independent :
One of the first things [ Microsoft ] tried after acquiring Bungie , after first attempting to fully assimilate them , was to move Bungie into a standard Microsoft building with the rest of the game group . But unlike the rest of the teams they 'd brought in previously , Bungie didn 't move into Microsoft corporate offices – we tore all of the walls out of that section of the building and sat in a big open environment . Luckily Alex and Jason [ Seropian and Jones , Bungie 's founders ] were pretty steadfast at the time about staying somewhat separate and isolated .
Microsoft eventually moved the studio to Kirkland , Washington . Despite the move , financial analyst Roger Ehrenberg declared the Bungie @-@ Microsoft marriage " doomed to fail " due to these fundamental differences . Bungie also pointed out that it was tired of new intellectual property being cast aside to work on the Halo franchise . Edge described the typical Bungie employee as " simultaneously irreverent and passionately loyal ; fiercely self @-@ critical ; full of excitement at the company 's achievements , no matter how obscure ; [ and ] recruited from its devoted fanbase . "
The Bungie workplace is highly informal , with new and old staff willing to challenge each other on topics , such as fundamental game elements . Staff are able to publicly criticize their own games and each other . Fostering studio cooperation and competition , Bungie holds events such as the " Bungie Pentathlon " , in which staff square off in teams playing games such as Halo , Pictionary , Dance Dance Revolution , and Rock Band . Bungie also faced off against professional eSports teams and other game studios in Halo during " Humpdays " , with the results of the multiplayer matches being posted on Bungie.net.
Bungie 's staff and fans , known as the " Seventh Column , " have banded together for charity and other causes . After Hurricane Katrina , Bungie was one of several game companies to announce its intention to help those affected by the hurricane , with Bungie donating the proceeds of special T @-@ shirts to the American Red Cross ; after the 2010 Haiti earthquake , Bungie sold " Be a Hero " T @-@ shirts and donated money to the Red Cross for every Halo 3 or ODST player on Xbox Live who wore a special heart @-@ shaped emblem . Other charity work Bungie has done included auctioning off a painting of " Mister Chief " by Frank O 'Connor , a Halo 2 soda machine from Bungie 's offices , and collaborating with Child 's Play auctions . In 2011 , Bungie formed a nonprofit organization , named Bungie Foundation .
= = Developed games = =
= = Related companies = =
Many of Bungie 's employees have left the company to form their own studios . Double Aught was a short @-@ lived company composed of several former Bungie team members , founded by Greg Kirkpatrick . Seropian left to form Wideload Games , creator of Stubbs the Zombie in " Rebel Without a Pulse " . Other companies include Giant Bite , founded by Hamilton Chu ( former lead producer of Bungie Studios ) and Michal Evans ( former Bungie programmer ) , and Certain Affinity , founded by Max Hoberman ( the multiplayer design lead for Halo 2 and Halo 3 ) ; Certain Affinity 's team included former Bungie employees David Bowman and Chad Armstrong ( who later returned to Bungie ) . The company collaborated with Bungie in releasing the last two downloadable maps for Halo 2 and the downloadable Defiant Map Pack for Halo : Reach . 343 Industries , a game studio formed by Microsoft to manage the Halo series following the launch of Halo : Reach , also includes a few former Bungie employees , including former Community Manager Frank O 'Connor . In 2015 , long time ex @-@ Bungie employee Marty O 'Donnell started a new game studio known as Highwire Games .
|
= 1987 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1987 Giro d 'Italia was a cycling competition and the 70th edition of the race , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . It began on 21 May with a 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) prologue in San Remo , and concluded on 13 June with a 32 km ( 19 @.@ 9 mi ) individual time trial in Saint @-@ Vincent . A total of 180 riders from 20 teams entered the 22 @-@ stage , 3 @,@ 915 km ( 2 @,@ 433 mi ) -long race , which was won by Irishman Stephen Roche of the Carrera Jeans – Vagabond team . Second and third places were taken by British rider Robert Millar and Dutchman Erik Breukink , respectively . It was the second time in the history of the Giro that the podium was occupied solely by non @-@ Italian riders . Roche 's victory in the 1987 Giro was his first step in completing the Triple Crown of Cycling – winning the Giro d 'Italia , the Tour de France , and the World Championship road race in one calendar year – becoming the second rider ever to do so .
Roche 's teammate and defending champion Roberto Visentini took the first race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) after winning the opening prologue , only to lose it to Breukink the following stage . Roche took the overall lead after his team , Carrera Jeans – Vagabond , won the stage three team time trial . Visentini regained the lead for a two @-@ day period after the stage 13 individual time trial . The fifteenth stage of the 1987 Giro has been recognized as an iconic event in the history of the race because Roche rode ahead of teammate Visentini , despite orders from the team management , and took the race lead . Roche successfully defended the overall lead from attacks by Visentini and other general classification contenders until the event 's finish in Saint @-@ Vincent .
Stephen Roche became the first Irishman to win the Giro d 'Italia . In addition to the general classification , Roche also won the combination classification . In the other race classifications , Johan van der Velde of Gis Gelati – Jollyscarpe won the points classification , Robert Millar of Panasonic – Isostar took the mountains classification green jersey , and Selca – Conti 's Roberto Conti completed the Giro as the best neo @-@ professional in the general classification , finishing fifteenth overall . Panasonic – Isostar finished as the winners of the team classification , which ranks each of the twenty teams contesting the race by lowest cumulative time .
= = Teams = =
A total of 20 teams were invited to participate in the 1987 Giro d 'Italia . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , which meant that the race started with a peloton of 180 cyclists . The presentation of the teams – where each team 's roster and manager are introduced in front of the media and local dignitaries – took place on 20 May , outside the Casino of San Remo . From the riders that began this edition , 133 completed the race .
The teams entering the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
Reigning champion Roberto Visentini returned to the race in 1987 to defend his crown , despite not winning many races in his spring campaign . Francesco Moser , who won in 1984 and finished in the top three in 1985 and 1986 , did not participate because of a head trauma and bruises sustained in a crash in the weeks prior to the race . Spanish sports newspaper El Mundo Deportivo and Gian Paolo Ormezzano from Italy 's La Stampa named several other riders as contenders for the overall classification , such as Giuseppe Saronni , then @-@ world champion Moreno Argentin , Stephen Roche , and Robert Millar . Since Toshiba – Look team leader Greg LeMond did not participate in the race due to injuries sustained in a hunting accident , El Mundo Deportivo believed Jean @-@ François Bernard to be a dark horse . L 'Unità writer Gino Sala believed Roche , Saronni , and Visentini were the top three challengers for the overall crown , while Ormezzano considered that Argentin , Guido Bontempi , Urs Freuler , and Paolo Rosola all had a great chance to win a stage in the race . Mario Fossati of La Repubblica also thought that Bernard , Bontempi , and Phil Anderson could take a stage win .
There was a strong belief that the race would be a battle between Carrera Jeans – Vagabond teammates Visentini and Roche . El Mundo Deportivo stated that Visentini had the edge in the time trial discipline and sprinting , while Roche had the advantage in climbing mountains . However , unlike Visentini , Roche came into the race in great shape after winning the Tour de Romandie and placing second in the Liège – Bastogne – Liège and the Critérium International . Cycling expert and author Bill McGann thought that the race would be disputed between Visentini and Gianbattista Baronchelli .
= = Route and stages = =
The route for the 1987 edition of the Giro d 'Italia was revealed to the public on television by head organizer Vincenzo Torriani on 21 February 1987 . Covering a total of 3 @,@ 915 km ( 2 @,@ 433 mi ) , it included five time trials ( four individual and one for teams ) , and thirteen stages with categorized climbs that awarded mountains classification points . Five of these thirteen stages had summit finishes : stage 1a , to San Romolo ; stage 6 , to Monte Terminillo ; stage 15 , to Sappada ; stage 19 , to Madesimo ; and stage 21 , to Pila . Another stage with a mountain @-@ top finish was stage 13 , which consisted of a climbing time trial to San Marino . The organizers chose to include one rest day between stages 10 and 11 . When compared to the previous edition , the race had the same amount of stages – although one stage consisted of two half @-@ stages – but was 56 @.@ 4 km ( 35 mi ) longer and contained an additional individual time trial . The sixteenth stage , which ran from Sappada to Canazei , was named the queen stage for its five categorized climbs .
Race director Torriani was happy with the success the 1985 Giro d 'Italia had when passing through the Aosta Valley and chose to include this mountainous region , which lies adjacent to the Rhône @-@ Alpes , in the 1987 route . With the Giro 's return to the valley , La Stampa and the regional cycling federation director , Maggiorino Ferrero , speculated that the stages taking place in this region would be critical in deciding the general classification . Carlo Champvillair , a climbing champion of Aosta Valley , believed it to be a well @-@ constructed , technical race route . The time trial in San Marino , the sixth stage with the finish atop Monte Terminillo , and the stages including the Dolomites were seen by L 'Unità writer Gino Sala as stages that would heavily influence the general classification . In addition , he said that the route was suited to well @-@ rounded , strong , and durable riders .
= = Race overview = =
The Giro began with a 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) prologue through the streets of San Remo . The returning winner of the Giro , Roberto Visentini , won the prologue by two tenths of a second over the Canadian rider Steve Bauer . The next race day held two stages : a 31 km ( 19 @.@ 3 mi ) stage with a summit finish , followed by a downhill individual time trial . Panasonic – Isostar 's Erik Breukink took the climbing half @-@ stage win with a solo attack . His performance earned him the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) , which he kept until the third stage . Stephen Roche won the time trial half @-@ stage with a three @-@ second margin over Del Tongo 's Lech Piasecki . Johan van der Velde formed a lead group with about 30 km ( 18 @.@ 6 mi ) to go in the second stage , but as he posed a threat to the race lead , he was not given a large advantage and was subsequently caught by the chasing peloton 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from the finish . The main field remained intact for the remaining kilometers and the race geared up for a sprint finish won by Moreno Argentin .
The third stage was a lengthy team time trial that stretched for 43 km ( 26 @.@ 7 mi ) between Lerici and Camaiore . Carrera Jeans – Vagabond beat out the Del Tongo squad by fifty @-@ four seconds to win the leg . In addition to the stage victory , Carrera Jeans – Vagabond 's Roche took the overall lead . As the leading group approached the fourth stage finish line , Argentin sprinted away with 800 m ( 2 @,@ 625 ft ) to go and created a two @-@ second gap between himself and the rider in second place that was enough to earn him a second stage win . The fifth stage was relatively flat and was used to set up the race to enter the Apennine Mountains the following day . The leg culminated in a mass sprint that was won by Panasonic – Isostar 's Belgian rider Eddy Planckaert , after overcoming Paolo Rosola in the closing meters .
Roche defended his race lead until stage thirteen , a 46 km ( 28 @.@ 6 mi ) climbing individual time trial to Monte Titano in San Marino , where he lost the pink jersey to his teammate and stage winner Visentini . Roche claimed his performance in the stage was hampered due to injuries sustained from a crash in the tenth stage . At 260 km ( 161 @.@ 6 mi ) , the fourteenth stage was the longest of the race . It was won in a mass sprint by Remac Fanini 's Paolo Cimini , who overtook Rosola in the final meters .
The fifteenth stage saw the race enter the Dolomites and traverse three major climbs within the mountain chain . On the descent of the Monte Rest , Roche formed a leading group with two other riders after speeding away from the race leader 's group . Despite orders from his team management , Roche continued with the move . The Carrera Jeans @-@ Vagabond pack chased after the Roche group to protect the advantage of Roche 's teammate and race leader Visentini . Roche crossed the finish line in twelfth place , fifty @-@ six seconds after the stage winner van der Velde , which allowed him to don again the pink jersey by five seconds over Tony Rominger . Roche 's actions , taking the race lead away from Visentini and disobeying team commands , gained him the hatred of the Italian cyclings fans .
The sixteenth leg of the race included five categorized climbs before concluding in the municipality of Canazei . On the descent of the Pordoi Pass , van der Velde broke away and caught up to the leader on the road before winning his second consecutive stage . Meanwhile , behind van der Velde , Visentini tried several times to attack Roche on the slopes of the Passo Fedaia ; however , Roche marked all of his moves and the two raced to the finish in the same group . Stage 17 , the race 's final day in the Dolomites , was marred by poor weather . A breakaway group of three was given a significant gap as the main general classification contenders rode behind in a collective group . Atala Ofmega 's Italian rider Marco Vitali out @-@ sprinted his two fellow breakaway members to win his first Grand Tour stage win .
As the eighteenth stage began , the peloton felt they deserved a rest day after three difficult stages in the Dolomites and collectively rode at a non @-@ aggressive pace for over three @-@ quarters of the stage . Riders began to attack and form breakaway groups with about 30 km ( 18 @.@ 6 mi ) to go ; however , the sprinters ' teams reeled in all attacks and prepared for a sprint finish that was eventually won by Giuseppe Calcaterra , making it the second consecutive stage win for Atala @-@ Ofmega . During the nineteenth stage , Jean @-@ François Bernard launched an attack after the leading group finished the climb of the San Marco Pass . Three riders joined Bernard before the start of the final climb in Madesimo , but Bernard dropped them early on in the climb and rode the final 18 km ( 11 @.@ 2 mi ) alone to win the stage . Millar and Marino Lejarreta managed to gain over thirty seconds on Roche after they attacked on the final climb . Despite a crash within the final kilometer of stage twenty , the main field managed to hold a bunch sprint that was won by Rosola .
In the twenty @-@ first leg , the general classification contenders were a part of the same leading group until the final climb to the summit finish in Pila . Lejarreta attacked 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the finish and only seven other riders were able to mark , including Millar and Roche . Over 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) later , the Spaniard attacked again and only Roche and Millar remained with him . Despite further attacks by Lejarreta , the group rode together up to the finish . With over 300 m ( 984 @.@ 3 ft ) to go , Millar unleashed a sprint that won him the stage . Millar 's performance on the stay brought him to second place overall . The final stage of the 1987 Giro d 'Italia was a 32 km ( 19 @.@ 9 mi ) individual time trial . Visentini , who had crashed in the previous stage , did not start and abandoned the race . Roche beat out the second @-@ place finisher , Dietrich Thurau , by fourteen seconds to win the day and the overall race itself . In doing so , Roche became the first Irishman to win the Giro d 'Italia . The other podium positions were filled by non @-@ Italian riders for the second time in the history of the race .
Four riders achieved multiple stage victories : Argentin ( stages 2 , 4 , and 7 ) , Rosola ( stages 8 , 10 , and 20 ) , Visentini ( prologue and stage 13 ) , and Roche ( stages 1b and 22 ) . Stage wins were achieved by seven of the twenty competing squads , five of which won multiple stages . Gewiss @-@ Bianchi collected a total of six stage wins through two riders , Argentin and Rosola . Carrera Jeans @-@ Vagabond achieved the same feat with individual stage wins from Bontempi ( stage 12 ) , Roche and Visentini ( two wins each ) , and a team time trial win ( stage 3 ) . Panasonic – Isostar amassed a total of three stage victories through Breukink ( stage 1a ) , Planckaert ( stage 5 ) , and Millar ( stage 21 ) . Atala @-@ Ofmega also secured three stage wins , through Freuler ( stage 9 ) , Vitali ( stage 17 ) , and Calcaterra ( stage 18 ) . Gis Gelati – Jollyscarpe won two stages with van der Velde ( stages 15 and 16 ) . Fagor – MBK also collected two stage successes , with Jean @-@ Claude Bagot ( stage 6 ) and Robert Forest ( stage 11 ) . Remac – Fanini and Toshiba – Look both won a single stage at the Giro , the first through Cimini ( stage 14 ) , and the second through Bernard ( stage 19 ) .
= = Classification leadership = =
Four different jerseys were worn during the 1987 Giro d 'Italia . The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages – wore a pink jersey . The time bonuses for the 1987 Giro were twenty seconds for the first place , fifteen seconds for the second place , ten seconds for the third place , and five seconds for the fourth place on the stage . This classification is the most important of the race , and its winner is considered to be the winner of the Giro .
For the points classification , which awarded a purple ( or cyclamen ) jersey to its leader , cyclists were given points for finishing a stage in the top 15 ; additional points could also be won in intermediate sprints . The green jersey was awarded to the mountains classification leader . In this ranking , points were won by reaching the summit of a climb ahead of other cyclists . Each climb was ranked as either first , second or third category , with more points available for higher category climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded more points than the other first category climbs . The Cima Coppi for this edition of the Giro was the Passo Pordoi , and the first rider to cross it was Fagor – MBK 's Jean @-@ Claude Bagot . The white jersey was worn by the leader of young rider classification , a ranking decided the same way as the general classification , but considering only neo @-@ professional cyclists ( in their first three years of professional racing ) . Although no jersey was awarded , there was also one classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time .
= = Final standings = =
= = = General classification = = =
= = Aftermath = =
Upon completing the final stage , Roche told the media that by winning the final time trial he felt he silenced any critics who doubted whether he should have won the race . In addition , Roche announced his intention to compete in the Tour de France in July . He won the Tour with a margin of forty seconds over the second @-@ place finisher and thus became the fifth rider to win the Giro and Tour in the same year . In September , Roche won the men 's road race at the 1987 UCI Road World Championships and became the second rider to achieve the Triple Crown of Cycling , which consists of winning two Grand Tour races and the men 's road race at the UCI Road World Championships in a calendar year . For his career successes in the Giro d 'Italia , Roche was inducted into the race 's Hall of Fame in 2014 . After dropping out of the 1987 edition of the Giro , Visentini did not win any further stages or classifications in major races , and retired from cycling in 1990 , at the age of 33 .
La Repubblica stated that the Italian riders had the second worst performance in the history of the Giro after 1972 , since none finished inside the top four and many famous Italian cyclists failed to complete the race . Mario Fossati , of La Repubblica , thought that van der Velde and Bernard performed very strongly , along with Argentin , whom he said was operating on " alternating current " . Fossati also said that Cimini and Calcaterra could have promising careers , based on their efforts during the race .
The 1987 Giro has become famous for the series of events involving teammates Roche and Visentini . Many writers highlight the fifteenth stage as the defining moment of the race . The Corriere delle Alpi and cycling book author Bill McGann even named it as one of the most famous in the Giro d 'Italia and cycling history . On that day , Roche – who was second in the general classification and over two minutes behind race leader Visentini – attacked the lead , despite orders from his team to stop . Upon completing the stage , Visentini told the press that either Roche or himself would not start the following day , while Roche independently held a press conference from his hotel and answered questions . Carrera Jeans @-@ Vagabond manager David Boifava ordered Roche and Visentini to stay silent . The following day , many Italian newspapers called Roche a betrayer or cheat for his actions . Despite Visentini 's statement , both riders started the sixteenth stage after receiving orders from Carrera company boss Tito Tachella . In the days that followed , Italian fans threw things and spat at Roche , which led him to receive police protection until the race 's conclusion . Looking back on the incident , Roche claimed that he just descended the mountain quicker than Visentini and did nothing wrong , while Visentini maintained that Roche attacked him when he should have been aiding him . Visentini accused Roche of dashing the team 's morale and strategy , but some critics believed that Roche 's actions were acceptable because he was the stronger rider .
|
= Hurricane Allison ( 1995 ) =
Hurricane Allison was the first named storm and first hurricane of the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season . It was an early season hurricane that delivered heavy rains and caused minor damage , primarily across Cuba , Florida and Georgia .
The storm developed on June 2 , less than 48 hours after the official start of the hurricane season . It strengthened into a tropical storm early on June 3 and into a hurricane on June 4 in the Gulf of Mexico . It would make landfall in the Big Bend area of Florida on June 5 before tracking northward as an extratropical system . One death was reported in Cuba . Allison 's early formation heralded the start of what would eventually become a very active 1995 hurricane season .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the system can be traced to a tropical wave that moved across the eastern Caribbean Sea in the last week of May . The wave gradually organized itself as it entered the western Caribbean Sea on June 1 . The circulation continued to close up on June 2 and that evening it was declared Tropical Depression One while east of Honduras .
The depression was in an unusually low @-@ shear environment for early June as it began tracking northward , which allowed the system to strengthen into Tropical Storm Allison on the morning of June 3 as it tracked into the Yucatan Channel . Despite the fact that westerly wind shear began to increase , the warm water allowed Allison to gradually strengthen more that afternoon and evening . Late that evening , while between the Yucatan Peninsula and Cuba , Allison developed a circular central dense overcast and became a high @-@ end tropical storm . As the storm emerged into the Gulf of Mexico , the warm waters allowed Allison to strengthen further and it was upgraded to a hurricane on the morning of June 4 while travelling almost due north .
Allison remained somewhat disorganized , as no eye was ever visible , even when Reconnaissance flights confirmed that it was at hurricane intensity . The storm maintained itself as a minimal hurricane throughout the day on June 4 before it began to turn to the northeast , in response to southwesterly shear . Late that evening , the storm began to weaken , dropping back to tropical storm intensity as it approached the Florida Big Bend area . The intensity leveled off on June 5 until it made landfall that morning . Allison made its first landfall at about 10 : 00 am EDT ( 1400 UTC ) near Alligator Point , Florida as a high @-@ end tropical storm with 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) winds . It briefly re @-@ emerged over Apalachee Bay and made another landfall near St. Marks , Florida about one hour later with 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) winds . Operationally , Allison was considered a hurricane until it made landfall , and was considered the earliest hurricane landfall in the United States for a while .
After making its final Florida landfall , Allison rapidly weakened . Tropical storm force winds continued over the eastern Florida Panhandle until late that afternoon , as the storm moved northward into Georgia . It weakened to a tropical depression on the evening of June 5 over southern Georgia . Early on June 6 , Allison began to transition into an extratropical storm as it interacted with a warm front to the northeast while tracking across the Carolinas . The remnant low emerged into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Cape Hatteras that evening . It then raced across the western Atlantic , crossing the easternmost part of Nova Scotia on June 8 and Newfoundland on June 9 . It continued northward across the Labrador Sea , dissipating on June 11 .
= = Impact = =
Winds to tropical storm @-@ force were reported throughout the western part of Cuba , with a peak gust of 64 mph ( 102 km / h ) in Havana . Heavy rainfall of up to 18 inches ( 450 mm ) was also reported in the area . 32 houses were damaged or destroyed due to flooding that resulted . One person was killed in western Cuba and three others were injured . The overall economic loss as a result of the storm was reported to have fairly minor .
In Florida , Allison 's winds knocked down power lines , leaving 48 @,@ 000 residents without power or telephone services . Along the 150 @-@ mile ( 240 km ) stretch of Florida 's Big Bend , 65 seaside homes were flooded and there was extensive beach erosion as a result of the storm surge . Three hotels and a restaurant were damaged . In Apalachicola , three fishing boats were swamped ; the storm closed a bridge linking Apalachicola with St. George Island . The highest storm surge in Florida was about 6 to 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 5 m ) in Wakulla and Dixie Counties , and 2 to 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) to the east . A tornado spawned by Allison touched down at Jacksonville Beach , causing minor damage when it downed power lines and flipped over vehicles . Minor crop damage was also reported . There were no deaths reported as a result of Allison in Florida . Damage was estimated at $ 860 @,@ 000 ( 1995 USD ) in Florida , primarily as a result of the storm surge .
Most of the damage in Georgia was as a result of several tornadoes related to Allison . The most significant of the tornadoes touched down in the town of St. Marys . An elementary school was destroyed and significant damage was also reported to several buildings at the Kings Bay Naval Submarine Base . Several other tornadoes also touched down but damage from them was minimal . Damage from the tornado was estimated at $ 800 @,@ 000 ( 1995 USD ) .
|
= Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu ( English : The Jasmine Vine in Seethamma 's Courtyard ) is a 2013 Indian Telugu @-@ language drama film written and directed by Srikanth Addala . It was produced by Dil Raju 's Sri Venkateswara Creations , and features Daggubati Venkatesh , Mahesh Babu , Anjali and Samantha Ruth Prabhu in the lead roles , while Prakash Raj , Jayasudha , Rao Ramesh , Tanikella Bharani and Rohini Hattangadi play supporting roles .
The film focuses on a simple , middle @-@ class family in the village of Relangi whose head is a Good Samaritan with a positive outlook on life . Although his two sons have completed their education , they are unemployed . Their cousin , Seetha , lives with the family and loves the elder son . The younger son falls in love with Geetha , the daughter of Seetha 's paternal uncle . Amid a conflict between the elder son and Geetha 's father , the Good Samaritan teaches his sons and Geetha 's father the value of spreading love in life ; this is the film 's centrepiece .
In addition to directing the film , Addala worked on the script for three years after the release of his directorial debut , Kotha Bangaru Lokam ( 2008 ) . He wrote the screenplay , and Ganesh Patro wrote the film 's dialogue . Mickey J Meyer and Mani Sharma composed the soundtrack and score , respectively . Marthand K. Venkatesh edited the film and K. V. Guhan was its cinematographer . Production began on 6 October 2011 in Hyderabad ; principal photography began on 18 January 2012 in Vishakhapatnam , and finished on 24 December . In addition to Hyderabad , scenes were filmed in coastal Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu and Kerala .
Considered the first star @-@ studded Telugu film in the last twenty or thirty years , Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was released worldwide on 11 January 2013 to critical praise . The film was commercially successful , earning a distributor share of ₹ 550 million on a budget of ₹ 500 million , and was the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of the year ( after Attarintiki Daredi ) . It was dubbed in Tamil as Anandam Anandame by Viji Creations in 2013 . The film was one of twenty Telugu entries at the 61st National Film Awards . It received seven nominations at the 61st Filmfare Awards South and eleven nominations at the 3rd South Indian International Movie Awards , winning two awards at each : Best Actor Male — Telugu ( Mahesh ) and Best Playback Singer Female — Telugu ( Chithra ) .
= = Plot = =
A kindhearted man , known as " Relangi mavayya " ( " Relangi Uncle " ) by his family , lives in the village of the same name . His middle @-@ class family consists of his wife , mother , niece Seetha and three children : two sons ( Peddodu , " the elder " and Chinnodu , " the younger " ) and a daughter , Chinni . Peddodu is an introvert , who lives life on his own terms and is unsociable . Although Seetha wants to marry him , her love is apparently unrequited . Chinnodu is extrovert , who falls in love with Geetha , the daughter of Seetha 's paternal uncle who is jealous of Chinnodu 's father and denigrates his family 's economic status . Although the family is close @-@ knit , the brothers do not communicate well with each other .
Geetha 's sister recommends a marriage for Chinni to a relative of her in @-@ laws . At the wedding , Peddodu and Geetha 's father argue in the backyard about the latter 's sarcasm , increasing tensions further . Several days later , the brothers plan to leave for Hyderabad to find work . Geetha invites Chinnodu for lunch without informing him that her whole family will be there . Chinnodu and Geetha 's father argue , again over the latter 's sarcasm . When Geetha tries to calm the former , Peddodu is upset after knowing about their love affair . He abruptly leaves Relangi and Chinnodu , dejected , stays behind . This affects his relationship with Geetha , whose father has found her a husband . Although Seetha is also pressured to marry a man suggested by Geetha 's father , Peddodu and distant relative Kondala Rao convince the bridegroom to reject the proposal .
Relangi Uncle is injured in an accident in an attempt to save a young man . His condition stabilises , and the young man turns out to be the son of Peddodu 's former boss ' brother . The former employer apologises for his past misbehaviour , and offers Peddodu another job ; the gulf between the brothers widens .
Peddodu , Chinnodu and their family visit Bhadrachalam Temple for Rama Navami , the annual kalyana of Rama and Sita , and meet Geetha 's family there . The guest of honour , an MLA , asks Relangi Uncle to participate in the procession . Geetha 's father is surprised by this , and an electrical problem then arises . With help from volunteers and the police the brothers save the day , setting aside their differences and rescuing Geetha 's family . Relangi Uncle praises the brothers for their courage , telling them about them the importance of family , love and brotherhood . This changes their attitude and that of Geetha 's father , who is eavesdropping on the conversation .
Seetha is overjoyed to see the brothers reunited , and for the first time , Peddodu calls her by name instead of " Hey ! " and " Oy ! " . They are married , and Chinnodu and Geetha 's wedding is planned after her father reconciles with Relangi Uncle 's family . The brothers send gold bangles to their grandmother , evidence that they have found work .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After the release of his directorial debut , Kotha Bangaru Lokam ( 2008 ) , Srikanth Addala worked for three years on Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's script . After Vedam 's release , in June 2010 Dil Raju began planning a film directed by Addala and featuring Daggubati Venkatesh and Pawan Kalyan as the male leads . Scripting began , and the film 's title was announced in September . When the project stalled , Addala approached Mahesh Babu with its script in June 2011 .
Mahesh agreed to act in the film after Addala met him to read the script during pre @-@ production for Dookudu ( 2011 ) . He and Venkatesh cited the script 's emotional depth and realistic approach as the reason they signed for the film . Addala approached Ganesh Patro in Chennai to write the film 's dialogue . Patro used the dialect spoken in the Godavari region of Andhra Pradesh , edited by Addala . It was his final project as a dialogue writer before his death in January 2015 . K. V. Guhan , who worked on the previous Mahesh films Athadu and Dookudu , was signed as Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's cinematographer .
Mickey J Meyer , who worked with Addala on the director 's debut , composed the film 's soundtrack and Mani Sharma composed its score . Sharma had composed the score for Raju 's 2011 production , Oh My Friend , whose soundtrack was composed by Rahul Raj . Although production began in Hyderabad on the eve of Vijayadasami ( 6 October 2011 ) with a launch ceremony , Venkatesh and Mahesh did not attend due to previous film commitments . " Simple but beautiful " was announced as the film 's advertising slogan in June 2012 .
= = = Casting = = =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu is considered the first Telugu star @-@ studded film in the last two or three decades . After listening to Addala 's narration , Venkatesh felt that they could work more on the film 's script and the director agreed . The actor agreed to the film because he considered it a safe bet which would appeal to a family audience . Raju was interested in casting Mahesh as the lead for two reasons : the film , revolving around two brothers , required two popular actors as the leads and the producer again wanted to work with the actor after Murari ( 2001 ) , Takkari Donga ( 2002 ) , Okkadu ( 2003 ) and Athadu ( 2005 ) . Guhan told The Hindu that Venkatesh 's and Mahesh 's unnamed characters would simply be called Peddodu and Chinnodu , respectively .
Samantha Ruth Prabhu was signed to play Mahesh 's love interest in the film , and Raju asked her to allow 40 days for shooting . After Trisha Krishnan , Sneha , Bhumika Chawla and Anushka Shetty were considered for the other female lead , Amala Paul was signed in mid @-@ December 2011 . After a photo shoot and the beginning of principal photography , Paul left the project in late January 2012 and Raju replaced her with Anjali .
Prakash Raj was cast in a principal role as the brothers ' father . When he failed to join the film unit in Kutralam , it was rumoured that he had walked out of the film due to differences with Raju but Raju denied the reports . Jayasudha and Rohini Hattangadi were signed for supporting roles , and Hattangadi said that she would play the brothers ' grandmother . Rao Ramesh played Samantha 's father in the film .
Miss Dabur Gulabari 2011 second runner @-@ up Tejaswi Madivada was signed for a supporting role in her acting debut , and Abhinaya was cast as Mahesh 's sister in the film . Ramaprabha , Tanikella Bharani , Kota Srinivasa Rao , Brahmanandam and Ahuti Prasad later joined the film 's supporting cast . Traditional and formal costumes were supplied by the clothing chain Kalamandir .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on 18 January 2012 in Vishakhapatnam , where several of Venkatesh 's scenes were filmed near the Andhra University campus and on the Ramakrishna Mission Beach . The next shooting schedule began in Kutralam , Tamil Nadu , on 6 February 2012 and filming continued in Hyderabad during March . In Sanathnagar a crowd disrupted shooting , and the film 's crew chose an undisclosed location to resume . Samantha joined the film unit on 28 March . After shooting was disrupted three times in Hyderabad by crowds , Mahesh suggested that Raju move production to Chennai ( where several wedding scenes were filmed at a coconut plantation ) . Rain increased production costs .
Part of the song " Yem Cheddaam " was shot at the Sabarmati Riverfront in mid @-@ April , the riverfront 's first appearance in a Telugu film . In addition to the riverfront , scenes were filmed over a fifteen @-@ day schedule in shopping malls and gardens around Ahmedabad . Addala chose the city for its developing infrastructure , friendly people and climatic similarity to Hyderabad . On 31 May 2012 , Raju told the media that 35 percent of Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's filming was completed and the next shooting schedule would begin at Ramoji Film City . A house set worth ₹ 10 million was built at the studio under the supervision of A. S. Prakash . Venkatesh and Anjali began a four @-@ day shooting schedule at Ahobilam on 4 July . After several key scenes were filmed in Relangi , near Tanuku , a new schedule began in Bhadrachalam on 16 July .
Filming was delayed when Samantha became ill , resuming on 19 August after her recovery . By mid @-@ September , the producers had filmed for nearly 80 working days . Wedding and other crucial scenes were filmed in Chennai . By then the shooting of five songs was completed , with work on two more songs and detail work pending . Raju planned two shooting schedules : one from 28 September to 12 October , and the other from 15 November to the end of the month . Filming continued on 2 October 2012 at Ramanaidu Studios . The film 's climactic scenes were shot in mid @-@ November 2012 on a custom @-@ built Bhadrachalam Temple set at Ramoji Film City , and the dialogue was wrapped up on 17 November .
A song featuring Mahesh and Samantha was shot in Magarpatta , Pune , in early December , and scenes following Chinni 's wedding were filmed in Dwaraka Tirumala . Another song featuring Venkatesh and Anjali was shot in Kerala under the supervision of Prem Rakshith ; its completion marked the end of principal photography on 24 December .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
On 6 October 2012 , a pooja commemorated the beginning of the film 's dubbing . Post @-@ production was planned simultaneously for a December 2012 release . On 23 October , Samantha began dubbing her role in the film . This was the first time she dubbed for herself in a Telugu film ; her roles had previously been dubbed by the singer Chinmayi . Mahesh began dubbing his role on 10 December ; Venkatesh had completed most of his dubbing work by then , with only a few reels remaining .
In mid @-@ December , Samantha said that she had dubbed 40 percent of her role and the producers would decide if her voice would be retained ; Chinmayi and Dubbing Janaki were later chosen to dub for Prabhu and Hattangadi . Mahesh finished dubbing his role by early January 2013 , and post @-@ production ended on 3 January . The first copy of the film was sent to the Central Board of Film Certification on 7 January , and it received a U certificate the following day .
= = Themes = =
Raju said in early October 2011 that Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu would be a family drama ; its title focuses on the family system in India , a part of the Indian ideology of one world family . According to Addala , " Seethamma " stands for the goddess Sita , " Vakitlo " for India and " Sirimalle Chettu " for the Indian family . The mentality of a person who does not smile at a fellow human but preaches the need for change in society and improvement in human relations was the basis of the film 's script . The director tells the story of two brothers of different ages who are not expressive , showing them safeguarding their identities but having a deep love and respect for each other .
Addala travelled to Yanam and other places in East Godavari district to study the mentality and behaviour of the local people . He noticed that about 80 percent of the families had good fathers , and their sons ( who were struggling to find jobs and establish themselves ) reconciled easily after small disagreements . Addala decided to convey in the film that life would be easier if small problems can be corrected . Most of the characters , except Seetha , are drawn from real life ; Mahesh 's character represents youth , and Venkatesh and Prakash Raj 's characters exemplify an elder brother and a middle @-@ class father .
= = Soundtrack = =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's soundtrack was composed by Mickey J Meyer , with lyrics by Anantha Sreeram and Sirivennela Sitaramasastri . Aditya Music acquired its marketing rights in early August 2012 , and the soundtrack was released at an event at Ramanaidu Studios in Nanakramguda , Hyderabad , on 16 December . A critical and commercial success , it was certified triple platinum at a 20 January 2013 ceremony at Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad .
= = Release = =
In late April 2012 the producers planned a worldwide release on 28 September , three weeks before the release of Cameraman Gangatho Rambabu . Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's release was expected to be postponed because of a filming delay after Samantha had an adverse drug reaction . Raju later announced that the film would be released on 21 December for Christmas , but due to production delays its release was postponed to 11 January 2013 for the three @-@ day Sankranthi holiday . At Mahesh 's suggestion a statewide premiere was planned a day before the general theatrical release , with the producers hoping to earn ₹ 10 million from the premiere .
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was released on 101 screens ( considered a record ) in the United States and on eight screens in Canada . The film was released in New York , New Jersey , the San Francisco Bay Area and Los Angeles . Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was the first South Indian film to be released in Manhattan , premiering on 10 January 2013 at the Times Square AMC Empire 25 theatre . The film opened worldwide on 1 @,@ 500 screens . In Hyderabad and Secunderabad , it was released on 85 screens and the cities ' eight multiplexes scheduled 100 shows per day ; tickets for the first week sold out in one day . Raju scheduled screenings for women only on 14 , 15 and 16 January .
A Tamil remake proved cost @-@ prohibitive , leading to an announcement of the Tamil @-@ dubbed version Anandam Anandame in early October 2013 . Viji Creations acquired the dubbing rights and P. Rajarajan wrote the dialogue for the dubbed version .
= = = Marketing = = =
The film 's first @-@ look teaser was released on 31 May 2012 . Within a day of its release the teaser attracted 227 @,@ 319 views on YouTube , and 9 @,@ 416 members shared it on Facebook . First @-@ look posters saying " Happy birthday to my brother Mahesh Babu " , signed by Venkatesh , were released on 8 August . Publicist B. A. Raju announced that another teaser would be released on 12 December , the day before Venkatesh 's birthday , since the producers of Businessman ( 2012 ) had released a first @-@ look poster featuring Mahesh on 11 November 2011 . The film 's theatrical trailer was released on 13 December . Red Label and Mega Mart entered into a co @-@ branding partnership for the film .
= = = Pre @-@ release revenue = = =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's television broadcast rights were sold for ₹ 85 million to an undisclosed channel in early June 2012 . Theatrical distribution rights for Krishna district were sold for ₹ 27 @.@ 5 million in late October 2012 . Vintage Creations and Srinikethan Films acquired the theatrical distribution rights for East Godavari and Nellore districts for ₹ 28 @.@ 3 million and ₹ 18 @.@ 5 million , respectively . 14 Reels Entertainment , in association with FICUS , acquired the film 's overseas theatrical distribution rights in late November 2012 .
= = = Home media = = =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's Indian VCD , DVD and Blu @-@ ray discs were marketed by Aditya Videos . Overseas DVD and Blu @-@ ray discs were released in June 2013 by Bhavani Videos , and global television broadcast rights were acquired by MAA TV . After its global television premiere , Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu registered a TRP rating of 20 @.@ 00 , the second highest rating ever for a Telugu film after Magadheera ( 2009 ) which registered 22 @.@ 00 . It retained that spot until the global television premiere of Baahubali : The Beginning ( 2015 ) and Srimanthudu ( 2015 ) . They registered the TRP ratings of 21 @.@ 84 and 21 @.@ 24 respectively , pushing Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu to the fourth spot .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu received generally @-@ positive reviews . Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu called the film a " delightful family drama with its celebration of family bonds , love and marriage laced with laughter " , and Addala " wants to leave his audience with a thought , wants them to reflect on their relationships and overlook skirmishes that can sour family bonds " . Dundoo cited Guhan 's cinematography as one of the film 's highlights , and praised its performances . Mahalakshmi Prabhakaran of Daily News and Analysis called the film a " heartwarming watch that has its emotions and underlying message in the right place " . Calling Guhan 's cinematography and its music wonderful , Prabhakaran also praised the film 's cast .
According to IANS , " It is very unlikely to point out a single dull moment in this crowd @-@ pleasing , tear @-@ jerking healthy family entertainer that presents a story akin to every household " . The reviewer added that the film " may or may not inspire one and all , but it will definitely send everybody back home with a smile " . Shekhar of Oneindia Entertainment called the film a " good family entertainer " , adding that the audience would immerse themselves in the film and " feel like they are watching some real life sequences from in and around their house " . IndiaGlitz called the film a " heart @-@ tugging family entertainer " : " If Mahesh Babu seems to be the most important star , be it in terms of the screen time or the number of lines he gets to speak , it is Venkatesh who takes a lion 's share in SVSC 's story . It is around Peddodu that Srikanth Addala weaves a drama full of modest emotional highs and lilting moments " .
Karthik Pasupulate of The Times of India gave Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 3 @.@ 5 out of five stars , calling it a " good old fashioned family drama sans the usual masala " and adding that it is " pleasant , well intended , and has some tender moments as well , but does it pack enough entertainment value " . Pasupulate praised the performances , calling them understated like the rest of the film . Sify gave the film 3 @.@ 25 out of five stars : " Seethamma Vaakitlo Sirimalle Chettu definitely makes you moist @-@ eyed as you walk out from the theatre but it runs on a flimsy story . It is a film that reinforces the great Indian family values and is also a manipulative film like most Sooraj Barjatya 's films . " The reviewer praised the film 's climax , adding that Mahesh 's performance , the score , cinematography and its later scenes overshadowed its flaws .
Radhika Rajamani of Rediff gave the film three out of five stars : " While it cruises along smoothly , delving into relationships within the family , without too many conflicts or twists and turns , one feels an emotional disconnect sometimes because society has changed so much from what is portrayed on screen " . She added , " The storyline is realistic , in that it is all about the happenings in a middle class home , but it 's more about situations and doesn 't develop as a story . So if you want to see a non @-@ violent , family values kind of film , this one is for you . It 's just that it seems a little out of date . " B. V. S. Prakash of Deccan Chronicle gave the film 2 @.@ 5 out of five stars , calling it a " dampener " and its scenes repetitive and tedious . Prakash praised the performances , however , especially those of Venkatesh and Mahesh .
= = = Box office = = =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu earned ₹ 98 @.@ 1 million on its first day at the AP @-@ Nizam box office — according to trade analyst Trinath , probably the best @-@ ever opening for a star @-@ studded Telugu film . Taran Adarsh called the film 's opening " mindblowing " as it earned US $ 205 @,@ 347 ( ₹ 11 @.@ 3 million ) at 62 locations on its Thursday previews in the United States . It earned $ 338 @,@ 228 on Friday , bringing its two @-@ day total to $ 552 @,@ 041 — the most successful opening for a Telugu film in the U.S. Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu netted ₹ 250 @.@ 1 million in four days at the global box office , the most successful opening in Mahesh and Venkatesh 's careers . The film grossed $ 1 @,@ 262 @,@ 100 ( ₹ 68 @.@ 7 million ) from reported screens in its first four @-@ day weekend in the United States , affecting other films ( such as Naayak and Matru Ki Bijlee Ka Mandola ) and surpassing the US lifetime earnings of Gabbar Singh ( 2012 ) . The film 's earnings declined 25 percent on its fifth day , and its five @-@ day total nett was ₹ 286 @.@ 6 million . Earning about ₹ 350 million in its first week , Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu broke box @-@ office records in several parts of the world . The film 's earnings declined 50 percent over its second weekend , with a ten @-@ day global box @-@ office nett of ₹ 450 million . In its second U.S. weekend the film earned $ 203 @,@ 160 ( ₹ 10 @.@ 9 million ) , bringing its ten @-@ day U.S. total to $ 1 @,@ 548 @,@ 709 ( ₹ 83 @.@ 1 million ) and setting a record for a Telugu film in that country .
By the end of its second week , Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu netted ₹ 510 million at the global box office . In the film 's third weekend it was affected by Viswaroopam , earning about ₹ 1 @.@ 93 million from 20 screens in the United States . It completed its 50 @-@ day run on 3 March in 25 theatres . Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu netted ₹ 387 @.@ 5 million at the AP / Nizam box office during its run , earning a distributor share of ₹ 550 million at the global box office and declared a commercial success . It was the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of the year , after Attarintiki Daredi .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was one of twenty Telugu film entries for the 61st National Film Awards . The film received seven nominations at the 61st Filmfare Awards South , including Best Telugu film , Best Director — Telugu and Best Actor — Telugu . It won two awards : Best Actor — Telugu ( Mahesh ) and Best Female Playback Singer — Telugu ( Chithra for " Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu " ) .
The film received eleven nominations at the 3rd South Indian International Movie Awards , where Venkatesh and Babu were nominated for Best Actor — Telugu and Anjali and Jayasudha were nominated for Best Supporting Actor Female — Telugu . It won two awards , again for Best Actor — Telugu ( Mahesh ) and Best Female Playback Singer — Telugu ( Chithra for " Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu " ) . Mahesh also received the " Best Actor for the Year 2013 " award at the 2015 TSR – TV9 National Film Awards .
|
= Third Test , 1948 Ashes series =
The Third Test of the 1948 Ashes series was one of five Tests in a cricket series between teams representing Australia and England . The match was played at Old Trafford in Manchester from 8 – 13 July , with a rest day on 11 July . The match was drawn after the whole of the fourth day and the first half of the fifth day was washed out due to rain ; England had the upper hand before the weather intervened . The draw maintained Australia 's 2 – 0 lead in the series , which was established through victories in the first two Tests . As Australia were the holders of The Ashes , the draw meant that England could do no better than level the series 2 – 2 by winning the last two Tests , and thus Australia retained The Ashes .
The Test started amid controversy following the omission of leading England batsman Len Hutton for performing poorly in the previous match . Having largely failed — apart from brief periods — to challenge Australia in the first two Tests , the hosts had made four changes to their team in an attempt to find a combination that could threaten the visitors ' supremacy . Australia made their first change for the series , ending the Test career of veteran batsman Bill Brown after two poor matches . England captain Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat , but his team were quickly in trouble , with Denis Compton forced from the field after being bloodied in the head by a Ray Lindwall bouncer . At this stage , the hosts were at 33 / 2 with an injured player , and they batted defensively for a period to try and regroup . Having received treatment , Compton returned with England in difficulty at 119 / 5 midway through the day and proceeded to score 145 not out , aided by several dropped catches , helping England to recover to 363 all out on the second afternoon . England could have been in an even stronger position , but Compton and seamer Alec Bedser were involved in a mix @-@ up , resulting in the latter being run out and ending a 121 @-@ run partnership . Lindwall was the most successful bowler , taking 4 / 99 . During the England innings , Australian opener Sid Barnes , who had gained much attention throughout the season for fielding at point @-@ blank range in front of the batsman on strike , was hit in the ribs by a Dick Pollard pull shot and had to be carried from the ground and hospitalised . In reply , Australia batted steadily to be 126 / 3 by the end of the second day , but then fell to be 172 / 6 — effectively seven wickets down with Barnes unable to bat after collapsing again — before evading the follow on by reaching 221 . Australia scored slowly through the innings , finding the hosts ' bowlers difficult to negotiate ; Bedser took 4 / 81 and Pollard 3 / 53 .
England began their second innings and were strongly placed on 174 / 3 at the end of the third day , an overall lead of 316 with seven wickets in hand . They had been aided by several dropped chances against Cyril Washbrook , who reached 85 by the close of play . However , rain meant that no play was possible on the fourth day and England did not have the opportunity to capitalise on their favourable position and set Australia a high runchase . Yardley declared on the final morning , but play did not start until mid @-@ afternoon due to continuing inclement weather . The Australian batsman thereafter played for a draw ; they batted slowly and reached 92 / 1 when stumps were drawn , not making an attempt to chase the 317 for victory . Arthur Morris made 54 not out , his second half @-@ century of the match to go with his 51 in the first innings , registering Australia 's top @-@ score on both occasions . Despite the fact that 30 % of the playing time was lost to rain , the match still managed to set a record for the highest attendance at a Test match in England , surpassing the mark set in the previous Test .
= = Background = =
Led by Donald Bradman , Australia had proceeded through the first two months of their 1948 England tour undefeated . After winning 10 of the 12 games before the Tests , eight of these by an innings , they won the First Test by eight wickets . Before the Second Test , they defeated Northamptonshire by an innings before drawing with Yorkshire . Bradman 's men then crushed England by 409 runs in the Second Test at Lord 's . Between Tests , they defeated Surrey by ten wickets and crushed Gloucestershire by an innings and 363 runs , having amassed 774 / 7 declared , their highest score of the season , and the second highest ever by an Australian team in England .
When the teams reconvened at Old Trafford for the Third Test , leading English batsman Len Hutton had been dropped . The reason was said to be Hutton 's struggles with Lindwall 's short @-@ pitched bowling in the previous Test , during which he scored 20 and 13 . Observers noticed Hutton backing away from the fast bowlers . The English selectors believed such a sight would have a negative effect on the rest of the side — which was not in good batting form — as it was a poor example from a key player . According to journalist and retired Australian Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly , Hutton 's second innings at Lord 's had been the worst of his career and gave the impression he had been scared of the Australian pace attack . The omission generated considerable controversy , and pleased the Australians , who felt Hutton was England 's best batsman , and thought he had been treated poorly by the selectors . Former Australian batsman Jack Fingleton pointed out that while Hutton had batted erratically and appeared uncomfortable in the previous Test , he also had a strong track record against the tourists , having made 52 and 64 for the Marylebone Cricket Club against Australia in the lead @-@ up matches , and 94 , 76 and 122 retired ill in his last three Test innings during the previous Ashes series of 1946 – 47 . O 'Reilly regarded Hutton 's omission as punitive and vindictive . He said if Hutton needed to be shielded from the new ball attack , then England should have reshuffled their batting order to place their beleaguered opener down the order . O 'Reilly said that as Hutton had a large range of attacking strokes , he was not a stereotypical , defensive opener who was mainly used to wear down the opening bowlers , and could be used in the middle order as an aggressor .
Hutton 's opening position was taken by debutant George Emmett , who made 43 and nine for Gloucestershire in Australia 's preceding tour match . In that match , two of Australia 's leading pacemen , Keith Miller and Bill Johnston , did not bowl . Despite scoring 76 and 92 in the preceding match against Warwickshire , Emmett was not having a prolific season ; he ended the summer with an average of 36 @.@ 11 .
England made three further changes . Spinner Jack Young and paceman Dick Pollard replaced the spin pair of Doug Wright and Jim Laker in the bowling department , meaning England would only play one slow bowler . Wright and Laker had struggled to penetrate the Australian batting lineup in the Second Test , taking match figures of 2 / 123 and 2 / 128 respectively . In contrast , Pollard had taken match figures of 4 / 85 for Lancashire in a match against Australia earlier in the season , and had taken 27 wickets in four county matches in the past fortnight . The selection was seen as being influenced by the fact the Test was being staged at Lancashire 's home ground , where Pollard was familiar with the conditions , and the Australians had a high regard for him . In the month since being dropped for the Second Test in favour of Wright , after taking 1 / 107 in the First Test , Young had returned to play for Middlesex , taking 27 wickets in five matches . Alec Coxon , the Yorkshire allrounder who made his Test debut in the previous match at Lord 's and opened the bowling , taking match figures of 3 / 172 and scoring 19 and a duck , was replaced by Jack Crapp , a debutant batsman . Crapp had scored 100 not out and 32 for Gloucestershire in the preceding match against the tourists . It was only the third century scored against Australia during the tour , and was part of a season in which Crapp had made four centuries and six half @-@ centuries in 16 matches thus far . Coxon 's omission was believed to have been caused more by off @-@ field events than sporting merit . There was a story that he punched Denis Compton — whom he disliked and considered self @-@ important — in the dressing room , but Coxon always denied this . However , there was certainly an altercation and Coxon was never selected again . O 'Reilly interpreted the omission of the Yorkshiremen Hutton and Coxon at the expense of the Gloucestershire pair of Crapp and Emmett as symptoms of a regional bias in the English selection panel . He pointed out that only one of the four selectors — England captain Norman Yardley , who was also from Yorkshire — was from the north of the country .
Australia dropped Bill Brown , who had scored 73 runs at a batting average of 24 @.@ 33 in three Test innings during the season . Brown was Australia 's reserve opener , but Bradman opted to play him out of position in the middle @-@ order , instead of using a specialist . Brown had also struggled in his unfamiliar position in the matches against Worcestershire and the Marylebone Cricket Club , scoring 25 and 26 . According to O 'Reilly , Brown had appeared out of place in the middle @-@ order because he was used to the opener 's classical role of defending against and wearing down the opening bowlers , rather than attacking . He was replaced by the all rounder Sam Loxton , who had hammered an unbeaten 159 — including several sixes — against Gloucestershire , and that innings was particularly noted for his quick footwork , which he used to charge and attack the off spin of Tom Goddard .
= = Scorecard = =
= = = England innings = = =
= = = Australia innings = = =
= = 8 July : Day One = =
The match started amid clear weather , a far cry from the previous Ashes Test at the ground in 1938 , which was abandoned without a ball being bowled due to continuous rain for several days . The outfield was also smooth and green , a contrast to its state during World War II , when it was left cratered by German bombing raids . Yardley won the toss and elected to bat .
The change in England 's opening pair did not result in an improvement on the scoreboard . A run out was narrowly avoided following a mix @-@ up on the first ball , and Cyril Washbrook and Emmett appeared to be uncomfortable on a surface that offered early assistance to the bowlers . The Australians themselves started with Ray Lindwall and Bill Johnston taking the new ball , but Bradman had misjudged the breeze and had to swap his bowlers ' ends . For this purpose , Loxton bowled a solitary over . He was erratic in his length and bowled three long hops outside leg stump at the debutant Emmett , who ignored the opportunity to attack and let the balls pass . At the other end , Washbrook also played watchfully and avoided any horizontal bat shots , apart from a missed cut against Johnston 's bowling . Overall however , the English openers appeared comfortable in the first half hour of play .
With 22 runs on the board after half an hour of play , Washbrook played around a yorker from Johnston and was bowled , much to the disappointment of his Lancashire home crowd . Johnston had been bowling from over the wicket , and his left @-@ arm deliveries had generally been swinging back into the right @-@ handed Washbrook . However , the opening batsman did not detect Johnston 's variation ball , which was released from wide of the crease and angled across more sharply without curling back in . Washbrook played inside the line of the ball , which hit his stumps . Australia nearly had two wickets in the same over as the new batsman Bill Edrich struggled . He played loosely outside the off stump to the first ball but did not get an edge , and on the third delivery he faced from Johnston , Edrich survived again . Receiving a ball on middle and leg stump , he tried to defend it straight back down the pitch , rather than the conventional stroke to the leg side , and managed to edge the ball past the slips for four .
Six runs after the fall of Washbrook , the diminutive Emmett fended a rising ball from Lindwall to Sid Barnes at short leg , leaving England 28 / 2 . Surprised by Lindwall 's bouncer , Emmett took his eyes from the ball and fended with one hand on the horizontally @-@ held bat , while ducking his head down below his arms . The ball bounced slowly off the pitch and after hitting Emmett 's bat , rebounded gently up in the air for Barnes to collect . In Australia 's match against Gloucestershire immediately preceding the Test , Lindwall bowled a bouncer to Emmett , who hesitantly parried it away for a single . Lindwall did not deliver any more bouncers to Emmett during the match , and O 'Reilly thought the paceman was quietly waiting until the Tests to expose his opponent 's weakness against the short ball . O 'Reilly concluded that Australia 's pace duo " had again disposed of the English opening batsmen with the minimum amount of effort " .
Edrich eschewed attacking strokeplay as he and Denis Compton attempted to establish themselves . He was hurried by the pace of Lindwall and Johnston , making many last @-@ moment movements to either hit the ball or withdraw from a shot .
Lindwall bowled a series of short balls . One hit Compton on the arm and the batsman attempted to hook another bouncer , but edged it into his face . Upon hearing the umpire 's call of no ball while the ball was travelling towards him , and knowing he was immune from dismissal , Compton decided to change his stroke . Having initially positioned himself to deflect the ball into the leg side , he then attempted to hook the ball , but could not readjust quickly enough . The velocity of the ball was such that it rebounded from his head and flew more than halfway to the boundary before landing . This forced Compton to leave the field with a bloodied eyebrow with the score at 33 / 2 . After a ten @-@ minute delay , Crapp strode to the centre for his debut innings , and he got off the mark from his first ball , gliding Lindwall past gully for a single . Lindwall then struck Edrich on the hand with another short ball , provoking angry heckling from spectators who compared him to Harold Larwood , a 1930s paceman who targeted batsmen with Bodyline , a strategy of intimidatory bowling . Edrich and Crapp then engaged in grim defensive play , resulting in one 25 @-@ minute period during which only one run was added , as England reached lunch with their total on 57 / 2 . Edrich had made 14 from 90 minutes of batting , while Crapp had made 11 in 60 minutes . One of the motives of batting slowly without taking risks was to ensure the innings lasted long enough that it would still be in progress by the time Compton recovered from his concussion , so he could resume batting . Edrich appeared to be lacking in confidence due to his recent run of low scores , and thus hesitant to play with any attacking intent , whereas Crapp was usually circumspect . For a series of accurate overs from Ernie Toshack , Crapp repeatedly defended a sequence of deliveries to Arthur Morris at silly point . Toshack 's first five overs were all maidens .
Upon the resumption , Crapp began to accelerate , hitting a six — which flew directly back over the bowler 's head and over the sightscreen — and three driven boundaries from the off spin of Ian Johnson . This was a stark contrast to Johnson 's first ten overs before lunch , which had yielded only seven runs . Crapp was eager to use his feet to get to the pitch of Johnson 's deliveries , and subsequently dealt with the spin fairly comfortably , whereas many of his compatriots stood in their crease and found matters much more difficult . He then hit Toshack to Barnes at short leg , but the catch was dropped . However , Crapp did not capitalise as Toshack conceded only eight runs in a sequence of eight overs . Australia took the new ball with the score at 87 and Lindwall trapped Crapp — who did not offer a shot — leg before wicket for 37 ; the batsman misjudged the line of a straight ball and thought it had pitched and struck his leg outside off stump . Tom Dollery came in and took a single to get off the mark but then missed a Johnston yorker and was bowled . This dismissal mirrored that of Washbrook 's in that Dollery failed to detect Johnston 's variation ball , and thus played for swing when there was none . England had lost two wickets for one run to be 97 / 4 . Captain Norman Yardley came in and played the fast bowling of Lindwall and Johnston with relative ease , retreating onto the back foot to allow himself more time to play his shots . Edrich was struck on the hand and Yardley edged to Keith Miller in the slips cordon on the half @-@ volley .
After 170 minutes of slow batting , Edrich gloved a rising Lindwall delivery and was caught behind by wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon . At 119 / 5 , Compton returned to the field , his head wound having been stitched to stop the bleeding . He and Yardley played carefully until the tea break , and only the England captain offered a chance ; Barnes was unable to complete the reflex catch at short leg from the bowling of Toshack . After the resumption of play , Yardley on @-@ drove Lindwall for a four , but lofted Ernie Toshack , who had been bowling leg theory , into the packed on @-@ side where he was caught by Johnson at forward square leg . Toshack 's defensive bowling had caused the English skipper to lose patience and his departure for 22 left the score on 141 / 6 .
This brought wicket @-@ keeper Godfrey Evans to the crease and exposed the hosts ' lower @-@ order . The last of the specialist batsmen , Compton nearly departed soon after when he leaned forward to a leg @-@ side delivery from Johnson 's off spin . He overbalanced and stumbled forwards , and Tallon removed the bails . There were no television replays to assist the umpires in those days , and although the attempted stumping appeared close to the naked eye , the benefit of the doubt was given to the batsman and the appeal rejected . Compton made use of this and attacked Toshack successfully , forcing Bradman to make a bowling change . In fading light , Compton combined with the gloveman to add 75 runs for the seventh wicket in 70 minutes , before Lindwall removed Evans — who attempted a wild slash — to leave England 216 / 7 . Compton reached stumps on 64 , accompanied by Alec Bedser , who was on four , as England ended the day at 231 / 7 . Compton had been dropped one @-@ handed on 50 by Tallon , before being missed on 64 by the wicket @-@ keeper from the bowling of Johnston just before stumps .
= = 9 July : Day Two = =
England resumed on the second day at 231 / 7 amid dark skies and the threat of rain ; Australia was unable to break through despite taking the new ball . Bedser stubbornly defied the Australians , playing with a straight bat and stretching forward onto the front foot to block the ball . Tallon dropped Compton for the third time , off the bowling of Johnston when the batsman was on 73 . Lindwall bowled well below his top pace in the morning session and the batsmen slowly accumulated their runs . Bedser was the more defensive of the two Englishmen , and Compton drove Toshack past mid on for a four to register his second century of the series , after 235 minutes of batting . Lindwall then beat Compton in each of his last three overs before lunch , but the Englishman survived . England reached lunch at 323 / 7 having added 92 runs without losing a wicket . Compton was on 123 and Bedser on 37 , having brought up their century partnership . Five minutes were lost in the morning session when a stray dog invaded the playing arena and evaded policemen and a number of Australian fielders who attempted to catch it .
Immediately subsequent to the resumption , Compton took two boundaries from Lindwall 's first over and another from Johnston 's subsequent over . He then hit a ball into the covers and Bradman and Loxton collided in an attempt to prevent a run . Compton called Bedser through for a run on the misfield , but Loxton recovered and threw the ball to the wicket @-@ keeper 's end with Bedser a long way short of the crease . It ended an innings of 145 minutes , in which Bedser scored 37 and featured in a 121 @-@ run partnership with Compton . According to O 'Reilly , it was the only mistake Compton made in his innings . The stand fell five runs short of England 's highest Test partnership for the eighth wicket against Australia , a mark set by Patsy Hendren and Harold Larwood .
Pollard came to the crease and soon pulled a ball from Johnson into the ribs of Barnes , who was standing at short leg . Barnes stood closer than virtually all in that position , with one foot on the edge of the cut strip and he was unable to evade the ball . Barnes " dropped like a fallen tree " , and had to be carried from the ground by four policemen and taken to hospital for an examination . Throughout the season , Barnes had received a mixed reception for his tactics ; it was agreed they had a negative effect on the batsman , and there was a debate as to whether it was in the spirit of the rules . Compton hit two fours and Bradman responded by putting all of his men on the boundary to offer Compton a single so Pollard would be on strike and could be attacked . The Australia skipper then brought his men in close during the latter part of the over to prevent Compton from taking a single and regaining the strike for the following over . Compton was unable to farm the strike as he desired .
Toshack then bowled Pollard and Bradman caught Young from Johnston 's bowling as England were dismissed for 363 . Compton was unbeaten on 145 after 324 minutes of batting , having struck 16 fours . Lindwall took 4 / 99 and Johnston 3 / 67 . Miller did not bowl , so the four remaining frontline bowlers sent down no less than 38 overs each .
Australia came out to bat halfway through the middle session . Having dropped Brown , Barnes 's injury left Australia with only Arthur Morris as a specialist opener . Johnson was thus deployed as Australia 's makeshift second opener . He had never opened at Test level , but had once batted at No. 3 when used as a nightwatchman after the fall of the first wicket late on a day 's play . He was unable to make an impact — Bedser removed him for one , caught by Evans at chest height off the inside edge from a ball that reared from the pitch . It was a difficult catch as Evans was standing up to the stumps and he had little time to react to the ball 's change of direction . O 'Reilly criticised the use of Johnson as an opener , as vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett had transformed himself into a defensive batsman with little backlift and a guarded approach . Johnson 's dismissal brought Bradman in to face the new ball . The Australian captain thus had to face Bedser , who had already dismissed him three times in the Tests with a new ball , and Pollard , who had troubled him in the match against Lancashire . Pollard then trapped Bradman lbw with an off cutter that struck the Australian captain on the back foot for seven to leave Australia in trouble at 13 / 2 . This provoked a strong cheer from the crowd in support of Pollard , the Lancashire local . Australia were pinned down as Pollard bowled 17 consecutive overs from his long run , aiming for leg stump to stifle the scoring . He was partnered by Bedser , who bowled unchanged for 90 minutes .
Morris and vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett rebuilt the innings , adding 69 for the third wicket in 101 minutes . They played sedately without trying to take risks . Hassett fell after being beaten in flight by Young . Aiming to break Young 's restrictive leg side bowling , Hassett charged down the pitch and lofted a drive for four . However , in attempting a similar lofted drive over cover , he mishit the ball , which was caught by Washbrook at wide mid @-@ off . Miller joined Morris and they took the score to 126 / 3 at stumps , with their personal tallies on 23 and 48 respectively . The run rate picked up in the last 50 minutes of the day as the pair added 44 runs ; Miller was the more attacking of the Australian duo during this time .
= = 10 July : Day Three = =
On the third morning , the players were greeted by sunshine , and a large Saturday crowd had arrived from afar to watch proceedings ; as a result , the gates were closed by 9 : 00 in the morning with the ground already filled . The large gallery again encroached on the playing arena , which was not fenced . In the first hour , Australia struggled against the new ball . Miller was beaten three times in one over by Bedser before Pollard trapped him for 31 , after Australia had added only nine runs in the first hour . Four runs later , Bedser removed Morris for 51 , leaving Australia 139 / 5 . It had been a slow morning for Morris , who took 21 minutes to add to his overnight total and reached his half @-@ century 45 minutes into the day 's play , having added only four runs to his overnight score . At the same time , Barnes had come out to bat upon Miller 's dismissal , despite having collapsed while practising in the nets due to the aftereffects of his rib injury . He batted after refusing to stay in hospital and returning to the ground in spite of his bruised and discoloured ribs . He made a painful single in 25 minutes of batting before the injury became too much and he had to be taken from the ground with the assistance of Bradman among others , before being sent to hospital to be put under observation . Barnes would eventually miss two and a half weeks of cricket . Tallon and Loxton added a further 33 before the former was caught behind from Edrich with the score at 172 / 6 . Lindwall came into bat with Australia facing the prospect of the follow on . He received five consecutive bouncers from Edrich , one of which hit him in the hand and caused visible pain , evoking cheers from the home crowd . Loxton and Lindwall added a further 36 before the former was bowled by Pollard , leaving Australia 208 / 7 , still five runs behind the follow @-@ on mark . Johnston helped Lindwall advance Australia beyond the follow @-@ on before Bedser removed both . Johnston was reprieved in his brief innings when he edged a delivery from Pollard in the direction of Edrich at first slip , but Evans dived across , trying to catch the ball in his right hand . The wicket @-@ keeper could not hold on to the ball at full stretch , and the resulting deflection further to the right wrong @-@ footed Edrich , who was moving the other way , and it went past him . From second slip , Crapp dived left behind Edrich but the ball landed a few centimetres beyond his fingers . However , in the next over Bedser , Johnston edged the ball in the same manner and Crapp caught the ball easily . Lindwall was the last man out for 23 , while Toshack was unbeaten without scoring . Australia were thus bowled out for 221 , giving England a lead of 142 runs . Bedser and Pollard were the most successful bowlers , taking 4 / 81 and 3 / 53 respectively .
At the start of England 's second innings , Washbrook took a single from Lindwall , who then removed Emmett for a duck . The paceman pitched an outswinger on the off stump and Emmett edged it to wicket @-@ keeper Tallon , who took it in his right hand while taking a dive .
Emmett 's departure brought Lindwall 's tormentor Edrich to the crease . Bradman advised his speedster not to bowl any bouncers at Edrich , fearing such actions would be interpreted as retaliation and provoke a negative media and crowd reaction . After not bowling in the first innings , Miller came on and immediately broke through Washbrook 's defences , only to see the ball graze the stumps without dislodging the bails . Washbrook then drove Lindwall for four before Miller bounced him in the next over . After two Miller outswingers had evaded the outside edge of Washbrook , the batsman appeared unsettled . One bouncer was hit over square leg in an uncontrolled manner for a four , and another flew in the air , narrowly evading Loxton at fine leg . Lindwall followed Miller 's lead towards Washbrook and was no balled by umpire Davies for dragging his foot beyond the line . Following a disagreement , Davies threw Lindwall his jumper , but the matter faded away and the bowler was not no balled again after discussing the matter with Bradman .
Lindwall then bounced Washbrook again and this time the England opener went for the hook shot . The ball flew high in the air straight towards Hassett at fine leg , who dropped the catch on his third juggled attempt . Having received a life on 21 , Washbrook settled down as Loxton replaced Lindwall , while Johnson replaced Miller . Washbrook scored on both sides of the wicket and reached 50 in only 70 minutes as England proceeded to 80 / 1 . Lindwall returned for a new spell and almost hit Washbrook in the head . After tea , Edrich hit Miller for four . Although Lindwall did not retaliate for the bouncers he received in the first innings , Miller did so with four consecutive short balls , earning the ire of the crowd . Miller struck Edrich on the body before Bradman intervened , ordered him to stop , and apologised to Edrich . Edrich and Washbrook settled and put together a 124 @-@ run partnership in only 138 minutes , England 's largest of the series to that point . Edrich hit a four to long on , followed by a lofted off drive for six from the bowling of Toshack , generating momentum in their favour . However , Washbrook called Edrich through for a quick single soon after . The batsmen hesitated and after both Englishmen had paused in the middle of their run , Morris threw down Edrich 's stumps from cover , ending the partnership at 125 / 2 . Edrich had struck eight boundaries and a six in his 53 .
Toshack then removed Compton for a duck , caught in the slips by Miller , leaving England three wickets down with the score still on 125 . Crapp joined Washbrook and helped see off the new ball , stopping Australia 's fightback as England reached 174 by the close without further loss . Washbrook was unbeaten on 85 and Crapp 19 . England were 316 runs in front with two days of play remaining and seven wickets in hand . Their position was aided by the Australian fielders , who dropped Washbrook twice more . The Lancastrian was on 78 when he again hooked Lindwall to long leg and was again dropped by Hassett . The Australian vice @-@ captain responded by borrowing a helmet from a nearby policeman to signify his need for protection from the ball , much to the amusement of the crowd . After adding two more runs , Washbrook was dropped in the slips cordon by Johnson from the bowling of Toshack . At the end of the day 's play , Washbrook purchased a drink for Hassett in gratitude for the dropped catches .
= = 13 July : Day Five = =
The rest day was followed by the fourth day , which was abandoned due to persistent rain . Despite this , 21 @,@ 000 spectators came in anticipation of the weather clearing so that some play would be possible . However , a northeasterly depression from the Faroe Islands brought ongoing precipitation and prevented any play .
Yardley declared at the start of the fifth day after a pitch inspection , leaving Australia a victory target of 317 , but the rain kept falling and the entire first session was abandoned . The umpires had decided to start play half an hour later than normal , but this was not possible and they helped the ground staff to clean up the wet surface . Bradman chose to use the light roller and play was supposed to begin as soon as the lunch break ended .
Further delay meant play began after the tea break , and the pitch played very slowly because of the excess moisture , which also caused there to be little bounce in the surface . With Australia not looking to chase the runs because the time available was not reasonable , Yardley often had seven men in close catching positions . In the first half hour , Australia showed little attacking intent and scored only six runs . Young replaced Pollard and Johnson immediately swept him for four , before edging the next ball to Crapp , who completed the catch . Johnson fell for six to leave Australia at 10 / 1 .
Bradman came in and played his first 11 balls from Young without scoring , while Morris hit two streaky shots for four from Bedser . Yardley used the spin of Young and Compton for an hour , while Morris and Bradman made little effort to score . For 105 minutes , Morris stayed at one end and Bradman at the other ; neither looked to rotate the strike with singles . Bradman only played eight balls from Morris 's main end , and at one point was so startled by his partner 's desire for a single that he sent him back . The tourists thereafter batted in an unhurried and defensive manner to ensure a draw , which was sealed by a series of periodic rain interruptions . They ended on 92 / 1 from 61 overs , a run rate of 1 @.@ 50 , with 35 maidens . It was the slowest innings run rate to date in the series . Morris finished unbeaten on 54 , his fourth consecutive half @-@ century of the series . O 'Reilly criticised the approach taken by the Australians in the closing stages of the match , attributing it to Bradman 's orders . He said the pitch was made so tame by the heavy rain that they could have played in a natural and attractive manner to entertain the spectators , rather than defending carefully . He said Bradman 's " unwillingness to take a risk or to accept the challenging call of some particular phase of the game is one of the greatest flaws " in his leadership .
The attendance of 133 @,@ 740 exceeded the previous record for a Test in England , which was set in the preceding match at Lord 's even though more than 30 % of the playing time had been lost .
= = Aftermath = =
After being aided by rain while in a disadvantageous position during the Third Test , the Australians had only one tour match — a victory over Middlesex — to prepare for the next Test at Headingley . Barnes was unable to recover from his injury in this short space of time , and was replaced by Neil Harvey . Instead of opting to use reserve opener Brown to replace Barnes , Australia played Hassett out of position to partner Morris , while Harvey took a middle @-@ order slot .
For England 's part , Washbrook 's second innings half @-@ century at Old Trafford , aided by multiple dropped catches , was regarded as a major factor in his retention for the Headingley match , having scored only 63 runs in the first five innings of the series . He was reunited with Hutton , whose controversial exile lasted only one Test before Emmett was dropped . Dollery , who had made only 38 in three innings in the Second and Third Tests , was replaced by all @-@ rounder Ken Cranston . Despite being productive in domestic matches during the season , Cranston had struggled in his previous outings against the tourists . In two matches against Australia , he had managed only 47 runs in three innings and a total of 2 / 109 .
Washbrook and Hutton put on 168 for the first wicket , the first time England had put on more than 42 for opening stand , as the hosts went on to make 496 , their highest score for the series . Despite this , Australia 's batsmen set a world record by chasing down 404 on the final day to win by seven wickets and take a series @-@ winning 3 – 0 lead .
Following the historic win at Headingley , Australia had five tour matches before the final Test . They won three while two ended in rain @-@ curtailed draws . During this period , Barnes returned to action after recuperating from his rib injury . Australia then completed the series in style with a convincing innings victory in the Fifth Test at The Oval to complete a 4 – 0 result . The Fifth Test was the last international match , and the tourists only had seven further matches to negotiate in order to fulfil Bradman 's aim of going through the tour undefeated . Apart from two matches against the South of England and Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI , which were washed out after Australia had secured first innings leads of more than 200 , Bradman 's men had little difficulty , winning the remaining five fixtures by an innings . They thus became the first touring Test team to complete an English season undefeated , earning themselves the sobriquet The Invincibles .
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.