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= Grangegorman killings =
The Grangegorman killings refers to the homicide on 6 March 1997 of Sylvia Shields and Mary Callinan , patients of St Brendan ’ s Psychiatric Hospital in Grangegorman , Dublin , Ireland . After giving a false confession , Dean Lyons was charged with the murders and placed on remand . In his statement to the Irish police force , the Garda Síochána ( commonly called the Gardaí ) , Lyons gave details that would only be known to the murderer or to the investigators . After Lyons was charged , Mark Nash confessed to the killings , but later retracted his confession . In April 2015 , Nash 's trial for the murder of Shields and Callinan began after an unsuccessful attempt to prevent the trial from going forward .
Lyons was described by one of the gardaí ( policemen ) involved in the case as a " Walter Mitty " character , and Dr Charles Smith , psychiatrist and director of the Central Mental Hospital , Dundrum , felt that he might be prone to exaggeration and attention seeking . A commission of investigation was set up to investigate the conduct of the gardaí in the case . Dean Lyons died from a heroin overdose in 2000 . He spent nine months in jail for a crime that he did not commit .
= = Murders = =
On the morning of 7 March 1997 , Sylvia Shields and Mary Callinan were found dead in No.1 Orchard View , Grangegorman , Dublin 7 . They were found by Ann Mernagh , another resident of the house , who raised the alarm at No.5 Orchard View . The house was a two story end of terrace house owned by the Eastern Health Board , and was used to provide sheltered accommodation for outpatients of St Brendan ’ s Psychiatric Hospital . The entire Orchard View area was completely demolished 15 years after the murders and is now an empty plot surrounded by a wall .
The two women had been repeatedly stabbed , their throats and faces had been cut . One of the women 's genitals had been extensively mutilated , and both women were partially undressed . The level of mutilation had never before been encountered in a murder investigation in Ireland . Neither of the women had been raped , and no semen was found at the scene . The killings were described as : " the most brutal murders in Irish criminal history " by the Irish Examiner newspaper
= = Initial investigation = =
After the alarm had been raised , a major investigation commenced involving detectives from the Dublin Metropolitan North Central Division and the National Bureau of Criminal Investigation ( NBCI ) . The house and the surrounding area were subject to a forensic examination by the Garda Technical Bureau . Gardaí performed house to house inquiries , took more than 1000 statements , and interviewed over 250 suspects . A postmortem examination of the bodies was made by the State Pathologist , Professor John Harbison ; his first report was delivered on 13 March 1997 . No material was found either by the forensic examination of the scene or by the postmortem examination that would have linked a suspect to the crime .
From the beginning of the investigation until 26 July 1997 , the Gardaí had no main suspect . In April 1997 , they engaged a team of criminal psychologists to develop a profile of the killer . Among other items in their initial report , they said that " THE OFFENDER WAS EXTREMELY DANGEROUS AND WAS LIKELY TO REOFFEND " ( emphasis in original ) , and that the killer was likely to have had prior experience of burglary . A local resident had noticed someone acting suspiciously a week or two before the killings ; his statement to the Gardaí was used to make a facial composite :
" I would describe this fellow as about 6 @-@ foot to 6 @-@ foot 2 , aged 35 to 38 years , very slim , had a black moustache , long at the side . He had a stubble which was very noticeable , a week or two ’ s growth . The moustache was much thicker than the stubble . He had dark hair , straight and to the shoulder . His hair was split at the middle in the front and brushed to each side . He had a long thin face . He had dark eyes and dark eyebrows . He was badly dressed as if the clothes did not suit him . He was dirty looking but not scruffy looking . He was wearing jeans that had a flare , blue in colour . He had dirty white runners on . He was wearing an anorak type coat which came down a few inches below the waist . The coat was zipped up and was a bright colour like a bright brown colour without a hood . "
As a result of the psychological profile , the Gardaí broadcast an appeal for information on the RTÉ television programme Crimeline with a request for people whose houses had been broken into in the Grangegorman area to contact them . After interviewing a number of people involved in burglary , they discovered that Dean Lyons had been talking about the killings . Lyons matched the facial composite released by the gardaí and he was questioned on 26 July 1997 .
= = Dean Lyons = =
Dean Lyons was born on 20 April 1973 ; he was 24 when he was arrested . He grew up in Tallaght in West Dublin , the fourth in a family of six children . He went to Scoil Aonghusa National School in Tallaght , where he had some difficulty with his schoolwork . According to his teachers , in today 's terms , he would have been classified as having a moderate general learning disability . He was assessed by a psychologist when he was in sixth class , around the age of twelve , who found him to have an intelligence quotient of 70 . As a result of the psychologist 's report , Lyons was moved to St. Joseph 's Special School in Tallaght . During his period in St. Joseph 's , he developed a reputation for attention seeking and storytelling . After school , he never held down a steady job and drifted into heroin addiction and homelessness . At the time of his arrest for the Grangegorman murders , he had one conviction for burglary , and had been involved in a number of syringe robberies .
= = = First interview and arrest = = =
At the time of Lyons ' first interview with the gardaí , he was staying at the Salvation Army hostel in Grangegorman . Detective Garda William Mullis and Garda Joseph O ’ Connor approached him as he was leaving the hostel . They reported that Lyons said : “ I think I know what this is about ” . The gardaí brought Lyons to the Bridewell garda station , and interviewed him in the doctor 's room . According to the gardaí , at one point during the interview , Lyons burst out crying and said that he had killed the two women . Lyons claimed that he was suffering withdrawal symptoms at the time and that he made the admission so that he could get more drugs . He said that Garda O ’ Connor had promised that the sooner he confessed , the sooner he would be released from custody and that he " wasn 't thinking straight " . The gardaí say that he was told that he was not under arrest and that he could leave at any time . As a result of his confession , Dean Lyons was arrested on suspicion of murdering the two women at 13 : 46 on 26 July 1997 .
Lyons ' admissions during the first interview were not very detailed , and many of the details provided did not match the evidence . Lyons gave incorrect information about the precise location of the killings and about the number of weapons used . During the interview , he was confused about the number of people that had been killed , and he thought that the women were awake , and moving about the house at the time , which conflicted with the forensic evidence .
= = = Subsequent interviews = = =
While the first interview was videotaped , at the beginning of the second interview , Lyons said that he wanted video recording to be stopped . It has been alleged that the decision to terminate the recording was prompted by the gardaí before the start of the second interview . A number of items discussed during the second interview were not included on the formal interview record , including anecdotes told by Lyons about his former criminal activity which gardaí believed at the time to be untrue . As the interview continued , Lyons was asked if he wanted to make a formal statement , to which he agreed . This statement contains a number of points about the killings that were not known to the public at the time . Some of the more glaring inaccuracies mentioned in the first interview are not included in the statement , although this statement contains some notable omissions and inaccuracies .
Midway through the interview , Lyons was allowed a break , during which he was seen by a doctor , and was given medication . He also met his father during this break . He told his father that he had committed the murder , to which his father replied : “ Dean , you are a terrible liar ” . The gardaí had an informal meeting during the break , during which some gardaí expressed unease about Dean Lyons ; Detective Garda Cox described him as a " Walter Mitty " character during this meeting . There are some significant changes in Lyons ' story after the break . For example : prior to the break , he claimed that he had used only one knife and after the break , he said that he had used four separate weapons , including electric carving knives . The latter description matches closely to Professor Harbison 's report . A number of detailed descriptions were given which matched closely with the physical evidence and with the psychological profile .
= = = Doubts about Dean Lyons ' testimony = = =
As mentioned , some of the gardaí had expressed doubts about Lyons while he was being interviewed . Dr Charles Smith found his confession unconvincing and expressed his concerns to Lyons ' solicitor while Lyons was on remand . Dr Gisli Gudjonsson , a psychologist engaged by Lyons ' solicitors , found that he was very suggestible and susceptible to leading questions . The commission of investigation pointed out the following exchange as an example of Lyons changing his position in response to a question :
Dean Lyons ( DL ) : “ I met two women at the top of the stairs and I went mad because they started screaming and I stabbed them . ”
Detective Garda Cox ( DC ) : “ I have to put it to you that you are not telling the truth at this stage , is that correct . ”
DL : “ It ’ s months ago and it is not easy to remember when you are on gear because it fucks your head up . ”
DC : “ Is it that you don ’ t remember or is it that you don ’ t want to remember . ”
DL : No reply .
DC : “ Can you describe the first woman that you met and what room she came out of . ”
DL : “ It was the second room from the top of the stairs and she was stout about one or two inches smaller than me and she had grey shoulder length hair . She was wearing a very light nightdress . ”
Detective Sergeant McNulty : “ What happened when you met her . ”
DL : “ I stabbed her a few times to stop her screaming . ”
DC : “ I put it to you that this did not happen in the hallway but happened in the bedroom , would you agree . ”
DL : “ Yes . ”
= = Mark Nash 's confession = =
In August 1997 , Carl Doyle and his wife Catherine Doyle were stabbed to death in Ballintubber , Co Roscommon by Mark Nash , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old resident of Drumcondra in North Dublin . During his interview with the gardaí , he said that about three months prior to his arrest , as he was walking to Stoneybatter , he broke into a house through the back , and had stabbed two women in their sleep . In his statement , there were at least two aspects of the crime scene that were not known to the public at the time . Nash later retracted his confession . In 2011 , Nash sought a judicial review to prevent his trial from going ahead on the grounds that a fair trial had been prejudiced by a delay in prosecuting him . In August 2012 , the Irish High Court ruled against him .
Mark Nash 's confession caused some consternation amongst the gardaí , as Dean Lyons had been charged at that point and was on remand awaiting trial . Two camps emerged within the gardaí , one which believed that Nash 's confession threw doubt on Lyons ' guilt , the other which believed that Lyons was the murderer . On 27 August 1997 , the Garda Commissioner appointed Assistant Commissioner James McHugh to carry out a review of the available evidence . He released a preliminary report on 10 September 1997 , and an interim report on 9 January 1998 ; while these reports did not come to a conclusion about Lyons ' guilt , they did raise a number of doubts about his testimony .
= = Lyons exonerated = =
As a result of Assistant Commissioner McHugh 's investigation and due to the defense solicitor 's refusal to release Dr Gudjonsson 's report , the Director of Public Prosecutions ' office appointed a psychologist , Dr Adrian Grounds , to assess Dean Lyons . Dr Grounds concluded that Dean Lyons was highly suggestible and that his admissions were unreliable :
" I am not in a position to corroborate Mr Lyons ’ account of being corrected , prompted and advised by Garda officers and his description of learning from them about the details of the admissions they were seeking . However Mr Lyons ’ account to me in our interview supported and was consistent with the earlier impressions I had gained from reading the case papers . In my earlier report I noted that the materials then available to me raised questions about whether the details of Mr Lyons ’ final admissions could have derived from the content of questions put to him during the day , rather than his knowledge and memory , and about whether he was unusually suggestible . Following my interview with Dean Lyons and his parents , these concerns are substantially strengthened and I now think that it is very likely that his detailed admissions were unreliable . "
As a result of Dr Grounds ' report , the charge of murder against Dean Lyons was dropped on 29 April 1998 ; he had been imprisoned on remand for nine months . Lyons died in 2000 of a heroin overdose . In 2005 , the Garda Síochána published an apology to the Lyons family for Dean Lyons ' arrest and detention in national newspapers .
= = Commission of investigation = =
In February 2006 , a commission of investigation was established to investigate the circumstances surrounding Dean Lyons ' confession and arrest , its sole member was George Birmingham , S.C. The commission 's terms of reference are stated below :
To undertake a thorough investigation and make a report in accordance with the provisions of section 32 of the Commission of Investigation Act 2004 ( No. 23 of 2004 ) on the following specific matters :
1 ) the circumstances surrounding the making of a confession by Dean Lyons ( deceased ) about the deaths of Ms Mary Callinan and Ms Sylvia Sheils in March 1997 in Grangegorman Dublin 7 @,@
2 ) the adequacy of the Garda assessment of the reliability of Mr Lyons ’ confession both before and after he was charged with murder , and
3 ) the adequacy of information provided by the Garda Síochána on the morning of 27 July 1997 to the Director of Public Prosecutions and in particular whether any additional information should have been provided at that time .
= = = Leaking of report = = =
In 2006 , Robert McNulty leaked the draft report of the commission to the Evening Herald newspaper before it was publicly available . McNulty was one of the detectives who interviewed Dean Lyons after he made his initial confession ; he received a suspended jail sentence of twelve months and a € 5000 fine for leaking the report .
= = = Commission findings = = =
The commission found that Lyons acquired the detailed information in his statement from the gardaí : " Dean Lyons acquired the detailed information in relation to the crimes which is a feature of later interviews , and in particular the third interview , from the gardaí who were interviewing him . " The commission found that : " The written record maintained of the non @-@ video @-@ recorded interviews is not comprehensive and matters are excluded that would have assisted in the assessment of the reliability of Dean Lyons . This is not in accordance with section 12 ( 11 ) ( b ) ( i ) of the Criminal Justice Act ( Treatment of Persons in Custody in Garda Síochána Stations ) Regulations 1987 . " The report said that Dean Lyons was not abused or ill treated during his detention and that :
His admissions were not produced by oppression or coercive conduct on the part of the Gardaí . Neither were the admissions produced as a result of anything in the nature of a bribe or inducement . There was no deliberate attempt to frame Dean Lyons . However , Dean Lyons was able to provide accurate details of murders it is now accepted that he did not commit , due to the manner in which he was interviewed by gardaí . He wished to associate himself with the murders and readily agreed to leading questions which were asked by interviewing gardaí .
= = Trial and conviction of Mark Nash = =
In March 2015 Mark Nash was put on trial for the murders . In April 2015 he was found guilty of the murders and sentenced to life imprisonment . The judge refused to backdate the sentence to the direction to charge Nash or his original arrest in 1999 . The jury was excused from jury service for life .
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= Paul Kagame =
Paul Kagame ( / kəˈɡɑːmeɪ / ; born 23 October 1957 ) is the sixth and current President of Rwanda having taken office in 2000 when his predecessor , Pasteur Bizimungu , resigned . Kagame previously commanded the rebel force that ended the 1994 Rwandan Genocide . He was considered Rwanda 's de facto leader when he served as Vice President and Minister of Defence from 1994 to 2000 .
Kagame was born to a Tutsi family in southern Rwanda . When he was two years old , the Rwandan Revolution ended centuries of Tutsi political dominance ; his family fled to Uganda , where he spent the rest of his childhood . In the 1980s , Kagame fought in Yoweri Museveni 's rebel army , becoming a senior Ugandan army officer after Museveni 's military victories carried him to the Ugandan presidency . Kagame joined the Rwandan Patriotic Front ( RPF ) , which invaded Rwanda in 1990 ; leader Fred Rwigyema died early in the war and Kagame took control . By 1993 , the RPF controlled significant territory in Rwanda and a ceasefire was negotiated . The assassination of Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana was the starting point of the genocide , in which Hutu extremists killed an estimated 500 @,@ 000 to one million Tutsi and moderate Hutu . Kagame resumed the civil war , and ended the genocide with a military victory .
During his vice presidency , Kagame controlled the national army and maintained law and order , while other officials began rebuilding the country . Many RPF soldiers carried out retribution killings ; it is disputed whether Kagame organised these , or was powerless to stop them . Hutu refugee camps formed in Zaire and other countries , which were controlled by the genocidaires ( participants in the genocide ) and threatened Rwanda 's security . The RPF indiscriminately attacked the camps in 1996 , forcing many refugees to return home , but insurgents continued to attack Rwanda . The attack on the refugees camps killed an estimated 200 @,@ 000 people . According to the UN Mapping report the attacks could be tantamount to genocide potentially making Paul Kagame a war criminal . As part of the invasion , Kagame sponsored two controversial rebel wars in Zaire . The Rwandan- and Ugandan @-@ backed rebels won the first war ( 1996 – 97 ) , installing Laurent @-@ Désiré Kabila as president in place of dictator Mobutu and renaming the country as the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) . The second war was launched in 1998 against Kabila , and later his son Joseph , following the DRC government 's expulsion of Rwandan and Ugandan military forces from the country . The war escalated into a continent @-@ wide conflict which lasted until a 2003 peace deal and ceasefire .
As president , Kagame has prioritised national development , launching a programme to develop Rwanda as a middle income country by 2020 . As of 2013 , the country is developing strongly on key indicators , including health care and education ; annual growth between 2004 and 2010 averaged 8 % per year . Kagame has had mostly good relations with the East African Community and the United States ; his relations with France were poor until 2009 . Relations with the DRC remain tense despite the 2003 ceasefire ; human rights groups and a leaked United Nations report allege Rwandan support for two insurgencies in the country , a charge Kagame denies . Several countries suspended aid payments in 2012 following these allegations . Kagame is popular in Rwanda and with some foreign observers ; human rights groups accuse him of political repression . He won an election in 2003 , under a new constitution adopted that year , and was elected for a second term in 2010 .
= = Early life = =
Kagame was born on 23 October 1957 , the youngest of six children , in Tambwe , Ruanda @-@ Urundi , a village located in the modern Southern Province of Rwanda . His father , Deogratias , was a member of the Tutsi ethnic group , from which the royal family had been derived since the eighteenth century or earlier . Deogratias had family ties to King Mutara III , but he chose to pursue an independent business career rather than maintain a close connection to the royal court . Kagame 's mother , Asteria Rutagambwa , was also a Tutsi , descended from the family of the last Rwandan queen , Rosalie Gicanda . At the time of Kagame 's birth , Rwanda was a United Nations Trust Territory ; long @-@ time colonial power Belgium still ruled the territory , but with a mandate to oversee independence . Rwandans were made up of three distinct groups : the minority Tutsi were the traditional ruling class , and the Belgians had long promoted their supremacy , while the majority Hutu were agriculturalists . The third group , the Twa , were a forest @-@ dwelling pygmy people who are descended from Rwanda 's earliest inhabitants and formed less than 1 % of the population .
Tension between Tutsi and Hutu had been escalating during the 1950s , and culminated in the 1959 Rwandan Revolution . Hutu activists began killing Tutsi , forcing more than 100 @,@ 000 to seek refuge in neighbouring countries . Kagame 's family abandoned their home , living for two years in the far northeast of Rwanda and eventually crossing the border into Uganda . They moved gradually north , and settled in the Nshungerezi refugee camp in the Toro sub @-@ region in 1962 . It was around this time that , as young boys , Kagame and his future comrade , Fred Rwigyema , first met one another .
Kagame began his primary education in a school near the refugee camp , where he and other Rwandan refugees learned English and began to integrate into Ugandan culture . At the age of nine he moved to the respected Rwengoro Primary School , around 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) away , graduating with the best grades in the district . He subsequently attended Ntare School , one of the best schools in Uganda . It is also the alma mater of future Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni . The death of Kagame 's father in the early 1970s , and the departure of Rwigyema to an unknown location , led to a decline in his academic performance and an increased tendency to fight those who belittled the Rwandan population . He was eventually suspended from Ntare and completed his studies without distinction at Old Kampala Secondary School .
After finishing his schooling Kagame made two visits to Rwanda , in 1977 and 1978 . He was initially hosted by family members of his former classmates , but upon arrival in Kigali he made contact with members of his own family . He kept a low profile on these visits , believing that his status as a well @-@ connected Tutsi exile could lead to arrest ; on his second visit he entered the country through Zaire rather than Uganda to avoid suspicion . Kagame used his time in Rwanda to explore the country , familiarise himself with the political and social situation , and make connections that would prove useful to him in his later activities .
= = Military career , 1979 – 1994 = =
= = = Ugandan Bush War = = =
In 1978 , Fred Rwigyema returned to western Uganda and reunited with Kagame . During his absence , Rwigyema had joined the rebel army of Yoweri Museveni . Based in Tanzania , it aimed to overthrow the Ugandan government of Idi Amin . Rwigyema returned to Tanzania and fought in the 1979 war during which Museveni 's army , allied with the Tanzanian army and other Ugandan exiles , defeated Amin . After Amin 's defeat , inspired by Rwigyema , Kagame and other Rwandan refugees pledged allegiance to Museveni , a cabinet member in the transition government . Kagame travelled to Tanzania where the Tanzanian government , which sought to protect the new Ugandan regime , trained him as a spy .
Former incumbent Milton Obote won the 1980 Ugandan general election . Museveni disputed the result , and he and his followers withdrew from the new government in protest . In 1981 , Museveni formed the rebel National Resistance Army ( NRA ) ; Kagame and Rwigyema joined as founding soldiers , along with thirty @-@ eight Ugandans . The army 's goal was to overthrow Obote 's government , in what became known as the Ugandan Bush War .
Kagame and Rwigyema joined the NRA primarily to ease conditions for Rwandan refugees persecuted by Obote . They also had a long @-@ term goal of returning with other Tutsi refugees to Rwanda ; military experience would enable them to fight the Hutu @-@ dominated Rwandan army . In the NRA , Kagame specialised in intelligence @-@ gathering , and he rose to a position close to Museveni 's . The NRA , based in the Luwero Triangle , fought the Ugandan army for the next five years , even after Obote was deposed in a 1985 coup d 'état and the start of peace talks .
In 1986 , the NRA captured Kampala with a force of 14 @,@ 000 soldiers , including 500 Rwandans , and formed a new government . After Museveni 's inauguration as president he appointed Kagame and Rwigyema as senior officers in the new Ugandan army ; Kagame was the head of military intelligence . In addition to their army duties , Kagame and Rwigyema began building a covert network of Rwandan Tutsi refugees within the army 's ranks , intended as the nucleus for an attack on Rwanda . In 1989 Rwanda 's President Habyarimana and many Ugandans in the army began to criticise Museveni over his appointment of Rwandan refugees to senior positions , and he demoted Kagame and Rwigyema .
They remained de facto senior officers , but the change caused them to accelerate their plans to invade Rwanda . They joined an organisation called the Rwandan Patriotic Front ( RPF ) , a refugee association which had been operating under various names since 1979 . Rwigyema became the RPF leader shortly after joining and , while still working for the Ugandan army , he and Kagame completed their invasion plans .
= = = Rwandan Civil War = = =
In October 1990 , Rwigyema led a force of over 4 @,@ 000 RPF rebels into Rwanda at the Kagitumba border post , advancing 60 km ( 37 mi ) south to the town of Gabiro . Paul Kagame was not present at the initial raids , as he was attending a course at the Command and General Staff College in Fort Leavenworth , United States . Rwigyema was killed on the third day of the attack , throwing the RPF into confusion . France and Zaire deployed forces in support of the Rwandan army , and by the end of October , the RPF had been pushed back into the far north east corner of the country .
Kagame returned to Africa and took command of the RPF forces , which had been reduced to fewer than 2 @,@ 000 troops . Kagame and his soldiers moved west , through Uganda , to the Virunga Mountains , a rugged high @-@ altitude area where the terrain worked in their favor . From there he re @-@ armed and reorganised the army , and carried out fundraising and recruitment from the Tutsi diaspora . Kagame restarted combat in January 1991 , with an attack on the northern town of Ruhengeri . Benefiting from the element of surprise , the RPF captured the town and held it for a day before retreating back into the forests .
For the next year , the RPF waged a classic hit @-@ and @-@ run style guerrilla war , capturing some border areas but not making significant gains in the war against the Rwandan army . Following the June 1992 formation of a multi @-@ party coalition government in Kigali , Kagame announced a ceasefire and initiated negotiations with the Rwandan government in Arusha , Tanzania . In early 1993 groups of extremist Hutu formed and began campaigns of large @-@ scale violence against the Tutsi . Kagame responded by suspending peace talks temporarily and launching a major attack , gaining a large swathe of land across the north of the country .
Peace negotiations resumed in Arusha , and the resulting set of agreements , known as the Arusha Accords , were signed in August 1993 . The RPF were given positions in a broad @-@ based transitional government ( BBTG ) and in the national army . The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda ( UNAMIR ) , a peacekeeping force , arrived and the RPF were given a base in the national parliament building in Kigali to use during the establishment of the BBTG .
= = = Rwandan Genocide = = =
On 6 April 1994 , Rwandan President Habyarimana 's plane was shot down near Kigali Airport , killing both Habyarimana and the President of Burundi , Cyprien Ntaryamira , as well as their entourage and three French crew members . The attackers remain unknown . Historian Gérard Prunier , in a book written shortly after the incident , concluded that it was most likely a coup d 'état carried out by extreme Hutu members of Habyarimana 's government , and was a planned part of the genocide . This theory was disputed in 2006 by French judge Jean @-@ Louis Bruguière , and in 2008 by Spanish judge Fernando Andreu . Both alleged that Kagame and the RPF were responsible . At the end of 2010 the French government ordered a more thorough judicial inquiry , which employed ballistics experts . That review concluded in 2012 that the shots had originated from Camp Kanombe , an area controlled at the time by the Rwandan army ; this report reaffirmed the initial theory that Hutu extremists assassinated Habyarimana .
Following Habyarimana 's death , a military committee led by Colonel Théoneste Bagosora took immediate control of the country . Under the committee 's direction , the Hutu paramilitary group Interahamwe and the presidential guard began to kill Hutu and Tutsi opposition politicians and other prominent Tutsi figures ; within 24 hours they had killed all moderate leaders , including prime minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana . The killers then began targeting the entire Tutsi population , as well as moderate Hutu , beginning the Rwandan Genocide . Over the course of approximately 100 days , between 500 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Tutsi and politically moderate Hutu were killed in well @-@ planned attacks .
On 7 April , Kagame warned the committee and UNAMIR that he would resume the civil war if the killing did not stop . The next day , the Rwandan government forces attacked the national parliament building from several directions , but the RPF troops stationed there successfully fought back ; Kagame began an attack from the north on three fronts , seeking to link up quickly with the troops isolated in Kigali . An interim government was set up but Kagame refused to talk to it , believing that it was just a cover for Bagosora 's rule . Over the next few days , the RPF advanced steadily south , capturing Gabiro and large areas of countryside to the north and east of Kigali . They avoided attacking Kigali or Byumba at this stage , but conducted manoeuvres designed to encircle the cities and cut off supply routes . The RPF allowed Tutsi refugees from Uganda to settle behind the front line in the RPF @-@ controlled areas .
Throughout April there were numerous attempts by UNAMIR to establish a ceasefire , but Kagame insisted each time that the RPF would not stop fighting unless the killings stopped . In late April the RPF secured the whole of the Tanzanian border area and began to move west from Kibungo , to the south of Kigali . They encountered little resistance , except around Kigali and Ruhengeri . By 16 May , they had cut the road between Kigali and Gitarama , the temporary home of the interim government , and by 13 June , they had taken Gitarama , following an unsuccessful attempt by the Rwandan government forces to reopen the road . The interim government was forced to relocate to Gisenyi in the far north west . As well as fighting the war , Kagame was recruiting heavily to expand the army . The new recruits included Tutsi survivors of the genocide and refugees from Burundi , but were less well trained and disciplined than the earlier recruits .
Having completed the encirclement of Kigali , Kagame spent the latter half of June fighting to take the city . The government forces had superior manpower and weapons , but the RPF steadily gained territory , as well as conducting raids to rescue civilians from behind enemy lines . According to Roméo Dallaire , the force commander of UNAMIR , this success was due to Kagame being a " master of psychological warfare " ; he exploited the fact that the government forces were concentrating on the genocide rather than the fight for Kigali , and capitalised on the government 's loss of morale as it lost territory . The RPF finally defeated the Rwandan government forces in Kigali on 4 July , and on 18 July took Gisenyi and the rest of the north west , forcing the interim government into Zaire and ending the genocide . At the end of July 1994 , Kagame 's forces held the whole of Rwanda except for a zone in the south west , which had been occupied by a French @-@ led United Nations force as part of Opération Turquoise .
= = Marriage and children = =
On 10 June 1989 in Uganda , Kagame married Jeannette Nyiramongi , a Tutsi exile living in Nairobi , Kenya . Kagame had asked his relatives to suggest a suitable marriage and they recommended Nyiramongi . Kagame travelled to Nairobi and introduced himself , persuading her to visit him in Uganda . Nyiramongi was familiar with the RPF , and its goal of returning refugees to Rwanda . She held Kagame in high regard . The couple have four children . Their first child , a son they named Ivan Cyomoro Kagame , was born in 1990 . Since then a daughter , Ange Kagame , and sons Ian and Brian have been born .
= = Vice President and Minister of Defence = =
The post @-@ genocide Rwandan government took office in Kigali in July 1994 . It was based loosely on the Arusha Accords , but Habyarimana 's party was outlawed . The positions it had been assigned were taken over by the RPF . The military wing of the RPF was renamed as the Rwandan Patriotic Army ( RPA ) , and became the national army . Paul Kagame assumed the dual roles of Vice President of Rwanda and Minister of Defence while Pasteur Bizimungu , a Hutu who had been a civil servant under Habyarimana before fleeing to join the RPF , was appointed president . Bizimungu and his cabinet had some control over domestic affairs , but Kagame remained commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the army and was the de facto ruler of the country .
= = = Domestic situation = = =
The infrastructure and economy of the country had suffered greatly during the genocide . Many buildings were uninhabitable , and the former regime had carried with them all currency and moveable assets when they fled the country . Human resources were also severely depleted , with over 40 % of the population having been killed or fled . Many of the remainder were traumatised : most had lost relatives , witnessed killings or participated in the genocide . The army , controlled by Kagame , maintained law and order while the government began the work of rebuilding the country 's structures .
Non @-@ governmental organisations began to move back into the country , but the international community did not provide significant assistance to the new regime , and most international aid was routed to the refugee camps which had formed in Zaire following the exodus of Hutu from Rwanda . Kagame strove to portray the government as inclusive and not Tutsi dominated . He directed removal of ethnicity from citizens ' national identity cards , and the government began a policy of downplaying the distinctions between Hutu , Tutsi , and Twa .
During the genocide and in the months following the RPF victory , RPF soldiers killed many people they accused of participating in or supporting the genocide . Many of these soldiers were recent Tutsi recruits from within Rwanda , who had lost family or friends and sought revenge . The scale , scope , and source of ultimate responsibility of these killings is disputed . Human Rights Watch , as well as scholars such as Prunier , allege that the death toll might be as high as 100 @,@ 000 , and that Kagame and the RPF elite either tolerated or organised the killings . In an interview with journalist Stephen Kinzer , Kagame acknowledged that killings had occurred but stated that they were carried out by rogue soldiers and had been impossible to control . The RPF killings gained international attention with the 1995 Kibeho massacre , in which soldiers opened fire on a camp for internally displaced persons in Butare Province . Australian soldiers serving as part of UNAMIR estimated at least 4 @,@ 000 people were killed , while the Rwandan government claimed that the death toll was 338 .
Shortly after taking power , the Rwandan government began prosecuting crimes committed during the genocide . The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda , operating under a United Nations mandate , was set up in Arusha to judge the most senior leaders responsible for the genocide . In addition , the Rwandan government determined to prosecute all suspected perpetrators , including the many ordinary citizens who had taken part in the killings , in order to end the " culture of impunity " that it blamed for the genocide . Between 1994 and 2000 , 120 @,@ 000 suspects were arrested . The prisons were overcrowded and the courts could not process all the cases . By 2006 only 10 @,@ 000 of those arrested had been tried . The government introduced Gacaca , a village court system based on traditional Rwandan justice . The Gacaca process allowed for faster processing of cases , but lacked many safeguards and principles of international criminal law .
The unity government suffered a partial collapse in 1995 . The continuing violence , along with appointing of local government officials who were almost exclusively RPF Tutsi , caused serious disagreement between Kagame and senior Hutu government members , including prime minister Faustin Twagiramungu and interior minister Seth Sendashonga . Twagiramungu resigned in August , and Kagame fired Sendashonga and three others the next day . Pasteur Bizimungu remained president but the makeup of the new government was predominantly RPF Tutsi loyal to Kagame . Twagiramungu and Sendashonga moved abroad to form a new opposition party shortly after leaving the government .
= = = Refugee crisis and insurgency = = =
Following the RPF victory , approximately two million Hutu fled to refugee camps in neighbouring countries , particularly Zaire , fearing RPF reprisals for the Rwandan Genocide . The camps were set up by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) , but were effectively controlled by the army and government of the former Hutu regime , including many leaders of the genocide . This regime was determined to return to power in Rwanda and began rearming , killing Tutsi residing in Zaire , and launching cross @-@ border incursions in conjunction with the Interahamwe paramilitary group . By late 1996 , the Hutu militants represented a serious threat to the new Rwandan regime , and Kagame launched a counteroffensive .
Kagame first provided troops and military training to aid a rebellion against Zaire by the Banyamulenge , a Tutsi group living near Bukavu in the Zairian South Kivu province . With Rwandan army support , the Banyamulenge defeated local security forces and began attacking the Hutu refugee camps in the area . At the same time , Kagame 's forces joined with Zairian Tutsi around Goma to attack two of the camps there . Most refugees from the attacked camps moved to the large Mugunga camp . In November 1996 the Rwandan army attacked Mugunga , causing an estimated 800 @,@ 000 refugees to flee . Many returned to Rwanda despite the presence of the RPF ; others ventured further west into Zaire .
Despite the disbanding of the camps , the defeated forces of the former regime continued a cross @-@ border insurgency campaign into Rwanda from North Kivu . The insurgents maintained a presence in Rwanda 's north western provinces and were supported by the predominantly Hutu population , many of whom had lived in the refugee camps before they were attacked . In addition to supporting the wars in the Congo , Kagame began a propaganda campaign to bring the Hutu to his side . He integrated former soldiers of the deposed genocidal regime 's military into the RPF @-@ dominated national army and appointed senior Hutu to key local government positions in the areas hit by insurgency . These tactics were eventually successful ; by 1999 , the population in the north west had stopped supporting the insurgency and the insurgents were mostly defeated .
= = = Congo Wars = = =
Although his primary reason for military action in Zaire was the dismantling of the refugee camps , Kagame also began planning a war to remove long @-@ time dictator President Mobutu Sese Seko from power . Mobutu had supported the genocidaires based in the camps , and was also accused of allowing attacks on Tutsi people within Zaire . Together with Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni , Kagame supported the newly created Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo ( ADFL ) , an alliance of four rebel groups headed by Laurent @-@ Désiré Kabila , which began waging the First Congo War . The ADFL , helped by Rwandan and Ugandan troops , took control of North and South Kivu provinces in November 1996 and then advanced west , gaining territory from the poorly organised and demotivated Zairian army with little fighting . By May 1997 , they controlled almost the whole of Zaire except for the capital Kinshasa ; Mobutu fled and the ADFL took the capital without fighting . The country was renamed as the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) and Kabila became the new president . The Rwandan Defence Forces and the ADFL were accused of carrying out mass atrocities during the First Congo War , with as many as 222 @,@ 000 Rwandan Hutu refugees declared missing .
Kagame and the Rwandan government retained strong influence over Kabila following his inauguration , and the RPA maintained a heavy presence in Kinshasa . Congolese in the capital resented this , as did many in the eastern Kivu provinces , where ethnic clashes increased sharply . In July 1998 , Kabila fired his Rwandan chief @-@ of @-@ staff , James Kabarebe , and ordered all RPA troops to leave the country . Kagame accused Kabila of supporting the ongoing insurgency against Rwanda from North Kivu , the same accusation he had made about Mobutu . He responded to the expulsion of his soldiers by backing a new rebel group , the Rally for Congolese Democracy ( RCD ) , and launching the Second Congo War . The first action of the war was a blitzkrieg by the RCD and RPA , led by Kabarebe . These forces made quick gains , advancing in twelve days from the Kivu provinces west to within 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) of Kinshasa . The capital was saved by the intervention of Angola and Zimbabwe on Kabila 's side . Following the failure of the blitzkrieg , the conflict developed into a long @-@ term conventional war , which lasted until 2003 and caused millions of deaths and massive damage . According to a report by the International Rescue Committee ( IRC ) , this conflict led to the loss of between 3 million and 7 @.@ 6 million lives , many through starvation and disease accompanying the social disruption of the war .
Although Kagame 's primary reason for the two wars in the Congo was Rwanda 's security , he was alleged to gain economic benefit by exploiting the mineral wealth of the eastern Congo . The 2001 United Nations Report of the Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of the Congo alleged that Kagame , along with Ugandan President Museveni , were " on the verge of becoming the godfathers of the illegal exploitation of natural resources and the continuation of the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo " . The report also claimed that the Rwandan Ministry of Defence contained a " Congo Desk " dedicated to collecting taxes from companies licensed to mine minerals around Kisangani , and that substantial quantities of coltan and diamonds passed through Kigali before being resold on the international market by staff on the Congo Desk . International NGO Global Witness also conducted field studies in early 2013 . It concluded that minerals from North and South Kivu are exported illegally to Rwanda and then marketed as Rwandan . Kagame dismissed these allegations as unsubstantiated and politically motivated ; in a 2002 interview with newsletter Africa Confidential , Kagame said that if solid evidence against Rwandan officers was presented , it would be dealt with very seriously . In 2010 , the United Nations released a report accusing the Rwandan army of committing wide scale human rights violations and crimes against humanity in the Democratic Republic of the Congo during the First and Second Congo Wars , charges denied by the Rwandan government .
= = Presidency = =
= = = Accession = = =
In the late 1990s , Kagame began to disagree publicly with Bizimungu and the Hutu @-@ led government in Rwanda . Kagame accused Bizimungu of corruption and poor management , while Bizimungu felt that he had no power over appointments to the cabinet and that the National Assembly was acting purely as a puppet for Kagame . Bizimungu resigned from the presidency in March 2000 . Historians do not agree on the precise circumstances of Bizimungu 's departure ; American author Stephen Kinzer contends that " one of the president 's friends called Kagame with the startling news that the president was preparing to resign " while Prunier states that Bizimungu was forced to resign , having denounced the National Assembly and attempted to sow discord within the RPF . Following Bizimungu 's resignation , the Supreme Court ruled that Kagame should become acting president until a permanent successor was chosen .
Kagame had been de facto leader since 1994 , but had focused more on military , foreign affairs and the country 's security than day @-@ to @-@ day governance . By 2000 , the threat posed by cross @-@ border rebels was much reduced and when Bizimungu resigned , Kagame decided to seek the presidency himself . The transitional constitution was still in effect , which meant the president was elected by government ministers and the national assembly rather than by a direct election .
The RPF selected two candidates , Kagame and RPF secretary general Charles Murigande ; the ministers and parliament elected Kagame by eighty @-@ one votes to three . Kagame was sworn in as president in April 2000 . Several Hutu politicians , including the prime minister Pierre @-@ Célestin Rwigema , left the government at around the same time as Bizimungu , leaving a cabinet dominated by those close to Kagame . Bizimungu started his own party following his resignation , but this was quickly banned for " destabilising the country " . He was subsequently arrested and convicted of corruption and inciting ethnic violence . He was imprisoned until 2007 , when he was pardoned by Kagame .
= = = New constitution = = =
Between 1994 and 2003 , Rwanda was governed by a set of documents combining President Habyarimana 's 1991 constitution , the Arusha Accords , and some additional protocols introduced by the transitional government . As required by the accords , Kagame set up a constitutional commission to draft a new permanent constitution . The constitution was required to adhere to a set of fundamental principles including equitable power sharing and democracy . The commission sought to ensure that the draft constitution was " home @-@ grown " , relevant to Rwanda 's specific needs , and reflected the views of the entire population ; they sent questionnaires to civil groups across the country and rejected offers of help from the international community , except for financial assistance .
The draft constitution was released in 2003 ; it was approved by the parliament , and was then put to a referendum in May of that year . The referendum was widely promoted by the government ; ultimately , 95 % of eligible adults registered to vote and the turnout on voting day was 87 % . The constitution was overwhelmingly accepted , with 93 % voting in favour . The constitution provided for a two @-@ house parliament , an elected president serving seven @-@ year terms , and multi @-@ party politics . The constitution also sought to prevent Hutu or Tutsi hegemony over political power . Article 54 states that " political organizations are prohibited from basing themselves on race , ethnic group , tribe , clan , region , sex , religion or any other division which may give rise to discrimination " . According to Human Rights Watch , this clause , along with later laws enacted by the parliament , effectively make Rwanda a one @-@ party state , as " under the guise of preventing another genocide , the government displays a marked intolerance of the most basic forms of dissent " .
= = = Election campaigns = = =
= = = = Presidential election , 2003 = = = =
Following the adoption of the new constitution in May 2003 , the government set dates for the first elections to be held under the new law . The presidential poll was set for 25 August 2003 . In May , the parliament voted to ban the Republican Democratic Movement ( MDR ) , following a parliamentary commission report accusing the MDR of " divisive " ideology . The MDR had been one of the coalition parties in the transitional government of national unity , and was the second largest party in the country after the RPF . Amnesty International criticised this move , claiming that " the unfounded allegations against the individuals mentioned in the report appear to be part of a government @-@ orchestrated crackdown on the political opposition " .
The RPF selected Paul Kagame as its presidential candidate , to run for his first full term following his three @-@ year transitional presidency . His main challenger was Faustin Twagiramungu , who had been prime minister from 1994 to 1995 , when he resigned and moved to Brussels after a disagreement with Kagame . Twagiramungu had intended to run as the candidate for the MDR , but instead sought the presidency as an independent following the party 's banishment . Twagiramungu returned to the country in June 2003 and began campaigning in August . Two other candidates also ran : Alvera Mukabaramba , a medical doctor and former MDR member running for the newly formed Party for Progress and Concord ( PPC ) , and Jean Nepomuscene Nayinzira , an independent and former member of parliament who cited belief in God as a central part of his campaign . Mukabaramba pulled out one day before the election , accusing Twagiramungu of ethnic propaganda and advising her supporters to vote for Kagame . The election went ahead on 25 August with Kagame , Twagiramungu and Nayinzira as candidates .
Kagame declared victory in the election on 26 August , after partial results showed he had an almost insurmountable lead , and his win was later confirmed by the National Electoral Commission . The final results showed that Kagame received 95 @.@ 1 % of the vote , Twagiramungu 3 @.@ 6 % , and Nayinzira 1 @.@ 3 % ; the voter turnout was 96 @.@ 6 % . The campaign , election day , and aftermath were largely peaceful , although an observer from the European Union ( EU ) raised concerns that opposition supporters may have been intimidated by the RPF . Twagiramungu rejected the result of the election and also questioned the margin of victory , saying " Almost 100 per cent ? That 's not possible " . Twagiramungu filed a petition at the Supreme Court to nullify the result , but was unsuccessful . The EU observer also questioned the result , citing " numerous irregularities " , but praised the election overall , describing it as a " positive step " . Kagame himself , in an interview with journalist Stephen Kinzer , acknowledged that the opposition had been weak , but he believed the result was genuine . He told Kinzer " they wanted security first of all . Even people who didn 't know the RPF program in detail saw us as the party that would guarantee that " . Kagame was sworn in on 12 September to begin his seven @-@ year term .
= = = = Presidential election , 2010 = = = =
Kagame 's first term expired and new elections were held in 2010 . Having served one term as elected president , Kagame was entitled to serve for one further term . The election campaign began publicly in January 2010 when Victoire Ingabire , a Hutu who had been living abroad for some years , returned to Rwanda and announced her candidacy for the presidency . This failed as she was arrested and accused of threatening state security . Ingabire caused some controversy in the country following her arrival , with comments relating to the genocide . The government accused her of breaking the country 's strict laws regarding genocide denial , and she was arrested in April 2010 . She was released on bail , but was prohibited from running in the election . In October 2012 she was sentenced to fifteen years imprisonment by the High Court of Kigali , which is heavily criticized by Amnesty International .
In May , President Kagame was officially endorsed as the RPF 's candidate for the election at the party 's national congress . Kagame then became the first candidate to be accepted when he presented his electoral papers in July . Three other candidates registered successfully for the election ; they were Jean Damascene Ntawukuriryayo of the Social Democratic Party , Prosper Higiro of the Liberal Party , and Alvera Mukabaramba of the Party for Progress and Concord . Two other contenders failed to get official documents through and did not get accepted into the race . Human Rights Watch described Kagame 's three opponents as " broadly supportive of the RPF " , and claimed that most Rwandans would not describe them as " real " opposition , while those who criticised the RPF were barred from the election .
In the run @-@ up to the election , there was some violence and several incidents involving prominent opposition and media figures . In February , there was a grenade attack in Kigali which killed two people . Rwandan prosecutors blamed Kayumba Nyamwasa , a dissident General who had become a critic of Kagame . Nywamwasa fled to Johannesburg , South Africa , and in June he survived a shooting in the city . Nyamwasa alleged that it was an assassination attempt , a charge Rwanda denied . Days later , journalist Jean @-@ Léonard Rugambage , who claimed to have uncovered the regime 's responsibility in the attempted murder , was shot dead . In July , the vice president of the Democratic Green Party , André Kagwa Rwisereka , was beheaded in Butare . There is no concrete evidence linking Kagame with the attacks , but it was sufficient for the United Nations to demand an investigation .
Kagame was declared the winner of the election , according to results released by the National Electoral Commission on 11 August . Kagame received 93 @.@ 08 % of the vote , with second placed Ntawukuriryayo polling 5 @.@ 15 % . The turnout was 97 @.@ 51 % of registered voters . Opposition and human rights groups later said that the election was tainted by repression , murder , and lack of credible competition . Kagame responded by saying " I see no problems , but there are some people who choose to see problems where there are not . " The election was largely peaceful , although there was a further grenade attack in Kigali hours after the election commission announced Kagame 's victory , injuring about 20 people . Media reports indicated the attack may have been politically motivated and connected to earlier attacks in the same area .
= = = = Constitutional referendum , 2015 = = = =
= = = Domestic policy = = =
= = = = Vision 2020 = = = =
In the late 1990s , Kagame began actively planning methods to achieve national development . He launched a national consultation process and also sought the advice of experts from emerging nations including China , Singapore and Thailand . Following these consultations , and shortly after assuming the presidency , Kagame launched an ambitious programme of national development called Vision 2020 . The major purposes of the programme were to unite the Rwandan people and to transform Rwanda from a highly impoverished into a middle income country . The programme consists of a list of goals which the government aims to achieve before the year 2020 . These include reconstruction , infrastructure and transport improvements , good governance , improving agriculture production , private sector development , and health and education improvements .
In 2011 , the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning issued a report indicating the progress of the Vision 2020 goals . The report examined the stated goals of the programme and rated each one with a status of " on @-@ track " , " on @-@ watch " or " off @-@ track " . Of 44 goals , it found that 66 % were on @-@ track , 11 % were on @-@ watch , and 22 % were off @-@ track . The major areas identified as off @-@ track were population , poverty and the environment . An independent review of Vision 2020 , carried out in 2012 by academics based in Belgium , rated progress as " quite encouraging " , mentioning development in the education and health sectors , as well as Kagame 's fostering of a favourable business environment . The review also raised concerns about the policy of " maximum growth at any cost " , suggesting that this was leading to a situation in which the rich prospered while the rural poor saw little benefit .
In November 2013 , Kagame told This Is Africa " Our thinking is based on people . In national budgets , we focus on education , health , we look at technology , skills , innovation , creativity . We are always thinking about people , people , people . "
= = = = Economy = = = =
Rwanda 's economy has grown rapidly under Kagame 's presidency , with per @-@ capita gross domestic product ( purchasing power parity ) estimated at $ 1 @,@ 592 in 2013 , compared with $ 567 in 2000 . Annual growth between 2004 and 2010 averaged 8 % per year . Kagame 's economic policy is based on liberalising the economy , privatising state owned industries , reducing red tape for businesses , and transforming the country from an agricultural to a knowledge @-@ based economy . Kagame has stated that he believes Rwanda can emulate the economic development of Singapore since 1960 , and achieving middle income country status is one of the central goals of the Vision 2020 programme . Kagame 's economic policy has been praised by many foreign donors and investors , including Bill Clinton and Starbucks chairman Howard Schultz . The DRC government and human rights groups have accused Rwanda of illegally exploiting Congolese minerals , which the London Daily Telegraph describes as an " important part " in the success of Rwanda 's economy .
Rwanda is a country of few natural resources , and the economy is heavily dependent on subsistence agriculture , with an estimated 90 % of the working population engaged in farming . Under Kagame 's presidency , the service sector has grown strongly . In 2010 , it became the country 's largest sector by economic output , contributing 43 @.@ 6 % of the country 's GDP . Key tertiary contributors include banking and finance , wholesale and retail trade , hotels and restaurants , transport , storage , communication , insurance , real estate , business services , and public administration , including education and health . Information and communications technology ( ICT ) is a Vision 2020 priority , with a goal of transforming Rwanda into an ICT hub for Africa . To this end , the government has completed a 2 @,@ 300 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 400 mi ) fibre @-@ optic telecommunications network , intended to provide broadband services and facilitate electronic commerce . Tourism is one of the fastest @-@ growing economic resources and became the country 's leading foreign exchange earner in 2011 . In spite of the genocide 's legacy , Kagame 's achievement of peace and security means the country is increasingly perceived internationally as a safe destination ; in the first half of 2011 , 16 % of foreign visitors arrived from outside Africa . The country 's mountain gorillas attract thousands of visitors per year , who are prepared to pay high prices for permits .
Rwanda ranks highly in several categories of the World Bank 's ease of doing business index . In 2005 , after the country was ranked 158th on the ease of doing business index , Kagame set up a special unit to analyze the economy and provide solutions to easing business . As a result , the country topped the list of reformers in 2009 . In 2012 , the country 's overall ease of doing business index ranking was 52nd out of 185 countries worldwide , and third out of 46 in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . It was eighth on the 2012 rankings for ease of starting a business ; the Rwanda Development Board asserts that a business can be authorised and registered in 24 hours . The business environment and economy also benefit from relatively low corruption in the country ; in 2010 , Transparency International ranked Rwanda as the eighth cleanest out of 47 countries in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa and sixty @-@ sixth cleanest out of 178 in the world .
= = = = Education and health = = = =
Kagame has made education for youth in Rwanda a high priority for his administration , allocating 17 % of the annual budget to the sector . The Rwandan government provides free education in state @-@ run schools for twelve years : six years in primary and six in secondary school . The final three years of free education were introduced in 2012 following a pledge by Kagame during his 2010 re @-@ election campaign . Kagame credits his government with improvements in the tertiary education sector ; the number of universities has risen from 1 in 1994 to 29 in 2010 , and the tertiary gross enrolment ratio increased from 4 % in 2008 to 7 % in 2011 . From 1994 until 2009 , secondary education was offered in either French or English ; since 2009 , due to the country 's increasing ties with the East African Community and the Commonwealth of Nations , English has been the sole language of instruction in public schools from primary school grade 4 onward . The country 's literacy rate , defined as those aged 15 or over who can read and write , was 71 % in 2009 , up from 38 % in 1978 and 58 % in 1991 .
Rwanda 's health profile is dominated by communicable diseases , including malaria , pneumonia , and HIV / AIDS . Prevalence and mortality rates have sharply declined in the past decade but the short supply or unavailability of certain medicines continues to challenge disease management . Kagame 's government is seeking to improve this situation as one of the Vision 2020 priorities . It has increased funding , with the health budget up from 3 @.@ 2 % of national expenditure in 1996 to 9 @.@ 7 % in 2008 . It also set up training institutes , including the Kigali Health Institute ( KHI ) , and in 2008 effected laws making health insurance mandatory for all individuals ; by 2010 , over 90 % of the population was covered . These policies have contributed to a steady increase in quality of healthcare and improvement in key indicators during Kagame 's presidency . In 2010 , 91 children died before their fifth birthday for every 1000 live births , down from 163 under five deaths for every 1000 live births in 1990 . Prevalence of some diseases is declining , including the elimination of maternal and neonatal tetanus and a sharp reduction in malaria morbidity , mortality rate , and specific lethality . In response to shortages in qualified medical personnel , in 2011 the Rwandan government launched an eight @-@ year US $ 151 @.@ 8 million initiative to train medical professionals .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
= = = = Democratic Republic of the Congo = = = =
The Second Congo War , which began in 1998 , was still raging when Kagame assumed the presidency in 2000 . Namibia , Angola , Zimbabwe , and Chad had committed troops to the Congolese government side , while Rwanda , Uganda , and Burundi were supporting rebel groups . The rebel group Rally for Congolese Democracy ( RCD ) had split in 1999 into two factions : the RCD @-@ Goma , supported by Rwanda , and the RCD @-@ Kisangani , which was allied to Uganda . Uganda also supported the Movement for the Liberation of the Congo ( MLC ) , a rebel group from the north . All these rebel groups were at war with Kabila 's government in Kinshasa , but were also increasingly hostile to each other . Various peace meetings had been held , culminating in the July 1999 Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement which was signed by Kabila , Kagame and all the other foreign governments . The rebel groups were not party to the agreement , and fighting continued . The RPA continued to be heavily involved in the Congo War during 2000 , fighting battles against the Ugandan army in Kisangani and against Kabila 's army in Kasai and Katanga .
In January 2001 , Kabila was shot dead inside his palace . The Congolese government claimed Kabila had been killed by a rogue bodyguard , who was himself killed at the scene . According to a report published in French newspaper Le Monde , Kabila was killed by the kadogo , an army of child soldiers he was known to have assembled during the First Congo War . The kadogo had suffered badly during the battles in Kasai and Katanga , were poorly paid , and had become alienated by Kabila . Kabila 's son Joseph was appointed president and immediately began asserting his authority by dismissing his father 's cabinet and senior army commanders , assembling a new government , and engaging with the international community . The new government provided impetus for renewed peace negotiations , and in July 2002 a peace agreement was reached between Rwanda , Congo , and the other major participants , in which all foreign troops would withdraw and RCD @-@ Goma would enter a power @-@ sharing transitional government with Joseph Kabila as interim president until elections could be held . By the end of 2002 , all uniformed Rwandan troops had left Congolese territory .
Despite the agreement and subsequent ceasefire , relations between Kagame and the Congolese government have remained tense . A 2003 United Nations report alleged that Rwanda was using demobilised soldiers to continue its illegal exploitation of Congolese minerals . Meanwhile , Kagame blamed Kabila for failing to suppress Hutu rebels in North and South Kivu provinces . Two major insurgencies have occurred in the eastern provinces : the first , from 2005 to 2009 , was led by Congolese Tutsi Laurent Nkunda , while the second , carried out by the March 23 Movement ( M23 ) under leader Bosco Ntaganda , began in 2012 ; Ntaganda gave himself up to the International Criminal Court in early 2013 , and peace talks have taken place , but as of May 2013 the conflict is at risk of resuming . Human Rights Watch alleges that both insurgencies were supported by Rwanda , a charge Kagame denies . A leaked United Nations report in 2012 also alleges Rwandan support for M23 ; this report cites Kagame 's defence minister James Kabarebe as being effectively the commander of the movement .
= = = = Uganda and East African Community = = = =
Kagame spent most of his childhood and young adult years living in Uganda , and has a personal relationship with President Yoweri Museveni dating back to the late 1970s ; they fought together in the Ugandan Bush War , and Kagame was appointed head of military intelligence in Museveni 's national army following the NRA victory in 1986 . When the RPF soldiers abandoned the Ugandan army and invaded Rwanda in 1990 , Museveni did not explicitly support them , but according to Prunier it is likely that he had prior knowledge of the plan . Museveni also allowed the RPF safe passage through Ugandan territory to the Virunga mountains after their early defeats in the war , and revealed in a 1998 heads of state meeting that Uganda had helped the RPF materially during the Rwandan Civil War . Following the RPF victory , the two countries enjoyed a close political and trade relationship .
Rwanda and Uganda were allies during the First Congo War against Zaire , with both countries being instrumental in the setting up of the AFDL and committing troops to the war . The two nations joined forces again at the beginning of the Second Congo War , but relations soured in late 1998 as Museveni and Kagame had very different priorities in fighting the war . In early 1999 , the RCD rebel group split into two , with Rwanda and Uganda supporting opposing factions , and in August the Rwandan and Ugandan armies battled each other with heavy artillery in the Congolese city of Kisangani . The two sides fought again in Kisangani in May and June 2000 , causing the deaths of 120 soldiers and around 640 Congolese civilians . Relations slowly thawed in the 2000s , and by 2011 the two countries enjoyed a close friendship once more .
In 2007 , Rwanda joined the East African Community , an intergovernmental organisation for the East Africa region comprising Uganda , Kenya , Tanzania , Burundi , and Rwanda . The country 's accession required the signing of various agreements with the other members , including a defence intelligence sharing pact , a customs union , and measures to combat drug trafficking . The countries of the Community established a common market in 2011 , and plan further integration , including moves toward political federation and a possible single currency .
= = = = France = = = =
France maintained close ties with President Habyarimana during his years in power , as part of its Françafrique policy . When the RPF launched the Rwandan Civil War in 1990 , Habyarimana was immediately granted assistance from the President of France , François Mitterrand . France sent 600 paratroopers , who effectively ran the government 's response to the invasion and were instrumental in regaining almost all territory the RPF had gained in the first days of the war . France maintained this military presence throughout the war , engaging Kagame 's RPF forces again in February 1993 during the offensive that doubled RPF territory . In the later stages of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide , France launched Opération Turquoise , a United Nations mandated mission to create safe humanitarian areas for protection of displaced persons , refugees , and civilians in danger ; many Rwandans interpreted it as a mission to protect Hutu from the RPF , including some who had participated in the genocide . The French remained hostile to the RPF , and their presence temporarily stalled Kagame 's advance in south western Rwanda .
France continued to shun the new RPF government following the end of the genocide and the withdrawal of Opération Turquoise . Diplomatic relations were finally reestablished in January 1995 , but remained tense as Rwanda accused France of aiding the genocidaires , while France defended its interventions . In 2006 , French judge Jean @-@ Louis Bruguière released a report on the assassination of President Habyarimana which concluded that Kagame had ordered the shooting of the plane . Bruguière subsequently issued arrest warrants for nine of Kagame 's close aides . Kagame denied the charges and immediately broke off diplomatic relations with France . Relations began to thaw in 2008 , and diplomacy was resumed in late 2009 . In 2010 , Nicolas Sarkozy became the first French president to visit Rwanda since the genocide , admitting for the first time that France made " grave errors of judgment " . Kagame reciprocated with an official visit to Paris in 2011 .
= = = = United States , United Kingdom and the Commonwealth = = = =
Since the end of the Rwandan Genocide in 1994 , Rwanda has enjoyed a close relationship with the English speaking world , in particular the United States ( US ) and United Kingdom ( UK ) . The two countries have been highly supportive of the RPF programme of stabilisation and rebuilding , with the UK donating large sums each year in budget support , and the US providing military aid as well as supporting development projects . As president , Kagame has been critical of the West 's lack of response to the genocide , and the UK and US have responded by admitting guilt over the issue : Bill Clinton , who was President of the United States during the genocide , has described his failure to act against the killings as a " personal failure " . During the 2000s , Clinton and UK prime minister Tony Blair praised the country 's progress under Kagame , citing it as a model recipient for international development funds , and Clinton referred to Kagame as " one of the greatest leaders of our time " . Both Clinton and Blair have maintained support for the country beyond the end of their terms of office , Clinton via the Clinton Global Initiative and Blair through his role as an unpaid advisor to the Rwandan government .
As part of his policy of maintaining close relations with English speaking countries , Kagame sought membership of the Commonwealth of Nations , which was granted in 2009 . Rwanda was only the second country , after Mozambique , to join the Commonwealth having never had colonial links to the British Empire . Kagame attended the subsequent Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Perth , Australia , addressing the Business Forum . Rwanda also successfully applied for a rotating seat on the United Nations Security Council in 2012 , taking over the presidency of that organisation in April 2013 .
Kagame 's relations with the US and UK have come under strain in the early 2010s , following allegations that Rwanda is supporting the M23 rebel movement in Eastern Congo . The UK suspended its budgetary aid programme in 2012 , freezing a £ 21 million donation . The US has also frozen some of its military aid programme for Rwanda , although it stopped short of suspending aid altogether .
= = = = China and moves toward self @-@ sufficiency = = = =
China has been investing in Rwandan infrastructure since 1971 , with early projects including hospitals in Kibungo and Masaka . Under Kagame 's presidency , trade between the two countries has grown rapidly . The volume of trade increased five @-@ fold between 2005 and 2009 , and it doubled again in the following three years , being worth US $ 160 million in 2012 . Projects completed include the renovation of the Kigali road network , funded using a Chinese government loan and undertaken by China Road and Bridge Corporation ; the Kigali City Tower , which was built by China Civil Engineering Construction ; and a pay television service operated by Star Media .
Kagame has been vocal in his praise of China and its model for relations with Africa , saying in a 2009 interview that " the Chinese bring what Africa needs : investment and money for governments and companies . " This is in contrast to Western countries , whom Kagame accuses of focussing too heavily on giving aid to the continent rather than building a trading relationship ; he also believes that they keep African products out of the world marketplace by the use of high tariffs . China does not involve itself in the domestic affairs of the countries with which it trades , hence has not followed the West in criticising Kagame 's alleged involvement in the war in the Congo .
Kagame 's ultimate goal in international relations is to shift Rwanda from a country dependent on donor aid and loans towards self @-@ sufficiency , trading with other countries on an equal footing . In a 2009 article , Kagame wrote that " the primary purpose of aid should ultimately be to work itself out " , and should therefore focus on self @-@ sufficiency and building private sector development . Kagame cited an example of donor countries providing free fertilisers to farmers ; he believes this to be wrong because it undercuts local fertiliser businesses , preventing them from growing and becoming competitive . In 2012 , Kagame launched the Agaciro Development Fund , following proposals made at a national dialogue session in 2011 . Agaciro is a solidarity fund whose goal is to provide development finance sourced within Rwanda , supplementing aid already received from overseas . The fund invites contributions from Rwandan citizens , within the country and in the diaspora , as well as private companies and " friends of Rwanda " . The fund will allocate its funds based on consultations with the populace , as well as financing projects contributing to the Vision 2020 programme .
= = Personality and public image = =
Most observers describe Kagame 's personality as one of seriousness and intelligence . Richard Grant , writing in London 's Daily Telegraph , described Kagame as radiating " a quality of intense seriousness that is both impressive and intimidating " . Roméo Dallaire , commander of the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda during the Rwandan Genocide , described Kagame as having a " studious air that didn 't quite disguise his hawk @-@ like intensity " . Kagame has a highly dominant personality , which he uses to enforce his rule and to ensure that his vision for the country is followed . American journalist Stephen Kinzer , who wrote the biography A Thousand Hills in collaboration with Kagame himself , describes him as " one of the most intriguing leaders in Africa " . Kinzer credits Kagame with leadership skills that have fostered Rwanda 's rebirth following the genocide , but also cites a personality of " chronic impatience , barely suppressed anger , and impulsive scorn for critics " . In his interview with Grant , Kagame claimed he sleeps for only four hours per night , devoting the remainder of his day to work , exercise , family , and reading academic texts and foreign newspapers .
In Rwanda , Kagame 's RPF is seen as a Tutsi @-@ dominated party , and in the years following the 1994 genocide , it was deeply unpopular with the Hutu , who constitute 85 % of the population . Approximately two million Hutu lived as refugees in neighbouring countries until 1996 , when Kagame forced them to return home . Many Hutu also supported the late 1990s cross @-@ border insurgency against Kagame by defeated forces of the former regime . By 1999 , when the RPF had weakened the insurgents and the north west became peaceful , the Hutu population became broadly supportive of Kagame . Since becoming president in 2000 , Kagame has won two disputed presidential elections with over 90 % of the vote each time . Despite criticisms over opposition repression during these elections , and accusations that the figures were inflated , Kagame does receive genuine support from the population , who credit him with ensuring continued peace , stability , and economic growth .
Kagame 's image amongst international observers is varied . Human rights organisations , including Amnesty International and Freedom House , claim that Kagame hamstrings his opposition by restricting candidacies in elections to government @-@ friendly parties , suppressing demonstrations , and arresting opposition leaders and journalists . Human Rights Watch and Freedom House have accused Kagame of using strict laws criminalising " divisionism " ( ethnic hatred ) and genocide ideology to silence his critics , to the point that Rwanda is a de facto one @-@ party state . It has praised some aspects of Kagame 's rule , such as the progress made in the delivery of justice and the abolition of the death penalty . Other progressive initiatives include supporting a UN declaration on LGBT rights , as well as the world 's highest representation of women in parliament . Kagame 's image amongst foreign leaders was very positive until the late 2000s . He was credited with ending the genocide , bringing peace and security to Rwanda , and achieving development . Since 2010 , the international community has increasingly criticised Kagame following a leaked United Nations report alleging Rwanda 's support for the rebel M23 movement in Congo . In 2012 , the United Kingdom , Germany , the Netherlands and several other countries suspended programmes of budget support to Rwanda , with many redirecting their aid to project @-@ based assistance .
Kagame promotes the Internet as a means of communication between leadership and ordinary people . In addition to his personal website , which contains a personal blog , he has accounts on Flickr , YouTube , Facebook and Twitter . In 2011 , he argued with British journalist Ian Birrell on Twitter following a tweet by Birrell about media freedom in Rwanda .
Kagame has received many honours and accolades during his presidency . These include honorary degrees from the American University of the Pacific , Oklahoma Christian University , and the University of Glasgow , the Andrew Young Medal for Capitalism and Social Progress by Georgia State University , and a Clinton Global Citizen Award . Kagame has also received the highest awards bestowed by the countries of Liberia and Benin , the Distinction of the Grand Cordon in the Most Venerable Order of the Knighthood of Pioneers , and the Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit respectively . In September 2010 , the British magazine New Statesman named Kagame one of its 50 most influential figures for that year , placing him in 49th place . The Council for East and Central Africa Football Associations football tournament has been named the Kagame Interclub Cup since 2002 , due to Kagame 's sponsorship of the event .
Emmanuel Ndahiro , a close confidant of Kagame and former chief of the National Intelligence and Security Services , has been named in the Panama Papers .
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= Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules in Australian service =
The Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) has operated a total of forty @-@ eight Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules transport aircraft . The type entered Australian service in December 1958 , when No. 36 Squadron accepted the first of twelve C @-@ 130As , replacing its venerable Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas . The acquisition made Australia the first operator of the Hercules after the United States . In 1966 the C @-@ 130As were joined by twelve C @-@ 130Es , which equipped No. 37 Squadron . The C @-@ 130As were replaced by twelve C @-@ 130Hs in 1978 , and the C @-@ 130Es by twelve C @-@ 130J Super Hercules in 1999 . No. 37 Squadron became the RAAF 's sole Hercules operator in 2006 , when No. 36 Squadron transferred its C @-@ 130Hs prior to converting to Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III heavy transports . The C @-@ 130Hs were retired in November 2012 , leaving the C @-@ 130J as the only model in Australian service .
The RAAF 's first strategic airlifter , the Hercules has frequently been used to deliver disaster relief in Australia and the Pacific region , as well as to support military deployments overseas . The aircraft saw extensive service during the Vietnam War , transporting troops and cargo to South East Asia and undertaking aeromedical evacuation . Nineteen of the RAAF 's fleet of twenty @-@ four C @-@ 130s took part in relief efforts in 1974 – 75 after Cyclone Tracy struck Darwin . Since then , the Hercules have been involved in humanitarian missions to New Guinea , Ethiopia , Rwanda , Cambodia , Bali , Sumatra , and New Zealand . They have also seen service during the Iranian Revolution in 1979 , the Fijian coups in 1987 , operations in Somalia in 1993 , INTERFET operations in East Timor in 1999 – 2000 , and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq beginning in 2001 . In over fifty years of Australian service , the Hercules have accumulated 800 @,@ 000 flying hours .
= = Acquisition = =
= = = Initial selection and purchase = = =
At the end of World War II , the RAAF 's prime transport aircraft was the twin @-@ engined Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakota . In 1946 , C @-@ 47 operations were concentrated under No. 86 Wing and its three flying squadrons , Nos. 36 , 37 , and 38 , based initially at RAAF Station Schofields , New South Wales . Despite the robustness and versatility of the Dakota , by the early 1950s the Air Force was looking for a replacement with greater cargo capacity and longer range , to better facilitate the deployment and supply of Australian forces . In 1954 , the RAAF embarked on a major re @-@ equipment drive , following a shift in defence funding that favoured the Air Force . The Air Officer Commanding Home Command , Air Vice Marshal Alister Murdoch , led a mission overseas to examine potential new fighter , bomber , transport and training aircraft .
Four British transports were considered : the Blackburn Beverley , Bristol 179B , Bristol 195 and Short PD 16 / 1 . The mission also assessed the American Fairchild C @-@ 119G Flying Boxcar , Fairchild C @-@ 123 Provider and Lockheed C @-@ 130A Hercules . Of these types , the mission assessed that the Beverly , C @-@ 123 and C @-@ 130 could potentially meet the RAAF 's requirements . Following further consideration of the options after their return to Australia , in early 1955 the members of the mission unanimously recommended that Hercules be procured , as the other two types did not meet some of the most important elements of the requirement . At this time the Australian Government was reluctant to fund any new equipment for the RAAF , and a decision to acquire twelve C @-@ 130s was not made until mid @-@ 1957 . A contract for these aircraft was signed in October that year . The Australian C @-@ 130As were to be similar to those in service with the United States Air Force ( USAF ) , the main difference being the use of TF56 @-@ A @-@ 11 engines in the place of the usual TF56 @-@ A @-@ 1 and TF56 @-@ A @-@ 9s ; these engines provided almost the same amount of power , but were modified to meet Australian fuel requirements . The total cost for the aircraft , initial crew training and support equipment was $ US 36 million ( equivalent to about 16 million Australian pounds ) .
The Hercules represented a huge improvement over the C @-@ 47 in payload , range , speed and manoeuvrability , as well as offering cabin pressurisation , short @-@ takeoff @-@ and @-@ landing capability , and bulk loading and despatch via its rear cargo door . The Government expressed concern over the price , at one stage proposing the purchase of only three aircraft , but eventually the Air Force won approval for the twelve that it wanted . Described by the official history of the post @-@ war RAAF as second only to the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C as the " most significant " acquisition by the Air Force , the Hercules gave the Australian military its first strategic airlift capability , which in years to come would provide a " lifeline " for deployments to Malaya , Vietnam , and other parts of South East Asia . Australia was the first country other than the United States to operate the Hercules . The RAAF 's C @-@ 130As were also the last of this variant to be built .
RAAF crews began training on the Hercules in the middle of 1958 at Stewart Air Force Base in Nashville , Tennessee . Much of the training took place on a simulator , augmented by approximately fifty hours flying time in the aircraft . To cope with the Hercules ' complexities , the aircrew category of flight engineer , absent from the RAAF since World War II , was reinstated . A new category , that of loadmaster , was also instituted ; airmen performing similar duties on Dakotas had done so on an ad hoc rather than a permanent basis , without a distinct category having been formalised . A specialist crew member was needed to make weight @-@ and @-@ balance calculations and oversee loading and despatch for the Hercules ' 20 @-@ tonne freight capacity ( compared to three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half tonnes in a Dakota ) and for its various cargo @-@ delivery systems . A large hangar previously used to service seaplanes at RAAF Base Rathmines was disassembled and re @-@ erected at RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales , where the C @-@ 130s would be based .
= = = Later models and upgrades = = =
A decision to purchase another twelve C @-@ 130s was announced in November 1964 . At this time the C @-@ 130As were being used to supply the Australian forces engaged in the Vietnam War . This task demonstrated that the RAAF had insufficient long @-@ ranged transport aircraft to simultaneously support overseas deployments and meet the force 's domestic requirements in Australia . As a result , the Government decided to order twelve C @-@ 130E Hercules as part of a package of acquisitions for the RAAF and Royal Australian Navy that also included ten Lockheed P @-@ 3 Orion and fourteen Grumman S @-@ 2 Tracker maritime patrol aircraft , as well as twelve Hawker Siddeley HS 748 transports . The 14 @.@ 7 @-@ million @-@ pound contract for the new C @-@ 130s was signed on 9 February 1965 . In contrast to the concerns raised by the government over the cost of purchasing the C @-@ 130As , this expansion of the Hercules force gained ready agreement , due in no small part to the benefits for the armed services , particularly the Australian Army , demonstrated by the first twelve aircraft . The long @-@ serving C @-@ 130As were replaced by new Hercules in the late 1970s ; twelve C @-@ 130Hs were ordered in June 1976 for a cost of $ A86 million , and deliveries took place between July and October 1978 .
The RAAF 's early model Hercules received several repairs and modifications during their service lives . During the early 1960s all of the C @-@ 130As were flown to the United States to receive new wing fuel tanks after the original tanks were affected by corrosion caused by tropical fungi and bacteria . Later that decade these aircraft received new panels on the upper surface of their wings after the original ones were found to be faulty . The C @-@ 130Es were also fitted with strengthened wing centre boxes in the early 1970s after equivalent USAF aircraft were found to be suffering from greater @-@ than @-@ expected wing stress during operations in Vietnam . During 1964 the C @-@ 130As received new doppler navigation systems , and the C @-@ 130Es and Hs were fitted with ring laser gyroscope inertial navigation systems from 1989 . In 1994 , four of No. 36 Squadron 's C @-@ 130Hs were equipped with Electronic Warfare Self Protection packs , including radar and missile warning systems , and counter measures such as chaff and flares . Later in the decade , one of the C @-@ 130Hs was fitted with extensive signals intelligence equipment under the classified " Project Peacemate " ; this aircraft was crewed by RAAF and Defence Signals Directorate personnel and its existence was never publicly confirmed by the Government . The modified C @-@ 130H was reported to still be active in the signals intelligence role in 2008 . The C @-@ 130Hs were also among the first Australian military aircraft to be modified to allow aircrew to operate them while wearing night vision goggles .
The Australian Government ordered twelve C @-@ 130J Super Hercules in December 1995 and deliveries began during 1999 . As part of the deal negotiated with Lockheed Martin , seven of the RAAF 's C @-@ 130Es were transferred to the company in return for a reduced price on the new aircraft . At the time the order for the twelve C @-@ 130Js was placed , the Government also took out options for a further twenty seven Super Hercules , but these were not taken up ; the options included seven airborne early warning and control and eight aerial refuelling variants , as well as up to eight transports for the Royal New Zealand Air Force . The RAAF was the first operator of this C @-@ 130 variant , which was larger than earlier models and had a crew of only three ( two pilots and a loadmaster ) eliminating the navigator and flight engineer roles employed in earlier models . The aircraft initially suffered from a range of serious mechanical and software problems as well as a shortage of spare parts , and were assessed as " experiencing significant operational shortfalls " in a 2002 Australian National Audit Office report . The Defence Science and Technology Organisation undertook considerable research into the C @-@ 130J design and developed improvements to the aircraft that addressed problems with excessive vibration . The 2009 Defence white paper Defending Australia in the Asia Pacific Century : Force 2030 called for the acquisition of two more C @-@ 130Js to partially replace the H variants . This purchase did not go ahead , as the government instead ordered a fifth Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III .
The C @-@ 130Js have been updated since entering service . All of the aircraft were fitted with radar warning receivers by the end of 2012 , and it is planned to equip the Hercules with Large Aircraft Infrared Countermeasures systems by 2016 . As of 2015 , the Hercules ' communications capabilities were also to be updated by fitting the aircraft with satellite communications equipment and the equipment necessary to allow them to use the Link 16 data exchange network . At this time the C @-@ 130s were also to be fitted with new high @-@ speed airdrop ramps at the rear of their cabin , and will be cleared to drop larger loads . The C @-@ 130J 's operating software has also been upgraded over time , leading to improved performance . The RAAF is participating in the development of further software enhancements .
In March 2015 Australian Aviation reported that , as part of the process of developing a new Defence White Paper , the Australian Government was considering purchasing two LC @-@ 130J Hercules fitted with landing skis and other equipment needed to allow the aircraft to operate in Antarctica . If acquired , these aircraft would be used to support the Australian Antarctic Division 's operations following the closure of the Wilkins Runway near Casey Station .
= = Operational service = =
= = = Introduction into service = = =
The RAAF 's twelve C @-@ 130As were picked up by their newly trained Australian pilots from the Lockheed factory at Dobbins Air Force Base , Georgia , and ferried to Australia in three groups between December 1958 and March 1959 . No. 36 Squadron , located at RAAF Base Richmond , became the first unit to operate the new aircraft . Almost immediately they established regular courier services within Australia and to RAAF Base Butterworth in Malaya . These flights primarily involved transporting cargo , as Chief of the Air Staff Frederick Scherger directed in 1959 that the RAAF would continue to rely on chartered civil airliners to move military personnel on the grounds that these aircraft were better suited to the task and in wartime all the C @-@ 130s would be needed to supply troops near the front lines . In February 1960 a Hercules flew the RAAF 's first AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder missiles from the United States to Butterworth to equip the CAC Sabre fighters based there . Crew training was rigorous , and from mid @-@ 1960 involved the use of a simulator . Only seasoned transport pilots flew the Hercules in its early years of service , generally having undertaken a tour of duty with No. 38 Squadron 's Dakotas . The official history of the post @-@ war Air Force described the Hercules as " probably the biggest step @-@ up in aircraft capabilities " the RAAF had ever received , considering it roughly four times as effective as the Dakota , taking into account the improvements in payload , range , and speed . When No. 78 ( Fighter ) Wing and its two squadrons of CAC Sabres deployed to Butterworth between October 1958 and February 1959 , seven Dakotas were required to ferry the staff and equipment of No. 3 Squadron from Australia to Malaya , compared to two Hercules for No. 77 Squadron . The Hercules were the first turboprop aircraft operated by the RAAF . They were serviced by No. 486 Maintenance Squadron , with deeper maintenance and upgrades carried out by No. 2 Aircraft Depot ( No. 2 AD ) , both units being based at Richmond . The availability of spare parts from the US caused problems early on , grounding one C @-@ 130A for almost a year .
No. 36 Squadron commenced parachute trials with the Hercules in September 1960 . Beginning in May 1962 , RAAF forces based at Ubon , Thailand , under SEATO arrangements were supplied by a regular Hercules service . In December that year , the Hercules made their first troop @-@ carrying flights into a combat zone , when one of No. 36 Squadron 's C @-@ 130s joined a Commonwealth airlift from Singapore to Borneo at the commencement of the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia ; similar missions would be undertaken for a further five years . In 1964 , the first two Dassault Mirage III fighters to be assembled in Australia were flown in pieces from France to the Government Aircraft Factory at Avalon , Victoria , by RAAF Hercules . The same year , following the entry into Australian service of the de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 4 Caribou with No. 38 Squadron , No. 486 Squadron was disbanded and its equipment and staff divided between Nos. 36 and 38 Squadrons . The RAAF 's force of twelve C @-@ 130A Hercules was augmented by twelve C @-@ 130Es commencing in February 1966 . No. 37 Squadron , disbanded in 1948 , was re @-@ formed at Richmond to operate the new models . No. 486 Squadron was also re @-@ formed to provide maintenance for both Hercules squadrons . No. 36 Squadron 's tasking was mainly domestic and tactical in nature , while No. 37 Squadron 's was overseas and strategic , owing to the longer range of its C @-@ 130Es . In May 1967 , three Hercules of No. 37 Squadron supported Operation Fast Caravan , the deployment of 23 Mirages of No. 75 Squadron to Butterworth .
= = = Vietnam War era = = =
During the late 1960s , forty @-@ two per cent of Hercules flying hours were devoted to Australian Army operations . The C @-@ 130s undertook long @-@ range missions to support Australian forces fighting in the Vietnam War from 1965 until 1972 . Following the deployment of the 1st Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment to South Vietnam in early 1965 , the RAAF began fortnightly C @-@ 130 flights into the country from June that year . These flights were initially conducted by C @-@ 130As , and carried high @-@ priority cargo and passengers from Richmond to Vung Tau in South Vietnam via either Butterworth or Singapore . The scale of the supply flights into South Vietnam expanded in 1967 when No. 2 Squadron RAAF , which was equipped with English Electric Canberra bombers , was deployed to Phan Rang . A large airlift codenamed Winter Grip was also conducted in mid @-@ 1967 to replace two Australian Army battalions , which had completed their year @-@ long tour of duty , with a pair of fresh battalions . The Hercules were called upon to support the withdrawal of the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) from South Vietnam , and Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons undertook many sorties to fly equipment and personnel out of the country during 1971 . In late 1972 , C @-@ 130s were used to withdraw the last remaining Australian force in South Vietnam , the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam ; the final elements of this force departed aboard two Hercules on 20 December 1972 .
As well as transport operations , the Hercules flew many evacuation flights out of Vietnam to transfer wounded or sick personnel to Australia , via Butterworth , for further treatment . These flights were initially conducted as part of the regular courier service , and the patients and RAAF nurses had to endure uncomfortable conditions as the aircraft had only rudimentary facilities for personnel on stretchers . Separate evacuation flights began on 1 July 1966 , and continued at fortnightly intervals until 1972 ; more flights were made during periods in which 1 ATF suffered heavy casualties . Although the operation was generally successful , only C @-@ 130Es were assigned to this task from May 1967 after an article criticising the use of noisy C @-@ 130As to transport wounded personnel was published in The Medical Journal of Australia . The C @-@ 130Es provided much more comfortable conditions and were capable of flying directly between South Vietnam and Australia when required . A total of 3 @,@ 164 patients had been transported to Australia by the time the C @-@ 130 evacuation flights ended in early 1972 . The Hercules also returned the bodies of servicemen killed in Vietnam to Australia .
Many of the RAAF 's C @-@ 130s were redeployed to South Vietnam shortly before the end of the war in 1975 . The rapid North Vietnamese advance during the Spring Offensive displaced hundreds of thousands of South Vietnamese civilians , and the Australian Government deployed a detachment of Hercules to Saigon in March 1975 as part of an international aid effort coordinated by the United States . This force , which was designated Detachment S , had an average strength of seven C @-@ 130s and about one hundred air and ground crew and was initially used to transport civilian refugees away from the front lines . After South Vietnamese soldiers were reported to have been transported alongside civilians , Prime Minister Gough Whitlam directed that the Hercules were to only carry humanitarian cargo . As the North Vietnamese advanced on Saigon , Detachment S was moved to Bangkok in Thailand , but continued to fly into South Vietnam each day . Overall , Detachment S had carried 1 @,@ 100 refugees and 900 tonnes of supplies by the end of the war . On 4 and 17 April , aircraft of the detachment flew 271 orphaned children to Bangkok as part of the US @-@ led Operation Babylift . In late April , two of No. 37 Squadron 's C @-@ 130Es were assigned to the United Nations to transport supplies throughout South East Asia ; this force was designated Detachment N. The C @-@ 130Es began operations on 3 May , and were mainly used to fly supplies into Laos . The aircraft transported cargo between Thailand , Butterworth , Hong Kong and Singapore ; by the time this mission ended in early June , the two Hercules had conducted 91 sorties for the UN . Aircraft of Detachment S evacuated Australian embassy personnel from Phnom Penh in Cambodia , as well as Saigon , shortly before they fell to Khmer Rouge and North Vietnamese forces in April 1975 , after which the force returned to Australia . Detachment N also evacuated the Australian embassy in Vientiane , Laos , during early June 1975 .
= = = Post @-@ Vietnam tasks = = =
In the years after the end of the Vietnam War , the Hercules continued to take part in military exercises and support overseas peacekeeping commitments . They also became well known in the Southern Pacific after being called on for relief following natural disasters , including tidal waves in New Guinea , cyclones in the Solomon Islands and Tonga , and fires and floods in Australia . The Hercules played a significant part in the evacuation of civilians following Cyclone Tracy in 1974 – 75 ; a No. 37 Squadron C @-@ 130E was the first aircraft to touch down in Darwin following the disaster . Eight of No. 36 Squadron 's aircraft were involved in the relief effort , flying over 550 hours , and carrying 2 @,@ 864 passengers and almost 800 @,@ 000 lbs of cargo , while No. 37 Squadron contributed 11 aircraft , flying 700 hours , and carrying 4 @,@ 400 passengers and 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 lbs of cargo . On 19 January 1978 a C @-@ 130E returning to Australia from Butterworth was used to intercept a drug @-@ smuggling aircraft near Darwin ; the smuggler eventually landed at Katherine , and was arrested . After clocking up 147 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours over the course of 20 years , No. 36 Squadron 's C @-@ 130As were replaced in 1978 by C @-@ 130H models . The C @-@ 130Hs were primarily used as tactical air lifters throughout their service with the RAAF , and worked closely with the Army 's special forces units .
The disposal of the C @-@ 130As took almost a decade , with the process being subject to a police investigation . Attempts to sell the Hercules by tender during 1978 and 1979 were unsuccessful , and the American law firm Ford and Vlahos was appointed the sales agent for the aircraft in 1981 . One was sold to the French Government in 1983 and subsequently transferred to the Chadian Air Force . Another two Hercules were sold to the Columbian charter company Aviaco in 1983 , but the US State Department vetoed the deal shortly before it was to have been completed over suspicions that the aircraft would be used to smuggle drugs into the United States . A C @-@ 130A was transferred to the newly established company International Air Aid and leased to the International Red Cross to fly humanitarian supplies into Ethiopia during 1986 , but this contract was cancelled after the C @-@ 130 's pilot was accused by the Ethiopian government of photographing a military area . The Australian Federal Police eventually charged two people with defrauding the Commonwealth and conspiracy in relation to these attempts to dispose of the C @-@ 130As . Eventually , four of the C @-@ 130As were sold to Aboitiz Air Transport Corporation in May 1988 and another four were acquired by the Fowler Aeronautical Corporation the next year . Two of the remaining three aircraft were retained by the RAAF for training and heritage purposes , and the final C @-@ 130A was scrapped .
In November 1978 , a C @-@ 130H became the first Australian Hercules to land in Antarctica , at McMurdo Sound . In January – February 1979 , two No. 37 Squadron C @-@ 130Es evacuated Australian and other foreign embassy staff from Tehran , shortly before the collapse of royal rule during the Iranian Revolution . During April 1982 , a C @-@ 130H was fitted with aerial firefighting equipment acquired from the United States Forest Service for trials purposes ; several Hercules later used this equipment to fight bushfires . On 5 April 1983 , 23 of the RAAF 's Hercules performed a formation flight over Sydney ; the remaining aircraft was to have participated in this flight but was diverted to conduct a search @-@ and @-@ rescue task . The Hercules ' twelve @-@ hour endurance and ability to drop survival equipment over land or sea made it a useful aircraft for such missions . In 1986 , No. 37 Squadron transported the Popemobiles during John Paul II 's tour of Australia ; its other unusual cargoes have included a Murray Grey stud bull presented to the Chinese Government in 1973 , kangaroos and sheep for Malaysia , and archaeological exhibits from China .
In February 1987 , Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons joined No. 33 Squadron ( flying Boeing 707 tanker @-@ transports ) as part of a re @-@ formed No. 86 Wing under the newly established Air Lift Group ( renamed Air Mobility Group in April 2014 ) . In May that year four C @-@ 130s flew a rifle company of the 1st Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , from Townsville to Norfolk Island during Operation Morris Dance , the Australian Defence Force 's response to the first of the 1987 Fijian coups ; the soldiers subsequently embarked onto Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) warships by helicopter . In 1988 , No. 37 Squadron 's Hercules achieved 200 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours . No. 36 Squadron achieved 100 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours on the C @-@ 130H in 1990 . Members of the travelling public experienced flying by Hercules in 1989 , when the Australian Government employed the C @-@ 130s and 707s for transport during the pilots ' dispute that curtailed operations by the two domestic airlines ; the resulting spike in operational hours necessitated No. 486 Squadron sending detachments to several locations throughout the country to cope with increased maintenance demands . By the late 1980s , some C @-@ 130 maintenance tasks had been outsourced to commercial firms , and Air New Zealand won a four @-@ year depot maintenance contract in 1990 .
Following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 , No. 86 Wing prepared to deploy five C @-@ 130s to the Middle East to evacuate 3 @,@ 000 Australian citizens from Saudi Arabia in the event that Iraq also attacked that country . An operation to fly about 95 Australians and New Zealanders directly out of Iraq and Kuwait was also planned , but would have only been conducted as a last resort due to the great dangers involved . These evacuation flights were not required as Iraq did not invade Saudi Arabia , and the Australians in Iraq departed by road . A proposal to deploy some of the Hercules as part of the Australia 's contribution to the ensuing Gulf War was also rejected in late 1990 as the aircraft had to be held in reserve in case fighting on the Pacific island of Bougainville worsened and required an evacuation operation . After Operation Desert Storm commenced in January 1991 , two C @-@ 130s were dispatched to the Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands in the Indian Ocean where they were held at readiness to deploy to Saudi Arabia in case Australian citizens had to be evacuated ; these aircraft moved to Singapore on 29 January and returned to Australia in early February . Other Hercules flew supplies for the RAN warships in the region from Australia to Muscat , Oman , from January 1991 , and also transported a naval Clearance Diving Team to Muscat late in the month . In 1992 , the Hercules of Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons achieved a grand total of 500 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours ; Lockheed presented No. 86 Wing with a trophy to commemorate the milestone .
The RAAF 's Hercules fleet continued to support Australian military deployments during the 1990s and 2000s . In 1993 , C @-@ 130s transported Australian troops to and from Somalia as part of Operation Solace . In late July the next year two C @-@ 130Hs flew water purifying equipment and medical supplies into Rwanda to assist the survivors of the genocide in that country . Six Hercules evacuated over 450 civilians from Cambodia following the coup in July 1997 . No. 37 Squadron re @-@ equipped with new @-@ model C @-@ 130J Hercules in 1999 ; during the transition to the new aircraft the C @-@ 130Es were operated by No. 36 Squadron before being retired . The seven C @-@ 130Es transferred to Lockheed Martin as part of the C @-@ 130J purchase agreement were subsequently sold to Pakistan in 2004 . Of these aircraft , six entered service with the Pakistan Air Force and the seventh was scrapped . The RAAF 's other five C @-@ 130Es were retained to be used for ground training and museum purposes . At the end of 1999 , No. 86 Wing ceased flying the regularly scheduled intra @-@ Australia C @-@ 130 flights that had begun in May 1959 . While these courier flights had been one of the main tasks assigned to the Hercules force since the type 's introduction , the reduction in commercial airfares during the late 1990s rendered them unnecessary .
A detachment of Hercules from Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons supported INTERFET operations in East Timor between September 1999 and February 2000 . When violence broke out following the East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum on 30 August 1999 , C @-@ 130H sorties were flown into the then @-@ Indonesian province from 6 to 14 September to evacuate United Nations personnel as well as other foreign citizens and East Timorese refugees . Four C @-@ 130E sorties were also conducted to drop food and other humanitarian supplies to refugees on 17 and 18 September . On 19 September a C @-@ 130 dropped a Special Air Service Regiment ( SAS ) team near the East Timorese capital of Dili ahead of the arrival of the main INTERFET force the next day . From 20 September , thirteen RAAF Hercules ( designated No. 86 Wing Detachment B ) and transport aircraft from several other countries flew troops and supplies into East Timor . These aircraft also dropped humanitarian supplies to refugees who had fled to mountainous regions . The poor condition of most East Timorese airfields and the potential threat of being fired upon by pro @-@ Indonesian militia were constant dangers throughout this operation . In May 2000 , heavy maintenance of the C @-@ 130s , previously carried out by No. 2 AD ( reformed as No. 503 Wing in July 1992 ) was contracted out to Qantas .
= = = Iraq War and recent operations = = =
From late 2001 , Hercules began flying into Afghanistan to support the SAS squadron deployed as part of Operation Slipper , Australia 's contribution to the War in Afghanistan . Five Hercules of Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons joined relief efforts following the Bali Bombings in October 2002 . In February 2003 , a detachment of Hercules from No. 36 Squadron was deployed to the Middle East as part of the Australian contribution to the invasion of Iraq . These aircraft arrived on 10 February , and began flying transport sorties twelve days later . The C @-@ 130s were the main form of transport used to move Australian personnel and equipment in the theatre before and after the outbreak of fighting on 19 March . During the invasion the Hercules supported SAS operations in western Iraq , one being the first Coalition aircraft to land at Al Asad Airbase after it was secured by special forces personnel on 12 April . The C @-@ 130s transported supplies and equipment to airstrips in southern Iraq to support the operations of US and British forces . As the first phase of the war wound down , Australian Hercules flew medical supplies into Baghdad shortly after the city was captured . A rotating detachment of three Hercules was subsequently maintained in the Middle East to support the ongoing Australian contribution to the War in Afghanistan , as well as the forces stationed in Iraq . The aircraft assigned to this detachment amassed a total of 20 @,@ 000 operational flying hours by March 2010 . An American contractor travelling on an Australian C @-@ 130 in Iraq was killed on 27 June 2004 when the aircraft was struck by gunfire shortly after it took off from Baghdad .
RAAF C @-@ 130s continued to support operations in and around Australia during the early 2000s . During April 2003 a C @-@ 130 formed part of the force that tracked the North Korean freighter Pong Su before it was boarded by special forces personnel off the coast of New South Wales . No. 36 Squadron Hercules took part in Operation Sumatra Assist in the wake of the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami ; the aircraft were initially used to fly supplies into the badly damaged city of Banda Aceh . Hercules flew Australian forces into East Timor during May 2006 after the government of that country requested assistance to quell a military mutiny and widespread violence . In July that year one of the C @-@ 130s deployed to the Middle East was sent to Cyprus , where it picked up Australians who had been evacuated from Lebanon following Israeli air raids and flew them to Turkey .
RAAF C @-@ 130 operations were concentrated in No. 37 Squadron in November 2006 , when No. 36 Squadron transferred its C @-@ 130Hs prior to re @-@ equipping with Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster heavy transports and relocating to RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . The RAAF 's contribution to Operation Papua New Guinea Assist following Cyclone Guba in November 2007 included two Hercules , three Caribous , and a Globemaster . In November 2008 , the RAAF commemorated fifty years of Hercules operation . From that year only C @-@ 130Js were deployed to the Middle East . Four of the C @-@ 130Hs were placed in reserve at Richmond from 2009 . Together with Globemasters , Hercules transported medical staff and equipment to aid victims of the Christchurch earthquake in February 2011 . In May 2012 the government announced as part of the 2012 – 13 Budget that the remaining eight C @-@ 130Hs would be withdrawn from service a year earlier than previously scheduled . The aircraft were retired on 30 November that year . Two of the C @-@ 130Hs were retained by the Air Force for display at RAAF Museum and for ground training purposes at Richmond ; four were donated to the Indonesian Air Force , and the RAAF was reported to be considering options for the disposal of the other six . By the time the C @-@ 130H fleet was retired , the twelve aircraft had flown almost 250 @,@ 000 hours . In April 2013 the Australian government offered to sell five of the C @-@ 130Hs as well as spare parts and simulators to Indonesia at below their market value . The Indonesian government accepted this deal , and it was finalised on 26 July 2013 . The RAAF celebrated 800 @,@ 000 Hercules flying hours in September 2014 . The C @-@ 130Js had by this time accumulated over 100 @,@ 000 hours ; they are expected to remain in service until 2030 .
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= New York State Route 217 =
New York State Route 217 ( NY 217 ) is a 6 @.@ 78 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 91 km ) long state highway in Columbia County , New York , in the United States . It connects NY 23 in Claverack to the Taconic State Parkway in Ghent by way of the village of Philmont . The majority of NY 217 is a rural highway , excluding portions near the NY 23 junction and in Philmont .
NY 217 originally extended from Mellenville to NY 22 in the town of Hillsdale when it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It was extended west to its present terminus in Claverack in the early 1930s . NY 217 was truncated westward to Harlemville in the mid @-@ 1930s , then to the Taconic Parkway in 1980 . The former routing of NY 217 is now maintained by Columbia County as County Route 21 ( CR 21 ) and County Route 21C .
= = Route description = =
NY 217 begins at an intersection with NY 23 east of the hamlet of Claverack in the town of the same name in central Columbia County . The route heads northeastward from the intersection , passing by the historic Stephen Storm House at the outskirts of Claverack hamlet and into a rural portion of the town . At an intersection with Roxbury Road , NY 217 passes the Columbia Golf and Country Club to the west and begins to parallel Claverack Creek . NY 217 intersects with CR 18 ( Fish and Game Road ) , then enters the populous hamlet of Mellenville .
In the center of Mellenville , NY 217 intersects with CR 9 ( Mellenville Road ) , with NY 217 serving as CR 9 's southern terminus . NY 217 then heads southeast , crossing Claverack Creek and passing Mellenville Union Cemetery to the north as well as the adjacent Claverack Town Park . The route turns eastward and meets the northern terminus of Roxbury Road as it enters the village of Philmont . Within Philmont , NY 217 follows Main Street through the center of the densely populated village . At an intersection with Maple Street , the highway comes within view of Summit Lake , a small water body in the center of Philmont . Past the lake , NY 217 turns northeast once more and intersects with CR 11 ( Martindale Road ) as it leaves the village .
After Philmont , NY 217 progresses its way northeastward , with the highway winding its way through a mixture of dense woods and open fields . Shortly after crossing into the town of Ghent , the route turns eastward and the woods around the highway begin to cease . Here , NY 217 meets the Taconic State Parkway by way of a parclo interchange . About 800 feet ( 240 m ) after the interchange , maintenance of the highway shifts from the New York State Department of Transportation to Columbia County , and the designation changes accordingly from NY 217 to CR 21C .
= = History = =
The north – south roadway connecting the hamlets of Claverack and Mellenville ( both located within the town of Claverack ) was originally designated as the southernmost part of NY 66 in the mid @-@ 1920s . A connector between NY 66 in Mellenville and NY 22 in North Hillsdale via Philmont was designated as NY 217 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 66 was rerouted south of the hamlet of Ghent c . 1933 to follow its modern alignment to the city of Hudson . NY 217 was then extended southwestward along NY 66 's former alignment to NY 23 east of Claverack .
NY 217 was truncated on its eastern end to Harlemville c . 1935 . On April 1 , 1980 , NY 217 was truncated again , this time to its interchange with the Taconic State Parkway , as a result of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and Columbia County . The former routing of NY 217 from Harlemville to North Hillsdale is now CR 21 while the portion from the Taconic Parkway to Harlemville is designated as CR 21C .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Columbia County .
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= DNA repair =
DNA repair is a collection of processes by which a cell identifies and corrects damage to the DNA molecules that encode its genome . In human cells , both normal metabolic activities and environmental factors such as radiation can cause DNA damage , resulting in as many as 1 million individual molecular lesions per cell per day . Many of these lesions cause structural damage to the DNA molecule and can alter or eliminate the cell 's ability to transcribe the gene that the affected DNA encodes . Other lesions induce potentially harmful mutations in the cell 's genome , which affect the survival of its daughter cells after it undergoes mitosis . As a consequence , the DNA repair process is constantly active as it responds to damage in the DNA structure . When normal repair processes fail , and when cellular apoptosis does not occur , irreparable DNA damage may occur , including double @-@ strand breaks and DNA crosslinkages ( interstrand crosslinks or ICLs ) . This can eventually lead to malignant tumors , or cancer as per the two hit hypothesis .
The rate of DNA repair is dependent on many factors , including the cell type , the age of the cell , and the extracellular environment . A cell that has accumulated a large amount of DNA damage , or one that no longer effectively repairs damage incurred to its DNA , can enter one of three possible states :
an irreversible state of dormancy , known as senescence
cell suicide , also known as apoptosis or programmed cell death
unregulated cell division , which can lead to the formation of a tumor that is cancerous
The DNA repair ability of a cell is vital to the integrity of its genome and thus to the normal functionality of that organism . Many genes that were initially shown to influence life span have turned out to be involved in DNA damage repair and protection .
The 2015 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Tomas Lindahl , Paul Modrich , and Aziz Sancar for their work on the molecular mechanisms of DNA repair processes .
= = DNA damage = =
DNA damage , due to environmental factors and normal metabolic processes inside the cell , occurs at a rate of 10 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 molecular lesions per cell per day . While this constitutes only 0 @.@ 000165 % of the human genome 's approximately 6 billion bases ( 3 billion base pairs ) , unrepaired lesions in critical genes ( such as tumor suppressor genes ) can impede a cell 's ability to carry out its function and appreciably increase the likelihood of tumor formation and contribute to tumour heterogeneity .
The vast majority of DNA damage affects the primary structure of the double helix ; that is , the bases themselves are chemically modified . These modifications can in turn disrupt the molecules ' regular helical structure by introducing non @-@ native chemical bonds or bulky adducts that do not fit in the standard double helix . Unlike proteins and RNA , DNA usually lacks tertiary structure and therefore damage or disturbance does not occur at that level . DNA is , however , supercoiled and wound around " packaging " proteins called histones ( in eukaryotes ) , and both superstructures are vulnerable to the effects of DNA damage .
= = = Types of damage = = =
There are several types of damage to DNA due to endogenous cellular processes :
oxidation of bases [ e.g. 8 @-@ oxo @-@ 7 @,@ 8 @-@ dihydroguanine ( 8 @-@ oxoG ) ] and generation of DNA strand interruptions from reactive oxygen species ,
alkylation of bases ( usually methylation ) , such as formation of 7 @-@ methylguanosine , 1 @-@ methyladenine , 6 @-@ O @-@ Methylguanine
hydrolysis of bases , such as deamination , depurination , and depyrimidination .
" bulky adduct formation " ( i.e. , benzo [ a ] pyrene diol epoxide @-@ dG adduct , aristolactam I @-@ dA adduct )
mismatch of bases , due to errors in DNA replication , in which the wrong DNA base is stitched into place in a newly forming DNA strand , or a DNA base is skipped over or mistakenly inserted .
Monoadduct damage cause by change in single nitrogenous base of DNA
Diadduct damage
Damage caused by exogenous agents comes in many forms . Some examples are :
UV @-@ B light causes crosslinking between adjacent cytosine and thymine bases creating pyrimidine dimers . This is called direct DNA damage .
UV @-@ A light creates mostly free radicals . The damage caused by free radicals is called indirect DNA damage .
Ionizing radiation such as that created by radioactive decay or in cosmic rays causes breaks in DNA strands . Intermediate @-@ level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage ( leading to replicational and transcriptional errors needed for neoplasia or may trigger viral interactions ) leading to pre @-@ mature aging and cancer .
Thermal disruption at elevated temperature increases the rate of depurination ( loss of purine bases from the DNA backbone ) and single @-@ strand breaks . For example , hydrolytic depurination is seen in the thermophilic bacteria , which grow in hot springs at 40 @-@ 80 ° C. The rate of depurination ( 300 purine residues per genome per generation ) is too high in these species to be repaired by normal repair machinery , hence a possibility of an adaptive response cannot be ruled out .
Industrial chemicals such as vinyl chloride and hydrogen peroxide , and environmental chemicals such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons found in smoke , soot and tar create a huge diversity of DNA adducts- ethenobases , oxidized bases , alkylated phosphotriesters and crosslinking of DNA , just to name a few .
UV damage , alkylation / methylation , X @-@ ray damage and oxidative damage are examples of induced damage . Spontaneous damage can include the loss of a base , deamination , sugar ring puckering and tautomeric shift .
= = = Nuclear versus mitochondrial DNA damage = = =
In human cells , and eukaryotic cells in general , DNA is found in two cellular locations — inside the nucleus and inside the mitochondria . Nuclear DNA ( nDNA ) exists as chromatin during non @-@ replicative stages of the cell cycle and is condensed into aggregate structures known as chromosomes during cell division . In either state the DNA is highly compacted and wound up around bead @-@ like proteins called histones . Whenever a cell needs to express the genetic information encoded in its nDNA the required chromosomal region is unravelled , genes located therein are expressed , and then the region is condensed back to its resting conformation . Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ) is located inside mitochondria organelles , exists in multiple copies , and is also tightly associated with a number of proteins to form a complex known as the nucleoid . Inside mitochondria , reactive oxygen species ( ROS ) , or free radicals , byproducts of the constant production of adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) via oxidative phosphorylation , create a highly oxidative environment that is known to damage mtDNA . A critical enzyme in counteracting the toxicity of these species is superoxide dismutase , which is present in both the mitochondria and cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells .
= = = Senescence and apoptosis = = =
Senescence , an irreversible process in which the cell no longer divides , is a protective response to the shortening of the chromosome ends . The telomeres are long regions of repetitive noncoding DNA that cap chromosomes and undergo partial degradation each time a cell undergoes division ( see Hayflick limit ) . In contrast , quiescence is a reversible state of cellular dormancy that is unrelated to genome damage ( see cell cycle ) . Senescence in cells may serve as a functional alternative to apoptosis in cases where the physical presence of a cell for spatial reasons is required by the organism , which serves as a " last resort " mechanism to prevent a cell with damaged DNA from replicating inappropriately in the absence of pro @-@ growth cellular signaling . Unregulated cell division can lead to the formation of a tumor ( see cancer ) , which is potentially lethal to an organism . Therefore , the induction of senescence and apoptosis is considered to be part of a strategy of protection against cancer .
= = = DNA damage and mutation = = =
It is important to distinguish between DNA damage and mutation , the two major types of error in DNA . DNA damages and mutation are fundamentally different . Damages are physical abnormalities in the DNA , such as single- and double @-@ strand breaks , 8 @-@ hydroxydeoxyguanosine residues , and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon adducts . DNA damages can be recognized by enzymes , and , thus , they can be correctly repaired if redundant information , such as the undamaged sequence in the complementary DNA strand or in a homologous chromosome , is available for copying . If a cell retains DNA damage , transcription of a gene can be prevented , and , thus , translation into a protein will also be blocked . Replication may also be blocked or the cell may die .
In contrast to DNA damage , a mutation is a change in the base sequence of the DNA . A mutation cannot be recognized by enzymes once the base change is present in both DNA strands , and , thus , a mutation cannot be repaired . At the cellular level , mutations can cause alterations in protein function and regulation . Mutations are replicated when the cell replicates . In a population of cells , mutant cells will increase or decrease in frequency according to the effects of the mutation on the ability of the cell to survive and reproduce . Although distinctly different from each other , DNA damages and mutations are related because DNA damages often cause errors of DNA synthesis during replication or repair ; these errors are a major source of mutation .
Given these properties of DNA damage and mutation , it can be seen that DNA damages are a special problem in non @-@ dividing or slowly dividing cells , where unrepaired damages will tend to accumulate over time . On the other hand , in rapidly dividing cells , unrepaired DNA damages that do not kill the cell by blocking replication will tend to cause replication errors and thus mutation . The great majority of mutations that are not neutral in their effect are deleterious to a cell 's survival . Thus , in a population of cells composing a tissue with replicating cells , mutant cells will tend to be lost . However , infrequent mutations that provide a survival advantage will tend to clonally expand at the expense of neighboring cells in the tissue . This advantage to the cell is disadvantageous to the whole organism , because such mutant cells can give rise to cancer . Thus , DNA damages in frequently dividing cells , because they give rise to mutations , are a prominent cause of cancer . In contrast , DNA damages in infrequently dividing cells are likely a prominent cause of aging .
= = DNA repair mechanisms = =
Cells cannot function if DNA damage corrupts the integrity and accessibility of essential information in the genome ( but cells remain superficially functional when non @-@ essential genes are missing or damaged ) . Depending on the type of damage inflicted on the DNA 's double helical structure , a variety of repair strategies have evolved to restore lost information . If possible , cells use the unmodified complementary strand of the DNA or the sister chromatid as a template to recover the original information . Without access to a template , cells use an error @-@ prone recovery mechanism known as translesion synthesis as a last resort .
Damage to DNA alters the spatial configuration of the helix , and such alterations can be detected by the cell . Once damage is localized , specific DNA repair molecules bind at or near the site of damage , inducing other molecules to bind and form a complex that enables the actual repair to take place .
= = = Direct reversal = = =
Cells are known to eliminate three types of damage to their DNA by chemically reversing it . These mechanisms do not require a template , since the types of damage they counteract can occur in only one of the four bases . Such direct reversal mechanisms are specific to the type of damage incurred and do not involve breakage of the phosphodiester backbone . The formation of pyrimidine dimers upon irradiation with UV light results in an abnormal covalent bond between adjacent pyrimidine bases . The photoreactivation process directly reverses this damage by the action of the enzyme photolyase , whose activation is obligately dependent on energy absorbed from blue / UV light ( 300 – 500 nm wavelength ) to promote catalysis . Photolyase , an old enzyme present in bacteria , fungi , and most animals no longer functions in humans , who instead use nucleotide excision repair to repair damage from UV irradiation . Another type of damage , methylation of guanine bases , is directly reversed by the protein methyl guanine methyl transferase ( MGMT ) , the bacterial equivalent of which is called ogt . This is an expensive process because each MGMT molecule can be used only once ; that is , the reaction is stoichiometric rather than catalytic . A generalized response to methylating agents in bacteria is known as the adaptive response and confers a level of resistance to alkylating agents upon sustained exposure by upregulation of alkylation repair enzymes . The third type of DNA damage reversed by cells is certain methylation of the bases cytosine and adenine .
= = = Single @-@ strand damage = = =
When only one of the two strands of a double helix has a defect , the other strand can be used as a template to guide the correction of the damaged strand . In order to repair damage to one of the two paired molecules of DNA , there exist a number of excision repair mechanisms that remove the damaged nucleotide and replace it with an undamaged nucleotide complementary to that found in the undamaged DNA strand .
Base excision repair ( BER ) repairs damage to a single nitrogenous base by deploying enzymes called glycosylases . These enzymes remove a single nitrogenous base to create an apurinic or apyrimidinic site ( AP site ) . Enzymes called AP endonucleases nick the damaged DNA backbone at the AP site . DNA polymerase then removes the damaged region using its 5 ’ to 3 ’ exonuclease activity and correctly synthesizes the new strand using the complementary strand as a template .
Nucleotide excision repair ( NER ) repairs damaged DNA which commonly consists of bulky , helix @-@ distorting damage , such as pyrimidine dimerization caused by UV light . Damaged regions are removed in 12 @-@ 24 nucleotide @-@ long strands in a three @-@ step process which consists of recognition of damage , excision of damaged DNA both upstream and downstream of damage by endonucleases , and resynthesis of removed DNA region . NER is a highly evolutionarily conserved repair mechanism and is used in nearly all eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells . In prokaryotes , NER is mediated by Uvr proteins . In eukaryotes , many more proteins are involved , although the general strategy is the same .
Mismatch repair systems are present in essentially all cells to correct errors that are not corrected by proofreading . These systems consist of at least two proteins . One detects the mismatch , and the other recruits an endonuclease that cleaves the newly synthesized DNA strand close to the region of damage . In E. coli , the proteins involved are the Mut class proteins . This is followed by removal of damaged region by an exonuclease , resynthesis by DNA polymerase , and nick sealing by DNA ligase .
= = = Double @-@ strand breaks = = =
Double @-@ strand breaks , in which both strands in the double helix are severed , are particularly hazardous to the cell because they can lead to genome rearrangements . Three mechanisms exist to repair double @-@ strand breaks ( DSBs ) : non @-@ homologous end joining ( NHEJ ) , microhomology @-@ mediated end joining ( MMEJ ) , and homologous recombination . PVN Acharya noted that double @-@ strand breaks and a " cross @-@ linkage joining both strands at the same point is irreparable because neither strand can then serve as a template for repair . The cell will die in the next mitosis or in some rare instances , mutate . "
In NHEJ , DNA Ligase IV , a specialized DNA ligase that forms a complex with the cofactor XRCC4 , directly joins the two ends . To guide accurate repair , NHEJ relies on short homologous sequences called microhomologies present on the single @-@ stranded tails of the DNA ends to be joined . If these overhangs are compatible , repair is usually accurate . NHEJ can also introduce mutations during repair . Loss of damaged nucleotides at the break site can lead to deletions , and joining of nonmatching termini forms insertions or translocations . NHEJ is especially important before the cell has replicated its DNA , since there is no template available for repair by homologous recombination . There are " backup " NHEJ pathways in higher eukaryotes . Besides its role as a genome caretaker , NHEJ is required for joining hairpin @-@ capped double @-@ strand breaks induced during V ( D ) J recombination , the process that generates diversity in B @-@ cell and T @-@ cell receptors in the vertebrate immune system .
MMEJ starts with short @-@ range end resection by MRE11 nuclease on either side of a double @-@ strand break to reveal microhomology regions . In further steps , PARP1 is required and may be an early step in MMEJ . There is pairing of microhomology regions followed by recruitment of flap structure @-@ specific endonuclease 1 ( FEN1 ) to remove overhanging flaps . This is followed by recruitment of XRCC1 – LIG3 to the site for ligating the DNA ends , leading to an intact DNA .
DNA double strand breaks in mammalian cells are primarily repaired by homologous recombination ( HR ) and non @-@ homologous end joining ( NHEJ ) . In an in vitro system , MMEJ occurred in mammalian cells at the levels of 10 – 20 % of HR when both HR and NHEJ mechanisms were also available . MMEJ is always accompanied by a deletion , so that MMEJ is a mutagenic pathway for DNA repair .
Homologous recombination requires the presence of an identical or nearly identical sequence to be used as a template for repair of the break . The enzymatic machinery responsible for this repair process is nearly identical to the machinery responsible for chromosomal crossover during meiosis . This pathway allows a damaged chromosome to be repaired using a sister chromatid ( available in G2 after DNA replication ) or a homologous chromosome as a template . DSBs caused by the replication machinery attempting to synthesize across a single @-@ strand break or unrepaired lesion cause collapse of the replication fork and are typically repaired by recombination .
Topoisomerases introduce both single- and double @-@ strand breaks in the course of changing the DNA 's state of supercoiling , which is especially common in regions near an open replication fork . Such breaks are not considered DNA damage because they are a natural intermediate in the topoisomerase biochemical mechanism and are immediately repaired by the enzymes that created them .
A team of French researchers bombarded Deinococcus radiodurans to study the mechanism of double @-@ strand break DNA repair in that bacterium . At least two copies of the genome , with random DNA breaks , can form DNA fragments through annealing . Partially overlapping fragments are then used for synthesis of homologous regions through a moving D @-@ loop that can continue extension until they find complementary partner strands . In the final step there is crossover by means of RecA @-@ dependent homologous recombination .
= = = Translesion synthesis = = =
Translesion synthesis ( TLS ) is a DNA damage tolerance process that allows the DNA replication machinery to replicate past DNA lesions such as thymine dimers or AP sites . It involves switching out regular DNA polymerases for specialized translesion polymerases ( i.e. DNA polymerase IV or V , from the Y Polymerase family ) , often with larger active sites that can facilitate the insertion of bases opposite damaged nucleotides . The polymerase switching is thought to be mediated by , among other factors , the post @-@ translational modification of the replication processivity factor PCNA . Translesion synthesis polymerases often have low fidelity ( high propensity to insert wrong bases ) on undamaged templates relative to regular polymerases . However , many are extremely efficient at inserting correct bases opposite specific types of damage . For example , Pol η mediates error @-@ free bypass of lesions induced by UV irradiation , whereas Pol ι introduces mutations at these sites . Pol η is known to add the first adenine across the T ^ T photodimer using Watson @-@ Crick base pairing and the second adenine will be added in its syn conformation using Hoogsteen base pairing . From a cellular perspective , risking the introduction of point mutations during translesion synthesis may be preferable to resorting to more drastic mechanisms of DNA repair , which may cause gross chromosomal aberrations or cell death . In short , the process involves specialized polymerases either bypassing or repairing lesions at locations of stalled DNA replication . For example , Human DNA polymerase eta can bypass complex DNA lesions like guanine @-@ thymine intra @-@ strand crosslink , G [ 8 @,@ 5 @-@ Me ] T , although can cause targeted and semi @-@ targeted mutations . Paromita Raychaudhury and Ashis Basu studied the toxicity and mutagenesis of the same lesion in Escherichia coli by replicating a G [ 8 @,@ 5 @-@ Me ] T @-@ modified plasmid in E. coli with specific DNA polymerase knockouts . Viability was very low in a strain lacking pol II , pol IV , and pol V , the three SOS @-@ inducible DNA polymerases , indicating that translesion synthesis is conducted primarily by these specialized DNA polymerases . A bypass platform is provided to these polymerases by Proliferating cell nuclear antigen ( PCNA ) . Under normal circumstances , PCNA bound to polymerases replicates the DNA . At a site of lesion , PCNA is ubiquitinated , or modified , by the RAD6 / RAD18 proteins to provide a platform for the specialized polymerases to bypass the lesion and resume DNA replication . After translesion synthesis , extension is required . This extension can be carried out by a replicative polymerase if the TLS is error @-@ free , as in the case of Pol η , yet if TLS results in a mismatch , a specialized polymerase is needed to extend it ; Pol ζ . Pol ζ is unique in that it can extend terminal mismatches , whereas more processive polymerases cannot . So when a lesion is encountered , the replication fork will stall , PCNA will switch from a processive polymerase to a TLS polymerase such as Pol ι to fix the lesion , then PCNA may switch to Pol ζ to extend the mismatch , and last PCNA will switch to the processive polymerase to continue replication .
= = Global response to DNA damage = =
Cells exposed to ionizing radiation , ultraviolet light or chemicals are prone to acquire multiple sites of bulky DNA lesions and double @-@ strand breaks . Moreover , DNA damaging agents can damage other biomolecules such as proteins , carbohydrates , lipids , and RNA . The accumulation of damage , to be specific , double @-@ strand breaks or adducts stalling the replication forks , are among known stimulation signals for a global response to DNA damage . The global response to damage is an act directed toward the cells ' own preservation and triggers multiple pathways of macromolecular repair , lesion bypass , tolerance , or apoptosis . The common features of global response are induction of multiple genes , cell cycle arrest , and inhibition of cell division .
= = = DNA damage checkpoints = = =
After DNA damage , cell cycle checkpoints are activated . Checkpoint activation pauses the cell cycle and gives the cell time to repair the damage before continuing to divide . DNA damage checkpoints occur at the G1 / S and G2 / M boundaries . An intra @-@ S checkpoint also exists . Checkpoint activation is controlled by two master kinases , ATM and ATR . ATM responds to DNA double @-@ strand breaks and disruptions in chromatin structure , whereas ATR primarily responds to stalled replication forks . These kinases phosphorylate downstream targets in a signal transduction cascade , eventually leading to cell cycle arrest . A class of checkpoint mediator proteins including BRCA1 , MDC1 , and 53BP1 has also been identified . These proteins seem to be required for transmitting the checkpoint activation signal to downstream proteins .
DNA damage checkpoint is a signal transduction pathway that blocks cell cycle progression in G1 , G2 and metaphase and slows down the rate of S phase progression when DNA is damaged . It leads to a pause in cell cycle allowing the cell time to repair the damage before continuing to divide .
Checkpoint Proteins can be separated into four groups : phosphatidylinositol 3 @-@ kinase ( PI3K ) -like protein kinase , proliferating cell nuclear antigen ( PCNA ) -like group , two serine / threonine ( S / T ) kinases and their adaptors . Central to all DNA damage induced checkpoints responses is a pair of large protein kinases belonging to the first group of PI3K @-@ like protein kinases @-@ the ATM ( Ataxia telangiectasia mutated ) and ATR ( Ataxia- and Rad @-@ related ) kinases , whose sequence and functions have been well conserved in evolution . All DNA damage response requires either ATM or ATR because they have the ability to bind to the chromosomes at the site of DNA damage , together with accessory proteins that are platforms on which DNA damage response components and DNA repair complexes can be assembled .
An important downstream target of ATM and ATR is p53 , as it is required for inducing apoptosis following DNA damage . The cyclin @-@ dependent kinase inhibitor p21 is induced by both p53 @-@ dependent and p53 @-@ independent mechanisms and can arrest the cell cycle at the G1 / S and G2 / M checkpoints by deactivating cyclin / cyclin @-@ dependent kinase complexes .
= = = The prokaryotic SOS response = = =
The SOS response is the changes in gene expression in Escherichia coli and other bacteria in response to extensive DNA damage . The prokaryotic SOS system is regulated by two key proteins : LexA and RecA . The LexA homodimer is a transcriptional repressor that binds to operator sequences commonly referred to as SOS boxes . In Escherichia coli it is known that LexA regulates transcription of approximately 48 genes including the lexA and recA genes . The SOS response is known to be widespread in the Bacteria domain , but it is mostly absent in some bacterial phyla , like the Spirochetes . The most common cellular signals activating the SOS response are regions of single @-@ stranded DNA ( ssDNA ) , arising from stalled replication forks or double @-@ strand breaks , which are processed by DNA helicase to separate the two DNA strands . In the initiation step , RecA protein binds to ssDNA in an ATP hydrolysis driven reaction creating RecA – ssDNA filaments . RecA – ssDNA filaments activate LexA autoprotease activity , which ultimately leads to cleavage of LexA dimer and subsequent LexA degradation . The loss of LexA repressor induces transcription of the SOS genes and allows for further signal induction , inhibition of cell division and an increase in levels of proteins responsible for damage processing .
In Escherichia coli , SOS boxes are 20 @-@ nucleotide long sequences near promoters with palindromic structure and a high degree of sequence conservation . In other classes and phyla , the sequence of SOS boxes varies considerably , with different length and composition , but it is always highly conserved and one of the strongest short signals in the genome . The high information content of SOS boxes permits differential binding of LexA to different promoters and allows for timing of the SOS response . The lesion repair genes are induced at the beginning of SOS response . The error @-@ prone translesion polymerases , for example , UmuCD ' 2 ( also called DNA polymerase V ) , are induced later on as a last resort . Once the DNA damage is repaired or bypassed using polymerases or through recombination , the amount of single @-@ stranded DNA in cells is decreased , lowering the amounts of RecA filaments decreases cleavage activity of LexA homodimer , which then binds to the SOS boxes near promoters and restores normal gene expression .
= = = Eukaryotic transcriptional responses to DNA damage = = =
Eukaryotic cells exposed to DNA damaging agents also activate important defensive pathways by inducing multiple proteins involved in DNA repair , cell cycle checkpoint control , protein trafficking and degradation . Such genome wide transcriptional response is very complex and tightly regulated , thus allowing coordinated global response to damage . Exposure of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to DNA damaging agents results in overlapping but distinct transcriptional profiles . Similarities to environmental shock response indicates that a general global stress response pathway exist at the level of transcriptional activation . In contrast , different human cell types respond to damage differently indicating an absence of a common global response . The probable explanation for this difference between yeast and human cells may be in the heterogeneity of mammalian cells . In an animal different types of cells are distributed among different organs that have evolved different sensitivities to DNA damage .
In general global response to DNA damage involves expression of multiple genes responsible for postreplication repair , homologous recombination , nucleotide excision repair , DNA damage checkpoint , global transcriptional activation , genes controlling mRNA decay , and many others . A large amount of damage to a cell leaves it with an important decision : undergo apoptosis and die , or survive at the cost of living with a modified genome . An increase in tolerance to damage can lead to an increased rate of survival that will allow a greater accumulation of mutations . Yeast Rev1 and human polymerase η are members of [ Y family translesion DNA polymerases present during global response to DNA damage and are responsible for enhanced mutagenesis during a global response to DNA damage in eukaryotes .
= = DNA repair and aging = =
= = = Pathological effects of poor DNA repair = = =
Experimental animals with genetic deficiencies in DNA repair often show decreased life span and increased cancer incidence . For example , mice deficient in the dominant NHEJ pathway and in telomere maintenance mechanisms get lymphoma and infections more often , and , as a consequence , have shorter lifespans than wild @-@ type mice . In similar manner , mice deficient in a key repair and transcription protein that unwinds DNA helices have premature onset of aging @-@ related diseases and consequent shortening of lifespan . However , not every DNA repair deficiency creates exactly the predicted effects ; mice deficient in the NER pathway exhibited shortened life span without correspondingly higher rates of mutation .
If the rate of DNA damage exceeds the capacity of the cell to repair it , the accumulation of errors can overwhelm the cell and result in early senescence , apoptosis , or cancer . Inherited diseases associated with faulty DNA repair functioning result in premature aging , increased sensitivity to carcinogens , and correspondingly increased cancer risk ( see below ) . On the other hand , organisms with enhanced DNA repair systems , such as Deinococcus radiodurans , the most radiation @-@ resistant known organism , exhibit remarkable resistance to the double @-@ strand break @-@ inducing effects of radioactivity , likely due to enhanced efficiency of DNA repair and especially NHEJ .
= = = Longevity and caloric restriction = = =
A number of individual genes have been identified as influencing variations in life span within a population of organisms . The effects of these genes is strongly dependent on the environment , in particular , on the organism 's diet . Caloric restriction reproducibly results in extended lifespan in a variety of organisms , likely via nutrient sensing pathways and decreased metabolic rate . The molecular mechanisms by which such restriction results in lengthened lifespan are as yet unclear ( see for some discussion ) ; however , the behavior of many genes known to be involved in DNA repair is altered under conditions of caloric restriction .
For example , increasing the gene dosage of the gene SIR @-@ 2 , which regulates DNA packaging in the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans , can significantly extend lifespan . The mammalian homolog of SIR @-@ 2 is known to induce downstream DNA repair factors involved in NHEJ , an activity that is especially promoted under conditions of caloric restriction . Caloric restriction has been closely linked to the rate of base excision repair in the nuclear DNA of rodents , although similar effects have not been observed in mitochondrial DNA .
It is interesting to note that the C. elegans gene AGE @-@ 1 , an upstream effector of DNA repair pathways , confers dramatically extended life span under free @-@ feeding conditions but leads to a decrease in reproductive fitness under conditions of caloric restriction . This observation supports the pleiotropy theory of the biological origins of aging , which suggests that genes conferring a large survival advantage early in life will be selected for even if they carry a corresponding disadvantage late in life .
= = Medicine and DNA repair modulation = =
= = = Hereditary DNA repair disorders = = =
Defects in the NER mechanism are responsible for several genetic disorders , including :
Xeroderma pigmentosum : hypersensitivity to sunlight / UV , resulting in increased skin cancer incidence and premature aging
Cockayne syndrome : hypersensitivity to UV and chemical agents
Trichothiodystrophy : sensitive skin , brittle hair and nails
Mental retardation often accompanies the latter two disorders , suggesting increased vulnerability of developmental neurons .
Other DNA repair disorders include :
Werner 's syndrome : premature aging and retarded growth
Bloom 's syndrome : sunlight hypersensitivity , high incidence of malignancies ( especially leukemias ) .
Ataxia telangiectasia : sensitivity to ionizing radiation and some chemical agents
All of the above diseases are often called " segmental progerias " ( " accelerated aging diseases " ) because their victims appear elderly and suffer from aging @-@ related diseases at an abnormally young age , while not manifesting all the symptoms of old age .
Other diseases associated with reduced DNA repair function include Fanconi anemia , hereditary breast cancer and hereditary colon cancer .
= = DNA repair and cancer = =
Because of inherent limitations in the DNA repair mechanisms , if humans lived long enough , they would all eventually develop cancer . There are at least 34 Inherited human DNA repair gene mutations that increase cancer risk . Many of these mutations cause DNA repair to be less effective than normal . In particular , Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer ( HNPCC ) is strongly associated with specific mutations in the DNA mismatch repair pathway . BRCA1 and BRCA2 , two famous genes whose mutations confer a hugely increased risk of breast cancer on carriers , are both associated with a large number of DNA repair pathways , especially NHEJ and homologous recombination .
Cancer therapy procedures such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy work by overwhelming the capacity of the cell to repair DNA damage , resulting in cell death . Cells that are most rapidly dividing — most typically cancer cells — are preferentially affected . The side @-@ effect is that other non @-@ cancerous but rapidly dividing cells such as progenitor cells in the gut , skin , and hematopoietic system are also affected . Modern cancer treatments attempt to localize the DNA damage to cells and tissues only associated with cancer , either by physical means ( concentrating the therapeutic agent in the region of the tumor ) or by biochemical means ( exploiting a feature unique to cancer cells in the body ) .
= = = Epigenetic DNA repair defects in cancer = = =
Classically , cancer has been viewed as a set of diseases that are driven by progressive genetic abnormalities that include mutations in tumour @-@ suppressor genes and oncogenes , and chromosomal aberrations . However , it has become apparent that cancer is also driven by epigenetic alterations .
Epigenetic alterations refer to functionally relevant modifications to the genome that do not involve a change in the nucleotide sequence . Examples of such modifications are changes in DNA methylation ( hypermethylation and hypomethylation ) and histone modification , changes in chromosomal architecture ( caused by inappropriate expression of proteins such as HMGA2 or HMGA1 ) and changes caused by microRNAs . Each of these epigenetic alterations serves to regulate gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence . These changes usually remain through cell divisions , last for multiple cell generations , and can be considered to be epimutations ( equivalent to mutations ) .
While large numbers of epigenetic alterations are found in cancers , the epigenetic alterations in DNA repair genes , causing reduced expression of DNA repair proteins , appear to be particularly important . Such alterations are thought to occur early in progression to cancer and to be a likely cause of the genetic instability characteristic of cancers .
Reduced expression of DNA repair genes causes deficient DNA repair . When DNA repair is deficient DNA damages remain in cells at a higher than usual level and these excess damages cause increased frequencies of mutation or epimutation . Mutation rates increase substantially in cells defective in DNA mismatch repair or in homologous recombinational repair ( HRR ) . Chromosomal rearrangements and aneuploidy also increase in HRR defective cells .
Higher levels of DNA damage not only cause increased mutation , but also cause increased epimutation . During repair of DNA double strand breaks , or repair of other DNA damages , incompletely cleared sites of repair can cause epigenetic gene silencing .
Deficient expression of DNA repair proteins due to an inherited mutation can cause increased risk of cancer . Individuals with an inherited impairment in any of 34 DNA repair genes ( see article DNA repair @-@ deficiency disorder ) have an increased risk of cancer , with some defects causing up to a 100 % lifetime chance of cancer ( e.g. p53 mutations ) . However , such germline mutations ( which cause highly penetrant cancer syndromes ) are the cause of only about 1 percent of cancers .
= = = Frequencies of epimutations in DNA repair genes = = =
Deficiencies in DNA repair enzymes are occasionally caused by a newly arising somatic mutation in a DNA repair gene , but are much more frequently caused by epigenetic alterations that reduce or silence expression of DNA repair genes . For example , when 113 colorectal cancers were examined in sequence , only four had a missense mutation in the DNA repair gene MGMT , while the majority had reduced MGMT expression due to methylation of the MGMT promoter region ( an epigenetic alteration ) . Five different studies found that between 40 % and 90 % of colorectal cancers have reduced MGMT expression due to methylation of the MGMT promoter region .
Similarly , out of 119 cases of mismatch repair @-@ deficient colorectal cancers that lacked DNA repair gene PMS2 expression , PMS2 was deficient in 6 due to mutations in the PMS2 gene , while in 103 cases PMS2 expression was deficient because its pairing partner MLH1 was repressed due to promoter methylation ( PMS2 protein is unstable in the absence of MLH1 ) . In the other 10 cases , loss of PMS2 expression was likely due to epigenetic overexpression of the microRNA , miR @-@ 155 , which down @-@ regulates MLH1 .
In further examples ( tabulated in Cancer epigenetics ) , epigenetic defects were found at frequencies of between 13 % -100 % for the DNA repair genes BRCA1 , WRN , FANCB , FANCF , MGMT , MLH1 , MSH2 , MSH4 , ERCC1 , XPF , NEIL1 and ATM . These epigenetic defects occurred in various cancers ( e.g. breast , ovarian , colorectal and head and neck ) . Two or three deficiencies in the expression of ERCC1 , XPF or PMS2 occur simultaneously in the majority of the 49 colon cancers evaluated by Facista et al .
The chart in this section shows some frequent DNA damaging agents , examples of DNA lesions they cause , and the pathways that deal with these DNA damages . At least 169 enzymes are either directly employed in DNA repair or influence DNA repair processes . Of these , 83 are directly employed in the 5 types of DNA repair processes illustrated in the chart . The more well studied genes central to these repair processes are also shown in the chart . As indicated by the DNA repair genes shown in red , many of the genes in these repair pathways are regulated by epigenetic mechanisms , and these are frequently reduced or silent in various cancers ( marked by an asterisk ) . Two review articles , and two broad experimental survey articles document most of these epigenetic DNA repair deficiencies .
It appears that epigenetic repression of DNA repair genes in accurate DNA repair pathways are central to carcinogenesis . However microhomology @-@ mediated end joining ( MMEJ ) is an additional error @-@ prone repair pathway for double @-@ strand breaks . In MMEJ repair of a double @-@ strand break , an homology of 5 - 25 complementary base pairs on both strands is identified and used as a basis to align the strands , but with mismatched ends . MMEJ removes extra nucleotides ( flaps ) where strands are joined , then ligates the strands to create an intact DNA double helix . MMEJ always involves at least a small deletion , so that it is a mutagenic pathway . FEN1 , the flap endonuclease in MMEJ , is epigenetically increased by promoter hypomethylation and is over @-@ expressed in the majority of cancers of the breast , prostate , stomach , neuroblastomas , pancreatic , and lung . Other genes in the MMEJ pathway are also over @-@ expressed in a number of cancers ( see MMEJ for summary ) , and are shown in cyan ( blue ) in the chart in this section .
= = DNA repair and evolution = =
The basic processes of DNA repair are highly conserved among both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and even among bacteriophage ( viruses that infect bacteria ) ; however , more complex organisms with more complex genomes have correspondingly more complex repair mechanisms . The ability of a large number of protein structural motifs to catalyze relevant chemical reactions has played a significant role in the elaboration of repair mechanisms during evolution . For an extremely detailed review of hypotheses relating to the evolution of DNA repair , see .
The fossil record indicates that single @-@ cell life began to proliferate on the planet at some point during the Precambrian period , although exactly when recognizably modern life first emerged is unclear . Nucleic acids became the sole and universal means of encoding genetic information , requiring DNA repair mechanisms that in their basic form have been inherited by all extant life forms from their common ancestor . The emergence of Earth 's oxygen @-@ rich atmosphere ( known as the " oxygen catastrophe " ) due to photosynthetic organisms , as well as the presence of potentially damaging free radicals in the cell due to oxidative phosphorylation , necessitated the evolution of DNA repair mechanisms that act specifically to counter the types of damage induced by oxidative stress .
= = = Rate of evolutionary change = = =
On some occasions , DNA damage is not repaired , or is repaired by an error @-@ prone mechanism that results in a change from the original sequence . When this occurs , mutations may propagate into the genomes of the cell 's progeny . Should such an event occur in a germ line cell that will eventually produce a gamete , the mutation has the potential to be passed on to the organism 's offspring . The rate of evolution in a particular species ( or , in a particular gene ) is a function of the rate of mutation . As a consequence , the rate and accuracy of DNA repair mechanisms have an influence over the process of evolutionary change . Since the normal adaptation of populations of organisms to changing circumstances ( for instance the adaptation of the beaks of a population of finches to the changing presence of hard seeds or insects ) proceeds by gene regulation and the recombination and selection of gene variations – alleles – and not by passing on irreparable DNA damages to the offspring , DNA damage protection and repair does not influence the rate of adaptation by gene regulation and by recombination and selection of alleles . On the other hand , DNA damage repair and protection does influence the rate of accumulation of irreparable , advantageous , code expanding , inheritable mutations , and slows down the evolutionary mechanism for expansion of the genome of organisms with new functionalities . The tension between evolvability and mutation repair and protection needs further investigation .
= = DNA repair technology = =
A technology named clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat shortened to CRISPR @-@ Cas9 was discovered in 2012 . The new technology allows anyone with molecular biology training to alter the genes of any species with precision .
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= Vilayet Printing House ( Sarajevo ) =
The Vilayet Printing House ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Вилајетска штампарија , Vilajetska štamparija ) , originally named Sopron 's Printing House ( Сопронова печатња , Sopronova pečatnja ) , was the official printing house of the Ottoman Vilayet of Bosnia from April 1866 until the occupation of the province by Austria @-@ Hungary in August 1878 . It was the second printing house that operated in the territory of present @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina , founded in Sarajevo almost 350 years after the Goražde printing house ceased its activity . Its founder was Ignjat Sopron , a publisher and printer from Zemun , who sold the establishment to the Government of the Vilayet of Bosnia in October 1866 . Its foundation happened in the context of modernising and Europeanising Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire . Its principal aim was to issue an official gazette of the vilayet and publish textbooks for the elementary schools of Bosnian Serbs and Croats , thus stopping their import from the Principality of Serbia and the Austrian Empire .
The first newspaper to be published in Bosnia and Herzegovina was Bosanski vjestnik , a political @-@ informative and educational weekly edited by Sopron and printed in Serbian Cyrillic . It had a pro @-@ Serb inclination , though it generally promoted a unitary Bosnian nation , in accordance with the Ottoman policy in the province . The official gazette , the weekly Bosna , was primarily concerned with publishing and explaining laws , orders , and proclamations . Another weekly issued by the printing house was Sarajevski cvjetnik , which fiercely defended the Ottoman regime and polemicised with Serbian and Austrian newspapers that criticised it . Bosna and Sarajevski cvjetnik were bilingual , printed half in Ottoman Turkish and half in Serbo @-@ Croatian in the Cyrillic script . The printing house produced a number of elementary school textbooks , including the second Serbian alphabet book using the reformed Serbian Cyrillic , following Vuk Karadžić 's book published in Vienna in 1827 . Other books include a collection of Bosnian Serb lyric folk poetry , an Ottoman Turkish grammar , and several Jewish religious books . The first printed exemplar of Bosnian Aljamiado literature was also published by the Vilayet Printing House . It produced around 50 books and booklets altogether , most of them being concerned with various Ottoman laws and legislation .
= = Background = =
The Goražde printing house was one of the earliest among the Serbs and the first in the territory of present @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina . It was founded by Božidar Ljubavić near the town of Goražde in 1519 , in the early period of Ottoman rule over the region . It produced three Orthodox religious books , including the Goražde Psalter , with its last book printed in 1523 . The next printing house would not be opened in Bosnia and Herzegovina until the second half of the 19th century .
In the first half of the 19th century , the Ottoman Empire was swept by a wave of reforms meant to centralise and Europeanise the government of the state . Bosnian Muslim feudal lords rejected the reforms and repeatedly revolted against the Sultan . The Ottoman military intervened in the Eyalet of Bosnia in 1831 and 1850 , crushing the local feudal lords , and the set of modernising reforms known as the Tanzimat began to be implemented in the province . The Christians were underprivileged in the Ottoman Empire , and this was even more so in Bosnia than in the rest of the empire . An improvement in this respect occurred in 1862 , when the Bosnian Christians ( Orthodox Serbs and Catholic Croats ) were granted more rights , including those to open new churches and to run their own schools . This came after several uprisings by the Christians , especially Serbs , who had the strongest national movement in the province . Ivan Franjo Jukić and other Bosnian Franciscans requested the right to establish a printing house in 1847 , 1850 , 1853 , and 1857 , but each time their requests were denied by the Ottoman government .
The reforms became firmly rooted in Bosnia during the 1860s , when the Ottoman governor ( vali ) of the province was Topal Sherif Osman Pasha , though most of the changes proceeded at a slow pace . According to the recently issued Ottoman constitutional law , each vilayet ( first @-@ order administrative division ) was to have an official printing house and an official gazette . The Constitutional Law for the Vilayet of Bosnia , published in 1865 , promoted the province from the rank of eyalet to that of vilayet , and Article 9 of this law stipulated that there be an official printing house in its capital . Osman Pasha also had other motivations to establish a printing house . At that time , the press in the Principality of Serbia and in South Slavic parts of the Austrian Empire sharply criticised the Ottoman regime in Bosnia . Textbooks imported from Serbia for Serb elementary schools in Bosnia also disseminated nationalist sentiment , which Osman Pasha saw as anti @-@ Ottoman . In his view , the national movement of the Serbs in Bosnia presented a danger for Ottoman state interests . To protect their hold on Bosnia , the Ottomans sought to promote the idea of a unitary Bosnian nation , thus counteracting the particular national identities and political aspirations of Bosnia 's Serbs , Croats , and Muslims .
= = History and publications = =
= = = Under Sopron = = =
Shortly after the Constitutional Law for the Vilayet of Bosnia was issued , Osman Pasha invited publishing magnate Ignjat Sopron to Sarajevo . Sopron was the owner and manager of a publishing and printing house in Zemun ( then part of the Austrian Empire , today one of the municipalities of Belgrade , Serbia ) . An ethnic German , he was born in 1821 in Novi Sad as Ignaz Karl Soppron . Upon his arrival in Sarajevo , Osman Pasha offered him a subsidy to establish and organise a printing house . It was to be headquartered in a building on Sarajevo 's Dugi sokak street that was being rented by the vilayet 's government . Sopron soon came to the city bringing with him printing tools and materials , accompanied by a typesetter from Belgrade , Ilija Tomić . Tomić was in charge of the Cyrillic and Latin letters , and he engaged three graduated students of the Serb secondary school in Sarajevo to be his trainees . Osman Pasha also invited a man named Kadri @-@ effendi from Istanbul to work as the typesetter for Arabic letters . The principal aim of the printing house was to issue an official gazette and to publish elementary school textbooks , thus stopping their import from Serbia and Austria .
Sopronova pečatnja , or Sopron 's Printing House , was officially opened on 19 April [ O.S. 7 April ] 1866 . The Cyrillic orthography that was used in it was consistently in accordance with the linguistic reform of Serbian philologist Vuk Karadžić , which was at that time relatively new and still not universally accepted . The first issue of a political @-@ informative and educational weekly newspaper named Bosanski vjestnik ( Serbian Cyrillic : Босански вјестник , " Bosnian Herald " ) appeared on the same day . This was the first newspaper ever to be published in Bosnia and Herzegovina . Sopron made a deal with the vilayet 's authorities to publish it independently from the official gazette . When Sopron presented the editorial policy of his newspaper to the authorities , he indicated that it would be printed in the Serbian language , much to the Ottomans ' displeasure . The authorities subsequently scratched " Serbian " and replaced it with " Bosnian " . Sopron accepted the revision and went along with Osman Pasha 's idea of promoting a unitary Bosnian nation . Nevertheless , Bosanski vjestnik had " a decidedly Serb orientation " . Sopron did not consider this contradictory , as he apparently identified Bosnian @-@ ness with Serbness . In the newspaper , the language was occasionally referred to as Serbo @-@ Bosnian , while both the Serb and the Croat ethnic designations were expressed .
The first issue of the official gazette , named Bosna ( Ottoman Turkish : بوسنه ; Cyrillic : Босна , " Bosnia " ) , appeared on 28 May [ O.S. 16 May ] 1866 , i.e. , 13 Muharram 1283 AH . It was a bilingual weekly with half of the pages printed in Ottoman Turkish in the Arabic script , and the other half printed in Serbo @-@ Croat in the Cyrillic script . The text in Serbo @-@ Croat was a faithful translation of that in Turkish . The gazette was primarily concerned with publishing and explaining laws , orders , and proclamations , but it also provided news from the political , economic , cultural , and social life of the vilayet . It would be issued without interruption for more than twelve years , and for much of that period it was the only newspaper in the Vilayet of Bosnia . It had different editors over time : Mustafa Refet Imamović , Mehmed Šakir Kurtćehajić , Salih Biogradlija , Javer Baruh , Nuruddin Kurtćehajić , and Kadri @-@ effendi . Most of them were Bosnian Muslims , except Baruh ( a Jew ) and Kadri @-@ effendi ( a Turk ) . A constant in the gazette was its translator from Turkish , Miloš Mandić , a polyglot who had previously worked as a teacher in a Serb elementary school in Prijepolje . Besides Sopron , Mandić was one of the contributors to Bosanski vjestnik , along with Bogoljub Petranović and Salih Sidki Hadžihuseinović . Petranović was the manager of the Serb secondary school in Sarajevo and the leader of the Serb youth movement in the city , while Hadžihuseinović was an official of the Gazi Husrev @-@ beg Mosque . In August 1866 , the printing house published its first book , Lesson on Man and His Duties ( Наравоученије о човеку и његовим дужностима ) , translated from Greek by Georgije Jovanović .
= = = Under the vilayet government = = =
In October 1866 , Sopron sold the establishment to the Government of the Vilayet of Bosnia . It was renamed Vilajetska pečatnja , or the Vilayet Printing House , and from March 1867 onwards it bore the name Vilajetska štamparija ( the same meaning ) . Sopron remained the owner and editor of Bosanski vjestnik , and managed to publish 51 issues . After a year in Sarajevo , Sopron left the city and returned to Zemun . The first director of the printing house was Haim Davičo , a Belgrade Jew , who was offered that position by Osman Pasha . Mehmed Šakir Kurtćehajić , the editor of Bosna since early 1868 , began publishing Sarajevski cvjetnik at the end of that year . It was a bilingual weekly like Bosna , containing commentaries on current politics and articles on various social issues , most of which was written by Kurtćehajić . He fiercely defended the Ottoman regime in Bosnia , polemicising with newspapers from Serbia and Austria which criticised it . In May 1869 , when Osman Pasha ceased to be the governor of the Vilayet of Bosnia , Davičo returned to Belgrade . The new governor installed Kurtćehajić as the director of the printing house . Kurtćehajić died of tuberculosis in September 1872 ; the last issue of Sarajevski cvjetnik had appeared two months earlier .
Kurtćehajić 's death marked the end of a prosperous period for the Vilayet Printing House . Its subsequent directors were less capable , and the establishment 's condition began to deteriorate . In 1877 , the last Ottoman governor of Bosnia installed Kadri @-@ effendi as director , and he significantly improved the condition of the printing house . Austro @-@ Hungarian troops entered Sarajevo on 19 August 1878 , marking the start of 40 years of Austro @-@ Hungarian occupation . Four days later , General Josip Filipović , the Austro @-@ Hungarian commander in Sarajevo , transferred the management of the printing house from Kadri @-@ effendi to an Austrian official . This spelled the end of the Vilayet Printing House , which was renamed Zemaljska štamparija ( National Printing Press ) , and continued its work as the official printing house of the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The last , 636th , issue of Bosna appeared shortly before the end of Ottoman rule over Bosnia , on 30 July [ O.S. 18 July ] 1878 .
Apart from the newspapers Bosanski vjestnik , Bosna , and Sarajevski cvjetnik , the Vilayet Printing House published around fifty books and booklets in Serbo @-@ Croatian , Ottoman Turkish , and Hebrew . While most of these publications were concerned with various Ottoman laws and legislation , the printing house also published a number of textbooks . The textbooks for Serb elementary schools in the vilayet were prepared by Miloš Mandić on the basis of those that were used in Serbia . These include an alphabet book ( Буквар ) , a short Biblical history ( Кратка свештена историја ) , a basal reader ( Прва читанка ) , and the First Knowledges ( Прва знања ) ; they were published in 1867 and 1868 . Mandić 's alphabet book , the printing house 's first textbook , was the second Serbian alphabet book using the reformed Serbian Cyrillic . The First Serbian Alphabet Book ( Први Српски Буквар ) , authored by Vuk Karadžić , had been published in Vienna in 1827 . The original plan was to print fifteen textbooks for Serb schools , ranging in subject from grammar , arithmetic , geography and religious teaching , but only four were printed . Although they were based on the textbooks used in Serbia , the vilayet 's authorities made sure that every mention of Serbs and the Serbian language was erased from them .
Bogoljub Petranović collected Bosnian Serb lyric folk poems and published them in 1867 in a separate book ( Српске народне пјесме из Босне ( Женске ) ) . The First Bosnian @-@ Serb Calendar for the Common Year 1869 ( Први босанско @-@ српски календар за просту годину 1869 ) , consisting of 58 pages , was edited by Jovan R. Džinić . In Serbian tradition , calendars contained more than just calendarical data and were also popular literary and educational almanacs . Džinić 's calendar had more of an educational , rather than literary , character .
Catholic school textbooks in the vilayet included a geography book ( Kratka zemljopisna početnica s dodatkom o Bosni , 1869 ) by Franjo Ž . Franjković , an alphabet book with elements of religious education ( Bukvar s napomenkom članakah nauka vjere za katoličku mladež u Bosni , 1869 ) , and another geography book ( Početni zemljopis za katoličke učionice u Bosni , 1871 ) by the Franciscan Grgo Martić . The Catholic bishop of Mostar Paškal Buconjić financed the printing of an Ottoman Turkish grammar in 1871 . The Hebrew books included Meshek Beti ( משק ביתי ) and Appe Zutre ( אפי זוטרי ) , which list religious observances , respectively , on Shabbat and Passover , and a small liturgical book titled Tikkun Moda 'ah . These were composed around 1875 by the Sarajevo Rabbi Eliezer Papo . The printing house also published the first printed work of Bosnian Aljamiado literature , the book Sehletul @-@ Vusul , which contained the principal teachings of Islam . It was composed by Omer Humo , the mufti of Mostar .
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= Nathan Walker =
Nathan Walker ( born 7 February 1994 ) is an Australian professional ice hockey player currently playing for the Hershey Bears of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) and a prospect for the Washington Capitals of the National Hockey League . Walker , who was born in Wales , grew up in Australia and first played ice hockey there . He moved to the Czech Republic in 2007 in order to further his career , and joined the junior program of HC Vítkovice , a member of the Czech Extraliga . He first played for the senior team in 2011 , becoming the first Australian ice hockey player to play for a professional senior team in Europe . Along with HC Vítkovice , Walker was loaned to several lower @-@ level Czech teams .
In 2013 Walker signed with the Youngstown Phantoms of the junior United States Hockey League , moving to North America for the first time . He attended the training camp of the Washington Capitals in 2013 and signed with their AHL affiliate Hershey . Walker represents Australia internationally , and first played for them at the 2011 IIHF World Championship Division II tournament , where he helped his team win their group and earn a promotion to Division I for the following year . Passed over in the previous two NHL Entry Drafts , Walker was selected by the Capitals in the third round of the 2014 NHL Entry Draft , the first Australian selected in an NHL draft .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Australia and Czech Republic = = =
Walker began playing hockey at age six and by thirteen he was in a league with players as old as twenty and able to outplay them . During the 2007 season he played in both the under @-@ 14 and under @-@ 16 leagues . During 14 U14 games he recorded 77 goals and 25 assists for 102 points , a record for the league ; the second leading scorer had 70 points in 24 games . Walker had similar numbers in the U16 league ; he scored 69 points in 16 games to again lead the league in scoring , with the second highest total was 53 points in 20 games .
As Walker was dominating the local competition , he began to look for other options . In 2007 his coach Ivan Manco , who came from Slovakia , arranged for Walker to tryout for HC Vítkovice in the Czech Republic , where Manco knew one of the coaches . Walker impressed the team enough to be given a place on their under @-@ 18 junior team . In 2009 – 10 he recorded 42 points in 28 games for the U18 team and earned a chance to play for the U20 team . He also returned to Australia during the Czech offseason and played for the Sydney Ice Dogs of the Australian Ice Hockey League .
On 9 October 2011 , Walker made his debut for the senior HC Vítkovice club in the Czech Extraliga , making him the first Australian to play professionally in Europe ; he was also the youngest player in the Extraliga . HC Vítkovice was invited to the 2011 Spengler Cup and in their first game against Canada Walker scored the only goal for Vítkovice . He became the youngest player to score in Spengler Cup history and was named player of the game for Vítkovice . With the conclusion of the 2011 – 12 Czech Extraliga season , HC Vítkovice loaned Walker to HC Olomouc of the 1 @.@ národní hokejová liga , the second @-@ highest league in the Czech Republic , on 20 February 2012 . Walker played 34 games in his first season in the Extraliga , scoring four goals and five assists for nine points . He played a further two games with HC Olomouc , recording an assist .
As a result of his play in the Extraliga , Walker began to be noticed by the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . In the NHL Central Scouting Bureau 's January 2012 list of draft prospects , Walker was listed as the 21st best European @-@ based skater for the 2012 NHL Entry Draft , the second highest Czech @-@ based player on the list . Walker was listed as the 25th best European skater in the NHL 's final list of prospects for the 2012 Entry Draft . He was not selected in the Entry Draft , but was invited to participate in the Washington Capitals development camp in July ; however NHL rules required that Walker participate in the 2013 NHL Entry Draft before he was able to sign with any team .
= = = North America = = =
During the 2012 – 13 season Walker appeared in twenty games with HC Vítkovice and recorded one assist ; he was loaned to Hokej Šumperk 2003 for three games , where he also had one assist . After six years in the Czech Republic , Walker signed a contract on 8 January 2013 with the Youngstown Phantoms of the United States Hockey League , a junior ice hockey league in the United States . He made his debut for the team on 11 January against the Chicago Steel , recording a goal . After four games with the Phantoms , in which he recorded six points , Walker was named to the USHL / NHL Top Prospects Game on 23 January 2013 ; he replaced his teammate , who was ill . Walker played 29 games for the Phantoms during the regular season and recorded 27 points ( 7 goals , 20 assists ) . His 20 assists were good enough for fifth on the team , even though Walker only joined the team midway through the season . His season ended early due to an injury suffered in a game on 5 April where Walker broke a bone in his neck as a result of a hit from behind ; as a result he missed all the Phantoms playoff games .
Upon the conclusion of the season Walker returned to the Czech Republic to train , before heading back to Australia . In July he was invited to once again attend the Capitals development camp , scheduled for September . He performed well enough to remain with the team and attend their full training camp as one of 40 players . However , due to an overlooked rule , the Capitals were unable to sign Walker ; as he had started the 2012 – 13 season in Europe and then moved to North America , and was under 20 years old , he would have to enter the 2014 NHL Entry Draft before being allowed to sign an NHL contract . Instead , on 24 September Walker signed a contract with the Capitals ' American Hockey League affiliate , the Hershey Bears . He made his debut for the Bears on 5 October 2013 against the Adirondack Phantoms , becoming the first Australian to play in the AHL . During Walker 's third game with the Bears , on October 27 against the Norfolk Admirals , he scored his first goal and recorded his first professional fight .
The 2014 NHL Entry Draft was the third and final NHL draft that Walker was eligible for , and he was selected in the third round , 89th overall , by the Capitals . In doing so , Walker became the first Australian to be selected in an NHL draft . On 25 July 2014 , Walker was signed to a three @-@ year entry @-@ level contract with the Capitals . Partway through the 2014 – 2015 season Walker was reassigned to the South Carolina Stingrays of the ECHL . After a two @-@ game stint with the Stingrays , where he recorded two points , Walker was brought back to Hersey . Reassigned to South Carolina again in January , Walker was injured in a game on 28 January when he tore his ACL , ending his season . At the time of the injury Walker had appeared in 28 games for the Bears , where he scored 4 points , and a further 6 games for the Stingrays , also recording 4 points .
= = International play = =
Walker first played for the Australian men 's senior team at the 2011 IIHF World Championship Division II Group A tournament which was held in Melbourne , Australia . Australia won the tournament and was promoted to Division I Group B for the 2012 World Championships . Walker finished the tournament with four goals and two assists for six points , tied for third overall . He was also recognised by the tournament coaches as the best player on the Australian team .
Walker represented Australia again at the 2012 World Championships . Playing in Division IB , Australia finished last in the group and was relegated to Division IIA for 2013 . Walker scored two goals during the tournament .
= = Personal life = =
Walker was born in Cardiff , Wales to Wayne and Kerry ; he also has an older brother , Ryan . When Walker was two , his family moved to Sydney , Australia . Wayne played rugby league , leading to Nathan playing for the Cronulla Sharks junior team until the age of 15 . Ryan , his older brother , also played hockey representing Australia in the national under @-@ 18 squad . Ryan had to quit hockey after he was injured during a game in the United States . While in the Czech Republic Walker learned to speak Czech , Slovak , and some Russian .
Walker first played ice hockey in Australia at the age of six , after watching his older brother Ryan play . Due to a lack of ice hockey broadcasting in Australia , Walker was also inspired after watching The Mighty Ducks film series and Mystery , Alaska , all of which are based around ice hockey .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
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= Tropical Storm Marco ( 2008 ) =
Tropical Storm Marco is the smallest tropical cyclone on record . The thirteenth named storm of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season , Marco developed out of a broad area of low pressure over the northwestern Caribbean during late September 2008 . Influenced by a tropical wave on October 4 , a small low @-@ level circulation center developed over Belize . After crossing the southern end of the Yucatán Peninsula and emerging into the Bay of Campeche , the low was declared Tropical Depression Thirteen early on October 6 . The depression quickly intensified into a tropical storm and was given the name Marco later that day . Marco reached its peak intensity with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) early on October 7 . Around this time , tropical storm force winds extended 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) from the center of the storm , making Marco the smallest tropical cyclone on record . Around 1200 UTC , Marco made landfall near Misantla , Veracruz . The storm rapidly weakened after landfall , dissipating later that day . Due to its small size , Marco caused minimal damage ; however , the storm 's heavy rains led to floods up to 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 05 m ) deep that covered highways and damaged homes .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Marco originated in a broad area of low pressure that persisted over the northwestern Caribbean in late September 2008 . On October 4 , a tropical wave reached the same area , and the system spawned a circulation center over Belize . Development of the low was initially inhibited by its proximity to land . As the system neared the Bay of Campeche , convection quickly developed around the low . At 0000 UTC on October 6 , the low was designated as Tropical Depression Thirteen while located over Laguna de Términos . A mid @-@ level ridge located to the north of the depression led to movement in a general west @-@ northwest direction . Forecasters anticipated intensification up until landfall because of the storm 's well @-@ developed outflow and the low wind shear and high sea surface temperatures in its path . By 1200 UTC , the small cyclone , with a cloud shield no more than 85 miles ( 137 kilometers ) across , was upgraded to Tropical Storm Marco .
Favorable conditions for development allowed Marco to quickly intensify throughout the day on October 6 . Early on October 7 , Marco reached its peak intensity with winds of 65 mph ( 105 kilometers per hour ) and a minimum pressure of 998 millibar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 47 inHg ) . This was based on a reconnaissance mission into Marco which recorded flight @-@ level winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , corresponding to a surface wind speed of 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) . Following the quick increase in intensity , forecasters noted the possibility of Marco intensifying into a hurricane before making landfall . The storm maintained a small area of deep convection , averaging 9 @.@ 2 miles ( 14 @.@ 8 km ) in diameter , as it continued moving towards the west @-@ northwest . Shortly after reaching peak intensity , tropical storm force winds extended 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) from the center of Marco . At 1200 UTC , the center of Marco made landfall near Misantla , Veracruz , with winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Once inland , Marco rapidly weakened , being downgraded to a tropical depression six hours after landfall . The small depression dissipated later that day over the mountains of Mexico .
= = Preparations , impact and records = =
Upon the storm 's formation , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning for the Gulf of Mexico from Tuxpan to Punta El Lagarto . That afternoon the government issued a hurricane watch between Cabo Rojo and Veracruz , and extended the tropical storm warning northward to Cabo Rojo . Officials closed schools ahead of the storm and opened 200 shelters . An estimated 3 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas along the coast . Soldiers used school buses to transport evacuees to the shelters . Marco formed in the area of Mexico 's main oil @-@ facilities , leading to the evacuation of 33 workers from four platforms . Six oil wells and a natural gas processing plant were also shut down in Veracruz . The Mexican Secretariat of Communications and Transportation also closed the ports of Nautla and Alvarado to small vessels as a precautionary measure .
Upon landfall , heavy rains peaking at 7 @.@ 9 inches ( 201 millimeters ) in El Pujal , San Luis Potosí and falling at rates up to 1 inch per hour ( 25 @.@ 4 mm / h ) , caused some flooding in coastal towns near Veracruz as people evacuated to higher ground . The rains from Marco worsened flood situations in areas of Mexico already suffering from severe flooding . Officials in Veracruz , in their post @-@ storm damage survey , reported that two rivers , the Quilate and Tenoch , overflowed their banks due to rains produced by Marco . One of these rivers left the towns of Minatitlan and Hidalgotitlan under 10 ft ( 3 m ) of water . Highways along the coast of Veracruz were also flooded . Another 250 homes were flooded when a lake and a river overflowed their banks . Thirteen municipalities within Veracruz were affected by Marco . In Vega de Alatorre , 77 people were evacuated to nearby shelters after their homes were inundated with water . Three landslides were also reported in Misantla Colipa ; none of them caused damage . In all , Marco 's impact was light ; minimal damage was recorded , and none of the estimated 400 @,@ 000 people affected by the storm sustained injury .
In the wake of Marco , the General Coordination of Civil Protection of the Ministry of the Interior declared a state of emergency for 48 municipalities in Veracruz . Relief goods were distributed to the affected areas by October 9 . The Government of Mexico reported that 4 @,@ 700 blankets , 2 @,@ 900 mattresses , 5 @,@ 554 bottles of water ( each containing 500 milliliters ) , 260 @,@ 000 boxes of milk , 250 @,@ 000 packages of biscuits , and 12 @,@ 400 boxes of school supplies had been distributed .
At 0052 UTC on October 7 , tropical storm force winds extended 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) from the center of Marco . This made Marco the smallest tropical cyclone ever recorded , surpassing the previous record set on December 24 , 1974 by Cyclone Tracy , whose tropical storm @-@ force winds extended 30 miles ( 48 km ) .
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= Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII =
Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII ( クライシス コア -ファイナルファンタジーVII- , Kuraishisu Koa -Fainaru Fantajī Sebun- ) is an action role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation Portable . First released in 2007 , the game is a prequel to the 1997 video game Final Fantasy VII and is a part of the metaseries Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , which includes other products related to the original game .
The game primarily focuses on Zack Fair , a young member of the paramilitary organization SOLDIER , who is assigned to look for the missing SOLDIER Genesis Rhapsodos . As he searches for Genesis , Zack discovers Genesis ' origin , Project G , and how it is related to two other high @-@ ranking SOLDIERs ; Sephiroth and Angeal Hewley . The game 's storyline takes the player from the war between the megacorporation Shinra and the people of Wutai to the events in Nibelheim , ending just before the beginning of Final Fantasy VII .
The game was directed by Hajime Tabata , with Tetsuya Nomura serving as character designer . Before development , the Square Enix staff initially planned to make a PlayStation Portable port of the mobile phone game Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , but after discussion , they decided to create a new game . The plot is based on a scenario Kazushige Nojima had in mind when working on Final Fantasy VII . Crisis Core enjoyed strong sales , selling over three million units worldwide . Critical reception was generally positive .
= = Gameplay = =
Crisis Core is an action role @-@ playing game in which the player controls Zack Fair . The player moves Zack through and between open areas , allowing him to talk with non @-@ player characters , interact with the environment , and engage monsters in battle . At save points , the player may opt to take one of the available side missions , and if so , Zack is moved to a special area to complete the mission , which usually involves defeating one or more monsters . If the mission is successfully completed , the player is rewarded with beneficial items , and often new missions become available . Whether the player is successful in the side mission or not , upon completion , Zack is returned to the save point in the main game .
Crisis Core uses a real @-@ time combat system in which the player can move Zack around , initiate attacks , special abilities and spells , use items , and block or dodge attacks . Zack 's abilities in battle are set by what materia he currently has equipped . Up to six materia can be equipped at any one time , which can impart special attacks , magic spells , or passive bonuses such as health increases or the ability to display the statistics of the current foe in combat . Materia are gained throughout the game through exploration , as rewards from side missions , as spoils of battle , or from shops . Materia can be fused together to make more powerful versions with improved bonuses ; for example , fusing an attack materia with an elemental magic materia can create a new attack skill materia that inflicts elemental magic damage in addition to physical damage . Special items collected in the game can also be used in materia fusion to further increase the materia 's power .
Crisis Core uses a slot machine @-@ like mechanic to affect the combat system . The " Digital Mind Wave " ( DMW ) features two sets of three spinning wheels ; one set with the numbers one through seven , and another with pictures of characters that Zack befriends during the game . The DMW automatically spins as long as Zack has at least 10 " Soldier Points " , which are awarded to the player by defeating foes . If the DMW stops with the same three pictures lined up , Zack will then perform an appropriate Limit Break attack that can greatly harm an enemy or significantly heal Zack . Additionally , in this case , if the number slots give two or more of the same number , the materia in that slot will power up . Should the numbers line up as " 777 " , Zack will gain an experience level , increasing his health , soldier points , and ability points . If there is no match in the pictures , matching numbers on the slots will grant temporary bonuses , such as limited invincibility or zero @-@ cost use of skills and abilities . The chance of matching pictures is tied to the current Limit level , which is raised by taking damage in battle and reduced upon successful battles , and after certain storyline events . After collecting certain items in the game , the pictures on the DMW may also randomly change to summonable creatures , which have more destructive and beneficial Limit Breaks should the pictures match up .
Following completion of the game , the player will obtain a New Game Plus option . The North American and European releases of Crisis Core also have an added difficulty mode , which increases the power and health of enemies .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Crisis Core begins seven years before the events of Final Fantasy VII , and many characters from that game and other related works appear . However , the primary characters in the game are from either SOLDIER ( the private army of Shinra ) , or from their elite branch of operatives , the Turks .
The main protagonist is Zack Fair , a young and friendly SOLDIER . His mentor and friend is Angeal Hewley , a 1st class SOLDIER who is also friends with fellow SOLDIER members Sephiroth and Genesis , who ultimately becomes the game 's primary antagonist . The SOLDIER operatives work under Director Lazard , the illegitimate son of President Shinra . Zack is also friends with the Turks , particularly their leader Tseng , and one of their female operatives , Cissnei . During the course of the game , Zack encounters and befriends Aerith , a young woman tending flowers from a ruined church in the Midgar slums . He also befriends Cloud , a Shinra infantryman .
= = = Story = = =
SOLDIERs Zack Fair and Angeal Hewley are dispatched to Wutai to support the Shinra war effort . However , during the fighting , Angeal disappears , and Zack is appointed to find both him and an already missing SOLDIER , Genesis . Zack , accompanied by Tseng , finds that Genesis and Angeal have betrayed Shinra , and , as such , Zack and Sephiroth are assigned to kill them . With help from Dr. Hollander , a scientist with a vendetta against Shinra , Genesis creates an army of clones to attack Shinra headquarters . After the forces are defeated , Zack and Sephiroth track down Hollander 's secret laboratory , and learn that Hollander had used both Genesis and Angeal as part of Project G , an attempt to create soldiers infused with Jenova cells . Sephiroth faces off against Genesis , whilst Zack pursues Hollander . However , Angeal is intent on keeping Hollander alive as he wants to find a way to return to normal , and so he prevents Zack from killing the doctor by knocking Zack into the slums of Midgar .
Zack recovers to find Aerith tending to him . After they spend some time together , Zack returns to SOLDIER headquarters which is under attack by Genesis . On his way , Zack allies with Angeal , who has developed doubts about his and Genesis ' actions . As Angeal , Zack and Sephiroth protect the headquarters , Angeal confronts Genesis , but both disappear . Zack is subsequently ordered to investigate Modeoheim , where Genesis has been spotted . En route , Zack meets Shinra infantryman Cloud , and they become friends . Near Modeoheim , Zack encounters and defeats Genesis , who appears to commit suicide by throwing himself into the depths of a reactor . Zack travels on to Modeoheim and finds both Angeal and Hollander . Angeal summons and fuses with his own clones , and mutates into a monster , forcing Zack to kill him . Before he dies , Angeal gives Zack his Buster Sword , telling him to protect his honor .
Whilst Shinra continues the pursuit of Hollander , it emerges that Genesis is still alive and still producing clones , some of which have appeared in Midgar , forcing Zack to return so as to protect Aerith . He leaves her with an Angeal clone that seems to be protecting her , and then travels with Sephiroth and Cloud to investigate a Mako reactor near Nibelheim . While checking the reactor , Sephiroth learns from Genesis that he was an experiment , implanted with cells of Jenova before he was born . Genesis explains that his body is degrading , and he needs Sephiroth 's cells to survive , but Sephiroth refuses . Overcome with the recent revelations regarding his past , Sephiroth locks himself in Nibelheim Mansion , and a week later , sets Nibelheim ablaze and goes to the Mako reactor to take Jenova 's body . When Zack fails to stop him , Cloud throws him into the Lifestream below the reactor . Zack awakes to find that Shinra has covered @-@ up the Nibelheim incident and he and Cloud have become part of Professor Hojo 's experiments on Jenova cells and Mako exposure . However , Zack is able to escape , taking the catatonic Cloud with him . They immediately become high priority targets for Shinra . While fleeing , Zack learns that Genesis and Hollander are still trying to stabilize Genesis ' mutation , and they now plan to use Cloud 's cells , as he is the only one with Sephiroth 's genes .
Hollander tries to get to Cloud , but is killed by Zack . Zack then finds Director Lazard who , now mutated into an Angeal clone , has turned against Shinra . Lazard directs Zack to the remains of Banora to find Genesis . Zack defeats Genesis , but upon returning he discovers that Shinra have located them , and killed Lazard . The Angeal clone that was left guarding Aerith also arrives , but he too is killed . Zack discovers a note he had carried from Aerith , and learns he and Cloud had been subjected to Hojo 's experiments for four years . Zack and Cloud are able to escape , heading towards Midgar , whilst Genesis ' body is collected by two soldiers .
Shinra pursue Zack and Cloud , and catch up with them just outside Midgar . Leaving the still semi @-@ conscious Cloud hidden away , Zack fights off an enormous number of Shinra troops , but is ultimately fatally wounded . Cloud manages to crawl to Zack 's body after Shinra has left , and Zack , in his dying breath , bequeaths the Buster Sword to Cloud , as Angeal had done to him . Cloud then begins to walk to Midgar . The epilogue recreates the opening scenes of Final Fantasy VII , as Cloud , his memories confused , claims to be a former SOLDIER .
= = Development = =
The idea of Crisis Core originated when Hajime Tabata was chosen as director for an upcoming Final Fantasy title for the PlayStation Portable . After discussion with Tetsuya Nomura and Yoshinori Kitase , Tabata decided that the game should be another installment in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , feeling that the pressure of producing a game from a popular series would motivate both the staff and himself . The original idea was to make a PlayStation Portable port of Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , as it had been released for mobile @-@ phones and the staff wanted to expand it . However , after deciding Zack was going to be the protagonist of the new game , the idea of a Before Crisis port was cancelled .
Kitase wanted to make sure the game exceeded fans ' expectations , so he made sure that rather than making it as a " tribute " to Final Fantasy VII , it shared important links with other titles from Compilation of Final Fantasy VII . Similarly , Tabata explained that he and the staff were very wary throughout production of altering the " fans ' perception of Final Fantasy VII 's iconic characters . " For example , one of the main background events from Final Fantasy VII , Nibelheim 's destruction , had been changed somewhat in the OVA Last Order : Final Fantasy VII , and due to negative fan reaction to these change , the game staff decided not to make any major changes in Crisis Core . However , they also operated on the principal that this game dealt with those characters ' " younger days , " so that new elements could be added without changing the characters too much .
One of the primary reasons Zack was chosen as protagonist was because his fate was predetermined . Kitase stated that Zack 's story had " been cooking for 10 years " as , despite being a minor character in Final Fantasy VII , Nomura had already developed conceptual artwork , and Kazushige Nojima had already worked out a story . The game was originally meant to have more scenes depicting Zack and Cloud 's flight to Midgar , so as to expand on their friendship and unrealized plans , but these scenes were removed due to UMD limitations , and so the staff focused more on Zack 's background as a formidable warrior . The addition of the character of Genesis to the story came about after discussions between producer Hideki Imaizumi and the character 's Japanese voice actor , Gackt , as Imaizumi had been impressed with the characters ' brief appearance in the secret ending to Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , and felt there was great room to expand the character . Sephiroth 's role was specifically written to give him a " much more human side . " The game 's logo represents various main characters ; the blue sky symbolizes Zack ; the white feather symbolizes Angeal ; and the water symbolizes Aerith .
Crisis Core was first envisioned as an action game , but because almost all of the staff had more experience designing RPGs , they decided to modify it , making battles more similar to the ones found in standard RPGs . However , they also added more action orientated elements to the battles , resulting in the game becoming more of an action RPG than a traditional RPG . The Materia system was designed so that players could choose between " RPG @-@ oriented enhancements " and " action @-@ oriented enhancements , " as well as to help with the game 's balance . Additionally , the Digital Mind Wave system ( DMW ) was added to give gameplay an element of luck , as well as to prevent combat feeling repetitive . Nomura and Kitase wanted to include this in the game because of their enthusiasm for pachinko machines .
The game was first announced at the 2004 E3 , prior to the release of the PlayStation Portable . Its first trailer consisted of clips from Last Order . In an interview for Famitsu , Nomura stated that a playable demo of the game would be ready by the end of 2006 . However , there was no mention of whether the demo would be openly available to PSP owners . By May 2005 , Nomura announced that he had designed the concept art for the game , with the gameplay set to be " interesting " and " previously unseen . " In May 2007 , both Nomura and Tabata revealed that the game was 90 % complete , and that completing its story mode and all side quests would take about 100 hours of gameplay . A playable demo was made available at Jump Festa ' 06 .
= = Audio = =
The game 's soundtrack was released on October 10 , 2007 , containing fifty @-@ five songs on two discs . The music was composed by Takeharu Ishimoto , with a few tracks orchestrated by Kazuhiko Toyama . The soundtrack also included remixes of various music from Final Fantasy VII composed by Nobuo Uematsu and Last Order : Final Fantasy VII , which was also composed by Ishimoto . The game 's ending theme , " Why " , was performed by Ayaka . The addition of " Why " was revealed by Square Enix in May 2007 , with Ayaka stating that she was fascinated by Crisis Core 's story and felt she " would like to deliver " Why " alongside Zack 's fate to the hearts of many people . " The single " Why " was released in Japan on September 5 , 2007 .
= = Release = =
On September 13 , 2007 Square Enix released a special edition bundle for Crisis Core ; a special silver colored PlayStation Portable Slim and Lite with Final Fantasy VII 's 10th Anniversary insignia on the back and on one side . As with many limited edition Final Fantasy VII @-@ related releases by Square Enix , the bundle was limited to 77 @,@ 777 units .
On December 17 , 2007 it was announced that Crisis Core would be released in North America on March 25 , 2008 . If pre @-@ ordered from certain retailers , such as GameStop , the buyer may receive a Shinra UMD case , depending on how long supplies lasted ; if pre @-@ ordered from Best Buy , the buyer may receive Crisis Core with a metallic foil cover . Two versions of the game were released in Europe : a standard edition , and a limited edition , which was only available online , and then only when pre @-@ ordered . This limited edition included special slipcase packaging and a book of promotional CG artwork entitled The Art of Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII . In Europe , a bundle containing the game and the limited edition Crisis Core @-@ engraved silver PlayStation Portable was released on June 20 . As with several games from the company , Square released an Ultimania guidebook in Japan , on October 18 , 2007 .
After Crisis Core 's release , Kitase expressed surprised at the quality of the cutscenes , to the point where he felt it could almost be a PlayStation 2 game . He also enjoyed the game 's ending , surprised by how moving Zack 's story became .
= = Reception = =
Crisis Core sold 350 @,@ 000 copies in Japan on its release date , including the 77 @,@ 777 Limited Edition PSP / Crisis Core bundles . In November 2007 , Square Enix announced that Crisis Core was its best @-@ selling game across all regions from April through September , with 710 @,@ 000 copies sold in Japan . Selling 790 @,@ 705 units as of August 2008 , it became the third best @-@ selling game for the PSP in Japan . In March 2008 , Crisis Core sold 301 @,@ 600 copies in its first month of release in the United States , behind the sales of God of War : Chains of Olympus , which sold 340 @,@ 500 copies , making Crisis Core the second best @-@ selling game for the PSP during the month of March and the sixth best @-@ selling game overall . As of March 31 , 2009 , Square Enix announced that Crisis Core had sold 3 @.@ 1 million units worldwide , with 830 @,@ 000 of those sales coming from Japan . About 840 @,@ 000 units of the game , including 550 @,@ 000 in Europe , were sold during Square Enix 's 2009 fiscal year . In response to the game 's sales , Square Enix labeled Crisis Core their best PSP game of the year , calling it " an incredible success . " Doug Bone , Square Enix 's UK sales director , called it " the must @-@ have PSP game of 2008 . "
Crisis Core has received generally positive reviews . At Metacritic the score is that of 83 out of 100 . With individual scores of 9 / 9 / 8 / 9 , the game received an overall rating of 35 out of 40 from Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu . GameSpot awarded it an " Editor 's Choice " label , praising its storyline , the combat system and its presentation , and also stating that " Crisis Core is an exciting and poignant journey that every fan of role @-@ playing games should take . " IGN 's Ryan Clements praised its differences from other RPGs , due to its focus on Zack 's growth and his relationship with the SOLDIERs . He stated " Crisis Core is a great game and , barring a few minor issues here and there , will not disappoint . " It also received a place amongst the " Editor 's Choice " gallery of recommended games for the PSP platform . GameSpy also gave it a good review , stating it " is equal parts tribute and original , marrying classic design choices with refreshingly new techniques , harmoniously bringing together something old with something new . " Gamespy also commented that although some players may dislike Zack , " you 'll have to be pretty jaded for the character not to grow on you as you progress through the adventure . " VideoGamer.com gave an overall score of 9 , finding its fighting system " addictive " , and arguing that its CGI scenes had a similar quality to the ones from Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children . Similarly , GamePro gave it a positive review , calling it the " best looking PSP title , " and praising how it incorporated elements from the Compilation , and at the same time created new aspects . GamesRadar 's AJ Glasser stated that with the DMW system , the gameplay could be easy , causing the " rare gamer " to try to play it in Hard Mode . Glasser also found the game likeable enough so that even gamers who dislike the Final Fantasy VII series may enjoy it . Play 's Samuel Roberts called it the best game of 2008 .
Many reviews also commented on the game 's relationship with Final Fantasy VII . 1UP.com called it one of the best prequels of all time , arguing that it " does a better job of putting players in FFVII 's world than even the original game did . " While GameTrailers stated that Crisis Core " doesn 't take the easy way out and photocopy the source , " they found it , unlike Dirge of Cerberus , to be appealing . Computer and Video Games mentioned that despite the game 's main story only lasting 12 hours , the side @-@ quests helped expand the game 's length . They further praised the battle system , claiming " [ it ] never becomes tiresome , " and the fact that some of the weak points from Final Fantasy VII ( " lengthy wandering , and an overlong center " ) were not issues in this game .
The game did receive some negative reviews , however . Despite calling it the best Final Fantasy VII spin @-@ off , Eurogamer criticized that " for the twenty @-@ six , twenty @-@ eight , thirty @-@ year @-@ olds who it 's aimed at , the game has little to offer beyond polished sentimentality . " Although PALGN called the DMW system a " handy tool " , they also felt it was the game 's weakest point . X @-@ Play gave the game a 2 / 5 , complaining about the unskippable cutscenes , poor dialogue , repetitive gameplay , and a weak plot . On April Fools ' Day , in response to criticism for their original review , they " decided to give the game a second look and give it a re @-@ review , this time with a clear unbiased perspective , " sarcastically dubbing over the original and giving it an impossibly high 6 / 5 .
Crisis Core has also received a number of awards from different publications . It was nominated by GameSpot for the " Best of 2008 " awards , in the " Best Story " , " Best RPG Game " and " Best PSP Game " categories , winning " Best PSP Game " . It was also listed as the tenth best PSP game of all the time by IGN . Four IGN articles concerning the game were in " The Top 10 PSP Stories of 2008 " , with the review article listed at number one . In IGN 's Best of 2008 , Crisis Core won in the categories " Best RPG " and " Best Story for the PSP " . Videogamer.com placed it fifteenth and fourth in their articles " Best Games of 2008 " and " Top 10 PlayStation exclusives of 2008 " , respectively . GamePro featured it as one of the five games PSP gamers should play , one of the 31 best PSP titles in 2009 , and as the seventh best video game prequel . It was also voted to third place in the Dengeki poll of most tear @-@ inducing games of all time . In 2011 , it was voted second place in the Famitsu readers ' poll on the same topic .
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= Olympic marmot =
The Olympic marmot ( Marmota olympus ) is a rodent in the squirrel family Sciuridae ; it occurs only in the U.S. state of Washington , on the middle elevations of the Olympic Peninsula . The closest relatives of this species are the hoary marmot and the Vancouver Island marmot . In 2009 , it was declared the official endemic mammal of Washington .
This marmot is about the size of a domestic cat , typically weighing about 8 kg ( 18 lb ) in summer . The species shows the greatest sexual dimorphism found in marmots , with adult males weighing on average 23 % more than females . It can be identified by a wide head , small eyes and ears , stubby legs , and a long , bushy tail . Its sharp , rounded claws aid in digging burrows . The coat color changes with the season and with age , but an adult marmot 's coat is brown all over with small whiter areas for most of the year .
The Olympic marmot has a diet consisting mainly of a variety of meadow flora , including dry grasses , which it also uses as bedding in burrows . It is preyed on by various terrestrial mammals and avian raptors , but its main predator today is the coyote . The Olympic marmot is rated a species of the least concern on the IUCN Red List . It is protected by law in the Olympic National Park , which contains most of its habitat .
The burrows of this marmot are made in colonies , which are found in various mountain locations and differ in size . A colony may contain as few as one marmot family or multiple families with up to 40 marmots . Olympic marmots are very sociable animals which often engage in play fighting and vocalize four different whistles to communicate . During hibernation beginning in September , they are in a deep sleep and do not eat , causing them to lose half their body mass . Adults emerge in May and their young in June . Female marmots reach sexual maturity at three years of age , and produce litters of 1 – 6 every other mating season .
= = Taxonomy = =
American zoologist and ethnographer Clinton Hart Merriam first formally described the Olympic marmot in 1898 , as Arctomys olympus , from a specimen he and Vernon Orlando Bailey collected on the Sol Duc River . The species name olympus ( Olympic in Greek ) was given because this species is native to the Olympic Peninsula . The species now is classified with all other marmots in the genus Marmota . Zoologist R. L. Rausch classified the Olympic marmot as the subspecies olympus of Marmota marmota ( he included all North American marmots in this species , which now only includes the Eurasian Alpine marmot ) in 1953 , but it has usually been treated as a distinct species , a classification supported by taxonomic reviews starting with that of zoologist Robert S. Hoffmann and colleagues in 1979 .
Within Marmota , the Olympic marmot is grouped with species such as the hoary marmot ( M. caligata ) in the subgenus Petromarmota . Among this grouping , mitochondrial DNA analyses suggest that the Olympic marmot could be the most basal species . The Olympic marmot is thought to have originated during the last glacial period as an isolated relict population of the hoary marmot in the Pleistocene ice @-@ free refugia . The Olympic marmot deviates from the typical Petromarmota marmots in the shape and large size of its mandible ( jawbone ) , in differences of the dorsal ( back ) region , and having 40 chromosomes instead of 42 , all of which are characteristics that resemble the subgenus Marmota . Some of the differences of the Olympic marmot 's jawbone from the typical Petramarmota are also evident in the Vancouver Island marmot ( M. vancouverensis ) , which evolved separately , but also occurs in a restricted range with a small population .
= = Description = =
The Olympic marmot 's head is wide with small eyes and ears ; the body is stocky with stubby legs and sharp , rounded claws that facilitate digging ; the tail is bushy and ranges from 18 to 24 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 4 in ) long . The Olympic marmot is about the size of a domestic cat ; adults weigh from 3 @.@ 1 to 11 kg ( 6 @.@ 8 to 24 @.@ 3 lb ) and are from 67 to 75 cm ( 26 to 30 in ) in length , with the average being 71 cm ( 28 in ) . It is the largest marmot , about 7 % longer than the hoary and Vancouver Island marmots . This species has the most pronounced sexual dimorphism found in marmots , with adult males weighing on average 9 @.@ 3 kg ( 21 lb ) and adult females weighing 7 @.@ 1 kg ( 16 lb ) .
The Olympic marmot has a double @-@ layered coat consisting of soft thick underfur , for warmth , and coarser outer hairs . Infant marmots ' fur is dark gray in color ; this changes in the yearling period to grayish brown with lighter patches . The adult coat is brown on the body with some smaller white or pale brown patches for most of the year , becoming darker overall as the year progresses . The first molt of the year occurs in June , commencing with two black patches of fur forming on the back of the shoulders . This black coloration then spreads to the rest of the body , and by the fall the coat is almost black . A second molt is thought to occur during hibernation , and upon emergence from hibernation in the spring Olympic marmots may be tan or yellowish . The Olympic marmot 's muzzle is almost always white , with a white band in front of the eyes .
The Olympic marmot can be readily distinguished from the hoary marmot , with which it shares almost every other physical trait , by the lack of contrasting black feet and a black spot on the head . The Vancouver Island marmot has a similar coat color , chocolate brown with white patches .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Olympic marmots are native to the Olympic Mountains in the Olympic Peninsula of Washington state . About 90 % of Olympic marmots ' total habitat is located in Olympic National Park , where they are often sighted , especially on Hurricane Ridge . Marmots are in decline in some areas of the park due to the encroachment of trees into meadows as well as predation by coyotes , and they are seldom seen in the wetter southwestern part .
Within the park , Olympic marmots inhabit lush sub @-@ alpine and alpine meadows , fields , and montane scree slopes . They live in colonies spread out in various locations in the mountains and containing the burrows of differing numbers of marmot families . Some meadows can contain as few animals as one marmot family , and some can have multiple families adding up to 40 marmots in total . There is a higher risk of inbreeding and death from random events in meadows with fewer marmots , making migration essential to the survival of the species . Burrows can be found at various elevations , ranging from 920 m ( 3 @,@ 020 ft ) to 1 @,@ 990 m ( 6 @,@ 530 ft ) ; they are most often found in the range of 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) to 1 @,@ 750 m ( 5 @,@ 740 ft ) . Burrows are more frequently located on south @-@ facing slopes , which generally receive more precipitation , 75 cm ( 30 in ) per year ( mostly snow ) , and thus have more available flora . The home range of a family of marmots usually covers from half an acre to five acres ( 0 @.@ 2 – 2 hectares ) . The Olympic marmot is well @-@ adapted to its generally cold natural habitat , where there is snowfall almost every month of the year on the mountain slopes and barren grasslands .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Feeding = = =
Olympic marmots eat meadow flora such as avalanche and glacier lilies , heather blossoms , sub @-@ alpine lupine , mountain buckwheat , harebells , sedges , and mosses . They prefer green , tender , flowering plants over other sources of food , but roots are a large part of their diets in the early spring when other plants have not yet appeared . During May and June , they may resort to gnawing on trees for food . They also occasionally eat fruits and insects . Their water requirements are met from the juice in the vegetation they eat and dew on the plants ' surfaces .
When snowfall covers vegetation , marmots have a more carnivorous diet , consuming carrion encountered while digging for roots and possibly killing late hibernating chipmunks . At this time , they also obtain water from melted snow . Hibernating Olympic marmots do not keep food in their burrows ; instead , they gain fat before hibernating and can double their body weight to survive eight months without eating .
= = = Predation = = =
The Olympic marmot 's predators are mostly terrestrial mammals such as coyotes , cougars , and bobcats ; however , it is also preyed on by avian raptors such as golden eagles . Black bears probably rarely prey on marmots , as evidenced by the fact that their presence close to colonies generally does not generate alarm calls unless the bear advances to within 6 m ( 20 ft ) of the colony . The coyote is the primary predator and studies have shown that marmots make up approximately 20 % of coyotes ' diet during the summer months . During a study in the Olympic Mountains , 36 coyote droppings were collected and two of them contained marmot hairs .
In common with all other marmots , Olympic marmots use the trill as an alarm call to alert other marmots to predators . Continuing alarm calls indicate that a predator is close , and thus increase vigilance in the marmots ; a single alarm call results in the marmots curiously looking around for the predator . Sightings of land predators , coyotes in particular , receive more alarm calls than aerial predators . Fishers are viewed as predators by Olympic marmots , eliciting alarm calls when just passing by a colony . It has also been observed that these trills can be used as a mechanism to trick and frustrate predators . An additional behavior that takes place when a marmot becomes nervous or bothered by a predator is that it retracts its top lip to show its upper incisors . It is almost like a greeting for predators .
It was reported during a study by David P. Barash that when hunting Olympic marmots as prey , coyotes and cougars approach the marmot within about 15 m ( 49 ft ) , advance to an alpine fir close to the victim , and then chase the marmot downhill to its colony . If the marmot is able to flee into a burrow and sound an alarm call , other marmots will scurry to their burrows for safety . But the predator does not stop here ; it is usually persistent and will scratch outside the entrance to try to dig out its prey . Minutes later , when a marmot from a nearby burrow peers out to see if the predator has gone , it will sometimes sound another alarm call , which summons the predator to its burrow . It dives back underground and the predator usually remains frustrated as these alarm calls continue and force it to run around from burrow to burrow , getting tired and aggravated , and finally giving up .
As humans in the Olympic National Park do not hunt the marmot , but simply observe them , they do not pose a threat . When researchers intrude on colonies to observe behavior , the families living in burrows there initially vocalize ascending calls , showing surprise , but later adjust to the presence of humans , allowing studies to proceed .
The ectoparasites of the Olympic marmot include the cestode Diandrya composita , and fleas of the genus Oropsylla .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Colonies = = =
Olympic marmots are gregarious burrowing animals , living in colonies typically containing multiple burrows . Activity varies with the weather , time of day , and time of year ; owing to rainfall and fog cover during June , July , and August , the marmots spend most of the day inside their burrows , and forage for food mostly in the morning and evening . In between these times , Olympic marmots can sometimes be found lying on rocks where they sun themselves for warmth , grooming each other , playing , chirping , and feeding together . Burrows are multi @-@ purpose structures , used for hibernation , protection from bad weather and predators , and to raise newborn pups .
A typical colony of marmots consists of a male , two to three females , and their young , sometimes living in groups of more than a dozen animals ; young marmots stay with their family for at least two years , so a burrow is often home to a newly born litter and a litter of two @-@ year @-@ olds . Marmots seldom move to other colonies with the exception of sub @-@ adults of two to three years old , which may leave the home colony to start a new family elsewhere ; females move only a few hundred meters , though males often move several kilometers away from their birth burrow .
A colony may have a subordinate or " satellite " male , smaller and younger than the colony male , who may take over as the dominant male if the incumbent dies . The satellite male lives in a separate burrow , 55 to 150 m ( 200 to 500 ft ) away from the rest of the colony . After emergence from hibernation , if the satellite male and the colony male are both still living in the same colony , the dominant colony male may chase the satellite around multiple times per day . The satellite male 's feeding area is limited to areas far from the rest of the marmots in the colony , and he must stay away from the other marmots ' burrows as long as the colony male is near . While the satellite male does not approach the other marmots in the colony , they sometimes make trips over to the satellite male 's burrow , often about two times an hour . After more time has passed since hibernation , males will become less hostile towards each other , and less avoidance and chasing will occur . Male @-@ male competition ends around the same time that the reproductive season does . The diminution of hostile behavior is only temporary , as the satellite male becomes assigned to its subordinate status again the following spring after emergence from hibernation and the ritual begins again .
= = = Communication = = =
When greeting each other , these very sociable animals will usually touch noses or nose to cheek ; in courtship rituals they may inter @-@ lock teeth and nibble each other 's ears and necks . They may also engage in play fighting , in which two marmots on their hind legs push each other with their paws ; this play fighting is more aggressive between older marmots . In fights that have been observed during a study , only about 10 % of fights had distinct outcomes .
When communicating vocally , they have four different types of whistles , differing in this from their close relatives , the hoary marmot and the Vancouver Island marmot . The Olympic marmot 's whistles include flat calls , ascending calls , descending calls , and trills ; all of these are in a small frequency range of about 2 @,@ 700 Hz . Flat , ascending , and descending calls are most often voiced singly . The ascending call has a duration of about half a second , starting with a " yell " on one note and ending with a " chip " on a higher note ; it is often used as a distress or warning call for unfamiliar smells and noises . These same " yips " are heard when Olympic marmots are play fighting , along with low growls and chattering of teeth . The descending call ends on a lower note than it started on . The trill , which sounds like multiple ascending calls put together as one longer sound , consists of multiple ranging notes and is voiced as an alarm call to communicate to other marmots in the area that danger may be approaching and they should return to their burrows . Females with young have the responsibility to watch out for their young and other relatives near the burrow , and therefore voice the trill more often than other Olympic marmots . If marmots are not accustomed to human contact in a certain area , they may also sound a trill when seeing a person , in order to alert other marmots . At places like Hurricane Ridge , where seeing humans is a frequent occurrence , most marmots will not acknowledge human presence at all .
Olympic marmots also communicate through the sense of smell . A gland located in their cheek exudes chemicals which they rub on scenting points , such as shrubs and rocks , which can be smelt by other marmots in the area .
= = = Hibernation = = =
Olympic marmots start to enter hibernation in early September . Before hibernating , the marmots bring dry grasses into the burrow for bedding or food . Sometimes in early September marmots will stay in their burrows for a few consecutive days , with only brief outings that allow for a little foraging . During this period , they do not play fight or socialize with other marmots ; they limit themselves to peeking out and casually sitting outside their burrows . Nonparous females ( those who have not given birth yet ) and adult males become inactive first , because they do not need to store as much fat beforehand . The parous females , yearlings , and young of the year become inactive a few weeks later , because they have to gain more weight . The marmots of a colony hibernate in a single burrow space , which they keep closed with dirt . Adults emerge in May , and the young in June . Marmots do not eat during hibernation , so they have to store fat before becoming inactive .
Olympic marmots are " deep hibernators " ; they cannot easily be awoken ; their body temperature drops to below 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) and heart rate can slow to three beats per minute . Marmots warm their bodies about every ten days . Olympic marmots lose 50 % of their body mass over the seven to eight months of winter hibernation . Hibernation is the most dangerous time for the Olympic marmot as , in years of light snowfall , as many as 50 % of the young born that year will die from the cold because of the lack of insulation that is provided by good snow cover . When Olympic marmots emerge in early May , thick snow cover is still present from the preceding winter , so they are not very active at this time . Sometimes they are so disoriented after awaking from hibernation that they have to relearn the colony 's landmarks ( which are now covered in snow , which obscures them even more ) ; they wander around aimlessly until they find their burrows .
= = = Life cycle = = =
The Olympic marmot , along with the hoary marmot , has the lowest reproductive rate of any rodent . A female Olympic marmot has a litter of from one to six young ( 3 @.@ 3 on average ) in alternate years . In a given year , a third of females will have a litter . Half of the pups die before the following spring . Those pups that survive the following spring can live into their teens . Both males and females mature sexually at three years , but females generally do not reproduce until they are four and a half years old . The marmot comes out from hibernation at the beginning of May , and estrus ( heat ) occurs about two weeks later . After hibernation ends , both male and female Olympic marmots attempt to entice the opposite sex with courtship rituals . Females who have never produced a litter before tend to be more aggressive and will chase or instigate fights with males ; females which have already produced young tend to greet the male with nasal to nasal or nasal to genital contact , with copulation following shortly afterwards . This approach is more successful than the aggressive manner of the non @-@ parous female , with mating taking place within 11 to 20 days after hibernation . The relationship between a sexually mature male and female Olympic marmot is polygynous ; males tend to breed with three or four females in each mating season .
Approximately four weeks after mating , the female gives birth to her young in a grass @-@ lined burrow underground . Newborn pups cannot see , have no fur , and are pink in color . At first , the young exhibit no sexual dimorphism . It is about a month before the young Olympic marmots first leave the burrow ; around the same time , they begin to be weaned . Even after they are allowed to emerge , the young initially stay within the immediate vicinity of the burrow , where they can be found chasing each other and wrestling playfully . Within a few weeks after first emerging from the burrow , the young are fully weaned and can feed themselves . Olympic marmots are not completely independent from their mothers until they reach two years of age . Breeding @-@ age female marmots are extremely important to marmot populations . If a female of breeding age dies it can take years to replace her ; marmots are usually limited to six pups in a litter , the maturation period is long , and many marmots die before reaching maturity .
= = Interaction with humans = =
The Olympic marmot is the second @-@ rarest North American marmot , behind the critically endangered Vancouver Island marmot . Marmots were first sighted in the Olympic Peninsula in the 1880s . In the 1960s , David P. Barash conducted a three @-@ year study of Olympic marmots after which he reported that there was an abundance of marmots in the mountains . In 1989 , the total Olympic marmot population was calculated to be only about 2 @,@ 000 , but this low number was due to poor data collection . Other than this population census , little further research was done on the Olympic marmot until the late 1990s , when concerns arose about population status .
Rangers and frequent visitors to the Olympic National Park had noticed that some populations of Olympic marmots had disappeared from their usual habitats . In response to this , the University of Michigan began a population study in 2002 , in which the marmot population continued to decline by about 10 % a year until 2006 . Predation by coyotes that had not been present in the area before the 20th century was found to be the main cause of death of females , inhibiting population re @-@ growth . By 2006 , numbers had dropped to 1 @,@ 000 individuals ; this figure increased to around 4 @,@ 000 from 2007 to 2010 , when colonies stabilized and survival rates rose . In 2010 , volunteers started to collect and store data about marmot populations in the park through a monitoring program . The Olympic marmot has been considered a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List since first being included in 1996 . Its range is small , but 90 % of its total habitat is protected due to being in Olympic National Park . The park , which holds multiple other endemic species , has been designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and a World Heritage Site . State law declares that the Olympic marmot is a protected wildlife species and cannot be hunted .
Olympic marmots are readily affected by climate change because of their sensitivity to changed habitats . When meadows in Olympic National Park dried out , marmots there died or moved . In the long term , meadows may be superseded by forests . Climate change will alter the timing , composition , and quality of the marmots ' food . Olympic marmots can become more vulnerable to predators when daytime temperatures rise too high for foraging , causing them to forage in the cooler evenings when predators are more difficult to notice . In warm winters , there is heavier predation by coyotes . Marmots become more accessible to coyotes as lower banks of snow allow coyotes to move up higher on mountains where marmots dwell , into areas which they could not usually reach during an average cold winter . Climate change could also have positive effects ; a warmer climate would result in a longer growing season in which marmots could mature more quickly and thus breed more often .
In 2009 , the Olympic marmot was designated a state symbol of Washington : the official " endemic mammal . " Governor Chris Gregoire 's signing of Senate Bill 5071 was the result of a two @-@ year effort by the fourth and fifth graders of Wedgwood Elementary School in Seattle . The students researched the marmot 's habits , and answered legislators ' questions to overcome initial bipartisan opposition to another state symbol .
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= Felt Mountain =
Felt Mountain is the debut studio album by English electronic music duo Goldfrapp , released on 11 September 2000 by Mute Records . The album takes influence from a variety of music styles such as 1960s pop , cabaret , folk and electronica .
Felt Mountain peaked at number 57 in Goldfrapp 's native United Kingdom , and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in October 2001 . It was generally well received by music critics , and it was described as " simultaneously smarmy and seductive , yet elegant and graceful " . In 2001 , the album was shortlisted for the Mercury Prize , an annual music prize awarded for the best British or Irish album from the previous year .
= = Recording and production = =
Goldfrapp signed a recording contract with London @-@ based record label Mute Records in August 1999 . The pair began recording their debut album over a six @-@ month period , beginning in September 1999 , in a rented bungalow in the Wiltshire countryside . The recording process was difficult for Alison Goldfrapp , who was often alone and disturbed by the mice and insects in the bungalow . Gregory described their recording sessions as intense because he was unaccustomed to composing with others . Goldfrapp contributed the album 's lyrics , and Gregory and Goldfrapp composed the music together . The lyrics are abstract obsessional tales inspired by films , Goldfrapp 's childhood , and the loneliness she felt while recording the album . Musically , the album takes influence from a variety of styles including 1960s pop , cabaret , folk , and electronica .
= = Songs = =
" Lovely Head " , Felt Mountain 's opening track , features high lonesome whistling and heavily processed vocals . The song was described as influenced by Shirley Bassey and released as the album 's lead single . The second track , " Paper Bag " , is about being obsessed with someone and not being able to have them . It is followed by the third single " Human " , a track with a mambo @-@ style beat . The fourth song , " Pilots " , which describes travelers floating in the atmosphere above the earth , was inspired by John Barry 's James Bond theme songs . In the United Kingdom , a remixed version of the song was released as a single , reaching number 68 on the UK Singles Chart .
The ballad " Deer Stop " features childlike vocals and sexually suggestive lyrics . The title track was influenced by Goldfrapp 's " idea of a wolf being whipped in this little Tudor house overlooking a snowy landscape " . " Oompa Radar " , the seventh track , was inspired by Roman Polanski 's 1966 film Cul @-@ de @-@ Sac . The cabaret @-@ influenced song uses a flugelhorn and a cuckoo clock to switch between tempos . " Utopia " was released as the album 's second single . The album closes with " Horse Tears " , a minimalist piano ballad with filtered vocals .
= = Critical reception = =
AllMusic reviewer Heather Phares referred to the album as a " strange and beautiful mix of the romantic , eerie , and world @-@ weary " and named it " one of 2000 's most impressive debuts " . Eric Wittmershaus of Flak Magazine called Felt Mountain " an enchanting , accessible debut " , citing " Human " and " Deer Stop " as its best songs . In a review for Pitchfork , Matt LeMay described the album as " elegant and graceful " , but felt that the " songs aren 't all that different from one another . " Sacha Esterson of musicOMH compared Felt Mountain to Portishead and wrote that it could be a " contender for the year 's best album " . Yahoo ! Music 's Ken Micallef commented that the duo " make elegiac music as elegant as ' Diamonds Are Forever ' and as haunting as Bobbie Gentry 's ' Ode to Billie Joe ' " , concluding that the album 's " dark night of the soul is mostly bleak , beautiful , and deliciously bizarre . " Andrew Lynch of entertainment.ie noted that " [ a ] lthough at times it feel [ sic ] a little contrived , for the most part this is stylishly decadent music that should appeal to all fans of film noir . " The NME viewed the album as " cold , desolate and old @-@ fashioned " and argued that Felt Mountain was not a " bad concept " except that " Portishead got there first , and managed to update the spy @-@ film vibe with a hefty dose of break @-@ driven twilight melancholia . "
Q magazine included the album on its list of the top 50 albums of 2000 . The following year , Felt Mountain was shortlisted for the Mercury Prize , an annual music prize awarded for the best British or Irish album from the previous year . In 2006 , the album was included in Robert Dimery 's book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . In November 2009 , The Times ranked Felt Mountain at number 16 on its list of the 100 best pop albums of the 2000s . The album was placed at number 94 on Slant Magazine 's list of the best albums of the 2000s .
= = Commercial performance = =
Felt Mountain debuted at number 144 on the UK Albums Chart , selling 914 copies in its first week . In September 2001 , the album peaked at number 57 , and had sold 177 @,@ 096 copies by August 2005 . Felt Mountain was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on 12 October 2001 . In France , the album reached number 48 , and remained on the albums chart for 11 weeks . It reached the top 40 in Germany and the top 50 in Australia and Austria . Despite not appearing on any major charts in North America due to limited promotion , Felt Mountain had sold 52 @,@ 000 copies in the United States as of August 2006 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Felt Mountain .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= United States Bill of Rights =
The Bill of Rights is the collective name for the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution . Proposed following the oftentimes bitter 1787 – 88 battle over ratification of the U.S. Constitution , and crafted to address the objections raised by Anti @-@ Federalists , the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights , clear limitations on the government 's power in judicial and other proceedings , and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people . The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those found in several earlier documents , including the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the English Bill of Rights 1689 , along with earlier documents such as Magna Carta ( 1215 ) .
On June 8 , 1789 , Representative James Madison introduced nine amendments to the constitution in the House of Representatives . Among his recommendations Madison proposed opening up the Constitution and inserting specific rights limiting the power of Congress in Article One , Section 9 . Seven of these limitations would become part of the ten ratified Bill of Rights amendments . Ultimately , on September 25 , 1789 , Congress approved twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution and submitted them to the states for ratification . Contrary to Madison 's original proposal that the articles be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution , they were proposed as supplemental additions ( codicils ) to it . Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15 , 1791 , and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution . Article Two became part of the Constitution on May 7 , 1992 , as the Twenty @-@ seventh Amendment . Article One is technically still pending before the states .
Although Madison 's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states , the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government . The door for their application upon state governments was opened in the 1860s , following ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment . Since the early 20th century both federal and state courts have used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to state and local governments . The process is known as incorporation .
There are several original engrossed copies of the Bill of Rights still in existence . One of these is on permanent public display at the National Archives in Washington , D.C.
= = Background = =
= = = The Philadelphia Convention = = =
Prior to the ratification and implementation of the United States Constitution , the thirteen sovereign states followed the Articles of Confederation , created by the Second Continental Congress and ratified in 1781 . However , the national government that operated under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to adequately regulate the various conflicts that arose between the states . The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses of the Articles that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfully concluded .
The convention took place from May 14 to September 17 , 1787 , in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles , the intention of many of its proponents , chief among them James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York , was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one . The convention convened in the Pennsylvania State House , and George Washington of Virginia was unanimously elected as president of the convention . The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution are among the men known as the Founding Fathers of the new nation . Thomas Jefferson , who was Minister to France during the convention , characterized the delegates as an assembly of " demi @-@ gods . " Rhode Island refused to send delegates to the convention .
On September 12 , George Mason of Virginia suggested the addition of a Bill of Rights to the Constitution modeled on previous state declarations , and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts made it a formal motion . However , the motion was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations after only a brief discussion . Madison , then an opponent of a Bill of Rights , later explained the vote by calling the state bills of rights " parchment barriers " that offered only an illusion of protection against tyranny . Another delegate , James Wilson of Pennsylvania , later argued that the act of enumerating the rights of the people would have been dangerous , because it would imply that rights not explicitly mentioned did not exist ; Hamilton echoed this point in Federalist No. 84 . Because Mason and Gerry had emerged as opponents of the proposed new Constitution , their motion — introduced five days before the end of the convention — may also have been seen by other delegates as a delaying tactic . The quick rejection of this motion , however , later endangered the entire ratification process . Author David O. Stewart calls the omission of a Bill of Rights in the original Constitution as " a political blunder of the first magnitude " while historian Jack N. Rakove calls it " the one serious miscalculation the framers made as they looked ahead to the struggle over ratification " .
Thirty @-@ nine delegates signed the finalized Constitution . Thirteen delegates left before it was completed , and three who remained at the convention until the end refused to sign it : Mason , Gerry , and Edmund Randolph of Virginia . Afterward , the Constitution was presented to the Articles of Confederation Congress with the request that it afterwards be submitted to a convention of delegates , chosen in each State by the people , for their assent and ratification .
= = = The Anti @-@ Federalists = = =
Following the Philadelphia Convention , some leading revolutionary figures such as Patrick Henry , Samuel Adams , and Richard Henry Lee publicly opposed the new frame of government , a position known as " Anti @-@ Federalism " . Elbridge Gerry wrote the most popular Anti @-@ Federalist tract , " Hon. Mr. Gerry 's Objections " , which went through 46 printings ; the essay particularly focused on the lack of a bill of rights in the proposed constitution . Many were concerned that a strong national government was a threat to individual rights and that the president would become a king . Jefferson wrote to Madison advocating a Bill of Rights : " Half a loaf is better than no bread . If we cannot secure all our rights , let us secure what we can . " The pseudonymous Anti @-@ Federalist " Brutus " wrote ,
We find they have , in the ninth section of the first article declared , that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended , unless in cases of rebellion — that no bill of attainder , or ex post facto law , shall be passed — that no title of nobility shall be granted by the United States , etc . If every thing which is not given is reserved , what propriety is there in these exceptions ? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeas corpus , to make ex post facto laws , pass bills of attainder , or grant titles of nobility ? It certainly does not in express terms . The only answer that can be given is , that these are implied in the general powers granted . With equal truth it may be said , that all the powers which the bills of rights guard against the abuse of , are contained or implied in the general ones granted by this Constitution .
He continued with this observation :
Ought not a government , vested with such extensive and indefinite authority , to have been restricted by a declaration of rights ? It certainly ought . So clear a point is this , that I cannot help suspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were less necessary under this Constitution than under those of the States , are wilfully endeavoring to deceive , and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage .
= = = The Federalists = = =
Supporters of the Constitution , known as Federalists , opposed a bill of rights for much of the ratification period , in part due to the procedural uncertainties it would create . Madison argued against such an inclusion , suggesting that state governments were sufficient guarantors of personal liberty , in No. 46 of The Federalist Papers , a series of essays promoting the Federalist position . Hamilton opposed a bill of rights in The Federalist No. 84 , stating that " the constitution is itself in every rational sense , and to every useful purpose , a bill of rights . He stated that ratification did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights , making protections unnecessary : " Here , in strictness , the people surrender nothing , and as they retain everything , they have no need of particular reservations . " Patrick Henry criticized the federalist point of view , writing that the legislature must be firmly informed " of the extent of the rights retained by the people ... being in a state of uncertainty , they will assume rather than give up powers by implication . " Other anti @-@ federalists pointed out that earlier earlier political documents , in particular the Magna Carta had protected specific rights . In response , Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different :
Bills of rights are in their origin , stipulations between kings and their subjects , abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege , reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince . Such was the Magna Charta , obtained by the Barons , swords in hand , from King John .
= = = Massachusetts compromise = = =
In December 1787 and January 1788 , five states — Delaware , Pennsylvania , New Jersey , Georgia , and Connecticut — ratified the Constitution with relative ease , though the bitter minority report of the Pennsylvania opposition was widely circulated . In contrast to its predecessors , the Massachusetts convention was angry and contentious , at one point erupting into a fistfight between Federalist delegate Francis Dana and Anti @-@ Federalist Elbridge Gerry when the latter was not allowed to speak . The impasse was resolved only when revolutionary heroes and leading Anti @-@ Federalists Samuel Adams and John Hancock agreed to ratification on the condition that the convention also propose amendments . The convention 's proposed amendments included a requirement for grand jury indictment in capital cases , which would form part of the Fifth Amendment , and an amendment reserving powers to the states not expressly given to the federal government , which would later form the basis for the Tenth Amendment .
Following Massachusetts ' lead , the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments . A committee of the Virginia convention headed by law professor George Wythe forwarded forty recommended amendments to Congress , twenty of which enumerated individual rights and another twenty of which enumerated states ' rights . The latter amendments included limitations on federal powers to levy taxes and regulate trade .
A minority of the Constitution 's critics , such as Maryland 's Luther Martin , continued to oppose ratification . However , Martin 's allies , such as New York 's John Lansing , Jr . , dropped moves to obstruct the Convention 's process . They began to take exception to the Constitution " as it was , " seeking amendments . Several conventions saw supporters for " amendments before " shift to a position of " amendments after " for the sake of staying in the Union . The New York Anti @-@ Federalist " circular letter " was sent to each state legislature proposing a second constitutional convention for " amendments before " , but it failed in the state legislatures . Ultimately , only North Carolina and Rhode Island waited for amendments from Congress before ratifying .
Article Seven of the proposed Constitution set the terms by which the new frame of government would be established . The new Constitution would become operational only when ratified by at least nine states ( three @-@ quarters of the thirteen states ) , and would only be established between the states ratifying it .
The new Constitution would be inoperative unless ratified by at least nine states ( three @-@ quarters of the thirteen states ) . Only then would it replace the existing government under the Articles of Confederation . It would apply only to those states that ratified it , and it would be valid for all states joining after . Following contentious battles in several states , the proposed Constitution reached that nine state ratification plateau in June 1788 . On September 13 , 1788 , the Articles of Confederation Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified by more than enough states for the new system to be implemented and directed the new government to meet in New York City on the first Wednesday in March the following year . On March 4 , 1789 , the new frame of government came into force with eleven of the thirteen states participating .
= = Proposal and ratification = =
= = = Anticipating amendments = = =
The 1st United States Congress , which met in New York City 's Federal Hall , was a triumph for the Federalists . The Senate of eleven states contained 20 Federalists with only two Anti @-@ Federalists , both from Virginia . The House included 48 Federalists to 11 Anti @-@ Federalists , the latter of whom were from only four states : Massachusetts , New York , Virginia and South Carolina . Among the Virginia delegation to the House was James Madison , Patrick Henry 's chief opponent in the Virginia ratification battle . In retaliation for Madison 's victory at that convention , Henry and other Anti @-@ Federalists , who controlled the Virginia House of Delegates had gerrymandered a hostile district for Madison 's planned congressional run and recruited Madison 's future presidential successor , James Monroe , to oppose him . Madison defeated Monroe after offering a campaign pledge that he would introduce constitutional amendments comprising a Bill of Rights at the First Congress .
Originally opposed to the inclusion of a bill of rights in the Constitution , he had gradually come to understand the importance of doing so during the often contentious ratification debates . By taking the initiative to propose amendments himself through the Congress , he hoped to preempt a second constitutional convention that might , it was feared , undo the difficult compromises of 1787 , and open the entire Constitution to reconsideration , thus risking the dissolution of the new federal government . Writing to Jefferson , he stated , " The friends of the Constitution , some from an approbation of particular amendments , others from a spirit of conciliation , are generally agreed that the System should be revised . But they wish the revisal to be carried no farther than to supply additional guards for liberty . " He also felt that amendments guaranteeing personal liberties would " give to the Government its due popularity and stability " . Finally , he hoped that the amendments " would acquire by degrees the character of fundamental maxims of free government , and as they become incorporated with the national sentiment , counteract the impulses of interest and passion " . Historians continue to debate the degree to which Madison considered the amendments of the Bill of Rights necessary , and to what degree he considered them politically expedient ; in the outline of his address , he wrote , " Bill of Rights — useful — not essential — " .
On the occasion of his April 30 , 1789 inauguration as the nation 's first president , George Washington addressed the subject of amending the Constitution . He urged the legislators ,
whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the benefits of an united and effective government , or which ought to await the future lessons of experience ; a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen , and a regard for public harmony , will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the question , how far the former can be impregnably fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted .
= = = Crafting amendments = = =
James Madison introduced a series of Constitutional amendments in the House of Representatives for consideration . Among his proposals was one that would have added introductory language stressing natural rights to the preamble . Another would apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government . Several sought to protect individual personal rights by limiting various Constitutional powers of Congress . Like Washington , Madison urged Congress to keep the revision to the Constitution " a moderate one " , limited to protecting individual rights .
Madison was deeply read in the history of government and used a range of sources in composing the amendments . The English Magna Carta of 1215 inspired the right to petition and to trial by jury , for example , while the English Bill of Rights of 1689 provided an early precedent for the right to keep and bear arms ( although this applied only to Protestants ) and prohibited cruel and unusual punishment .
The greatest influence on Madison 's text , however , was existing state constitutions . Many of his amendments , including his proposed new preamble , were based on the Virginia Declaration of Rights drafted by Anti @-@ Federalist George Mason in 1776 . To reduce future opposition to ratification , Madison also looked for recommendations shared by many states . He did provide one , however , that no state had requested : " No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience , or the freedom of the press , or the trial by jury in criminal cases . " He did not include an amendment that every state had asked for , one that would have made tax assessments voluntary instead of contributions .
James Madison 's proposed amendments to the Constitution :
First . That there be prefixed to the constitution a declaration that all power is originally vested in , and consequently derived from the people .
That government is instituted , and ought to be exercised for the benefit of the people ; which consists in the enjoyment of life and liberty , with the right of acquiring and using property , and generally of pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety .
That the people have an indubitable , unalienable , and indefeasible right to reform or change their government , whenever it be found adverse or inadequate to the purposes of its institution .
Secondly . That in article 1st , section 2 , clause 3 , these words be struck out , to wit : " The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand , but each State shall have at least one Representative , and until such enumeration shall be made ; " and in place thereof be inserted these words , to wit : " After the first actual enumeration , there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand , until the number amounts to — , after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress , that the number shall never be less than — , nor more than — , but each State shall , after the first enumeration , have at least two Representatives ; and prior thereto . "
Thirdly . That in article 2nd , section 6 , clause 1 , there be added to the end of the first sentence , these words , to wit , " But no law varying the compensation last ascertained shall operate before the next ensuing election of representatives . "
Fourthly . That in article 2nd , section 9 , between clauses 3 and 4 , be inserted these clauses , to wit , The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship , nor shall any national religion be established , nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience by in any manner , or on any pretext infringed .
The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak , to write , or to publish their sentiments ; and the freedom of the press , as one of the great bulwarks of liberty , shall be inviolable .
The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good , nor from applying to the legislature by petitions , or remonstrances for redress of their grievances .
The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed ; a well armed , and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country : but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms , shall be compelled to render military service in person .
No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner ; nor at any time , but in a manner warranted by law .
No person shall be subject , except in cases of impeachment , to more than one punishment , or one trial for the same office ; nor shall be compelled to be a witness against himself ; nor be deprived of life , liberty , or property without due process of law ; nor be obliged to relinquish his property , where it may be necessary for public use , without a just compensation .
Excessive bail shall not be required , nor excessive fines imposed , nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted .
The rights of the people to be secured in their persons , their houses , their papers , and their other property from all unreasonable searches and seizures , shall not be violated by warrants issued without probable cause , supported by oath or affirmation , or not particularly describing the places to be searched , or the persons or things to be seized .
In all criminal prosecutions , the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial , to be informed of the cause and nature of the accusation , to be confronted with his accusers , and the witnesses against him ; to have a compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor ; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense .
The exceptions here or elsewhere in the constitution , made in favor of particular rights , shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people ; or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution ; but either as actual limitations of such powers , or as inserted merely for greater caution .
Fifthly . That in article 2nd , section 10 , between clauses 1 and 2 , be inserted this clause , to wit : No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience , or the freedom of the press , or the trial by jury in criminal cases
Sixthly . That article 3rd , section 2 , be annexed to the end of clause 2nd , these words to wit : but no appeal to such court shall be allowed where the value in controversy shall not amount to — dollars : nor shall any fact triable by jury , according to the course of common law , be otherwise re @-@ examinable than may consist with the principles of common law .
Seventhly . That in article 3rd , section 2 , the third clause be struck out , and in its place be inserted the classes following , to wit :
The trial of all crimes ( except in cases of impeachments , and cases arising in the land or naval forces , or the militia when on actual service in time of war or public danger ) shall be by an impartial jury of freeholders of the vicinage , with the requisite of unanimity for conviction , of the right of challenge , and other accustomed requisites ; and in all crimes punishable with loss of life or member , presentment or indictment by a grand jury shall be an essential preliminary , provided that in cases of crimes committed within any county which may be in possession of an enemy , or in which a general insurrection may prevail , the trial may by law be authorized in some other county of the same State , as near as may be to the seat of the offence .
In cases of crimes committed not within any county , the trial may by law be in such county as the laws shall have prescribed . In suits at common law , between man and man , the trial by jury , as one of the best securities to the rights of the people , ought to remain inviolate .
Eighthly . That immediately after article 6th , be inserted , as article 7th , the clauses following , to wit :
The powers delegated by this constitution , are appropriated to the departments to which they are respectively distributed : so that the legislative department shall never exercise the powers vested in the executive or judicial ; nor the executive exercise the powers vested in the legislative or judicial ; nor the judicial exercise the powers vested in the legislative or executive departments .
The powers not delegated by this constitution , nor prohibited by it to the states , are reserved to the States respectively .
Ninthly . That article 7th , be numbered as article 8th .
Federalist representatives were quick to attack Madison 's proposal , fearing that any move to amend the new Constitution so soon after its implementation would create an appearance of instability in the government . The House , unlike the Senate , was open to the public , and members such as Fisher Ames warned that a prolonged " dissection of the constitution " before the galleries could shake public confidence . A procedural battle followed , and after initially forwarding the amendments to a select committee for revision , the House agreed to take Madison 's proposal up as a full body beginning on July 21 , 1789 .
The eleven @-@ member committee made some significant changes to Madison 's nine proposed amendments , including eliminating most of his preamble , adding the phrase " freedom of speech , and of the press " , and adding what would become the Tenth Amendment , reserving powers to the states . The House debated the amendments for eleven days . Roger Sherman of Connecticut persuaded the House to place the amendments at the Constitution 's end so that the document would " remain inviolate " , rather than adding them throughout , as Madison had proposed . The amendments , revised and condensed from twenty to seventeen , were approved and forwarded to the Senate on August 24 , 1789 .
The Senate edited these amendments still further , making 26 changes of its own . Madison 's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government was eliminated , and the seventeen amendments were condensed to twelve , which were approved on September 9 , 1789 . The Senate also eliminated the last of Madison 's proposed changes to the preamble .
On September 21 , 1789 , a House – Senate Conference Committee convened to resolve the numerous differences between the two Bill of Rights proposals . On September 24 , 1789 , the committee issued this report , which finalized 12 Constitutional Amendments for House and Senate to consider . This final version was approved by joint resolution of Congress on September 25 , 1789 , to be forwarded to the states on September 28 .
By the time the debates and legislative maneuvering that went into crafting the Bill of Rights amendments was done , many personal opinions had shifted . A number of Federalists came out in support , thus silencing the Anti @-@ Federalists ' most effective critique . Many Anti @-@ Federalists , in contrast , were now opposed , realizing that Congressional approval of these amendments would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention . Anti @-@ Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution , such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation , intact .
Madison remained active in the progress of the amendments throughout the legislative process . Historian Gordon S. Wood writes that " there is no question that it was Madison 's personal prestige and his dogged persistence that saw the amendments through the Congress . There might have been a federal Constitution without Madison but certainly no Bill of Rights . "
= = = Ratification process = = =
The twelve articles of amendment approved by congress were officially submitted to the Legislatures of the several States for consideration on September 28 , 1789 . The following states ratified some or all of the amendments :
New Jersey — November 20 , 1789 • Articles One and Three through Twelve ( Ratified Article Two on May 7 , 1992 )
Maryland — December 19 , 1789 • Articles One through Twelve
North Carolina — December 22 , 1789 • Articles One through Twelve
South Carolina — January 19 , 1790 • Articles One through Twelve
New Hampshire — January 25 , 1790 • Articles One and Three through Twelve ( Ratified Article Two on March 7 , 1985 )
Delaware — January 28 , 1790 • Articles Two through Twelve
New York — February 24 , 1790 • Articles One and Three through Twelve
Pennsylvania — March 10 , 1790 • Articles One and Three through Twelve
Rhode Island — June 7 , 1790 • Articles One and Three through Twelve ( Ratified Article Two on June 10 , 1993 )
Vermont — November 3 , 1791 • Articles One through Twelve
Virginia — December 15 , 1791 • Articles One through Twelve
Having been approved by the requisite three – fourths of the several states , there being 14 States in the Union at the time ( as Vermont had been admitted into the Union on March 4 , 1791 ) , the ratification of Articles Three through Twelve was completed and they became Amendments 1 through 10 of the Constitution . Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson certified their adoption on March 1 , 1792 .
As they had not yet been approved by 11 of the 14 states , the ratification of Article One ( ratified by 10 ) and Article Two ( ratified by 6 ) remained incomplete . The ratification plateau they needed to reach soon rose to 12 of 15 states when Kentucky joined the Union ( June 1 , 1792 ) . On June 27 , 1792 , the Kentucky General Assembly ratified all 12 amendments , however this action did not come to light until 1997 .
Article One came within one state of the number needed to become adopted into the Constitution on two occasions between 1789 and 1803 . Despite coming close to ratification early on , it has never received the approval of enough states to become part of the Constitution . As Congress did not attach a ratification time limit to the article , it is still technically pending before the states . Since no state has approved it since 1792 , ratification by an additional 27 states would now be necessary for the article to be adopted .
Article Two , initially ratified by seven states through 1792 ( including Kentucky ) , was not ratified by another state for eighty years . The Ohio General Assembly ratified it on May 6 , 1873 in protest of an unpopular Congressional pay raise . A century later , on March 6 , 1978 , the Wyoming Legislature also ratified the article . Gregory Watson , a University of Texas at Austin undergraduate student , started a new push for the article 's ratification with a letter @-@ writing campaign to state legislatures . As a result , by May 1992 , enough states had approved Article Two ( 38 of the 50 states in the Union ) for it to become the Twenty @-@ seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution . The amendment 's adoption was certified by Archivist of the United States Don W. Wilson and subsequently affirmed by a vote of Congress on May 20 , 1992 .
Three states did not complete action on the twelve articles of amendment when they were initially put before the states . Connecticut and Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify . Both chambers of the Massachusetts General Court ratified a number of the amendments ( the Senate adopted 10 of 12 and the House 9 of 12 ) , but failed to reconcile their two lists or to send official notice to the Secretary of State of the ones they did agree upon . All three later ratified the Constitutional amendments originally known as Articles 3 through 12 as part of the 1939 commemoration of the Bill of Rights ' sesquicentennial : Massachusetts on March 2 , Georgia on March 18 , and Connecticut on April 19 . Connecticut and Georgia would also later ratify Article Two , on May 13 , 1987 and February 2 , 1988 respectively .
= = Application = =
The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of its existence ; in the words of Gordon S. Wood , " After ratification , most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution . " The Court made no important decisions protecting free speech rights , for example , until 1931 . Historian Richard Labunski attributes the Bill 's long legal dormancy to three factors : first , it took time for a " culture of tolerance " to develop that would support the Bill 's provisions with judicial and popular will ; second , the Supreme Court spent much of the 19th century focused on issues relating to intergovernmental balances of power ; and third , the Bill initially only applied to the federal government , a restriction affirmed by Barron v. Baltimore ( 1833 ) . In the twentieth century , however , most of the Bill 's provisions were applied to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment — a process known as incorporation — beginning with the freedom of speech clause , in Gitlow v. New York ( 1925 ) . In Talton v. Mayes ( 1896 ) , the Court ruled that Constitutional protections , including the provisions of the Bill of Rights , do not apply to the actions of American Indian tribal governments .
= = = First Amendment = = =
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion , or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech , or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble , and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances .
The First Amendment prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion , impeding the free exercise of religion , abridging the freedom of speech , infringing on the freedom of the press , interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances . Initially , the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by Congress , and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today .
In Everson v. Board of Education ( 1947 ) , the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for " a wall of separation between church and State " , though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute . Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th- and 21st @-@ century court decisions that protected various forms of political speech , anonymous speech , campaign financing , pornography , and school speech ; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections . The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits , most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan ( 1964 ) . Commercial speech is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech , and is therefore subject to greater regulation .
The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions , and applies to a wide variety of media . In Near v. Minnesota ( 1931 ) and New York Times v. United States ( 1971 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint — pre @-@ publication censorship — in almost all cases . The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action . In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause , the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association .
= = = Second Amendment = = =
A well regulated Militia , being necessary to the security of a free State , the right of the people to keep and bear Arms , shall not be infringed .
The Second Amendment protects the right to keep and bear arms . The concept of such a right existed within English common law long before the enactment of the Bill of Rights . First codified in the English Bill of Rights of 1689 ( but there only applying to Protestants ) , this right was enshrined in fundamental laws of several American states during the Revolutionary era , including the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights and the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 . Long a controversial issue in American political , legal , and social discourse , the Second Amendment has been at the heart of several Supreme Court decisions .
In United States v. Cruikshank ( 1875 ) , the Court ruled that " [ t ] he right to bear arms is not granted by the Constitution ; neither is it in any manner dependent upon that instrument for its existence . The Second Amendment means no more than that it shall not be infringed by Congress , and has no other effect than to restrict the powers of the National Government . "
In United States v. Miller ( 1939 ) , the Court ruled that the amendment " [ protects arms that had a ] reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia " .
In District of Columbia v. Heller ( 2008 ) , the Court ruled that the Second Amendment " codified a pre @-@ existing right " and that it " protects an individual right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia , and to use that arm for traditionally lawful purposes , such as self @-@ defense within the home " but also stated that " the right is not unlimited . It is not a right to keep and carry any weapon whatsoever in any manner whatsoever and for whatever purpose " .
In McDonald v. Chicago ( 2010 ) , the Court ruled that the Second Amendment limits state and local governments to the same extent that it limits the federal government .
= = = Third Amendment = = =
No Soldier shall , in time of peace be quartered in any house , without the consent of the Owner , nor in time of war , but in a manner to be prescribed by law .
The Third Amendment restricts the quartering of soldiers in private homes , in response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the Revolutionary War . The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution , and , as of 2016 , has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision .
= = = Fourth Amendment = = =
The right of the people to be secure in their persons , houses , papers , and effects , against unreasonable searches and seizures , shall not be violated , and no Warrants shall issue , but upon probable cause , supported by Oath or affirmation , and particularly describing the place to be searched , and the persons or things to be seized .
The Fourth Amendment guards against unreasonable searches and seizures , along with requiring any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause . It was adopted as a response to the abuse of the writ of assistance , which is a type of general search warrant , in the American Revolution . Search and seizure ( including arrest ) must be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court , usually by a law enforcement officer who has sworn by it . The amendment is the basis for the exclusionary rule , which mandates that evidence obtained illegally cannot be introduced into a criminal trial . The amendment 's interpretation has varied over time ; its protections expanded under left @-@ leaning courts such as that headed by Earl Warren and contracted under right @-@ leaning courts such as that of William Rehnquist .
= = = Fifth Amendment = = =
No person shall be held to answer for a capital , or otherwise infamous crime , unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury , except in cases arising in the land or naval forces , or in the Militia , when in actual service in time of War or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself , nor be deprived of life , liberty , or property , without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use , without just compensation .
The Fifth Amendment protects against double jeopardy and self @-@ incrimination and guarantees the rights to due process , grand jury screening of criminal indictments , and compensation for the seizure of private property under eminent domain . The amendment was the basis for the court 's decision in Miranda v. Arizona ( 1966 ) , which established that defendants must be informed of their rights to an attorney and against self @-@ incrimination prior to interrogation by police .
= = = Sixth Amendment = = =
In all criminal prosecutions , the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial , by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed , which district shall have been previously ascertained by law , and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor , and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence .
The Sixth Amendment establishes a number of rights of the defendant in a criminal trial :
to a speedy and public trial
to trial by an impartial jury
to be informed of criminal charges
to confront witnesses
to compel witnesses to appear in court
to assistance of counsel
In Gideon v. Wainwright ( 1963 ) , the Court ruled that the amendment guaranteed the right to legal representation in all felony prosecutions in both state and federal courts .
= = = Seventh Amendment = = =
In suits at common law , where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars , the right of trial by jury shall be preserved , and no fact tried by a jury , shall be otherwise re @-@ examined in any court of the United States , than according to the rules of the common law .
The Seventh Amendment guarantees jury trials in federal civil cases that deal with claims of more than twenty dollars . It also prohibits judges from overruling findings of fact by juries in federal civil trials . In Colgrove v. Battin ( 1973 ) , the Court ruled that the amendment 's requirements could be fulfilled by a jury with a minimum of six members . The Seventh is one of the few parts of the Bill of Rights not to be incorporated ( applied to the states ) .
= = = Eighth Amendment = = =
Excessive bail shall not be required , nor excessive fines imposed , nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted .
The Eighth Amendment forbids the imposition of excessive bails or fines , though it leaves the term " excessive " open to interpretation . The most frequently litigated clause of the amendment is the last , which forbids cruel and unusual punishment . This clause was only occasionally applied by the Supreme Court prior to the 1970s , generally in cases dealing with means of execution . In Furman v. Georgia ( 1972 ) , some members of the Court found capital punishment itself in violation of the amendment , arguing that the clause could reflect " evolving standards of decency " as public opinion changed ; others found certain practices in capital trials to be unacceptably arbitrary , resulting in a majority decision that effectively halted executions in the United States for several years . Executions resumed following Gregg v. Georgia ( 1976 ) , which found capital punishment to be constitutional if the jury was directed by concrete sentencing guidelines . The Court has also found that some poor prison conditions constitute cruel and unusual punishment , as in Estelle v. Gamble ( 1976 ) .
= = = Ninth Amendment = = =
The enumeration in the Constitution , of certain rights , shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people .
The Ninth Amendment declares that there are additional fundamental rights that exist outside the Constitution . The rights enumerated in the Constitution are not an explicit and exhaustive list of individual rights . It was rarely mentioned in Supreme Court decisions before the second half of the 20th century , when it was cited by several of the justices in Griswold v. Connecticut ( 1965 ) . The Court in that case voided a statute prohibiting use of contraceptives as an infringement of the right of marital privacy . This right was , in turn , the foundation upon which the Supreme Court built decisions in several landmark cases , including , Roe v. Wade ( 1973 ) , which overturned a Texas law making it a crime to assist a woman to get an abortion , and Planned Parenthood v. Casey ( 1992 ) , which invalidated a Pennsylvania law that required spousal awareness prior to obtaining an abortion .
= = = Tenth Amendment = = =
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution , nor prohibited by it to the States , are reserved to the States respectively , or to the people .
The Tenth Amendment reinforces the principles of separation of powers and federalism by providing that powers not granted to the federal government by the Constitution , nor prohibited to the states , are reserved to the states or the people . The amendment provides no new powers or rights to the states , but rather preserves their authority in all matters not specifically granted to the federal government .
= = Display and honoring of the Bill of Rights = =
George Washington had fourteen handwritten copies of the Bill of Rights made , one for Congress and one for each of the original thirteen states . The copies for Georgia , Maryland , New York , and Pennsylvania went missing . The New York copy is thought to have been destroyed in a fire . Two unidentified copies of the missing four ( thought to be the Georgia and Maryland copies ) survive ; one is in the National Archives , and the other is in the New York Public Library . North Carolina 's copy was stolen from the State Capitol by a Union soldier following the Civil War . In an FBI sting operation , it was recovered in 2003 . The copy retained by the First Congress has been on display ( along with the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence ) in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom room at the National Archives Building in Washington , D.C. since December 13 , 1952 .
After fifty years on display , signs of deterioration in the casing were noted , while the documents themselves appeared to be well preserved . Accordingly , the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17 , 2003 . In his dedicatory remarks , President George W. Bush stated , " The true [ American ] revolution was not to defy one earthly power , but to declare principles that stand above every earthly power — the equality of each person before God , and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all . "
In 1941 , President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared December 15 to be Bill of Rights Day , commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights . In 1991 , the Virginia copy of the Bill of Rights toured the country in honor of its bicentennial , visiting the capitals of all fifty states .
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= Intimacy ( Bloc Party album ) =
Intimacy is the third studio album by British indie rock band Bloc Party . It was recorded in two weeks at several locations in London and Kent during 2008 and was produced by Jacknife Lee and Paul Epworth . Inspired by the release options available in the Internet age , the band members made the album available for purchase on their website as a digital download on 21 August 2008 . Minimal promotion was undertaken in the UK . The record was released in compact disc form on 24 October 2008 , with Wichita Recordings as the primary label . It peaked at number 8 on the UK Albums Chart and entered the Billboard 200 in the United States at number 18 .
Bloc Party wanted to create an album that further distanced the band from the traditional rock set @-@ up by incorporating more electronic elements and unconventional musical arrangements . As the record 's title suggests , its tracks are about personal relationships and are loosely based on one of frontman Kele Okereke 's break @-@ ups in 2007 . Three songs were released as singles : " Mercury " , " Talons " , and " One Month Off " ; the first two tracks entered the UK Top 40 . Intimacy was generally well received by critics . Reviewers often focused on its rush @-@ release and central theme , and considered them either bold steps or poor choices .
= = Origins and recording = =
Bloc Party 's second album A Weekend in the City , released in 2007 , allowed the quartet to evolve sonically by including more electronically tampered soundscapes , but the band members were not entirely comfortable with more daring musical arrangements when making the record . According to multi @-@ instrumentalist Gordon Moakes , the impromptu November 2007 single " Flux " " opened a door to the fact that we could go in any direction " in future works . After the NME Big Gig in February 2008 , the band members took a month off from touring and did not interact with each other during that period . Moakes felt that there were no rules when the band re @-@ assembled for studio work . Chief lyricist Okereke completed most of the songwriting before the recording process .
In mid @-@ 2008 , Bloc Party attended secret sessions at studios in the south @-@ east of England . The band aimed to use a similar process to the creation of " Flux " , which was crafted in a week . Paul Epworth and Jacknife Lee — from Bloc Party 's previous albums , Silent Alarm and A Weekend in the City , respectively — returned to the production staff for Intimacy , because the band members felt that they had " unfinished business " with both . Okereke has stated that having two producers allowed for musical experimentation . Epworth focused on capturing the dynamic of a live band by working on fully developed songs and emphasising the rhythm section in the mix . Lee aided the band members ' evolution towards a more electronic style by creating tracks with them . Each producer worked on five of the record 's original ten tracks .
According to Okereke , Bloc Party wanted to make something as stylised as R & B or electronica , combining the rawness of Silent Alarm and the recording experience gained from A Weekend in the City . The frontman drew inspiration from Siouxsie and the Banshees ' 1988 song " Peek @-@ a @-@ Boo " and aimed to create " rock interpretations of dance " . The band worked by initially performing sound checks with only guitar chords , keyboard notes , and drum beats . Discussing the interplay between rhythm guitarist Okereke and lead guitarist Russell Lissack , Epworth has stated that " Kele will do one thing that creates a great deal of impact , whereas Russell 's very good at subtle embellishments and leading the melodic side of things outside of the vocal " . The band members decided to record the first ten tracks crafted after judging first ideas to often be the best . They " thrived " under the pressure of timed sessions , which lasted only two weeks .
Moakes has indicated that there was no worry about whether a song could be recreated live in concert in the same way as it would appear on record . A brass section and a chamber choir were hired as additional musicians . Drum machines and distorted guitars were used more extensively than in Bloc Party 's previous works to create a sense of manipulation to the basic rock palette . Drummer Matt Tong was initially sceptical of moulding songs with programmed drums , as opposed to using his physical output , but agreed to the idea when the band recorded some of the tracks in their entirety . On some songs , the guitars were disregarded and the band focused solely on the beat . Okereke 's voice was often used as an instrument by being looped , vocoded , or run through effects pedals .
= = Promotion and release = =
After the studio sessions , Bloc Party embarked on a tour of North American and European summer festivals . One of the recorded tracks , " Mercury " , was released as a single on 11 August 2008 and peaked at number 16 on the UK Singles Chart . At the time , the band confirmed the existence of further material , but noted that a record release date was scheduled for the end of 2008 at the earliest . Bloc Party unexpectedly announced the completion of Intimacy on 18 August 2008 via a webcast and confirmed a release within 60 hours . The band members wanted to revive the importance of a new album 's release in an era in which the excitement has dissipated because of extensive Internet coverage . They were inspired by Radiohead 's marketing of In Rainbows in 2007 , but did not consider a " free " sale option . Little press was undertaken in the UK to promote the record because of Okereke 's reluctance to discuss personal aspects of his life .
Intimacy was made available for download on Bloc Party 's website on 21 August 2008 . Ten MP3 tracks were sold with a plain black JPEG cover for £ 5 , and a £ 10 option for the online songs and the future expanded CD was also available . The album title was picked as a " double bluff " with regard to people 's expectations ; Okereke has explained , " You 'd think of wet balladeering . You don 't think it 's gonna be ugly or harsh . But that 's what relationships are really like . It 's not just about good times . " The release was called " rushed " by publications such as Billboard and The Independent . Tong disagreed with the label and stated that Bloc Party wanted to make a statement that was surprising to anyone interested in their work .
The band showcased tracks from Intimacy at Reading Festival at the end of August 2008 and embarked on a North American tour during September . UK appearances on the MTV2 Gonzo Tour and the release of the second single , " Talons " , preceded the physical release of the album in October , which entered the UK Albums Chart at number eight . In the U.S , the record sold 24 @,@ 000 copies during the first week of release and debuted at number 18 on the Billboard 200 . Comprehensive sales figures have not been published because the digital download data has not been publicly reported by Bloc Party . The chosen cover art is a stylised shot of a couple kissing , taken by freelance photographer Perry Curties . It was ranked at number 23 on Gigwise 's list of The Best Album Covers of 2008 , in which the publication called it " intimate and rather ambiguous " .
= = Content = =
= = = Lyrics = = =
The lyrics of Intimacy were inspired by a relationship break @-@ up Okereke went through at the end of 2007 . The lyricist told Rolling Stone , " I wouldn 't want anyone to think it 's the clichéd break @-@ up record but I haven 't written about true , personal experiences all that much in the past . " The move to more intimate subject matter was " semi @-@ conscious " because the band members did not want to focus on socio @-@ political issues as they had in their previous works . Three tracks allude to Greek mythology : " Ares " draws its name from the god of war , " Trojan Horse " is named after the Trojan War military ruse , and " Zephyrus " draws its name from the god of the west wind . The narrative in the songs occurs between two people and focuses on the relations between lovers , friends , and enemies ; Okereke indicated that " it 's about moments of shared vulnerability " . " Better Than Heaven " references the Garden of Eden and Corinthians ( 15 : 22 ) , because the lyricist wanted to explore the themes of sex and death , especially in a biblical context .
" Biko " means " Please " ( or more accurately " I implore you " ) in Igbo — a language spoken in Nigeria , the homeland of Okereke 's parents — and is used " when you 're beseeching someone to do something " . Okereke denied that it is about the murdered South African anti @-@ apartheid protester Steve Biko . The lyrics of " One Month Off " reference feelings of anger and are about being in love with someone younger and unfaithful , while " Zephyrus " concerns an apology following neglect . The lyrics in the chorus of " Ion Square " , the last track on the original download release , are based on E. E. Cummings ' poem " I Carry Your Heart with Me " . Okereke considers the song a personal favourite because it evokes the initial exciting stages of a new relationship when everything is going right .
= = = Composition = = =
Okereke has discussed a natural progression in Bloc Party 's compositional style to a more explorative , electronic direction . For the opening track on Intimacy , " Ares " , Okereke was inspired to rap his lyrics after listening to the old @-@ school hip hop of Afrika Bambaataa . According to Heather Phares of AllMusic , the song includes siren @-@ like guitar chords and loud , complex drumming in the vein of dance acts The Prodigy and The Chemical Brothers . " Mercury " continues the complex drumming theme by incorporating layered percussion and contains a vocally manipulated chorus . The track is an attempt at drum and bass and features brass dissonance , effects Okereke has called " harsh , glacial , layered and energetic " . " Zephyrus " begins with a solitary vocal line accompanied only by a drum machine pattern , while the Exmoor Singers provide background vocals in the rest of the composition . " Signs " is the only song that does not include guitars ; instead , it is made up of a synthesiser pulse and multitracked samples of glockenspiel and mbira resembling the work of minimalist composer Steve Reich .
Okereke has conceded that Intimacy covers Bloc Party 's typical indie rock elements , but noted that the guitars have an artificial and manipulated sound , " almost like all the humanity has been bleached out " . " Halo " has a fast tempo coupled with a guitar melody that uses only four chords , while " Trojan Horse " features syncopated guitars and distortion . " Talons " also incorporates distortion from both lead and rhythm guitars , while the final single " One Month Off " consists of tribal rhythms and sixteenth note guitar riffs . " Biko " has a slower tempo and includes guitar arpeggi throughout , while " Ion Square " incorporates guitar overdubbing and the use of hi @-@ hat patterns throughout . According to Nick Southall of Drowned in Sound , " Better Than Heaven " encapsulates what Bloc Party had been trying to achieve in their previous works , " namely aligning all their different directional desires : to swoon , to rock , and to experiment all at once " . The track features broken beats and layered vocals .
= = Critical reception = =
Media response to Intimacy was generally favourable ; aggregating website Metacritic reports a normalised rating of 69 % based on 27 critical reviews . Steven Robertshaw of Alternative Press described the album as arguably Bloc Party 's finest career moment and noted that it offers " sweat and circuitry , savagery and submission , and a captivating energy that 's severely lacking in many music scenes on the planet " . Kyle Anderson of Rolling Stone claimed that by " replacing Bloc Party 's distant cool with vivid honesty , Okereke makes Intimacy a confident new peak for his band " , while PopMatters ' Ross Langager explained that the record " might not actually be all that intimate , but it is a thing of rough , recycled beauty " . Adam Mazmanian of The Washington Times commented that the album 's final mix showed that producers Epworth and Lee preserved the essence of Bloc Party 's signature sound — " minor key rock thrumming with rhythmic intensity " — while taking the band in new musical directions . Dave Simpson of The Guardian concluded that it would please old and new fans alike by being " brave , individual and heartfelt " .
Pitchfork Media 's Ian Cohen was less receptive and asserted that the record seems like a document of a band disconnected from its musical strengths . Josh Modell of Spin felt that Intimacy sometimes gets " sonically or lyrically precarious " , while John Robinson of Uncut commented that " there 's an air of slightly hedged bets " . Drowned in Sound 's Nick Southall claimed that the record is not quite the radical statement Bloc Party set out to achieve , but concluded that it is " definitely a little bit of invigorating redemption at a time when doubts were beginning to cloud what was , initially , a flawless reputation " . In its year @-@ end music review for 2008 , Under the Radar stated about the band members , " They are so solid and so confident that it seems inevitable that they will get many chances to slowly drift into more daring lands . But without more risk , they may be destined to make albums like Intimacy – accomplished and intriguing , but not life changing , not classic . " The record figured in several publications ' end @-@ of @-@ year best album lists for 2008 — notably , at number 14 by Gigwise , at number 36 by Drowned in Sound , and at number 49 by NME .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Bloc Party .
The download @-@ only release in August 2008 did not include " Talons " .
The iTunes version of the October release included an extra Bloc Party EP , Live from London , which contains six songs from Intimacy performed live .
The deluxe edition includes access to an online exclusive film , Live and Intimate , which contains footage of Bloc Party performing several Intimacy tracks plus " Banquet " live at The Pool , Miloco Studios .
In 2009 , the deluxe edition of Intimacy was remixed as Intimacy Remixed by artists including Mogwai , Armand Van Helden , and No Age .
The Gold Panda remix of " Letter to My Son " was erroneously labelled as being by Golden Panda on the Rolling Stone CD .
= = = Vinyl = = =
A standard black LP copy in a gatefold sleeve was released in October 2008 with the normal track listing , but with an original mix of " Mercury " instead of the CD version . The North American edition also included a code for the free online download of the tracks in MP3 format .
A limited edition picture disc vinyl version was additionally released in the UK ; it had the album cover printed on Side A and the track listing printed on Side B.
= = Personnel = =
The people involved in the making of Intimacy are the following :
= = Release history = =
= = Chart positions = =
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= Deep vein thrombosis =
Deep vein thrombosis , or deep venous thrombosis , ( DVT ) is the formation of a blood clot ( thrombus ) within a deep vein , predominantly in the legs . Non @-@ specific signs may include pain , swelling , redness , warmness , and engorged superficial veins . Pulmonary embolism , a potentially life @-@ threatening complication , is caused by the detachment ( embolization ) of a clot that travels to the lungs . Together , DVT and pulmonary embolism constitute a single disease process known as venous thromboembolism . Post @-@ thrombotic syndrome , another complication , significantly contributes to the health @-@ care cost of DVT . Prevention options for at @-@ risk individuals include early and frequent walking , calf exercises , anticoagulants , aspirin , graduated compression stockings , and intermittent pneumatic compression .
In 1856 , German pathologist Rudolf Virchow postulated the interplay of three processes resulting in venous thrombosis , now known as Virchow 's triad : a decreased blood flow rate ( venous stasis ) , increased tendency to clot ( hypercoagulability ) , and changes to the blood vessel wall . DVT formation typically begins inside the valves of the calf veins , where the blood is relatively oxygen deprived , which activates certain biochemical pathways . Several medical conditions increase the risk for DVT , including cancer , trauma , and antiphospholipid syndrome . Other risk factors include older age , surgery , immobilization ( as with bed rest , orthopedic casts , and sitting on long flights ) , combined oral contraceptives , pregnancy , the postnatal period , and genetic factors . Those genetic factors include deficiencies with antithrombin , protein C , and protein S , the mutation of Factor V Leiden , and the property of having a non @-@ O blood type . The rate of new DVTs increases dramatically from childhood to old age ; in adulthood , about 1 in 1000 adults develops it annually .
Individuals suspected of having DVT may be assessed using a clinical prediction rule such as the Wells score . A D @-@ dimer test may also be used to assist with excluding the diagnosis ( because of its high sensitivity ) or to signal a need for further testing . Diagnosis is most commonly done with ultrasound of the suspected veins . Anticoagulation is the standard treatment ; typical medications include a low @-@ molecular @-@ weight heparin and a vitamin K antagonist . Wearing graduated compression stockings appears to reduce the risk of post @-@ thrombotic syndrome .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Common signs and symptoms of DVT include pain or tenderness , swelling , warmth , redness or discoloration , and distention of surface veins , although about half of those with the condition have no symptoms . Signs and symptoms alone are not sufficiently sensitive or specific to make a diagnosis , but when considered in conjunction with known risk factors can help determine the likelihood of DVT . In most suspected cases , DVT is ruled out after evaluation , and symptoms are more often due to other causes , such as cellulitis , Baker 's cyst , musculoskeletal injury , or lymphedema . Other differential diagnoses include hematoma , tumors , venous or arterial aneurysms , and connective tissue disorders .
Phlegmasia cerulea dolens is a very large and dangerous type of DVT . It is characterized by an acute and almost total venous occlusion of the entire extremity outflow , including the iliac and femoral veins . The leg is usually painful , blue tinged in color , and swollen , which may result in venous gangrene .
= = Causes = =
The three factors of Virchow 's triad — venous stasis , hypercoagulability , and changes in the endothelial blood vessel lining ( such as physical damage or endothelial activation ) — contribute to DVT and are used to explain its formation . Other related causes include activation of immune system components , the state of microparticles in the blood , the concentration of oxygen , and possible platelet activation . Various risk factors contribute to DVT , though many at high risk never develop it .
Acquired risk factors include the strong risk factor of older age , which alters blood composition to favor clotting . Other important acquired risk factors include major surgery and trauma , both of which may increase the risk because of tissue factor from outside the vascular system entering the blood . In orthopedic surgery , venous stasis may be temporarily provoked by a cessation of blood flow as part of the procedure . Cancer can grow in and around veins , causing venous stasis , and can also stimulate increased levels of tissue factor . Pregnancy causes blood to favor clotting , and in the postpartum , placental tearing releases substances that favor clotting . Oral contraceptives and hormonal replacement therapy increase the risk through a variety of mechanisms , including altered blood coagulation protein levels and reduced fibrinolysis .
The disease term venous thromboembolism ( VTE ) includes the development of either DVT or pulmonary embolism ( PE ) . Genetic factors that increase the risk of VTE include deficiencies of three proteins that normally prevent blood from clotting — protein C , protein S , and antithrombin — in addition to non @-@ O blood type and mutations in the factor V and prothrombin genes . Deficiencies in antithrombin , protein C , and protein S are rare but strong , or moderately strong , risk factors . These three thrombophilia increase the risk of VTE by about 10 times . Factor V Leiden , which makes factor V resistant to inactivation by activated protein C , and the genetic variant prothrombin G20210A , which causes increased prothrombin levels , are predominantly expressed in Caucasians . They moderately increase risk for VTE , by three to eight times for factor V Leiden and two to three times for prothrombin G20210A . Having a non @-@ O blood type approximately doubles VTE risk . Non @-@ O blood type is common in all races , making it an important risk factor . Individuals without O blood type have higher blood levels of von Willebrand factor and factor VIII than those with O blood type , increasing the likelihood of clotting .
Some risk factors influence the location of DVT within the body . In isolated distal DVT , the profile of risk factors appears distinct from proximal DVT . Transient factors , such as surgery and immobilization , appear to dominate whereas thrombophilias and age do not seem to increase risk . In upper @-@ extremity DVT , the most important risk factor is having a central venous catheter , and thoracic outlet syndrome also increases risk .
= = = Risk factors = = =
= = Pathophysiology = =
DVT often develops in the calf veins and " grows " in the direction of venous flow , towards the heart . When DVT does not grow , it can be cleared naturally and dissolved into the blood ( fibrinolysis ) . Veins in the calf or thigh are most commonly affected , including the femoral vein , the popliteal vein , and the iliofemoral vein ( as with May – Thurner syndrome ) . Extensive lower @-@ extremity DVT can reach into the iliac vein of the pelvis or the inferior vena cava . Occasionally the veins of the arm are affected , as after central venous catheter placement and with the rare Paget – Schrötter disease .
The mechanism behind arterial thrombosis , such as with heart attacks , is more established than the steps that cause venous thrombosis . With arterial thrombosis , blood vessel wall damage is required , as it initiates coagulation , but clotting in the veins mostly occurs without any such damage . The beginning of venous thrombosis is thought to be caused by tissue factor , which leads to conversion of prothrombin to thrombin , followed by fibrin deposition . Red blood cells and fibrin are the main components of venous thrombi , and the fibrin appears to attach to the blood vessel wall lining ( endothelium ) , a surface that normally acts to prevent clotting . Platelets and white blood cells are also components . Platelets are not as prominent in venous clots as they are in arterial ones , but they may play a role . Inflammation is associated with VTE , and white blood cells play a role in the formation and resolution of venous clots .
Often , DVT begins in the valves of veins . The blood flow pattern in the valves can cause low oxygen concentrations in the blood ( hypoxemia ) of a valve sinus . Hypoxemia , which is worsened by venous stasis , activates pathways — ones that include hypoxia @-@ inducible factor @-@ 1 and early @-@ growth @-@ response protein 1 . Hypoxemia also results in the production of reactive oxygen species , which can activate these pathways , as well as nuclear factor @-@ κB , which regulates hypoxia @-@ inducible factor @-@ 1 transcription . Hypoxia @-@ inducible factor @-@ 1 and early @-@ growth @-@ response protein 1 contribute to monocyte association with endothelial proteins , such as P @-@ selectin , prompting monocytes to release tissue factor @-@ filled microvesicles , which presumably begin clotting after binding to the endothelial surface .
= = Diagnosis = =
DVT diagnosis requires the use of imaging devices such as ultrasound . Clinical assessments , which predict DVT likelihood , can help determine if a D @-@ dimer test is useful . In those not highly likely to have DVT , a normal D @-@ dimer result can rule out a diagnosis .
= = = Classification = = =
Provoked DVTs occur in association with acquired risk factors , such as surgery , oral contraceptives , trauma , immobility , obesity , or cancer ; cases without acquired states are called unprovoked or idiopathic . Acute DVT is characterized by pain and swelling and is usually occlusive , which means that it obstructs blood flow , whereas non @-@ occlusive DVT is less symptomatic . The label of chronic has been applied to symptomatic DVT that persists longer than 10 or 14 days . DVT that has no symptoms , but is found only by screening , is labeled asymptomatic or incidental .
DVT in the legs is proximal ( or iliofemoral ) when above the knee and distal ( or calf ) when below the knee . DVT below the popliteal vein , a proximal vein behind the knee , is classified as distal and has limited clinical significance compared to proximal DVT . An initial episode of DVT is called incident and any subsequent DVT is termed recurrent . Bilateral DVT refers to clots in both legs while unilateral means that only a single leg is affected .
= = = Probability = = =
In those with suspected DVT , a clinical assessment of probability can be useful to determine which tests to perform . The most studied clinical prediction rule is the Wells score .
Wells score or criteria : ( possible score − 2 to 9 )
Active cancer ( treatment within last 6 months or palliative ) : + 1 point
Calf swelling ≥ 3 cm compared to asymptomatic calf ( measured 10 cm below tibial tuberosity ) : + 1 point
Swollen unilateral superficial veins ( non @-@ varicose , in symptomatic leg ) : + 1 point
Unilateral pitting edema ( in symptomatic leg ) : + 1 point
Previous documented DVT : + 1 point
Swelling of entire leg : + 1 point
Localized tenderness along the deep venous system : + 1 point
Paralysis , paresis , or recent cast immobilization of lower extremities : + 1 point
Recently bedridden ≥ 3 days , or major surgery requiring regional or general anesthetic in the past 12 weeks : + 1 point
Alternative diagnosis at least as likely : − 2 points
Those with Wells scores of two or more have a 28 % chance of having DVT , those with a lower score have 6 % odds . Alternatively , Wells scores can be categorized as high if greater than two , moderate if one or two , and low if less than one , with likelihoods of 53 % , 17 % , and 5 % respectively .
= = = D @-@ dimer = = =
D @-@ dimers are a fibrin degradation product , and an elevated level can result from plasmin dissolving a clot — or other conditions . Hospitalized patients often have elevated levels for multiple reasons . When individuals are at a high @-@ probability of having DVT , diagnostic imaging is preferred to a D @-@ dimer test . For those with a low or moderate probability of DVT , a D @-@ dimer level might be obtained , which excludes a diagnosis if results are normal . An elevated level requires further investigation with diagnostic imaging to confirm or exclude the diagnosis .
For a suspected first leg DVT in a low @-@ probability situation , the American College of Chest Physicians ( ACCP ) recommends testing either D @-@ dimer levels with moderate or high sensitivity or compression ultrasound of the proximal veins . These options are suggested over whole @-@ leg ultrasound , and D @-@ dimer testing is the suggested preference overall . The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence ( NICE ) recommends D @-@ dimer testing prior to proximal vein ultrasound .
For a suspected first leg DVT in a moderate @-@ probability scenario , a high @-@ sensitivity D @-@ dimer is suggested as a recommended option over ultrasound imaging , with both whole @-@ leg and compression ultrasound possible . The NICE guideline uses a two @-@ point Wells score and does not refer to a moderate probability group .
= = = Imaging = = =
Imaging tests of the veins are used in the diagnosis of DVT , most commonly either proximal compression ultrasound or whole @-@ leg ultrasound . Each technique has drawbacks : a single proximal scan may miss a distal DVT , while whole @-@ leg scanning can lead to distal DVT overtreatment . Doppler ultrasound , CT scan venography , MRI venography , or MRI of the thrombus are also possibilities .
The gold standard for judging imaging methods is contrast venography , which involves injecting a peripheral vein of the affected limb with a contrast agent and taking X @-@ rays , to reveal whether the venous supply has been obstructed . Because of its cost , invasiveness , availability , and other limitations this test is rarely performed .
A fibrinogen uptake test was formerly used to detect deep vein thrombosis . [ move to history section ? ]
= = Prevention = =
Depending upon the risk for DVT , different preventive measures are used . Walking and calf exercises reduce venous stasis because leg muscle contractions compress the veins and pump blood up towards the heart . In immobile individuals , physical compression methods improve blood flow . Anticoagulation , which increases the risk of bleeding , might be used in high @-@ risk scenarios . The risk of major bleeding with long @-@ term anticoagulation is about 3 % per year , and the point where annual VTE risk is thought to warrant long @-@ term anticoagulation is estimated to be between 3 and 9 % . Usually , only when individuals exceed a 9 % annual VTE risk is long @-@ term anticoagulation a common consideration . Antithrombin deficiency , a strong or moderately strong risk factor , carries an annual risk of VTE of only 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 5 % ; as such , asymptomatic individuals with thrombophilia do not warrant long @-@ term anticoagulation .
Aside from anticoagulation , the anti @-@ platelet drug aspirin might be used in some people following orthopedic surgery and in those with a previous VTE . Statins might decrease the risk for people who are otherwise healthy , but the evidence is not clear . Following the completion of warfarin long term aspirin is useful to prevent re occurrence .
= = = Hospital = = =
In 2011 , the American College of Physicians ( ACP ) issued a clinical practice guideline making three strong recommendations based on moderate @-@ quality evidence : that hospitalized patients be assessed for their risk of thromboembolism and bleeding before prophylaxis is started ; that heparin or a related drug be used if potential benefits are thought to outweigh potential harms ; and that graduated compression stockings not be used . The ACP also drew attention to a lack of support for any performance measures encouraging physicians to apply universal prophylaxis without regard to the risks .
A 2014 Cochrane review found that using heparin in medical patients did not change the risk of death or pulmonary embolism . While its use decreased people 's risks of DVTs it also increased people 's risks of major bleeding . The review thus recommended the need to balance risks and benefits .
The 2012 ACCP guidelines for non @-@ surgical patients recommend anticoagulation for the acutely ill in cases of elevated risk when there is neither bleeding nor a high risk of bleeding . Mechanical prophylaxis is suggested when risks for bleeding and thrombosis are elevated . For the critically ill , either pharmacological or mechanical prophylaxis is suggested depending upon the risk . Heparin is suggested in outpatients with cancer who have solid tumors and additional risk factors for VTE — listed as " previous venous thrombosis , immobilization , hormonal therapy , angiogenesis inhibitors , thalidomide , and lenalidomide " — and a low risk of bleeding .
= = = Post @-@ surgery = = =
Major orthopedic surgery — total hip replacement , total knee replacement , or hip fracture surgery — has a high risk of causing VTE . If prophylaxis is not used after these surgeries , symptomatic VTE has about a 4 % chance of developing within 35 days . Options for VTE prevention in people follow non @-@ orthopedic surgery include early walking , mechanical prophylaxis ( intermittent pneumatic compression or graduated compression stockings ) , and drugs ( low @-@ molecular @-@ weight heparin [ LMWH ] and low @-@ dose @-@ unfractionated heparin [ LDUH ] ) depending upon the risk of VTE , risk of major bleeding , and person 's preferences . Following major orthopedic surgery , the ACCP recommends treatment with drugs that reduce the risk of clots ( such as fondaparinux and aspirin ) with LMWH suggested as a preference . Intermittent pneumatic compression is also an option . Graduated compression stockings are effective after both general and orthopedic surgery .
= = = Pregnancy = = =
The risk of VTE is increased in pregnancy by about five times because of a more hypercoagulable state , a likely adaptation against fatal postpartum hemorrhage . Additionally , pregnant women with genetic risk factors are subject to an approximate three to thirty times increased risk for VTE . Preventative treatments for pregnancy @-@ related VTE in hypercoagulable women were suggested by the ACCP . Homozygous carriers of factor V Leiden or prothrombin G20210A with a family history of VTE were suggested for antepartum LMWH and either LMWH or a vitamin K antagonist ( VKA ) for the six weeks following childbirth . Those with another thrombophilia and a family history but no previous VTE were suggested for watchful waiting during pregnancy and LMWH or — for those without protein C or S deficiency — a VKA . Homozygous carriers of factor V Leiden or prothrombin G20210A with no personal or family history of VTE were suggested for watchful waiting during pregnancy and LMWH or a VKA for six weeks after childbirth . Those with another thrombophilia but no family or personal history of VTE were suggested for watchful waiting only . Warfarin , a common VKA , can cause harm to the fetus and is not used for VTE prevention during pregnancy .
= = = Travelers = = =
The 2012 ACCP guidelines offered weak recommendations . For at @-@ risk long @-@ haul travelers — those with " previous VTE , recent surgery or trauma , active malignancy , pregnancy , estrogen use , advanced age , limited mobility , severe obesity , or known thrombophilic disorder " — suggestions included calf exercises , frequent walking , and aisle seating in airplanes to ease walking . The use of graduated compression stockings that fit below the knee and give 15 – 30 mm Hg of pressure to the ankle was suggested , while aspirin or anticoagulants were not . Compression stockings have sharply reduced the levels of asymptomatic DVT in airline passengers , but the effect on symptomatic VTE is unknown , as none of the individuals studied developed symptomatic VTE .
= = Treatment = =
= = = Anticoagulation = = =
Anticoagulation , which prevents further coagulation but does not act directly on existing clots , is the standard treatment for DVT . Balancing risk vs. benefit is important in determining the duration of anticoagulation , and three months is generally the standard length of treatment . In those with an annual risk of VTE in excess of 9 % , as after an unprovoked episode , extended anticoagulation is a possibility . Those who finish VKA treatment after idiopathic VTE with an elevated D @-@ dimer level show an increased risk of recurrent VTE ( about 9 % vs. about 4 % for normal results ) , and this result might be used in clinical decision @-@ making . Thrombophilia test results rarely play a role in the length of treatment .
For acute cases in the leg , the ACCP recommended a parenteral anticoagulant ( such as LMWH , fondaparinux , or unfractionated heparin ) for at least five days and a VKA , the oral anticoagulant , the same day . LMWH and fondaparinux are suggested over unfractionated heparin , but both are retained in those with compromised kidney function , unlike unfractionated heparin . The VKA is generally taken for a minimum of three months to maintain an international normalized ratio of 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 0 , with 2 @.@ 5 as the target . The benefit of taking a VKA declines as the duration of treatment extends , and the risk of bleeding increases with age .
The ACCP recommended treatment for three months in those with proximal DVT provoked by surgery . A three @-@ month course is also recommended for those with proximal DVT provoked by a transient risk factor , and three months is suggested over lengthened treatment when bleeding risk is low to moderate . Unprovoked DVT patients should have at least three months of anticoagulation and be considered for extended treatment . Those whose first VTE is an unprovoked proximal DVT are suggested for anticoagulation longer than three months unless there is a high risk of bleeding . In that case , three months is sufficient . Those with a second unprovoked VTE are recommended for extended treatment when bleeding risk is low , suggested for extended treatment when bleeding risk is moderate , and suggested for three months of anticoagulation in high @-@ risk scenarios .
= = = Home treatment , stockings , walking , and repeat imaging = = =
The ACCP recommended initial home treatment instead of hospital treatment for those with acute leg DVT . This applies as long as individuals feel ready for it , and those with severe leg symptoms or comorbidities would not qualify . An appropriate home environment is expected : one that can provide a quick return to the hospital if necessary , support from family or friends , and phone access .
In addition to anticoagulation , the ACCP suggested graduated compression stockings — which apply higher pressure ( 30 – 40 mm Hg ) at the ankles and a lower pressure around the knees — for those with symptomatic DVT . Use should begin as soon as possible after anticoagulation . Evidence however does not support that these stockings reduce the risk of post @-@ thrombotic syndrome nor do they indicate a reduction in recurrent VTE . Use is suggested for two years , though inconvenience and discomfort can reduce compliance . Walking is also suggested for those without severe pain or edema .
Unless a person has medical problems preventing movement , after a person starts anti @-@ coagulation therapy bed rest should not be used to treat acute deep vein thrombosis . There are clinical benefits associated with walking and no evidence that walking is harmful , but people with DVT are harmed by bed rest except when it is medically necessary .
Instead of anticoagulation , a follow @-@ up imaging test ( typically ultrasound ) about one @-@ week post @-@ diagnosis is an option for those with an acute isolated distal DVT without a high risk for extension ; if the clot does not grow , the ACCP does not recommend anticoagulation . This technique can benefit those at a high risk for bleeding . Patients may choose anticoagulation over serial imaging , however , to avoid the inconvenience of another scan if concerns about the risk of bleeding are insignificant . When applied to symptomatic patients with a negative initial ultrasound result , serial testing is inefficient and not cost effective .
= = = IVC filters , thrombolysis , and thrombectomy = = =
Inferior vena cava filters ( IVC filters ) are used on the presumption that they reduce PE , although their effectiveness and safety profile are not well established . In general , they are only recommended in some high risk scenarios . The ACCP recommended them for those with a contraindication to anticoagulant treatment but not in addition to anticoagulation , unless an individual with an IVC filter but without a risk for bleeding develops acute proximal DVT . In this case , both anticoagulation and an IVC filter are suggested . NICE recommends caval filters in settings where someone with an acute proximal DVT or PE cannot receive anticoagulation , and that the filter is removed when anticoagulation can be safely started . While IVC filters themselves are associated with a long @-@ term risk of DVT , they are not reason enough to maintain extended anticoagulation .
Thrombolysis is the administration of an enzyme ( intravenous or directly into the affected vein through a catheter ) , which acts to enzymatically break up clots . This may reduce the risk of post @-@ thrombotic syndrome by a third , and possibly reduce the risk of leg ulcers , but is associated with an increased risk of bleeding . The ACCP currently suggests anticoagulation rather than thrombolysis , but patients may choose thrombolysis if prevention of post @-@ thrombotic syndrome outweighs concerns over the complexity , bleeding risk , and cost of the procedure . NICE recommends that thrombolysis is considered in those who have had symptoms for less than two weeks , are normally well , have a good life expectancy and a low risk of bleeding .
A mechanical thrombectomy device can remove venous clots , although the ACCP considers it an option only when the following conditions apply : " iliofemoral DVT , symptoms for < 7 days ( criterion used in the single randomized trial ) , good functional status , life expectancy of ≥ 1 year , and both resources and expertise are available . " Anticoagulation alone is suggested over thrombectomy .
= = Prognosis = =
The most frequent complication of proximal DVT is post @-@ thrombotic syndrome , which is caused by a reduction in the return of venous blood to the heart . Some symptoms of post @-@ thrombotic syndrome are pain , edema , paresthesia , and in severe cases , leg ulcers . An estimated 20 – 50 % of those with DVT will develop it , and 5 – 10 % will develop the severe form . PE is the most serious complication of proximal DVT , and the risk of PE is higher when clots are present in the thigh and pelvis . Distal DVT itself is hardly if ever associated with post @-@ thrombotic syndrome or PE . Untreated lower extremity DVT has a 3 % PE @-@ related mortality rate , while deaths associated with upper extremity DVT are extremely rare . The presence of a remaining thrombus after a DVT frequently occurs in a minority of people , and it increases the risk of recurrence , though to a lesser extent than an elevated D @-@ dimer . In the 10 years following a VTE , approximately a third of individuals will have a recurrent episode .
= = Epidemiology = =
About 1 in 1000 adults per year has DVT , but as of 2011 , available data is dominated by North American and European populations . VTE is rare in children , with an incidence of about 1 in 100 @,@ 000 a year . From childhood to old age , incidence increases by a factor of about 1000 , with almost 1 % of the elderly experiencing VTE yearly . During pregnancy and after childbirth , acute VTE occurs about once per 1000 deliveries . After surgery with preventative treatment , VTE develops in about 10 of 1000 people after total or partial knee replacement , and in about 5 of 1000 after total or partial hip replacement . About 300 @,@ 000 – 600 @,@ 000 Americans develop VTE each year , with about 60 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 deaths attributable to PE . In England , an estimated 25 @,@ 000 a year die from hospital @-@ related VTE . For unclear reasons , people of Asian descent have a lower VTE risk than whites .
In North American and European populations , around 4 – 8 % of people have a thrombophilia , most commonly factor V leiden and prothrombin G20210A . For populations in China , Japan , and Thailand , deficiences in protein S , protein C , and antithrombin predominate . Non @-@ O blood type is present in around 50 % of the general population and varies with ethnicity , and it is present in about 70 % of those with VTE . Altogether , global data is incomplete .
= = Economics = =
Initial DVT costs for an average hospitalized patient in the U.S. are around $ 7 @,@ 700 – $ 10 @,@ 800 . VTE follow @-@ up costs at three months , six months , and a year are about $ 5 @,@ 000 , $ 10 @,@ 000 , and $ 33 @,@ 000 respectively ; in Europe , the three and six @-@ month figures are about € 1 @,@ 800 and € 3 @,@ 200 . Post @-@ thrombotic syndrome is a significant contributor to DVT follow @-@ up costs . Annual DVT costs in the U.S. are an estimated $ 5 billion or in excess of $ 8 billion , and the average annual cost per treated individual is thought to be about $ 20 @,@ 000 . As an example , if 300 @,@ 000 symptomatic DVT patients were treated at costs averaging $ 20 @,@ 000 annually , that would cost $ 6 billion a year .
= = History = =
The earliest case of DVT was described by Sushruta in his book Sushruta Samhita around 600 – 900 BC . Another documented case is thought to have occurred in the 13th century , in the leg of a 20 @-@ year @-@ old male . At some point , the increased incidence of DVT in women after childbirth was noticed , and in the late 1700s , a public health recommendation was issued to encourage women to breastfeed as a means to prevent this phenomenon ; the DVT was called " milk leg " , as it was thought to result from milk building up in the leg .
In 1856 , German physician and pathologist Rudolf Virchow published what is referred to as Virchow 's triad , the three major causes of thrombosis . The triad provides the theoretical framework for the current explanation of venous thrombosis , although it was focused on the effect of a foreign body in the venous system and the conditions required for clot propagation .
Multiple pharmacological therapies for DVT were introduced in the 20th century : oral anticoagulants in the 1940s , subcutaneous LDUH in 1962 and subcutaneous LMWH in 1982 . Diagnoses were commonly performed by impedance plethysmography in the 1970s and 1980s , but the use of Doppler ultrasound techniques , with their increased sensitivity and specificity , largely superseded this method .
= = Research directions = =
As of 2011 , three large randomized controlled trials — the Norwegian CaVent trial , the North American ATTRACT trial , and the Dutch CAVA trial — are studying the effectiveness and safety of catheter @-@ directed thrombolysis . In 2012 , two studies found a clinical benefit in taking aspirin to prevent recurrent VTE .
= = = Cited literature = = =
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= Dan Bain =
Donald Henderson " Dan " Bain ( February 14 , 1874 – August 15 , 1962 ) was a Canadian amateur athlete and merchant . Though he competed in and excelled in numerous sports , Bain is most notable for his ice hockey career . While a member of the Winnipeg Victorias hockey team , with whom he played for from 1894 until 1902 , Bain helped the team win the Stanley Cup thrice as champions of Canada . A skilled athlete , Bain won championships and medals in several other sports , and was the Canadian trapshooting champion in 1903 . In recognition of his play , Bain was inducted into multiple halls of fame , including the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1949 , and was also voted Canada 's top athlete of the last half of the 19th century .
In his professional life Bain was a prominent Winnipeg businessman and community leader . He became wealthy as a result of operating Donald H. Bain Limited , a grocery brokerage firm . Bain was an active member of numerous community associations , the president of the Winnipeg Winter Club and an avid outdoorsman . The Mallard Lodge , a building on the shores of Lake Manitoba built by Bain as a personal retreat , today serves as a research facility for the University of Manitoba .
= = Early life = =
The son of Scottish immigrants , Bain was born in Belleville , Ontario and moved with his family to Winnipeg , Manitoba , as a young child . His father , James Henderson Bain , was a horse buyer for the British government and upon his arrival in Canada lived in Montreal before moving west . His mother , Helen Miller , was a seamstress . Bain was the sixth of seven children , having four sisters and two brothers .
= = Sporting career = =
Bain 's first championship came in 1887 when he captured the Manitoba roller skating championship at the age of 13 by winning the three @-@ mile race . At the age of 17 he won the provincial gymnastics competition , and at 20 he won the first of three consecutive Manitoba cycling championships . In addition Bain was a top lacrosse player in his home province .
In 1895 Bain first played competitive ice hockey when he answered a classified ad placed in a newspaper by the Winnipeg Victorias , who were looking for new players . Though he played with a broken stick held together by wire , he made the team five minutes into his tryout . Bain quickly became a star centre and leader for the Victorias . This was exemplified during a February 14 , 1896 game against the Montreal Victorias for the Stanley Cup , given to the national hockey champion in Canada . It was a 2 – 0 victory for Winnipeg that gave them the Cup . This victory marked the first time a team outside of Quebec had won the trophy . The team was greeted by a huge crowd at the Canadian Pacific Railway station when their train , decorated with hockey sticks and the Union Jack , returned to Winnipeg . They were led to a feast in their honour in a parade of open sleighs as fans gathered to celebrate the championship .
The Montreal Victorias played Winnipeg in a challenge to reclaim the Cup in December 1896 , a game described by the local press as " the greatest sporting event in the history of Winnipeg " . Though Bain scored two goals in the game , Montreal recaptured the Cup with a 6 – 5 victory . Winnipeg was involved in numerous further Stanley Cup challenges with Bain serving as the team 's captain and manager . They again lost to their Montreal counterparts in 1898 before a record crowd of over 7 @,@ 000 fans .
During a 1900 challenge series against the Montreal Shamrocks Bain scored four goals in three games , but Winnipeg again lost the title . The Victorias challenged the Shamrocks again in 1901 in a best @-@ of @-@ three series . Winnipeg won the series in two games after Bain scored the clinching goal in overtime . It was the first time in Stanley Cup history that the winning goal was scored in extra time . Bain did so while playing with a broken nose that required him to wear a wooden face mask , earning the nickname " the masked man " as a result . When the Victorias defended their title in a series against the Toronto Wellingtons in January 1902 , Bain did not play in the series . The team lost their next challenge , against the Montreal Hockey Club , in March of that year , which marked the end of Bain 's hockey career .
Throughout his sporting career , Bain also earned medals in lacrosse and snowshoeing . He was the Canadian trapshooting champion in 1903 . An avid figure skater throughout much of his life , Bain won over a dozen titles , the last of which came at the age of 56 , and he continued to skate until the age of 70 ; he remained a competitive athlete until 1930 . On his skill in a variety of sports , Bain once said that " I couldn 't see any sense in participating in a game unless I was good . I kept at a sport just long enough to nab a championship , then I 'd try something else . "
In recognition of his sporting skill , Bain was inducted into several halls of fame . The first came in 1949 when he was elected a member of the Hockey Hall of Fame . This was followed in 1971 with his induction into Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame , the Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame and Museum in 1981 , and the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame . He was also voted as Canada 's top sportsman of the last half of the 19th century .
= = Personal life = =
Outside of sports , Bain was a well known businessman in Winnipeg . He served as the president of Donald H. Bain Limited , a grocery brokerage firm headquartered in Winnipeg and operated in numerous cities . It was through his firm that he amassed a large fortune . Known as a community leader , he helped found the Winnipeg Winter Club on land that is now the HMCS Chippawa naval reserve division , and after World War II he organized the current Winter Club . Bain also belonged to many community groups and was the life governor of the Winnipeg General Hospital . He was also one of Western Canada 's first automobile enthusiasts and owned many British vehicles .
As a result of his trap @-@ shooting career , Bain developed an appreciation for nature . He bought an ownership share of the Portage Country Club , on the Delta Marsh near the south shore of Lake Manitoba , and later donated the land to Ducks Unlimited . Bain built the Mallard Lodge as a personal retreat on land adjacent to the club . He strictly enforced his privacy , even building a road to his lodge that he allowed no one else to use ; members of the Portage Country Club were required to take a different route . Bain intended to donate his lodge to the government of Manitoba for preservation , though he died before he could do so . The lodge passed into the control of the government regardless , and was donated to the University of Manitoba as a research facility in 1966 that remains active today . Bain was also a member of the Manitoba Game and Fish Association and the Winnipeg Humane Society .
Bain never married and had no children . He was fond of his pets , in particular his Curly Coated Retriever dogs that he was said to value above human company . On August 15 , 1962 Bain died in Winnipeg , aged 88 . He left behind an estate in excess of C $ 1 million , ( $ 7 @.@ 97 million in 2016 dollars ) , the majority of which he donated to charity and former employees .
= = Career statistics = =
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= Landing at Scarlet Beach =
The Landing at Scarlet Beach ( Operation Diminish ) ( 22 September 1943 ) took place in New Guinea during the Huon Peninsula campaign of the Second World War , involving forces from Australia , the United States and Japan . Allied forces landed at Scarlet Beach , north of Siki Cove and south of the Song River , to the east of Katika and about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) north of Finschhafen . The capture of Finschhafen allowed the construction of air base and naval facilities to assist Allied air and naval forces to conduct operations against Japanese bases in New Guinea and New Britain .
After Lae had fallen sooner than the Allies had anticipated , they exploited the advantage . As a result of faulty intelligence , which underestimated the size of the Japanese force in the area , the assault force chosen consisted of only Brigadier Victor Windeyer 's 20th Infantry Brigade . The landing at Scarlet Beach that took place on 22 September 1943 was the first opposed amphibious landing that Australian forces had made since the Landing at Anzac Cove in the Gallipoli Campaign of 1915 . Navigational errors resulted in the troops being landed on the wrong beach , with some of them coming ashore at Siki Cove and taking heavy fire from the strong Japanese defences in pillboxes . After re @-@ organising , the Australians pushed inland . The Japanese put up stiff resistance on the high ground at Katika , but were forced back . By the end of the day , the Australians had secured their objectives . The Japanese launched a retaliatory air raid on the ships of the VII Amphibious Force , but US fighter aircraft defended the convoy and no ships were hit . Continued Japanese air attacks on the beachhead inflicted numerous casualties over the course of the battle .
The next day the Australians commenced their advance south towards the village of Finschhafen , about 5 @.@ 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 0 km ) south of the landing beach , with the 2 / 15th Infantry Battalion leading the way to the Bumi River . The Japanese had established strong defences along the river 's southern bank , which the Australians attempted to outflank by sending a force to the west , climbing through steep terrain . Once they had located a suitable place to cross the river , they began wading across but were fired upon by a group of Japanese naval infantry who were positioned on a high feature overlooking the river . Despite taking casualties , the Australians were able to establish themselves south of the Bumi and at that point the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion began to advance on Finschhafen from the west . Meanwhile , the 2 / 15th attacked the left flank of the Japanese that had opposed their crossing . After advancing up the steep slope under fire , sometimes on their hands and knees , the 2 / 15th took the position at the point of the bayonet , killing 52 Japanese in close combat .
Australian fears of a Japanese counter @-@ attack grew and they requested reinforcements from General Douglas MacArthur . The request was denied as his intelligence staff believed that there were only 350 Japanese in the vicinity . Actually , there were already 5 @,@ 000 Japanese around Sattelberg and Finschhafen . The Australians received some reinforcements in the shape of the 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalion . The arrival of this unit meant that the entire 20th Infantry Brigade could concentrate on Finschhafen . The Japanese naval troops which were holding Finschhafen began to withdraw and Finschhafen fell to the Australians on 2 October . The 20th Infantry Brigade then linked up with the 22nd Infantry Battalion , a Militia infantry battalion that had cleared the coastal area in the south of the Huon Peninsula , advancing from Lae over the mountains . The Japanese withdrew into the mountains around Sattelberg .
= = Strategy = =
= = = Allied = = =
At the Pacific Military Conference in Washington , D.C. , in March 1943 , the Joint Chiefs of Staff approved plans by General Douglas MacArthur , the Supreme Commander , South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , for an advance on the Japanese base at Rabaul . On 13 June 1943 , MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) in Brisbane instructed General Sir Thomas Blamey 's New Guinea Force to
... seize the Lae @-@ Salamaua @-@ Finschhafen @-@ Markham River Valley area and establish major elements of the [ Air Force ] therein to provide from the Markham Valley area general and direct air support of subsequent operations in northern New Guinea and western New Britain , and to control Vitiaz Strait and protect the north @-@ western flank of subsequent operations in western New Britain .
Following the successful seaborne landing at Lae and airborne landing at Nadzab , Salamaua , Lae , and the Markham River Valley were all in Allied hands by 16 September 1943 . Blamey then turned his attention to his next objective : Finschhafen .
= = = Japanese = = =
The bombing of Wewak , in which 100 Japanese aircraft were lost in August 1943 , caused Imperial General Headquarters ( IGHQ ) in Tokyo to reconsider whether Eastern New Guinea and the Solomon Islands could be held . Concluding that it could not , IGHQ authorised the commander of the Japanese Eighth Area Army to conduct a fighting withdrawal to a new defensive position in Western New Guinea , which it hoped would be ready in 1944 .
Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi , the commander of the Japanese XVIII Army in New Guinea , recognised the importance of the Finschhafen area , and had placed Major General Eizo Yamada , the commander of the 1st Shipping Group , in charge of defending it . To strengthen the defences there , Adachi ordered the 80th Infantry Regiment and a battalion of field artillery from the 20th Division at Madang to move to Finschhafen on 7 August 1943 . The headquarters , artillery , and heavy weapons departed Bogadjim on 15 August , and travelled by sea , but the remainder marched along the coast .
On 26 August , he assigned the 2nd Battalion , 238th Infantry Regiment , part of the 41st Division , which was in the area en route to join the rest of the 238th Infantry Regiment at Salamaua , to remain in the Finschhafen area under Yamada 's command . The landing at Lae on 4 September made an Australian advance on Finschhafen appear imminent , and Adachi ordered the rest of the 20th Division , less the Nakai detachment in the Markham Valley , to move to Finschhafen . The main body , under Lieutenant General Shigeru Katagiri , left Bogadjim bound for Finschhafen on 10 September , but was not expected to arrive before October . In the event of an Allied attack before he arrived , Yamada was to hold the high ground around Sattelberg and prepare for a counter @-@ attack .
= = Geography = =
The Huon Peninsula is situated along the north @-@ east coast of Papua New Guinea , and stretches from Lae in the south on the Huon Gulf to Sio in the north along the Vitiaz Strait . Along the coast , between these two points , numerous rivers and streams cut the terrain . Of these , the most prominent are the Song , Bumi , and Mape Rivers . These waterways flow from the mountainous interior , which is formed through the conglomeration of the Rawlinson Range in the south , with the Cromwell Mountains in the east . These meet in the centre of the peninsula to form the Saruwaged Range massif , which joins the Finisterre Range further west . Apart from a thin , flat coastal strip , at the time of the campaign , the area was thickly covered with dense jungle , through which very few tracks had been cut .
During planning , the Allies identified three areas as key and decisive terrain in the area : the beach north of Katika , which was later codenamed " Scarlet " by the Allies , the 3 @,@ 150 @-@ foot ( 960 m ) high peak called Sattelberg 5 miles ( 8 km ) to the south west , which dominated the area due to its height , and Finschhafen , possessing a small airfield and sitting on the coast in a bay which offered protected harbour facilities . Before the war , the town had a population of about 30 white and 60 native people . There were good anchorages for vessels of up to 5 @,@ 000 tons in Dreger Harbour , Langemak Bay , and Finsch Harbour . The flat coastal strip provided a number of potential airfield sites . German names abounded in the area because the Territory of New Guinea was a German colony from 1884 until it was occupied by Australia in 1914 .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Intelligence = = =
Allied estimates of the number of Japanese troops in the Finschhafen area varied . Brigadier General Charles A. Willoughby , the Assistant Chief of Staff ( G @-@ 2 ) , and therefore the head of the intelligence branch at MacArthur 's GHQ , considered Finschhafen to be primarily a transhipment point , and the troops there to be mainly from line of communication units . The fall of Lae ended its utility , so he reduced his estimate of the number of Japanese troops in the area to 350 . Based on this appreciation , GHQ believed that Finschhafen would be a " pushover " .
There was reason to believe otherwise . A ten @-@ man Allied Intelligence Bureau patrol that included three Australian officers , an American amphibian scout from the US Army 's 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment , a signaller from Z Special Unit , and native soldiers , was landed during the night of 11 / 12 September in rubber boats launched from two PT boats . The scouts were unable to obtain the hydrographic information they sought due to Japanese patrols in the area . A number of machine @-@ gun nests were identified during their reconnaissance of the enemy positions before they were extracted on 14 September .
As had happened during the Kokoda Track campaign and the Battle of Buna – Gona , estimates by Australian intelligence differed greatly from those at GHQ , as they used different methods . The intelligence staff at Blamey 's Allied Land Forces Headquarters ( LHQ ) , headed by Brigadier J. D. Rogers , had come up with a much higher figure of 3 @,@ 000 . I Corps produced an estimate of 1 @,@ 800 , which was passed on along with GHQ 's estimate . The Allies ' best source of intelligence , Ultra , shone no light on the matter . Finschhafen was mentioned in only five decrypted messages in the previous three months . Most of these were in the insecure Japanese Water Transport Code . Only after the capture of Japanese codebooks in the Battle of Sio in January 1944 were the Allies able to systematically break into the Japanese Army codes . In fact , Japanese strength in the area on 22 September was about 5 @,@ 000 .
= = = Planning = = =
Two contingency plans had been prepared by Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring 's I Corps . One was a ship @-@ to @-@ shore operation by the 6th Division 's 16th Infantry Brigade or the 7th Infantry Brigade , a Militia formation at Milne Bay ; the other was for a shore @-@ to @-@ shore operation by a brigade of Major General George Wootten 's 9th Division . The operation was codenamed " Diminish " , which was in fact that of Finschhafen itself . In the plan produced by I Corps on 24 August 1943 , Herring selected beaches immediately south of the Song River for the landing . Indications were that it was suitable for landing craft . Most of the Japanese defenders and defences were believed to be facing south in anticipation of an Australian overland advance from Lae . It avoided having to cross the Mape River , which was believed to be a significant obstacle . The landing beach became known as Scarlet Beach from the post @-@ landing red screens and lights used to guide landing craft . The left end of the beach was marked with a solid red panel mounted on tent poles , the right with one alternating red and white . At night , the left would have a red light , and the right one alternating red and white . This scheme had first been used at Red Beach during the landing at Lae . To avoid confusion of having two Red Beaches , the landing beach was called Scarlet Beach instead .
On 16 September , the day Lae fell , MacArthur ordered that Finschhafen be captured as soon as possible . The following day he held a conference at Port Moresby . He and Blamey selected the second contingency , a landing by a brigade of the 9th Division . Brigadier Victor Windeyer 's 20th Infantry Brigade was chosen as it was still relatively fresh , and had experience with amphibious operations from the landing at Lae . The 6th Division 's movement to New Guinea was postponed . Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey , the commander of the VII Amphibious Force , had originally counted on four weeks break between the fall of Lae and the Finschhafen operation . On 9 September , he had told Herring that it would require a minimum of ten days . Under pressure from MacArthur , Barbey cut that to three days . This was too soon for Herring to get the troops together , and 21 September was selected as the target date . Herring briefed Windeyer on the operation on 18 September . Windeyer felt that the schedule was still too tight , and it was postponed one more day to 22 September .
As at Lae , the first wave , consisting of two companies each from the 2 / 13th and 2 / 7th Infantry Battalions , would land in plywood LCP ( R ) s launched by the four destroyer transports , the USS Brooks , Gilmer , Humphreys , and Sands . The remainder of the assault would land in six LSTs , 15 LCIs , and six LCTs of the VII Amphibious Force , and 10 LCMs and 15 LCVPs of the 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment . The total force would number about 5 @,@ 300 . The 9th Division would be limited to taking 15 days ' supplies . One of the lessons of the Lae operation was the need for a naval beach party to take soundings , mark the beaches and channels , and handle communications between ship and shore . US Navy doctrine held that these should be composed of personnel drawn from the attack transports , but none were involved in the Lae or Finschhafen operations . For Finschhafen , an eight @-@ man Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) Beach Party was organised under Lieutenant Commander J. M. Band .
A set of oblique aerial photographs of Scarlet Beach were taken on 19 September by the USAAF 's 8th Photo Reconnaissance Squadron , the only unit in SWPA with the equipment to take them , that showed a shallow sand bar along the southern half of the beach , rendering it unsuitable for landing craft . This left beaching space for only three LSTs . The landing plan was changed so only three of the six LSTs would beach with the initial assault , the other three returning to Buna , and arriving on the beach at 23 : 00 that night . Herring considered that spreading the LST arrivals might make unloading easier . Wootten noted that this would mean that one battery of 25 @-@ pounders , one light antiaircraft battery , a quarter of the engineer stores , and the casualty clearing station would have to arrive with the second group . Ironically , soundings taken by the RAN Beach Party after the landing revealed that the " sand bar " was actually a white shingle bottom , and in fact the beach was ideally suited to LST operations .
The main point of disagreement between Herring and Barbey concerned the timing of the landing . Barbey and the Commander of Allied Naval Forces , Vice Admiral Arthur S. Carpender , did not want a repeat of what happened at Lae , when two LCIs were lost and two LSTs were badly damaged . Although the USAAF and RAAF attacked Japanese air bases in New Britain , this did not stop nine Japanese bombers and 10 fighters attacking Nadzab on 20 September . Moreover , some 23 Japanese warships were sighted in the harbour at Rabaul , and there were reports of Japanese submarines in the area . Accordingly , Barbey proposed landing at 02 : 00 under a quarter moon , which would allow his ships to unload and get away soon after dawn . Noting that it was the rainy season , and the sky would therefore likely be overcast , Herring doubted that the VII Amphibious Force would be able to locate the beach , and pressed for a dawn landing at 05 : 15 . In the end , a compromise was reached on 04 : 45 . Samuel Eliot Morison , the US Naval historian , noted that : " The Australians proved to be right ; ' Uncle Dan 's ' outfit was not prepared for a neat night landing . The usual snafu developed " .
= = Landing = =
= = = First wave = = =
USS APc @-@ 15 produced 140 mimeograph copies of the VII Amphibious Force operation order , which was distributed by PT boat . They then departed for G Beach , 14 miles ( 23 km ) east of Lae . While they were en route during the night , a Japanese raid on Buna sank an LCS ( S ) , and damaged a dock and two merchant ships ; nine people were killed and 27 wounded . USS LCI @-@ 31 developed engine trouble , and was forced to return to Buna . This left A Company of the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion without its transport . The battalion commander , Lieutenant Colonel G. E. Colvin , arranged for them to travel on USS LCI @-@ 337 , LCI @-@ 338 , and LCI @-@ 342 . Around sunset , six Sally bombers attacked the escorting destroyers . They dropped their bombs but scored no hits .
The ships arrived off Scarlet beach on time , and the destroyers conducted a short 11 @-@ minute preliminary bombardment . It was doubtful if any Japanese positions were hit or any casualties inflicted . Low cloud trapped the smoke and dust produced by the bombardment . To the Australians , it was " dark as the inside of a cow " . Scarlet Beach and Siki Cove were covered by bunker @-@ type pillboxes made of logs , spaced about 50 yards ( 46 m ) apart , and connected by shallow trenches . They held about 300 Japanese defenders . Japanese tracer fire started pouring from the shore . At this point , one Australian recalled " I realised that this was not an unopposed landing . " It was the first opposed landing by Australian troops since the Landing at Anzac Cove in the Gallipoli Campaign of 1915 .
Almost all the LCP ( R ) s in the first wave veered off course to the left , landing between Siki Creek and the rocks of the headland between Siki Cove and Arndt Point . All the boats landed successfully except for one carrying 11 Platoon of the 2 / 15th Infantry Battalion , which had broken down and was towed by the LCP ( R ) carrying 10 Platoon , delaying both . Another LCP ( R ) appeared and took the platoon in . But only three of the sixteen landed on Scarlet Beach . In some ways this was good , as it meant that the plywood landing craft were not subjected to intense machine gun fire , which might have caused heavy casualties ; but there were still serious disadvantages to landing on the wrong beach . On the right , Captain T. C. Sheldon 's B Company , 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion , accompanied by the anti @-@ tank platoon and 10 Platoon the Papuan Infantry Battalion , landed roughly where they were supposed to , and pushed on to their objective , North Hill .
The rest of the first wave was jumbled up . Major P.H. Pike found his A Company of the 2 / 17th mixed up with Captain Paul Deschamps ' B Company of the 2 / 13th . Since the latter had further to travel , and there was no Japanese opposition , Pike agreed to hold his company back while Deschamps ' moved on to his objective . Pike then moved his men inland 100 yards ( 91 m ) and waited for daylight . C Company 's task was to seize Arndt Point , but part of it was already there , facing a steep cliff . The only platoon to encounter serious opposition was Lieutenant C. Huggett 's platoon , which had veered off to the right , and landed on Scarlet Beach near the mouth of the Song River . It came under fire from two Japanese machine gun posts there . With the help of an American Amphibian Scout , Lieutenant Herman A. Koeln , Huggett attacked the posts with grenades and small arms . Another Amphibian Scout , Lieutenant Edward K. Hammer , encountered a party of Japanese that he fired on . Koeln and Hammer were conspicuous because they were carrying the 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) red canvas signs to mark the beach . The beachmaster , Lieutenant Commander J. M. Band , was fatally wounded making his way to Scarlet Beach . He was posthumously awarded the US Navy Cross .
= = = Follow @-@ up = = =
The second wave came in LCIs . These were craft that had no ramps ; infantry disembarked from the down gangways . That they were not suitable for an assault landing was not overlooked , but they were all that was available . The first wave 's mission had been to capture Scarlet Beach and the foreshore . Since that had not been done , they came under fire from the Japanese bunkers . Despite explicit orders not to , they replied with their Oerlikon 20 mm cannon . Some helped to suppress the Japanese machine guns , while others fired wildly and caused casualties among the Australian troops ashore . Like the first wave , they veered off to the left , adding to the chaos . At least three of the LCIs grounded on a sand bar , but were able to retract and make better landings , although still on the wrong beach .
The Military Landing Officer , Major J. R. Broadbent landed with the first wave in the same LCP ( R ) as Pike . With him was an Amphibian Scout carrying the red signal light that was to mark the centre of the beach for later waves . They were unable to reach the correct location in time for the second wave , but were able to place it and switch it on in time for the third , so it was the first to land on Scarlet Beach . Although the first wave had landed seven minutes late , the second was fifteen , and the third was half an hour behind schedule . In the confusion , two LCIs collided , killing two soldiers and injuring eight . Some of the LCI captains were reluctant to drive their ships in hard enough , and many troops disembarked into water that was over their heads . Sergeant Iaking Iwagu , of the Royal Papuan Constabulary , landing with 9 Platoon of the Papuan Infantry Battalion , was awarded the George Medal for attempting to save Captain A. B. Luetchford , who was hit in deep water . The third wave found the Japanese bunkers still manned , and assaulted them . Most of the Japanese defenders withdrew rather than fight to the finish .
Four LCMs of Lieutenant Colonel E. D. Brockett 's Boat Battalion of the 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment carrying Bofors 40 mm guns were supposed to arrive with the second wave , but due to some navigational difficulties , they were an hour late . They came in with the six LCMs and four LCVPs of the fourth wave , which was itself 40 minutes late , arriving at 06 : 10 . The 11 LCVPs of the fifth wave reached the Scarlet Beach ten minutes later . By 06 : 30 , the beach and the foreshore were clear of Japanese , and the destroyer transports and LCIs were on their way back to Buna . The amphibian engineers set up a portable surgical hospital to treat the wounded . Windeyer and his brigade major , Major B. V. Wilson , arrived in a landing craft from the destroyer USS Conyngham , and he established brigade headquarters in a Kunai patch 200 yards ( 180 m ) from the beach . A Japanese soldier threw a hand grenade at them that killed one man and wounded the brigade intelligence officer , Captain Barton Maughan . The Japanese soldier was killed with an Owen gun .
The sixth and final wave consisted of USS LST @-@ 18 , LST @-@ 168 , and LST @-@ 204 . They had instructions to wait until the smaller craft had cleared the beach , and beached at 06 : 50 . Each carried an unloading party of 100 men , drawn from the 2 / 23rd and 2 / 48th Infantry Battalions , and 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion , who would return with the LSTs . The unloading proceeded at a rapid pace . All the cargo was unloaded from two of the three when they retracted at 09 : 30 , and headed off escorted by ten destroyers and the fleet tug USS Sonoma . The 2 / 3rd Field Company , 2 / 1st Mechanical Equipment Company , 2 / 3rd Pioneer Battalion , and the Shore Battalion of the 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment prepared four beach exits . Stores were quickly moved off the beach to inland dumps . Some 5 @,@ 300 troops , 180 vehicles , 32 25 @-@ pounders and Bofors 40 mm guns , and 850 measurement tons ( 960 m3 ) of bulk stores had been unloaded .
Fifth Air Force fighters provided air cover from 06 : 45 . A Japanese reconnaissance aircraft flew over the beachhead at 09 : 10 , and was shot down . A lone bomber showed up ten minutes later and attacked the LSTs on the beach , but missed . Two dive bombers attacked at 09 : 30 , and were driven off , but not before inflicting casualties . The Bofors guns of the 10th Light Anti Aircraft Battery were attacked , and five men were wounded , one fatally . Over the next two weeks there was at least one air raid on the beachhead every day . The air raids proved an effective way of clearing the beach . A large attack by 39 aircraft of the 4th Air Army ran into bad weather and had to return to Wewak , but a naval air forces attack with 38 Zeke fighters and eight Betty bombers found the LSTs and destroyers near the Tami Islands on their way back to Buna at 12 : 40 . The fighter cover was being changed over , so the Fifth Air Force fighter controller on board the destroyer USS Reid could deploy five squadrons instead of just three . They claimed to have shot down 29 fighters and 10 bombers . Antiaircraft gunners from the destroyers , LSTs , and Sonoma also engaged the bombers . While torpedo wakes were seen , no hits were suffered . Three Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning fighters were shot down , but at least one pilot was rescued . The Japanese pilots claimed to have sunk two cruisers , two destroyers , and two transports .
= = = Consolidation = = =
A shortage of 9 mm ammunition for the Owen Guns was discovered , apparently because the ammunition was in the LST that had not been completely unloaded . An emergency airdrop was requested at 10 : 30 . In Port Moresby , the 1st Air Maintenance Company prepared 30 parachutes , each attached to two boxes containing 2 @,@ 560 rounds of 9 mm ammunition , a total of 153 @,@ 600 rounds . This was loaded onto three USAAF B @-@ 24 Liberator bombers at Wards Airfield that took off at 16 : 55 . They arrived over the Finschhafen area after dark at 19 : 15 , where a drop zone in a Kunai patch was marked by men holding hand torches . Of the 115 @,@ 000 rounds that were dropped , about 112 @,@ 000 were recovered .
Around daybreak , Pike 's A Company , 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion , reached the village of Katika , which turned out to be a clearing with some dilapidated huts . His company came under fire from Katika Spur , the high ground to the west , which was strongly held by the 9th Company , 80th Infantry Regiment and a company of the 238th Infantry Regiment . The Japanese attempted to outflank A Company on its left , but ran into Capitan L. Snell 's D Company , 2 / 15th Infantry Battalion .
The Japanese positions were well @-@ sited on the spur for an attack from the east along the track from Katika to Sattelberg , but at this point , Captain B. G. Cribb , the commander of D Company , 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion , came on the radio and announced that he was in contact with the Japanese to the west , and was going to attack from that direction . A furious fight ensured . The Japanese held their fire until the Australians were almost on top of them . Realising that the position was stronger than he had thought , Cribb withdrew after suffering eight dead and twenty wounded . Windeyer ordered the 2 / 17th to bypass the position and proceed to its objective , the high ground south of the Song River . The 2 / 15th was ordered to attack Katika Spur . The attack was delivered at 15 : 15 after a preliminary bombardment by 3 inch mortars , but the Japanese defenders had withdrawn , leaving behind eight dead . By nightfall , most of the brigade was on their objectives .
The seventh wave , made up of USS LST @-@ 67 , LST @-@ 452 , and LST @-@ 454 , arrived at Scarlet Beach at midnight . As with the previous wave , each carried an Australian labour force which unloaded the LSTs under the direction of the Shore Battalion . The LSTs retracted at 03 : 00 in order to be well clear before dawn . During the first day , Australian casualties were 20 killed , 65 wounded , and nine missing , all of whom were eventually found to be either dead or wounded . The VII Amphibious Force reported that three men had been wounded .
= = Reinforcement = =
Blamey relinquished command of New Guinea Force on 22 September , handing over to Lieutenant General Sir Iven Mackay . As one of his final actions before returning to LHQ in Brisbane , Blamey instructed Herring to arrange for the reinforcement of Finschhafen with an extra brigade and 9th Division Headquarters . That day , though , MacArthur , who also returned to Brisbane on 24 September , had issued an instruction that operations at Finschhafen were " to be so conducted as to avoid commitment of amphibious means beyond those allotted " . Barbey therefore declined to arrange for the reinforcement of Finschhafen . Mackay took up the matter with Carpender , who likewise demurred . MacArthur feared that committing additional resources would tie them up , and perhaps result in losses , that would delay upcoming operations , relinquishing the initiative to the Japanese . Ironically , the delay in reinforcing Finschhafen would cause just that .
Windeyer sent a signal on 27 September asking for another infantry battalion and a squadron of tanks , and Carpender agreed to ship the additional battalion . The following day Herring flew to Milne Bay to confer with Barbey about this . On takeoff from Dobodura , the B @-@ 25 Mitchell he was travelling in crashed . A flying fragment killed his chief of staff , Brigadier R. B. Sutherland , instantly . Everyone else on board escaped shaken but unscathed . The meeting was cancelled . Willoughby still clung to his original estimate of 350 Japanese in the Finschhafen area , but MacArthur authorised the extra battalion . It was arranged that the first LST departing Lae on the night of 28 / 29 September would stop at G Beach and collect the 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalion and a platoon of the 2 / 13th Field Company , a total of 838 men . They were taken to Buna where they transferred to the destroyer transports USS Brooks , Gilmer , and Humphreys . The next night they made a run to Scarlet Beach . The troops were landed and 134 wounded were taken back , but surf conditions prevented the most seriously wounded from being evacuated .
While the 20th Infantry Brigade was engaged at Finschhafen , the 22nd Infantry Battalion , a Militia infantry battalion from Victoria , advanced along the coast from the Hopoi Mission Station towards Finschhafen . This advance , " constituting a minor epic in New Guinea operations " , traversed increasing difficult terrain . Supply using vehicles was impossible ; the 22nd Infantry Battalion was supplied by boats of the 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment . Stores were dropped off at advanced beaches and then carried from there by native porters . The 22nd Infantry Battalion fought a number of skirmishes against the Japanese 2nd Battalion , 80th Infantry Regiment , which was under orders to withdraw . The 22nd Infantry Battalion therefore discovered a series of well @-@ prepared and strong positions which were either unmanned or soon abandoned . Along the way two Type 41 75 mm Mountain Guns that had been disabled were found , along with the bodies of the six natives who had hauled the guns , who had been bound and shot . The battalion reached Dreger Harbour on 1 October , where it made contact with the 20th Infantry Brigade .
= = Advance on Finschhafen = =
On 23 September , Windeyer ordered an advance on Finschhafen . Lieutenant Colonel Colin Grace 's 2 / 15th Infantry Battalion reached the Bumi River at 12 : 40 . It was 15 to 20 yards ( 14 to 18 m ) wide and appeared fordable , but the banks contained barbed wire and strongly fortified Japanese positions . While Yamada was withdrawing towards Sattelberg , the Japanese marines of the 85th Garrison Unit remained in place . Yamada had no authority over the marines , and its commander , Captain Tsuzuki , saw no reason to conform to Yamada 's actions . He intended to hold Finschhafen for as long as possible . Grace ordered Major Ron Suthers to outflank the Japanese position by moving through the foothills of the Kreutberg Range , as previously instructed by Windeyer . While not high , these were very steep and covered in thick vegetation .
Suthers halted on the ridge for the night but resumed his advance in the morning , reaching the Bumi at 10 : 00 . They again found the north bank defended but the south occupied , so attempted to find a crossing 150 yards ( 140 m ) upstream . A Japanese sniper with a light machine gun killed B Company 's commander , Captain E. Christie , and Lieutenant N. Harphain . Suthers then ordered Snell to make an assault crossing with D Company . This was done at 13 : 30 , with the company crossing in waist @-@ deep water . Only one man was killed in the crossing . During the afternoon , the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion crossed the river to the bridgehead secured by B and D Companies .
A large Japanese air raid at 12 : 30 by 20 fighters and 12 bombers struck the Australian positions around Launch Jetty and the Finschhafen airstrip . About 60 bombs were dropped . There were heavy casualties . The 2 / 3rd Field Company lost 14 killed and 19 wounded ; the 2 / 12th Field Regiment lost two killed and 16 wounded , and the air liaison party 's headquarters was hit , knocking out its radio set and killing Captain Ferrel , its commander . Another eight men were killed and 40 wounded in air raids on 25 September . During the night of 25 / 26 September , Japanese barges and a submarine were spotted offshore . Windeyer had to bring a company of the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion back to protect the brigade area .
Meanwhile , D Company of the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion had moved along the track to Sattelberg with the intent of capturing that position . D Company reported that Sattelberg was unoccupied , but in fact had captured Jivevenang , not Sattelberg . When the mistake was realised and it attempted to take Sattelberg , it was found to be strongly defended . D Company therefore withdrew to Jivevenang . Unfortunately , the news of the capture of Sattelberg was passed all the way up the line to GHQ in Brisbane .
The advance on Finschhafen continued on 26 September . Since the Salankaua Plantation was still reported to be heavily defended , Windeyer attempted to force the defenders to withdraw . He started with attacks on two hills to the south west of the plantation . B and D Companies of the 2 / 15th Infantry Battalion attacked what came to be called Snell 's Hill . It was captured in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat using bayonets . The Australians captured three 13 mm heavy machine guns and seven light machine guns , and buried the bodies of 52 dead Japanese defenders . The other feature , which came to be called Starvation Hill , was taken by C Company . However , their capture did not prompt the Japanese to leave the Salankaua Plantation .
Windeyer realised that he needed to capture Kakakog Ridge . Torrential rain was falling , making it difficult to resupply the forward positions , particularly Starvation Hill . On 1 October eight Douglas A @-@ 20 Havoc bombers of the US 89th Bombardment Squadron attacked the Japanese positions in the Salankaua Plantation and Kakakog Ridge area at 10 : 35 , followed by ten Vultee Vengeance dive bombers of No. 24 Squadron RAAF . This was followed by twenty 25 @-@ pounders of the 2 / 12th Field Regiment firing 30 rounds per gun .
The attack was delivered but the assault companies were soon pinned down . " When a situation seemed desperate " , historian David Dexter noted , " the Australian Army appeared to have the knack of producing a leader of the necessary character " . Sergeant G. R. Crawford led 11 and 12 Platoons of the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion in a bayonet charge on the Japanese positions covering Ilebbe Creek . Private A. J. Rofle , firing a Bren gun from the hip , silenced one of the Japanese posts causing the most trouble . He went on to silence another , but was wounded trying to take out a third . Crawford 's furious assault swept all before it . One post remained on Crawford 's left , which was attacked with 2 @-@ inch mortars and attacked by 8 Platoon . The Japanese abandoned the post and withdrew into the Salankaua Plantation . Rolfe and Crawford were awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal . The 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion lost 10 killed and 70 ; between 80 and 100 Japanese marines died .
The arrival of the 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalion meant that the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion could be reassembled for the advance on Finschhafen , thus enabling the entire 20th Infantry Brigade to concentrate on that objective . On 2 October the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion crossed the Bumi without opposition , and found the Salankaua Plantation unoccupied . In mopping up the area , it captured two Japanese stragglers and killed three . By evening Finschhafen was in Australian hands . Between 22 September and 2 October , the 20th Infantry Brigade had taken its objectives . It had lost 73 dead , 276 wounded and nine missing , all of whom were later accounted for as dead or wounded . The 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment had eight dead and 42 wounded . Two Americans were also killed in the Air Liaison Party .
= = Aftermath = =
MacArthur 's decision to move swiftly against Finschhafen , coupled with Blamey 's to envelop the Japanese defences by landing at Scarlet Beach , and Yamada 's to avoid a decisive engagement that might result in the loss of all or part of his force , gave Windeyer the time and space he needed to take Finschhafen . Blamey 's objective was therefore in Allied hands ; but it was of limited use without Sattelberg . The Allied intelligence failure and subsequent dithering meant that the Japanese reinforced their position faster , and thus were able to seize the initiative .
The Japanese launched a counter @-@ attack on the Allied lodgement around Scarlet Beach . A three @-@ pronged action , the counter @-@ attack saw a diversionary attack to the north , while the Sugino Craft Raiding Unit attacked from the sea , and two infantry regiments assaulted the centre aiming towards the beach and the Heldsbach plantation . It had been intended that once the beachhead was overwhelmed , that the 79th and 80th Infantry Regiments would link up and then clear the Finschhafen and Langemark Bay areas ; but the assault was poorly co @-@ ordinated and failed to achieve sufficient weight to overcome the Australians , while also suffering from a lack of artillery . The seaborne assault was interdicted by US Navy PT boats , which inflicted heavy casualties , and was destroyed by Allied machine gunners on the beach . In the centre , though , the Japanese were able to break through to Siki Cove , and in the process isolated several Australian units , including those fighting on the western flank around Jivevenang , forcing the Australians to resort to air drops to keep their forces supplied .
While the Japanese briefly managed to force the Australians to contract their forces around the beachhead , and Japanese aircraft were able to attack the Allied ground troops around the area over three successive nights between 19 and 21 October , the attack eventually ran out of momentum on 24 October , at which point the Japanese commander , Yamada , ordered his forces to concentrate around the high ground at Sattelberg , where they planned to make further attacks . Meanwhile , the Australians prepared for an assault against the Japanese strong hold that had been established around the abandoned Lutheran mission atop the Sattelberg heights before advancing towards the Wareo plateau to cut off key Japanese lines of communication .
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= Animal House =
National Lampoon 's Animal House is a 1978 American comedy film from Universal Pictures , produced by Ivan Reitman and Matty Simmons , directed by John Landis , and starring John Belushi , Tim Matheson , John Vernon , Verna Bloom , Thomas Hulce , and Donald Sutherland . The film , a direct spin @-@ off from National Lampoon magazine , is about a misfit group of fraternity members who challenge the authority of the dean of Faber College .
The screenplay was adapted by Douglas Kenney , Chris Miller , and Harold Ramis from stories written by Miller and published in National Lampoon magazine . The stories were based on Ramis 's experience in the Zeta Beta Tau fraternity at Washington University in St. Louis , as well as Miller 's experience in the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity at Dartmouth College , and producer Ivan Reitman 's experiences at Delta Upsilon at McMaster University in Hamilton , Ontario . Of the younger lead actors , only John Belushi was an established star , but even he had not yet appeared in a film , having gained fame mainly from his Saturday Night Live television appearances . Several of the actors who were cast as college students , including Karen Allen , Tom Hulce , and Kevin Bacon , were just beginning their film careers , although Tim Matheson had recently appeared as one of the vigilante motorcycle cops in the second Dirty Harry film , Magnum Force .
Upon its initial release , Animal House received generally mixed reviews from critics , but Time and Roger Ebert proclaimed it one of the year 's best . Filmed for $ 2 @.@ 8 million , it is one of the most profitable movies in history , garnering an estimated gross of more than $ 141 million in the form of theatrical rentals and home video , not including merchandising .
The film , along with 1977 's The Kentucky Fried Movie , also directed by Landis , was largely responsible for defining and launching the gross @-@ out genre of films , which became one of Hollywood 's staples . It is also now considered one of the greatest comedy films ever made by many fans and critics . In 2001 the United States Library of Congress deemed Animal House " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry . It was No. 1 on Bravo 's " 100 Funniest Movies " . It was No. 36 on AFI 's " 100 Years ... 100 Laughs " list of the 100 best American comedies . In 2008 Empire magazine selected it as one of " The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time " .
= = Plot = =
In 1962 , Faber College freshmen Lawrence " Larry " Kroger and Kent Dorfman seek to join a fraternity . Finding themselves out of place at the prestigious Omega Theta Pi house 's party , they visit the slovenly Delta Tau Chi house next door , where Kent is a " legacy " who cannot be rejected due to his brother having been a member . John " Bluto " Blutarsky welcomes them , and they meet other Deltas , including biker Daniel Simpson " D @-@ Day " Day , ladies ' man Eric " Otter " Stratton , and Otter 's best friend Donald " Boon " Schoenstein , whose girlfriend Katy is constantly pressuring him to stop drinking with the Deltas and do something with his life . Larry and Kent are invited to pledge and given the fraternity names " Pinto " and " Flounder " , respectively , by Bluto , Delta 's sergeant @-@ at @-@ arms .
College Dean Vernon Wormer wants to remove the Deltas , who are already on probation , so he invokes his emergency authority and places the fraternity on " double @-@ secret probation " due to various campus conduct violations and their abysmal academic standing . He directs the clean @-@ cut , smug Omega president Greg Marmalard to find a way for him to remove the Deltas from campus . Various incidents , including the prank @-@ related accidental death of a horse belonging to Omega member and ROTC cadet commander Douglas Neidermeyer , and an attempt by Otter to date Marmalard 's girlfriend , further increase the Dean 's and the Omegas ' animosity toward the Deltas .
Bluto and D @-@ Day steal the answers to an upcoming test from the trash , not realizing that the Omegas have planted a fake set of answers for them to find . The Deltas fail the exam , and their grade @-@ point averages fall so low that Wormer tells them he needs only one more incident to revoke their charter . To cheer themselves up , the Deltas organize a toga party and bring in Otis Day and the Knights to provide live music . Wormer 's wife attends at Otter 's invitation and has sex with him . Pinto hooks up with Clorette , a girl he met at the supermarket . They make out , but do not have sex because she passes out drunk . Pinto takes her home in a shopping cart and later discovers that she is the mayor 's daughter .
Outraged by his wife 's escapades and the mayor 's threat of personal violence , Wormer organizes a kangaroo court and revokes Delta 's charter . To take their minds off this action , Otter , Boon , Flounder , and Pinto go on a road trip . Otter is successful in picking up four young women from Emily Dickinson College as dates for himself and his Delta brothers . He elicits sympathy by posing as the fiancé of a young woman at the college who died in a recent kiln explosion . They stop at a roadhouse bar where Day 's band is performing , not realizing it has an exclusively African @-@ American clientele . A couple of hulking patrons intimidate the Deltas and they quickly exit , smashing up Flounder 's borrowed car and leaving their dates behind .
Marmalard and other Omegas lure Otter to a motel and beat him up , believing that Otter is having an affair with Marmalard 's girlfriend , Mandy . The Deltas ' midterm grades are so poor that an ecstatic Wormer expels them all , having already notified their local draft boards that they are now eligible for military service . The news shocks Flounder so badly that he vomits on Wormer .
The Deltas are despondent , but Bluto rallies them with an impassioned , if historically inaccurate , speech ( " Was it over when the Germans bombed Pearl Harbor ? Hell no ! " ) , and so they decide to take action against Wormer , the Omegas , and the college . They convert Flounder 's damaged car into an armored vehicle and hide it inside a cake @-@ shaped breakaway float in order to sneak into the annual homecoming parade . As they wreak havoc on the event , the futures of several of the student main characters are revealed using freeze @-@ frame labels . Most of the Deltas become respectable professionals , while their adversaries suffer less fortunate outcomes .
= = Cast = =
= = = Delta Tau Chi ( ΔΤΧ ) = = =
John Belushi as John " Bluto " Blutarsky : A drunken degenerate with his own style , in his seventh year of college , with a GPA of 0 @.@ 0 . He eventually became a United States senator and married Mandy Pepperidge , a sorority girl .
Tim Matheson as Eric " Otter " Stratton : A confident womanizer whose room is a hotel room look @-@ a @-@ like and a pristine seduction den amid the sheer filth of the rest of the Delta house . Otter is the fraternity 's rush chairman and essentially the fraternity 's unofficial leader . After graduation from Faber in 1963 , he became a gynecologist in Beverly Hills .
Peter Riegert as Donald " Boon " Schoenstein : Otter 's nice @-@ guy best friend , who has to decide between his Delta pals and girlfriend Katy . He marries Katy in 1964 , but they divorce in 1969 . ( In the book adaptation Boon becomes a taxi driver and part @-@ time writer in New York City . In Where Are They Now ? , he and Katy got married , divorced , and remarried a final time after a fling resulted in the conception of their son Otis . He also works as a documentarian . )
Thomas Hulce as Lawrence " Pinto " Kroger : A shy but friendly guy and new pledge at Delta with a 1 @.@ 2 GPA . After graduating from Faber in 1966 , he became editor of National Lampoon magazine . ( " Pinto " was screenwriter Chris Miller 's nickname at his Dartmouth fraternity . )
Stephen Furst as Kent " Flounder " Dorfman : An overweight , naive , clumsy legacy pledge who is Pinto 's best friend and roommate with a GPA of 0 @.@ 2 . After graduating from Faber in 1966 , he became a sensitivity trainer in Cleveland , Ohio .
Bruce McGill as Daniel Simpson " D @-@ Day " Day : A tough motorcycle biker with no grade point average ; all classes incomplete . Immediately after the Faber homecoming parade fiasco , he leaves town , his subsequent whereabouts unknown .
James Widdoes as Robert Hoover : The affable , level @-@ headed , reasonably clean @-@ cut president of the fraternity , who desperately struggles to maintain a façade of normality to placate the Dean . He is at the top of his fraternity with a 1 @.@ 6 GPA . After graduating from Faber in 1963 , he became a public defender in Baltimore .
Douglas Kenney as " Stork " : A Delta member whose real name is never revealed . He is often seen in the background alongside Bluto and other Deltas . During his first year , Stork was thought to be brain @-@ damaged . He speaks two lines in the entire film . ( In the book adaptation , Stork is revealed to be independently wealthy , a result of him holding several patents . )
Chris Miller as Curtis Wayne " Hardbar " Fuller : A Delta member who is often seen in the background . He is best friends with Stork , and has only one line in the film . ( He plays a larger role in the " Where Are They Now ? " short , which reveals his real name . " Hardbar " is based on a member of Chris Miller 's fraternity , also sharing his nickname . )
= = = Omega Theta Pi ( ΩΘΠ ) = = =
James Daughton as Gregory " Greg " Marmalard : The president of Omega House and boyfriend of Mandy Pepperidge . After graduation from Faber in 1963 , he became a Nixon White House aide and was subsequently raped in prison in 1974 after being convicted for his involvement in the Watergate scandal .
Mark Metcalf as Douglas C. Neidermeyer : The rush chairman of Omega as well as an Army ROTC cadet officer and scion of a military family who personally hates the Deltas . After graduation from Faber in 1963 , he was commissioned in the U. S. Army and later was killed by his own platoon in Vietnam .
Kevin Bacon as Chip Diller : A smarmy Omega pledge and ROTC cadet , who gets trampled into the pavement during the homecoming parade . ( In Where Are They Now ? he became a born @-@ again Christian missionary in Africa . )
= = = Supporting characters = = =
John Vernon as Vernon Wormer : the Dean of Faber College . He wants to revoke the Deltas ' charter and kick them off campus because of their partying ways and poor grade point averages . He will do anything underhanded in his quest to do so . ( In Where Are They Now ? he was fired after the homecoming parade debacle and is now residing in a nursing home . )
Verna Bloom as Marion Wormer : The Dean 's alcoholic and neglected wife who briefly hooks up with Otter . A newspaper article reports she has left on a trip to visit Sarasota Springs . ( Dean Wormer sends her there to " dry out " at treatment facility . )
Donald Sutherland as Professor Dave Jennings : A bored English professor who tries to turn his students on to left @-@ wing politics and marijuana . ( In Where Are They Now ? , it is revealed he became Chairman of Faber 's English Department the same year that Dean Wormer entered the nursing home . )
Karen Allen as Katy : Boon 's frustrated girlfriend who has a dalliance with Jennings but subsequently goes on to marry , then divorce , Boon . ( In Where Are They Now ? it is revealed that she and Boon got married , then divorced , and then remarried . )
Sarah Holcomb as Clorette DePasto : The mayor 's 13 @-@ year @-@ old daughter who hooks up with Pinto . ( She ends up getting pregnant by him as well . )
DeWayne Jessie as Otis Day : The leader of a R & B band that plays at the toga party and later at the roadhouse bar . ( Jessie adopted the " Otis Day " name in his private life and toured with the band ) .
Mary Louise Weller as Mandy Pepperidge : A cheerleader and sorority girl who dates Greg , but is not satisfied with the relationship . She is later abducted by Bluto when he throws her into the convertible he uses to drive of town while the homecoming parade debacle unfolds . She ends up marrying Bluto .
Martha Smith as Barbara Sue " Babs " Jansen : A Southern belle cheerleader and Mandy 's best friend who secretly wants Greg for herself . An ally of the Omegas , she finds the Deltas repulsive . After being indecently exposed in public by the Deltas during their homecoming parade disruption , she becomes a tour guide at Universal Studios Hollywood .
Cesare Danova as Mayor Carmine DePasto : The shady local mayor implied to be a crime boss . He controls the town 's police and business , and extorts Wormer in order for the latter to hold Faber 's homecoming parade in the town . ( The Animal House book states that he went missing in 1971 , and was rumored to have become " part of the Emil Faber Memorial Highway . " )
Sean McCartin as " Lucky Boy " : The Playboy @-@ reading child who shouts " Thank you , God ! " after a Playboy Bunny flies through his bedroom window onto his bed during the homecoming parade disruption . ( McCartin later became pastor of a Eugene church . )
Stephen Bishop as " a Charming Guy with a Guitar " on the stairs at the toga party , who gets his guitar smashed by folk music @-@ hating Bluto .
Blues musician Robert Cray had an uncredited , non @-@ speaking role as a bassist in Otis Day 's band .
Lisa Baur played Shelly Dubinsky , the naive college girl Otter dupes into a date . ( Lisa now uses her given name , Cynthia , and owns a candle shop in New Zealand . )
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Animal House was the first film produced by National Lampoon , the most popular humor magazine on college campuses in the mid @-@ 1970s . The periodical specialized in humor , and satirized politics and popular culture . Many of the magazine ’ s writers were recent college graduates , hence their appeal to students all over the country . Doug Kenney was a Lampoon writer and the magazine ’ s first editor @-@ in @-@ chief . He graduated from Harvard University in 1969 and had a college experience closer to the Omegas in the film ( he had been president of the university 's elite Spee Club ) . Kenney was responsible for the first appearances of three characters that would appear in the film , Larry Kroger , Mandy Pepperidge , and Vernon Wormer . They made their debut in 1975 's National Lampoon ’ s High School Yearbook , a satire of a Middle America 1964 high school yearbook . Kroger 's and Pepperidge 's characters in the yearbook were effectively the same as their characters in the movie , whereas Vernon Wormer was a P. E. and civics teacher as well as an athletic coach in the yearbook .
However , Kenney felt that fellow Lampoon writer Chris Miller was the magazine 's expert on the college experience . Faced with an impending deadline , Miller submitted a chapter from his then @-@ abandoned memoirs entitled " The Night of the Seven Fires " about pledging experiences from his fraternity days in Alpha Delta ( associated with the national Alpha Delta Phi during Miller 's undergraduate years , the fraternity subsequently disassociated itself from the national organization and is now called Alpha Delta ) at the Ivy League 's Dartmouth College , in Hanover , New Hampshire . The antics of his fellow fraternities , coupled with experiences like that of a road trip to UMass Amherst and its Delta Chi Fraternity , became the inspiration for the Delta Tau Chis of Animal House and many characters in the film ( and their nicknames ) were based on Miller 's fraternity brothers . Filmmaker Ivan Reitman had just finished producing David Cronenberg 's first film , Shivers , and called the magazine 's publisher Matty Simmons about making movies under the Lampoon banner . Reitman had put together The National Lampoon Show in New York City featuring several future Saturday Night Live cast members , including John Belushi . When most of the Lampoon group moved on to SNL except for Harold Ramis , Reitman approached him with an idea to make a film together using some skits from the Lampoon Show .
= = = Screenplay = = =
Kenney met Lampoon writer Ramis at the suggestion of Simmons . Ramis drew from his own fraternity experiences as a member of Zeta Beta Tau fraternity at Washington University in St. Louis and was working on a film treatment about college called " Freshman Year " , but the magazine 's editors were not happy with it . Kenney and Ramis started working on a new film treatment together , positing Charles Manson in a high school , calling it Laser Orgy Girls . Simmons was cool to this idea so they changed the setting to a " northeastern college ... Ivy League kind of school " . Kenney was a fan of Miller ’ s fraternity stories and suggested using them as a basis for a movie . Kenney , Miller and Ramis began brainstorming ideas . They saw the film 's 1962 setting as " the last innocent year ... of America " , and the homecoming parade that ends the film as occurring on November 21 , 1963 , the day before President Kennedy 's assassination . They agreed that Belushi should star in it and Ramis wrote the part of Bluto specifically for the comedian , having been friends with him while at Chicago 's The Second City .
The writers were new to screenwriting , so their film treatment ran to 110 @-@ pages , the average was 15 pages . Reitman and Simmons pitched it to various Hollywood studios . Simmons met with Ned Tanen , an executive at Universal Studios . He was encouraged by younger executives Sean Daniel and Thom Mount who were more receptive to the Lampoon type of humor ; Mount had discovered the " Seven Fires " film treatment as Tanen 's assistant , while investigating projects left by a fired studio executive . Tanen hated the idea . Ramis remembers , " We went further than I think Universal expected or wanted . I think they were shocked and appalled . Chris ' fraternity had virtually been a vomiting cult . And we had a lot of scenes that were almost orgies of vomit ... We didn 't back off anything " . As the writers created more drafts of the screenplay ( nine in total ) , the studio gradually became more receptive to the project , especially Mount , who championed it . Surprisingly , the studio green @-@ lighted the film and set the budget at a modest $ 3 million . Simmons remembers , " They just figured , ' Screw it , it 's a silly little movie , and we ’ ll make a couple of bucks if we 're lucky — let them do whatever they want . ' "
= = = Casting = = =
Initially , Reitman had wanted to direct but had made only one film , Cannibal Girls , for $ 5 @,@ 000 . The film 's producers approached Richard Lester and Bob Rafelson before considering John Landis , who got the director job based on his work on Kentucky Fried Movie . That film 's script and continuity supervisor was the girlfriend of Sean Daniel , an assistant to Mount . Daniel saw Landis ' movie and recommended him . Landis then met with Mount , Reitman and Simmons and got the job . Landis remembers , " When I was given the script , it was the funniest thing I had ever read up to that time . But it was really offensive . There was a great deal of projectile vomiting and rape and all these things " . There was also friction between Landis and the writers early on because Landis was a high @-@ school dropout from Hollywood and they were college graduates from the East Coast . Ramis remembers , " He sort of referred immediately to Animal House as ' my movie . ' We 'd been living with it for two years and we hated that " . According to Landis , he drew inspiration from classic Hollywood comedies featuring the likes of Buster Keaton , Harold Lloyd , and the Marx Brothers .
The initial cast was to feature Chevy Chase as Otter , Bill Murray as Boon , Brian Doyle @-@ Murray as Hoover , Dan Aykroyd as D @-@ Day , and John Belushi as Bluto , but only Belushi wanted to do it . Chase was a star from Saturday Night Live , which had recently become a cultural phenomenon . His name would have added credibility to the project , but he turned the film down to do Foul Play ; Landis , who wanted to cast unknown dramatic actors such as Bacon and Allen ( the first film for both ) instead of famous comedians , takes credit for subtly discouraging Chase by describing the film as an " ensemble " . Landis has also stated that he was not interested in directing a Saturday Night Live movie and that unknowns would be the better choice . The character of D @-@ Day was based on Aykroyd , who was a motorcycle aficionado . Aykroyd was offered the part , but he was already committed to Saturday Night Live . Belushi , who had worked on The National Lampoon Radio Hour before Saturday Night Live , was also committed to the show , but spent Monday through Wednesday making the film and then flying back to New York to do the show on Thursday through Saturday . Ramis originally wrote the role of Boon for himself , but Landis felt that he looked too old for the part and Riegert was cast instead . Landis did offer Ramis a smaller part , but he declined . Landis met with Jack Webb to play Dean Wormer and Kim Novak to play his wife . Webb ultimately backed out due to concerns over his clean @-@ cut image , and was replaced by John Vernon .
Belushi received only $ 35 @,@ 000 for Animal House , with a bonus after it became a hit . Landis also met with Meat Loaf in case Belushi did not want to play Bluto . Landis worked with Belushi on his character , who " hardly had any dialogue " ; they decided that Bluto was a cross between Harpo Marx and the Cookie Monster . Despite Belushi 's presence , he was considered a supporting actor and Universal wanted another star .
Landis had been a crew member on Kelly 's Heroes and had become friends with actor Donald Sutherland , sometimes babysitting his son Kiefer . Landis asked Sutherland , one of the biggest stars of the 1970s , to be in the film . For two days work , Sutherland declined the initial offer of $ 20 @,@ 000 plus " points " ( a percentage of the gross or net income ) . Universal then offered him either a set amount ( $ 25 @,@ 000 or $ 35 @,@ 000 ) or 2 % of the film 's gross , assuming that the movie would be quickly forgotten . Sutherland took the guaranteed money ; although this made him the highest @-@ paid member of the cast ( other than Neidemeyer 's horse ) , the decision cost Sutherland what he estimates as $ 14 million . The star 's participation , however , was crucial ; Landis later said " It was Donald Sutherland who essentially got the film made . "
= = = Locations = = =
The filmmakers ' next problem was finding a college that would let them shoot the film on their campus . They submitted the script to a number of colleges and universities but " nobody wanted this movie " due to the script ; according to Landis , " I couldn 't find ' the look ' . Every place that had ' the look ' said , ' no thank you . ' "
The president of the University of Oregon in Eugene , William Beaty Boyd , had been a senior administrator of a major California university when his campus was considered for a location of the film The Graduate . After he consulted with other senior administrative colleagues who advised him to turn it down due to the lack of artistic merit , production moved to Berkeley and USC . The Graduate went on to become a classic , and Boyd was determined not to make the same mistake twice when the producers inquired about filming at Oregon . After consulting with student government leaders and officers of the Pan Hellenic Council , the Director of University Relations advised the president that the script , although raunchy and often tasteless , was a very funny spoof of college life . Boyd even allowed the filmmakers to use his office as Dean Wormer 's .
The actual house depicted as the Delta House was originally a residence in Eugene , the Dr. A.W. Patterson House . Around 1959 , it was acquired by the Psi Deuteron chapter of Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity and was their chapter house until 1967 , when the chapter was closed due to low membership . The house was sold and slid into disrepair , with the spacious porch removed and the lawn graveled over . At the time of the shooting , the Phi Kappa Psi and Sigma Nu fraternity houses sat next to the old Phi Sigma Kappa house . The interior of the Phi Kappa Psi house and the Sigma Nu house were used for many of the interior scenes , but the individual rooms were filmed on a soundstage . The Patterson house was demolished in 1986 . The site is now occupied by Northwest Christian University 's school of Education and Counseling . A large boulder placed to the west of the parking entrance displays a bronze plaque commemorating the Delta House location . The parade scene takes place in downtown Cottage Grove , Oregon on Main Street .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Landis brought the actors who played the Deltas up five days early in order to bond . Staying at the Rodeway Inn they moved an old piano from the lobby into McGill 's room , which became known as " party central " . Actor James Widdoes remembers , " It was like freshman orientation . There was a lot of getting to know each other and calling each other by our character names " . This tactic encouraged the actors playing the Deltas to separate themselves from the actors playing the Omegas , helping generate authentic animosity between them on camera . Belushi and his wife , Judy , had a house in the suburbs in order to keep him away from alcohol and drugs .
Although the cast members were warned against mixing with the college students , one night , some girls invited several of the cast members to a fraternity party . They arrived assuming they had been invited and were greeted with open hostility . As they were leaving , Widdoes threw a cup of beer at a group of drunk football players and a fight " like a scene from the movie " broke out . Tim Matheson , Bruce McGill , Peter Riegert , and Widdoes narrowly escaped , with McGill suffering a black eye and Widdoes getting several teeth knocked out .
Other than Belushi 's opening yell , the food fight was filmed in one shot , with the actors encouraged to fight for real . Flounder 's groceries handling in the supermarket was another single shot ; Furst deftly caught the many items Landis and Matheson threw at him , amazing the director . By filming the long courtroom scene in one day Landis won a bet with Reitman .
The film 's budget was so small that during the 32 days of shooting in Eugene , Landis had no trailer or office and could not watch dailies for three weeks . His wife Deborah Nadoolman purchased most of the costumes at local thrift stores , and she and Judy Belushi made the party togas . Landis and Bruce McGill staged a scene for reporters visiting the set where the director pretended to be angry at the actor for being difficult on the set . Landis grabbed a breakaway pitcher and smashed it over McGill 's head . He fell to the ground and pretended to be unconscious . The reporters were completely fooled , and when Landis asked McGill to get up , he refused to move .
Black extras had to be bused in from Portland for the segment at the Dexter Lake Club due to their scarcity around Eugene . More seriously , the segment alarmed Tanen and other studio executives , who perceived it as racist and warned that " ' black people in America are going to rip the seats out of theaters if you leave that scene in the movie . ' " Richard Pryor 's approval helped retain the segment in the film . The studio became more enthusiastic about the film when Reitman showed executives and sales managers of various regions in the country a 10 @-@ minute production reel that was put together in two days . The reaction was positive and the studio sent 20 copies out to exhibitors . The first preview screening for Animal House was held in Denver four months before it opened nationwide . The crowd loved it and the filmmakers realized they had a potential hit on their hands .
Original cut of the movie was 175 minutes long . Some of the deleted scenes include ; John Landis cameo scene where he plays dishwasher who tries to stop Bluto from eating all the food and gets pulled across the table and thrown on the floor by Bluto who then says " You don 't fuck with the eagles unless you know how to fly . " Scene where Boon and Hoover tell Pinto the tales of legendary Delta House frat brothers from years before who had names like Tarantula , Bulldozer , Giraffe , and his girlfriend , Gross Kay . Two different deleted scenes with Otter and couple of his girlfriends , one was played by Sunny Johnson who is listed in the credits as " Otter 's Co @-@ Ed " although her scene was deleted , and other one was played by location scout Katherine Wilson and her deleted scene can be seen in theatrical trailer . Extended version of the scene where Bluto pours mustard on himself and starts singing " I am the Mustard Man . " Deltas going through a medical screening after having to register for the draft after being expelled , during the screening D @-@ Day turns his feet around backwards because his ankles are double @-@ jointed , this scene was removed a few months after release due to many young men hurting themselves while trying to emulate him .
= = Soundtrack and score = =
The soundtrack is a mix of rock and roll and rhythm and blues with the original score created by film composer Elmer Bernstein , who had been a Landis family friend since John Landis was a child . Bernstein was easily persuaded to score the film , but was not sure what to make of it . Similar to his preferring dramatic actors for the comedy , Landis asked Bernstein to score it as though it were serious . He adapted the " Faber College Theme " from the Academic Festival Overture by Brahms , and said that the film opened yet another door in his diverse career , to scoring comedies .
The soundtrack was released as a vinyl album in 1978 , and then as a CD in 1998 .
Soundtrack album listing
Additional music in the film
" Theme from A Summer Place " , composed by Max Steiner ; performed by Percy Faith and his Orchestra
" Who 's Sorry Now ? " , written by Ted Snyder , Bert Kalmar and Harry Ruby ; performed by Connie Francis
" The Washington Post March " , composed by John Philip Sousa
" Tammy " , by Jay Livingston and Ray Evans
= = Reception = =
In its opening weekend , Animal House grossed $ 276 @,@ 538 in 12 theaters . It grossed $ 120 @.@ 1 million in North America and went on to achieve a domestic lifetime gross of $ 141 @.@ 6 million .
= = = Critical reception = = =
At the time of its release , Animal House received mixed reviews from critics but several immediately recognized its appeal , and it has since been recognized as one of the best films of 1978 . The film holds a 91 % positive rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes . Roger Ebert gave the film four stars out of four and wrote , " It 's anarchic , messy , and filled with energy . It assaults us . Part of the movie 's impact comes from its sheer level of manic energy . ... But the movie 's better made ( and better acted ) than we might at first realize . It takes skill to create this sort of comic pitch , and the movie 's filled with characters that are sketched a little more absorbingly than they had to be , and acted with perception " . Ebert later placed the film on his 10 best list of 1978 , the only National Lampoon film to have received this honor . In his review for Time , Frank Rich wrote , " At its best it perfectly expresses the fears and loathings of kids who came of age in the late ' 60s ; at its worst Animal House revels in abject silliness . The hilarious highs easily compensate for the puerile lows " . Gary Arnold wrote in his review for The Washington Post , " Belushi also controls a wicked array of conspiratorial expressions with the audience . ... He can seem irresistibly funny in repose or invest minor slapstick opportunities with a streak of genius " . David Ansen wrote in Newsweek , " But if Animal House lacks the inspired tastelessness of the Lampoon 's High School Yearbook Parody , this is still low humor of a high order " . Robert Martin wrote in The Globe and Mail , " It is so gross and tasteless you feel you should be disgusted but it 's hard to be offended by something that is so sidesplittingly funny " . Time magazine proclaimed Animal House one of the year 's best .
When the film was released , Landis , Widdoes and Allen went on a national promotional tour . Universal Pictures spent about $ 4 @.@ 5 million promoting the film at selected college campuses and helped students organize their own toga parties . One such party at the University of Maryland attracted some 2 @,@ 000 people , while students at the University of Wisconsin – Madison tried for a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 people and a place in the Guinness Book of World Records . Thanks to the film , toga parties became one of the favorite college campus happenings during 1978 and 1979 .
= = = American Film Institute Lists = = =
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies — Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs — # 36
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
Shout — Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
" Toga ! Toga ! " — # 82
" Over ? Did you say ' over ? ' Nothing is over until we decide it is ! Was it over when the Germans bombed Pearl Harbor ? Hell , no ! " — Nominated
" Fat , drunk , and stupid is no way to go through life , son . " — Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) — Nominated
= = Spin @-@ offs = =
The film inspired a short @-@ lived half @-@ hour ABC television sitcom , Delta House , in which Vernon reprised his role as the long @-@ suffering , malevolent Dean Wormer . The series also included Furst as Flounder , McGill as D @-@ Day , and Widdoes as Hoover . The pilot episode was written by the film 's screenwriters , Kenney , Miller , and Ramis . Michelle Pfeiffer made her acting debut in the series ( playing a new character , " Bombshell " ) , and Peter Fox was cast as Otter . Belushi 's character from the film , John " Bluto " Blutarsky , is in the army , but his brother , Blotto , played by Josh Mostel , transfers to Faber to carry on Bluto 's tradition .
Animal House inspired Co @-@ Ed Fever , another sitcom but without the involvement of the film 's producers or cast . Set in a dorm of the formerly all @-@ female Baxter College , the pilot of Co @-@ Ed Fever was aired by CBS on February 4 , 1979 , but the network canceled the series before airing any more episodes . NBC also had its Animal House @-@ inspired sitcom , Brothers and Sisters , in which three members of Crandall College 's Pi Nu fraternity interact with members of the Gamma Iota sorority . Like ABC 's Delta House , Brothers and Sisters lasted only three months .
The film 's writers planned a film sequel set in 1967 ( the so @-@ called " Summer of Love " ) , in which the Deltas have a reunion for Pinto 's marriage in Haight @-@ Ashbury , San Francisco . The only Delta to have become a hippie is Flounder , who is now called Pisces . Later , Chris Miller and John Weidman , another Lampoon writer , created a treatment for this screenplay , but Universal rejected it because the sequel to American Graffiti , which contained some hippie @-@ 1967 sequences , had not done well . When John Belushi died , the idea was indefinitely shelved .
A second attempt at a sequel was made in 1982 with producer Matty Simmons co @-@ authoring a script which saw some of the Deltas returning to Faber College five years after the events of the film . The project got no further than a first draft script dated May 6 , 1982 .
= = Where Are They Now ? = =
The 2003 " Double Secret Probation Edition " DVD included a short film , Where Are They Now ? : A Delta Alumni Update , a mockumentary purporting that the original film had been a documentary and Landis was catching up with some of the cast ( played by their original actors ) . It was never shown theatrically .
It shows the main Animal House characters 30 years on , following Landis to cities all over America in search of the former Deltas , Omegas , and Dean Wormer , and describes the various locales and professions the characters have settled into :
Donald Schoenstein – Film editor , New York City . Currently in his third marriage to Katy . He has a son named Otis .
Babs Jansen – Tour guide , Universal Studios Hollywood . She mentions to Landis that she is organizing an upcoming Faber reunion , and seems to be successful at her job .
Marion Wormer – Seemingly unemployed in Chicago . She tells Landis of how her husband Vernon accepted the blame for the parade debacle , and was subsequently fired , leading to their divorce . She becomes progressively more tipsy throughout the interview , eventually falling off her chair .
Kent Dorfman – Executive director , Encounter Groups of Cleveland , Inc . , Cleveland , Ohio . He recalls trying to diet during the 1970s with a special program requiring him to shoot up the urine of pregnant women .
Robert Hoover – Assistant district attorney , Baltimore , Maryland . Hoover tells the tale of how he quit being a public defender after he realized many of his clients were insane . He also boasts of how his legal advice was sought during the O.J. Simpson murder case .
Chip Diller – Landis receives a letter from Diller , who is currently serving as a missionary in Africa . He recalls how he was prevented from going to Vietnam as his father was a prime donor to several right @-@ wing political campaigns . When he learned of Doug Neidermeyer 's fragging in Vietnam , he fell into alcoholism and despair . When he began seeing Jesus in his food , he became a born @-@ again Christian and fell into his current profession as minister and missionary .
Dean Vernon Wormer – Wormer is seen at a nursing home in Florida , under the watchful eye of a male nurse . He appears to be senile , not recognizing Landis at first ( calling him " Larry " ) , and not remembering his tenure as Dean of Faber . When Landis mentions the Deltas , Wormer erupts into a violent , profanity @-@ laced tirade against the boys who cost him his job . He lashes out against the nurse and then physically attacks Landis , knocking out the camera in the process .
Eric Stratton – Gynecologist , Beverly Hills , California . Otter is depicted as still being the affable , suave gentleman he was in his college days . He remarks that gynecology has been very enjoyable for him and that he has straightened up a bit since leaving Faber . An attractive , blonde patient in her underwear then tells Otter she 's ready for her examination . Otter politely cuts the interview off and goes into the exam room .
Daniel Simpson Day – Landis remarks in a voiceover that D @-@ Day has been the hardest to track down for the documentary , saying that rumors have flown around , with his whereabouts ranging from a Buddhist monastery in Nepal to the Yukon Territory . Landis eventually approaches a house in Modesto , California , where a man opens the door by a crack and claims , in a Hispanic accent , " I don 't know no D @-@ Day person ! I don 't know him ! " He slams the door in Landis ' face and then bursts out of the garage in a car . He pulls out onto the street to the strains of the William Tell Overture , gives a manic laugh exactly like D @-@ Day 's , and speeds off .
John Blutarsky – In a final voice @-@ over a shot of the White House , Landis remarks that the viewers all know what happened to Bluto and Mandy Pepperidge : they became the President of the United States and First Lady of the United States .
= = Home media = =
Animal House became one of the most profitable films in history . Since its initial release , the film has garnered an estimated return of more than $ 141 million in the form of video and DVDs , not including merchandising .
Animal House was released on videodisc in 1979 . It was released on VHS in 1980 , 1983 , 1988 , and 1990 . In 1992 , it was released in a 2 pack VHS Set that included The Blues Brothers . It was first released on DVD in February 1998 in a " bare bones " full screen presentation . A 20th anniversary widescreen Collector 's Edition DVD and a coinciding THX special edition VHS and a widescreen Signature Collection Laserdisc was released later that year , with a 45 @-@ minute documentary entitled " The Yearbook – An Animal House Reunion " by producer JM Kenny with production notes , theatrical trailer , and new interviews with director Landis , writers Harold Ramis and Chris Miller , composer Elmer Bernstein , and stars Tim Matheson , Karen Allen , Stephen Furst , John Vernon , Verna Bloom , Bruce McGill , James Widdoes , Peter Riegert , Mark Metcalf and Kevin Bacon . In 2000 , the collector 's edition DVD was packaged along with The Blues Brothers and 1941 in a John Belushi 3 pack box set . The " Double Secret Probation Edition " DVD released in 2003 features cast members reprising their respective roles in a " Where Are They Now ? " mockumentary , which posited the original film as a documentary . One major change shown in this mockumentary from the epilogue of the original film is that Bluto went on from his career in the U.S. Senate to become the President of the United States , with a voiceover on a shot of the north portico of the White House , since by then Belushi had died . This DVD also includes " Did You Know That ? Universal Animated Anecdotes " , a subtitle trivia track , the making of documentary from the Collector 's Edition , MXPX " Shout " music video , a theatrical trailer , production notes , and cast and filmmakers biographies . In August 2006 , the film was released on an HD DVD / DVD combo disc , which featured the film in a 1080p high @-@ definition format on one side , and a standard @-@ definition format on the opposite side . Along with the film Unleashed , Animal House was one of Universal 's first two HD / DVD combo releases , but was later discontinued in 2008 after Universal decided to switch to the Blu @-@ ray Disc format following the conclusion of the high definition optical disc format war .
It is currently available on Blu @-@ ray .
= = Precursors and legacy = =
Animal House was a great box office success despite its limited production costs and started an industry trend , inspiring countless other comedies such as Porky 's , the Police Academy films , the American Pie films , and Old School among others . Belushi became the most successful male comedy star in the world until his 1982 death ; Bacon also became a star , and he , Matheson , and Allen are among those who have had lengthy acting careers . Reitman , Landis , and Ramis became successful filmmakers ; Landis ' use of dramatic actors and soundtrack to make the comedy believable became the traditional approach for film comedies .
On the left @-@ wing and counterculture side , the film included references to topical political matters like Kent State shootings , President Harry S. Truman 's decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki , Richard Nixon , the Vietnam war , and the civil rights movement . Precursors of this counterculture subversive humor in film were two non- " college movies " , M * A * S * H , a 1970 satirical dark comedy , and The Kentucky Fried Movie , a 1977 formless comedy consisting of a series of sketches ( which was also directed by Landis ) .
In 2012 Universal Pictures Stage Productions announced it was developing a stage musical version of the movie . Barenaked Ladies were originally announced to write the score , but they were replaced by composer David Yazbek . Casey Nicholaw will direct ; author Michael Mitnick is also reportedly involved .
In 2001 the United States Library of Congress deemed the film culturally significant and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry . Animal House is first on Bravo 's 100 Funniest Movies . In 2000 , the American Film Institute ranked the film No. 36 on 100 Years ... 100 Laughs , a list of the 100 best American comedies . In 2006 , Miller wrote a more comprehensive memoir of his experiences in Dartmouth 's AD house in a book entitled , The Real Animal House : The Awesomely Depraved Saga of the Fraternity That Inspired the Movie , in which Miller recounts hijinks that were considered too risqué for the movie . In 2008 , Empire magazine selected Animal House as one of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time . The film was also selected by The New York Times as one of The 1000 Best Movies Ever Made .
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= Walmer Castle =
Walmer Castle is an artillery fort originally constructed by Henry VIII in Walmer , Kent , between 1539 and 1540 . It formed part of the King 's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and defended the strategically important Downs anchorage off the English coast . Comprising a keep and four circular bastions , the moated stone castle covered 0 @.@ 61 acres ( 0 @.@ 25 ha ) and had 39 firing positions on the upper levels for artillery . It cost the Crown a total of £ 27 @,@ 092 to build the three castles of Walmer , Sandown , and Deal , which lay adjacent to one another along the coast and were connected by earthwork defences . The original invasion threat passed , but during the Second English Civil War of 1648 – 49 , Walmer was seized by pro @-@ Royalist insurgents and was only retaken by Parliamentary forces after several months ' fighting .
In the 18th century , Walmer became the official residence of the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and was gradually modified from a military fortification into a private residence . Various Prime Ministers and prominent politicians were appointed as Lord Warden , including William Pitt , the Duke of Wellington and Lord Granville , who adapted parts of the Tudor castle as living spaces and constructed extensive gardens around the property . By 1904 , the War Office agreed that Walmer had no remaining military utility and it passed to the Ministry of Works . Successive Lord Wardens continued to use the property but it was also opened to the public . Walmer was no longer considered a particularly comfortable or modern residence , however , and Lord Curzon blamed the poor condition of the castle for his wife 's death in 1906 .
Lord Wardens since the Second World War have included Winston Churchill , Robert Menzies and Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother , but they have made only intermittent use of Walmer Castle . In the 21st century , Walmer Castle is run as a tourist attraction by English Heritage . The interior of the castle displays a range of historical objects and pictures associated with the property and its Lord Wardens , protected since the 19th century by special legislation . The grounds include the Queen Mother 's Garden , designed by Penelope Hobhouse as a 95th birthday gift for Elizabeth in 1997 .
= = History = =
= = = 16th century = = =
Walmer Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry broke with Pope Paul III in order to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon and remarry . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , and he took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .
Walmer and the adjacent castles of Deal and Sandown were constructed to protect the Downs in east Kent , an important anchorage formed by the Goodwin Sands which gave access to Deal Beach , on which enemy soldiers could easily be landed . The stone castles were supported by a line of four earthwork forts , known as the Great Turf , the Little Turf Bulwark , the Great White Bulwark of Clay and the Walmer Bulwark , and a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) defensive ditch and bank . Collectively the castles became known as the " castles of the Downs " and cost the Crown a total of £ 27 @,@ 092 to build .
Walmer was built between April 1539 and autumn 1540 , by a team including Richard Benese as the surveyor , William Clement as the master carpenter , and Christopher Dickenson as the master mason . It was initially garrisoned by a captain , two lieutenants , two porters , ten gunners and three soldiers , at an annual cost of £ 174 . It was probably equipped with a range of brass and cast @-@ iron guns , along with arquebuses and bows for close defence . In 1597 , a report listed the castle 's artillery as comprising a cannon , a culverin , five demi @-@ culverins , a saker , a minion and a falcon .
= = = 17th century = = =
Walmer Castle was left to decline in the early 17th century , with little money being made available for repairs and the garrison receiving low pay , leading some members to reside in nearby Deal rather the fort itself , and to take on additional employment to supplement their wages . Walmer Castle was seized by Parliamentary forces at the start of the first English Civil War between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament , but did not play a significant role in the remainder of the initial conflict . After the few years of unsteady peace after 1645 , the Second Civil War broke out in 1648 , this time with Charles ' Royalist supporters joined by Scottish allies . The Parliamentary navy was based in the Downs , protected by Walmer and the other Henrician castles , but by May a Royalist insurrection was under way across Kent .
Vice @-@ Admiral William Batten had been forced to resign from his post as Commander of the Fleet the previous year by Parliamentary officials , and he now encouraged the fleet to join the Royalist faction . Sir Henry Palmer , a former sailor , accompanied by other members of the Kentish gentry , also called on the fleet to revolt , taking advantage of the many fellow Kentish men in the crews . Walmer and Deal Castle declared for the King , shortly after the garrisons at Sandown . With both the coastal fortresses and the navy now under Royalist control , Parliament feared that foreign forces might be landed along the coast or aid sent to the Scots .
Parliament defeated the wider insurgency at the Battle of Maidstone at the start of June , and then sent a force under the command of Colonel Rich to deal with Walmer and the other castles along the Downs . Walmer Castle was the first to be besieged , and surrendered on 12 July . Deal was attacked in late July , and in August artillery assaults began on Sandown as well , leading to the surrender of both remaining fortifications . Walmer was badly damaged during the conflict and it was estimated by Rich , responsible for carrying out the repairs , that the work would cost at least £ 500 .
In 1649 , Parliament ordered new supplies of ammunition and powder be sent to Walmer and the other castles of the Downs , which were brought back into good order . The garrison at Walmer remained substantial during the period , with a governor , a corporal and 20 soldiers , but when Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 he reduced the numbers again to a captain , lieutenant , porter and 16 men . In the Glorious Revolution of 1688 against Charles ' brother , King James II , the townsfolk of Deal seized Walmer Castle on behalf of William III , the Prince of Orange . By the end of the century , however , the castle was increasingly regarded as out of date from a military perspective .
= = = 18th – 19th centuries = = =
= = = = 1700 – 1828 = = = =
In the 18th century , Walmer Castle became the official residence of the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . The Lord Warden was originally a medieval title linked to five key ports along the coast of England ; the position 's prominence had faded , but it still retained important judicial and military functions . When Lionel Sackville , the Duke of Dorset , was appointed to the post in 1708 he decided that the existing residence in Dover Castle was unsatisfactory , probably because of the semi @-@ ruinous state of the castle , and moved into Walmer Castle instead .
The Duke occupied the post of Lord Warden until 1765 , save for two periods when it was filled by James Butler , the Duke of Ormonde and John Sidney , the Earl of Leicester . He carried out extensive work to make the castle more habitable , building extensions towards the north bastion and constructing a small house in the south bastion for the soldiers . Under the subsequent Lord Wardens , the politicians Robert Darcy , the Earl of Holderness , and Francis North , the Earl of Guildford , the castle continued to house artillery but it became increasingly less military in character .
The Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger was then made the Lord Warden in 1792 . Pitt was badly in debt and King George III believed that the post , which came with a salary of £ 3 @,@ 000 a year , would usefully supplement Pitt 's income . Pitt made extensive use of the castle and by 1803 he used it as his main residence in an effort to reduce his living costs . Pitt 's niece , Lady Hester Stanhope , joined him at Walmer between 1803 and 1806 ; together with Pitt , she carried out extensive work on the castle gardens , transforming them from a simple kitchen garden into a set of landscaped ornamental enclosures ; Stanhope enlisted the Dover militia to help with the landscaping and planting .
With the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars , Pitt became energetically involved in the protection of the ports along the coast , entertaining the local garrison commanders , naval captains and the local gentry at Walmer on a regular basis . After Pitt resigned as Prime Minister in 1801 , fears remained of a French invasion and he formed a volunteer cavalry unit at Walmer Castle , where he lived with his new officers . He also formed a unit of bombardier infantry and a fleet of 35 fishing boats called luggers , which he armed with 12 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 4 kg ) or 18 @-@ pound ( 8 @.@ 2 kg ) guns , reviewing them from the castle . Stanhope remarked on the constant drilling of army units around the castle during her time there .
Robert Jenkinson , the Earl of Liverpool , took possession of Walmer Castle following the death of Pitt in 1806 . Liverpool was a favourite of King George 's , and his appointment as Lord Warden was again intended to provide a valuable income and a country retreat . As Prime Minister , Liverpool used Walmer as a personal retreat and as a location for private political discussions with selected guests .
= = = = 1829 – 99 = = = =
On Lord Liverpool 's death , Arthur Wellesley , the Duke of Wellington and the current Prime Minister , asked King George IV for the post of Lord Warden , primarily because he was seeking the use of Walmer Castle . Wellington took up post in 1829 and considered Walmer to be " the most charming marine residence " . He made use of the castle each autumn , entertaining extensively there but living and sleeping in a single room . He was visited there twice by Victoria , once when she was still a princess and later as queen . Wellington let the gardens fall into a poor condition . Wellington died in his room at Walmer on 14 September 1852 . His body was kept in a death chamber in his room to lie in state until 10 November , and when the room was opened for public visitors during the final two days , around 9 @,@ 000 attended . The Duke 's body was finally removed to London via Deal , complete with a military escort .
James Broun @-@ Ramsay , the Marquess of Dalhousie became Lord Warden ; on his death , the Prime Minister Henry Temple , the Viscount Palmerston , took over the castle in 1861 . Palmerston initially declined to buy the contents of the castle from his predecessor 's estate on taking up the post , a practice which had become traditional for the Lords Warden , complaining about the high price being proposed . This raised the risk that the historical contents of the castle might be sold off at open auction ; and some of Wellington 's former belongings were therefore removed by his family for safekeeping .
The politician Lord Granville was offered the post of Lord Warden by the new Prime Minister , John Russell in 1865 . Russell noted that the role would be expensive for Granville to perform — the salary had been abolished in 1828 — but that it would provide him with a property by the sea , which Granville had been seeking to acquire for a while . Granville took over Walmer in 1865 . He expanded the gardens , built new kennels for a hunting pack and spent many years reassembling the furniture and other objects that Pitt and Wellington had used at the castle . He received large numbers of visitors , many of whom stopped off while travelling to or from France . The diplomat Baron de Malortie visited Granville and his family at Walmer , and later praised the homely atmosphere in the castle . He described how , after breakfast , the family and guests would all gather in the drawing room , which was the only large room in the house , and Granville would answer government correspondence amid the daily life of the rest of the household .
The businessman and politician William Smith was appointed Lord Warden in 1891 , but died in Walmer Castle during his first visit here in October of that year . Smith had proposed that the historical artefacts in the castle should be protected from being removed by later Lord Wardens and suggested that government pass an Indenture of Heirlooms Bill . The government carried out the plan after Smith 's death , protecting almost 70 pieces of furniture and 50 artworks at the castle and forbidding them being moved from the castle without the Secretary of State for War 's approval . Robert Gascoyne @-@ Cecil , the Marquess of Salisbury , became the next Lord Warden ; with adequate legal protection now in place , the 3rd Duke of Wellington suggested returning his grandfather 's possessions to the castle , but Lady Salisbury declined the offer .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
By 1904 the War Office had concluded that Walmer had no remaining military value and agreed to transfer the castle to the Office of Works , who accepted it on the condition that they were paid £ 2 @,@ 400 in order to carry out repairs . The Office 's survey noted that " the lower floor ... is very inconvenient , dark and not conducive to health while the women servants have to sleep in a sort of dormitory in the slopes of the roof ... The principal floor is , generally speaking , badly arranged and badly lighted and the Dining Room is very small " ; the report suggested that it would be best to demolish the building and rebuild it .
Proposals were made to find the next Lord Warden , George Curzon , the Marquess Curzon , alternative accommodation and the Royal Marines were approached as replacement tenants for the castle , but declined the offer . The Ministry acquired agreement for most of the castle to be opened to the public , with various historical objects related to the property being put on display , including some donated by King Edward VII . Lord Curzon moved into the castle when returned from India in 1905 . His wife , Mary , fell ill , which Curzon believed to be a result of their poor accommodation , and despite being moved to a new residence , she died shortly afterwards . As a result Curzon decided to resign the post of Lord Warden , leaving the castle , and subsequently the Prince of Wales , the future George V , took up the post .
William Lygon , the Earl Beauchamp , became the Lord Warden in 1913 , building a Roman Catholic chapel at the castle and holding large parties there each summer . His children later commented that they found the castle was chilly and cramped . The Prime Minister , Asquith , was invited by Beauchamp to use the castle during the First World War as a weekend retreat , as it had good communication links with the front line in France . Asquith 's wife , Margot , was not initially impressed by Walmer , noting in her diary that while it was " very distinguished " and had " great charm " , it was " terribly exposed " with " cold ... noisy corridors and small rooms " ; she later came to like the castle and noted that she was sad to finally leave it .
Lygon had sexual relations with men , which was illegal in England during this period . Rumours spread about the parties that he had held at Walmer Castle after the war , where , according to the historian Richard Davenport @-@ Hines , he had " behaved indiscreetly with young men " . The King was informed about his lifestyle and Lygon fled the country in 1931 , resigning the appointment of Lord Warden the following year .
Lygon 's successor , the politician Rufus Isaacs , the Marquess of Reading , became the Lord Warden in 1934 , holding jovial family gatherings there . His wife , Stella , attempted to restore Wellington 's old bedroom to its earlier appearance during the Duke 's tenure and , as part of this project , the 4th Duke of Wellington agreed to send the original contents of the room back to the castle , where they still remain . The politician Freeman Freeman @-@ Thomas , the Marquess of Willingdon , became Lord Warden in 1936 , followed by Sir Winston Churchill who followed him in 1941 during the Second World War . Churchill noted to the Minister of Works and Buildings that he had told King George V on taking up the position that he doubted that he would be able to live at Walmer Castle during the war , as it was within range of the German artillery along the French coast , or indeed that he would able to afford to live there afterwards , and for that reason he hoped that the state would maintain the castle and gardens , and decide what use it should be put to after the war .
Sir Robert Menzies , the Australian politician , became the Lord Warden in 1965 and visited the castle on an annual basis , staying in the flat there . Elizabeth the Queen Mother followed Menzies in 1978 , initially visiting the castle from the Royal Yacht , but from 1986 onwards taking over the entire castle for three days each July . This required moving furniture , silverware and other furnishings from London and caused difficulties for English Heritage , who managed the property . The current Lord Warden , Admiral the Lord Boyce , took up his post in 2004 .
In the 21st century , the property is managed by English Heritage , attracting 77 @,@ 828 visitors in 2014 . English Heritage carried out a £ 674 @,@ 000 programme of improvements to the castle in 2015 intended to improve the visitor experience . The castle is protected under UK law as a scheduled monument , while the surrounding gardens are protected with a grade II listing .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Castle = = =
Walmer Castle retains most of its original 16th @-@ century structure , with a tall keep , 83 feet ( 25 m ) across , at the centre , flanked by four rounded bastions , one of which served as a gatehouse , and a moat , surrounded in turn by a curtain wall . Its curved walls are 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) thick . It was nearly identical to its sister castle at Sandown and was approximately 167 by 167 feet ( 51 by 51 m ) across , covering 0 @.@ 61 acres ( 0 @.@ 25 ha ) . The historian John Hale considered the original castle to form a transitional design between older medieval English designs and newer Italian styles of defence .
The castle had three tiers of artillery – the heaviest and longest range weapons occupying the upper levels , including the keep – with a total of 39 firing positions , and 31 gunloops in the basement for handguns should close defence be required . The embrasures in the walls were all widely splayed to provide the maximum possible space for the guns to operate and traverse , and the interior of the castle was designed with vents to allow the smoke from its guns to escape .
From the 18th century onwards , the interior of the castle was converted to provide accommodation for the Lord Wardens , almost all of which is now open to visitors . The castle is still entered through the ground floor of the gatehouse in the western bastion , which contains the original porter 's lodge . In the middle of the castle is the keep , which originally housed the Servants ' Hall and now a set of tea rooms . In the southern bastion is a set of rooms which are reached through the Hall Room , originally built as gunners ' lodgings in the 18th century and converted into the entrance hall to the castle in the 1930s . On the far side of the bastion are the Sackville and Willingdon Rooms , built in the 18th century ; the Willingdon Room is now used as a museum for objects relating to William Pitt . The Lucas Room has been redecorated in a mid @-@ 19th century style and is used to present various items of Wellington memorabilia . The north and east bastions are filled in , providing solid foundations for the gun platforms above .
The second floor contains the Lord Warden 's private apartments in the west bastion and the western half of the keep . In the southern bastion is the Duke of Wellington 's Room and the Lucas Room , originally part of an apartment of rooms selected by William Pitt for his use , as they formed the warmest part of the castle . The corridor running across the castle through the keep was built by Pitt to link the north and south halves of the castle .
The Prince Consort 's and Queen Victoria 's rooms in the keep are named after their use during the royal visit of 1842 , although their decoration today dates from the interwar period . The Dining Room , Drawing Room and Ante Room , which overlook the northern bastion , date from the 1730s , when the Duke of Dorset constructed them to form a private set of chambers . These rooms feature a range of pink and purple window glass , which tradition says was installed by the Earl of Liverpool to protect his wife 's eyesight ; recent analysis shows that some of the pink @-@ tinted glass dates from the 1730s , and discoloured naturally over time , while other panes were intentionally purchased around 1800 in these hues , but probably as status symbols and not for any medical purpose .
= = = Gardens = = =
The gardens of Walmer Castle date mainly from the 1790s and 1860s and comprise around 32 acres ( 13 ha ) of land , split evenly between formal ornamental gardens and parkland . The main body of the gardens stretches away from the castle towards the north @-@ west , and is made up of protected , well @-@ drained , chalk @-@ based soil , forming a maritime microclimate .
The castle is approached through the castle meadow , an area of open parkland , lined with Holm oaks planted in the 1860s , and is surrounded by the dry moat , now a garden dating from at least the 1850s and planted with trees and shrubs . Adjacent to the castle are the Queen Mother 's Garden and the kitchen garden and glasshouses . The Queen Mother 's Garden was built by English Heritage as a 95th birthday gift for the then Lord Warden in 1997 , the site having been originally part of the wider kitchen gardens , before being turned into a tennis court in the 1920s . Designed by Penelope Hobhouse , the garden incorporates classical and Islamic themes , with a 92 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 28 m ) pool , a viewing mound and a classical pavilion . The two glasshouses have been restored , functioning as cold greenhouses , while the remainder of the kitchen garden is planted with a mixture of vegetables , fruit trees and flowers .
The 262 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 80 m ) Broadwalk is the main axis of the gardens and separates the glasshouses from the 328 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 100 m ) Oval Lawn , planted with lime trees and yews . The Broadwalk is lined by the " Cloud Hedge " , a formal 19th @-@ century yew hedge that grew out of control in the Second World War and was left in its current , undulating style . Two terraces in the middle of the garden , designed by William Masters in an Italianate style , separate the further half of the garden . On the other side are the paddock , planted with Holm oaks , and a curved belt of woodland of beech , ash and chestnut trees , badly damaged in the storms of 1987 and 1990 . At the far end is the Glen , a woodland hollow formed from an old chalk quarry in the 19th century .
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= Traditions of Texas A & M University =
The traditions of Texas A & M University are a key aspect of the culture of Texas A & M University . Some of the school traditions date to the 1890s , shortly after the opening of the school , while others have been introduced more recently . These traditions encourage current students and alumni ( Aggies ) to cultivate the Aggie Spirit , a sense of loyalty and respect for the school , and dictate many aspects of student life , including how to greet others , how to act at an A & M sporting event , and what words a student may use in conversation . The most visible tradition among senior class students and alumni is the wearing of the Aggie Ring , whose design has been relatively unchanged since its introduction in 1894 . Not all Aggie traditions are recognized by the university , and some , like Bonfire , have been discontinued for safety reasons . Texas Monthly states that the students ' respect for school traditions and values is the university 's greatest strength .
Incoming students are generally first exposed to traditions when they are greeted with the official Texas A & M greeting " Howdy " . Since the 1950s , incoming students have been offered orientations , led by current students , which teach the various traditions , songs , and yells in current use . On campus , the Texas A & M University Corps of Cadets is known as the " Keepers of the Spirit " for its staunch defense of Aggie traditions . A subset of the Corps , the Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band , is the official marching band of the university .
Many school traditions revolve around sporting events , especially football . Before games , university yell leaders host yell practice , similar to other schools ' pep rallies . Instead of cheers , students learn yells . Since 1922 , students , known as the 12th Man , stand throughout football games , symbolizing their willingness to step in and assist the team . The official mascot , a dog named Reveille , is present at most official university activities , including sporting events .
= = Aggie Spirit = =
Current students and alumni at Texas A & M University , nicknamed Aggies after the school 's agricultural roots , are known for their loyalty and respect for their alma mater . They cultivate " the Aggie Spirit " through " an almost religious devotion to the traditions " of the school , some over 100 years old . As Texas Monthly noted , " Every Aggie is a self @-@ appointed guardian of the Aggie spirit , eternally on the alert for signs of slippage . " To Aggies , Texas A & M is " not just a university but a ... family , ... defined and united by a unique culture . " The school song is titled The Spirit of Aggieland , and proclaims in its first verse that the " spirit can ne 'er be told . "
The Texas A & M culture is a product of the university 's founding as a rural military and agricultural school . Although the school and surrounding community have grown , and military training is no longer required , the school 's history has instilled in students " the idealized elements of a small @-@ town life : community , tradition , loyalty , optimism , and unabashed sentimentality . " This respect for Aggie traditions and values is the university 's greatest strength .
Many of these traditions are part of what Aggies call " The Other Education " , activities designed to make students well @-@ rounded and " moral , ethical people " . Students who attend Texas A & M feel " that they receive ' more ' from Texas A & M than just the knowledge one acquires from the formal classroom and books . " Freshmen are introduced to these traditions and to the Aggie spirit at Fish Camp , a four @-@ day extended orientation retreat held during the summer . Current students organize and run Fish Camp , leading sessions on the Aggie Spirit , school yells , and other school traditions so that new students can " begin the process of feeling part of the extended Aggie family . " Fish Camp began in 1954 as a simple camping trip involving several new students and Gordon Gay , a former Student Activities director . The program has since evolved to accommodate approximately 70 % of incoming freshmen ; over 5 @,@ 600 Texas A & M students attended in 2008 . The program has been emulated by several schools , including Virginia Tech . In 1987 , Texas A & M established a parallel orientation for summer and fall transfer students called Transfer Camp , or T @-@ Camp . Howdy Camp also serves as a campus orientation program . Modeled after T @-@ Camp and Fish Camp , it is intended for freshman and transfer students who enter A & M in the spring semester . Students who choose not to participate in The Other Education are known on campus as " 2 Percenters , " because going to class is only a small portion of experiencing Texas A & M.
= = = Howdy = = =
Many incoming students at Texas A & M choose to attend the campus because they feel that the students are friendlier than those at other universities . This perception is created partly by the Aggie tradition " Howdy " , the official greeting of Texas A & M University . Students are encouraged to greet everyone they pass on campus with a smile and a howdy . Howdy is the preferred method for a speaker to get a large group 's attention , as the members of the group are expected to return the " Howdy " back to the speaker .
= = = Gig ' em = = =
Aggies today will often end public addresses and emails to other Aggies with a hearty " Thanks and Gig ' em ! " . The " Gig ' em " tradition began at a 1930 Midnight Yell Practice held before the football game against the Texas Christian University Horned Frogs . In an attempt to excite the crowd , Pinky Downs , a 1906 Texas A & M graduate and member of the school 's Board of Regents , asked " What are we going to do to those Horned Frogs ? " Using a term for frog hunting , he answered his own question , " Gig ' em , Aggies ! " For emphasis , he made a fist with the thumb extended . The phrase and hand signal proved popular , and it became the first hand sign of the Southwest Conference . Gig ' em is also the name of one of the school yells , which is used during football kickoffs .
The university 's traditions council recognizes another possible origin for the expression . The word " gig " is used in the US Army to indicate an infraction of the uniform code , and the A & M cadets used the same vocabulary . New cadets would quickly learn to fear being " gigged " during inspection for having unshined shoes , unpolished brass , or a non @-@ aligned " gig line " .
= = = Aggie Ring = = =
The most visible way for graduates of Texas A & M to recognize each other is by the Aggie Ring . The Aggie Ring is worn by current students and alumni , and is one of the most well @-@ known symbols of the Aggie Network . The first Aggie Ring was designed by E. C. Jonas in 1894 , and the design has remained relatively unchanged since- the only major change came when the school 's name was changed from the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas to Texas A & M University in 1963 .
The Aggie Ring cannot be purchased unless specific requirements are met : a current student must be in good standing with a minimum 2 @.@ 00 GPA on a 4 @.@ 00 scale . In addition , the student must have completed 90 hours of coursework , including at least 45 hours at A & M. Graduate students may receive a Ring after 75 % of their graduate coursework is completed . If your graduate degree requires a thesis , your Ring will be delivered on Aggie Ring Day if the thesis has been defended by the deadline set by the Office of Graduate Studies . If the thesis has not been defended by this date , the Aggie Ring will be held until the qualification is met . A Ph.D. student may receive their Ring if they have completed all formal coursework in the degree plan , has a cumulative GPA of 3 @.@ 0 or above , has successfully completed the residency requirement , has successfully passed the preliminary exam , and has an approved research proposal on file . A Ring may be purchased upon graduation if a student , either undergraduate or graduate , did not meet these criteria while pursuing the degree .
The top of the Ring depicts an eagle and shield . The shield at the top of the Ring symbolizes protection of the reputation of the alma mater . The thirteen stripes in the shield represent the thirteen original states and symbolize patriotism . The five stars in the shield refer to the facets of student development : mind , body , spiritual attainment , emotional poise , and integrity of character . The eagle denotes agility , power , and ability to reach great heights .
On one side of the Ring is a large star , borrowed from the seal of the state of Texas . The oak leaves symbolize strength . On the other side of the Ring are a cannon , a saber , and a rifle , symbolizing Aggies ' preparedness and valor in defending their land . The crossed flags of the United States and Texas symbolize allegiance to both nation and state .
Traditionally , students wear their Rings with the class year facing them to signify the fact that their time at A & M is not yet complete . At the annual Ring Dance , or at the end of the student 's collegiate career , the student turns his Ring around so that the class year faces away , symbolizing readiness to " face the world . "
Many students receive their Rings on Aggie Ring Day , which is held at the Clayton W. Williams , Jr . Alumni Center three times yearly . Aggie Ring Day is a special time for Aggies , their family and friends to celebrate being a part of the Aggie Network . The Association of Former Students gave out over 11 @,@ 000 Rings at Aggie Ring Days in 2012 .
For decades , though unsanctioned and discouraged by the University , an unofficial tradition among willing students involves " dunking " the newly acquired Aggie Ring . The Ring is dropped in a pitcher of beer and the student chugs the entire pitcher and catches the Ring in his or her teeth . The Dixie Chicken , among other bars , has been one of the more popular venues for dunking Aggie Rings , though it no longer endorses the activity . Some students choose to dunk their Rings in alternative substances , including ice cream or nonalcoholic beverages .
= = Honoring the deceased = =
In keeping with the idea that all current students and alumni comprise a family , Aggies have created two traditions to honor members of the Aggie family who have died . Aggie Muster is held annually to honor any current students or alumni who died during the previous year , while Silver Taps is held monthly as a special tribute to deceased current students .
According to the Houston Chronicle , " perhaps the best , most meaningful Aggie tradition of all is one you wish never happened . " While students at many schools prize their individuality , " Aggies are all about unity and loyalty . When an Aggie falls , the family comes together to remember . " This remembrance occurs annually on April 21 as Aggies observe Muster , a solemn event to honor current students and alumni who died during the previous year . Over 300 Musters are held around the world , with the largest taking place at Reed Arena on the Texas A & M University campus . All Muster ceremonies feature the Roll Call for the Absent . As the names of the deceased Aggies are called , a family member or friend answers " Here , " and lights a candle , to symbolize that although their loved one is not present in body , his or her spirit will shine forever .
The first Aggie Muster was held June 26 , 1883 , seven years after the school opened . Rather than a memorial service , the event was intended as a reunion to allow alumni to gather and remember their college days . During the day , the alumni also established a " Roll Call for the Absent " to honor their classmates who could not attend . In 1889 , the gathering was moved to April 21 and became an official school holiday , set aside for the annual cadet track and field competition . On April 21 , 1903 , the tradition evolved into a celebration of Texas 's victory at the battle of San Jacinto . Gatherings would include field games and banquets so Aggies could reflect on their days in Aggieland .
The field day events were cancelled in 1922 , although alumni were still expected to congregate annually for camaraderie and to remember their fellow Aggies . The March 1923 Texas Aggie urged , " If there is an A & M man in one @-@ hundred miles of you , you are expected to get together , eat a little , and live over the days you spent at the A & M College of Texas . " The event received worldwide attention during World War II , when 25 Aggies " mustered " during the battle for the island of Corregidor .
Students who die while enrolled at Texas A & M are also honored at Silver Taps , a ceremony held , when necessary , on the first Tuesday of the month . This tradition began as a memorial for former Texas A & M president Lawrence Sullivan Ross . In the modern incarnation , on the morning of Silver Taps , a small card with the deceased student 's name , class , major , and birthdate is placed as a notice at the base of the flagpole in Academic Plaza . At 10 : 15 p.m. , all lights on campus are extinguished , and Albritton Tower begins to chime hymns . When the music begins , students gather in silence in front of the statue of Lawrence Sullivan Ross at Academic Plaza . At 10 : 30 pm , the Ross Volunteers march into the plaza and fire a 3 @-@ volley salute . Buglers stationed at the top of the Academic Building then play a special rendition of Taps , known as Silver Taps . The song is played three times ; once to the north , once to the south , and once to the west . It is never played to the east , " because the sun will never rise on that Aggie again . " Once the buglers have finished their tribute , the crowd disperses . Generally , students remain silent until reaching their homes .
= = Texas A & M Corps of Cadets = =
The Corps of Cadets ( or the Corps ) is known as the " Keepers of the Spirit " for its staunch defense of Aggie traditions . The Corps is a link to the early days of Texas A & M 's history , when all students were required to be members and receive military training . Although Corps membership became voluntary in 1965 , as of 2001 it was the United States ' largest uniformed student body outside the service academies , with an enrollment of 2 @,@ 318 cadets at the beginning of the 2006 – 2007 school year .
Members of the Corps have served in every armed conflict fought by the United States since 1876 , and over 225 have served as Generals or Flag Officers . Many members participate in ROTC programs and earn commissions in the United States Armed Forces upon graduation . As of fall 2012 , the Corps is composed of three Air Force Wings , three Army Brigades , and two Navy and Marine Regiments , in addition to veteran @-@ based outfits , as well as the Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band , whose members may be affiliated with any military branch . Among its notable units is Parson 's Mounted Cavalry , the only mounted ROTC unit in the United States . The Ross Volunteer Company , the oldest student @-@ run organization in the state , is the official honor guard for the Governor of Texas . The Fish Drill Team , a precision , close @-@ order rifle drill team composed entirely of Corps freshmen , represents the Corps and A & M in local and national competitions . They have won the national championship almost every year since their creation in 1946 , and have appeared in several Hollywood productions with prominent roles in the movies A Few Good Men and Courage Under Fire .
Members of the Corps are often referred to as " C.T.s " or " B.Q.s " . While these terms originally stood for " Cadet in Training " and " Band Qualified " , respectively , they are more commonly and derisively used to abbreviate " Corps Turd " and " Band Queer " . Freshmen in the Corps are required to " whip out " to upperclassmen . This tradition requires the freshmen to extend their hand and introduce themselves to the upperclassman . From then on , they are expected to know the name of the person to whom they " whipped out . " The tradition applies only to upperclassmen in the Corps , and not to " non @-@ regs " , students who are not in the Corps .
One of a senior cadet 's " most cherished possessions " are his Senior Boots . Only seniors are allowed to wear these knee @-@ high riding boots , and most consider receiving their boots to be a rite of passage . All Senior Boots are custom @-@ made to fit the cadet and are a dark tan to brown color . Students wear their Senior Boots for the first time after Final Review as juniors while saluting the outgoing seniors . Final review is the last activity that Corps members participate in as a unit . This full military review takes place at the end of the spring semester on Simpson Drill Field , and is in two parts . The entire Corps march past a reviewing stand , which consists of high @-@ ranking military and university officials , for inspection . The Corps then returns to their dorms to change into the uniforms they will wear the following year , with the juniors donning their Senior Boots . The freshmen , sophomores , and juniors then march in formation past the reviewing stand , which is now filled with the senior cadets , saluting their former leaders .
= = Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band = =
The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band ( also known as The Noble Men of Kyle , The Pulse of Aggieland or the Aggie Band ) is the official marching band of Texas A & M University . Composed of over 400 men and women from the school 's Corps of Cadets , it is the largest military marching band in the world . The band 's complex straight @-@ line marching maneuvers are performed exclusively to traditional marches . Some of these maneuvers are so complex , some computer programs used to create marching drills say they cannot be performed because they require two people to be in the same place at the same time .
Since its inception in 1894 , its members , known as BQs ( for Band Qualified or Band Queer ) , eat together , sleep in the same dormitories , and practice up to 40 hours per week on top of a full academic schedule . The Aggie Band performs at all home football games , some away games , and university and Corps functions throughout the year . Other events in which the band participated include inauguration parades for many United States Presidents and Texas Governors , major annual parades across the country , and the dedication ceremony for the George H. W. Bush Presidential Library .
= = Sports traditions = =
= = = 12th Man = = =
Aggie football fans call themselves the 12th Man , meaning they are there to support the 11 players on the field . To further symbolize their " readiness , desire , and enthusiasm " , the entire student body stands throughout the game . In a further show of respect , the students step " off the wood " ( step off of the bleachers onto the concrete ) whenever a player is injured or when the band plays the Aggie War Hymn or The Spirit of Aggieland . At the end of the Aggie War Hymn , fans sway back and forth , causing the upper deck of the stadium to move . The Aggie War Hymn was named the No. 1 college fight song by USA Today in 1997 .
The 12th Man tradition began in Dallas on January 2 , 1922 , at the Dixie Classic , the forerunner of the Cotton Bowl Classic . A & M played defending national champion Centre College in the first postseason game in the southwest . In this hard @-@ fought game , which produced national publicity , an underdog Aggie team was slowly defeating a team which had allowed fewer than six points per game . The first half produced so many injuries for A & M , Coach D. X. Bible feared he would not have enough men to finish the game . At that moment , he called into the Aggie section of the stands for E. King Gill , a student who had left football after the regular season to play basketball . Gill , who was spotting players for a Waco newspaper and was not in football uniform , donned the uniform of injured player Heine Weir and stood on the sidelines to await his turn . Although he did not actually play in the game , his readiness to play symbolized the willingness of all Aggies to support their team to the point of actually entering the game . When the game ended in a 22 @-@ 14 Aggie victory , Gill was the only man left standing on the sidelines for the Aggies . Gill later said , " I wish I could say that I went in and ran for the winning touchdown , but I did not . I simply stood by in case my team needed me . " A statue of E. King Gill stands to the north of Kyle Field to remind Aggies of their constant obligation to preserve the spirit of the 12th Man .
In the 1980s , the tradition was expanded as coach Jackie Sherrill created the 12th Man squad . Composed solely of walk @-@ on ( nonscholarship ) players , the squad would take the field for special teams performances . This squad only allowed one kick return for a touchdown by Texas Tech 's Rodney Blackshear . Sherrill 's successor , R. C. Slocum , amended the tradition in the 1990s to allow one walk @-@ on player , wearing the No. 12 jersey , to take the field for special teams plays . The player is chosen based on the level of determination and hard work shown in practices . Coach Dennis Franchione continued Slocum 's model , while also keeping an all @-@ walk @-@ on kickoff team that played three times in the 2006 season .
12th Man Towel The 12th Man Towel was created in the fall of 1985 by Rusty Riley and Kyle Harris , then president and vice president of the 12th Man Student Aggie Club , respectively , with the help of Gary Leach and Larry Leach , then club secretary and treasurer . The concept was presented to the Aggie Club faculty managers Harry Green Jr . , executive director of the 12th Man Foundation , and Jackie Sherrill , Texas A & M University athletic director and head football coach . Once their approval was given , Rusty and Kyle found a manufacturer in New York City through a local distributor in Bryan , Texas , and authorization was given to sell the towels on campus by school management and Chic Sell , who had the concession rights in Kyle Field . The first 1 @,@ 000 towels were purchased and delivered in time for the first home game of the 1985 college football season . Kyle and Rusty , along with a handful of Aggie Club members , sold the towels for $ 2 each in makeshift booths at strategic locations within Kyle Field . It was an immediate success , with all towels being sold at the first game . The A & M Yell Squad initially resisted the towels , claiming the Aggie Club was breaking tradition , but the Battalion staff supported the concept and began a successful selling and media campaign to help the towel gain acceptance throughout the A & M student body . Rusty worked with the Head Yell Leader on accepting the towel and once the Yell Squad accepted it , a press conference was held with Rusty , Coach Sherrill , and the Head Yell Leader . As the football season carried on , the 12th Man Towel continued selling in large quantities . The Aggie Club hired students to sell the towels at the MSC and on Aggie Club property , which at the time was located right outside of the main entrance to Kyle Field . The towel also gained an important supporting cast when Coach Sherrill 's 12th man kick @-@ off team squad began carrying them to motivate the student body in the stands . The 1985 regular college football season ended with a home game versus the Texas Longhorns . At that game , a sea of white 12th Man Towels filled the stadium , cheering the Aggies to a 42 @-@ 10 victory . The Aggies went on to win the Southwest Conference Title and defeat Auburn in the Cotton Bowl on January 1 , 1986 , with the 12th Man Towels proudly displayed to a national audience . During the 1988 Cotton Bowl Classic , which A & M played against Notre Dame , another towel was a point of contention . Twice during that game , Warren Barhorst , a member of Sherrill 's 12th Man Kickoff Team , tackled Heisman Trophy winner Tim Brown , and then grabbed Brown 's towel and waved it over his head . An infuriated Brown tackled Barhorst , earning himself a 15 @-@ yard unsportsman @-@ like conduct penalty .
Because the students are always waiting for the opportunity to support their team , they are also willing to take the credit for the team 's good deeds . A popular Aggie tradition is that " when the team scores , everybody scores " . Whenever the Aggies score points during the game , students kiss their dates .
Seniors wearing either their Senior Boots or Aggie Rings are also encouraged to join the " Boot Line " . As the Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band leaves the field after their half @-@ time performances , seniors line up at the south end of Kyle Field to welcome the team back onto the field for the second half .
= = = Yells = = =
Unlike many schools , which have a large group of cheerleaders to rally their fans during sporting events , Texas A & M has five student Yell Leaders . Consisting of three seniors and two juniors , historically all male , the Yell Leaders are elected to their positions annually by the student body . These students do not perform gymnastic feats , but instead use hand signals , known as " pass backs " , to direct and intensify crowds . After the signals are passed through the crowd , the Yell Leaders give the signal to " hump it " , where the crowd leans forward and places their hands on their knees to maximize the noise . The Yell Leaders have a dozen yells that they can choose from depending on the situation . While some yells are designed to praise and motivate the team , others exist solely to make fun of the opposing side .
Students practice the yells at Midnight Yell Practice . Held at Kyle Field at midnight the night before a football game , Midnight Yell is similar to a pep rally . Over 20 @,@ 000 Aggies attend each session , practicing the yells that will be used in the following day 's game and generating an excitement for the game . At the conclusion of the yell practice , the stadium lights are extinguished and fans kiss their dates . This is also done as practice , because Aggies are expected to " mug down " , or kiss their dates , every time the football team scores on the field . Sports Illustrated named Midnight Yell as one of the " 100 Things You Gotta Do Before You Graduate . "
Aggies practice their yells again after each football game . If the team is victorious , the freshmen in the Corps of Cadets capture the Yell Leaders on Kyle Field and march them across campus to be dunked in Fish Pond . The wet Yell Leaders then make their way to the YMCA Building , where the Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band and members of the crowd join them for a short yell practice in preparation for the next week 's game . If the team is " outscored " or " runs out of time " ( Aggies never lose ) , a mini @-@ Yell Practice is held in Kyle Field before the crowd disperses .
The most well @-@ known Aggie yell is the simple " Beat the Hell Outta " the opposing school . In writing , this is often abbreviated as BTHO . For the annual game against the University of Texas at Austin ( no longer played after A & M 's 2012 move to the Southeastern Conference ) , students yell " Beat the Hell Outta t.u. " Booing is strongly discouraged , and an upset Aggie will instead hiss their opponents or the referees . If a referee call is especially egregious in the minds of the Aggies , the Yell Leaders will call for the " Horse Laugh , " a yell that ends with a stadium wide hissing .
After each yell , students make a noise and a hand motion that is known as a wildcat . Each class has a separate wildcat , and students caught " pulling out , " or using the wildcat of a higher class , are often forced to do pushups as punishment . Freshmen raise their hands above their heads and yell " AAAA " . Sophomores , symbolically pushing back on the seniors , chant " A ! " five times , waving their hands up and down in front of the torso with their index fingers extended and thumbs perpendicular . Juniors yell " A ! A ! A ! Whoop ! " wrapping their left hand over their right fist , with both index fingers extended and pointing towards the ground , " shooting the ground " once for each " A " and holding the position on the " whoop ! " As a symbol of their expert marksmanship , seniors yell a single " A ! " and then " Whoop ! " while interlocking their fingers with their index fingers extended and pointed into the air . At the same time , the left foot is raised and tucked behind the right knee . The fingers are interlocked rather than covering the right hand so that the Aggie Ring is visible .
= = = Mascots = = =
Texas A & M 's official mascot is Reveille , now a purebred Rough collie . The first Reveille , a mixed breed dog , was adopted by students in 1931 after they found her on the side of the road . As of 2015 , the current mascot is Reveille IX . She is considered a Cadet General , the highest @-@ ranking member in the Corps of Cadets , and must be addressed by cadets as " Miss Reveille , ma 'am . "
Reveille accompanies her handlers , members of the E @-@ 2 unit of the Corps of Cadets , everywhere , including classes . It is a long @-@ held tradition that if Reveille decides to sleep on a cadet 's bed , that cadet is required to sleep on the floor . In truth , however , this only applied to the early mascots who were allowed to freely roam the campus . The contemporary mascots , certainly since the 1980s and likely earlier , are under the constant supervision of the Mascot Corporal and not allowed to freely roam about the cadet 's quarters . Another tradition is that if she chooses to bark in class , that session is cancelled . Upon the death of a current or former mascot , a full military funeral is held at Kyle Field , which usually attracts several thousand mourners .
Texas A & M also has an unofficial mascot , Ol ' Sarge , who is displayed only in graphics . Ol ' Sarge is portrayed as a tough @-@ looking corps drill sergeant and is considered one of the many icons representing Texas A & M 's long standing military history . The drawing was first seen in the 1940s , when The Battalion ran a caricature of one of the Yell Leaders . That caricature , of a rough and tough military man , quickly became used throughout campus .
= = = The Spirit of ' 02 = = =
The Corps of Cadets marks any Aggie scores during football games by firing The Spirit of ' 02 , a 3 @-@ inch M1902 field gun 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) . Issued to Field Artillery Units of the Reserve Officers ' Training Corps between the World Wars , the gun was believed to be one of several that were hidden by Corps members to prevent them from being scrapped during WWII . The Spirit of ' 02 was found buried in a ditch by students cutting wood for the annual Aggie Bonfire in the fall of 1974 . Only the rusted steel rims from the wooden wheels were showing above ground . Students mounted antique wagon wheels on the axles and brought the gun back to a place of honor in the Quad . Cadets later restored the gun , which has been fired to celebrate touchdowns since 1984 .
= = = Maroon Out = = =
One of Texas A & M 's newer traditions is Maroon Out , which began in 1998 . The football team had ended their 1997 season with a lopsided defeat to Nebraska in the Big 12 Championship Game . Kyle Valentine , Class of 2000 Junior President and a member within Class Councils , noticed how united the Nebraska fans seemed , all dressed in red . He proposed to Class Councils the idea to " Maroon Out " Kyle Field for the October 10 , 1998 rematch against Nebraska by selling a low @-@ cost , high @-@ quality maroon t @-@ shirt . This resulted in the sale of 31 @,@ 000 Maroon Out shirts , leading to a temporary national shortage of maroon colored t @-@ shirts .
The Aggies defeated Number 2 Nebraska 28 @-@ 21 , the first time in six seasons that Nebraska had lost a regular @-@ season conference game . The Daily Nebraskan noted that " A game that was dubbed a ' maroon @-@ out ' for Texas A & M fans proved to be lights out for Nebraska . The fans dressed themselves in maroon T @-@ shirts in an attempt to wash out the red and white that opponents have gotten used to . It worked . "
Since then , one football game each season is dubbed an official Maroon Out and discounted maroon t @-@ shirts are for sale for fans . Through 2010 , Texas A & M has been 7 @-@ 6 in Maroon Out games , beating 6 teams ranked in the Top 25 , despite being the underdog in each of the games . The basketball team has a similar tradition , called a " White Out , " where fans are encouraged to wear white t @-@ shirts .
Perhaps the most memorable Maroon Out moment was not maroon at all . After the events of September 11 , 2001 , five Aggie students wished to help honor America . They decided to ask the attendees of the next A & M football game , which would be held at Kyle Field on September 22 , 2001 , to wear patriotic colors . The colors would be divided by deck , with the upper deck wearing red , the middle deck wearing white , and the lower deck in blue . Within a five @-@ day period the students had contracted with several printers to create special t @-@ shirts which read " Standing for America " and the date . Despite initial concerns about not being able to sell enough shirts to be effective , the students sold about 70 @,@ 000 of these shirts , raising over $ 150 @,@ 000 for the relief efforts .
= = Aggie Bonfire = =
Aggie Bonfire was a long @-@ standing tradition at Texas A & M University as part of a college rivalry with the University of Texas at Austin , known as t.u. by Texas A & M students . For ninety years , Texas A & M students built and burned a large bonfire on campus each fall . Known within the Aggie community simply as Bonfire , the annual fall event symbolized the students ' " burning desire to beat the hell outta t.u. " The bonfire was traditionally lit around Thanksgiving in conjunction with the festivities surrounding the annual college football game between the schools .
The first on @-@ campus Aggie Bonfire was burned in 1909 , and the tradition continued for the next 90 years . For almost two decades , Bonfire was constructed from debris and pieces of wood that Aggies " found , " including lumber intended for a dormitory that students appropriated in 1912 . The event became school @-@ sanctioned in 1936 , and , for the first time , students were provided with axes , saws , and trucks and pointed towards a grove of dead trees on the edge of town . In the following years the Bonfire became more elaborate , and in 1967 the flames could be seen 25 miles ( 40 km ) away . In 1969 , the stack set the world record at 111 feet ( 30 m ) tall .
While the Bonfires of the 1960s were constructed in five to ten days , working primarily in daylight , by the late 1970s a more elaborate construction schedule had been implemented . Construction began in late October with " Cut " , with several weekends devoted to cutting down the logs with axes . The logs were brought to campus during " Load . " In early November , crews began " Stack " , a three @-@ week period in which the logs were wired together and Bonfire took shape . Near the end of stack , known as " Push " , students worked around the clock in rotating shifts . Although between two and five thousand students participated in the construction of Bonfire each year , most of them were unable to devote themselves full @-@ time to the task , and many worked only one or two shifts . While participating , the students wore " grodes , " old t @-@ shirts , jeans , and boots . By tradition , grodes were either not washed until after Bonfire burned or not washed at all .
In 1978 , Bonfire shifted to a wedding @-@ cake style , in which upper stacks of logs were wedged on top of lower stacks . The structure was built around a fortified centerpole , made from two telephone poles . Although tradition stated that if Bonfire burned through midnight A & M would win the following day 's game , with the introduction of the wedding cake design Bonfire began to fall quickly , sometimes burning for only 30 or 45 minutes .
At 2 : 42 AM on November 18 , 1999 , the partially completed Aggie Bonfire , standing 40 feet ( 10 m ) tall and consisting of about 5000 logs , collapsed during construction . Of the 58 students and alumni working on the stack , 12 were killed and 27 others were injured . On November 25 , 1999 , the date that Bonfire would have burned , Aggies instead held a vigil and remembrance ceremony . Over 40 @,@ 000 people , including former President George H.W. Bush and his wife Barbara and then @-@ Texas governor George W. Bush and his wife Laura , lit candles and observed up to two hours of silence at the site of the Bonfire collapse . The Bonfire Memorial was officially dedicated on November 18 , 2004 .
Bonfire was postponed until 2002 to restructure it to make it safer . Delays in the development of a safety plan and a high estimated cost ( mainly due to liability insurance ) , led A & M president Ray Bowen to postpone Bonfire indefinitely . Despite the university 's refusal to allow Bonfire to take place on campus , since 2002 a non @-@ university sanctioned Bonfire has burned annually . Known as Student Bonfire , the off @-@ campus event draws between 8 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 fans .
= = Elephant Walk = =
Every November , in the week of the football game against the University of Texas , the senior class gathers together for Elephant Walk . The seniors link arms and " wander aimlessly " through campus . The University of Texas game was always the last football game of the regular season , so Elephant Walk has come to symbolize the end of the seniors ' " usefulness " to the 12th Man and the passing of the torch to the junior class . In a reference to Elephant Walk , seniors in their last semester of study are often called " dead elephants . "
Elephant Walk began in 1926 , when a group of students decided to take one last walk around campus to remember their experiences at the school . Because they walked single file , with a hand on the shoulder of the person in front , an observer remarked that they " looked like elephants , about to die . " The day now begins at Kyle Field with a yell practice and speaker , and then the senior yell leaders lead the class through campus . Leaders of the graduating class also announce the class gift at Elephant Walk .
= = Service projects = =
Texas A & M provides many opportunities for students to participate in volunteer and service activities . Students at Texas A & M originated The Big Event , the largest one @-@ day student @-@ run service project in the nation . The annual event began in 1983 after the Texas A & M Student Government Association passed a resolution encouraging students to show their gratitude to the community by giving of their time . From its beginnings of six individual students wanting to contribute back to the local community , The Big Event has expanded to allow over twenty @-@ two thousand students to participate in over 2500 jobs , such as raking leaves , painting houses , and trimming trees . The concept for The Big Event has spread throughout the nation , and as of 2015 , 110 schools across the nation participate each year including 1 middle school , 2 high schools , and 68 universities . The 2008 Big Event attracted 10 @,@ 600 students who worked a record number of 1 @,@ 000 jobs .
Aggies also participate annually in Replant , a one @-@ day environmental service . In 2006 , 1 @,@ 000 students participated , planting 250 trees in three public parks . The event has been an annual tradition since 1991 , when the Texas A & M Environmental Issues Committee began planting trees to replace those that had been cut down for Bonfire . Although Bonfire has been officially disbanded , Replant continues . Its goals are now to beautify the Bryan @-@ College Station area and to " creat [ e ] harmony between students and the residents . " In 2000 , the group planted twelve live oak trees at the Texas A & M Polo Grounds in memory of the twelve victims of the 1999 Bonfire collapse . That year the group was awarded the Community Forestry Award from the Texas Forest Service . The group provides their own trees , grown at the Texas A & M Riverside campus in Bryan , Texas and has its own Student Government committee .
The Corps of Cadets annually conducts the March to the Brazos , a 14 miles ( 20 km ) round @-@ trip road march that serves as both a ceremony to transfer leadership as well as a fundraiser for the March of Dimes . The Corps hold various fundraisers and solicits donations throughout the year . On a Saturday morning , generally in April , each year , all members of the Corps gather at the Quadrangle , near their dormitories , and march en masse across campus and down Highway 60 to Texas A & M 's Animal Science Teaching , Research & Extension Complex near the east bank of the Brazos River . There , the cadets learn who will fill each leadership position for the following year . The current seniors are allowed to ride a bus back to campus while the newly promoted cadets lead their outfits back to campus . The event is the largest and most successful student @-@ run fundraising event in the United States for the March of Dimes . In its first 27 years , from 1977 through 2003 , the event raised a combined US $ 1 @.@ 3 million .
= = Asking for luck = =
Many students believe that they will do well on exams if they make an offering to Lawrence Sullivan " Sul " Ross . Ross , the president of Texas A & M in the 1890s , is credited with saving the school from closure . Affectionately known as " Sully , " many believe him to be " the embodiment of Aggie Spirit and tradition . " A & M legend states that Ross would often tutor students , and as payment would accept only a penny for their thoughts . At exam time his statue , located in Academic Plaza , is often covered in pennies .
Another spot in Academic Plaza is also believed to be lucky . Tradition says that if a couple walks together under the branches of the Century Tree , one of the oldest trees on campus , they will eventually marry . If the proposal takes place under the Century Tree , the marriage is supposed to last forever .
= = Privileged words = =
For much of its first 100 years , Texas A & M was a small , all @-@ male , military academy . The school became coeducational in the 1960s , and membership in the Corps of Cadets became voluntary . In military tradition , privileges are meted out as one climbs the ranks , and Texas A & M has several such traditions . The most obvious are the uniforms worn by the Corps of Cadets . Corps members wear different uniforms for each year , culminating in the prized Senior boots .
Vocabulary is also restricted by class . Freshmen may not say the word Pisshead , a nickname for sophomores . Juniors are known as " Serge Butts " , so neither freshmen nor sophomores can say any form of either word ( accordingly , words such as " button " must be replaced with roundabout euphemisms , such as " circular fastener " ) . Juniors are also the first class to be allowed to say " Whoop ! " Seniors , known as " Zips " for the black and gold braid on their garrison caps , which resembles a zipper , have reserved the word elephant and all forms of the words " death , " " dying , " " shoot , " or " reload " in reference to the traditions surrounding Elephant Walk . However , saying the phrases " pass away , " " decease , " " fire , " " load again , " etc . , are all acceptable substitutes .
Students caught " pulling out " , or saying words that are reserved for other classes , are forced to " push . " Traditionally , this means the students must do a " class set " of pushups , one for each year of their class . The Class of 1945 did only 45 pushups and an extra pushup has been added for each subsequent year ; the Fighting Texas Aggie Class of 2012 now does 112 . Pulling out privileges of the class directly above is considered " Good Bull " , but pulling out two classes or more is " Bad Bull . " Members of the Corps of Cadets generally take privileged words more seriously than non @-@ reg students .
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= Hypertension =
Hypertension ( HTN or HT ) , also known as high blood pressure ( HBP ) , is a long term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated . High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms . Long term high blood pressure , however , is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease , stroke , heart failure , peripheral vascular disease , vision loss , and chronic kidney disease .
High blood pressure is classified as either primary ( essential ) high blood pressure or secondary high blood pressure . About 90 – 95 % of cases are primary , defined as high blood pressure due to nonspecific lifestyle and genetic factors . Lifestyle factors that increase the risk include excess salt , excess body weight , smoking , and alcohol . The remaining 5 – 10 % of cases are categorized as secondary high blood pressure , defined as high blood pressure due to an identifiable cause , such as chronic kidney disease , narrowing of the kidney arteries , an endocrine disorder , or the use of birth control pills .
Blood pressure is expressed by two measurements , the systolic and diastolic pressures , which are the maximum and minimum pressures , respectively . Normal blood pressure at rest is within the range of 100 – 140 millimeters mercury ( mmHg ) systolic and 60 – 90 mmHg diastolic . High blood pressure is present if the resting blood pressure is persistently at or above 140 / 90 mmHg for most adults . Different numbers apply to children . Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring over a 24 @-@ hour period appears more accurate than office best blood pressure measurement .
Lifestyle changes and medications can lower blood pressure and decrease the risk of health complications . Lifestyle changes include weight loss , decreased salt intake , physical exercise , and a healthy diet . If lifestyle changes are not sufficient blood pressure medications are used . Up to three medications controls blood pressure in 90 % of people . The treatment of moderately high arterial blood pressure ( defined as > 160 / 100 mmHg ) with medications is associated with an improved life expectancy . The effect of treatment of blood pressure between 140 / 90 mmHg and 160 / 100 mmHg is less clear , with some reviews finding benefit and others not finding benefit . High blood pressure affects between 16 and 37 % of the population globally . In 2010 hypertension was believed to have been a factor in 18 % ( 9 @.@ 4 million ) deaths .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Hypertension is rarely accompanied by any symptoms , and its identification is usually through screening , or when seeking healthcare for an unrelated problem . Some with high blood pressure report headaches ( particularly at the back of the head and in the morning ) , as well as lightheadedness , vertigo , tinnitus ( buzzing or hissing in the ears ) , altered vision or fainting episodes . These symptoms , however , might be related to associated anxiety rather than the high blood pressure itself .
On physical examination , hypertension may be associated with the presence of changes in the optic fundus seen by ophthalmoscopy . The severity of the changes typical of hypertensive retinopathy is graded from I – IV ; grades I and II may be difficult to differentiate . The severity of the retinopathy correlates roughly with the duration and / or the severity of the hypertension .
= = = Secondary hypertension = = =
Hypertension with certain specific additional signs and symptoms may suggest secondary hypertension , i.e. hypertension due to an identifiable cause . For example , Cushing 's syndrome frequently causes truncal obesity , glucose intolerance , moon face , a hump of fat behind the neck / shoulder , and purple abdominal stretch marks . Hyperthyroidism frequently causes weight loss with increased appetite , fast heart rate , bulging eyes , and tremor . Renal artery stenosis ( RAS ) may be associated with a localized abdominal bruit to the left or right of the midline ( unilateral RAS ) , or in both locations ( bilateral RAS ) . Coarctation of the aorta frequently causes a decreased blood pressure in the lower extremities relative to the arms , and / or delayed or absent femoral arterial pulses . Pheochromocytoma may cause abrupt ( " paroxysmal " ) episodes of hypertension accompanied by headache , palpitations , pale appearance , and excessive sweating .
= = = Hypertensive crisis = = =
Severely elevated blood pressure ( equal to or greater than a systolic 180 or diastolic of 110 ) is referred to as a hypertensive crisis . Hypertensive crisis is categorized as either hypertensive urgency or hypertensive emergency , according to the absence or presence of end organ damage , respectively .
In hypertensive urgency , there is no evidence of end organ damage resulting from the elevated blood pressure . In these cases , oral medications are used to lower the BP gradually over 24 to 48 hours .
In hypertensive emergency , there is evidence of direct damage to one or more organs . The most affected organs include the brain , kidney , heart and lungs , producing symptoms which may include confusion , drowsiness , chest pain and breathlessness . In hypertensive emergency , the blood pressure must be reduced more rapidly to stop ongoing organ damage , however , there is a lack of randomised controlled trial evidence for this approach .
= = = Pregnancy = = =
Hypertension occurs in approximately 8 – 10 % of pregnancies . Two blood pressure measurements six hours apart of greater than 140 / 90 mm Hg is considered diagnostic of hypertension in pregnancy . High blood pressure in pregnancy can be classified as pre @-@ existing hypertension , gestational hypertension or pre @-@ eclampsia .
Pre @-@ eclampsia is a serious condition of the second half of pregnancy and following delivery characterised by increased blood pressure and the presence of protein in the urine . It occurs in about 5 % of pregnancies and is responsible for approximately 16 % of all maternal deaths globally . Pre @-@ eclampsia also doubles the risk of perinatal mortality . Usually there are no symptoms in pre @-@ eclampsia and it is detected by routine screening . When symptoms of pre @-@ eclampsia occur the most common are headache , visual disturbance ( often " flashing lights " ) , vomiting , pain over the stomach , and swelling . Pre @-@ eclampsia can occasionally progress to a life @-@ threatening condition called eclampsia , which is a hypertensive emergency and has several serious complications including vision loss , brain swelling , seizures , kidney failure , pulmonary edema , and disseminated intravascular coagulation ( a blood clotting disorder ) .
In contrast , gestational hypertension is defined as new @-@ onset hypertension during pregnancy without protein in the urine .
= = = Children = = =
Failure to thrive , seizures , irritability , lack of energy , and difficulty in breathing can be associated with hypertension in neonates and young infants . In older infants and children , hypertension can cause headache , unexplained irritability , fatigue , failure to thrive , blurred vision , nosebleeds , and facial paralysis .
= = Causes = =
= = = Primary hypertension = = =
Hypertension results from a complex interaction of genes and environmental factors . Numerous common genetic variants with small effects on blood pressure have been identified as well as some rare genetic variants with large effects on blood pressure . Also , GWAS have identified 35 genetic loci related to blood pressure ; 12 of these genetic loci influencing blood pressure were newly found . Sentinel SNP for each new genetic loci identified has shown an association with DNA methylation at multiple nearby Cpg sites . These sentinel SNP are located within genes related to vascular smooth muscle and renal function . DNA methylation might affect in some way linking common genetic variation to multiple phenotypes even though mechanisms underlying these associations are not understood . Single variant test performed in this study for the 35 sentinel SNP ( known and new ) showed that genetic variants singly or in aggregate contribute to risk of clinical phenotypes related to high blood pressure .
Blood pressure rises with aging and the risk of becoming hypertensive in later life is considerable . Several environmental factors influence blood pressure . High salt intake raises the blood pressure in salt sensitive individuals ; lack of exercise , obesity , stress , and depression can play a role in individual cases . The possible role of other factors such as caffeine consumption , and vitamin D deficiency are less clear . Insulin resistance , which is common in obesity and is a component of syndrome X ( or the metabolic syndrome ) , is also thought to contribute to hypertension . Events in early life , such as low birth weight , maternal smoking , and lack of breast feeding may be risk factors for adult essential hypertension , although the mechanisms linking these exposures to adult hypertension remain unclear . An increased rate of high blood urea has been found in untreated people with hypertensive in comparison with people with normal blood pressure , although it is uncertain whether the former plays a causal role or is subsidiary to poor kidney function .
= = = Secondary hypertension = = =
Secondary hypertension results from an identifiable cause . Kidney disease is the most common secondary cause of hypertension . Hypertension can also be caused by endocrine conditions , such as Cushing 's syndrome , hyperthyroidism , hypothyroidism , acromegaly , Conn 's syndrome or hyperaldosteronism , hyperparathyroidism and pheochromocytoma . Other causes of secondary hypertension include obesity , sleep apnea , pregnancy , coarctation of the aorta , excessive liquorice consumption and certain prescription medicines , herbal remedies and illegal drugs . Arsenic exposure through drinking water has been shown to correlate with elevated blood pressure .
= = Pathophysiology = =
In most people with established essential hypertension , increased resistance to blood flow ( total peripheral resistance ) accounts for the high pressure while cardiac output remains normal . There is evidence that some younger people with prehypertension or ' borderline hypertension ' have high cardiac output , an elevated heart rate and normal peripheral resistance , termed hyperkinetic borderline hypertension . These individuals develop the typical features of established essential hypertension in later life as their cardiac output falls and peripheral resistance rises with age . Whether this pattern is typical of all people who ultimately develop hypertension is disputed . The increased peripheral resistance in established hypertension is mainly attributable to structural narrowing of small arteries and arterioles , although a reduction in the number or density of capillaries may also contribute . Whether increased active arteriolar vasoconstriction plays a role in established essential hypertension is unclear . Hypertension is also associated with decreased peripheral venous compliance which may increase venous return , increase cardiac preload and , ultimately , cause diastolic dysfunction .
Pulse pressure ( the difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure ) is frequently increased in older people with hypertension . This can mean that systolic pressure is abnormally high , but diastolic pressure may be normal or low — a condition termed isolated systolic hypertension . The high pulse pressure in elderly people with hypertension or isolated systolic hypertension is explained by increased arterial stiffness , which typically accompanies aging and may be exacerbated by high blood pressure .
Many mechanisms have been proposed to account for the rise in peripheral resistance in hypertension . Most evidence implicates either disturbances in the kidneys ' salt and water handling ( particularly abnormalities in the intrarenal renin @-@ angiotensin system ) and / or abnormalities of the sympathetic nervous system . These mechanisms are not mutually exclusive and it is likely that both contribute to some extent in most cases of essential hypertension . It has also been suggested that endothelial dysfunction and vascular inflammation may also contribute to increased peripheral resistance and vascular damage in hypertension . Interleukin 17 has garnered interest for its role in increasing the production of several other immune system chemical signals thought to be involved in hypertension such as tumor necrosis factor alpha , interleukin 1 , interleukin 6 , and interleukin 8 .
= = Diagnosis = =
Hypertension is diagnosed on the basis of a persistently high blood pressure . Traditionally , the National Institute of Clinical Excellence recommends three separate sphygmomanometer measurements at monthly intervals . The American Heart Association recommends at least three measurements on at least two separate health care visits . Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring over 12 to 24 hours is the most accurate method to confirm the diagnosis .
An exception to this is those with very high blood pressure readings especially when there is poor organ function . Initial assessment of the hypertensive people should include a complete history and physical examination . With the availability of 24 @-@ hour ambulatory blood pressure monitors and home blood pressure machines , the importance of not wrongly diagnosing those who have white coat hypertension has led to a change in protocols . In the United Kingdom , current best practice is to follow up a single raised clinic reading with ambulatory measurement , or less ideally with home blood pressure monitoring over the course of 7 days . The United States Preventative Services Task Force also recommends getting measurements outside of the healthcare environment . Pseudohypertension in the elderly or noncompressibility artery syndrome may also require consideration . This condition is believed to be due to calcification of the arteries resulting in abnormally high blood pressure readings with a blood pressure cuff while intra arterial measurements of blood pressure are normal . Orthostatic hypertension is when blood pressure increases upon standing .
Once the diagnosis of hypertension has been made , healthcare providers should attempt to identify the underlying cause based on risk factors and other symptoms , if present . Secondary hypertension is more common in preadolescent children , with most cases caused by kidney disease . Primary or essential hypertension is more common in adolescents and has multiple risk factors , including obesity and a family history of hypertension . Laboratory tests can also be performed to identify possible causes of secondary hypertension , and to determine whether hypertension has caused damage to the heart , eyes , and kidneys . Additional tests for diabetes and high cholesterol levels are usually performed because these conditions are additional risk factors for the development of heart disease and may require treatment .
Serum creatinine is measured to assess for the presence of kidney disease , which can be either the cause or the result of hypertension . Serum creatinine alone may overestimate glomerular filtration rate and recent guidelines advocate the use of predictive equations such as the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease ( MDRD ) formula to estimate glomerular filtration rate ( eGFR ) . eGFR can also provide a baseline measurement of kidney function that can be used to monitor for side effects of certain antihypertensive drugs on kidney function . Additionally , testing of urine samples for protein is used as a secondary indicator of kidney disease . Electrocardiogram ( EKG / ECG ) testing is done to check for evidence that the heart is under strain from high blood pressure . It may also show whether there is thickening of the heart muscle ( left ventricular hypertrophy ) or whether the heart has experienced a prior minor disturbance such as a silent heart attack . A chest X @-@ ray or an echocardiogram may also be performed to look for signs of heart enlargement or damage to the heart .
= = = Adults = = =
In people aged 18 years or older hypertension is defined as a systolic and / or a diastolic blood pressure measurement consistently higher than an accepted normal value ( currently 139 mmHg systolic , 89 mmHg diastolic : see table — Classification ( JNC7 ) ) . Lower thresholds are used ( 135 mmHg systolic or 85 mmHg diastolic ) if measurements are derived from 24 @-@ hour ambulatory or home monitoring . Recent international hypertension guidelines have also created categories below the hypertensive range to indicate a continuum of risk with higher blood pressures in the normal range . JNC7 ( 2003 ) uses the term prehypertension for blood pressure in the range 120 – 139 mmHg systolic and / or 80 – 89 mmHg diastolic , while ESH @-@ ESC Guidelines ( 2007 ) and BHS IV ( 2004 ) use optimal , normal and high normal categories to subdivide pressures below 140 mmHg systolic and 90 mmHg diastolic . Hypertension is also sub @-@ classified : JNC7 distinguishes hypertension stage I , hypertension stage II , and isolated systolic hypertension . Isolated systolic hypertension refers to elevated systolic pressure with normal diastolic pressure and is common in the elderly . The ESH @-@ ESC Guidelines ( 2007 ) and BHS IV ( 2004 ) additionally define a third stage ( stage III hypertension ) for people with systolic blood pressure exceeding 179 mmHg or a diastolic pressure over 109 mmHg . Hypertension is classified as " resistant " if medications do not reduce blood pressure to normal levels .
= = = Children = = =
Hypertension occurs in around 0 @.@ 2 to 3 % of newborns ; however , blood pressure is not measured routinely in healthy newborns . Hypertension is more common in high risk newborns . A variety of factors , such as gestational age , postconceptional age and birth weight needs to be taken into account when deciding if a blood pressure is normal in a newborn .
Hypertension defined as elevated blood pressure over several visits affects 1 % to 5 % of children and adolescents and is associated with long term risks of ill @-@ health . Blood pressure rises with age in childhood and , in children , hypertension is defined as an average systolic or diastolic blood pressure on three or more occasions equal or higher than the 95th percentile appropriate for the sex , age and height of the child . High blood pressure must be confirmed on repeated visits however before characterizing a child as having hypertension . Prehypertension in children has been defined as average systolic or diastolic blood pressure that is greater than or equal to the 90th percentile , but less than the 95th percentile . In adolescents , it has been proposed that hypertension and pre @-@ hypertension are diagnosed and classified using the same criteria as in adults .
The value of routine screening for hypertension in children over the age of 3 years is debated . In 2004 the National High Blood Pressure Education Program recommended that children aged 3 years and older have blood pressure measurement at least once at every health care visit and the National Heart , Lung , and Blood Institute and American Academy of Pediatrics made a similar recommendation . However , the American Academy of Family Physicians support the view of the U.S. preventive Services Task Force that evidence is insufficient to determine the balance of benefits and harms of screening for hypertension in children and adolescents who do not have symptoms .
= = Prevention = =
Much of the disease burden of high blood pressure is experienced by people who are not labeled as hypertensive . Consequently , population strategies are required to reduce the consequences of high blood pressure and reduce the need for antihypertensive drug therapy . Lifestyle changes are recommended to lower blood pressure , before starting drug therapy . The 2004 British Hypertension Society guidelines proposed the following lifestyle changes consistent with those outlined by the US National High BP Education Program in 2002 for the primary prevention of hypertension :
maintain normal body weight for adults ( e.g. body mass index 20 – 25 kg / m2 )
reduce dietary sodium intake to < 100 mmol / day ( < 6 g of sodium chloride or < 2 @.@ 4 g of sodium per day )
engage in regular aerobic physical activity such as brisk walking ( ≥ 30 min per day , most days of the week )
limit alcohol consumption to no more than 3 units / day in men and no more than 2 units / day in women
consume a diet rich in fruit and vegetables ( e.g. at least five portions per day ) ;
Effective lifestyle modification may lower blood pressure as much as an individual antihypertensive drug . Combinations of two or more lifestyle modifications can achieve even better results .
= = Management = =
According to one review published in 2003 , reduction of the blood pressure by 5 mmHg can decrease the risk of stroke by 34 % , of ischaemic heart disease by 21 % , and reduce the likelihood of dementia , heart failure , and mortality from cardiovascular disease .
= = = Target blood pressure = = =
Various expert groups have produced guidelines regarding how low the blood pressure target should be when a person is treated for hypertension . These groups recommend a target below the range 140 @-@ 160 / 90 @-@ 100 mmHg for the general population . Controversy exists regarding the appropriate targets for certain subgroups , including the elderly , people with diabetes and people with kidney disease .
Many expert groups recommend a slightly higher target of 150 / 90 mmHg for those over 80 years of age . One expert group , the JNC @-@ 8 , recommends the target of 150 / 90 mmHg for those over 60 years of age , but some experts within this group disagree with this recommendation . Some expert groups have also recommended slightly lower targets in those with diabetes or chronic kidney disease with proteinuria , but others recommend the same target as for the general population . In 2015 a large trial suggests that among people over 50 with increased heart disease risk , aiming to reduce systolic blood pressure to 120 mmHg was associated with lower mortality but increased side effects compared to a target of 140 mmHg .
= = = Lifestyle modifications = = =
The first line of treatment for hypertension is lifestyle changes , including dietary changes , physical exercise , and weight loss . Though these have all been recommended in scientific advisories , a review by Cochrane found no evidence for effects of weight loss diets on death or long @-@ term complications and adverse events in persons with hypertension . The review did find a decrease in blood pressure . Their potential effectiveness is similar to and at times exceeds a single medication . If hypertension is high enough to justify immediate use of medications , lifestyle changes are still recommended in conjunction with medication .
Dietary changes shown to reduce blood pressure include diets with low sodium , the DASH diet , vegetarian diets and high potassium diets .
Physical exercise regimens which are shown to reduce blood pressure include isometric resistance exercise , aerobic exercise , resistance exercise , and device @-@ guided breathing .
Stress reduction techniques such as biofeedback or transcendental meditation may be considered as an add @-@ on to other treatments to reduce hypertension , but do not have evidence for preventing cardiovascular disease on their own .
= = = Medications = = =
Several classes of medications , collectively referred to as antihypertensive medications , are available for treating hypertension .
First line medications for hypertension include thiazide @-@ diuretics , calcium channel blockers , angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers . These medications may be used alone or in combination ; the latter option may serve to minimize counter @-@ regulatory mechanisms that act to revert blood pressure values to pre @-@ treatment levels . The majority of people require more than one medication to control their hypertension .
= = = Resistant hypertension = = =
Resistant hypertension is defined as hypertension that remains above goal blood pressure in spite of using , at once , three antihypertensive medications belonging to different drug classes . Low adherence to treatment is an important cause of resistant hypertension . Resistant hypertension may also represent the result of chronic high activity of the autonomic nervous system ; this concept is known as " neurogenic hypertension " .
= = Epidemiology = =
= = = Adults = = =
As of 2000 , nearly one billion people or ~ 26 % of the adult population of the world had hypertension . It was common in both developed ( 333 million ) and undeveloped ( 639 million ) countries . However , rates vary markedly in different regions with rates as low as 3 @.@ 4 % ( men ) and 6 @.@ 8 % ( women ) in rural India and as high as 68 @.@ 9 % ( men ) and 72 @.@ 5 % ( women ) in Poland . In Europe hypertension occurs in about 30 @-@ 45 % of people as of 2013 .
In 1995 it was estimated that 43 million people in the United States had hypertension or were taking antihypertensive medication , almost 24 % of the adult United States population . The prevalence of hypertension in the United States is increasing and reached 29 % in 2004 . As of 2006 hypertension affects 76 million US adults ( 34 % of the population ) and African American adults have among the highest rates of hypertension in the world at 44 % . It is more common in blacks and Filipinos and less in whites and Mexican Americans , rates increase with age , and is greater in the southeastern United States . Hypertension is more common in men ( though menopause tends to decrease this difference ) and in those of low socioeconomic status .
= = = Children = = =
Rates of high blood pressure in children and adolescents have increased in the last 20 years in the United States . Childhood hypertension , particularly in preadolescents , is more often secondary to an underlying disorder than in adults . Kidney disease is the most common secondary cause of hypertension in children and adolescents . Nevertheless , primary or essential hypertension accounts for most cases .
= = Outcomes = =
Hypertension is the most important preventable risk factor for premature death worldwide . It increases the risk of ischemic heart disease strokes , peripheral vascular disease , and other cardiovascular diseases , including heart failure , aortic aneurysms , diffuse atherosclerosis , chronic kidney disease , and pulmonary embolism . Hypertension is also a risk factor for cognitive impairment and dementia . Other complications include hypertensive retinopathy and hypertensive nephropathy .
= = History = =
= = = Measurement = = =
Modern understanding of the cardiovascular system began with the work of physician William Harvey ( 1578 – 1657 ) , who described the circulation of blood in his book " De motu cordis " . The English clergyman Stephen Hales made the first published measurement of blood pressure in 1733 . However hypertension as a clinical entity came into being in 1896 with the invention of the cuff @-@ based sphygmomanometer by Scipione Riva @-@ Rocci in 1896 . This allowed the measurement of blood pressure in the clinic . In 1905 , Nikolai Korotkoff improved the technique by describing the Korotkoff sounds that are heard when the artery is ausculated with a stethoscope while the sphygmomanometer cuff is deflated .
= = = Identification = = =
The symptoms similar to symptoms of patients with hypertensive crisis are discussed in medieval Persian medical texts in the chapter of " fullness disease " . The symptoms include headache , heaviness in the head , sluggish movements , general redness and warm to touch feel of the body , prominent , distended and tense vessels , fullness of the pulse , distension of the skin , coloured and dense urine , loss of appetite , weak eyesight , impairment of thinking , yawning , drowsiness , vascular rupture , and hemorrhagic stroke . Fullness disease was presumed to be due to an excessive amount of blood within the blood vessels .
Descriptions of hypertension as a disease came among others from Thomas Young in 1808 and especially Richard Bright in 1836 . The first report of elevated blood pressure in a person without evidence of kidney disease was made by Frederick Akbar Mahomed ( 1849 – 1884 ) .
= = = Treatment = = =
Historically the treatment for what was called the " hard pulse disease " consisted in reducing the quantity of blood by bloodletting or the application of leeches . This was advocated by The Yellow Emperor of China , Cornelius Celsus , Galen , and Hippocrates . The therapeutic approach for the treatment of hard pulse disease included changes in lifestyle ( staying away from anger and sexual intercourse ) and dietary program for patients ( avoiding the consumption of wine , meat , and pastries , reducing the volume of food in a meal , maintaining a low @-@ energy diet and the dietary usage of spinach and vinegar ) .
In the 19th and 20th centuries , before effective pharmacological treatment for hypertension became possible , three treatment modalities were used , all with numerous side @-@ effects : strict sodium restriction ( for example the rice diet ) , sympathectomy ( surgical ablation of parts of the sympathetic nervous system ) , and pyrogen therapy ( injection of substances that caused a fever , indirectly reducing blood pressure ) .
The first chemical for hypertension , sodium thiocyanate , was used in 1900 but had many side effects and was unpopular . Several other agents were developed after the Second World War , the most popular and reasonably effective of which were tetramethylammonium chloride , hexamethonium , hydralazine and reserpine ( derived from the medicinal plant Rauwolfia serpentina ) . None of these were well tolerated . A major breakthrough was achieved with the discovery of the first well @-@ tolerated orally available agents . The first was chlorothiazide , the first thiazide diuretic and developed from the antibiotic sulfanilamide , which became available in 1958 . Subsequently beta blockers , calcium channel blockers , angiotensin converting enzyme ( ACE ) inhibitors , angiotensin receptor blockers and renin inhibitors were developed as antihypertensive agents .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Awareness = = =
The World Health Organization has identified hypertension , or high blood pressure , as the leading cause of cardiovascular mortality . The World Hypertension League ( WHL ) , an umbrella organization of 85 national hypertension societies and leagues , recognized that more than 50 % of the hypertensive population worldwide are unaware of their condition . To address this problem , the WHL initiated a global awareness campaign on hypertension in 2005 and dedicated May 17 of each year as World Hypertension Day ( WHD ) . Over the past three years , more national societies have been engaging in WHD and have been innovative in their activities to get the message to the public . In 2007 , there was record participation from 47 member countries of the WHL . During the week of WHD , all these countries – in partnership with their local governments , professional societies , nongovernmental organizations and private industries – promoted hypertension awareness among the public through several media and public rallies . Using mass media such as Internet and television , the message reached more than 250 million people . As the momentum picks up year after year , the WHL is confident that almost all the estimated 1 @.@ 5 billion people affected by elevated blood pressure can be reached .
= = = Economics = = =
High blood pressure is the most common chronic medical problem prompting visits to primary health care providers in USA . The American Heart Association estimated the direct and indirect costs of high blood pressure in 2010 as $ 76 @.@ 6 billion . In the US 80 % of people with hypertension are aware of their condition , 71 % take some antihypertensive medication , but only 48 % of people aware that they have hypertension adequately control it . Adequate management of hypertension can be hampered by inadequacies in the diagnosis , treatment , and / or control of high blood pressure . Health care providers face many obstacles to achieving blood pressure control , including resistance to taking multiple medications to reach blood pressure goals . People also face the challenges of adhering to medicine schedules and making lifestyle changes . Nonetheless , the achievement of blood pressure goals is possible , and most importantly , lowering blood pressure significantly reduces the risk of death due to heart disease and stroke , the development of other debilitating conditions , and the cost associated with advanced medical care .
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= Sarah Barnes =
Sarah Barnes is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks , played by Loui Batley . She debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 10 October 2005 . Sarah was created by executive producer David Hanson as part of the Barnes family . In 2009 , Batley quit the serial in order to pursue other projects . Although the character is no longer part of current story lines , she has been central to many key story lines , one of the earliest the high profile gay storyline involving supercouple John Paul McQueen and Craig Dean .
The theme of sexuality was further explored through Sarah , seeing her have relations with Zoe Carpenter and a serious relationship with Lydia Hart , which Batley initially found strange to portray because of Sarah 's many relationships with male characters . Other story lines include her embarkment on a modelling career , competing in swimming competitions and her many relationships . According to Batley , Sarah relies on people too much for support and was " man @-@ crazy " in her early years . Sarah 's final storyline is her death in a skydiving accident , which was a first for a British soap opera . The storyline aired in the second series of Hollyoaks Later and was devised by producer Bryan Kirkwood . Sarah 's death won " Spectacular Scene Of The Year " at the British Soap Awards in 2010 and the scenes have been praised by certain critics .
= = Casting = =
Auditions were held for the part of Sarah , the eldest daughter of the Barnes family and actress Loui Batley secured the role . On 1 July 2009 , Digital Spy reported that Loui Batley had quit the soap and would leave towards the end of the year . Loui 's decision matched co @-@ worker Zoë Lister ( Zoë Carpenter ) . The Hollyoaks website officially announced on 23 July 2009 that both Batley and Lister would leave towards the end of that year . Their final storyline was described as a " A tragic curtain call for one of them " , stating that either Sarah or Zoë would die . Batley wanted to quit the serial in December 2008 when her contract ran out . Kirkwood asked her to stay another six months with the promise of a good exit storyline . The plot also involved Zoe and Lydia Hart ( Lydia Kelly ) . She made it clear to Kirkwood and new executive producer Lucy Allan that she would leave afterward . Allan then came up with the idea of writing Batley out of the serial in its sister show Hollyoaks Later . Upon hearing Kirkwood 's ideas for her exit storyline , Batley said : " I 've been there for quite a while and it was a great ending for the character - I couldn 't have asked for a better way to go ... " Hollyoaks Later producer Bryan Kirkwood said : " Loui 's been brilliant in Hollyoaks and she 's massively underrated . She 's been at the centre of some of the biggest storylines on the main show . She never turned in a performance less than top @-@ notch and I wish she had a little more recognition for that . She 's a very strong actress and it 's been fantastic to work with her - and great to be involved in her exit . "
= = Development = =
= = = Craig 's affair = = =
In 2007 , Sarah discovered fiancé Craig Dean 's ( Guy Burnet ) affair with best friend John Paul McQueen ( James Sutton ) , in the storyline dubbed " McDean " . The storyline reached its climax as the truth is revealed " dramatically " at her engagement party . Sarah walked in on the pair kissing , A Hollyoaks spokesperson stated in an interview with Digital Spy , " John Paul 's sick of all the lies and decides enough is enough . He sends a text from Craig 's phone asking Sarah to come upstairs to see him . Safe in the knowledge that Sarah is on her way , JP sets about seducing Craig . When she walks in , she can 't believe what she 's looking at ... " Sarah tried to recover from this and Batley said : " I don 't think she got over Rhys , either . Craig more so , though . He absolutely destroyed her happiness and belief in men . Her relationship with Craig was going to be her life and she put so much effort into it , emotionally and physically , and it completely destroyed her . " Batley said Sarah could not handle the fact he cheated on her with another man . She opined this was the reason her storyline with Zoe and Lydia worked well . However John Paul 's betrayal also had impact on Sarah 's life because he was one of her best friends . Batley said : " John Paul was her confidante and she thought they were best friends - it 's hard to say which part made more of an impact on her . It was all just one horrible experience . It was the betrayal from both of them . "
= = = Sexuality = = =
Sexuality continued to be a focal point in Sarah 's storyline . The new plot featured Sarah questioning her sexuality after a one @-@ night stand with Zoë . Speaking to Digital Spy , Batley said Sarah and Zoe always been close . Zoe is the best friend she has ever had because in her life people have always let her down , whereas Zoe has been " her rock " ; despite their fall outs . Batley felt this to be the reason why they share a mutual friendly love for one another . In comparison , Sarah 's feeling intensified and Batley commented : " For Sarah it 's something more - she completely relies on her and that turns into love for her as well . " Whilst filming the raunchy scenes , there was a nervous atmosphere on set .
Sarah then embarked on her first full relationship with a woman , with Lydia . The pair have a series of " misunderstandings " until Sarah admits her feelings for Lydia and comes out . Batley spoke of the storyline during an interview with The Sun branding her relationship with Lydia as serious compared to her fling with Zoe . The rocky relationship led to Lydia being jealous of Sarah and Zoë 's friendship , and eventually Sarah 's death within the show .
When asked if she thought Sarah had come to terms with the fact she is a lesbian , Batley said : " I don 't know because from the beginning , Sarah was always boy crazy , so for her , I don 't think it 's about being one way or the other — I think she 's just very clingy . Batley also gave her views on how Sarah should have to developed , opining it would have been good for her to spend more time on her own , be herself and learn who she really is . She felt that Sarah had to often clung on to people and believing that ultimately it would make her happy . Sarah tries this notion with Zoe , describing this Batley added : " I think that 's what happened with Zoe as well because they were such good friends . With Lydia , she brought something to her and she got on with her and was sparky , which is something that Sarah liked . I don 't know if she 'd suddenly turned , though . Maybe she was more bisexual than anything . "
= = = Departure = = =
Alongside Batley 's departure , it was that revealed Lister , who plays Zoe , would also leave the show . The exit storyline was described as a " tragic skydiving death " caused by a jealous Lydia . Prior to transmission of the skydiving , Lister had explained the storyline during an interview with Sky TV . She said Lydia initially severed a parachute to end her own life , later deciding to cut Zoe 's parachute so she could have Sarah to herself . She also explained that viewers were not permitted to know who would have parachute . The parachute mix up was described as the storyline 's " dramatic twist " . Speaking on how Zoe 's friendship with Sarah causes Lydia to commit her actions , Lister stated :
It was revealed that cast members filmed on a number of location settings . One of these included an army barracks . They also filmed scenes at Tatenhill Airfield . The airfield 's staff had been asked to remain secretive regarding details of the storyline . Lister explained that the episodes were fun to film and they had to do " funny " stunts . Lister was the only cast member out of her , Batley and Kelly who performed the aired skydiving for real . A Hollyoaks producer released two pictures of funeral wreaths , one reading ' Zoe ' and the other ' Sarah ' , in order to confuse viewers further as to whom the victim would be . When the episode aired it played out with Sarah dying in the jump . When executive producer Bryan Kirkwood described the exit to Batley , she thought it was a " perfect and amazing " end for Sarah . Further adding that " It really draws a line under the four years " of Sarah 's storylines .
= = Storylines = =
During the character 's original appearance on Hollyoaks , there was no additional information to Sarah 's life beforehand . Mike ( Tony Hirst ) and Kathy Barnes ( Sarah Jane Buckley ) struggled to cope with Kathy 's pregnancy , as the two were still teenagers at the time , and they discussed putting her up for adoption , although Mike then became attached to Sarah after her birth and the couple decided to keep her when Mike realised that he wanted to be a father after all .
Sarah befriends Rhys Ashworth ( Andrew Moss ) and Gilly Roach ( Anthony Quinlan ) , Rhys and Sarah grow closer , but he is put off by her age . Despite her mother 's high hopes for her to become an Olympic swimmer , Sarah begins dating Rhys . Kathy is horrified and vows to stop Rhys seeing Sarah . Kathy then seduces an intoxicated Rhys and she has a one @-@ night stand with him . When Sarah finds out , she dumps him and starts to despise her mother . Few months after , Sarah regrets dumping Rhys and forgives him . However , he takes nude photographs of her and shows them to his friends . Disgusted , she ends her relationship with Rhys . Sarah grows close to Gilly but decides not to begin a relationship . Sarah and Hannah strike friendships with friends Craig and John Paul . She and Craig start to date and set Hannah up with John Paul . Craig is caught kissing John Paul by Hannah , which leads to John Paul 's coming out . Craig convinces Sarah he is heterosexual and John Paul initiated the kiss . Regardless , Sarah sees John Paul as a friend and encourages him in his first relationship with Spike ( Tom Vaughan ) . Craig is angry to learn the pair had sex , he tries to force himself on Sarah and calls her a whore . They later make up . Sarah does a photoshoot for a fictional magazine named Ripple and she delves further into the world of modelling , in spite of Craig 's feelings . Sarah turns to John Paul for advice over her relationship . Unbeknownst to her , John Paul and Craig are having an affair . They go on holiday to repair their problems . Sarah becomes suspicious of Craig , to avoid her finding out the truth Craig proposes marriage to her , which she accepts . They then plan to move to Dublin and Craig 's mother Frankie Osborne ( Helen Pearson ) decides to host an engagement party at The Dog in the Pond . John Paul is heartbroken . John Paul uses Craig 's mobile phone to text Sarah and tell her to come to Craig 's room , where he and Craig are kissing . Sarah walks into the room and is shocked to find Craig cheating . She then tells everyone at the party about Craig and John Paul 's affair . Sarah later asks Craig to take her back , assuming he is just confused . Craig then admits his love for John Paul and he leaves with him for Dublin .
Sarah begins to grow close to Rhys again and they reunite . However , Rhys is using her to make Beth Clement ( Sinéad Moynihan ) jealous . Beth and Sarah are friends and she convinces Sarah to split with Rhys . Sarah befriends Zoë and asks her to move in . Kathy accuses Zoë and Mike of having an affair and Mike breaks up with Kathy , who leaves him . Mike confesses his feelings for Zoë and they begin a secret relationship . Sarah discovers the truth and moves in with friend , Nancy Hayton ( Jessica Fox ) . Sarah finds an odd friend in Elliot Bevan ( Garnon Davies ) , who develops feelings for her . Elliot 's physics lecturer Roger Kiddle ( Quentin Tibble ) meets Sarah and after embarking on a fling , Elliot uncovers the truth . He becomes angry but eventually forgives Sarah . Sarah splits up with Roger when Sarah finds out he has a wife and made a pass at Zoë . Sarah starts to fall in love with Elliot and confesses to him . Elliot reciprocates and the pair become a couple . Soon after , Elliot decides they are too different and dumps her . Sarah is jealous when best friend Hannah dates him .
Sarah makes up with Zoë and moves back into the Barnes home . They , and Nancy , then set off on a holiday to Zoë 's old school so that she could make a speech on careers to current students . While at the school , it becomes apparent that Zoë had been involved in an affair with her teacher while she was fifteen . A drunken Sarah then accuses her of using her dad to fulfil her fantasy of being in a relationship with an older man . The pair end up in a fight . Sarah and Zoë make up as they are left alone in the hotel room . The pair drunkenly share a kiss before sleeping together . After this , Sarah feels more guilty and cannot look at Zoë , who tells her it was a drunken mistake and urges her to put it behind her . Arriving back in Hollyoaks , Sarah makes Zoë leave for a trip to give them space . Zoë returns and Sarah threatens to tell Mike , however Kris Fisher ( Gerard McCarthy ) overhears and tells Nancy and Mike , who throws both Sarah and Zoë out . A guilty Sarah begins to have random sex with teenagers . First Archie Carpenter ( Stephen Beard ) , who turns out to be Zoë 's brother when she catches them in a passionate state . Sarah is then shocked when it turns out Archie is rating her against other girls . She later has sex with Warren Fox ( Jamie Lomas ) .
Sarah moves back home when she reconciles with Mike . Whilst working at a dance class Persephone Hart ( Elizabeth Hadley ) claims that Sarah has assaulted her . The girl 's older sister , Lydia manages to get her fired . Sarah and Lydia then become good friends . Lydia later reveals herself to be a lesbian . The pair then share a kiss which leaves Sarah confused . She becomes attracted to Lydia , she thinks is bisexual and that her experience with Zoë had started her sexuality crisis . Sarah eventually admits to having feelings for Lydia , and the pair begin a relationship . Lydia later accuses Sarah of cheating with Zoë . Mike begins to accept Sarah 's sexuality . Sarah discovers she was nearly given up for adoption by Mike and Kathy as a baby , after Zoë steals a script from Mike and uses it in her film for college . Sarah is angry at Zoë for using her but they later make up . Sarah breaks up with Lydia when she catches her kissing ex @-@ girlfriend Charlotte Lau ( Amy Yamazaki ) . Lydia grows increasingly jealous of Sarah and Zoë 's friendship . Lydia trouble between Sarah and Charlotte , so Sarah and Zoe go on an adventure trip . Lydia follows them as they get drunk and Sarah tells Zoe she loves her . Lydia over hears and is further fuels her jealousy . As they prepare for a skydive Lydia cuts Zoe 's parachute , however the become mixed up . Sarah falls to her death with her faulty parachute . Lydia frames Zoe but is eventually convicted .
= = Reception = =
Kris Green of Digital Spy described the skydive as one of the best stunts he had seen in a long time , adding that the reaction to Sarah 's death made him shed a tear and that the episode on a whole was " amazing " . The parachute stunt won ' Spectacular Scene Of The Year ' at the 2010 British Soap Awards . At the 2010 Inside Soap Awards the storyline gained nominations for Batley in the categories of " Best Exit " and " Best Stunt " .
Virgin Media profiled some of Hollyoaks ' " hottest females " in their opinion , of Sarah they stated : " Sarah Barnes ' sex appeal stretched so far she even had to experiment with the ladies . Turns out that wasn 't the brightest idea she 'd ever had - her jealous girlfriend Lydia finally polished her off good and proper . " Olly Riachards men 's lifestyle magazine FHM commented on Sarah stating : " the one who fell out of a plane and splatted all across the ground , leading to a really drawn out and really boring plotline " Holy Soap opined that Batley " livened up screens as lesbian temptress Sarah Barnes . " and that she had many " major storylines " . Digital Spy brand Sarah as , just a " wannabe model " . The Daily Mail have favoured Sarah 's storyline with Zoe . They opined that Sarah has had a " string of bad relationships with men " , that Zoe and Sarah 's kiss was an " interesting turn " and call it a scandal , that " heats and spices up " Hollyoaks . Nadia Sam @-@ Daliri of The Sun disagreed with Batley 's comments on the lesbian scenes being weird and said " They 've been far from weird to watch ... "
The Bristol Evening Post branded Sarah 's coming out as an " amazing storyline " , said Sarah is a " leggy brunette " and opined her attraction to Lydia developed into " full @-@ blown obsession " . Asian News International included Sarah and Zoe second on their top ten " girl @-@ on @-@ girl kisses on TV " list . The Liverpool Daily Post ran a quiz focused on style , one of their result trends read " You like to put your own stamp on trends and tend to mix designer and high street clothes to create the look you want . You are an " urban aspirant " like Sarah Barnes , from Hollyoaks . " When Sarah dated males to convince herself she is straight , Lesbian culture website AfterEllen.com stated that " Sarah will surely find out de @-@ gaying is just not possible " . They also branded her storyline " scandalous " and said she " has had her fair share of failed relationships - with men , that is " .
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= Richard Cantillon =
Richard Cantillon ( French : [ kɑ ̃ tijɔ ̃ ] ; 1680s – May 1734 ) was an Irish @-@ French economist and author of Essai sur la Nature du Commerce en Général ( Essay on the Nature of Trade in General ) , a book considered by William Stanley Jevons to be the " cradle of political economy " . Although little information exists on Cantillon 's life , it is known that he became a successful banker and merchant at an early age . His success was largely derived from the political and business connections he made through his family and through an early employer , James Brydges . During the late 1710s and early 1720s , Cantillon speculated in , and later helped fund , John Law 's Mississippi Company , from which he acquired great wealth . However , his success came at a cost to his debtors , who pursued him with lawsuits , criminal charges , and even murder plots until his death in 1734 .
Essai remains Cantillon 's only surviving contribution to economics . It was written around 1730 and circulated widely in manuscript form , but was not published until 1755 . His work was translated into Spanish by Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos , probably in the late 1770s , and considered essential reading for political economy . Despite having much influence on the early development of the physiocrat and classical schools of thought , Essai was largely forgotten until its rediscovery by Jevons in the late 19th century . Cantillon was influenced by his experiences as a banker , and especially by the speculative bubble of John Law 's Mississippi Company . He was also heavily influenced by prior economists , especially William Petty .
Essai is considered the first complete treatise on economics , with numerous contributions to the science . These contributions include : his cause and effect methodology , monetary theories , his conception of the entrepreneur as a risk @-@ bearer , and the development of spatial economics . Cantillon 's Essai had significant influence on the early development of political economy , including the works of Adam Smith , Anne Turgot , Jean @-@ Baptiste Say , Frédéric Bastiat and François Quesnay .
= = Biography = =
While details regarding Richard Cantillon 's life are scarce , it is thought that he was born sometime during the 1680s in County Kerry , Ireland . He was son to land @-@ owner Richard Cantillon of Ballyheigue . Sometime in the middle of the first decade of the 18th century Cantillon moved to France , where he attained French citizenship . By 1711 , Cantillon found himself in the employment of British Paymaster General James Brydges , in Spain , where he organised payments to British prisoners of war during the War of Spanish Succession . Cantillon remained in Spain until 1714 , cultivating a number of business and political connections , before returning to Paris . Cantillon then became involved in the banking industry working for a cousin , who at that time was lead @-@ correspondent of the Parisian branch of a family bank . Two years later , thanks in large part to financial backing by James Brydges , Cantillon bought his cousin out and attained ownership of the bank . Given the financial and political connections Cantillon was able to attain both through his family and through James Brydges , Cantillon proved a fairly successful banker , specialising in money transfers between Paris and London .
At this time , Cantillon became involved with British mercantilist John Law through the Mississippi Company . Based on the monetary theory proposed by William Potter in his 1650 tract The Key of Wealth , John Law posited that increases in the money supply would lead to the employment of unused land and labour , leading to higher productivity . In 1716 , the French government granted him both permission to found the Banque Générale and virtual monopoly over the right to develop French territories in North America , named the Mississippi Company . In return , Law promised the French government to finance their debt at low rates of interest . Law began a financial speculative bubble by selling shares of the Mississippi Company , using the Banque Générale 's virtual monopoly on the issue of bank notes to finance his investors .
Richard Cantillon amassed a great fortune from his speculation , buying Mississippi Company shares early and selling them at inflated prices . Cantillon 's financial success and growing influence caused friction in his relationship with John Law , and sometime thereafter Law threatened to imprison Cantillon if the latter did not leave France within twenty @-@ four hours . Cantillon replied : " I shall not go away ; but I will make your system succeed . " To that end , in 1718 Law , Cantillon , and wealthy speculator Joseph Gage formed a private company centred on financing further speculation in North American real estate .
In 1719 , Cantillon left Paris for Amsterdam , returning briefly in early 1720 . Lending in Paris , Cantillon had outlying debt repaid to him in London and Amsterdam . With the collapse of the " Mississippi bubble " , Cantillon was able to collect on debt accruing high rates of interest . Most of his debtors had suffered financial damage in the bubble collapse and blamed Cantillon — until his death , Cantillon was involved in countless lawsuits filed by his debtors , leading to a number of murder plots and criminal accusations .
On 16 February 1722 , Cantillon married Mary Mahony , daughter of Count Daniel O 'Mahony — a wealthy merchant and former Irish general — spending much of the remainder of the 1720s travelling throughout Europe with his wife . Cantillon and Mary had two children , a son who died at an early age and a daughter , Henrietta , who would go on to marry William Howard Earl of Stafford in 1743 . Although he frequently returned to Paris between 1729 and 1733 , his permanent residence was in London . In May 1734 , his residence in London was burned to the ground , and it is generally assumed that Cantillon died in the fire . While the fire 's causes are unclear , the most widely accepted theory is that Cantillon was murdered . One of Cantillon 's biographers , Antoine Murphy , has advanced the alternative theory that Cantillon staged his own death to escape the harassment of his debtors , appearing in Suriname under the name Chevalier de Louvigny .
= = Contributions to economics = =
Although there is evidence that Richard Cantillon wrote a wide variety of manuscripts , only his Essai Sur La Nature Du Commerce En Général ( abbreviated Essai ) survives . Written in 1730 , it was published in French in 1755 , and was translated into English by Henry Higgs in 1932 . Evidence suggests that Essai had tremendous influence on the early development of economic science , Cantillon 's treatise was largely neglected during the 19th century . In the late 19th century and it was " rediscovered " by William Stanley Jevons , who considered it the " cradle of political economy " . Since then , Cantillon 's Essai has received growing attention . Essai is considered the first complete treatise on economic theory , and Cantillon has been called the " father of enterprise economics " .
One of the greatest influences on Cantillon 's writing was English economist William Petty and his 1662 tract Treatise on Taxes . Although Petty provided much of the groundwork for Cantillon 's Essai , Anthony Brewer argues that Petty 's influence has been overstated . Apart from Petty , other possible influences on Cantillon include John Locke , Cicero , Livy , Pliny the Elder , Pliny the Younger , Charles Davenant , Edmond Halley , Isaac Newton , Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban , and Jean Boisard . Cantillon 's involvement in John Law 's speculative bubble proved invaluable and likely heavily influenced his insight on the relationship between increases in the supply of money , price , and production .
= = = Methodology = = =
Cantillon 's Essai is written using a distinctive causal methodology , separating Cantillon from his mercantilist predecessors . Essai is peppered with the word " natural " , which in the case of Cantillon 's treatise is meant to imply a cause and effect relationship between economic actions and phenomena . Economist Murray Rothbard credits Cantillon with being one of the first theorists to isolate economic phenomena with simple models , where otherwise uncontrollable variables can be fixed . Cantillon made frequent use of the concept of ceteris paribus throughout Essai in an attempt to neutralise independent variables . Furthermore , he is credited with employing a methodology similar to Carl Menger 's methodological individualism , by deducing complex phenomena from simple observations .
A cause and effect methodology led to a relatively value @-@ free approach to economic science , in which Cantillon was uninterested in the merit of any particular economic action or phenomenon , focusing rather on the explanation of relationships . This led Cantillon to separate economic science from politics and ethics to a greater degree than previous mercantilist writers . This has led to disputes on whether Cantillon can justly be considered a mercantilist or one of the first anti @-@ mercantilists , given that Cantillon often cited government @-@ manipulated trade surpluses and specie accumulation as positive economic stimuli . Others argue that in instances where Cantillon is thought to have supported certain mercantilist policies , he actually provided a more neutral analysis by explicitly stating possible limitations of mercantilist policies .
= = = Monetary theory = = =
Differences between prior mercantilists and Cantillon arise early in Essai , regarding the origins of wealth and price formation on the market . Cantillon distinguishes between wealth and money , considering wealth in itself " nothing but the food , conveniences , and pleasures of life . " While Cantillon advocated an " intrinsic " theory of value , based on the input of land and labour ( cost of production ) , he is considered to have touched upon a subjective theory of value . Cantillon held that market prices are not immediately decided by intrinsic value , but are derived from supply and demand . He considered market prices to be derived by comparing supply , the quantity of a particular good in a particular market , to demand , the quantity of money brought to be exchanged . Believing market prices to tend towards the intrinsic value of a good , Cantillon may have also originated the uniformity @-@ of @-@ profit principle — changes in the market price of a good may lead to changes in supply , reflecting a rise or fall in profit .
In Essai , Cantillon provided an advanced version of John Locke 's quantity theory of money , focusing on relative inflation and the velocity of money . Cantillon suggested that inflation occurs gradually and that the new supply of money has a localised effect on inflation , effectively originating the concept of non @-@ neutral money . Furthermore , he posited that the original recipients of new money enjoy higher standards of living at the expense of later recipients . The concept of relative inflation , or a disproportionate rise in prices among different goods in an economy , is now known as the Cantillon effect . Cantillon also considered changes in the velocity of money ( quantity of exchanges made within a specific amount of time ) influential on prices , although not to the same degree as changes in the quantity of money . While he believed that the money supply consisted only of specie , he conceded that increases in money substitutes — or bank notes — could affect prices by effectively increasing the velocity of circulating of deposited specie . Apart from distinguishing money from money substitute , he also distinguished between bank notes offered as receipts for specie deposits and bank notes circulating beyond the quantity of specie — or fiduciary media — suggesting that the volume of fiduciary media is strictly limited by people 's confidence in its redeemability . He considered fiduciary media a useful tool to abate the downward pressure that hoarding of specie has on the velocity of money .
Addressing the mercantilist belief that monetary intervention could cause a perpetually favourable balance of trade , Cantillon developed a specie @-@ flow mechanism foreshadowing future international monetary equilibrium theories . He suggested that in countries with a high quantity of money in circulation , prices will increase and therefore become less competitive in relation to countries where there is a relative scarcity of money . Thus , Cantillon also held that increases in the supply of money , regardless of the source , cause increases in the price level and therefore reduce the competitiveness of a particular nation 's industry in relation to a nation with lower prices . However , Cantillon did not believe that international markets tended toward equilibrium , and instead suggested that government hoard specie to avoid rising prices and falling competitiveness . Furthermore , he suggested that a favourable balance of trade can be maintained by offering a better product and retaining qualitative competitiveness . Cantillon 's preference towards a favourable balance of trade possibly stemmed from the mercantilist belief in exchange being a zero @-@ sum game , in which one party gains at the expense of another .
A relatively advanced theory of interest is also presented . Cantillon believed that interest originates from the need of borrowers for capital and from the fear of loss of the lenders , meaning that borrowers have to recompense lenders for the risk of the possible insolvency of the debtor . In turn , interest is paid out of earned profits originating from the return on invested capital . While previously it was believed that the rate of interest varied inversely to the quantity of money , Cantillon posited that the rate of interest was determined by the supply and demand on the loanable funds market — an insight usually attributed to Scottish philosopher David Hume . As such , while saved money impacts the rate of interest , new money that is instead used for consumption does not ; Cantillon 's theory of interest is therefore similar to John Maynard Keynes 's liquidity preference theory .
= = = Other contributions = = =
Traditionally it is Jean @-@ Baptiste Say who is credited for coining the word and advancing the concept of the entrepreneur , but in fact it was Cantillon who first introduced the term in Essai . Cantillon divided society into two principal classes — fixed income wage @-@ earners and non @-@ fixed income earners . Entrepreneurs , according to Cantillon , are non @-@ fixed income earners who pay known costs of production but earn uncertain incomes , due to the speculative nature of pandering to an unknown demand for their product . Cantillon , while providing the foundations , did not develop a dedicated theory of uncertainty — the topic was not revisited until the 20th century , by Ludwig von Mises , Frank Knight , and John Maynard Keynes , among others . Furthermore , unlike later theories of entrepreneurship which saw the entrepreneur as a disruptive force , Cantillon anticipated the belief that the entrepreneur brought equilibrium to a market by correctly predicting consumer preferences .
Spatial economics deal with distance and area , and how these may affect a market through transportation costs and geographical limitations . The development of spatial economics is usually ascribed to German economist Johann Heinrich von Thünen ; however , Cantillon addressed spatial economics nearly a century earlier . Cantillon integrated his advancements in spatial economic theory into his microeconomic analysis of the market , describing how transportation costs influence the location of factories , markets and population centres — that is , individuals strive to lower transportation costs . Conclusions on spatial economics were derived from three premises : cost of raw materials of equal quality will always be higher near the capital , due to transportation costs ; transportation costs vary on transportation type ( for example , water transportation was considered cheaper than land @-@ based transportation ) ; and larger goods that are more difficult to transport will always be cheaper closer to their area of production . For example , Cantillon believed markets were designed as they were to decrease costs to both merchants and villagers in terms of time and transportation . Similarly , Cantillon posited that the locations of cities were the result in large part of the wealth of inhabiting property owners and their ability to afford transportation costs — wealthier property owners tended to live farther from their property , because they could afford the transportation costs . In Essai , spatial economic theory was used to derive why markets occupied the geographical area they did and why costs varied across different markets .
Apart from originating theories on the entrepreneur and spatial economics , Cantillon also provided a dedicated theory on population growth . Unlike William Petty , who believed there always existed a considerable amount of unused land and economic opportunity to support economic growth , Cantillon theorised that population grows only as long as there are economic opportunities present . Specifically , Cantillon cited three determining variables for population size : natural resources , technology , and culture . Therefore , populations grow only as far as the three aforementioned variables allowed . Furthermore , Cantillon 's population theory was more modern than that of Malthus in the sense that Cantillon recognised a much broader category of factors which affect population growth , including the tendency for population growth to fall to zero as a society becomes more industrialised .
= = Influence = =
While Essai was not published until 1755 as a result of heavy censorship in France , it did widely circulate in the form of an unpublished manuscript between its completion and its publication . It notably influenced many direct forerunners of the classical school of thought , including Turgot and other physiocrats . Cantillon was a major influence on physiocrat François Quesnay , who may have learned of Cantillon 's work through Marquis of Mirabeau . While it is evident that Essai influenced Quesnay , to what degree remains controversial . There is evidence that Quesnay did not fully understand , or was not completely aware of , Cantillon 's theories . Many of Quesnay 's economic beliefs were elucidated previously in Essai , but Quesnay did reject a number of Cantillon 's premises , including the scarcity of land and Cantillon 's population theory . Also , Quesnay recognised the scarcity of capital and capital accumulation as a prerequisite for investment . Nevertheless , Cantillon was considered the " father of physiocracy " by Henry Higgs , due to his influence on Quesnay . It is also possible that Cantillon influenced Scottish economist James Steuart , both directly and indirectly .
Cantillon is one of the few economists cited by Adam Smith , who directly borrows Cantillon 's sustenance theory of wages . Large sections of Smith 's economic theory were possibly directly influenced by Cantillon , although in many respects Adam Smith advanced well beyond the scope of Cantillon . Some economic historians have stated that Adam Smith provided little of value from his own intellect , notably Schumpeter and Rothbard . In any case , through his influence on Adam Smith and the physiocrats , Cantillon was quite possibly the pre @-@ classical economist who contributed most to the ideas of the classical school . Illustrative of this was Cantillon 's influence on Say , which is noticeable in the methodology employed in the latter 's Treatise on Political Economy .
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= Hasta Que Te Conocí =
" Hasta Que Te Conocí " ( " Until I Met You " ) is a song written , produced , and performed by Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Juan Gabriel . It was released in 1986 as the third single from his studio album Pensamientos . In the song , the protagonist learns the meaning of suffering after meeting a lover who mistreats him . It peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot Latin Song chart . A live version of the song was included on his album En el Palacio de Bellas Artes ( 1990 ) which peaked at number ten on the Hot Latin Songs chart .
The song has been recorded by several artists including Roberto del Castillo , Ana Gabriel , Marc Anthony , Raúl di Blasio , and Maná . Anthony covered the song on his debut studio album Otra Nota ( 1993 ) after hearing it on the radio during a taxi ride. di Blasio 's version features Gabriel performing the vocals on the song . Maná 's recording peaked at number one on the Hot Latin Songs and earned a nomination for Record of the Year at the 2012 Latin Grammy Awards . Gabriel received an American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) Latin award in 1994 and in 2013 for Anthony 's and Maná 's covers of the song .
= = Background = =
" Hasta Que Te Conocí " is a song written , produced , and performed by Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Juan Gabriel as the final track on Juan Gabriel 's studio album Pensamientos ( 1986 ) . It was released as the second single from the album by RCA Latin . The song is in the key of D minor . In the lyrics , the protagonist has not known the feeling of suffering until he meets a lover who mistreats him . The song has been featured in some of Gabriel 's compilation albums including 14 Exitos Originales : Para Ti ( 1988 ) , La Historia del Divo ( 2006 ) , and Lo Esencial de Juan Gabriel ( 2008 ) . A live version of the song was included on the live album En el Palacio de Bellas Artes ( 1990 ) as a potpourri which features the National Symphony Orchestra . He also performed the song live during the 10th Latin Grammy Awards ceremony where he received the Latin Recording Academy Person of the Year award . In 2015 , Gabriel recorded the song as a duet featuring Mexican singer Joy Huerta ( of Jesse & Joy ) for his album Los Dúo .
= = Reception = =
Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic called the song a " classic " on the review of La Historia del Divo . On the week of December 26 , 1986 , " Hasta Que Te Conocí " debuted at number thirty @-@ nine on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . The song climbed to the top ten on the week of March 21 , 1987 and peaked at number two six weeks later with the number one position being held off by Braulio 's song " En Bancarrota " . " Hasta Que Te Conocí " ended 1987 as the fourth best @-@ performing Latin single of the year in the United States . The live version of the song peaked at number ten on the Hot Latin Songs chart .
= = Charts = =
= = Marc Anthony version = =
In 1993 , American recording artist Marc Anthony covered " Hasta Que Te Conocí " on his debut studio album Otra Nota . According to Anthony , he originally had no desire to record in Spanish and turned down an offer by RMM manager Ralph Mercado to record an album in salsa . During a taxi ride , Anthony heard Gabriel 's " Hasta Que Te Conocí " on the radio and was compelled to perform the song in salsa . This led to an agreement between Mercado and Anthony to record an album in salsa with a cover of " Hasta Que Te Conocí " included .
A curtailed version of the song appears on Anthony 's compilation album Desde un Principio : From the Beginning ( 1999 ) while the full version appears on his 2003 compilation album Éxitos Eternos . Anthony performed a live version of the song at the 1994 Lo Nuestro Awards . The song has been included in his tour setlist including his Nada Personal Tour and the Jennifer Lopez and Marc Anthony en Concierto tour .
= = = Reception = = =
On the review of the album , Evan Gutierrez of Allmusic cited Anthony 's cover as one of the tracks that " showcased well " with his " edgy improvisation and wide vocal range " . Anthony 's cover received a nomination for Tropical Song of the Year at the 1994 Lo Nuestro Awards , but lost to " El Baile del Perrito " by Wilfrido Vargas y su Orquesta . At the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) Latin Awards of 1994 , Juan Gabriel received an award in the Tropical / Salsa Category for " Hasta Que Te Conocí " . " Hasta Que Te Conocí " peaked at number thirteen on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart .
= = = Music video = = =
A music video for the song was produced to promote the single which was filmed in New York City . In the video , Anthony and a woman are shown having a happy relationship until she breaks up with him by leaving a note for him leaving Anthony in bitterness . It was included on the video compilation album Mejores Videos de India y Marc Anthony ( 1996 ) .
= = = Charts = = =
= = Maná version = =
In 2012 , Mexican rock band Maná covered the song for their greatest hits album Exiliados en la Bahía : Lo Mejor de Maná . The song was released as a single on June 26 , 2012 . It is the second time that the band covered a song by Juan Gabriel after " Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez " in 1999 . According to lead vocalist Fher Olvera , they heard the song while in Venezuela and the band decided to cover the song in ballad with swing music .
= = = Reception = = =
David Jeffires of Allmusic called Mana 's cover of the song " an excellent , heartfelt take " . Carlos Quintana of About.com labeled it as " one of the very best songs of this production . " At the 13th Latin Grammy Awards , the song received a nomination for Record of the Year which was awarded to Jesse & Joy for " ¡ Corre ! " . In 2013 , it was nominated Rock / Alternative Song of the Year at the 25th Lo Nuestro Awards , which went to Maná 's other song " El Verdadero Amor Perdona " . The success of Maná 's cover led to Gabriel receiving an ASCAP Latin award in the pop category .
In the United States , the song reached number @-@ one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs becoming their ninth number @-@ one song on the chart . It also peaked at number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart . In Mexico , the peaked at number three on the Mexican Airplay Chart chart .
= = = Music video = = =
A music video for Maná 's version was released on August 27 , 2012 . It was directed by Pablo Croce and filmed in the Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City , Mexico . In the video , a man recounts his sorrows with depression and alcohol in a bar regretting his love for a woman .
= = = Charts = = =
= = Other cover versions = =
In 1987 , Dominican musician Roberto del Castillo covered " Hasta Que Te Conocí " in merengue on his album Justo a Tiempo . His version peaked at number eleven on the Hot Latin Songs chart . Mexican singer Ana Gabriel performed a live cover of the song on her album En Vivo ( 1990 ) . Her version peaked at number twenty @-@ five on the Hot Latin Songs chart . In 1994 , Argentine pianist Raúl di Blasio covered the song on his album Piano de America , Vol . 2 @.@ di Blasio 's cover was released to radio stations on May 10 , 1994 . It features Gabriel performing the vocals which was omitted on the Anglo version of the song. di Blasio 's version peaked at number thirty @-@ six on the Hot Latin Songs . It has been featured on his compilation albums Entre Amigos y Exitos ( 2003 ) and La Historia del Piano de América ... Los Éxitos ( 2006 ) and on Gabriel 's album Mis Canciones , Mis Amigos ( 2009 ) . A music video for the Anglo version was released by BMG and was included on the DVD set for La Historia del Piano de América ... Los Éxitos ( 2006 ) . Mexican singer Pilar Montenegro included a version of the track featuring rapper Voltio on her album South Beach in 2005 . In 2009 , Mexican recording artist Anahí sampled the record on her song " Hasta Que Me Conociste " ( " Until You Met Me " ) from her album Mi Delirio , in which the song is written as a " response " to the original composition .
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= Scattered disc =
The scattered disc ( or scattered disk ) is a distant circumstellar disc in the Solar System that is sparsely populated by icy minor planets , a subset of the broader family of trans @-@ Neptunian objects . The scattered @-@ disc objects ( SDOs ) have orbital eccentricities ranging as high as 0 @.@ 8 , inclinations as high as 40 ° , and perihelia greater than 30 astronomical units ( 4 @.@ 5 × 109 km ; 2 @.@ 8 × 109 mi ) . These extreme orbits are thought to be the result of gravitational " scattering " by the gas giants , and the objects continue to be subject to perturbation by the planet Neptune .
Although the closest scattered @-@ disc objects approach the Sun at about 30 – 35 AU , their orbits can extend well beyond 100 AU . This makes scattered objects among the most distant and coldest objects in the Solar System . The innermost portion of the scattered disc overlaps with a torus @-@ shaped region of orbiting objects traditionally called the Kuiper belt , but its outer limits reach much further away from the Sun and further above and below the ecliptic than the Kuiper belt proper .
Because of its unstable nature , astronomers now consider the scattered disc to be the place of origin for most periodic comets in the Solar System , with the centaurs , a population of icy bodies between Jupiter and Neptune , being the intermediate stage in an object 's migration from the disc to the inner Solar System . Eventually , perturbations from the giant planets send such objects towards the Sun , transforming them into periodic comets . Many Oort cloud objects are also thought to have originated in the scattered disc . Detached objects are not sharply distinct from scattered disc objects , and some such as Sedna have sometimes been considered to be included in this group .
= = Discovery = =
Traditionally , devices like a blink comparator were used in astronomy to detect objects in the Solar System , because these objects would move between two exposures — this involved time @-@ consuming steps like exposing and developing photographic plates or films , and people then using a blink comparator to manually detect prospective objects . During the 1980s , the use of CCD @-@ based cameras in telescopes made it possible to directly produce electronic images that could then be readily digitized and transferred to digital images . Because the CCD captured more light than film ( about 90 % versus 10 % of incoming light ) and the blinking could now be done at an adjustable computer screen , the surveys allowed for higher throughput . A flood of new discoveries was the result : over a thousand trans @-@ Neptunian objects were detected between 1992 and 2006 .
The first scattered @-@ disc object ( SDO ) to be recognised as such was 1996 TL66 , originally identified in 1996 by astronomers based at Mauna Kea in Hawaii . Three more were identified by the same survey in 1999 : 1999 CV118 , 1999 CY118 , and 1999 CF119 . The first object presently classified as an SDO to be discovered was 1995 TL8 , found in 1995 by Spacewatch .
As of 2011 , over 200 SDOs have been identified , including 2007 UK126 ( discovered by Schwamb , Brown , and Rabinowitz ) , 2002 TC302 ( NEAT ) , Eris ( Brown , Trujillo , and Rabinowitz ) , Sedna ( Brown , Trujillo , and Rabinowitz ) and 2004 VN112 ( Deep Ecliptic Survey ) . Although the numbers of objects in the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc are hypothesized to be roughly equal , observational bias due to their greater distance means that far fewer SDOs have been observed to date .
= = Subdivisions of trans @-@ Neptunian space = =
Known trans @-@ Neptunian objects are often divided into two subpopulations : the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc . A third reservoir of trans @-@ Neptunian objects , the Oort cloud , has been hypothesized , although no confirmed direct observations of the Oort cloud have been made . Some researchers further suggest a transitional space between the scattered disc and the inner Oort cloud , populated with " detached objects " .
= = = Scattered disc versus Kuiper belt = = =
The Kuiper belt is a relatively thick torus ( or " doughnut " ) of space , extending from about 30 to 50 AU comprising two main populations of Kuiper belt objects ( KBOs ) : the classical Kuiper @-@ belt objects ( or " cubewanos " ) , which lie in orbits untouched by Neptune , and the resonant Kuiper @-@ belt objects ; those which Neptune has locked into a precise orbital ratio such as 3 : 2 ( the object goes around twice for every three Neptune orbits ) and 2 : 1 ( the object goes around once for every two Neptune orbits ) . These ratios , called orbital resonances , allow KBOs to persist in regions which Neptune 's gravitational influence would otherwise have cleared out over the age of the Solar System , since the objects are never close enough to Neptune to be scattered by its gravity . Those in 3 : 2 resonances are known as " plutinos " , because Pluto is the largest member of their group , whereas those in 2 : 1 resonances are known as " twotinos " .
In contrast to the Kuiper belt , the scattered @-@ disc population can be disturbed by Neptune . Scattered @-@ disc objects come within gravitational range of Neptune at their closest approaches ( ~ 30 AU ) but their farthest distances reach many times that . Ongoing research suggests that the centaurs , a class of icy planetoids that orbit between Jupiter and Neptune , may simply be SDOs thrown into the inner reaches of the Solar System by Neptune , making them " cis @-@ Neptunian " rather than trans @-@ Neptunian scattered objects . Some objects , like ( 29981 ) 1999 TD10 , blur the distinction and the Minor Planet Center ( MPC ) , which officially catalogues all trans @-@ Neptunian objects , now lists centaurs and SDOs together .
The MPC also makes a clear distinction between the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc ; separating those objects in stable orbits ( the Kuiper belt ) from those in scattered orbits ( the scattered disc and the centaurs ) . However , the difference between the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc is not clearcut , and many astronomy see the scattered disc not as a separate population but as an outward region of the Kuiper belt . Another term used is " scattered Kuiper @-@ belt object " ( or SKBO ) for bodies of the scattered disc .
Morbidelli and Brown propose that the difference between objects in the Kuiper @-@ belt and scattered @-@ disc objects is that the latter bodies " are transported in semi @-@ major axis by close and distant encounters with Neptune " , but the former experienced no such close encounters . This delineation is inadequate ( as they note ) over the age of the Solar System , since bodies " trapped in resonances " could " pass from a scattering phase to a non @-@ scattering phase ( and vice versa ) numerous times " . That is , trans @-@ Neptunian objects could travel back and forth between the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc over time . Therefore , they chose instead to define the regions , rather than the objects , defining the scattered disc as " the region of orbital space that can be visited by bodies that have encountered Neptune " within the radius of a Hill sphere , and the Kuiper belt as its " complement ... in the a > 30 AU region " ; the region of the Solar System populated by objects with semi @-@ major axes greater than 30 AU .
= = = Detached objects = = =
The Minor Planet Center classifies the trans @-@ Neptunian object 90377 Sedna as a scattered @-@ disc object . Its discoverer Michael E. Brown has suggested instead that it should be considered an inner Oort @-@ cloud object rather than a member of the scattered disc , because , with a perihelion distance of 76 AU , it is too remote to be affected by the gravitational attraction of the outer planets . Under this definition , an object with a perihelion greater than 40 AU could be classified as outside the scattered disc .
Sedna is not the only such object : 2000 CR105 ( discovered before Sedna ) and 2004 VN112 have a perihelion too far away from Neptune to be influenced by it . This led to a discussion among astronomers about a new minor planet set , called the extended scattered disc ( E @-@ SDO ) . 2000 CR105 may also be an inner Oort @-@ cloud object or ( more likely ) a transitional object between the scattered disc and the inner Oort cloud . More recently , these objects have been referred to as " detached " , or distant detached objects ( DDO ) .
There are no clear boundaries between the scattered and detached regions . Gomes et al. define SDOs as having " highly eccentric orbits , perihelia beyond Neptune , and semi @-@ major axes beyond the 1 : 2 resonance . " By this definition , all distant detached objects are SDOs . Since detached objects ' orbits cannot be produced by Neptune scattering , alternative scattering mechanisms have been put forward , including a passing star or a distant , planet @-@ sized object .
A scheme introduced by a 2005 report from the Deep Ecliptic Survey by J. L. Elliott et al. distinguishes between two categories : scattered @-@ near ( i.e. typical SDOs ) and scattered @-@ extended ( i.e. detached objects ) . Scattered @-@ near objects are those whose orbits are non @-@ resonant , non @-@ planetary @-@ orbit @-@ crossing and have a Tisserand parameter ( relative to Neptune ) less than 3 . Scattered @-@ extended objects have a Tisserand parameter ( relative to Neptune ) greater than 3 and have a time @-@ averaged eccentricity greater than 0 @.@ 2 .
An alternative classification , introduced by B. J. Gladman , B. G. Marsden and C. Van Laerhoven in 2007 , uses 10 @-@ million @-@ year orbit integration instead of the Tisserand parameter . An object qualifies as an SDO if its orbit is not resonant , has a semi @-@ major axis no greater than 2000 AU , and , during the integration , its semi @-@ major axis shows an excursion of 1 @.@ 5 AU or more . Gladman et al. suggest the term scattering disk object to emphasize this present mobility . If the object is not an SDO as per the above definition , but the eccentricity of its orbit is greater than 0 @.@ 240 , it is classified as a detached TNO . ( Objects with smaller eccentricity are considered classical . ) In this scheme , the disc extends from the orbit of Neptune to 2000 AU , the region referred to as the inner Oort cloud .
= = Orbits = =
The scattered disc is a very dynamic environment . Because they are still capable of being perturbed by Neptune , SDOs ' orbits are always in danger of disruption ; either of being sent outward to the Oort cloud or inward into the centaur population and ultimately the Jupiter family of comets . For this reason Gladman et al. prefer to refer to the region as the scattering disc , rather than scattered . Unlike Kuiper @-@ belt objects ( KBOs ) , the orbits of scattered @-@ disc objects can be inclined as much as 40 ° from the ecliptic .
SDOs are typically characterized by orbits with medium and high eccentricities with a semi @-@ major axis greater than 50 AU , but their perihelia bring them within influence of Neptune . Having a perihelion of roughly 30 AU is one of the defining characteristics of scattered objects , as it allows Neptune to exert its gravitational influence .
The classical objects ( cubewanos ) are very different from the scattered objects : more than 30 % of all cubewanos are on low @-@ inclination , near @-@ circular orbits whose eccentricities peak at 0 @.@ 25 . Classical objects possess eccentricities ranging from 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 8 . Though the inclinations of scattered objects are similar to the more extreme KBOs , very few scattered objects have orbits as close to the ecliptic as much of the KBO population .
Although motions in the scattered disc are random , they do tend to follow similar directions , which means that SDOs can become trapped in temporary resonances with Neptune . Examples of resonant orbits within the scattered disc include 1 : 3 , 2 : 7 , 3 : 11 , 5 : 22 and 4 : 79 .
= = Formation = =
The scattered disc is still poorly understood : no model of the formation of the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc has yet been proposed that explains all their observed properties .
According to contemporary models , the scattered disc formed when Kuiper belt objects ( KBOs ) were " scattered " into eccentric and inclined orbits by gravitational interaction with Neptune and the other outer planets . The amount of time for this process to occur remains uncertain . One hypothesis estimates a period equal to the entire age of the Solar System ; a second posits that the scattering took place relatively quickly , during Neptune 's early migration epoch .
Models for a continuous formation throughout the age of the Solar System illustrate that at weak resonances within the Kuiper belt ( such as 5 : 7 or 8 : 1 ) , or at the boundaries of stronger resonances , objects can develop weak orbital instabilities over millions of years . The 4 : 7 resonance in particular has large instability . KBOs can also be shifted into unstable orbits by close passage of massive objects , or through collisions . Over time , the scattered disc would gradually form from these isolated events .
Computer simulations have also suggested a more rapid and earlier formation for the scattered disc . Modern theories indicate that neither Uranus nor Neptune could have formed in situ beyond Saturn , as too little primordial matter existed at that range to produce objects of such high mass . Instead , these planets , and Saturn , may have formed closer to Jupiter , but were flung outwards during the early evolution of the Solar System , perhaps through exchanges of angular momentum with scattered objects . Once the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn shifted to a 2 : 1 resonance ( two Jupiter orbits for each orbit of Saturn ) , their combined gravitational pull disrupted the orbits of Uranus and Neptune , sending Neptune into the temporary " chaos " of the proto @-@ Kuiper belt . As Neptune traveled outward , it scattered many trans @-@ Neptunian objects into higher and more eccentric orbits . This model states that 90 % or more of the objects in the scattered disc may have been " promoted into these eccentric orbits by Neptune 's resonances during the migration epoch ... [ therefore ] the scattered disc might not be so scattered . "
= = Composition = =
Scattered objects , like other trans @-@ Neptunian objects , have low densities and are composed largely of frozen volatiles such as water and methane . Spectral analysis of selected Kuiper belt and scattered objects has revealed signatures of similar compounds . Both Pluto and Eris , for instance , show signatures for methane .
Astronomers originally supposed that the entire trans @-@ Neptunian population would show a similar red surface colour , as they were thought to have originated in the same region and subjected to the same physical processes . Specifically , SDOs were expected to have large amounts of surface methane , chemically altered into complex organic molecules by energy from the Sun . This would absorb blue light , creating a reddish hue . Most classical objects display this colour , but scattered objects do not ; instead , they present a white or greyish appearance .
One explanation is the exposure of whiter subsurface layers by impacts ; another is that the scattered objects ' greater distance from the Sun creates a composition gradient , analogous to the composition gradient of the terrestrial and gas giant planets . Mike Brown , discoverer of the scattered object Eris , suggests that its paler colour could be because , at its current distance from the Sun , its atmosphere of methane is frozen over its entire surface , creating an inches @-@ thick layer of bright white ice . Pluto , conversely , being closer to the Sun , would be warm enough that methane would freeze only onto cooler , high @-@ albedo regions , leaving low @-@ albedo tholin @-@ covered regions bare of ice .
= = Comets = =
The Kuiper belt was initially thought to be the source of the Solar System 's ecliptic comets . However , studies of the region since 1992 have shown that the orbits within the Kuiper belt are relatively stable , and that these comets originate from the scattered disc , where orbits are generally less stable .
Comets can loosely be divided into two categories : short @-@ period and long @-@ period — the latter being thought to originate in the Oort cloud . The two major categories of short @-@ period comets are Jupiter @-@ family comets ( JFCs ) and Halley @-@ type comets . Halley @-@ type comets , which are named after their prototype , Halley 's Comet , are thought to have originated in the Oort cloud but to have been drawn into the inner Solar System by the gravity of the giant planets , whereas the JFCs are thought to have originated in the scattered disc . The centaurs are thought to be a dynamically intermediate stage between the scattered disc and the Jupiter family .
There are many differences between SDOs and JFCs , even though many of the Jupiter @-@ family comets may have originated in the scattered disc . Although the centaurs share a reddish or neutral coloration with many SDOs , their nuclei are bluer , indicating a fundamental chemical or physical difference . One hypothesis is that comet nuclei are resurfaced as they approach the Sun by subsurface materials which subsequently bury the older material .
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= Juan José Castelli =
Juan José Castelli ( July 19 , 1764 – October 12 , 1812 ) was an Argentine lawyer . He was one of the leaders of the May Revolution , which started the Argentine War of Independence . He led an ill @-@ fated military campaign in Upper Peru .
Juan José Castelli was born in Buenos Aires , and went to school at the Real Colegio de San Carlos in Buenos Aires and Monserrat College in the city of Córdoba , Argentina . He graduated as a lawyer from the University of Charcas , in Upper Peru . His cousin , Manuel Belgrano , introduced him to the public administration of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata . Along with Belgrano , Nicolás Rodríguez Peña , and Hipólito Vieytes , Castelli planned a revolution to replace the absolute monarchy with the new ideas of the Age of Enlightenment . He led the Buenos Aires patriots during the May Revolution , which ended with the removal of viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros from power . He is known as the " Speaker of the Revolution " for his speech during the open cabildo held in Buenos Aires on May 22 , 1810 .
Castelli was appointed a Committee member of the Primera Junta and was sent to Córdoba to end Santiago de Liniers 's counter @-@ revolution . He succeeded , and ordered the execution of Liniers and his supporters . He then commanded the establishment of a revolutionary government in Upper Peru ( today 's Bolivia ) with the aim of freeing the indigenous peoples and African slaves . In 1811 Castelli signed a truce with the Spanish in Upper Peru , but they betrayed him and caught the Northern Army unprepared . As a result , the Argentines suffered a major loss in the Battle of Huaqui on June 20 , 1811 . When Castelli returned to Buenos Aires , the First Triumvirate imprisoned him for losing the battle , and Castelli died shortly afterwards from tongue cancer .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and studies = = =
Castelli was born in Buenos Aires in 1764 . He was the first of eight children born to a Venetian doctor , Ángel Castelli Salomón , and Josefa Villarino , who was a relative of Manuel Belgrano . He was trained by the Jesuits shortly before their expulsion , and attended the Real Colegio de San Carlos in Buenos Aires . As was customary , one of the children of the Castelli family was ordained into the priesthood , and Juan José was chosen for this . He was sent to study at the Colegio Monserrat , part of the University of Córdoba . He was influenced by the works of Voltaire and Diderot , and especially by Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's The Social Contract . He was a fellow student of men who would later have influence in the public life of South America , including Saturnino Rodríguez Peña , Juan José Paso , Manuel Alberti , Pedro Medrano , and Juan Martínez de Rozas , among others . He focused on studying philosophy and theology , but when his father died in 1785 , he abandoned his career in the priesthood , for which he felt no strong vocation .
Rejecting his mother 's proposal of sending him to study in Spain , he enrolled in jurisprudence studies alongside his cousin , Manuel Belgrano , at the University of Salamanca and Alcalá de Henares . He enrolled in the University of Chuquisaca , in the Upper Peru ( modern Bolivia ) . There , he learned about the ongoing French Revolution , and the new ideas of the Age of Enlightenment . He also learned about the 1782 Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II and the oppression of the indigenous peoples , which influenced his actions in his future Upper Peru campaign . Before returning to Buenos Aires , he visited Potosí and witnessed the use of slave labor in the mines .
Castelli returned to Buenos Aires and established a legal firm in his family home . He represented the University of Córdoba in various causes , as well as his uncle , Domingo Belgrano Peri . Through his associations with Saturnino Rodríguez Peña , he also met and befriended his brother , Nicolás Rodríguez Peña , and his associate , Hipólito Vieytes . Castelli married María Rosa Lynch in 1794 , and they had seven children : Angela , Pedro , Luciano , Alejandro , Francisco José , and Juana .
= = = First political steps = = =
The intellectuals of the viceroyalty received and secretly distributed a copy of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen , promulgated by the French Revolution in 1789 . Meanwhile , Belgrano returned from his studies in Europe , and was appointed as Perpetual Secretary of the new Consulate of Commerce of Buenos Aires . Belgrano and Castelli shared similar ideas about the Spanish trade monopoly and the rights of the natives . Belgrano attempted to appoint Castelli as interim Secretary of the Consulate as his assistant , but faced strong opposition from the peninsular merchants , who delayed the appointment until 1796 . Belgrano became ill during his stay in Europe , which forced him to take extended leaves from work , and wanted Castelli to be his successor if he resigned .
There was a similar opposition during the 1799 election of delegates to the Buenos Aires Cabildo : Castelli was elected as third Regidor , but was rejected by merchants associated with the port of Cádiz . The conflict lasted a year , until the prominent local merchant Cornelio Saavedra wrote a memorandum recommending Castelli . Viceroy Avilés finally confirmed him in office by royal decree , in May 1800 . Castelli , however , rejected the post because of his high workload in the Consulate . This was seen as an insult by peninsular merchants such as Martín de Álzaga , who was influential in the Cabildo .
Castelli and Belgrano backed a pair of projects from Francisco Cabello y Mesa , who had just arrived from Spain . Cabello proposed the creation of a " Patriotic , Literary and Economic Society " lodge and the publication of a newspaper . This newspaper , the first one published in Buenos Aires , was named Telégrafo Mercantil . However , both projects were short @-@ lived : the lodge was never established and its activities were banned by royal decree , and the Consulate was instructed to withdraw support for the newspaper , which was then closed . Published by Castelli , Cabello , and Belgrano ( secretary of the publication ) , as well as José Manuel Lavardén , Miguel de Azcuénaga and Fray Cayetano Rodríguez , the Telegraph was the first journal to advance the concept of fatherland , and the first to speak of the inhabitants as " Argentines . "
Nevertheless , Hipólito Vieytes released a new newspaper shortly afterwards , the Agriculture , Trade and Industry Weekly , with Castelli in the staff . The editorial staff had meetings at the house of Saturnino Rodríguez Peña , discussing ideas for technical improvements in agriculture , removal of trade restrictions , development , manufacturing , and other topics . The newspaper also published the biographies of some Founding Fathers of the United States , such as Benjamin Franklin .
= = = The British invasions = = =
Rodriguez Peña introduced Castelli to James Florence Burke , who claimed to represent the British Empire in support of proposals published by Francisco de Miranda , which aimed to emancipate the Latin American colonies . Burke was actually a British spy , gathering information about the Spanish colonies . Bearing promises of British support , he created the first native secret society organized for such purposes . It would henceforth be known as " party of independence " , and included Castelli , Burke and major contributors of Vieytes 's newspaper . The spy was eventually discovered by Viceroy Rafael de Sobremonte and expelled from the viceroyalty , but his duplicity was not disclosed to his unaware associates .
Castelli moved to a farm in modern the Buenos Aires neighborhood of Núñez . The farm had some agriculture fields and a small brick factory . He lived next to other influential people like Cornelio Saavedra , Juan Larrea , Miguel de Azcuénaga , and attorney José Darragueira . The meetings of the secret society continued , unaffected by the departure of Burke . On June 2 , 1806 , Castelli 's mother died , and he was still in mourning when the city learned of a British landing in Quilmes .
The " party of independence " was caught by surprise by the invasion , as the British proclaimed respect for religion , ownership , order , freedom , and trade — but made no mention concerning Miranda 's ideals . They arranged an interview with the British Viscount William Carr Beresford , asking for a clarification on whether the promises of Burke were still standing . They also asked if the British government would support an independentist attempt . Beresford gave evasive answers , saying he had no instructions to that effect . He explained that with the recent death of Prime Minister William Pitt and the rise of the Liberals to power , he needed further orders .
Castelli understood that the British force only aspired to annex the city to the British Empire , and resigned to avoid swearing allegiance to Britain . Santiago de Liniers liberated Buenos Aires a short time later , but Saturnino Rodríguez Peña helped Beresford escape , hoping to influence an eventual second invasion to implement reforms supported by Burke and Miranda . The second British invasion , however , ended the patriot 's hopes of British support , and they fought against their former allies .
After the successful defense of the city in 1807 , the local criollos increased their political power with their higher military role . There was a dispute between the newly appointed Viceroy , Santiago de Liniers , and the Buenos Aires Cabildo , led by Martín de Álzaga . Both attempted to take advantage of the new situation , and influence the criollos to support them . Álzaga refrained from accusing Rodríguez Peña for aiding in Beresford 's escape , and Liniers kept the criollo military bodies armed .
= = = Carlotism = = =
Napoleon invaded Spain in 1807 , starting the Peninsular War . King Charles IV of Spain abdicated in favor of his son Ferdinand VII , but Napoleon captured him and appointed his own brother , Joseph Bonaparte , as king of Spain instead , in a series of transfers of the Spanish crown known as the abdications of Bayonne . The Spanish people organized Government Juntas to resist against the French occupation , and within months the Junta Central of Seville claimed supreme authority over Spain and the colonies . This situation encouraged the Princess Charlotte of Spain to claim the regency of the Spanish American colonies .
In this context , Castelli and Álzaga plotted to oust Liniers and constitute a local government Junta , similar to those of the metropoli . This project was not shared by most of the natives or by the head of the Regiment of Patricians , Cornelio Saavedra . Manuel Belgrano proposed as an alternative to support the plans of Princess Charlotte , which were supported by Castelli and other criollos . Belgrano , who held monarchist ideas , argued that the Carlotist project would be the most practical means of achieving independence from Spain in the circumstances . On September 20 , 1808 , Castelli wrote a letter to Charlotte , with the signatures of Antonio Beruti , Hipólito Vieytes , Belgrano , and Nicolás Rodríguez Peña .
Charlotte rejected this support : the party of independence sought to establish a constitutional monarchy headed by Charlotte , but she preferred to retain the power of an absolutist monarchy . Consequently , she denounced the letter and organized the detention of Diego Paroissien . Paroissien , who had several letters to the criollos , was charged with high treason . Castelli was his lawyer .
Castelli won Paroissien 's acquittal by invoking the doctrine of the retroversion of the sovereignty of the people , which claimed that the Spanish American lands were a personal possession of the King of Spain but not a Spanish colony . That approach was already old , and it was used to legislate in both districts , but in this context Castelli argued that neither the Council of Regency or any other power of Spain — other than the rightful King — had authority over Spanish America . Castelli said that " the will of the people of Spain is not enough to bring the Indies to obedience " . Under these premises , Castelli argued successfully that the regency offered to the sister of the captive king , while not denying the legitimacy of Ferdinand VII , was not an act of treason , but a legitimate political project that should be resolved by the Spanish American people without the intervention of the peninsular Spanish .
On January 1 , 1809 , Martín de Álzaga rallied most peninsular battalions to Plaza de Mayo and attempted a mutiny against Liniers . A few criollos , such as Mariano Moreno , laid their hopes for independence in this attempt , but most did not . The battalions still faithful to Liniers – the Regiment of Patricians , the other criollo battalions , and the remaining peninsular ones – conquered the Plaza and ordered the mutinying forces to withdraw . Castelli supported Liniers , accusing Álzaga of independentism . Though Castelli was himself an independentist , and had also sought to remove Liniers , he opposed Álzaga for other reasons : Álzaga was hoping to maintaining the social dominance of the peninsulares over the criollos once the viceroy , who opposed his interests , was deposed . Álzaga was defeated , and the power of the criollos was increased : Sentenach and Álzaga were banished to Carmen de Patagones and the Spanish militias who attempted the coup were disbanded .
A new viceroy , Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros , arrived in July to replace Liniers , and the independentist group did not agree on how to react . Castelli proposed a resumption of Álzaga 's idea of creating a governing Junta , but not headed by the Spanish . Belgrano insisted on the plan to appoint Charlotte as regent of a constitutional monarchy , and Rodriguez Peña proposed a military coup , with or without Liniers at the head . They finally accepted the perspective of Cornelio Saavedra , and delayed taking action until a better opportunity .
= = = May Revolution = = =
When the news of the fall of the Junta of Seville arrived , the group headed by Castelli and Belgrano led the process leading to the May Revolution . Castelli and Saavedra were the most important leaders of the time , and first discarded Martín Rodríguez 's plan to expel Cisneros in a coup d 'état . After several discussions , they decided to request an open cabildo , an emergency popular assembly . Castelli and Belgrano negotiated with the senior alcalde and nobleman , Juan de Lezica , and the procurator , Julián de Leiva . Although they convinced them , they still needed the permission of Cisneros himself , for which Castelli and Rodriguez went to his office at the Fort of Buenos Aires . Previously , Cornelio Saavedra had denied Cisneros the support of the Regiment of Patricians , on the premise that with the disappearance of the Junta of Seville — who had appointed him as viceroy — he no longer had the right to hold that position .
Cisneros was outraged by the appearance of Castelli and Rodríguez , who came armed and without an appointment . They reacted harshly and demanded an immediate reply to the request for an open cabildo . After a brief private conversation with the prosecutor , Caspe , Cisneros gave his consent . When they were leaving , Cisneros inquired about his personal safety , to which Castelli said : " Lord , Your Excellency 's person and your family are among Americans , and this should reassure you " . After the interview they returned to the house of Rodríguez Peña , to inform their supporters of the new situation .
Besides his oratory , Castelli is known as the " Speaker of the Revolution " because of his great activity during the " May week " . The memoirs of witnesses and participants mention him at many venues , taking part in many activities . He negotiated with the Cabildo and visited the Fort several times until the viceroy gave in to the pressure . At the same time , he held secret meetings with other criollos at the house of Rodríguez Peña , planning their actions , and he harangued the criollo militias at the barracks . Cisneros himself , describing the events the Council of Regency , called Castelli " the most interested one in the novelty " , i.e. , in the revolution .
The open cabildo was held on May 22 , 1810 ; it was debated whether the viceroy should continue in office , and if not , who should replace him . The first opinion was from Bishop Benito Lue y Riega , who held that Cisneros should continue and that , if all of Spain was conquered by France , peninsulars were meant to rule in the Americas . Castelli made a counter @-@ argument , based on the doctrine of the retroversion of the sovereignty of the people that he had already employed in the defense of Paroissien . He insisted that in the absence of a legitimate authority , sovereignty should be returned to the people ; they should govern themselves . The idea of dismissing the viceroy ultimately prevailed , but as Buenos Aires had no authority to decide unilaterally the new form of government , they would elect a provisional government . A congress of deputies called from all other cities would take the final decision . However , there were disputes over who should exercise the provisional government : some argued that the Cabildo should do so , and others that it should be a Junta . Castelli bowed to Saavedra 's proposal to form a Junta , but with the proviso that the procurator of the Cabildo , Julián de Leiva , had a decisive vote in the appointment . By adding this proviso , Castelli sought to add the former supporters of Martín de Álzaga , such as Mariano Moreno , Domingo Matheu , and Leiva himself .
However , this power allowed Leiva to perform a maneuver that Castelli had not anticipated . Although he approved the end of Cisneros ' rule as viceroy , Leiva formed a Junta with Cisneros as its president ; Cisneros would stay in power . The other members of the Junta would have been two peninsulars , the priest Juan Nepomuceno Solá and the merchant José Santos Inchaurregui , and two criollos , Saavedra and Castelli . The bulk of the natives rejected the proposal : they did not accept that Cisneros should remain in power , even under a different title . They were suspicious of the intentions of Saavedra , and believed that with Castelli alone in the Junta , little or nothing could be achieved . Castelli and Saavedra resigned that same day to put pressure on Cisneros and force him to resign , and the Junta never came into power .
That same night , the criollos gathered at the home of Rodriguez Pena and compiled a list of members for a governing Junta that was presented on 25 May . Meanwhile , Domingo French , Antonio Beruti , Aparicio , Donado , and other armed men occupied the Plaza and its access points . The list included a balance of representatives from different extractions of local politics . Lezica finally reported to Cisneros that he was no longer in command , and the Primera Junta assumed power .
Castelli and Mariano Moreno led the more radical positions of the Junta . They became close friends , visiting each other daily . Julio César Chávez described them as associates , sharing projects of a deep political , social and economic revolution , based in higher freedom for the Spanish American criollos . He described them as pragmatic men , willing to reward the allies and punish the enemies of the revolution , even if it meant using capital punishments . They were called " Jacobins " , comparing their actions with those of the Reign of Terror of the French Revolution , but they were not Francophiles or afrancesados . Besides this , the similarities between the revolutions at France and Buenos Aires were largely superficial .
One of the first steps of Castelli and the Junta was the expulsion of Cisneros and the judges of the Royal Audiencia , who were shipped off to Spain under the pretext that their lives were in danger .
= = = Execution of Liniers = = =
Upon hearing the news of the change of government , former viceroy Santiago de Liniers prepared a counter @-@ revolution from the city of Córdoba , but Francisco Ortiz de Ocampo routed his militia and captured all the leaders in just a couple of skirmishes . The initial orders were to send them to Buenos Aires , but after their capture the Junta decided to execute them . This decision was taken in a resolution signed by all members of the Junta , excepting Manuel Alberti , because as a priest , he could not give consent to the death penalty . The measure found strong popular resistance in Córdoba , as Liniers and the governor Juan Gutierrez de la Concha were popular and the execution of a priest ( Rodrigo de Orellana , another leader of the counter @-@ revolution ) was rejected as heretical . Ocampo and Chiclana decided to carry on with the original orders , and transferred the prisoners to Buenos Aires .
The Junta reconfirmed the order , but excluded the bishop of Córdoba , Rodrigo de Orellana , who was banished instead . Castelli was commissioned by the Junta to enforce the execution order . Mariano Moreno said , " Go , Castelli , and I hope you will not incur the same weakness as our general , if not yet fulfilled the determination , Larrea will go , and finally I 'll go myself if necessary " . Ocampo and Chiclana were demoted . Castelli 's assistants were Nicolás Rodríguez Peña , elected as secretary , his former client Diego Paroissien as a campaign doctor , and Domingo French as head of the escort .
Right after finding the prisoners , he ordered and presided over their execution : the governor of Córdoba , Juan Gutiérrez de la Concha , the former Viceroy , Santiago de Liniers , former Governor Santiago Alejo de Allende , the adviser Victorino Rodriguez , and the accountant Moreno . The execution took place at Cabeza de Tigre , in the boundary between Santa Fe and Córdoba . The bishop Orellana was not shot , but was compelled to give spiritual assistance to those convicted and to witness the execution . Domingo French was commissioned to execute the verdict .
After shooting Liniers , Castelli returned briefly to Buenos Aires and met Moreno . The secretary of war congratulated him for his conduct , and appointed him as a member representing the Junta , with full power to direct the operations to La Paz . He also left a series of instructions : Castelli was to put the government in the hands of patriots , earn the native 's support , and shoot president Nieto , governor Sanz , and the Bishop of La Paz , in the case of their capture . He received similar orders to capture and execute José Manuel de Goyeneche , who had already defeated the rebels of La Paz revolution ( a rebellion similar to the May Revolution , which took place at La Paz , modern Bolivia ) . Castelli was also instructed to rescue and draft to the Auxiliary Army the Arribeños and Patricians soldiers that , under the command of Vicente Nieto , had left Buenos Aires in 1809 to suppress revolutions in Chuquisaca and La Paz . Suspicious of those soldiers , Nieto had them disarmed and sent as prisoners to the mines of Potosi , under the supervision of Francisco de Paula Sanz . More than a third of the soldiers died within a month of work in the mines .
= = = Campaign in Upper Peru = = =
Castelli was not well received in Córdoba , where Liniers was popular , but he was in San Miguel de Tucumán . In Salta , despite a formal good reception , he had difficulty obtaining troops , mules , food , money , or guns . He took political leadership of the expedition to Upper Peru , displacing Hipólito Vieytes , and replaced Ocampo with Colonel Antonio González Balcarce . He was informed that Cochabamba revolted in support of the Junta , but was threatened by royalist forces from La Paz . Castelli intercepted a letter from Nieto to Gutiérrez de la Concha , governor of Córdoba , who was already executed for his support of Liniers . This letter mentioned a royalist army led by Goyeneche marching to Jujuy . Balcarce , who had advanced to Potosi , was defeated by Nieto in the Battle of Cotagaita , so Castelli sent two hundred men and two cannon to strengthen his forces . With these reinforcements , Balcarce achieved victory at the Battle of Suipacha , which allowed patriots to control all of Upper Peru unopposed . One of the men sent was Martín Miguel de Güemes , who would eventually lead the Guerra Gaucha in Salta years later .
At Villa Imperial , one of the richest cities of Upper Peru , an open cabildo called on Goyeneche to withdraw from their territory . He obeyed , as he did not have the military strength to prevail . The Bishop of La Paz , Remigio La Santa y Ortega , fled with him . Castelli was received in Potosí and requesting that the locals swear allegiance to the Junta . He also requested that the royalist generals Francisco de Paula Sanz and José de Córdoba y Rojas submit to him . He made arrangements that the operation to capture Vicente Nieto should be carried out exclusively by the surviving members of the Regiment of Patricians from the mines of Potosi , who had been incorporated with honors into the Army of the North . Sanz , Nieto , and Córdoba were executed at the Plaza of Potosí . Nieto claimed that he died happy , because it was under the Spanish flag . Goyeneche and Ortega , on the other hand , were safe on royalist land . Bernardo Monteagudo , inmate at the Jail of the Court of Chuquisaca for his participation in the revolution of 1809 , escaped to join the ranks of the army . Castelli , who already knew Monteagudo 's background , appointed him his secretary .
Castelli set up his government in Chuquisaca , where he presided over the change of regime for the entire region . He planned the reorganization of the Mines of Potosi , and a reform at the University of Charcas . He proclaimed the end of native slavery and servitude in Upper Peru , and the natives were granted political rights equal to those of the criollos . Castelli forbade the establishment of new convents and parishes to avoid the common practice that , under the guise of spreading Christian doctrine , the natives were forced into servitude by religious orders . He authorized free trade and redistributed land expropriated from the former workers of the mills . The decree was published in Spanish , Guarani , Quechua , and Aymara ; he established several bilingual schools as well . Several Indian chiefs participated in the first anniversary of the May Revolution , celebrated in Tiahuanaco , where Castelli paid tribute to the ancient Incas and encouraged the people to rise against the Spanish . Despite their welcome , however , Castelli was aware that most of the aristocracy supported the auxiliary army out of fear instead of genuine support .
In November 1810 he requested authorization from the Junta for a military operation : to cross the Desaguadero river , the border between the two viceroyalties , and take control of the Peruvian cities of Puno , Cuzco , and Arequipa . Castelli argued that it was urgent to rise against Lima because its economy depended largely on those districts , and if they lost power over that area , the main royalist stronghold would be threatened . The plan was rejected as too risky , and Castelli complied with the original orders .
In December , fifty @-@ three peninsulars were banished to Salta , and the decision was sent to the Junta for approval . The vocal Domingo Matheu , who had business associations with Tulla and Pedro Salvador Casas , arranged the annulment of the act , arguing that Castelli had been influenced by slander and unfounded accusations . Support for Castelli began to decline , mainly due to the favourable treatment of natives and the determined opposition of the church , which attacked the public atheism of Bernardo Monteagudo , Castelli 's secretary . Both royalists in Lima and Saavedra in Buenos Aires compared them with Maximilien Robespierre , leader of the Reign of Terror of the French Revolution .
Castelli also abolished the mita in Upper Peru , a mandatory form of public service that bordered on slavery . Mariano Moreno has also wished to end the mita , but Moreno had resigned from the Junta by this point . Without Castelli being in Buenos Aires to mediate between them , the disputes between Moreno and Saavedra had worsened . The Junta requested that Castelli should moderate his actions , but he went ahead with the positions he shared with Moreno . Several Saavedrist officers , such as José María Echaurri , José León Domínguez , Matías Balbastro , chaplain Manuel Antonio Azcurra , and sergeant major Toribio de Luzuriaga , planned to kidnap Castelli , deliver him to Buenos Aires for trial , and give command of the Army of the North to Juan Jose Viamonte . However , Viamonte did not accept the plan when he was informed by the conspirators , and did not attempt to carry it out . When Castelli knew about Moreno 's resignation , he wrote a letter to Vieytes , Rodriguez Peña , Larrea , and Azcuénaga , asking them to move to Upper Peru . If they defeated Goyeneche , they planned to march back to Buenos Aires . However , the letter was sent via the common postal service , and the postmaster of Córdoba , Jose de Paz , decided to send it instead to Cornelio Saavedra . The Morenist members of the Junta had already been ousted and exiled by that point .
= = = The Battle of Huaqui = = =
The order of the Junta not to proceed to the Viceroyalty of Peru was a de facto truce that would last while Castelli did not attack Goyeneche 's army . Castelli tried to turn the situation into a formal agreement , which would imply recognition of the Junta as a legitimate interlocutor . Goyeneche agreed to sign an armistice for 40 days to allow time for Lima to ratify the agreement , but he actually used the time to reinforce his army . On 19 June , with the truce still in effect , an advanced royalist troop attacked positions at Juraicoragua . Castelli declared the truce broken and declared war on Peru .
The royalist army crossed the Desaguadero on June 20 , 1811 , starting the Battle of Huaqui . The army waited near Huaqui , between the plains of Azapanal and Lake Titicaca . The patriotic left wing , commanded by Diaz Velez , faced the bulk of the royalist forces , while the center was hit by the soldiers of Pio Tristan . Many patriotic soldiers recruited at Upper Peru surrendered or fled , and many of the recruits from La Paz switched sides during the battle . The Saavedrist Juan José Viamonte helped ensure Castelli 's defeat by refusing to join the conflict .
Although the casualties of the Army of the North were not substantial , it was left demoralized and disbanded . Goyeneche pursued the fleeing patriots , and captured Huaqui after his victory . The inhabitants of Upper Peru welcomed the royalists back , so the army had to quickly leave those provinces . However , the resistance of Cochabamba prevented the royalists from proceeding to Buenos Aires . Castelli moved to the post of Quirbe , and received orders to return to Buenos Aires for trial . However , by the time he was notified , new orders had been issued : Castelli should be confined at Catamarca , while Saavedra himself took charge of the Army of the North . Saavedra was deposed as soon as he left Buenos Aires , and was confined to San Juan . The First Triumvirate , which had commenced governing by then , required Castelli to return .
Once in Buenos Aires , Castelli found himself in political isolation . The triumvirate and the newspaper La Gazeta blamed him for the defeat at Huaqui , and sought punishment as a deterrent . His former supporters were divided between those who supported the ideas of the Triumvirate and those no longer able to help . Castelli suffered from tongue cancer during the long trial , which made it progressively more difficult for him to speak . He died on October 12 , 1812 , while the trial was still underway .
= = Legacy = =
Castelli is largely ignored in the historiography of Argentina . Most historians focus instead on the disputes between Mariano Moreno and Cornelio Saavedra in the Junta , with Castelli described in passing as a supporter of Moreno . Despite of his role in the May Revolution , he was not the clear leader of it , as José Gervasio Artigas was for the Cry of Asencio or Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla for the Cry of Dolores . The May Revolution was instead the result of the convergence of diverse factions that shared the desire to remove the viceroy , and different historians highlight different specific factions . Castelli is largely ignored in Bolivia as well . His support of indigenous rights — still an ongoing issue in the country — and his religious ideas strongly affect the way he is perceived there .
The most notable biography of Castelli was Castelli , el adalid de Mayo ( Spanish : Castelli , the champion of May ) , written by the Paraguayan Julio César Chaves . Andrés Rivera increased the public awareness about Castelli with the historical novel La revolución es un sueño eterno ( Spanish : The revolution is an eternal dream ) . The famous divulgator Felipe Pigna wrote a whole chapter about Castelli at the book Los mitos de la historia argentina , which was then moved to television in the documentary film Algo habrán hecho por la historia argentina .
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= Julius Schreck =
Julius Schreck ( 13 July 1898 – 16 May 1936 ) was a senior Nazi official and close confidant of Adolf Hitler .
Born on 13 July 1898 in Munich , Schreck served in World War I and shortly afterwards joined right @-@ wing paramilitary units . He joined the Nazi Party in 1920 and developed a close friendship with Adolf Hitler . Schreck was a founding member of the Sturmabteilung ( " Storm Department " ; SA ) and was active in its development . Later in 1925 , he became the first leader of the Schutzstaffel ( " Protection Squadron " ; SS ) . He then served for a time as a chauffeur for Hitler . Schreck developed meningitis in 1936 and died on 16 May . Hitler gave him a state funeral which was attended by several members of the Nazi elite with Hitler delivering the eulogy .
= = Early life = =
Julius Schreck was born on 13 July 1898 in Munich , a largely Catholic city in Bavaria . He served in the German Army during World War I. After the war ended in November 1918 , he became a member of Freikorps Epp , a right @-@ wing paramilitary unit formed to combat the communistic revolution . Schreck was an early member of the National Socialist German Workers ' Party ( Nazi Party ; NSDAP ) , having joined in 1920 and documented as member # 53 . Schreck developed a friendship with the party 's leader Adolf Hitler during its early years .
= = Career in the SA = =
Schreck was a founding member of the Sturmabteilung ( " Storm Department " ; SA ) , being involved in its growth and development . This was a paramilitary wing of the party designed to disrupt political opponents and provide muscle for security tasks . Hitler , in early 1923 , ordered the formation of a small separate bodyguard dedicated to his service and protection rather than an uncontrolled mass of the party , such as the SA . Originally the unit was composed of only eight men , commanded by Schreck and Joseph Berchtold . It was designated the Stabswache ( " Staff Guard " ) . The Stabswache were issued unique badges , but at this point the Stabswache was still under overall control of the SA , whose membership continued to increase . Schreck resurrected the use of the Totenkopf ( " death 's head " ) as the unit 's insignia , a symbol various elite forces had used in the past , including specialized assault troops of Imperial Germany in World War I who used Hutier infiltration tactics .
In May 1923 , the unit was renamed Stoßtrupp @-@ Hitler ( " Shock Troop @-@ Hitler " ) . The unit was solely responsible for Hitler 's protection . On 9 November 1923 the Stoßtrupp , along with the SA and several other paramilitary units , took part in the Beer Hall Putsch in Munich . The plan was to seize control of the city in a coup d 'état and then challenge the government in Berlin . The putsch was quickly crushed by the local police and resulted in the death of 16 Nazi supporters and 4 police officers . In the aftermath of the failed putsch both Hitler , Schreck , and other Nazi leaders were incarcerated at Landsberg Prison . The Nazi Party and all associated formations , including the Stoßtrupp , were officially disbanded .
= = Career in the SS = =
After Hitler 's release from prison on 20 December 1924 , the Nazi Party was officially refounded . In 1925 , Hitler ordered Schreck to organise the formation of a new bodyguard unit , the Schutzkommando ( " Protection Command " ) . Hitler wanted a small group of tough ex @-@ soldiers like Schreck , who would be loyal to him . The unit included old Stoßtrupp members like Emil Maurice and Erhard Heiden . The unit made its first public appearance in April 1925 . That same year , the Schutzkommando was expanded to a national level . It was also successively renamed the Sturmstaffel ( " Storm Squadron " ) and then finally the Schutzstaffel ( " Protection Squadron " ; SS ) on 9 November 1925 . Schreck became SS member # 5 . He was asked by Hitler to command the bodyguard company and , as such , became the first Reichsführer @-@ SS , although Schreck never referred to himself by this title .
In 1926 , Schreck stood down as Reichführer @-@ SS and Berchtold took over the leadership . He remained on the SS rolls as an SS @-@ Führer and worked as Hitler 's private chauffeur after Maurice until 1934 . In 1930 , after the SS had begun to expand under Heinrich Himmler , Schreck was appointed an SS @-@ Standartenführer , but had little actual power . He served at Hitler 's side and they were on very good terms .
= = Death = =
In 1936 , Schreck developed meningitis and died on 16 May in Munich . He was a well @-@ liked man and Hitler was distraught when Schreck died . His final rank was SS @-@ Oberführer , a rank between colonel and general . Schreck was accorded a Nazi state funeral with Hitler delivering his eulogy . Schreck 's funeral was attended by many senior Nazi officials , including Hermann Göring , Joseph Goebbels , Rudolf Hess , Joachim von Ribbentrop , Konstantin von Neurath , Emil Maurice , Hans Baur , Heinrich Hoffmann and Baldur von Schirach . As with many other buried Nazi Party members , Schreck 's grave marker was removed after World War II and there is a stone without inscription on the spot where he was buried .
= = = Online = = =
" How Hitler 's Bodyguard Worked " . World Media Rights . Retrieved 23 May 2015 .
" Schreck , Julius " . World War II Gravestones . Retrieved 23 May 2015 .
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= Virginia State Route 253 =
State Route 253 ( SR 253 ) is a primary state highway in the U.S. state of Virginia . Known as Port Republic Road , the state highway runs 12 @.@ 18 miles ( 19 @.@ 60 km ) from U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) in Harrisonburg east to US 340 near Port Republic . SR 253 is a northwest – southeast highway that connects Harrisonburg with Cross Keys and Port Republic in southeastern Rockingham County . The state highway also provides access to portions of James Madison University on either side of Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) . SR 253 is maintained by the Virginia Department of Transportation except for the portion in the independent city of Harrisonburg , which is municipally maintained .
A small portion of Port Republic Road through Port Republic was included in the state highway system by the late 1920s as part of the highway between Waynesboro and Elkton . This section was paved in the early 1930s and carried three different route numbers until it was transferred to the secondary system in the early 1940s . Port Republic Road was placed on its modern alignment through Port Republic in the mid @-@ 1950s , by which time almost all of the highway was paved . SR 659 , which was assigned to Port Republic Road from Harrisonburg to near Cross Keys , was extended southeast through Port Republic by the mid @-@ 1970s . Port Republic Road was expanded to four lanes within Harrisonburg in the mid @-@ 1990s and mid @-@ 2000s and along a short stretch south from the city limits in the early 2010s . SR 659 was brought into the primary highway system as SR 253 in 2005 .
= = Route description = =
SR 253 begins at an intersection with US 11 ( Main Street ) south of downtown Harrisonburg and southwest of the campus of James Madison University . The highway heads southeast as a four @-@ lane undivided highway that intersects Bluestone Drive , which heads north to the campus and Bridgeforth Stadium and Zane Showker Field , just before meeting I @-@ 81 at a diamond interchange . SR 253 's next intersection is with Forest Hill Road , which leads to the James Madison University Convocation Center , the Edith J. Carrier Arboretum , and the rest of the portion of James Madison University east of I @-@ 81 . The highway gains a center turn lane at Devon Lane and passes several university athletic fields at Neff Avenue . SR 253 's center turn lane ends and the road expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway at the boundary between the independent city of Harrisonburg and Rockingham County . The highway intersects SR 280 ( Stone Spring Road ) next to Rockingham Memorial Hospital .
South of SR 704 ( Boyer Road ) , SR 253 drops to two lanes and the surroundings transition from suburban to rural . The highway intersects SR 276 ( Cross Keys Road ) a short distance northeast of the village of Cross Keys and crosses Mill Creek east of the village . SR 253 curves southwest and crosses the North River into the village of Port Republic , then curves back southeast and exits the village by crossing the South River just west of the confluence of the two rivers to form the South Fork Shenandoah River . SR 253 has an intersection with the northern end of SR 825 ( South River Road ) and a level crossing of Norfolk Southern Railway 's Roanoke District before reaching its eastern terminus at US 340 ( East Side Highway ) ; Port Republic Road continues as SR 659 .
= = History = =
The first portion of Port Republic Road to become a part of the state highway system was from Main Street ( now SR 605 ) in Port Republic north to Pineville Road ( now SR 672 ) . That highway , SR 809 , ran from Greenville through Waynesboro and Grottoes to SR 17 ( now US 33 ) at Montevideo between Harrisonburg and Elkton by 1928 . In 1930 , the state highway was relocated to the east side of the South River from Grottoes to Port Republic along South River Road ( now SR 825 ) . SR 809 was not paved along Port Republic Road until 1932 . As of 1932 , the remainder of Port Republic Road followed highways maintained by the city of Harrisonburg and Rockingham County . These included county route ( CR ) 31 from Harrisonburg through the junction with CR 12 ( now SR 276 ) near Cross Keys to Goods Mill Road ( now SR 708 ) , on which CR 31 continued . Port Republic Road continued along CR 214 to Battlefield Road ( then CR 7 , now SR 679 ) . The road continued along CR 7 to the junction with SR 809 . CR 31 was paved from Harrisonburg to about the modern city limits of Harrisonburg , and CR 7 was paved from SR 809 to the Battlefield Road split . By July 1933 , after the passage of the Byrd Road Act that established Virginia 's secondary highway system and transferred maintenance responsibility for local highways from the county to the state , all of Port Republic Road 's route numbers changed . SR 807 became part of SR 340 , which became SR 12 in 1936 . After the East Side Highway , the modern route of US 340 , was completed from Grottoes to Elkton in 1941 , SR 12 was moved to the new highway by 1944 ; the old highway became SR 865 .
SR 865 's modern bridges across the South River and North River and their approaches were constructed in 1955 and 1956 . These bridges were upstream from the old bridges . SR 865 's bridge across Mill Creek and its approaches were constructed in 1956 and 1957 . By 1958 , Port Republic Road consisted of SR 659 from Harrisonburg to Goods Mill Road , SR 675 south from there to Battlefield Road , SR 679 from there to SR 865 ( Pineville Road ) , SR 865 through Port Republic , and SR 629 from SR 865 just south of the South River to beyond US 340 ( East Side Highway ) . The county highways were all paved except for SR 675 , which was gravel . Port Republic Road 's interchange with I @-@ 81 was completed when the Interstate was completed between interchanges with US 11 on either side of Harrisonburg in 1961 . By 1974 , SR 659 was extended southeast so that all of Port Republic Road was one route number . Port Republic Road was relocated at its intersection with SR 680 ( Oak Ridge Road ) in 1971 . The intersection had formerly been a T intersection that required a turn to remain on Port Republic Road . SR 659 was reconstructed from SR 689 ( Spaders Church Road ) to just south of I @-@ 81 by 1978 . The highway 's intersections with SR 708 and SR 679 were revised and SR 659 was reconstructed between them by 1987 .
Port Republic Road was widened by the city of Harrisonburg to four lanes from US 11 to I @-@ 81 in 1994 , from I @-@ 81 to Neff Avenue in 2004 , and from Neff Avenue to the city limit by 2006 . Port Republic Road in the city of Harrisonburg and SR 659 in Rockingham County from the city to US 340 were transferred from the secondary system to the primary highway system as SR 253 by a resolution passed by the Commonwealth Transportation Board on March 17 , 2005 . The transfer was supported in part by the planned relocation of Rockingham Memorial Hospital from north of the James Madison University campus in the city to southeast of the city in Rockingham County , a process that began in 2004 and was completed when the hospital opened in 2010 . SR 253 was expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway from SR 704 ( Boyers Road ) north to the city limit , thus connecting with the four @-@ lane highway built by the city , starting in early 2010 . The expansion project was completed in early 2012 , although the new divided highway opened to traffic in June 2011 . The project included construction of a small piece of SR 280 — a highway planned as the Southeast Connector that is intended to connect SR 42 , US 11 , SR 253 , and US 33 south of Harrisonburg — at its intersection with SR 253 next to Rockingham Memorial Hospital .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Brentwood Academy v. Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Ass 'n =
Brentwood Academy v. Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Association , 531 U.S. 288 ( 2001 ) , is a United States Supreme Court case concerning whether the actions of an interscholastic sport @-@ association that regulated sports among Tennessee schools could be regarded as a state actor for First Amendment and Due Process purposes . The Court held that the sport @-@ association can be sued as a state actor because its actions and history have been " entangled " with state action . While the Supreme Court would reconsider this same case in the future , this specific decision became important in articulating a new principle of what entities are bound by the First Amendment .
= = Background = =
The Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Association ( TSSAA ) is a non @-@ profit membership corporation organized to regulate interscholastic sports among its members ( a large portion of the public and private high schools in Tennessee ) . The Association 's role in regulating interscholastic competition in public schools was recognized by the state 's Board of Education in the case . Brentwood Academy is a private high school that fields interscholastic teams as a member of TSSAA . Brentwood was highly successful in sports competition , winning nine state football championships between 1969 , when it was founded , and 1997 . This success fostered resentment among opponent schools , which questioned the Academy 's tactics for recruiting players .
In 1997 , TSSAA investigated rumors that Brentwood Academy was engaging in illegal practices to recruit public school athletes to the school . No such practices were identified , but TSSAA discovered that Brentwood Academy 's football coach had invited eighth grade boys who would be enrolling in the school the following school year to attend spring football practice . TSSAA identified this as a violation of its rules and fined the school $ 3 @,@ 000 for contacting student athletes prior to their official enrollment at the school and for violating a TSSAA policy prohibiting " undue influence on a student ( or ) his or her parents ... to secure or to retain a student for athletic purposes . " The Association also placed the school on four years ' probation and banned it from participating in state playoff games for two years .
Brentwood Academy sued the Association over this action . Brentwood argued that the enforcement of the rule constituted state action which they claimed violated the First Amendment and the Fourteenth Amendment 's Due Process Clause . The school asserted that their due process rights had been violated because there were no evidentiary hearings to determine the validity of the claim that they inappropriately recruited football players . Further , they argued that the rule violated their freedom of speech because it restricted the ways the Academy could recruit . In July 1998 , the District Court agreed with this argument and granted summary judgement to the Academy , while enjoining the Association from enforcing the rule . A year later , the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the lower court 's decision , finding that the actions of the Association did not constitute ' state action ' . The United States Supreme Court granted certiorari of the case to review this question .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Before any questions of First Amendment law could be decided , the Court had to first determine wither TSSAA was a state entity ( as the First Amendment only applies to the government ) . The Court issued a divided decision , splitting 5 @-@ 4 in favor of reversing the Sixth Circuit and finding the actions of the Association as ' state action ' .
Justice Souter wrote for the five @-@ justice majority , holding that " The nominally private character of the Association is overborne by the pervasive entwinement of public institutions and public officials in its composition and workings , and there is no substantial reason to claim unfairness in applying constitutional standards to it . " Part of the basis for this determination were historical statements by the Tennessee Board of Education which had granted regulatory authority to the Association and recognition of its own independent authority . For example , the Board explicitly approved the TSSAA 's rules and reserved the right to continuously review them in the future . Further , employees at the Association were given state pensions . Because the Association could essentially " coerce " the member schools to follow its rules , and that the state would back this up , it was utilizing state police power . Therefore , Souter concluded , the restrictions on denial of due process would apply to the Association , and the lawsuit could proceed in the lower courts .
= = = Dissenting opinion = = =
Justice Clarence Thomas wrote a dissenting opinion , joined by three other Justices . He criticized the usage of a new " entwinement " standard for determining state action , which he said " stretched the doctrine beyond its permissible limits " . He attacked the majority 's decision as breaking a prohibition on extending the Fourteenth Amendment to " merely private conduct " , relying on similar cases which did not extend ' state action ' to collegiate sports associations . Further , he said the meaning of ' entwinement ' is " unclear " because it was left undefined and possibly too expansive . He concluded by stating that the Court should have affirmed the Sixth Circuit 's opinion .
= = Subsequent history = =
This case created the " entwinement test " , the principle that a private organization could be connected in such a way with state organizations that the private organization itself exercises state power . With this new rule announced , the Court sent the case back to lower courts to reconsider the arguments of Brentwood Academy .
The case was sent back to the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals who instructed the Association that they could prevail if they showed the enforced rule was narrowly defined to " promote governmental interests " . A second District Court trial on this factor again resulted in a finding in favor of Brentwood Academy . The Sixth Circuit this time affirmed . In 2007 , the Supreme Court again granted review and this time reversed in favor of the Association . In a unanimous decision , Justice John Paul Stevens held that the actual rule did not violate the First Amendment and that the tactics used to recruit football players rose to the level of a governmental interest . On other claims though , the case was sent back again to the Sixth Circuit . The Sixth Circuit rejected the remaining claims and the Supreme Court denied review , ending the case .
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= Animals ( Pink Floyd album ) =
Animals is the tenth studio album by English progressive rock group Pink Floyd , released in January 1977 . A concept album , it provides a scathing critique of the social @-@ political conditions of late 1970s Britain , and presents a marked change in musical style from their earlier work . Animals was recorded at the band 's studio , Britannia Row , in London , but its production was punctuated by the early signs of discord that three years later would culminate in keyboardist Richard Wright leaving the band . The album 's cover image , a pig floating between two chimneys on Battersea Power Station , was conceived by bassist and writer Roger Waters , and photographed by long @-@ time collaborators Hipgnosis .
The album was released to generally positive reviews in the United Kingdom , where it reached number 2 . It was also a success in the United States , reaching number 3 on the Billboard 200 , and although it scored on the American charts for only six months , steady sales have resulted in its certification by the RIAA at four times platinum . The size of the venues on the band 's In the Flesh Tour , and an incident in which Waters spat at a fan , prompted him to conceive the band 's subsequent album , The Wall .
= = Background = =
In 1975 Pink Floyd bought a three @-@ story block of church halls at 35 Britannia Row in Islington , north London . Their deal with record company EMI , for unlimited studio time in return for a reduced percentage of sales , had expired , and they converted the building into a recording studio and storage facility . Its construction took up most of 1975 , and in April 1976 the band started work on their tenth studio album , Animals , at the new facility .
= = Concept = =
Loosely based on George Orwell 's political fable Animal Farm , the album 's lyrics describe various classes in society as different kinds of animals : the combative dogs , despotic ruthless pigs , and the " mindless and unquestioning herd " of sheep . Whereas the novella focuses on Stalinism , the album is a critique of capitalism and differs again in that the sheep eventually rise up to overpower the dogs . The album was developed from a collection of unrelated songs into a concept which , in the words of author Glenn Povey , " described the apparent social and moral decay of society , likening the human condition to that of mere animals " .
Apart from its critique of society , the album is also a part @-@ response to the punk rock movement , which grew in popularity as a nihilistic statement against the prevailing social and political conditions , and also a reaction to the general complacency and nostalgia that appeared to surround rock music . Pink Floyd were an obvious target for punk musicians , notably Johnny Rotten of The Sex Pistols , who wore a Pink Floyd T @-@ shirt on which the words " I hate " had been written in ink ; Lydon , however , has constantly said it was done for a laugh ( he was a fan of several progressive rock bands of the era , including Magma and Van Der Graaf Generator ) . Drummer Nick Mason later stated that he welcomed the " Punk Rock insurrection " and viewed it as a welcome return to the underground scene from which Pink Floyd had grown . In 1977 he produced The Damned 's second album , Music for Pleasure , at Britannia Row .
In his 2008 book Comfortably Numb , author Mark Blake argues that " Dogs " contains some of David Gilmour 's finest work ; although the guitarist sings only one lead vocal , his performance is " explosive " . The song also contains notable contributions from keyboardist Richard Wright , which echo the funereal synthesizer sounds used on the band 's previous album , Wish You Were Here . " Pigs ( Three Different Ones ) " is audibly similar to " Have a Cigar " , with bluesy guitar fills and elaborate bass lines . Of the song 's three pigs , the only one directly identified is morality campaigner Mary Whitehouse , who amongst other things is described as a " house @-@ proud town mouse " . " Sheep " contains a modified version of Psalm 23 , which continues the traditional " The Lord is my shepherd " with words like " he maketh me to hang on hooks in high places and converteth me to lamb cutlets " ( referring to the sheep of the title ) . Towards the end of the song , the eponymous sheep rise up and kill the dogs , but later retire back to their homes . The album is book @-@ ended by each half of " Pigs on the Wing " , a simple love song in which a glimmer of hope is offered despite the anger expressed in the album 's three other songs . Described by author Andy Mabbett as " [ sitting ] in stark contrast to the heavyweight material between them " , the two halves of the song were heavily influenced by Waters ' relationship with his then @-@ wife .
= = Recording = =
Animals was engineered by a previous Floyd collaborator , Brian Humphries , and recording took place at Britannia Row from April to December 1976 , continuing into early 1977 . " Raving and Drooling " and " You 've Got to Be Crazy " , two songs previously performed live and considered for Wish You Were Here , reappeared as " Sheep " and " Dogs " respectively . They were reworked to fit the new concept , and separated by a Waters @-@ penned composition , " Pigs ( Three Different Ones ) " . With the exception of " Dogs " ( co @-@ written by Gilmour ) the album 's five tracks were written by Waters . The song contains references to Waters ' private life ; his new romantic interest was Carolyne Anne Christie ( married to Rock Scully , manager of the Grateful Dead ) . Gilmour was distracted by the birth of his first child , and contributed little else towards the album . Similarly , neither Mason nor Wright contributed as much as they had on previous albums , and Animals was the first Pink Floyd album not to contain a composer 's credit for Wright .
The band had discussed employing another guitarist for future tours , and Snowy White was therefore invited into the studio . When Waters and Mason inadvertently erased one of Gilmour 's completed guitar solos , White was asked to record a solo on " Pigs on the Wing " . Although his performance was omitted from the vinyl release , it was included on the eight @-@ track cartridge version . White later performed on the Animals tour . Mason recalled that he enjoyed working on Animals more than he had working on Wish You Were Here .
= = Packaging = =
Once the album was complete , work began on its cover . Hipgnosis , designer of the band 's previous album covers , offered three ideas , one of which was a small child entering his parents ' bedroom to find them having sex : " copulating , like animals ! " The final concept was , unusually , designed by Waters . At the time he lived near Clapham Common , and regularly drove past Battersea Power Station , which was by then approaching the end of its useful life . A view of the building was chosen for the cover image , and the band commissioned German company Ballon Fabrik ( who had previously constructed Zeppelin airships ) and Australian artist Jeffrey Shaw to build a 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) porcine balloon ( known as Algie ) . The balloon was inflated with helium and maneuvered into position on 2 December 1976 , with a marksman ready to fire if it escaped . Unfortunately inclement weather delayed work , and the band 's manager Steve O 'Rourke neglected to book the marksman for a second day ; the balloon broke free of its moorings and disappeared from view . It eventually landed in Kent and was recovered by a local farmer , who was apparently furious that it had " scared his cows " . The balloon was recovered and filming continued for a third day , but as the early photographs of the power station were considered better , the image of the pig was later superimposed onto one of those .
During the " Isles of Wonder " short film shot by Danny Boyle and shown as part of the Opening Ceremonies of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , the camera zooms down the length of the River Thames , from a small spring in the countryside all the way to the Olympic venue . During the fly @-@ by , a pig can be seen floating above Battersea Power Station .
The album 's theme continues onto the record 's picture labels . Side one 's label shows a fisheye lens view of a dog and the English countryside , and side two features a pig and sheep , in the same setting . Mason 's handwriting is used as a typeface throughout the packaging . The gatefold features monochrome photographs of the dereliction around the power station .
= = Release = =
The album 's release followed Capital Radio 's broadcast two days earlier of The Pink Floyd Story , and an evening press conference held at the power station two days before that . The broadcast was originally to have been an exclusive for the London @-@ based station , who since mid @-@ December had been broadcasting The Pink Floyd Story , but a copy was given to John Peel , who played side one of the album in its entirety a day earlier .
Animals was released in the UK on 23 January 1977 , and in the US on 12 February . It reached number two in the UK , and three in the US . Thanks to the album and the band 's back catalogue , noted The Guinness Book of British Hit Albums , " Pink Floyd bested Abba for most weeks on chart ( in 1977 ) , 108 to 106 . "
NME called Animals " one of the most extreme , relentless , harrowing and downright iconoclastic hunks of music to have been made available this side of the sun " , and Melody Maker 's Karl Dallas described it as " [ an ] uncomfortable taste of reality in a medium that has become in recent years , increasingly soporific " . Rolling Stone 's Frank Rose was unimpressed , writing : " The 1977 Floyd has turned bitter and morose . They complain about the duplicity of human behavior ( and then title their songs after animals – get it ? ) . They sound like they 've just discovered this – their message has become pointless and tedious . " Robert Christgau of The Village Voice gave the album a " B + " rating and found the negative reaction overly cynical , reasoning that the album functions simply as " a piece of well @-@ constructed political program music ... lyrical , ugly , and rousing , all in the right places " .
In his 2004 autobiography Inside Out , Nick Mason suggests that the album 's perceived harshness , when compared to previous Floyd releases , may be a result of a " workman @-@ like mood in the studio " , and an unconscious reaction to the accusations from the aforementioned punk genre that bands like Pink Floyd represented " dinosaur rock " . Animals was certified by the RIAA as 4 × Platinum on 31 January 1995 .
= = = Reissues = = =
Originally released on Harvest Records in the UK and Columbia Records in the US , Animals was issued on Compact Disc ( CD ) in 1985 , and in the US in 1987 . It was reissued as a digitally remastered CD with new artwork in 1994 , and as a digitally remastered limited @-@ edition vinyl album in 1997 . An anniversary edition was released in the US in the same year , followed in 2000 by a reissue from Capitol Records . The album was also included in the Shine On box set .
= = = Tour = = =
The album became the subject material for the band 's In the Flesh Tour , which began in Dortmund on the same day the album was released . The tour continued through continental Europe in February , the UK in March , the US for three weeks in April and May , and another three weeks in the US in June and July . Algie became the inspiration for a number of pig themes used throughout . An inflatable pig was floated over the audience , and during each performance was replaced with a cheaper , but explosive version . On one occasion the mild propane gas was replaced with an oxygen @-@ acetylene mixture , producing a massive ( and dangerous ) explosion . German promoter Marcel Avram presented the band with a piglet in Munich , only for it to leave a trail of broken mirrors and excrement across its mirrored hotel room , leaving manager O 'Rourke to deal with the resulting fallout .
The band were joined by familiar figures such as Dick Parry and Snowy White , but relations within the band became fraught . Waters took to arriving at the venues alone , departing as soon as each performance was over . On one occasion , Wright flew back to England , threatening to leave the band . The size of the venues was also an issue ; in Chicago , the promoters claimed to have sold out the 67 @,@ 000 person regular capacity of the Soldier Field stadium ( after which ticket sales should have been ended ) , but Waters and O 'Rourke were suspicious . They hired a helicopter , photographer and attorney , and discovered that the actual attendance was 95 @,@ 000 ; a shortfall to the band of $ 640 @,@ 000 . The end of the tour was a low point for Gilmour , who felt that they had by now achieved the success they originally sought , and that there was nothing else they could look forward to . In July 1977 – on the final date at the Montreal Olympic Stadium – a small group of noisy and excited fans in the front row of the audience irritated Waters to such an extent that he spat at one of them . He was not the only person who felt depressed about playing to such large audiences , as Gilmour refused to perform a third encore . Waters later spoke with producer Bob Ezrin and told him of his sense of alienation on the tour , and how he sometimes felt like building a wall to separate himself from the audience . The spitting incident would later form the basis of a new concept , which would eventually become one of the band 's most successful album releases , The Wall .
= = Track listing = =
All lead vocals performed by Roger Waters , except where noted
All songs written and composed by Roger Waters , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Die Elenden sollen essen , BWV 75 =
Die Elenden sollen essen ( The miserable shall eat ) , BWV 75 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it for the first Sunday after Trinity and first performed it in Leipzig on 30 May 1723 . The complex work in two parts of seven movements each marks the beginning of his first annual cycle of cantatas .
Bach composed the cantata at a decisive turning point in his career . After various positions in churches and courts , he assumed his post of Thomaskantor in Leipzig on the first Sunday after Trinity , performing this cantata . He began the ambitious project of composing a new cantata for every occasion of the liturgical year .
The work is structured in an unusual layout of 14 movements in two symmetrical parts , to be performed before and after the sermon . The unknown poet begins his text with a quotation from Psalm 22 and departs from its ideas on wealth and poverty , rich and poor , and illustrates the contrasts . The focus of the second part is on being poor or rich in spirit . Both parts are concluded by a stanza of Samuel Rodigast 's hymn " Was Gott tut , das ist wohlgetan " .
= = Background = =
Johann Sebastian Bach had served in several churches as Kantor and organist , and at the courts of Weimar and Köthen , when he applied for the post of Thomaskantor in Leipzig . He was 38 years old and had a reputation as an organist and organ expert . He had composed church cantatas , notably the funeral cantata Actus tragicus around 1708 . In Weimar , he had begun a project to cover all occasions of the liturgical year by providing one cantata a month for four years , including works such as Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen , BWV 12 , and Erschallet , ihr Lieder , BWV 172 .
= = History and words = =
Bach composed the cantata for the First Sunday after Trinity and first performed it in the service in the Nikolaikirche on 30 May 1723 , to take up his position as Thomaskantor . From then he was responsible for the education of the Thomanerchor , performances in the regular services in the Thomaskirche , the Nikolaikirche , Neue Kirche and Petrikirche . He started a project of composing one cantata for each Sunday and holiday of the liturgical year , termed by Christoph Wolff " an artistic undertaking on the largest scale " .
The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the First Epistle of John , " God is Love " ( 1 John 4 : 16 – 21 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , the parable of the Rich man and Lazarus ( Luke 16 : 19 – 31 ) . An unknown poet begins the cantata with a verse from a psalm , Psalms 22 : 26 ( verse 27 in the Luther Bible ) , " The meek shall eat and be satisfied : they shall praise the Lord that seek him : your heart shall live for ever " , connecting the gospel to the Old Testament as a starting point . The later cantata for the same occasion , Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot , BWV 39 ( Break your bread for the hungry ) , begins similarly with a quotation from the Old Testament . The poet expands on the contrast of " Reichtum und Armut " ( wealth and poverty , rich and poor ) in fourteen elaborate movements , arranged in two parts to be performed before and after the sermon . The poet expands the contrast of " Reichtum und Armut " ( wealth and poverty , rich and poor ) Both parts are concluded by a stanza of Samuel Rodigast 's hymn " Was Gott tut , das ist wohlgetan " , stanza 2 in movement 7 , stanza 6 in movement 14 .
The autograph score is written neatly on non @-@ Leipzig paper , probably while Bach still lived in Köthen . A Leipzig chronicle , " Acta Lipsiensium academica " , reported the social event : " ... führte ... Hr. Joh . Sebastian Bach ... mit gutem applauso seine erste Music auf " ( ... performed ... with good applause his first music ) . " Good applause " means " great approval " rather than clapping of hands . A different translation renders the note as " ... the new Cantor and Director of the Collegium Musicum , Herr Johann Sebastian Bach , who has come hither from the Prince 's court of Cöthen , produced his first music here with great success . "
= = Scoring and structure = =
The cantata is structured in two parts of seven movements each , to be performed before and after the sermon . It is scored for four vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir SATB , trumpet ( Tr ) , two oboes ( Ob ) , oboe d 'amore ( Oa ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo ( Bc ) including bassoon . The two parts of seven movements each are composed as the same arrangement of alternating recitatives and arias with a concluding chorale , only Part II is opened by a sinfonia instead of a chorus . The duration is given as 35 minutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The instruments are shown separately for winds and strings , while the continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
Bach marked the occasion , creating the opening chorus reminiscent of a French overture , with a slow first section in dotted rhythm and a fast fugue . He chose the same form one year later to begin his second annual cycle of chorale cantatas with O Ewigkeit , du Donnerwort , BWV 20 . The composition can also be seen as a prelude and fugue on a large scale . The prelude is again in two sections separated by a short interlude , in the way of a motet according to the different ideas of the text . In the fugue on the words " Euer Herz soll ewiglich leben " ( your heart shall live for ever ) , the subject is developed three times , again separated by interludes .
Four of the recitatives are " secco " , accompanied only by the continuo , but the first one of each part is " accompagnato " , brightened by the strings . In the arias , the voice and the instruments mostly share the themes . The arias can be considered as a suite of French dance movements , the tenor a Polonaise , the soprano aria a Minuet , the alto aria a Passepied and the bass aria a Gigue . In the last aria , the trumpet opens the setting and then accompanies the bass in virtuoso figuration , adding splendour to the words " Mein Herze glaubt und liebt " ( My heart believes and loves ) .
The music of the two stanzas of the chorale is identical . The tune is not a simple four @-@ part setting as in most of Bach 's later cantatas , but the voices are embedded in a concerto of the orchestra , led by violin I and oboe I. The instrumental theme is derived from the first line of the chorale tune .
The sinfonia beginning Part II , rare in Bach 's cantatas , is especially remarkable because it is a chorale fantasia on the same chorale melody . The tune is played by the trumpet which was silent throughout Part I , as the cantus firmus against a polyphonic string setting , emphasizing once more " Was Gott tut , das ist wohlgetan " ( What God does is well done ) .
= = Selected recordings = =
A list of recordings is provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . The type of choir and orchestra is roughly shown as a large group by red background , and as an ensemble with period instruments in historically informed performance by green background .
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= Rubidium =
Rubidium is a chemical element with symbol Rb and atomic number 37 . Rubidium is a soft , silvery @-@ white metallic element of the alkali metal group , with an atomic mass of 85 @.@ 4678 . Elemental rubidium is highly reactive , with properties similar to those of other alkali metals , including rapid oxidation in air . On Earth , natural rubidium comprises two isotopes : 72 % is the stable isotope , 85Rb ; 28 % is the slightly radioactive 87Rb , with a half @-@ life of 49 billion years — more than three times longer than the estimated age of the universe .
German chemists Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff discovered rubidium in 1861 by the newly developed technique , flame spectroscopy .
Rubidium 's compounds have various chemical and electronic applications . Rubidium metal is easily vaporized and has a convenient spectral absorption range , making it a frequent target for laser manipulation of atoms .
Rubidium is not a known nutrient for any living organisms . However , rubidium ions have the same charge as potassium ions , and are actively taken up and treated by animal cells in similar ways .
= = Characteristics = =
Rubidium is a very soft , ductile , silvery @-@ white metal . It is the second most electropositive of the non @-@ radioactive alkali metals and melts at a temperature of 39 @.@ 3 ° C ( 102 @.@ 7 ° F ) . Similar to other alkali metals , rubidium metal reacts violently with water . As with potassium ( which is slightly less reactive ) and caesium ( which is slightly more reactive ) , this reaction is usually vigorous enough to ignite the hydrogen gas it produces . Rubidium has also been reported to ignite spontaneously in air . It forms amalgams with mercury and alloys with gold , iron , caesium , sodium , and potassium , but not lithium ( even though rubidium and lithium are in the same group ) .
Rubidium has a very low ionization energy of only 406 kJ / mol . Rubidium and potassium show a very similar purple color in the flame test , and distinguishing the two elements requires something more sophisticated , such as spectroscopy .
= = = Compounds = = =
Rubidium chloride ( RbCl ) is probably the most used rubidium compound : among several other chlorides , it is used to induce living cells to take up DNA ; it is also used as a biomarker , because in nature , it is found only in small quantities in living organisms and when present , replaces potassium . Other common rubidium compounds are the corrosive rubidium hydroxide ( RbOH ) , the starting material for most rubidium @-@ based chemical processes ; rubidium carbonate ( Rb2CO3 ) , used in some optical glasses , and rubidium copper sulfate , Rb2SO4 · CuSO4 · 6H2O . Rubidium silver iodide ( RbAg4I5 ) has the highest room temperature conductivity of any known ionic crystal , a property exploited in thin film batteries and other applications .
Rubidium forms a number of oxides when exposed to air , including rubidium monoxide ( Rb2O ) , Rb6O , and Rb9O2 ; rubidium in excess oxygen gives the superoxide RbO2 . Rubidium forms salts with halides , producing rubidium fluoride , rubidium chloride , rubidium bromide , and rubidium iodide .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Although rubidium is monoisotopic , rubidium in the Earth 's crust is composed of two isotopes : the stable 85Rb ( 72 @.@ 2 % ) and the radioactive 87Rb ( 27 @.@ 8 % ) . Natural rubidium is radioactive , with specific activity of about 670 Bq / g , enough to significantly expose a photographic film in 110 days .
Twenty four additional rubidium isotopes have been synthesized with half @-@ lives of less than 3 months ; most are highly radioactive and have few uses .
Rubidium @-@ 87 has a half @-@ life of 48 @.@ 8 × 109 years , which is more than three times the age of the universe of ( 13 @.@ 799 ± 0 @.@ 021 ) × 109 years , making it a primordial nuclide . It readily substitutes for potassium in minerals , and is therefore fairly widespread . Rb has been used extensively in dating rocks ; 87Rb beta decays to stable 87Sr . During fractional crystallization , Sr tends to concentrate in plagioclase , leaving Rb in the liquid phase . Hence , the Rb / Sr ratio in residual magma may increase over time , and the progressing differentiation results in rocks with elevated Rb / Sr ratios . The highest ratios ( 10 or more ) occur in pegmatites . If the initial amount of Sr is known or can be extrapolated , then the age can be determined by measurement of the Rb and Sr concentrations and of the 87Sr / 86Sr ratio . The dates indicate the true age of the minerals only if the rocks have not been subsequently altered ( see rubidium @-@ strontium dating ) .
Rubidium @-@ 82 , one of the element 's non @-@ natural isotopes , is produced by electron @-@ capture decay of strontium @-@ 82 with a half @-@ life of 25 @.@ 36 days . With a half @-@ life of 76 seconds , rubidium @-@ 82 decays by positron emission to stable krypton @-@ 82 .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Rubidium is the twenty @-@ third most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , roughly as abundant as zinc and rather more common than copper . It occurs naturally in the minerals leucite , pollucite , carnallite , and zinnwaldite , which contain as much as 1 % rubidium oxide . Lepidolite contains between 0 @.@ 3 % and 3 @.@ 5 % rubidium , and is the commercial source of the element . Some potassium minerals and potassium chlorides also contain the element in commercially significant quantities .
Seawater contains an average of 125 µg / L of rubidium compared to the much higher value for potassium of 408 mg / L and the much lower value of 0 @.@ 3 µg / L for caesium .
Because of its large ionic radius , rubidium is one of the " incompatible elements . " During magma crystallization , rubidium is concentrated together with its heavier analogue caesium in the liquid phase and crystallizes last . Therefore , the largest deposits of rubidium and caesium are zone pegmatite ore bodies formed by this enrichment process . Because rubidium substitutes for potassium in the crystallization of magma , the enrichment is far less effective than that of caesium . Zone pegmatite ore bodies containing mineable quantities of caesium as pollucite or the lithium minerals lepidolite are also a source for rubidium as a by @-@ product .
Two notable sources of rubidium are the rich deposits of pollucite at Bernic Lake , Manitoba , Canada , and the rubicline ( ( Rb , K ) AlSi3O8 ) found as impurities in pollucite on the Italian island of Elba , with a rubidium content of 17 @.@ 5 % . Both of those deposits are also sources of caesium .
= = Production = =
Although rubidium is more abundant in Earth 's crust than caesium , the limited applications and the lack of a mineral rich in rubidium limits the production of rubidium compounds to 2 to 4 tonnes per year . Several methods are available for separating potassium , rubidium , and caesium . The fractional crystallization of a rubidium and caesium alum ( Cs , Rb ) Al ( SO4 ) 2 · 12H2O yields after 30 subsequent steps pure rubidium alum . Two other methods are reported , the chlorostannate process and the ferrocyanide process .
For several years in the 1950s and 1960s , a by @-@ product of potassium production called Alkarb was a main source for rubidium . Alkarb contained 21 % rubidium , with the rest being potassium and a small amount of caesium . Today the largest producers of caesium , such as the Tanco Mine , Manitoba , Canada , produce rubidium as a by @-@ product from pollucite .
= = History = =
Rubidium was discovered in 1861 by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff , in Heidelberg , Germany , in the mineral lepidolite through spectroscopy . Because of the bright red lines in its emission spectrum , they chose a name derived from the Latin word rubidus , meaning " deep red " .
Rubidium is a minor component in lepidolite . Kirchhoff and Bunsen processed 150 kg of a lepidolite containing only 0 @.@ 24 % rubidium oxide ( Rb2O ) . Both potassium and rubidium form insoluble salts with chloroplatinic acid , but those salts show a slight difference in solubility in hot water . Therefore , the less @-@ soluble rubidium hexachloroplatinate ( Rb2PtCl6 ) could be obtained by fractional crystallization . After reduction of the hexachloroplatinate with hydrogen , the process yielded 0 @.@ 51 grams of rubidium chloride for further studies . Bunsen and Kirchhoff began their first large @-@ scale isolation of caesium and rubidium compounds with 44 @,@ 000 litres ( 12 @,@ 000 US gal ) of mineral water , which yielded 7 @.@ 3 grams of caesium chloride and 9 @.@ 2 grams of rubidium chloride . Rubidium was the second element , shortly after caesium , to be discovered by spectroscopy , just one year after the invention of the spectroscope by Bunsen and Kirchhoff .
The two scientists used the rubidium chloride to estimate that the atomic weight of the new element was 85 @.@ 36 ( the currently accepted value is 85 @.@ 47 ) . They tried to generate elemental rubidium by electrolysis of molten rubidium chloride , but instead of a metal , they obtained a blue homogeneous substance which " neither under the naked eye nor under the microscope showed the slightest trace of metallic substance . " They presumed it was a subchloride ( Rb
2Cl ) ; however , the product was probably a colloidal mixture of the metal and rubidium chloride . In a second attempt to produce metallic rubidium , Bunsen was able to reduce rubidium by heating charred rubidium tartrate . Although the distilled rubidium was pyrophoric , they were able to determine the density and the melting point . The quality of this research in the 1860s can be appraised by the fact that their determined density differs less than 0 @.@ 1 g / cm3 and the melting point by less than 1 ° C from the presently accepted values .
The slight radioactivity of rubidium was discovered in 1908 , but that was before the theory of isotopes was established in 1910 , and the low level of activity ( half @-@ life greater than 1010 years ) made interpretation complicated . The now proven decay of 87Rb to stable 87Sr through beta decay was still under discussion in the late 1940s .
Rubidium had minimal industrial value before the 1920s . Since then , the most important use of rubidium is research and development , primarily in chemical and electronic applications . In 1995 , rubidium @-@ 87 was used to produce a Bose – Einstein condensate , for which the discoverers , Eric Allin Cornell , Carl Edwin Wieman and Wolfgang Ketterle , won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics .
= = Applications = =
Rubidium compounds are sometimes used in fireworks to give them a purple color . Rubidium has also been considered for use in a thermoelectric generator using the magnetohydrodynamic principle , where rubidium ions are formed by heat at high temperature and passed through a magnetic field . These conduct electricity and act like an armature of a generator thereby generating an electric current . Rubidium , particularly vaporized 87Rb , is one of the most commonly used atomic species employed for laser cooling and Bose – Einstein condensation . Its desirable features for this application include the ready availability of inexpensive diode laser light at the relevant wavelength , and the moderate temperatures required to obtain substantial vapor pressures .
Rubidium has been used for polarizing 3He , producing volumes of magnetized 3He gas , with the nuclear spins aligned rather than random . Rubidium vapor is optically pumped by a laser and the polarized Rb polarizes 3He through the hyperfine interaction . Such spin @-@ polarized 3He cells are useful for neutron polarization measurements and for producing polarized neutron beams for other purposes .
The resonant element in atomic clocks utilizes the hyperfine structure of rubidium 's energy levels , and rubidium is useful for high @-@ precision timing . It is used as the main component of secondary frequency references ( rubidium oscillators ) in cell site transmitters and other electronic transmitting , networking , and test equipment . These rubidium standards are often used with GPS to produce a " primary frequency standard " that has greater accuracy and is less expensive than caesium standards . Such rubidium standards are often mass @-@ produced for the telecommunication industry .
Other potential or current uses of rubidium include a working fluid in vapor turbines , as a getter in vacuum tubes , and as a photocell component . Rubidium is also used as an ingredient in special types of glass , in the production of superoxide by burning in oxygen , in the study of potassium ion channels in biology , and as the vapor in atomic magnetometers . In particular , 87Rb is used with other alkali metals in the development of spin @-@ exchange relaxation @-@ free ( SERF ) magnetometers .
Rubidium @-@ 82 is used for positron emission tomography . Rubidium is very similar to potassium and tissue with high potassium content will also accumulate the radioactive rubidium . One of the main uses is myocardial perfusion imaging . As a result of changes in the blood brain barrier in brain tumors , rubidium collects more in brain tumors than normal brain tissue , allowing the use of radioisotope rubidium @-@ 82 in nuclear medicine to locate and image brain tumors . Rubidium @-@ 82 has a very short half @-@ life of 76 seconds , and the production from decay of strontium @-@ 82 must be done close to the patient .
Rubidium was tested for the influence on manic depression and depression . Dialysis patients suffering from depression show a depletion in rubidium and therefore a supplementation may help during depression . In some tests the rubidium was administered as rubidium chloride with up to 720 mg per day for 60 days .
= = Precautions and biological effects = =
Rubidium reacts violently with water and can cause fires . To ensure safety and purity , this metal is usually kept under a dry mineral oil or sealed in glass ampoules in an inert atmosphere . Rubidium forms peroxides on exposure even to small amount of air diffused into the oil , and storage is subject to similar precautions as the storage of metallic potassium .
Rubidium , like sodium and potassium , almost always has + 1 oxidation state when dissolved in water , even in biological contexts . The human body tends to treat Rb + ions as if they were potassium ions , and therefore concentrates rubidium in the body 's intracellular fluid ( i.e. , inside cells ) . The ions are not particularly toxic ; a 70 kg person contains on average 0 @.@ 36 g of rubidium , and an increase in this value by 50 to 100 times did not show negative effects in test persons . The biological half @-@ life of rubidium in humans measures 31 – 46 days . Although a partial substitution of potassium by rubidium is possible , when more than 50 % of the potassium in the muscle tissue of rats was replaced with rubidium , the rats died .
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= Gilberto Silva =
Gilberto Aparecido da Silva ( Brazilian Portuguese : [ ʒiwˈbɛʁtu ˈsiwvɐ ] ; born 7 October 1976 ) is a Brazilian former footballer known for his time with Arsenal where he played as a defensive midfielder or defender .
Gilberto was raised in a poor family and as a child he balanced playing football with various labour jobs . He began his football career in 1997 with América Mineiro , where good form earned him a move to Atlético Mineiro in 2000 . He became a star player for Atlético , playing for three years in the Brazilian Campeonato Brasileiro Série A. He came to particular prominence when he helped the Brazilian national team win the 2002 FIFA World Cup , playing in all seven of Brazil 's matches .
In August 2002 , for a fee of £ 4 @.@ 5 million , he joined Arsenal , with whom he won the 2003 – 04 Premier League as an ' Invincible ' , and two FA Cup trophies . In his first five seasons with the club , he played 208 games and scored 23 goals . On 19 August 2006 , he scored Arsenal 's first competitive goal at the newly built Emirates Stadium . He was made vice @-@ captain of Arsenal in 2006 . He has also scored Arsenal 's fastest ever goal coming in at just 20 seconds in a game against PSV in the 2002 – 03 UEFA Champions League . During his time with the Gunners , Gilberto developed into one of the best defensive midfielders in Europe . In 2007 , he was selected as Brazil captain for the Copa América tournament , which Brazil went on to win . In 2012 , Gilberto returned to Atlético Mineiro , where he won the Copa Libertadores .
= = Early life = =
As a child , Gilberto lived in the city of Lagoa da Prata with his father ( a blacksmith ) , his mother ( a housewife ) and three sisters . His family lived in a small house which his father built , in the district of Usina Luciânia . Despite financial hardship , causing his sisters and him to share a single room , he had a relatively carefree childhood : he describes it as " [ a time when ] I had no responsibility in my life , I played football on the street with cousins and friends , and we never had any contact with drugs or violence " . In 1988 ( aged 12 ) , he got the chance to break out of poverty by playing football , joining América Mineiro as a youth player . It was during these years at América Mineiro that Gilberto was taught defensive discipline by playing as a central defender . When not playing football , Gilberto was taught furniture @-@ making skills by his father , which he would come to use in the following years . In 1991 , Gilberto 's father retired leaving the 15 @-@ year @-@ old to provide financially for his whole family , a task made more difficult by his mother 's ill @-@ health .
Because of the low wage at América Mineiro , he was forced to quit football to take various jobs as a labourer , a carpenter , and a worker in a sweet factory . It looked as if this would be the end of his childhood dream . As a factory @-@ worker Gilberto earned the equivalent of about £ 50 a month by 2002 rates . After three years of working in a factory , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old decided to try his luck at football again by enrolling in the local club 's youth academy . His time in the academy did not last long due to the worsening situation at home as a result of his mother 's ill health ; he returned to work in the sweet factory with little hope of resurrecting his football career .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
In 1997 , Gilberto 's friends convinced him to give football another try , which led to him re @-@ signing for América Mineiro on 1 June 1997 , this time as a full @-@ time professional . Aged 22 , Gilberto played as a central defender for the first team . During his first season for América Mineiro he was regarded as a key player by the club , despite being criticised by some fans for inconsistency . He helped them win the Série B division , and consequently gain promotion to Série A.
During Gilberto 's third season at América Mineiro , with the team back to Série B after relegation in Série A in 1999 , he played 20 games and scored one goal , helping the club to finish runners @-@ up in the league . In 2000 , aged 24 , he joined rival club Atlético Mineiro . In his first season for the club , he fractured his right tibia and , as a result , missed a number of games . In his second season , he was moved by the manager Carlos Alberto Parreira from central defence to a defensive midfield role where he flourished . He scored three goals in the 2001 season and became a revelation in Brazilian club football .
= = = Arsenal = = =
Gilberto 's performance in the 2002 FIFA World Cup caught the attention of many coaches . Gilberto expressed a desire to move to England , saying , " It would be fantastic to play against the likes of David Beckham again . " As a result , FA Premier League clubs Aston Villa and Arsenal led the chase to sign him . In August , while still under contract to Atlético Mineiro , Gilberto joined Arsenal on their pre @-@ season tour of Austria ; while he had not yet signed for Arsenal the deal looked set to go ahead . However , complications arose when a transfer embargo was placed on Atlético Mineiro due to unpaid wages to some players at the club , including Gilberto . There was also an issue of obtaining a UK work permit for Gilberto . Despite the complications , Gilberto ended a summer of speculation and joined Arsenal on 7 August 2002 for a fee of £ 4 @.@ 5 million . Upon signing Gilberto , Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger said , " What I like was the fact that he kept things simple . He can play all across the midfield but the holding role just in front of the defence is what he does best . "
When Gilberto moved to England and began training with Arsenal , he bought a house in St Albans , South Hertfordshire . Having been used to life in small Brazilian towns , he initially struggled to adapt to the new way of life in London . However , on the pitch , he settled in very quickly . On 11 August 2002 he made his Arsenal debut as a substitute against Liverpool in the second half of the FA Community Shield game in which he scored the winning goal . As the 2002 – 03 FA Premier League season began , Gilberto faced stiff competition for a place in midfield from compatriot Edu . After two substitute appearances , Gilberto finally broke into the starting eleven on 27 August , helping Arsenal to a 5 – 2 win against West Bromwich Albion . Gilberto 's good form continued as he set a new record for the fastest goal scored in the UEFA Champions League , scoring after 20 @.@ 07 seconds against PSV on 25 September 2002 . However , his legal problems continued , since his transfer to England still was not fully resolved . As a result , Gilberto instructed his lawyers to start legal proceedings against Atlético Mineiro for unpaid wages in November 2002 . For the second half of the 2002 – 03 season , he remained a regular starter in the Arsenal side . Even though he suffered a lapse in form towards the end of the season , he won an FA Cup winner 's medal , playing in the final at the Millennium Stadium as Arsenal beat Southampton 1 – 0 .
2003 – 04 was an even better season for Gilberto , as he was instrumental in helping Arsenal win the Premier League title whilst going the entire season unbeaten . He played in 32 of Arsenal 's 38 unbeaten Premier League games during the season . His next season started equally impressively , as he scored the first goal in Arsenal 's 3 – 1 Community Shield win over Manchester United at the Millennium Stadium . During the opening games of the season , he started to experience severe pain in his back , and after a match at Bolton Wanderers on 27 September 2004 , a scan revealed he had fractured his back . At first it was reported that he would be out of action for a month . Later reports suggested the injury could be season @-@ threatening .
Gilberto 's doctor ordered him to wear a back brace for three months to aid the healing of the fractured bone . Gilberto returned to his native Brazil for the duration of his rehabilitation . During his time there , he doubted whether he would ever be able to play football again , due to speculation that his injury could threaten his career . Despite his concerns , his long rehabilitation time paid off as he made a full recovery . He made his footballing comeback in Arsenal 's 4 – 1 victory over Norwich City on 22 April 2005 . During the whole 2004 – 05 season , Gilberto was injured for 7 months and played only 17 games . His absence , combined with Arsenal 's slump in form at the time , led to much discussion regarding the importance of Gilberto to the Arsenal team ; some suggesting that Arsenal struggled without him . Gilberto 's difficult 2004 – 05 season ended in consolation as Arsenal finished runners @-@ up in the Premier League and won the FA Cup against Manchester United in a penalty shoot @-@ out .
In June 2005 , football agent Jacques Lichtenstein took Atlético Mineiro to court over Gilberto 's transfer in 2002 . Lichtenstein 's lawyer argued that he and his informal partner , Ronny Rosenthal , never received an allegedly agreed 10 % commission from Gilberto 's £ 4 @.@ 5 million transfer to Arsenal from Atlético Mineiro in July 2002 . Arsène Wenger and Arsenal vice @-@ chairman David Dein both gave evidence in court , saying that Arsenal dealt directly with Atlético Mineiro and that no agent was involved in the deal . The case was conducted before The Hon. Mr Justice Jack , who on 29 June ruled against Lichtenstein , and ordered the claimants pay Atletico Minéiro £ 94 @,@ 000 in legal costs . A year later , the case could have caused problems for Arsenal , when former player Ashley Cole criticised the club for " hypocrisy and double standards " in the way they approached Gilberto .
With legal matters subsided , the 2005 – 06 season began . Following midfielder and team captain Patrick Vieira 's departure from Arsenal , Gilberto became a senior member of the Arsenal team . Shortly into the season , in September 2005 , his desire to see his career out with the club led to Gilberto extending his Arsenal contract to June 2009 . A month later this loyalty was repaid when , on 18 October 2005 , Gilberto made his first appearance for Arsenal as captain , against Sparta Prague . Although Gilberto had a period of bad form during the winter months of the season , his good defensive performances during the latter stages of the UEFA Champions League ( in particular , games against Real Madrid , Juventus and Villarreal ) gained him praise . On 17 May 2006 Gilberto played for Arsenal in the UEFA Champions League Final against FC Barcelona , which Arsenal lost 2 – 1 .
Following the departure of defender Sol Campbell and retirement of striker Dennis Bergkamp in the summer of 2006 , Gilberto was announced as Arsenal 's vice @-@ captain for the 2006 – 07 season . He began the season well , as he scored the first ever goal at the Dutch DSB Stadion in a pre @-@ season friendly match . He then scored Arsenal 's first ever goal in a competitive match at the Emirates Stadium in a 1 – 1 draw with Aston Villa . His good form continued for Arsenal as he scored several league goals , garnering praise for his performances as stand @-@ in captain while Thierry Henry was injured . Gilberto and his agent ( Paulo Villana ) also reiterated the player 's desire to honour his contract with the Gunners . Meanwhile , Gilberto 's good form carried through to the second half of the season . Even though Arsenal only managed to finish fourth in the league , he ended the season as Arsenal 's second highest scorer with 10 Premier League goals . The explanation for his unusually high tally is the fact that Henry suffered two lengthy injury spells , in which Gilberto stepped up as captain to take penalties . Gilberto 's goal scoring record combined with his own good form in midfield and his leadership of Wenger 's youthful squad led some Arsenal fans and football pundits to label Gilberto as Arsenal 's best player of the season , and one of the best in the Premier League .
The buildup of the 2007 – 08 season saw Arsenal captain Thierry Henry leave the club to join Barcelona . This coupled with the fact that Gilberto was Arsenal 's vice @-@ captain during the 2006 – 07 season led many people to assume that Gilberto would take over Henry 's role . However , to the surprise of Gilberto , William Gallas was given the captain 's armband instead . In August , after returning to Arsenal 's pre @-@ season training late due to his involvement in the Copa América tournament ( and thus missing the start of the season ) , Gilberto then lost his place in the first team to young midfielder Mathieu Flamini . This reignited speculation linking Gilberto to Italy due to rumours that he was unhappy being on the bench at Arsenal . However , reports that he was being snubbed at the club were dismissed by Wenger , who insisted that Gilberto would remain at Arsenal to fight for his place . Despite this , in October 2007 , rumours in the press reemerged that Gilberto was angry at Wenger for being asked to play in defence in a League Cup game against Sheffield United , and had resultantly refused to play . Gilberto ended up playing the game in midfield though , with he and Wenger both denying rumours of a rift with each other . Gilberto subsequently commented that while he was not happy being a substitute , he would remain professional and fight for his place at the club . Also in October , Gilberto ceded the Brazilian captaincy to Lúcio upon his compatriot 's return from injury .
Through the winter months of the 2007 – 08 season , Gilberto started a limited number of games for the Gunners , though he kept his place in the Brazil team , starting several games for A Seleção . After becoming more and more frustrated with not playing regularly , Gilberto admitted in February 2008 that he had been made to feel " totally useless " by Wenger . Despite this , he declined to make a decision on his future ; something which prompted Wenger to promise talks with Gilberto . Amidst Gilberto 's frustration at Arsenal , he targeted playing in Brazil 's Olympic team in Beijing during August 2008 ; a competition which he had never played in . Off the pitch , Gilberto was reported to have passed his UK Citizenship test , and that he would subsequently apply for a British passport . April saw Gilberto 's season take a turn for the better ; making 5 starts – a substantial portion of his seasonal total of 12 – even managing to score a goal . The goal came against Reading on 19 April , and despite its deflective nature leading to some classing it as a possible own goal , the Premier League 's Dubious Goals Committee eventually credited the goal to Gilberto . However , Gilberto 's return to favour did not stop Arsenal 's 2007 – 08 season ending trophyless . The club subsequently faced the possibility of several players leaving ; among those rumoured to leave was Flamini , the player who had kept Gilberto out of the first team . The Frenchman ended up moving to A.C. Milan on 6 May , and a subsequent gap was left in the Arsenal midfield . Gilberto became less likely to leave the club during Summer 2008 as a result , and Wenger remarked that he wanted to keep Gilberto ; Gilberto saying he wanted to stay and possibly even renew his contract at Arsenal . Gilberto finished the 2007 – 08 season with 36 appearances for Arsenal , albeit only 12 of these being Premier League starts .
= = = Panathinaikos = = =
Following Brazil 's summer international games , he was seriously linked with a move to Greek club Panathinaikos . The speculation concluded when Gilberto agreed terms with the Athenian side on 17 July 2008 , for an undisclosed fee . During his first season at the club , Gilberto helped the side reach the UEFA Champions League Round of 16 . He managed to win both the 2009 – 10 Greek Championship and Cup with Panathinaikos , being the starting holding midfielder and producing numerous solid displays . In Gilberto 's final home game for Panathinaikos on 23 May 2011 , he scored the winning goal in a 1 – 0 victory over PAOK , for the Greek UEFA Champions League playoffs . Two days later , he played his final game for the team , winning 2 – 0 against AEK Athens .
= = = Later career = = =
On 23 May 2011 , Gilberto ended his 9 @-@ year career in Europe by signing an 18 @-@ month deal with Grêmio , of Porto Alegre .
In the past , Gilberto has hinted that he may one day return to Brazil to play for Atlético Mineiro . After his football career finishes , he has said that he would like to , " Live in a small farm and ride a horse and have all of my family next to me . " On 10 November 2012 , it was confirmed that Gilberto 's wish would be granted , as he signed a pre @-@ contract with Galo .
On 9 December 2012 , Silva was welcomed at Aeroporto dos Confins by fans of Atlético Mineiro , returning to the Belo Horizonte side after 11 years away . Silva spoke of winning the 2013 Copa Libertadores title upon his return . Silva achieved this wish on 24 July 2013 , with a final victory over Club Olimpia of Paraguay .
On 11 December 2015 , after two years without a club , he officially announced his retirement as a footballer , intending to pursue a career as an international consultant for clubs and players .
= = International career = =
In October 2001 , his good performances from that year earned Gilberto a call @-@ up to the Brazilian national team ( " A Seleção " ) by Luiz Felipe Scolari for the 2002 World Cup qualification games . He made his international debut against Chile on 7 October , coming on as a substitute . On 7 November , he made his debut in the starting line @-@ up of the national team against Bolivia . His international career continued to flourish in early 2002 : he scored twice against Bolivia and once against Iceland . In 2002 , he was a surprise inclusion in the Brazil squad for the 2002 FIFA World Cup in South Korea and Japan . He was expected to play a small part in the tournament . However , defensive midfielder and Brazilian team captain Emerson was injured in training just before the first World Cup game . In light of the setback , coach Scolari called upon Gilberto to fill the gap which Emerson left . Gilberto ended up playing in every minute of every match of the tournament , which Brazil went on to win . In the words of Veja magazine , Gilberto " carried the piano for Ronaldo and Rivaldo to play their tunes on " . He was not without attacking use either , setting up Ronaldo 's semi @-@ final goal to put Brazil through to the final . It was Gilberto 's performance in this tournament which led to him being classed as one of the top defensive midfielders in the world .
On 22 June 2005 , Gilberto played in Brazil 's 1 – 1 draw against Japan , in his only game of the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup . His absence as a first team regular could be explained by his lack of games , and thus match fitness , for Arsenal during the season leading up to the tournament . Gilberto 's appearance in the tournament gained him a winners medal , as Brazil went on to win the competition . On the back of his good Champions League form , Gilberto was selected for the Brazil national football team for the 2006 FIFA World Cup . Gilberto was substituted on in two games , and started twice due to another injury to Emerson . Brazil were beaten 1 – 0 by France in the quarter final . Following Brazil 's World Cup disappointment , midfielder Juninho called for the older members of the Brazil squad ( including Gilberto ) to retire from international football . On the back of Gilberto 's childhood idol Dunga being appointed Brazil coach , Gilberto did not take Juninho 's advice , and subsequently continued his international career .
On 1 June 2007 , Gilberto captained Brazil against England at the first senior international match at the new Wembley Stadium . Having had a seemingly good headed goal disallowed after 20 minutes , he set up Brazil 's only goal as the game ended 1 – 1 . During the summer of 2007 Gilberto played in the Copa América tournament , in which he was chosen to captain Brazil in the absence of Lúcio . They went on to beat Argentina 3 – 0 in the final , though he missed the final game through suspension . Following the end of the 2007 – 08 Premier League season , Gilberto was called up to the Brazil national team for 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifiers during the summer as well as a tour of the United States .
= = Style of play = =
Gilberto is often called " the invisible wall " in Brazil . His play often goes unnoticed as he positions himself between the two centre backs and the rest of midfield , breaking up opposition attacks before they gather momentum . In this role , he is a part of the defensive unit for both club and country . When playing , he is more passive than most players in defense . Rather than tackle an opponent , he is more likely to shadow him , thus pushing him back . As a result , he has an unusually clean record for a defensive midfielder : he has twice gone 45 games or more without receiving a single booking during his Arsenal career .
Gilberto is good at helping to defend against opponents who play a long ball game because he often man marks the opposition 's attacking target @-@ man . This cuts off the opposition 's supply to the strikers , and thus forces the long @-@ ball team to play through the midfield , something to which long @-@ ball teams are not particularly suited .
Despite Gilberto 's high pass completion rate , his passing has been described as erratic in the past .
According to ProZone ( a data analysis system used by football managers ) figures cited by The Sunday Times in January 2007 , Gilberto was , together with Paul Scholes of Manchester United and Frank Lampard of Chelsea , one of the few midfielders in England to attain " the elite Champions League level " of performance .
= = Outside football = =
He is a patron of The Street League , a UK based charity which organises football matches for homeless people , refugees and asylum seekers . In June 2003 , Gilberto travelled to Brazil on tour with 17 Street League players . The tour included a visit to his home town Lagoa da Prata and games against local shanty town teams at the Maracanã stadium .
Gilberto is a keen musician . In his spare time , he plays the mandolin and the guitar . When he first moved to England he took up mandolin lessons and played publicly at his local pub in St Albans . He later started learning the guitar instead .
He has a Giant Anteater named after him at London Zoo . Gilberto is an adoptee of the animal , which he received from a London Zoo competition winner . The footballer described the South American animal as " my slightly more hairy brother ! "
= = Career statistics = =
( Statistics correct as of 17 October 2011 )
( Brackets indicate appearances in non @-@ FIFA matches , and do not count towards total )
= = = International goals = = =
= = Honours = =
Club
América ( MG )
Série B : 1997
Copa Sul @-@ Minas : 2000
Atlético Mineiro
Campeonato Mineiro : 2000 , 2013
Copa Libertadores : 2013
Arsenal
FA Premier League : 2003 – 04
FA Cup : 2003 , 2005
FA Community Shield : 2002 , 2004
UEFA Champions League Runner @-@ up : 2005 – 06
Panathinaikos
Super League Greece : 2009 – 10
Greek Football Cup : 2010
International
Brazil
FIFA World Cup : 2002
Copa América : 2007
FIFA Confederations Cup : 2005 , 2009
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= William Tailer =
William Tailer ( February 25 , 1675 / 6 – March 1 , 1731 / 2 ) was a military officer and politician in the Province of Massachusetts Bay . Born into the wealthy and influential Stoughton family , he twice married into other politically powerful families . He served as lieutenant governor of the province from 1711 until 1716 , and again in the early 1730s . During each of these times he was briefly acting governor . He was a political opponent of Governor Joseph Dudley , and was a supporter of a land bank proposal intended to address the province 's currency problems . During his first tenure as acting governor he authorized the erection of Boston Light , the earliest lighthouse in what is now the United States .
He was active in the provincial defense , and commanded a regiment in the 1710 siege of Port Royal , the capital of French Acadia , during Queen Anne 's War . He was responsible for overseeing the defenses of Boston in the 1720s , and was sent to negotiate with the Iroquois and Abenaki during Dummer 's War . Jonathan Belcher , initially a political opponent , later became an ally , and selected him to serve as his lieutenant governor in 1730 . Tailer held the post until is death , and was interred in the tomb of his uncle , William Stoughton .
= = Early life and military service = =
William Tailer was born in Dorchester , Massachusetts Bay Colony on February 25 , 1675 / 6 to William Tailer and Rebecca Stoughton Tailer . His mother was the daughter of early Massachusetts settler Israel Stoughton and sister to magistrate William Stoughton . His father was a wealthy landowner and merchant . His father owned commercial real estate in Boston and was a member of the Atherton Company , one of New England 's most powerful and well @-@ connected land development partnerships . He was also one of " a selected fraternity " of merchants engaged in the " eastward trade " with neighboring French Acadia , one of whose leading members was Boston merchant John Nelson . Tailer 's father committed suicide in 1682 , apparently suffering from depression which may have been brought on by financial reverses .
The younger Tailer inherited a substantial estate ; it was reported that in 1695 his guardians operated five mills on his behalf . He was also a beneficiary of the large estate of his uncle , who died a childless bachelor . By 1702 Tailer had married Sarah Byfield , daughter to Nathaniel Byfield , another leading colonial magistrate . She died childless in about 1708 . Byfield and Tailer 's father had been business partners , a relationship that Tailer continued .
He served in the provincial militia during Queen Anne 's War . In 1710 he commanded a militia regiment that saw action at the capture of Port Royal , Acadia . Following the victory he went London with Francis Nicholson , the expedition 's leader , where he was " bigg with expectation " of advancement . His expectations were rewarded with a commission as lieutenant governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay , serving under Governor Joseph Dudley . He then returned to Massachusetts , where he was again active in the defense of the colonies , serving at Fort William and Mary in New Hampshire , and reporting on the frontier defenses in what is now southern Maine ( but was then part of Massachusetts ) .
In early 1711 / 2 he married Abigail Gillam Dudley , widow of Joseph Dudley 's grandson Thomas . The couple had six children , who they raised in the old Stoughton homestead in Dorchester . Tailer joined the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company in 1712 and was elected as its captain the same year .
= = Acting governor of Massachusetts = =
Tailer was elected to the Governor 's Council from 1712 to 1729 , and was on three separate occasions commissioned as lieutenant governor of Massachusetts . Despite his connection by marriage to the Dudleys , he had an awkward political relationship with the governor during the period of his first two commissions . A number of Anglicans in the colony , Tailer among them , were skeptical of Dudley 's faith . ( Dudley had been raised in the Puritan way , and had formally adopted Anglican practices while in England in the 1690s . ) He and Dudley were also on opposite sides of the debate on the province 's currency problems . Dudley favored the issuance of public bills of credit as a means to circumvent the inflationary issuance of paper currency that had become a serious problem by the end of Queen Anne 's War in 1713 , while Tailer , along with his father @-@ in @-@ law Nathaniel Byfield and others , favored the establishment of a private land bank , that would issue bills secured by the lands of its investors .
Byfield in 1714 went to London to lobby on behalf of the land bank interests , and to seek for himself the post of governor , which was open for consideration after the accession of King George I to the throne . He was unsuccessful in acquiring the governorship , but was able to convince Colonel Elizeus Burges , who had been chosen to replace Dudley , to keep Tailer on as lieutenant governor . Burges , however , was bribed by land bank opponents to resign his post before leaving England . The commissions of Burges and Tailer had by then been sent to Massachusetts , and Tailer became acting governor in November 1715 after they were formally proclaimed .
Immediately after taking office Tailer engaged in political housecleaning , eliminating land bank opponents and Dudley supporters from a number of provincial positions . His efforts , however , backfired : the provincial assembly elected Joseph Dudley 's son Paul as attorney general , and London agents of the anti @-@ bank party worked to ensure Tailer 's replacement . ( One of those agents , Jonathan Belcher , would ironically become a Tailer ally in later years and secure the lieutenant governorship for him the third time . ) Through their efforts the king chose Colonel Samuel Shute , a land bank opponent , to replace Burges , and William Dummer as Shute 's lieutenant governor . Tailer was turned out of office with Shute 's arrival in October 1716 . Shute deliberately snubbed Tailer upon his arrival , choosing to first meet with the Dudleys instead .
The only major long @-@ term accomplishment of Tailer 's tenure as acting governor was the establishment of Boston Light , the first lighthouse built in what is now the United States . While a member of the assembly , Tailer had sat on the legislative committee that drafted the enabling and funding bills , and he signed them after he became governor .
= = Provincial military service = =
He next traveled to England . There he lobbied , on behalf of John Nelson , heir to Sir Thomas Temple 's claims to Nova Scotia . Nelson sought recompense for the loss of the territory in the 1667 Treaty of Breda , but Tailer 's efforts were in vain . He also lobbied on his own behalf for a military pension . He successfully convinced Lord Cobham that he deserved one for his service at Port Royal in 1710 , and was awarded the half pay of a colonel , amounting to £ 400 per year . John Nelson observed that Tailer 's loss of the lieutenant governorship ( worth £ 50 per year ) " has proved much to his advantage " .
Tailer eventually returned to Massachusetts . Under Shute 's governorship he was several times involved in negotiations with Indians on the northern frontiers , and continued to be active in the provincial militia . Tailer accompanied Shute on an expedition to Maine to negotiate with the Abenaki of northern New England in 1717 . Shute handled the negotiations poorly , raising tensions between the Abenaki and British settlers . In 1720 Tailer was one of several commissioners sent to mediate between the settlers and Abenaki . Although a potential basis for agreement was identified , continued raiding and disagreement on the details of proposed terms caused the situation to deteriorate further . Shute declared war on the Abenaki in July 1722 following raids against British settlements on the Maine coast .
Shute 's ongoing conflicts with the provincial assembly prompted him to leave for England in early 1723 , leaving handling of the war in Lieutenant Governor Dummer 's hands . Tailer was one of the lead members of a party sent in 1723 to Albany , New York in an attempt to convince the Iroquois to join the conflict against the Abenaki . The embassy was unsuccessful : the Iroquois resisted all attempts to bring them into the war against the Abenaki . Tailer continued to be involved in the war , where he was responsible for maintaining Boston 's defenses .
= = Reprise as acting governor = =
Tailer 's politics shifted during the 1720s , and he and Byfield came to align more closely with the populist faction . As a result he and one @-@ time opponent Jonathan Belcher became allies . When Governor William Burnet died in 1729 , Belcher was in London , acting as agent for Connecticut and assisting in lobbying against Burnet 's unpopular insistence on a permanent salary . Belcher successfully gained for himself the post of governor , and then secured for Tailer another appointment as lieutenant governor . Tailer 's commission was proclaimed before Belcher 's arrival , and he briefly served as acting governor while awaiting his superior 's arrival . The few months were uneventful , as the province was then suffering from an outbreak of smallpox , because of which Tailer prorogued the assembly .
Tailer died in Dorchester , while serving as lieutenant governor , in March 1731 / 2 . His pallbearers included Governor Belcher and other leading political figures . He is buried in the tomb of his uncle , Willam Stoughton , in what is now called the Dorchester North Burying Ground .
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= David Freese =
David Richard Freese ( born April 28 , 1983 ) is an American professional baseball third baseman for the Pittsburgh Pirates of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He began his MLB career with the St. Louis Cardinals , where he was a key player during the 2011 postseason , batting .545 with 12 hits in the 2011 National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) . He also set an MLB postseason record of 21 runs batted in ( RBI ) , earning the NLCS MVP Award and World Series MVP Award . In addition , Freese won the Babe Ruth Award , naming him the MVP of the 2011 MLB postseason .
A star high school player , Freese declined a college baseball scholarship from the University of Missouri . Needing a break from baseball , he sat out his freshman year of college before feeling a renewed urge to play the game . He transferred to St. Louis Community College – Meramec , a junior college , where he played for one season before transferring to the University of South Alabama . The San Diego Padres selected Freese in the ninth round of the 2006 MLB draft .
The Cardinals acquired Freese before the 2008 season . He made his MLB debut on Opening Day 2009 due to an injury to starting third baseman Troy Glaus . Despite suffering his own injuries in the minor leagues and in his first two MLB seasons , Freese batted .297 with 10 home runs and 55 RBI during the Cardinals ' 2011 World Series championship season . The next season , he batted .293 with 20 home runs and was selected to his first MLB All @-@ Star Game . Freese authored a 20 @-@ game hitting streak in 2013 , but back injuries limited his effectiveness , and the Cardinals traded him to the Angels following the season . He played for the Angels for two seasons before signing with the Pirates in March 2016 .
= = Early life = =
Born in Corpus Christi , Texas , Freese was raised in the Greater St. Louis area , in Wildwood , Missouri . He grew up a fan of the St. Louis Cardinals . He graduated in 2001 from Lafayette High School in Wildwood . Freese recorded a Lafayette @-@ record .533 batting average and 23 home runs during his senior season . He was considered to be the best shortstop in the state .
As a senior in high school , Freese was offered a scholarship to play college baseball for the University of Missouri 's baseball team . Feeling burned out , Freese decided to quit the sport , but he studied computer science at Missouri and was a member of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity .
During the summer after his freshman year , Freese worked for the Rockwood School District maintenance department . When he visited Lafayette High School towards the end of the summer , he realized how much he missed baseball . Freese asked Tony Dattoli , the coach at St. Louis Community College – Meramec , for a roster spot . In one season at St. Louis Community College , Freese hit .396 with 41 runs batted in ( RBI ) and 10 home runs and was named to the National Junior College Athletic Association All @-@ America second team .
Dattoli recommended Freese to Steve Kittrell , the head coach of the Jaguars baseball team at the University of South Alabama . At South Alabama , opposing teams respected his hitting ability ; scouts told their pitchers : " Don 't let Freese beat us . " As a junior in 2005 , Freese hit .373 , with a .443 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) , .525 slugging percentage ( SLG ) , and 52 runs scored in 56 games . He was seventh in the Sun Belt Conference ( SBC ) in average and led the school one year after Adam Lind had done so . Freese was even better in 2006 , hitting .414 with a .503 OBP and .661 SLG with 73 runs and 73 RBI in 60 games . He won the SBC batting title and led the conference in RBI . He tied for ninth in Division I in RBI , was 12th in average and just missed the top 10 in runs scored . He made the All @-@ Conference team at third base and was named SBC Player of the Year . He was named an American Baseball Coaches Association All @-@ American as the top third baseman in NCAA Division I , ahead of Evan Longoria and Pedro Alvarez , among others . Kittrell considers Freese to be the best player he coached at South Alabama , where he also coached Lind , Luis Gonzalez and Juan Pierre .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues : 2006 – 2008 = = =
Prior to the 2006 Major League Baseball Draft , the Boston Red Sox attempted to sign Freese for $ 90 @,@ 000 . However , South Alabama made the College World Series regional playoffs , which extended their season past the pre @-@ draft signing deadline .
Freese was drafted by the San Diego Padres in the ninth round ( 273rd overall ) of the draft . Freese played for the Eugene Emeralds of the Class @-@ A Short Season Northwest League , Fort Wayne Wizards of the Class @-@ A Midwest League and Lake Elsinore Storm of the Class @-@ A Advanced California League in the San Diego farm system in 2006 and 2007 . He batted .379 with a .465 OBP , .776 SLG , 19 runs and 26 RBI in 18 games for the Emeralds and .299 with a .374 OBP , .510 SLG and 44 RBI in 53 games for the Wizards in 2006 . Freese batted .302 with a .400 OBP and .489 SLG for Lake Elsinore in 128 games during the 2007 season . He scored 104 runs and drove in 96 . He ranked seventh in the California League in OBP , seventh in RBI and tied with Tony Granadillo for third in runs . He made the California League All @-@ Star team . However , the Padres had third basemen Chase Headley and Kevin Kouzmanoff as well , potentially blocking Freese 's path to the majors . As a result , Freese began to practice as a catcher .
Before the 2008 season , Freese was traded by the Padres to the Cardinals for Jim Edmonds . He spent the season with the Memphis Redbirds of the Triple @-@ A Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) , where he batted .306 with a .361 OBP and .550 SLG , hit 26 home runs and recorded 91 RBI . He led PCL third basemen in fielding percentage ( .967 ) and double plays ( 26 ) .
= = = St. Louis Cardinals = = =
= = = = Early MLB career : 2009 – 2010 = = = =
Freese emerged as a potential starter when an injury seemed likely to put Cardinals starting third baseman Troy Glaus on the disabled list at the beginning of the 2009 season . Freese made his MLB debut on Opening Day of the 2009 season , coming off the bench and hitting a go @-@ ahead sacrifice fly in the Cardinals ' home opener against the Pittsburgh Pirates . Freese was expected to be the team 's starting third baseman , but was quickly passed over by Brian Barden and Joe Thurston . He was optioned to Triple @-@ A Memphis on April 20 , 2009 to make room for newly acquired reliever Blaine Boyer . He later had surgery to repair a left ankle injury that hampered him during spring training . He missed two months of the season . He was activated and assigned to the Springfield Cardinals of the Double @-@ A Texas League in late July , before he was assigned to Memphis . He led the Memphis Redbirds to a PCL division championship . He was recalled in the September call @-@ up on September 23 , 2009 . Freese played only 17 games for the Cardinals in 2009 , in addition to 56 games for Triple @-@ A Memphis .
Freese began the 2010 season as the Cardinals ' starting third baseman . However , he suffered a right ankle injury in June . This injury required him to have two ankle surgeries and ended his season after 70 games .
= = = = Breakout season : 2011 = = = =
Freese was projected to start the 2011 season , and he was named the starter on Opening Day , despite suffering minor ailments during spring training . He started off the year batting over .320 , but he missed 51 games after being hit by a pitch that fractured his left hand . After returning to the starting lineup , he finished the season with a .297 batting average , 10 home runs , and 55 RBI . He recorded hits in eight of the final nine regular @-@ season games . Freese credited his improvement in power hitting to hitting coach Mark McGwire , who helped him refine his stroke .
= = = = = 2011 postseason = = = = =
In his first playoff series , he drove in 4 runs against Philadelphia in Game 4 to force a fifth game . In the National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) against Milwaukee , Freese had a .545 batting average , hit 3 home runs , drove in 9 runs , and scored 7 runs . He was named the NLCS Most Valuable Player . Through Game 3 of the World Series against Texas , Freese had a 13 @-@ game postseason hitting streak , a Cardinals record and just two short of matching the all @-@ time National League record . The hitting streak was snapped in Game 4 .
In Game 6 of the 2011 World Series , with the Texas Rangers leading the game 7 – 5 , and leading the series by 3 games to 2 , Freese came to bat in the bottom of the ninth with two out and two men on base . With a count of one ball and two strikes , Freese hit a two @-@ run triple off Neftalí Feliz just out of the reach of Nelson Cruz to tie the game and send it to extra innings . In the 11th inning , again with two strikes , Freese hit a game @-@ winning lead @-@ off , walk @-@ off , solo home @-@ run to deep center field ( 420 feet ) , to send the World Series to its first Game 7 since 2002 . Freese joined Jim Edmonds , the man he was traded for , as the only players in Cardinals history to hit an extra @-@ inning walk @-@ off home run in the postseason . He joined Aaron Boone ( 2003 ) , David Ortiz ( 2004 ) and Hall of Famers Carlton Fisk ( 1975 ) and Kirby Puckett ( 1991 ) as the only players to hit an extra @-@ inning walk @-@ off home run when their team was facing postseason elimination .
In Game 7 of the World Series , Freese hit a two @-@ run double in the bottom of the first inning , bringing his 2011 postseason RBI total to 21 , an MLB record . The Cardinals went on to win the game and the series , making Freese a World Series champion for the first time . For his efforts , Freese was named the World Series MVP . He became the sixth player to win the LCS and World Series MVP awards in the same year . Freese also won the Babe Ruth Award as the postseason MVP .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
Freese won the All @-@ Star Final Vote in 2012 , joining the All @-@ Star roster with teammates Lance Lynn , Carlos Beltrán , Rafael Furcal , and Yadier Molina for the National League in the 2012 MLB All @-@ Star Game . Freese had a .294 batting average , along with 13 home runs and 50 RBI in the first half of the season . After being injury @-@ plagued in previous years , Freese played in a career @-@ high 144 games in 2012 , finishing the season with 79 RBIs , 20 home runs and a .293 batting average . In the 2012 NLCS against the San Francisco Giants , Freese hit a two @-@ run home run off Madison Bumgarner in Game 1 . Through this point in his postseason career , Freese had played 25 games , batting .386 with 11 doubles , six home runs , 25 RBIs and a .739 slugging percentage in 100 plate appearances . Only Carlos Beltrán ( .824 ) and Babe Ruth ( .744 ) had higher slugging percentages among players with 100 or more plate appearances in the postseason . However , he slumped after that game , batting just .192 for the series as the Giants won in seven games and advanced to the 2012 World Series .
= = = = 2013 season = = = =
On February 8 2013 , Freese and the Cardinals reached agreement on a one @-@ year contract , avoiding arbitration . This was the first season he was arbitration @-@ eligible and when filing he had requested a 2013 salary of $ 3 @.@ 75 million . The Cardinals counter @-@ offered $ 2 @.@ 4 million . After suffering a back injury in spring training and starting the 2013 season on the disabled list , Freese struggled at the plate for much of the first six weeks of the season , having only four RBIs by mid @-@ May . However , on 17 May , Freese began a twenty @-@ game hitting streak , the longest of any MLB player to that point in the 2013 season . The streak ended on June 12 .
On August 16 , the Cardinals promoted Kolten Wong to play second base , intending for Matt Carpenter to play third base , reducing Freese 's playing time . In the postseason , he collected just 10 hits in 56 at @-@ bats as the Cardinals fell to the Boston Red Sox in the 2013 World Series .
= = = Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim = = =
= = = = 2014 season = = = =
After the 2013 season , the Cardinals traded Freese and Fernando Salas to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim for Peter Bourjos and Randal Grichuk . Again eligible for salary arbitration for the 2014 season , Freese filed for a $ 6 million salary while the Angels countered with $ 4 @.@ 1 million ; they settled on a $ 5 @.@ 05 million salary . Freese had a slow start , ending May with a .203 batting average , and improved from June through August , batting .292 in those months . He hit a home run against the Kansas City Royals in the first game of the 2014 American League Division Series for his 24th postseason extra @-@ base hit and 30th RBI .
= = = = 2015 season = = = =
In his last year of arbitration before becoming eligible for free agency , Freese requested a $ 7 @.@ 6 million salary for the 2015 season , while the Angels filed for $ 5 @.@ 25 million . The two sides avoided arbitration by agreeing on a $ 6 @.@ 425 million salary . Freese entered the 2015 season as the Angels everyday third baseman , and hit .240 with 11 homers and 43 RBI in 90 games . He broke his right index finger when it was hit by a pitch on July 22 , and went on the disabled list .
= = = Pittsburgh Pirates = = =
Freese entered free agency after the 2015 season . Rather than re @-@ sign Freese , the Angels chose to trade for Yunel Escobar . Unsigned at the beginning of spring training in 2016 , Freese signed a one @-@ year contract with the Pittsburgh Pirates worth $ 3 million on March 11 . Neal Huntington , the Pirates ' general manager , indicated that Freese would play third base while Jung @-@ ho Kang rehabilitated from an injury , and would join John Jaso in a platoon at first base after Kang 's return .
= = Personal life = =
Freese 's father , Guy , is a civil engineer . His mother , Lynn , is a retired teacher . Freese also has a sister , Pam . According to his mother , Freese — a professed lifelong Cardinals fan — had an original Ozzie Smith glove , and while pitching in his younger years always used number 45 in honor of another Cardinals legend , pitcher Bob Gibson . Freese is a Christian . He is of German descent , the Freese family originally hailing from Westerkappeln , Westphalia .
In December 2009 , Freese was arrested for driving under the influence in Maryland Heights , Missouri , a suburb of St. Louis . Breath tests indicated a .232 blood alcohol content ; the state 's legal limit is .08 . Freese had also been arrested in November 2002 in Maryland Heights for driving while intoxicated . The 2009 arrest was a violation of Freese 's probation , due to a September 2007 arrest for resisting arrest ( amongst other charges ) in Lake Elsinore , California .
Freese crashed his Range Rover SUV into a tree in Wildwood , Missouri , a suburb of St. Louis , on November 22 , 2012 . Local investigators stated that the crash was a result of Freese 's swerving to avoid hitting a wild deer . Alcohol was not a factor in the crash .
In June 2013 , Freese signed a three @-@ year deal to endorse and serve as spokesman for Imo 's Pizza , a Midwestern pizza chain headquartered in the St. Louis area . No financial terms of the deal were announced other than as part of the contract Imo 's would also donate $ 10 @,@ 000 to a St. Louis area charity in Freese 's name .
During the offseason , he lives in St. Louis .
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= Richard Mentor Johnson =
Richard Mentor Johnson ( October 17 , 1780 [ a ] – November 19 , 1850 ) was the ninth Vice President of the United States , serving in the administration of Martin Van Buren ( 1837 – 41 ) . He is the only vice president ever elected by the United States Senate under the provisions of the Twelfth Amendment . Johnson also represented Kentucky in the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate ; he began and ended his political career in the Kentucky House of Representatives .
Johnson was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1806 . He became allied with fellow Kentuckian Henry Clay as a member of the War Hawks faction that favored war with Britain in 1812 . At the outset of the War of 1812 , Johnson was commissioned a colonel in the Kentucky Militia and commanded a regiment of mounted volunteers from 1812 to 1813 . He and his brother James served under William Henry Harrison in Upper Canada . Johnson participated in the Battle of the Thames . Some reported that he personally killed the Shawnee chief Tecumseh , which he later used to his political advantage .
After the war , Johnson returned to the House of Representatives . The legislature appointed him to the Senate in 1819 to fill the seat vacated by John J. Crittenden . As his prominence grew , his interracial relationship with Julia Chinn , an octoroon slave , was more widely criticized . It worked against his political ambitions . Unlike other upper class leaders who had African American mistresses but never mentioned them , Johnson openly treated Chinn as his common law wife . He acknowledged their two daughters as his children , giving them his surname , much to the consternation of some of his constituents . The relationship is believed to have led to the loss of his Senate seat in 1829 , but his Congressional district returned him to the House the next year .
In 1836 , Johnson was the Democratic nominee for vice @-@ president on a ticket with Martin Van Buren . Campaigning with the slogan " Rumpsey Dumpsey , Rumpsey Dumpsey , Colonel Johnson killed Tecumseh " , Johnson fell just short of the electoral votes needed to secure his election . Virginia 's delegation to the Electoral College went against the state 's popular vote and refused to endorse Johnson . However , he was elected to the office by the Senate , which was dominated by Democrats .
Johnson proved such a liability for the Democrats in the 1836 election that they refused to renominate him for vice @-@ president in 1840 . Van Buren campaigned without a running mate . He lost to William Henry Harrison , a Whig . Johnson tried to return to public office but was defeated . He finally was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1850 , but he died on November 19 , 1850 , just two weeks into his term .
= = Early life and education = =
Richard Mentor Johnson was born on October 17 , 1780 , the fifth of Robert and Jemima ( Suggett ) Johnson 's eleven children . At the time , the family was living in the newly founded settlement of " Beargrass " , near present @-@ day Louisville , Kentucky ; Kentucky was part of Virginia until organized and admitted as a state in 1792 .
By 1782 , the Johnsons had moved to Bryan 's Station ( future Lexington ) in Fayette County . Johnson 's mother was considered among the heroic women of the community because of her actions during Simon Girty 's raid on Bryan 's Station in August 1782 . According to tradition , as Girty 's forces surrounded the fort , the occupants discovered that they had almost no water inside to withstand a siege . Several Indians had concealed themselves near the spring outside the fort . The Kentuckians reasoned that the Indians would stay hidden until they attacked . Jemima Johnson approved a plan for the women to go alone and collect water from the spring as usual . Many men disapproved of the plan , fearing the women would be attacked and killed . However , faced with no other option they finally agreed . Shortly after sunrise , the women went to the spring and returned without incident .
Not long after they had returned , the attack began . Indian warriors set fire to several houses and stables , but a favorable wind kept the fires from spreading . Children used the water drawn by the women to put out the fires . A flaming arrow landed in baby Richard Johnson 's crib , but it was doused by his sister Betsy . Help arrived from Lexington and Boone Station , and the Indians retreated .
By 1784 , the Johnson family was at Great Crossing in Scott County . In 1779 , Johnson purchased 2000 acres from Patrick Henry and a large portion of James Madison 's 3000 @-@ acre land grant in the area . As a surveyor , Robert Johnson became successful through well @-@ chosen land purchases and being early in the region when huge land grants were made .
The son Richard Johnson did not begin his formal education until age fifteen , since there were no schools on the frontier . He entered Transylvania University in Lexington , Kentucky . By 1799 , he was studying law ( reading the law ) as a legal apprentice with George Nicholas and James Brown . They were professors of law at the University in addition to being in private practice . This was the customary way for many young men to enter the law .
At least two of Johnson 's brothers had notable careers as well : the eldest , James Johnson , went into shipping and stagecoach lines . A younger brother , John T. Johnson , became a minister and prominent in the Christian Churches , a 19th @-@ century movement in the Protestant congregations .
= = Career = =
Johnson was admitted to the Kentucky bar in 1802 , and opened his office at Great Crossing . Later , he owned a retail store and pursued a number of business ventures with his brothers . Johnson often worked pro bono for poor people , prosecuting their cases when they had merit . He also opened his home to disabled veterans , widows , and orphans .
= = Marriage and family = =
Family tradition holds that Johnson broke off an early marital engagement when he was about sixteen years old because of his mother 's disapproval . Purportedly Johnson vowed revenge for his mother 's interference . Despite the fact that the engagement was broken off , a daughter named Celia was born . She was raised by the Johnson family and later married to Wesley Fancher , one of the men who served in Johnson 's regiment at the Battle of the Thames .
After his father died , Richard Johnson inherited Julia Chinn , an octoroon slave ( one @-@ eighth African , seven @-@ eighths European in ancestry ) . Johnson began a long @-@ term relationship with her and treated her as his common @-@ law wife . They were prohibited from marrying because she was a slave . When Johnson was away from his Kentucky plantation , he authorized Chinn to manage his business affairs . She died in an epidemic of cholera in the summer of 1833 , to Johnson 's great grief .
Johnson and Chinn had two daughters , Adaline ( or Adeline ) Chinn Johnson and Imogene Chinn Johnson , whom he acknowledged and gave his surname . He provided for their education . Both daughters married white men . Johnson gave them large farms as dowries from his own holdings . There is confusion about whether Adeline Chinn Scott had children ; a 2007 account by the Scott County History Museum said she had at least one son , Robert Johnson Scott . Meyers said that she was childless . There is also disagreement about the year of her death . Bevins writes that Adeline died in the 1833 cholera epidemic . Meyers wrote she died in 1836 . The Library of Congress notes that she died in February 1836 .
Although Johnson treated these two daughters as his own , according to Meyers , the surviving Imogene was prevented from inheriting his estate at the time of his death . The court noted she was illegitimate , and so without rights in the case . Upon Johnson 's death , the Fayette County Court found that " he left no widow , children , father , or mother living . " It divided his estate between his living brothers , John and Henry .
Bevins ' account , written for the Georgetown & Scott County Museum , says that Adeline 's son Robert Johnson Scott ; a nephew , Richard M. Johnson , Jr . ; and Imogene 's family " acquired " Johnson 's remaining land after his death . This could mean that his brothers settled some property on Adeline 's son and Imogene and her husband Daniel , as well as Johnson 's nephew , but such generosity would have been unusual for white families to extend to an interracial branch of the family at the time .
After his wife 's death , Johnson began an intimate relationship with another family slave . When she left him for another man , Johnson had her picked up and sold at auction . Afterward he began a similar relationship with her sister , also a slave .
= = Political career = =
Johnson entered politics in 1804 , when he was elected to represent Scott County in the Kentucky House of Representatives . He was twenty @-@ three years old . Although the Kentucky Constitution imposed an age requirement of twenty @-@ four for members of the House of Representatives , Johnson was so popular that no one raised questions about his age , and he was allowed to take his seat . He was placed on the Committee on Courts of Justice . During his tenure , he supported legislation to protect settlers from land speculators . On January 26 , 1807 , he delivered an address condemning the Burr conspiracy .
In 1806 , Johnson was elected as a Democratic @-@ Republican to the United States House of Representatives . At the time of his election in August 1806 , he did not meet the U.S. Constitution 's age requirement for service in the House ( 25 ) , but by the time the congressional session began the following March , he met the required age . He was re @-@ elected and served six consecutive terms . From 1807 to 1813 , he represented Kentucky 's Fourth District .
He secured one of Kentucky 's at @-@ large seats in the House from 1813 to 1815 , and represented Kentucky 's Third District from 1815 to 1819 . He continued to represent the interests of the poor as a member of the House . He first came to national attention with his opposition to rechartering the First Bank of the United States .
Johnson served as chairman of the Committee on Claims during the Eleventh Congress ( 1809 – 1811 ) . The committee was charged with adjudicating financial claims made by veterans of the Revolutionary War . He sought to influence the committee to grant the claim of Alexander Hamilton 's widow to wages which Hamilton had declined when serving under George Washington . Although Hamilton was a champion of the rival Federalist Party , Johnson had compassion for Hamilton 's widow ; before the end of his term , he secured payment of the wages .
= = = War of 1812 = = =
The War of 1812 was extraordinarily popular in Kentucky ; Kentuckians depended on sea trade through the port of New Orleans and feared that the British would stir up another Indian war . [ b ] After the election of 1808 , Johnson was one of the War Hawks , a group of legislators who clamored for war with the British .
Congress declared war in June 1812 , and after its adjournment , Johnson returned to Kentucky to recruit volunteers . So many men responded that he chose only those with horses , and raised a body of mounted rifles . Johnson recruited 300 men , divided into three companies , who elected him major . They merged with another battalion , forming a regiment of 500 men , with Johnson as colonel . [ c ]
Johnson 's force was originally intended to join General William Hull at Detroit , but Hull surrendered Detroit on August 16 and his army was captured . Johnson reported to William Henry Harrison , Territorial Governor of Indiana , then in command of the entire Northwest frontier . He was ordered to relieve Fort Wayne in the northeast of the Territory , which was already being attacked by the Indians . On September 18 , 1812 , Johnson 's men reached Fort Wayne in time to save it , and turned back an Indian ambush . They returned to Kentucky and disbanded , going out of their way to burn Potawatomi villages along the Elkhart River .
Johnson returned to his seat in Congress in the late fall of 1812 . Based on his experience , he proposed a plan to defeat the mobile , guerrilla warfare of the Indians . American troops moved slowly , dependent on a supply line . Indians would evade battle and raid supplies until the American forces withdrew or were overrun . Mounted riflemen could move quickly , carry their own supplies , and live off the woods . If they attacked Indian villages in winter , the Indians would be compelled to stand and fight for the supplies they used to wage war , and could be decisively defeated . Johnson submitted this plan to President James Madison and Secretary of War John Armstrong , who approved it in principle . They referred the plan to Harrison , who found winter operations impracticable . Johnson was permitted to try the tactics in the summer of 1813 ; later the US conducted Indian wars in winter with his strategy .
Johnson left Washington , D.C. just before Congress adjourned . He raised one thousand men , nominally part of the militia brigade under Kentucky Governor Isaac Shelby , but largely operating independently . He disciplined his men , required that every man have arms in prime condition and ready to hand , and hired gunsmiths , blacksmiths , and doctors at his own expense . He devised a new tactical system : when any group of men encountered the enemy , they were to dismount , take cover , and hold the enemy in place . All groups not in contact were to ride to the sound of firing , and dismount , surrounding the enemy when they got there . Between May and September , Johnson raided throughout the Northwest , burning the war supply centers of Indian villages , surrounding Indian fighting units and scattering them , killing some Indian warriors each time .
In September , Oliver Hazard Perry destroyed most of the British fleet at the Battle of Lake Erie , taking control of the lake . This put the British army , then at Fort Malden ( now Amherstburg , Ontario ) out of supply , and threatened to cut it off from the rest of Canada by a landing to the east . The British , under General Henry Procter , withdrew to the northeast , followed by Harrison , who had advanced through Michigan while Johnson kept the Indians engaged . The Indian chiefTecumseh and his tribe , hired as mercenaries , covered the British retreat , but were countered by Johnson , who had been called back from a raid on Kaskaskia that had taken the post where the British had distributed arms and money to their hired Indians .. Johnson 's cavalry defeated Tecumseh 's main force on September 29 , took British supply trains on October 3 , and was one of the factors inducing Procter to stand and fight at the Battle of the Thames on October 5 , as Tecumseh had been demanding he do .
At the battle itself , Johnson 's forces were the first to attack . One battalion of five hundred men , under Johnson 's elder brother , James Johnson , engaged the British force of eight hundred regulars ; simultaneously , Richard Johnson , with the other , now somewhat smaller battalion , attacked the fifteen hundred Indians led by Tecumseh . There was too much tree cover for the British volleys to be effective against James Johnson ; three quarters of the regulars were killed or captured .
The Indians were a harder fight ; they were out of the main field of battle , skirmishing on the edge of an adjacent swamp . Richard Johnson eventually ordered a suicide squad of twenty men to ride forward and draw the Indians ' fire , planning to charge with the rest as they reloaded . But the ground before the Indian position was too swampy to support many cavalry . Johnson had to order his men to dismount and hold until Shelby 's infantry came up . But eventually they broke , and fled into the swamp . At some point in that fight , Tecumseh was slain .
Richard Johnson was credited later with killing Tecumseh personally . Indian reports were that Tecumseh was killed by a man on horseback , and Johnson was one of the few mounted men at that side of the battle . ( His own men had dismounted , and Shelby 's were infantry . ) Furthermore , Johnson , who had been wounded four times already , had been shot in the shoulder by an Indian chief who was advancing to tomahawk Johnson , when he shot back and killed the Indian instantly with a single pistol shot . A nineteenth @-@ century source asserts that Tecumseh 's body was found , near Johnson 's hat and scabbard , shot from above ( as from horseback ) , and wounded with Johnson 's usual load of two buckshot and a pistol ball . [ d ]
Johnson fell unconscious after this duel and was dragged from the battlefield ; in addition to his five wounds , twenty other bullets had hit his horse and gear . But the war in the Northwest was over . Although there was no organized resistance to his presence in Canada , Harrison withdrew to Detroit because of supply problems . ( The Canadians would not feed his men . ) Johnson eventually recovered , except for a crippled hand , but he was still suffering from his wounds when he returned to the House in February 1814 .
On April 4 , 1818 an act of Congress requested that the President of the United States present to Johnson a sword in honor of his " daring and distinguished valor " at the Battle of the Thames . Johnson was only one of 14 military officers to be presented a sword by an act of Congress prior to the American Civil War .
In August 1814 , British forces attacked Washington , D.C. and burned the White House . Congress formed a committee to investigate the circumstances that allowed Washington to be captured . Johnson chaired this committee , and delivered its final report . After the sacking of Washington , the tide of battle turned against the British , and the Treaty of Ghent ended the war even as Johnson prepared to return to Kentucky to raise another military unit . With the end of the war , he turned his legislative attention to issues such as securing pensions for widows and orphans and funding internal improvements in the West .
= = = Post @-@ war career in the House = = =
Johnson believed that Congressional business was too slow and tedious , and that the per diem system of compensation encouraged delays on the part of members . To remedy this , he sponsored the Compensation Act of 1816 . The measure proposed paying annual salaries of $ 1 @,@ 500 to congressmen rather than a $ 6 per diem for the days the body was in session . ( At the time , this had the effect of increasing the total compensation from about $ 900 to $ 1500 . Johnson noted that congressmen had not had a pay increase in 27 years , and that $ 1500 was less than the salaries of the 28 clerks employed by the government . ) Johnson 's bill provided that if a congressman was absent , his salary would be reduced proportionally .
The bill passed the House and Senate quickly and was made law on March 19 , 1816 . But , the measure proved extremely unpopular with voters , in part because it applied to the current Congress . [ e ] Many legislators who supported the bill lost their congressional seats as a result , including Johnson 's colleague Solomon P. Sharp from Kentucky . Johnson 's popularity in other matters helped him retain his seat . Two days into the next session , he recanted his support for the law . It was repealed in that session , and in its place , legislators passed an increase in the per diem salary .
President James Monroe 's first choice for Secretary of War was Henry Clay , who declined the office . When Johnson also declined to serve , the post ultimately went to John C. Calhoun . The result was that Johnson became chair of the Committee on Expenditures where he wielded considerable influence over defense policy in the Department of War during the Fifteenth Congress . In 1817 , Congress investigated General Andrew Jackson 's execution of two British subjects during the First Seminole War . Johnson chaired the inquiry committee . The majority of the committee favored a negative report and a censure for Jackson . Johnson , a Jackson supporter , drafted a counter report that was more favorable to Jackson and opposed the censure . The ensuing debate pitted Johnson against fellow Kentuckian Henry Clay . Johnson 's report prevailed , and Jackson was spared censure . This disagreement between Johnson and Clay , however , marked the beginning of a political separation between the two that lasted for the duration of their careers .
In 1818 , Calhoun approved an expedition to build a military outpost near the present site of Bismarck , North Dakota on the Yellowstone River ; Johnson awarded the contract to his brother James . Although the Yellowstone Expedition was an ultimate failure and expensive to the U.S. Treasury , the Johnsons escaped political ill will in their home district because the venture was seen as a peacekeeping endeavor on the frontier .
= = = Senator = = =
Johnson announced his intent to retire from the House in early 1818 . In December 1818 , the state legislature was to elect a replacement for outgoing senator Isham Talbot . Johnson lost the election by twelve votes to William Logan despite the fact that he never officially declared his candidacy . It was reported in the local newspapers that Johnson 's friends intended to nominate him for governor in the 1820 election .
Johnson 's term in the House expired March 3 , 1819 , but by August , he had returned to the state legislature where he helped secure passage of a law that abolished imprisonment for debtors in Kentucky . In December 1819 , he resigned his post in the state legislature to fill the Senate seat vacated by the resignation of John J. Crittenden . He was re @-@ elected to a full term in 1822 , so that in total , his Senate tenure ran from December 10 , 1819 to March 4 , 1829 . In 1821 , he introduced legislation chartering Columbian College ( later The George Washington University ) in Washington , D.C.
There had been inflation after the War of 1812 , and the establishment of the Second Bank of the United States . In these times , when paper currency was privatized , this took the form of wildcat banks . Johnson , like many other Kentuckians , was caught in the ensuing financial collapse , the Panic of 1819 . He took a strong part in the politically popular struggle for debt relief , and some form of bankruptcy legislation , called the Relief War , which would help his own problems and those of his neighbors .
Part of Johnson 's campaign for relief was the abolition of the practice of debt imprisonment nationwide . It would take him nearly ten years to see this goal accomplished . He first spoke to the issue in the Senate on December 14 , 1822 , introducing a bill to end the practice , and pointing to the positive effects its cessation had effected in his home state . The bill failed , but Johnson persisted in re @-@ introducing it every year . In 1824 , it passed the Senate , but was too late to be acted upon by the House . It passed the Senate a second time in 1828 , but again , the House failed to act on it , and the measure died for some years , owing to Johnson 's exit from the Senate the next year .
Already known for securing government contracts for himself , as well as his brothers and friends , he offered land to establish the Choctaw Academy , a school devoted to the European @-@ American education of Indians from the Southeast tribes . It was built on his farm in Scott County in 1825 . Although he never ran afoul of the conflict of interest standards of his day , some of his colleagues considered his actions ethically questionable . Johnson was paid well for the school by the federal government , which gave him a portion of the annuities for the Choctaw . It was promoted by the Baptist Missionary Society as well . Some European @-@ American students also attended the Academy , including his nephew Robert Ward Johnson from Arkansas .
Another pet project Johnson supported was prompted by his friendship with John Cleves Symmes , Jr . , who proposed that the Earth was hollow . In 1823 , Johnson proposed in the Senate that the government fund an expedition to the center of the Earth . The proposal was soundly defeated , receiving only twenty @-@ five votes in the House and Senate combined .
Johnson served as chairman of the Committee on Post Office and Post Roads during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Congresses . Near the end of his term in the Senate , petitioners asked Congress to prevent the handling and delivery of mail on Sunday because it violated biblical principles about not working on the Sabbath . These petitions were referred to Johnson 's committee . In response , Johnson , a practicing Baptist , drafted a report now commonly referred to as The Sunday Mail Report In the report , presented to Congress on January 19 , 1829 , Johnson argued that government was " a civil , and not a religious institution " , and as such could not legislate the tenets of any particular denomination . The report was applauded as an elegant defense of the doctrine of separation of church and state . But , Johnson was criticized for conflict of interest in his defense , as he had friends who were contracted to haul mail , and who would have suffered financially from banning of Sunday deliveries .
In 1828 , Johnson was an unsuccessful candidate for re @-@ election , owing in part to his relationship with the octaroon slave Julia Chinn , with whom he lived in a common @-@ law marriage . Although members of his own district seemed little bothered by the arrangement , slaveholders elsewhere in the state were not so forgiving . In his own defense , Johnson said , " Unlike Jefferson , Clay , Poindexter and others I married my wife under the eyes of God , and apparently He has found no objections . " ( Note : The named men were suspected or known to have similar relationships with slave women . ) According to Henry Robert Burke , what people objected to was Johnson trying to introduce his daughters to " polite society " . People were used to planters and overseers having relationships with slave women , but they were expected to deny them .
= = = Return to the House = = =
After his failed Senatorial re @-@ election bid , Johnson returned to the House , representing Kentucky 's Fifth District from 1829 to 1833 , and Thirteenth District from 1833 to 1837 . During the Twenty @-@ first and Twenty @-@ second Congresses , he again served as chairman of the Committee on Post Office and Post Roads . In this capacity , he was again asked to address the question of Sunday mail delivery . He drew up a second report , largely similar in content to the first , arguing against legislation preventing mail delivery on Sunday . The report , commonly called " Col. Johnson 's second Sunday mail report " , was delivered to Congress in March 1830 .
Some contemporaries doubted Johnson 's authorship of this second report . Many claimed it was instead written by Amos Kendall . Kendall claimed he had seen the report only after it had been drafted and said he had only altered " one or two words . " Kendall speculated that the author could be Reverend O.B. Brown , but historian Leland Meyer concludes that there is no reason to doubt that Johnson authored the report himself .
Johnson chaired the Committee on Military Affairs during the Twenty @-@ second , Twenty @-@ third , and Twenty @-@ fourth Congresses . Beginning in 1830 , there arose a groundswell of public support for Johnson 's " pet project " of ending debt imprisonment . The subject began to appear more frequently in President Jackson 's addresses to the legislature . Johnson chaired a House committee to report on the subject , and delivered the committee 's report on January 17 , 1832 . Later that year , a bill abolishing the practice of debt imprisonment passed both houses of Congress , and was signed into law on July 14 .
Johnson 's stands won him widespread popularity and endorsement by George H. Evans , Robert Dale Owen , and Theophilus Fisk for the presidency in 1832 , but Johnson abandoned his campaign when Andrew Jackson announced he would seek a second term . He then began campaigning to become Jackson 's running mate , but Jackson favored Martin Van Buren instead . At the Democratic National Convention , Johnson finished a distant third in the vice @-@ presidential balloting , receiving only the votes of the Kentucky , Indiana , and Illinois delegations ; William B. Lewis had to persuade him to withdraw
= = = Election of 1836 = = =
After the election of 1832 , Johnson continued to campaign for the Vice Presidency which would be available in 1836 ; he was endorsed by the New York labor leader Ely Moore on March 13 , 1833 , nine days after Jackson and Van Buren were inaugurated . Moore praised his devotion to freedom of religion and his opposition to imprisonment for debt . [ f ]
William Emmons , the Boston printer , published a biography of Johnson in New York dated July 1833 . Richard Emmons , from Great Crossing , Kentucky , followed this up with a play entitled Tecumseh , of the Battle of the Thames and a poem in honor of Johnson . Many of Johnson 's friends and supporters – Davy Crockett and John Bell among them – encouraged him to run for president . Jackson , however , supported Vice @-@ President Van Buren for the office . Johnson accepted this choice , and worked to gain the nomination for vice @-@ president .
Emmons ' poem provided the line that became Johnson 's campaign slogan : " Rumpsey Dumpsey , Rumpsey Dumpsey , Colonel Johnson killed Tecumseh . " Jackson supported Johnson for vice @-@ president , thinking that the war hero would balance the ticket with Van Buren , who had not served in the War of 1812 . Jackson made his decision based on Johnson 's loyalty but also the president 's anger at the primary rival , William Cabell Rives .
Despite Jackson 's support , the party was far from united behind Johnson . Van Buren preferred Rives as a running mate . In a letter to Jackson , Tennessee Supreme Court justice John Catron doubted that " a lucky random shot , even if it did hit Tecumseh , qualifies a man for the vice presidency " . Although Johnson was a " widower " , after Chinn 's death in 1833 , there was still dissension related to Johnson 's open relationship with a slave . The 1835 Democratic National Convention , in Baltimore , in May 1835 , was held under the two @-@ thirds rule , largely to demonstrate Van Buren 's wide popularity . Although Van Buren was nominated unanimously , Johnson barely obtained the necessary two thirds of the vote . ( A motion was made to change the rule , but it obtained only a bare majority , not two thirds . )
Tennessee 's delegation did not attend the convention . Edward Rucker , a Tennessean who happened to be in Baltimore , was picked to cast its 15 votes , so that all the states would endorse Van Buren . Senator Silas Wright , of New York , prevailed upon Rucker to vote for Johnson , giving him just more than twice the votes cast for Rives , and the nomination .
Jackson 's faith in Johnson to balance the ticket proved misplaced . In the general election , Johnson cost the Democrats votes in the South , where his relationship with Chinn was particularly unpopular . He also failed to garner much support from the West , where he was supposed to be strong due to his reputation as an Indian fighter and war hero . He even failed to deliver his home state of Kentucky for the Democrats . Regardless , the Democrats still won the popular vote .
When the electoral vote was counted in Congress on February 8 , 1837 , Van Buren was found to have received 170 votes for president , but Johnson had received only 147 for vice @-@ president . Although Virginia had elected electors pledged to both Van Buren and Johnson , the state 's 23 " faithless electors " refused to vote for Johnson , leaving him one electoral vote short of a majority . For the only time , the Senate was charged with electing the Vice President under the provisions of the Twelfth Amendment . The vote divided strictly along party lines , with Johnson becoming vice @-@ president by a vote of 36 , as opposed to 16 for Whig Francis Granger , with three senators absent .
= = = Vice Presidency = = =
Johnson served as Vice President from March 4 , 1837 , to March 4 , 1841 . His term was largely unremarkable , and he enjoyed little influence with President Van Buren . His penchant for wielding his power for his own interests did not abate . He lobbied the Senate to promote Samuel Milroy , whom he owed a favor , to the position of Indian agent . When Lewis Tappan requested presentation of an abolitionist petition to the Senate , Johnson , who was still a slaveholder , declined the request .
As presiding officer of the Senate , Johnson was called on to cast a tie @-@ breaking vote fourteen times , more than all of his predecessors save John Adams and John Calhoun . Despite the precedent set by some of his predecessors , Johnson never addressed the Senate on the occasion of a tie @-@ breaking vote ; he did once explain his vote via an article in the Kentucky Gazette .
After the financial Panic of 1837 , Johnson took a nine @-@ month leave of absence , during which he returned home to Kentucky and opened a tavern and spa on his farm to offset his continued financial problems . Upon visiting the establishment , Amos Kendall wrote to President Van Buren that he found Johnson " happy in the inglorious pursuit of tavern keeping – even giving his personal superintendence to the chicken and egg purchasing and water @-@ melon selling department " .
In his later political career , he became known for wearing a bright red vest and tie . He adopted this dress during his term as vice @-@ president when he and James Reeside , a mail contractor known for his drab dress , passed a tailor 's shop that displayed a bright red cloth in the window . Johnson suggested that Reeside should wear a red vest because the mail coaches he owned and operated were red . Reeside agreed to do so if Johnson would also . Both men ordered red vests and neckties , and were known for donning this attire for the rest of their lives .
= = = Election of 1840 = = =
By 1840 , it had become clear that Johnson was a liability to the Democratic ticket . Even former president Jackson conceded that Johnson was " dead weight " , and threw his support to James K. Polk . President Van Buren stood for re @-@ election , and the Whigs once again countered with William Henry Harrison . Van Buren was reluctant to drop Johnson from the ticket , fearing that dropping the Democrats ' own war hero would split the party and cost him votes to Harrison . A unique compromise ensued , with the Democratic National Convention refusing to nominate Johnson , or any other candidate , for vice @-@ president . The idea was to allow the states to choose their own candidates , or perhaps return the question to the Senate should Van Buren be elected with no clear winner in the vice @-@ presidential race .
Undaunted by this lack of confidence from his peers , Johnson continued to campaign to retain his office . Although his campaign was more vigorous than that of Van Buren , his behavior on the campaign trail raised concern among voters . He made rambling , incoherent speeches . During one speech in Ohio , he raised his shirt in order to display to the crowd the wounds he received during the Battle of the Thames . Charges he leveled against Harrison in Cleveland were so poorly received that they touched off a riot in the city .
In the end , Johnson received only forty @-@ eight electoral votes . One elector from Virginia and all eleven from South Carolina voted for Van Buren for president but selected someone other than Johnson for vice @-@ president . Johnson lost his home state of Kentucky again and added to the embarrassment by losing his home district as well .
= = Later life and death = =
After his term as vice @-@ president , Johnson returned to Kentucky to tend to his farm and oversee his tavern . He again represented Scott County in the Kentucky House from 1841 to 1843 . In 1845 , he served as a pallbearer when Daniel Boone was re @-@ interred in Frankfort Cemetery .
Johnson never gave up on a return to public service . He ran an unsuccessful campaign for the U.S. Senate against John J. Crittenden in 1842 . He briefly and futilely sought his party 's nomination for president in 1844 . He also ran as an independent candidate for Governor of Kentucky in 1848 , but after talking with the Democratic candidate , Lazarus W. Powell , who had replaced Linn Boyd on the ticket , Johnson decided to drop out and back Powell . Some speculated that the real object of this campaign was to secure another nomination to the vice @-@ presidency , but this hope was denied .
Johnson finally returned to elected office in 1850 , when he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives . By this time , however , his physical and mental health was already failing . On November 9 , the Louisville Daily Journal reported that " Col. R. M. Johnson is laboring under an attack of dementia , which renders him totally unfit for business . It is painful to see him on the floor attempting to discharge the duties of a member . He is incapable of properly exercising his physical or mental powers . "
He died of a stroke on November 19 , just two weeks into his term . He was interred in the Frankfort Cemetery , in Frankfort , Kentucky . Ruling that his surviving daughter Imogene was illegitimate , the Frankfort County Court split his estate between his brothers John and Henry .
= = Legacy = =
The counties of five U.S. states bear Johnson 's name , namely in Illinois , Iowa , Kentucky , Missouri , and Nebraska . Richard Mentor Johnson is also the namesake of Dick Johnson Township , Indiana .
His political prominence led to a family dynasty : his brothers James and John Telemachus Johnson , and his nephew Robert Ward Johnson were all elected to the House of Representatives , the first two from Kentucky , and Robert from Arkansas . Robert was later elected as a Senator before the Civil War .
= = Representation in other media = =
Johnson , Julia Chinn , and their daughters are featured as characters in Eric Flint 's alternate history novels , 1812 : The Rivers of War and 1824 : The Arkansas War .
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= Camak House =
Camak House , at 279 Meigs Street , Athens , Georgia , was built in about 1834 by James Camak and featured in Georgia 's early railroad history . An example of Federal architecture , it has a number of features unusual for its period , including a kitchen within the raised basement and closets . Both main floors have four rooms ; the stairwell has a mahogany railing , and moldings and trim were made using a Greek key pattern . After long service as a family home , it was used as a Masonic Lodge before being bought by Coca @-@ Cola Enterprises . In 1975 Camak House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places , but the building had by then fallen into disrepair . It was restored and used as the offices of a law firm . As of December 2011 , it is for sale .
= = Architecture and early history = =
Built atop a hill , Camak House was the first dwelling constructed on Prince Avenue ; Meigs Street was added later , cutting off a portion of the original property . The architecture is Federal style , " relatively unusual in Athens " , with locally produced ironwork in the front . The fanlight of the central doorway and the white @-@ washed brick construction are typical elements of the style . The house has two stories , with a " four @-@ over @-@ four room , central hall plan " – a style " based on the standard Greek Revival floor plan " with a " raised basement , a low @-@ hipped roof , and two @-@ story pilasters " . The basement originally housed slave quarters and the kitchen ; the hazard of fire made it unusual for houses of the period to include a kitchen , but because of Camak House 's brick construction the risk was thought to be low .
The floors were constructed using " knot @-@ free heart @-@ pine " , and solid mahogany was used for the railing of the stairwell . Details include silver @-@ plated doorknobs , " hand @-@ forged locks and latches " , and " a simple but visually striking Greek key pattern " for moldings and trim . Camak House was built with closets – a very unusual feature for the time .
Camak House was the location for a meeting to organize what became " the first successful railroad company in Georgia and only the third such company in the United States " . James Camak was named president of the company , and later served as the first president of Georgia Railroad Bank .
Five generations of Camaks lived in the house until 1947 . In her book Historic Houses of Athens , Charlotte Thomas Marshall notes that " It was not until 1904 , eleven years after Dr. Camak 's [ son of the James Camak who built the house ] death , that the first deed relating to the Camak house lot was recorded . At that time his sons , Louis and James Wellborn Camak , executed a quitclaim deed to their mother , Mary Wellborn Camak , acknowledging that the lot has been given to her by their father without a deed being made . " In 1949 , the house was purchased to serve as the Mount Vernon Lodge No. 22 , F. & A. M ( Masonic lodge ) ; then in 1979 by the Athens Coca @-@ Cola Bottling Company .
= = Restoration and current use = =
Albert Sams was president of the Athens Coca @-@ Cola Bottling Company when it acquired Camak House . He " was an active member of the Athens @-@ Clarke Heritage Foundation and a generous philanthropist , particularly with regard to historic houses " , and he planned to renovate Camak House for administrative offices ; corporate mergers ( ultimately with Coca @-@ Cola Enterprises ) in the 1980s ended those plans . However , it was the Sams family that sought Camak House 's listing on the National Register of Historic Places .
The house and grounds had fallen into decay by 1993 , when the Georgia Trust for Historic Preservation and the law firm of Winburn , Lewis and Barrow formed a partnership to purchase Camak House from Coca @-@ Cola Enterprises . The trust added protective covenants before selling the property on to the law firm , one of whose partners was John Barrow , who served as the " prime mover in these negotiations " . A local company , S & W Development Corp , whose owner , Smith Wilson had been working in historic preservation for 18 years , was contracted to carry out the restoration work . The original floor plans , which had been altered during the Masons ' tenure , were reinstated ; Wilson was able to use drawings made of Camak House during the 1930s as part of the Works Progress Administration 's documentation of historic buildings .
The house 's restoration for use as law offices has been described by Elizabeth Dalton of the Athens @-@ Clarke Heritage Foundation as " an excellent example of adaptive use " . As of 2011 , Camak House is owned by the law firm of Lewis , Frierson and Grayson , LLP .
= = Historic status = =
Camak House was listed as a " point of interest " in the WPA Guide to Georgia ( which characterized the architecture as Georgian Colonial ) . The Athens Historical Society dedicated a historical marker on the grounds in 1963 . The Historic American Buildings Survey documented Camak House ( GA @-@ 14 @-@ 67 ) ; on July 7 , 1975 , it was added to the National Register of Historic Places ; on March 6 , 1990 , it was locally designated a Historic Landmark ; and recognized by the Georgia Historical Marker Program ( 029 – 10 ) .
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= The Jakarta Post =
The Jakarta Post is a daily English language newspaper in Indonesia . The paper is owned by PT Bina Media Tenggara , and the head office is in the nation 's capital , Jakarta .
The Jakarta Post was started as a collaboration between four Indonesian media under the urging of Information Minister Ali Murtopo and politician Jusuf Wanandi . After the first issue was printed on 25 April 1983 , it spent several years with minimal advertisements and increasing circulation . After a change in chief editors in 1991 , it began to take a more vocal pro @-@ democracy point of view . The paper was one of the few Indonesian English @-@ language dailies to survive the 1997 Asian financial crisis and currently has a circulation of about 40 @,@ 000 .
The Jakarta Post also features both a Sunday and Online edition , which go into detail not possible in the daily print edition . It is targeted at foreigners and educated Indonesians , although the middle @-@ class Indonesian readership has increased . Noted for being a training ground for local and international reporters , The Jakarta Post has won several awards and been described as being " Indonesia 's leading English @-@ language daily " . The Jakarta Post is a member of Asia News Network .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and development = = =
The Jakarta Post was the brainchild of Information Minister Ali Murtopo and politician Jusuf Wanandi . Murtopo and Wanandi were disappointed at the perceived bias against Indonesia in foreign news sources . At the time , there were two English @-@ language dailies , the Indonesia Times and Indonesian Observer . However , due to negative public perception regarding the existing papers they decided to create a new one . In order to ensure credibility , the two agreed to convince a group of competing newspapers ( the Golkar @-@ backed Suara Karya , the Catholic @-@ owned Kompas , the Protestant @-@ owned Sinar Harapan , and the weekly Tempo ) to back the nascent paper . It was hoped to become a quality English @-@ language paper , similar to The Straits Times in Singapore , the Bangkok Post in Thailand , and the New Straits Times in Malaysia .
After founding PT Bina Media Tenggara to back the paper , Wanandi spent several months contacting influential figures at the targeted newspapers . To receive their cooperation , Kompas requested a 25 percent share in the new newspaper , for which it would handle the daily business operations , such as printing , circulation , and advertising . Tempo offered to assist with management in return for a 15 percent share , while Sabam Siagian of Sinar Harapan was hired as the first chief editor , for which Sinar Harapan received stock . The establishment of the paper was further aided by incoming Information Minister Harmoko , who received 5 percent interest for his role in acquiring a license . In total , the start @-@ up cost Rp . 500 million ( US $ 700 @,@ 000 at the time ) . Muhammad Chudori , a co @-@ founder of The Jakarta Post who formerly reported for Antara , became the newspaper 's first general manager .
Further details , including the matter of Sinar Harapan 's share of stock and the publisher , were decided at a meeting at Wanandi 's office in March 1983 . The next month , on 25 April , the first edition — totalling eight pages — was published . The first newsroom of the new paper were located in Kompas 's former laundry room , a one story warehouse ; the first employees had to do the layout by hand , using pica poles as straight edges . During the first few months , the writers translated and recycled previously published stories from Indonesian media , which were later picked up by foreign wire services . Original reporting was rare as the editors at first did not want to deal with the censorship of Suharto 's New Order government .
During the early years of publication , The Jakarta Post had difficulty attracting advertisers , to the point that some editions ran without ads . However , circulation increased dramatically , from 8 @,@ 657 in 1983 to 17 @,@ 480 in 1988 . Although it was originally hoped that the paper would begin to turn a profit within the first three years , the recession in the early 1980s led to the start @-@ up funds being depleted . Eventually , in 1985 the paper took out an interest @-@ free loan and received Rp . 700 million from its owners . After advertising increased , The Jakarta Post was able to turn a profit by 1988 , and was considered " one of the most credible newspapers " in Indonesia .
= = = Activism = = =
Susanto Pudjomartono , former chief editor of Tempo , became The Jakarta Post 's second chief editor on 1 August 1991 , after Siagian was chosen to be Indonesia 's ambassador to Australia . Under Pudjomartono 's leadership , the paper began publishing more original work and doing less translation ; reporters were also asked to take a more active role in the day @-@ to @-@ day operations of the paper . The paper also became more vocal regarding politics , taking a pro @-@ democracy stance like Tempo . It soon converted its offices into a new , two @-@ story building built using the Kompas pension fund and expanded to 12 pages .
In 1994 , The Jakarta Post signed a distribution agreement with the British news service Reuters and the American Dialog Information Services , allowing its stories to be more easily promoted overseas . By the mid @-@ 1990s , it had established a workshop to assist its new , foreign @-@ born staff in learning the local culture . By December 1998 , The Jakarta Post had a circulation of 41 @,@ 049 , and was one of the few English @-@ language dailies in Indonesia after the 1997 Asian financial crisis ; six other English @-@ language dailies had failed . That year it also became a founding member of the Asia News Network .
In November 2008 , The Jakarta Post began to feel competition , dubbed " a wake up call " , from the Jakarta Globe , which is backed by billionaire James Riady . Several reporters from The Jakarta Post left the paper to join the Jakarta Globe , and the initial print run of the latter was 40 @,@ 000 . As of 2011 , the chief editor is Meidyatama Suryodiningrat .
= = Editions and other publications = =
= = = Sunday edition = = =
The Jakarta Post 's Sunday edition was launched on 18 September 1994 . The Sunday edition includes more in @-@ depth stories , as well as entertainment and fiction that would not be published in the weekday editions .
= = = Online edition = = =
The Jakarta Post features an online edition , which includes both print and internet exclusive stories that are free to access . There are also news flashes that are developed as they happen . The paper hopes to digitise the entirety of its printed stories , with at least 50 @,@ 000 articles dating to June 1994 already digitised .
= = = Bali Daily = = =
On 9 April 2012 the Jakarta Post launched Bali Daily , a four pages daily newspaper produced in Bali , after noting that 4 @,@ 900 of their subscribers lived on the island .
= = Market = =
The Jakarta Post is targeted at Indonesian businesspeople , well @-@ educated Indonesians , and foreigners . In 1991 , 62 percent of the paper 's readers were expatriates . Under Pudjomartono 's leadership , it began targeting more Indonesian readers . As of 2009 , approximately half of its 40 @,@ 000 readers are middle class Indonesians .
= = Layout and style = =
The Jakarta Post follows a broadsheet format . In the beginning , it featured an index on the front page , as well as short offbeat stories under the title " This Odd World " . The lifestyle section had eight comic strips , and it used more photographs and graphics than was normal for Indonesian publications at that time . The editorials tended to be shorter than their Indonesian counterparts .
The Jakarta Post uses the inverted pyramid style of reporting , with the most important information at the beginning of the article ; during the 1980s , many Indonesian papers put the lede further down . Bill Tarrant attributes this to the different writing styles in English and Indonesian , with English favouring the active voice and direct statements , while respectful Indonesian favours the passive voice and a circuitous approach . Regarding this topic , Wanandi has said that " You cannot bullshit in English , like the Javanese way . "
= = Public opinion = =
Peter Gelling , of The New York Times , notes that The Jakarta Post has been considered a " training ground " for local reporters , and offers apprenticeship programs . In 2009 , six former The Jakarta Post reporters worked for Bloomberg . In 2014 the Jakarta Post was behind Kompas in terms of online visits .
= = Awards and recognition = =
In 2006 , the Reporters Union of Indonesia recognised The Jakarta Post as being one of the Indonesian newspapers that best followed the journalism ethics and standards ; other papers so recognised were Kompas and Indo Pos . The paper received the Adam Malik Award in January 2009 for their reporting on foreign politics ; the coverage was considered accurate and educated , with good analysis . The following year three reporters received the Adiwarta Award from Sampoerna for excellent photography in the fields of culture , law , and politics . Another journalist received the Adam Malik Award in 2014 for his writings which assisted the ministry to distribute information regarding foreign policy implementation .
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= Aberdeen F.C. =
Aberdeen Football Club ( also known as The Dons or The Reds ) are a Scottish professional football club based in Aberdeen , Scotland . They compete in the Scottish Premiership and have never been relegated from the top division of the Scottish football league system since they were promoted in 1905 . Aberdeen have won four Scottish league titles , seven Scottish Cups and six Scottish League Cups . They are also the only Scottish team to have won two European trophies , having won the European Cup Winners ' Cup and the European Super Cup in 1983 .
Formed in 1903 as a result of the amalgamation of three clubs from Aberdeen , they rarely challenged for honours until the post war decade , when they won each of the major Scottish trophies under manager Dave Halliday . This level of success was surpassed in the 1980s , when , under the management of Alex Ferguson , they won three league titles , four Scottish Cups and a Scottish League Cup , alongside the two European trophies . Aberdeen were the last club outside of the Old Firm to win a league title , in 1984 – 85 , and also the last Scottish team to win a European trophy . The team has enjoyed less success since this golden era , but a 19 @-@ year wait for a major trophy was ended by winning the 2013 – 14 Scottish League Cup .
Aberdeen have played at Pittodrie Stadium since their inception . The ground currently has a capacity of 20 @,@ 961 and was the first all @-@ seated and all @-@ covered stadium in the United Kingdom . Pittodrie was also the first football stadium to feature a dugout , an invention of player and coach Donald Colman . The club 's colours have been primarily red and white since 1939 ; before this , they played in black and gold vertical stripes . Aberdeen attract support from the city and surrounding areas , as they are the only senior team within a wide area . Aberdeen have no geographically close rivals ; their nearest neighbours at the same level are in the city of Dundee .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years ( 1903 – 1939 ) = = =
The current Aberdeen F.C. was formed following the merger of three clubs based in the city — Aberdeen , Victoria United and Orion — in 1903 . The new club played its first match on 15 August 1903 , a 1 – 1 draw with Stenhousemuir . That first season produced a win in the Aberdeenshire Cup , but only a third @-@ place finish in the Northern League . The club applied for membership of the Scottish League for the following season , and were elected to the Second Division , rather than the First .
In 1904 , the club were managed by Jimmy Philip . At the end of its first season , despite having finished seventh out of twelve teams , Aberdeen were elected to the new , expanded First Division . They have remained in the top tier of Scottish football ever since , a record shared only with Celtic . From 1906 , the club made steady progress , with a Scottish Cup semi @-@ final appearance in 1908 and another in 1911 . In that season of 1910 – 11 , Aberdeen recorded their first victories over the Old Firm , and led the league for a time , but finished the season in second place .
Wartime affected the club as much as any other ; despite spending cuts and other economies , by 1917 the situation became untenable . Aberdeen dropped out of competitive football , along with Dundee and Raith Rovers . Senior football returned on 16 August 1919 , and Aberdeen resumed with a fixture against Albion Rovers . Philip was still in charge , and continued to oversee a team capable of isolated good results , but never quite able to sustain a challenge long enough to win a trophy . In 1923 , Aberdeen were drawn against Peterhead in the Scottish Cup , and posted their record score — a 13 – 0 victory . Philip retired a year later , and was replaced as manager by Paddy Travers . He presided over the team 's first Scottish Cup final in 1937 .
Travers ' " trainer " — first team coach in modern parlance — was former player Donald Colman . Colman was regarded as a brilliant and innovative thinker about football , and conceived the dug @-@ out , a covered area set slightly below the level of the playing surface to better aid his observations . Everton visited Pittodrie soon after its introduction , and exported the idea to the English leagues , from where it spread throughout the football @-@ playing world . Travers left to become manager of Clyde in 1939 .
= = = Halliday to McNeill ( 1939 – 1978 ) = = =
Travers was replaced by Dave Halliday . Halliday went to his ex club Queen of the South to sign inside forward George Hamilton . This would be as shrewd a signing as Halliday would ever make . However Halliday had barely begun his work when the Second World War halted competitive football in the United Kingdom .
Halliday 's place in the Aberdeen Hall of Fame was secured after the war when he became the first manager to bring national trophies to Pittodrie . Aberdeen , now playing in red , won the Southern League Cup in the 1945 – 46 season , defeating Rangers 3 – 2 at Hampden . They then reached the 1947 Scottish Cup final , defeating Hibernian 2 – 1 with the inspirational Hamilton scoring to gain the club 's first major trophy . From this early success , Halliday 's side reached two more Scottish Cup finals , in 1953 and 1954 , although both were lost . Halliday 's team were not to be denied , however , and the following season , 1954 – 55 , Aberdeen won their first Scottish League title . Though league winners , the club did not participate in the first European Cup competition — Scotland 's place was awarded to Hibernian , who took part by special invitation .
Halliday and Hamilton left at the end of that championship @-@ winning season , Halliday replaced by Davie Shaw . Aberdeen won the League Cup under his guidance , beating St Mirren in 1955 – 56 , and reached another Scottish Cup final in 1959 . However , Shaw stepped aside for another former favourite player , Tommy Pearson , in 1959 . Pearson 's time in charge coincided with a high turnover of players , and yielded no trophies . He retired in 1965 , making way for Eddie Turnbull . Turnbull led Aberdeen to two Scottish Cup finals against Celtic , the first a loss in 1967 .
Aberdeen first played in Europe in the 1967 – 68 Cup Winner 's Cup , qualifying as runners @-@ up to Celtic in the Scottish Cup final . Their first tie was a 14 – 1 aggregate victory over KR Reykjavik , although they lost the second round tie with Standard Liège 3 – 2 on aggregate . Two years later , Derek " Cup @-@ tie " McKay recorded the only four goals of his Aberdeen career to help his team to the 1969 – 70 Scottish Cup , scoring the winning goals in the quarter- and semi final , and two in the final itself . As Scottish Cup holders , Aberdeen once again qualified for the same competition , but were eliminated in the first round following a 4 – 4 aggregate tie with Honvéd . This tie , level after extra time and also level on away goals , was decided by the first penalty shoot @-@ out in UEFA competition history , Honvéd winning the shootout 5 – 4 in Budapest .
The Aberdeen side of the 1970s regularly challenged for domestic honours . However , they rarely won trophies , with the exception of the Drybrough Cup in 1971 under Jimmy Bonthrone and the League Cup in 1976 , under Ally MacLeod . During this decade , Aberdeen had five managers : Eddie Turnbull , Jimmy Bonthrone , Ally MacLeod , Billy McNeill and Alex Ferguson . They reached two more national cup finals — the Scottish Cup in 1978 under Billy McNeill and the League Cup in the following season under the new manager Alex Ferguson .
= = = Alex Ferguson era ( 1978 – 1986 ) = = =
Under Ferguson 's guidance , the club won three league championships , four Scottish Cups , the European Cup Winner 's Cup , the European Super Cup , a League Cup , and a Drybrough Cup — all in the space of seven years . Players such as Jim Leighton , Willie Miller , Alex McLeish and Gordon Strachan became the backbone of the team . Aberdeen 's second League title was won in 1979 – 80 , and this initial success was built on , with Scottish Cup wins in three successive seasons from 1982 to 1984 , and two more league titles in 1983 – 84 and 1984 – 85 .
In the European Cup Winners ' Cup in 1983 Aberdeen beat FC Sion , Dinamo Tirana and Lech Poznań to face the German Cup winners Bayern Munich . This game was won 3 – 2 at Pittodrie after a goalless draw in Germany , John Hewitt with the winning goal . They then faced now defunct Belgian club Waterschei in the semi @-@ final . Aberdeen beat them 5 – 1 at home , and lost for the first time in the tournament , 1 – 0 away , resulting in an aggregate victory which sent Aberdeen to the final . On 11 May 1983 , Aberdeen beat Real Madrid 2 – 1 after extra time to win the cup and become only the third Scottish side to win a European trophy . The club released a song , " European Song " , to coincide with the appearance in the final . This was followed up with the capture of the European Super Cup in December , when Hamburger SV were beaten over two legs .
Aberdeen reached the semi @-@ finals of the 1983 – 84 European Cup Winners ' Cup , before losing to Porto 2 – 0 on aggregate . In the first round of the 1984 – 85 European Champion Club 's Cup Aberdeen lost to East Berlin side BFC Dynamo in a penalty shoot @-@ out 4 – 5 , following a 3 – 3 on aggregate in regular times . Today , both clubs enjoy friendly relations .
= = = Post @-@ Ferguson ( 1987 – 1999 ) = = =
After Ferguson moved south of the border to manage Manchester United in November 1986 , Aberdeen struggled to compete with Celtic and a resurgent Rangers .
Aberdeen signed new co @-@ managers in 1989 , pairing Alex Smith and Jocky Scott . A number of foreign players were signed , including Dutch internationals Theo Snelders and Hans Gillhaus . In the 1989 – 90 the club won both the Scottish Cup and the Scottish League Cup . In the 1990 – 91 they lost the last game of the season , and the league title , to Rangers . Former player Willie Miller took over in 1992 and presided over two seasons where Aberdeen came close to winning the title . However , he was sacked in 1995 after a bad season , and the club had to rely on a play @-@ off victory over Dunfermline Athletic to retain their Premier League status . Aberdeen replaced him with Roy Aitken . Despite a Scottish League Cup success beating Dundee in 1995 , the club continued to struggle . Alex Miller and Paul Hegarty had spells in charge in the late 1990s , but with the financial burden of a new stand putting the club into debt for the first time in its history , the directors turned to Stewart Milne , a local businessman whose firm had built the stand , to bring business acumen to the running of the club .
= = = Skovdahl to Brown ( 1999 – 2013 ) = = =
Aberdeen 's first ( and only to date ) non @-@ Scottish manager , Ebbe Skovdahl , was appointed in 1999 and his time in charge coincided with some of the heaviest defeats in the club 's history . The low point of the club 's history came in the 1999 – 2000 season , when they finished last in the Premier division . As the SPL was being expanded to 12 teams , there was then a three team play @-@ off . However , as Falkirk 's stadium did not meet SPL requirements , Aberdeen retained their status in the top flight . Subsequent to this , and with the club in debt for the first time following the construction of a new stand at one end of the ground , a policy of trying to live within their means has meant that the club has not approached the heights of the 1980s .
Steve Paterson was appointed to replace Skovdahl but lasted only two seasons . Paterson 's tenure with Aberdeen was marred by his abuse of alcohol . In March 2003 he failed to attend a home game against Dundee due to being too hungover after a night of binge drinking prior to the match .
Jimmy Calderwood took over in 2004 and Aberdeen posted more consistent results than in previous seasons . In the 2006 – 07 season , the club finished in third place in the league and entered the final qualifying round for the 2007 – 08 UEFA Cup . Aberdeen defeated Dnipro on the away goals rule to progress ( the first time Aberdeen had won on away goals in European football for 40 years ) . They went on to beat F.C. Copenhagen 4 – 0 , which was the biggest margin of victory and one of Pittodrie 's biggest crowds since the 1980s . This set up a meeting with German giants Bayern Munich , which they lost 7 – 3 on aggregate after a 2 – 2 draw which saw Aberdeen lead twice in the first leg . Calderwood was sacked by Aberdeen on 24 May 2009 , hours after he took the club to a fourth @-@ place finish and back into Europe . Poor domestic cup performances were thought to be the reason for Calderwood 's dismissal .
Mark McGhee of Motherwell was appointed as Calderwood 's replacement on 12 June 2009 . McGhee controversially dismissed Aberdeen legend and goalkeeping coach Jim Leighton in August 2009 and replaced him with Colin Meldrum . Aberdeen suffered a 9 – 0 defeat to Celtic on 6 November 2010 , their heaviest ever defeat . McGhee and his assistants were eventually sacked on 1 December 2010 .
Aberdeen approached Craig Brown , who was working without a contract at Motherwell , to replace McGhee . Brown initially rebuffed an offer made on 8 December 2010 ; but after further discussions with the club Brown resigned as manager at Motherwell to be announced as the next manager at Aberdeen on 10 December 2010 . The first act of the new management team of Brown and Archie Knox was to re @-@ instate Jim Leighton . Aberdeen failed to produce better results under Craig Brown 's tenure , and in March 2013 announced his retirement to take up a non @-@ executive director role on the club 's board .
= = = Recent years ( 2013 – present ) = = =
Derek McInnes was announced as the successor to Craig Brown in March 2013 . In McInnes ' first season as manager , Aberdeen won the 2013 – 14 Scottish League Cup after defeating Inverness 4 – 2 on penalties , their first trophy in 19 years . Aberdeen finished third in the Scottish Premiership , and began the next season by coming through the early rounds of the Europa League , beating Dutch club FC Groningen before eventually being eliminated by Spanish side Real Sociedad . The club ended the season in second place , their best league position since 1993 – 94 . In the following season 's Europa League , they were again defeated in the third round , this time by FC Kairat . Following a title challenge against Celtic , the team finished the league as runners @-@ up for the second year running .
= = Colours and crest = =
For the first season of the club 's existence , the team played in a predominantly white strip . This is variously reported as all @-@ white , or as white shirts with blue shorts and socks . This colour scheme was the direct descendant of the colours worn by the precursor Aberdeen club , but lasted only one season before being replaced .
For the 1904 – 05 season , Aberdeen adopted a black and gold striped shirt , which led to the team being nicknamed " Wasps " . This strip , with only minor variations , was worn until just before the start of the Second World War . The blue shorts lasted until 1911 , and then were replaced with white ones . Socks were black with gold trim , either as stripes or as a solid bar at the turndown .
In March 1939 , Aberdeen changed the black and gold colours to red and white , reflecting the silver and red colours of the official City of Aberdeen arms . The first red strips were worn with white shorts , with either red or white socks from 1939 until the 1965 – 66 season . In 1966 , Aberdeen adopted red shorts , making the official kit all @-@ red , similar to that of Liverpool , who made a similar change at around the same time . This arrangement has continued to the present day , with several variations in design , in common with most senior clubs as the replica shirt market has expanded . In the late 1970s an Admiral strip featured five vertical white stripes on the left side of the shirt and shorts , and the early 1980s shirts — as worn at the 1983 European Cup Winners Cup final — featured white vertical pinstripes . Later design changes included significant amounts of blue , and a one season reversion to white shorts , although the all @-@ red scheme returned in 1997 . For the 2012 – 13 season , Aberdeen once again reverted to wearing white shorts . In 2013 – 14 , the all @-@ red kit was reintroduced .
Shirt sponsorship began in 1987 , and the initial shirt sponsor was JVC . Since then , with the club making fewer appearances on the international stage , shirt sponsors have tended to be local to Aberdeen — they have included one of the local commercial radio stations , Northsound , as well as several Aberdeen @-@ based oil service companies . The current shirt sponsor is Saltire Energy .
Away colours have tended to be either white — often with black shorts — or a combination of yellow and black , referring back to the black and gold strips of the pre @-@ war era , although for a time in the 1970s , Aberdeen sported an all @-@ blue change strip with white socks . For the 2007 – 08 season , the change strip was all @-@ white , with a third kit of yellow and black halves available if needed for European games , or in the event of a clash involving both red and white .
The club did not have an official crest before 1972 , but several variations on the letters AFC had from time to time featured on the shirt , usually in some kind of cursive font . In November 1972 , the club unveiled an official crest or logo , designed by Aberdonian graphic designer Donald Addison . The design represented a capital letter A as the side view of a football goal , with a ball forming the crossbar of the letter . This ball was crosshatched in such a way as to depict it as being inside the net , signifying the scoring of a goal . The logo was completed by the letters FC in smaller type at a level with the ball element . This badge was used on the shirts from around 1978 , with no significant alterations until the mid @-@ 1980s when the words " Aberdeen Football Club " were added in a circular border , and the date of the club 's founding , 1903 , was added under the goal element . The current version of the crest , which retains these elements in a unified design , was introduced at the start of the 1997 – 98 season . Two stars signifying the winning of the two European trophies in 1983 were introduced over the badge in the 2005 – 06 season .
= = = Kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors = = =
= = Stadium = =
Aberdeen have played throughout their existence at Pittodrie Stadium , the name of which comes from the Pictish for " place of manure " . The ground was first used by the original Aberdeen F.C. in 1899 , in a 7 – 1 win over Dumbarton ; when they merged with two other teams in 1903 , the new club took over the old Aberdeen ground . On 15 August 1903 , 8 @,@ 000 spectators turned up to watch the new Aberdeen draw 1 – 1 against Stenhousemuir , the first game played at Pittodrie by its amalgamated tenants . The club initially rented the ground , but subsequently bought it in 1920 . The stadium currently seats 20 @,@ 961 . The record attendance is 45 @,@ 061 , during a Scottish Cup match between Aberdeen and Hearts on 13 March 1954 .
The stadium consists of four stands : the Main Stand , which also houses the club offices and players facilities ; the Merkland Road Family Stand ; the South Stand , which is opposite the main stand and holds the largest amount of spectators ; and the Richard Donald stand to the east , which was completed in 1993 , contains hospitality suites , and is named after former chairman Dick Donald . A quarter of the South Stand is used to accommodate travelling supporters . In 1978 , Pittodrie became the first all covered , all @-@ seater stadium in Britain .
= = = New Aberdeen Stadium = = =
Since 2009 , Aberdeen has been examining a move to a new stadium . Plans for a new stadium began when the club indicated that further development of Pittodrie Stadium was not possible due to the age of the ground and the restrictions from surrounding land . Aberdeen City Council approved an initial project in May 2009 , to be situated near Loirston Loch in the south of the city , subject to planning permission . In August 2010 , a planning application for the new stadium was submitted to the council , which was approved the following February .
The move was delayed by a year in May 2012 due to problems with land ownership , and suffered a serious setback the following August , when the council rejected a joint application by Aberdeen F.C. and Cove Rangers to build a community sports centre at nearby Calder Park . Aberdeen announced in November 2014 new plans to instead build training facilities at Balgownie , on land owned by the University of Aberdeen , but the project was ultimately scrapped in the following July .
Plans to develop a new stadium and training facilities near Westhill , close to the newly developed Aberdeen Western Peripheral Route , were announced in May 2016 . The site 's training facilities are scheduled to be operational by 2018 , while the stadium could be ready ahead of the 2019 – 20 season . The new stadium is expected to have a similar capacity to Pittodrie Stadium .
= = Supporters and nicknames = =
= = = Supporters = = =
Aberdeen 's supporters , known as the Red Army , are listed in the team squad list as wearing the number 12 shirt . In 1999 , a group of supporters founded the Red Ultras group with the express aim of improving the atmosphere at Pittodrie . However , it was decided that this particular group was to disband at the beginning of 2010 . Organised chants and choreography still take place in ' centre block ' of the top tier of the Richard Donald Stand and Aberdeen fans still do choreographies at home and away games .
Aberdeen are the only senior team in the third largest city in Scotland , a city which is relatively remote , geographically , from other large population centres , and as a result have a large catchment area of potential supporters . The average attendance in the 2015 – 16 Scottish Premiership is currently 13 @,@ 530 .
In the 1980s , a minority of the club 's supporters had a reputation as one of Britain 's most prominent casuals groups , the Aberdeen Soccer Casuals . The rise of the Aberdeen Casuals coincided with the most successful period in the club 's history , and has been chronicled in more than one published account . Whilst numbers have steadily declined with the introduction of Football Banning Orders preventing hooligans from travelling to games , the Aberdeen Casuals still appear at big fixtures often away from home and in the UEFA Europa League . There were clashes at both fixtures against FC Groningen in 2014 , as well as 13 arrests after violent clashes with Dundee United fans at a game in December 2015 .
= = = Rivalries = = =
Aberdeen have rarely played in the same division as their geographically closest rivals : Peterhead , Brechin City , Montrose , Arbroath , Elgin City , and Forfar Athletic , so rivalries have tended to come from further afield . Currently , Aberdeen have a minor rivalry with Inverness Caley Thistle , due to the fact both Aberdeen and Inverness are the two largest settlements in the north of Scotland . This is known as the North derby and has arisen since Inverness were first promoted to the SPL in 2004 .
In the early 1980s , owing to the success both domestically and in Europe of Aberdeen and Dundee United , the pair were known as the New Firm . However , Dundee United have their city neighbours Dundee as close rivals , and the antagonism was not always reciprocated to the same degree . The same situation applies to Aberdeen 's rivalry with Rangers , in that Rangers have their own much older and well @-@ known Old Firm rivalry with Celtic . Aberdeen 's rivalry with Rangers arose after a number of incidents in matches between the two clubs in the 1980s , namely Willie Johnston 's stamp on John McMaster 's neck in the Scottish League Cup and Neil Simpson 's tackle on Ian Durrant in 1988 , as well as Aberdeen 's dominance in Scottish football throughout the decade . There are still often violent clashes between both sets of supporters within and outwith the stadium to this day .
Since Aberdeen 's re @-@ emergence as one of the top teams in Scotland , Aberdeen 's rivalry with Celtic has increased both competitively and between supporters . There have been minor incidents at games , mainly relating to political disturbances by Celtic supporters at games between the clubs , including the disruption of minute 's silences and the display of banners showing support for the 1981 Irish hunger strike .
= = = Nicknames = = =
Aberdeen are known as " The Dons " , a name that has been in use since at least 1913 . The origin of this nickname is unclear . One theory is that it derives from the word " don " meaning " teacher " , given Aberdeen 's history as a university town . It may also be a reference to the nearby River Don , or a contraction of " Aberdonians " . Before the popular adoption of " The Dons " , the team were variously known as " The Wasps " or " The Black and Golds " , both names a reference to the yellow and black striped shirts of the time . As with many teams that play in red , Aberdeen may also be called " The Reds " , and are referred to by some supporters as " The Dandy Dons " or " The Dandies " .
Rival clubs occasionally refer to Aberdeen " The Sheep " and their supporters " The Sheep Shaggers " . The term was eventually accepted by the club after Aberdeen fans started singing " the sheep are on fire " at games . The song was originally sung by away fans poking fun at an Aberdeen fan set on fire by on a train in a homemade sheep costume . This in turn led to specialised merchandise being sold by the club and local businesses .
= = Honours = =
= = = Domestic = = =
Scottish League
Champions ( 4 ) : 1954 – 55 , 1979 – 80 , 1983 – 84 , 1984 – 85
Runners @-@ up ( 15 ) : 1910 – 11 , 1936 – 37 , 1955 – 56 , 1970 – 71 , 1971 – 72 , 1977 – 78 , 1980 – 81 , 1981 – 82 , 1988 – 89 , 1989 – 90 , 1990 – 91 , 1992 – 93 , 1993 – 94 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 @-@ 16
Scottish Cup
Winners ( 7 ) : 1946 – 47 , 1969 – 70 , 1981 – 82 , 1982 – 83 , 1983 – 84 , 1985 – 86 , 1989 – 90
Runners @-@ up ( 8 ) : 1936 – 37 , 1952 – 53 , 1953 – 54 , 1958 – 59 , 1966 – 67 , 1977 – 78 , 1992 – 93 , 1999 – 00
Scottish League Cup
Winners ( 6 ) : 1955 – 56 , 1976 – 77 , 1985 – 86 , 1989 – 90 , 1995 – 96 , 2013 – 14
Runners @-@ up ( 7 ) : 1946 – 47 , 1978 – 79 , 1979 – 80 , 1987 – 88 , 1988 – 89 , 1992 – 93 , 1999 – 00
= = = European = = =
UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1982 – 83
UEFA Super Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1983
= = = UEFA Ranking = = =
As of 28 June 2016
= = Club officials = =
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
As of 19 July 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Notable players = = =
Hall of Fame
Aberdeen inaugurated a Hall of Fame as part of the club 's centenary celebrations in 2003 . Six players were inducted following the initial dinner in March 2004 , and a further six were included in November 2004 . Ex @-@ manager Alex Ferguson was inducted at a re @-@ launch event in November 2015 .
Greatest ever team
In November 2015 , supporters cast votes to determine the greatest ever Aberdeen team .
Jim Leighton ( 1977 – 88 , 1997 – 2000 )
Stuart Kennedy ( 1976 – 83 )
Willie Miller ( 1972 – 90 )
Alex McLeish ( 1978 – 94 )
Russell Anderson ( 1996 – 2007 , 2012 – 15 )
Gordon Strachan ( 1977 – 84 )
Eoin Jess ( 1987 – 96 , 1997 – 2001 )
Jim Bett ( 1985 – 94 )
Neil Simpson ( 1980 – 90 )
Joe Harper ( 1969 – 72 )
Duncan Shearer ( 1992 – 97 )
= = Records = =
= = = Individual = = =
All players are from Scotland unless otherwise stated .
= = Managers = =
List of full @-@ time managers , as of 16 December 2015 . Only competitive matches are counted . Caretaker managers are not listed .
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= Adam Miller ( footballer ) =
Adam Edward Miller ( born 19 February 1982 ) is a retired footballer . He began his career with Ipswich Town but failed to make the first team and played for several non @-@ league teams before joining Queens Park Rangers , where he made his Football League debut in December 2004 . He later joined Stevenage Borough , but followed manager Mark Stimson to Gillingham in late 2007 . He has represented the England National Game XI and played at Wembley Stadium in the final of the FA Trophy .
= = Early life = =
Miller was born in Hemel Hempstead , but grew up in the Monkwick district of Colchester , where his family still lived as of 2004 . He attended The Stanway School in the town . At the age of 17 he joined Ipswich Town as a trainee . At around the same time he was called up to represent Northern Ireland at under @-@ 18 level , qualifying by virtue of the fact that his maternal grandfather was born in the country .
= = Career = =
Miller proved unable to break into Ipswich 's first team and was permitted to undertake a trial with Southend United in August 2000 . He played for the Essex club 's reserve team , which led to him being offered a professional contract , but Alan Little was dismissed as the club 's manager shortly afterwards , and the offer of a contract was withdrawn . In October 2000 , Miller was released from his contract at Ipswich and dropped into non @-@ league football , joining Canvey Island of the Isthmian League . In the 2000 – 01 season he made 36 appearances for the " Gulls " and helped the team reach the final of the FA Trophy , although he was an unused substitute for Canvey 's victory over Forest Green Rovers in the final . The following season he was a key member of the team that finished second in the Isthmian League Premier Division , playing 48 times in total .
In August 2002 , after two final games for Canvey , he moved to Grays Athletic in a swap deal which saw Jeff Minton go in the opposite direction . Although he played 26 times for Grays in the 2002 – 03 season , scoring six goals , he was made available for transfer at the end of the season . He joined Gravesend & Northfleet in September 2003 , but played just four games for the club before moving on to Aldershot Town a month later . His form at Aldershot won him The Non @-@ League Paper 's Young Player of the Year award for the 2003 – 04 season , and also led to a call @-@ up to the England National Game XI in February 2004 , although it was to be his only cap for the semi @-@ professional national team .
In November 2004 , Miller played for Aldershot against the reserve team of Queens Park Rangers , the team he had supported since childhood . Rangers manager Ian Holloway , who had received promising reports about Miller from scouts , was sufficiently impressed to sign the player after watching him in person . Although the exact amount was undisclosed , the transfer fee was the highest ever received by Aldershot Town . Miller made his Football League debut on 4 December 2004 in a 2 – 1 defeat to Nottingham Forest , and played in more than half of the team 's remaining league matches that season . By late September 2005 , he had made just one league appearances since the start of the season , and was sent to Peterborough United on what was originally intended to be a three @-@ month loan . A month later he was recalled to Loftus Road , but he was not to feature again in the Rangers team . In January 2006 , he had a brief trial with Oxford United but the following week he joined Stevenage Borough of the Conference National , initially on an 18 @-@ month contract .
Miller featured regularly for Stevenage , and was in the starting line @-@ up for the 2007 FA Trophy final , the first competitive match at the new Wembley Stadium , in which Borough came back from two goals down to beat Kidderminster Harriers and win the Trophy .
Stevenage manager , Mark Stimson , was appointed as the new manager of Gillingham in November 2007 , and quickly moved to sign Miller and his team @-@ mate John Nutter on loan . Miller made his debut for the Kent club in the 2 – 1 home win over Hartlepool United on 24 November 2007 , and signed a permanent contract in January 2008 , set to keep him at the club until 2010 . During the team 's ultimately unsuccessful struggle to avoid relegation from League One in the 2007 – 08 season , Miller was identified as a key player and singled out for praise by Stimson , who said " If eight players play like Adam Miller we won 't be in this position but if we 've only got one or two we will be " . The following season he remained a regular selection in Stimson 's team , acting as captain in Barry Fuller 's absence , but injury kept him out of the team at the end of the season as Gillingham clinched a place in , and ultimately promotion through , the play @-@ offs . In the 2009 – 10 season , however , he failed to hold down a regular place in the team , and in November 2009 went to Dagenham & Redbridge on a one @-@ month loan . Miller 's debut for Dagenham came on 14 November in a 1 – 0 away win against Accrington Stanley . He returned to Gillingham at the end of his loan spell , but Stimson announced that the club was considering paying off the remainder of the player 's contract . Despite this , Miller played regularly during the remainder of the 2009 – 10 season . At the end of the season he left Gillingham and joined Cambridge United . Miller played several times at the start of the 2010 – 11 campaign , but was seriously injured in early September against Eastbourne Borough . Two years later , he announced his retirement from football as a result of the injury . He subsequently set up a company leasing luxury cars to other footballers .
= = Honours = =
FA Trophy : 2001 , 2007
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= Changi Murals =
The Changi Murals are a set of five paintings of biblical theme painted by Stanley Warren , a British bombardier and prisoner @-@ of @-@ war ( POW ) interned at the Changi Prison , during the Japanese occupation of Singapore in World War II ( WWII ) . His murals were completed under difficult conditions of sickness , limited materials and hardships . With a message of universal love and forgiveness , they helped to uplift the spirits of the POWs and sick when they sought refuge in the prison chapel .
After the war , the walls of the chapel were distempered over , hiding the murals from view . They were forgotten until its rediscovery in 1958 . Due to their historical significance , an international search was conducted to locate the original painter in helping to restore the damaged and faded murals . Stanley was eventually found in 1959 and , after much persuasion , agreed to assist in the restoration project . He made three trips to Singapore between 1963 and 1988 to restore his former paintings . Due to Stanley 's advanced age , only four of the original murals were fully restored . In the 1990s , the former site of the murals was gazetted as a Heritage Site by the National Heritage Board of Singapore .
= = History = =
Stanley Warren was born in England in 1917 . He was talented in art from young and was a religious man . Stanley was employed as a commercial designer producing poster ads with the Grenada organisation before the war . In January 1940 , he enlisted in the army to join the fight against Nazi Germany and was posted to the Royal Regiment of Artillery as an Observation Post Assistant . His responsibilities included having to make quick drawings of panoramas used to plot targets for the guns .
= = = Changi = = =
In early 1942 , he was posted overseas to Malaya ( former name for Malaysia ) with the 15th Field Regiment Royal Artillery after the Japanese had invaded Malaya and Thailand , and Pearl Harbor had been bombed . Upon their arrival , their fight against the Japanese was brutal and short @-@ lived , and soon his battalion began retreating to Singapore . The Changi Garrison , a heavily fortified coastal defence where most of the British forces were based , consisted of three army barracks ; the 2nd Battalion Gordon Highlanders in the Selarang Barracks , the Royal Engineers in Kitchener Barracks , and the 9th Coastal Artillery Regiment of the Royal Artillery in Roberts Barracks . By 12 February , the situation in Singapore was desperate and Lieutenant @-@ General Arthur Ernest Percival , General Officer Commanding of HQ Malaya Command , ordered the Changi Garrison to withdraw to Singapore Town . After the British surrender of Singapore on 15 February 1942 , Stanley and Allied POWs were ordered to march to Changi for internment ; the 15 @,@ 000 Australians went into Selarang Barracks and the British to Roberts and Kitchener Barracks . Stanley was interned at Roberts Barracks and later joined other POWs to work around Singapore , repairing damage inflicted by the Japanese attacks and getting essential services back to working order . Percival was held in Roberts Barracks until , with all senior officers above the rank of Lieutenant Colonel , he was sent to Formosa ( now Taiwan ) by the Japanese . The food given to the prisoners was of poor quality and inadequate for men working as slave labour . As a result of this and the harsh treatment meted out by the Japanese guards such as the beatings and executions of escaped prisoners , the men 's health and morale began to suffer in the long run .
= = = St Luke 's Chapel = = =
During one of the work parties , Stanley was sent to build a road and stairs leading to a memorial to the Japanese dead on Bukit Batok Hill ( Marked with a Bukit Batok Memorial plaque today , only the stairs and road called Lorong Sesuai are still there to be seen ) . The chaplain of the regiment , well aware of Stanley 's religious conviction and artistic background , requested him to decorate the asbestos walls at the altar area of a small open attap @-@ roofed chapel at Bukit Batok . With charcoal salvaged from around the camp , he drew two murals : Nativity , which featured a Malay Madonna and Descent from the Cross in which he included soldiers in uniforms , using his comrades as models . By then , he was becoming ill and was suffering from a severe renal disorder complicated by amoebic dysentery . On 23 May 1942 , Stanley was lying comatose and was sent to Roberts Barracks in Changi which was converted for use as a hospital for POWs to recuperate .
By mid @-@ August 1942 , Stanley had recovered enough to be moved to the dysentery wing at Block 151 of Roberts Barracks . Padres Chambers and Payne had heard that Stanley had decorated the prisoners ' chapel at Bukit Batok . So they asked him if he would do some paintings for St Luke 's Chapel , which was recently converted from the ground floor of Block 151 , near the area where Stanley was recuperating . The Chapel was dedicated to St Luke the Physician . Stanley agreed , and sought inspiration for the proposed paintings in the Gospels .
= = = The five murals = = =
On 30 August 1942 , at the time when Stanley was preparing the draft drawings of the murals , the Japanese began an action which would become known as the Selarang Barracks Incident . It was an incident concerning seventeen thousand Anglo @-@ Australian POWs , who were forced to vacate their buildings and be exposed for nearly five days in the open without water or sanitation for refusing to sign a " No Escape Pledge " . Against this backdrop , Stanley began to paint the murals . No one had asked the Japanese for permission to draw and at no stage did they interfere with his work . Considering the purpose of the murals , Stanley felt that the Chapel was basically dedicated to peace and reconciliation , and so he choose universal themes for the murals which would embrace all mankind . Paint was not readily available in the camp , but with the aid of the other prisoners , who unquestionably put themselves at great risk , materials to make the paint were gradually acquired — brown camouflage paint , a small amount of crimson paint , white oil paint and billiard chalk were found and brought for Stanley use . Despite still being very ill , Stanley set to work on the murals in early September 1942 . His illness meant that he could only paint for a limited period each day , for perhaps 15 minutes at a time followed by a rest . To compensate as much as he could for the lack of coloured paint , Stanley resorted to using large brush strokes and big areas of solid colour when painting . In September 1942 , a few weeks after Stanley began painting the murals , he was informed that his work party was to be sent north to Thailand to work on the Thai @-@ Burma Railway . A colonel in charge of the hospital , who knew of his work @-@ in @-@ progress murals , intervened to have Stanley transferred back to the hospital so that he could continue on his work in the Chapel . Most of Stanley 's unit who went to the Thai @-@ Burma Railway never returned . Stanley recounted : " Had I gone with them , most certainly , I would have died . So the murals very directly saved my life in the way I could never have foreseen ... It 's a terrible sense of debt ... that one feels to the chapel . "
By Christmas 1942 , he completed his first mural , the Nativity . Altogether , Stanley managed to produce five large murals on the walls of the Chapel , each mural being about three metres long , in the following order :
Nativity
Ascension
Crucifixion
Last Supper
St Luke in Prison
All of them were subjects which are at the very heart of Christian belief . The completed murals uplifted the spirits of the POWs and sick when they seek refuge in the Chapel . Stanley never put his name on any of his paintings as he considered them " a gift to God " . In May 1944 , Block 151 with the St Luke Chapel 's inspiring murals was designated to become a store for an airfield nearby . The lower portion of St Luke in Prison mural was almost completely destroyed when it was demolished to make a link to an adjoining room . The walls of the Chapel was distempered over , hiding the murals from view . Stanley was later sent to Kranji in the north of Singapore , not far from the Causeway to Malaya , and remained there till the Japanese surrender on 15 August 1945 . After the war , Stanley returned to England believing that his murals had been destroyed by Allied bombing towards the end of the war . He married and became an art teacher at the Sir William Collins School , later South Camden Community School and currently Regent High School in Somers Town , London .
= = = Rediscovery = = =
Forgotten for nearly 13 years , the Changi Murals were accidentally rediscovered in 1958 by servicemen of the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) occupying the Roberts Barracks . The Chapel was again used as a store , and later as accommodation by the RAF . Once rediscovered , the distemper coating covering the murals was carefully removed – four complete murals and the top @-@ quarter of a fifth were revealed . As there was no signature on any of the murals , a search for the artist was undertaken but failed after initial investigations . By a stroke of luck , the artist 's name came to light in the RAF Changi Education Library of all places . A reader came across a book titled The Churches of the Captivity in Malaya , mentioning about the Chapel of St Luke in Roberts Barracks and the artist 's name – Bombardier Stanley Warren . The Daily Mirror was notified and again went to work looking for the known artist . In February 1959 , he was found living in London with his wife and son . He was shocked when he saw the photo of his mural of the Crucifixion , when a keen @-@ eyed colleague of his showed him the papers .
= = = Restoration = = =
In 1960 , the RAF contacted Stanley and the idea of restoring the murals was brought up . He was initially reluctant to return to restore his works due to the painful memories of war and captivity the murals would bring back to him : " I didn 't immediately want to come . I felt that there would be some sort of ... trauma . I 'm trying to forget this , you know , I tried so hard ... It took years really to eliminate the memories and fears ... the long drawn out experience and really waiting for death over three and a half years , it 's long time to expect death . And I really tried to forget ... But of course I was never able to do that . "
After much persuasion , he overcame his fear and eventually made three trips to Singapore to restore his murals in December 1963 , July 1982 and May 1988 . The 1982 restoration was more intensive and the invaluable assistance given to Warren by the officers and boys of the SAF Boys ' School enabled the bulk of the work to be completed . Of the original five murals , only one was not fully restored ; the mural of St Luke in Prison . Stanley 's original tracing of the drawing was missing , and he could not remember the details of the missing portion . In 1985 , Stanley 's original drawing was discovered in the memorabilia of Wally Hammond who had been a fellow prisoner with Stanley . These original sketches were subsequently donated to the National Archives of Singapore . From the original , Stanley painted a small picture , which was placed below the remaining piece of the mural in 1988 . He was , by then , not fit enough to restore the actual mural .
On 20 February 1992 , Stanley died in his home in Bridport , England at the age of 75 .
= = = Parliamentary discussions = = =
Stanley 's murals were discussed in the British Parliament in October 1968 . Charles Morris , minister of parliament for Openshaw , asked the Defence Ministry , Denis Healy , to consider moving the murals to England . His proposal was unsuccessful when the Singapore Ministry of Defence decided to take responsibility of the murals and to keep them in good condition for display in 1969 . ( Singapore gained independence from Britain in August 1965 ) . In addition , a copy of one of the murals painted by Stanley had been brought to England and installed in the Garrison Church at Larkhill in Wiltshire .
= = The murals today = =
The three @-@ storey Block 151 of Roberts Barracks ( off Martlesham Road ) still stands today , but is now part of the Ministry of Defence 's Changi Airbase Camp . Most of the buildings surrounding Block 151 were demolished in July 2003 . Inside the Chapel , there is a photo of Stanley and some narrative about him and the murals but access to the Chapel is restricted . However , for public interest , a replica of Stanley Warren 's murals is also on display at the Changi Chapel and Museum , along with an audio @-@ visual theatre that screens videos about POW life , display of POW belongings and collection of books about Singapore during WWII .
Since 1993 , the Changi Murals , Changi Prison and other WWII sites in Singapore , is part of a Battlefield Tour organised by the National Institute of Education and the Ministry of Defence , a bi @-@ annual five @-@ day residential National Awareness programme to create greater awareness of national and security issues among trainee teachers .
= = = Commemoration = = =
In November 1994 , a two @-@ man British team was in Singapore to film the Changi Murals and Kranji War Memorial for a BBC documentary , for the Commonwealth War Graves Commission which marked the 50th Anniversary of the end of World War II .
On 15 February 2002 , more than 250 former POWs and their families from Australia , New Zealand and the United Kingdom came over to Singapore for a reunion @-@ cum @-@ memorial service that was held at the Changi Chapel and Museum , and a tour of the Changi Murals and the Selarang Camp . The event was organised by the Singapore Tourism Board to mark the 60th anniversary of the fall of Singapore .
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= Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) =
" Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " is a song by the rock band U2 . It is the fifth track on their 1993 album , Zooropa , and was released as the album 's third single on 22 November 1993 . The song was a top ten hit in Ireland , Australia , the United Kingdom , and several other countries . The music video was shot in Berlin , Germany . The earliest incarnation of the song developed during sessions for the group 's 1991 album Achtung Baby . It was written for and inspired by Frank Sinatra and bore his surname as the original working title . An alternate recording was used in the Wim Wenders film Faraway , So Close ! .
" Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was well received by critics and nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Original Song . The song made its live debut on the Zoo TV Tour but has only been performed intermittently in an acoustic version over subsequent tours . Members of U2 consider it to be one of their favourite songs ; guitarist The Edge named it the best track on the album , while lead singer Bono stated that it was one of their best creations .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
The earliest incarnation of " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was developed during the recording sessions for Achtung Baby . While working in Hansa Ton Studios in Berlin , guitarist The Edge and lead singer Bono created the verse . The track was given the working title " Sinatra " in reference to the artist whose music inspired it . The group reworked it in preparation of Zooropa . The Edge noted " it came to us in installments " . Bassist Adam Clayton said " it was hard to figure out how we would do it . I mean , no one is going to mistake us for Frank Sinatra 's backing band . A very humble little combo sound is what we ended up with and that really worked . " The Edge added " I was playing around on piano with some old @-@ school chord progressions trying to summon up the spirit of Frank Sinatra . It 's definitely not from a rock and roll tradition . " He worked out a chord progression based on old Tin Pan Alley songs .
As the recording sessions progressed , Wim Wenders approached the band and asked them for a song for his next film , Faraway , So Close ! . The Edge said " we heard Wim Wenders was looking for a song ... so I had a go at finishing it . " U2 watched the film , Faraway , So Close ! , for inspiration on how to craft the song . Bono said " the film was about angels who want to be human and who want to be on Earth . But to do so they have to become mortal . That was a great image to play with - the impossibility of wanting something like this , and then the cost of having it . " Two versions of the song were crafted ; the first was released on Zooropa , and the second , almost two minutes longer and featuring " an edgier guitar and drum performance , " was included on the Faraway , So Close ! soundtrack . Close to the completion of the recording Bono renamed the song " Stay . " Wanting to further reference the Wenders film he then changed it once more , to " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " .
= = Composition and theme = =
" Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " runs for 4 : 58 ( 4 minutes , 58 seconds ) . According to Universal Music Publishing Group 's sheet music published at Musicnotes.com , it is played in common time at a tempo of 86 beats per minute in the key of E ♭ major . The vocals extend from a low note of B3 to a high of D ♯ 7 .
Third Way contributor Graham Cray wrote that the song " [ describes ] more directly a culture which consists of a cacophony of voices and images but which has neither soul nor direction . " Hot Press editor Niall Stokes noted that the lyrics were ambiguous in whether they took place in reality or fantasy , which he likened to the overarching theme of the album . Author David Kootnikoff believed that " the pop melody conceals the lyric 's dark theme about a victim of physical abuse who reasons her pain away with the line ' When he hurts you , you feel alive . ' " Mark Brown of The Orange County Register described it as " the desperate tale of an abused woman with nowhere to go but back to her home . " He compared it to U2 's 1987 song " Running to Stand Still " , saying " That same sort of descriptive but distanced narrative is what made [ it ] so powerful . "
= = Release = =
Promotional singles were released in the fall of 1993 . The 12 @-@ inch vinyl and CD versions contained the album version of the song . The 7 @-@ inch vinyl promo also included a cover of " I 've Got You Under My Skin " . " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was released internationally as the third single from Zooropa on 22 November 1993 , following the releases of " Numb " and " Lemon " earlier in the year . It was available in 7 @-@ inch vinyl , cassette , and CD formats in four versions . " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was included on U2 's 2002 compilation album The Best of 1990 – 2000 , and its accompanying video release . The alternate recording of the song was released on the soundtrack to Faraway , So Close ! . Craig Armstrong covered it on his 2002 album As If to Nothing ; Bono recorded a new vocal take for the track . The song also features in the 1993 Only Fools and Horses episode " Fatal Extraction . "
= = = B @-@ sides = = =
Six B @-@ sides were included across the four versions . " I 've Got You Under My Skin " was the sole B @-@ side on the 7 " and cassette formats . It was also available on the version dubbed " The Swing Format , " which contained two remixes of " Lemon . " " I 've Got You Under My Skin " is a cover of the 1936 Cole Porter song , recorded as a duet by Bono and Frank Sinatra . It was also released on Sinatra 's 1993 album Duets . " Lemon ( Perfecto Mix ) " was remixed by Paul Oakenfold and Steve Osborne . " Lemon ( Bad Yard Club Edit ) " was mixed by David Morales , who added his own percussion to the track .
" The Live Format " included the first studio release of " Slow Dancing " and live versions of " Bullet the Blue Sky " and " Love Is Blindness " from the Zoo TV Tour . " Slow Dancing " is an acoustic song by Bono and was written for Willie Nelson . It debuted in concert on 1 December 1989 in Osaka , Japan , on the Lovetown Tour , almost four years before it was released , and has been performed infrequently since then . While recording elements of " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " , Bono picked up a guitar and began to play the song . When finished he asked Flood if he wanted to record it ; unbeknownst to him , the microphone was on and the take had been recorded . A second take was then done . It was considered for inclusion on Zooropa ; although producer Brian Eno liked it , the song was not selected for the album . A second version , recorded with Nelson , was later released as a B @-@ side on U2 's 1997 single " If God Will Send His Angels . " " Bullet the Blue Sky " was recorded on 28 August 1993 in Dublin . " Love Is Blindness " was taken from U2 's concert on 30 August 1992 in New York City .
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was directed by Wim Wenders , produced by Debbie Mason , and edited by Jerry Chater . The video was filmed in Berlin over the course of three days , primarily in black @-@ and @-@ white but with some sequences in colour . It contains cameos of some of the actors who appeared in Faraway , So Close ! , including Otto Sander , as well as Wenders ' nephew . Several scenes are taken directly from Faraway , So Close ! and Wenders ' 1987 film Wings of Desire , which also served as the principal inspiration for the video 's premise . Wenders noted that " making a video is really a very different ballgame . You have the script , so to speak , because you have the song , and everything you do is in order to help the song shine ... You want to make that song look as good as possible and sound as good as possible and as interesting as possible . " Several shots depict the band members standing on the statue of Victoria , a monument at the top of the Berlin Victory Column ; a model of the angel was created for those scenes . Leftover military equipment from the Cold War , including the Soviet MiG , were included in the background .
The video depicts a band playing " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " . U2 were cast in the role of the band 's guardian angels , watching over the position that corresponds to their instrument in U2 . Meret Becker is the lead actress of the video , cast as the band 's lead singer . Wenders stated that they " liked the idea that Bono 's voice would be sung by a girl in this video . " Throughout the video U2 help the musicians play the track ; drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. is shown assisting in the beat , while The Edge tunes the guitar , which Wenders noted is " what you 'd do if you were guardian angel to a lead guitarist . " The video alternates between the band playing , the members of U2 standing on Victoria , and scenes from both Wenders films . At the conclusion of the video , Bono leaves the band on their own . The final shot shows him falling to earth , personifying the final lyric " Just the bang and the clatter as an angel hits the ground . "
= = Live performances = =
" Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " debuted on 31 July 1993 in Stockholm , Sweden , on the fourth leg of the Zoo TV Tour . It was performed at all remaining concerts on the tour . It was not played on the PopMart Tour . " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " returned to the live setting on 20 April 2001 in San Jose , California , on the first leg of the Elevation Tour , making it the first song from Zooropa to be played in North America . It was performed as an acoustic duet by Bono and The Edge . The rendition was impromptu and not on the setlist , with Bono reading the lyrics from a sheet . The song continued to be performed sporadically through the rest of the tour , appearing at 48 of 113 concerts . " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was not played during the Vertigo Tour , but U2 revived it on the U2 360 ° Tour . It was played sporadically on the first and second leg of the tour , and was a mainstay feature of the fifth leg . It was the only song from Zooropa performed by U2 at the Glastonbury Festival in 2011 .
Live performances of the song appear on Zoo TV : Live from Sydney ( 1994 ) , Elevation 2001 : Live from Boston ( 2001 ) , the " Walk On " and " Stuck in a Moment You Can 't Get Out Of " singles ( 2001 ) , Zoo TV Live ( 2006 ) , and the live album U22 ( 2012 ) . The Zoo TV Live performance is an audio rip of the performance from Zoo TV : Live from Sydney . The version on the " Walk On " and " Stuck in a Moment You Can 't Get Out Of " singles was recorded in Toronto , Ontario , on 25 May 2001 .
= = Reception = =
" Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was critically acclaimed . Music journalist Sam Richards rated the song four stars out of five , calling it " a twinkling ' 90s alt. rock ballad - a cousin of Radiohead 's " High and Dry " and Smashing Pumpkins ' " 1979 " - that just about manages to keep a lid on its impulse to seek out the nearest clifftop . " Hot Press editor Niall Stokes said " the performance is full of languorous beauty , a gentle understated kind of emotion that seems at odds with the disorientation in the lyrics . " Billboard contributor Fred Bronson joked that it was an example of how songs named " Stay " reach the Hot 100 , following similarly named hits by Big Mountain , The Four Seasons , Shakespears Sister , and Jodeci . Robert Levine of Spin called it one of their best songs , saying " They 're still obsessed with transcendence , whether it 's the kind you find on a Joshua Tree bluff or a " Miami " dance floor . And [ " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " ] framed that search in the most intimate of terms , even when they were too jaded to crawl out from under their lemon and look us in the eye . "
Writing for Time , Josh Tyrangiel compared it to U2 's earlier hits " Where the Streets Have No Name " and " One " , saying " ' Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) ' ... [ achieves ] the impossible — becoming meaningful to millions of people — precisely because [ it is ] beautifully vague . " David Bauder of the Associated Press called it " the album 's most beautiful song . " Peter Howell of the Toronto Star said that it was " the most conventional U2 song on the album . " The Orange County Register 's Mark Brown noted " The casual guitar lines on ' Stay ' infuse the song with a tension that perfectly suits the subject " . The Bergen Record reviewer Barbara Jaeger called it an " achingly beautiful ballad . " Writing for The Dallas Morning News , Manuel Mendoza said it was " absolutely gorgeous , with Bono 's husky moaning evoking a warm yearning . "
" Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was nominated in the category Best Original Song at the 51st Golden Globe Awards . In 2005 , Bono said " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was " perhaps the greatest U2 song , " saying it has the " most extraordinary contour of a melody . It 's really quite sophisticated . The lyric never misses , " and noting that they had " never turned ' Stay ' into the single it deserved to be . " He named it as one of his two favourite U2 songs , along with " Please . " The Edge called it " the stand @-@ out track on the record . " Wenders described it as one of his favourite U2 songs .
= = Track listings = =
All tracks written by U2 and performed by U2 except " I 've Got You Under My Skin , " written by Cole Porter and performed by Frank Sinatra with Bono .
= = Charts = =
= = Sales and Certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
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= My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy =
My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy is an autobiography written by Nancy Cartwright . First published in September 2000 by Hyperion , it details Cartwright 's career , particularly her experiences as the voice of Bart Simpson on The Simpsons and contains insights on the show , diary entries and anecdotes about her encounters with various guest stars .
Critics commented that the book seemed to be aimed at fans of The Simpsons rather than a more general audience . Other criticisms included the simplicity of the writing and a lack of interesting stories . In 2004 , Cartwright adapted the book into a one @-@ woman show , which she has performed all over the world , including at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe .
= = Background = =
In the opening chapter , Cartwright writes " About five years ago I decided I wanted to write this book . I knew that The Simpsons would end some day . [ ... ] I decided that I wanted to write it while the show was still on the air . " In an interview with Scotland on Sunday , she added " I wanted to tell my story and I needed to because I get so much fan mail . People are so interested in the whole process , how it all comes together . This book does that . " In a 1995 interview , five years before writing the book , Cartwright remarked that she wanted to write a book and that if she did , it would be titled " My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy . "
The book contains excerpts from date books and journals that Cartwright had kept over the years . The book was officially announced in January 2000 and Cartwright had originally intended that it be released on October 31 .
= = Content = =
My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy opens with a dedication to Daws Butler , a list of acknowledgements and a foreword from Cartwright 's The Simpsons co @-@ star Dan Castellaneta . The first chapter of the book details Cartwright 's life and career prior to 1987 . In the second chapter , Cartwright recalls the day she went to audition for a role in a series of animated shorts on The Tracey Ullman Show . The shorts were about a dysfunctional family and Cartwright intended to audition for the role of Lisa Simpson , the eldest daughter . Upon arriving at the audition , she found the role of her brother Bart to be much more interesting . Matt Groening , creator of the shorts , allowed her to audition for Bart , and gave her the job on the spot after hearing her reading . From there , the book contains her experiences as the voice of Bart. After three seasons of shorts , a half @-@ hour spinoff called The Simpsons debuted in 1989 . In the following chapters , she recalls the early days of The Simpsons , commenting on the recording process and her co @-@ stars and revealing how she got the roles of some of the other characters she voices , including Nelson Muntz and Ralph Wiggum . In the 15th chapter , she discusses her experiences of voicing a famous character , but rarely being recognized .
Several chapters are devoted to a detailed " behind the scenes " look at how an episode of The Simpsons is made , including the writing , recording and animation . My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy contains multiple excerpts from Cartwright 's diary detailing various events , mostly encounters with The Simpsons guest stars . Guest stars she talks about include Ernest Borgnine , Danny DeVito , Kirk Douglas , Mel Gibson , Kelsey Grammer , Tom Jones , Michael Jackson , Mickey Rooney , Meryl Streep and Elizabeth Taylor . One chapter describes the day she found out that Phil Hartman , a frequent guest star on The Simpsons , was murdered . The final chapter is a retrospective in which she answers the question " what is it like to be the voice behind the star ? "
= = Reception = =
My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy 's original print of 25 @,@ 000 copies were sold on pre @-@ order in the United Kingdom , with 38 @,@ 000 copies being sold . Cartwright began a publicity tour in late October 2000 , starting in her hometown of Dayton , Ohio , where the book became the top selling non @-@ fiction in the town in the first week of November 2000 .
Laura A. Bischoff of the Dayton Daily News commented that the book was the " ultimate insider 's guide to The Simpsons . " However , several critics commented that the book was straightforward and presented few interesting stories . Susan Shapiro of The New York Times wrote that " Although the paradoxes of being ' a celebrity nobody knows ' are interesting , the photographs , diary entries and overly cute commentaries make this book feel like a personal scrapbook . " Rosellen Brewer of the Library Journal commented that " Cartwright 's own life notwithstanding , there is nothing really new or exciting here . She knew what she wanted to do and was able to do it ; end of story . " Lee Bacchus of The Province wrote that " This little book by the voice of Bart Simpson reads as if it were written by a 10 @-@ year @-@ old boy . Not that that 's all bad . Cartwright , who voices Bart along with Ralph Wiggum and a few others on The Simpsons , gives a very unchallenging tour behind the scenes of the phenomenally successful series . It 's kind of fun to discover how the show is put together and how an adult woman snagged one of the coolest jobs in the world [ ... ] If only it wasn 't all so relentlessly perky . "
Another common criticism was that the book was aimed at fans of The Simpsons and not a general audience . A preview in People said the bottom line was that the book is " for die @-@ hard fans only . " Bacchus concurred , saying " Cartwright writes as if she were speaking to devotees of The Simpsons Fan Club , too often providing bland tidbits of background that only obsessives would ever really care about . " Rob Sheridan of the National Post also believes that the book is " aimed squarely at rabid Simpsons fans " , and criticized the writing , commenting that " the chronology of her story is sometimes muddled , and a lot of sentences have that first @-@ draft feeling [ ... ] But none of this is anything to have a cow about . "
= = Stage adaptation = =
In 2004 , My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy was adapted into a one @-@ woman play . Described as " a romp through Springfield through [ Cartwright 's ] eyes " , the first portion of the play is scripted and includes anecdotes from Cartwright , dialogue performed in her characters ' voices and video clips from The Simpsons . At the end , she does a question and answer session and occasionally plays a game to allow for audience participation . Cartwright 's friend Rose Goss co @-@ wrote the play , and serves as director . Cartwright has performed the show at various locations , including the Big Laugh Comedy Festival in Parramatta , Australia , in March 2004 , a three @-@ week run at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in Edinburgh , Scotland in August 2004 , at the " Simpsons Mania " convention in Toronto , Canada , ( the North American debut of the play ) in October 2004 and at Riverside Studios in London , England , in May 2005 .
The play has received modest reviews . Julian Hall of The Independent criticized it for a lack of inside stories about The Simpsons , writing that " Cartwright never allows you to become bored but that means some issues are skirted over faster than American closing credits on television . You never really get a feel what it is like recording the show . " Brian Logan of The Guardian described Cartwright as " a lively host [ ... ] eager to please " , but found the play to be " an overweeningly upbeat collection of Simpsons chitchat . " David Chatterton of British Theatre Guide described it as " interesting and entertaining , but not really a ' must see ' even for Simpsons fans . " Clive Davis of The Times wrote that " In contrast to The Simpsons itself , where not a line , not a syllable , goes to waste , Cartwright has a habit of losing herself in anecdotes that stumble into dead @-@ ends . [ ... ] The half @-@ hearted trivia quiz involving volunteers from the audience soon dies a death too . The performance really cries out for a hard @-@ headed director . The video clips of Cartwright at large are fun , however . "
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= Beholder ( horse ) =
Beholder ( foaled May 9 , 2010 ) is an American Thoroughbred racehorse . She was purchased as a yearling by B. Wayne Hughes of Spendthrift Farm . With an early reputation for being difficult to handle , trainer Richard Mandella worked extensively with the fractious young horse , gradually developing her from a temperamental front @-@ runner into a seasoned veteran who could be placed in a strategic position to best beat her competition .
As a two @-@ year @-@ old in 2012 , she won three of her five races including the Breeders ' Cup Juvenile Fillies and was voted American Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Filly . In the following season she won five of her seven races , including the Breeders ' Cup Distaff . With the Breeders ' Cup win , she became the first horse to win both the Breeders ' Cup Juvenile Fillies and the Distaff in consecutive years , and concluded her three @-@ year old season by being named American Champion Three @-@ Year @-@ Old Filly . After a four @-@ year @-@ old season plagued by injuries and illness , with a single graded stakes win in three attempts , she returned to form as a five @-@ year @-@ old , with multiple stakes wins and becoming the first filly or mare to win the Pacific Classic and was voted American Champion Older Dirt Female Horse . In doing so , she became the first horse since 1976 , male or female , to win Grade 1 stakes races at age 2 , 3 , 4 and 5 . In 2016 , she extended this achievement by winning the Grade 1 Vanity Stakes .
= = Background = =
Beholder is a bay mare with no white markings , bred by the Clarkland Farm in Lexington , Kentucky . She was sired by Henny Hughes , a sprinter whose biggest wins came in the King 's Bishop Stakes and Vosburgh Stakes in 2006 . Beholder 's dam , Leslie 's Lady , was a descendant of the broodmare Last Bird , making her a distant relative of the Kentucky Derby winner I 'll Have Another . Leslie 's Lady won five races out of 28 starts , including the listed Hoosier Debutante Stakes in 1998 . Beholder 's older half @-@ brother , Into Mischief ( sired by Harlan 's Holiday ) , won the 2007 CashCall Futurity and the 2008 Damascus Stakes .
As a yearling , Beholder was consigned by the Clarkland Farm to the sale at Keeneland in September 2011 , where she was bought for $ 180 @,@ 000 by B. Wayne Hughes ' Spendthrift Farm . At age two , the filly was sent into training with the California @-@ based trainer Richard Mandella .
Beholder initially developed a reputation as a " temperamental diva . " As a young filly , she was prone to rearing when she got upset , but later turned to bucking . But the people who worked with her every day viewed her differently ; her exercise rider in 2013 , David Nuesch , described her as " straightforward " , explaining , " she kind of likes it to be her idea and doesn 't want to be told too much what to do . " Her groom , Ruben Mercado , said she was a " little angel " in the stables , but " all business " on the track . Mandella used earplugs and a hood with ear coverings ( colloquially called " earmuffs " ) to help keep her focused . At one point , he even tried giving her ear buds , but the sound upset her even more . Mandella was described as the " perfect " trainer for her , as he was willing to try different training techniques to keep her from getting in her own way , took the time to figure out her quirks , and learned to anticipate her behavior . The bond and depth of communication between trainer and horse was noted in the press . Mandella 's son Gary described Beholder as having an " Alpha Male perspective , " explaining " She ’ s actually dominant , bullyish and head strong . She ’ s not quirky because she ’ s worried that something is lurking around the corner . The things that she does that are hard to manage are because she ’ s tougher than you . ”
As she aged , her behavior improved and she began to behave like a seasoned veteran . Mandella himself gave credit to the horse : " I ’ d say she brought me along . I haven ‘ t brought her along . I ’ ve just been along for the ride . " By her six @-@ year @-@ old season , following her 17th career win , which was also her sixth consecutive victory , Mandella said of Beholder , " “ Good horses come along , and there are a few great ones , but to be great and stay great , it really is special . ”
= = Racing career = =
= = = 2012 : two @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Beholder was ridden in all her two @-@ year @-@ old races by Garrett Gomez . She began her racing career by finishing fourth behind Executiveprivilege in a maiden race on the Cushion Track at Hollywood Park Racetrack on June 28 . A month later she recorded her first win in a maiden race at Del Mar racetrack , beating Fanticola by 3 1 ⁄ 4 lengths . On September 2 she was moved up to Grade I class for the Del Mar Debutante Stakes over seven furlongs . Starting at odds of 8 @.@ 1 – 1 she hit the starting gate but took an early lead , leading by 2 1 ⁄ 2 lengths in homestretch but was caught by Executiveprivilege at the finish line and was beaten a nose . Beholder moved to Santa Anita Park in October . Because she remained keyed up after the previous race and upset by the stress from shipping , Mandella chose to put her in an easier race than a Grade I to see if she would settle down enough to contest the Breeders ' Cup later in the year . She was entered into a six furlong allowance race and won by eleven lengths despite being eased in the closing stages . On November 2 at Santa Anita , Beholder was one of eight fillies to contest the Breeders ' Cup Juvenile Fillies over one mile . She was the 9 – 2 joint second choice in the betting behind Executiveprivilege , who was made the 13 – 8 favourite . Beholder took the lead from the start and broke clear of the field to open up a three length advantage on the final turn . She held off the late challenge of Executiveprivilege to win by a length .
= = = 2013 : three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Beholder began her three @-@ year @-@ old season in the Grade II Santa Ynez Stakes over seven furlongs at Santa Anita on January 21 . She started the 1 – 5 favorite but was beaten three @-@ quarters of a length by Renee 's Titan . An explanation for her poor performance emerged a week later when an examination revealed an ulcer in the filly 's throat . At the same course on March 2 , Beholder started 4 – 5 favorite for the Grade I Las Virgenes Stakes over one mile . She led from the start and was never seriously challenged , winning by 3 3 ⁄ 4 lengths from Fiftyshadesofhay . Beholder 's next race was the Grade I Santa Anita Oaks on April 6 , for which she started the 3 – 10 favorite . Despite an unfavorable draw , she quickly went into the lead and went clear of the field in the straight to win by 2 3 ⁄ 4 lengths from Iotapa . Mandella described the winner as having " the heart of a warrior " . Throughout her spring campaign , she continued to be ridden by Gomez .
In the Kentucky Oaks on May 3 at Churchill Downs , Beholder started at odds of 9 – 1 in a field of ten fillies , with the Gulfstream Oaks winner Dreaming of Julia being made the 6 – 4 favorite . It was the first time she had been shipped outside of California . Beholder tracked the leader Midnight Lucky before moving into the lead in the homestretch but was overtaken in the closing stages by the 39 – 1 outsider Princess of Sylmar and finished second , beaten by half a length . Her loss was attributed in part to her behavior in the post parade . Without her training earmuffs , she was anxious and upset by the crowd noise , fought to get away from the track pony that was leading her to the gate , and partially fell down , forcing Gomez to jump off . Sportswriters described her as " angry " and adrenaline @-@ filled , while Mandella described her as " rattled . " After the race , Gomez speculated that if Princess of Sylmar had been closer as she passed , instead of well to the outside , Beholder 's fighting instincts still might have been enough to have held out for the victory . However , he also commented at the time that she relied on speed to win , and if she was slowed down , she had difficulty regaining momentum .
After a break of almost four months , Beholder returned in the Torrey Pines Stakes over one mile at Del Mar on September 1 , where she was ridden for the first time by Gary Stevens . She started the 1 – 10 favorite and led all the way , winning easily from second @-@ place finisher Wittgenstein . Four weeks later , Beholder was matched against older fillies and mares in the Grade I Zenyatta Stakes over eight and a half furlongs at Santa Anita . She led from the start and won easily , with the six @-@ year @-@ old veteran Authenticity in second . Mandella called the winner " a filly that really likes the fight " while Stevens said that " I haven 't gotten close to the bottom of her yet " . On November 1 , Beholder contested the Breeders ' Cup Distaff over nine furlongs at Santa Anita . The field was a very strong one , including Royal Delta who had won the race for the last two years , Princess of Sylmar , Authenticity and Close Hatches . Although Beholder showed some anxiety in the starting gate , she had a clean start . Mandella had been training Beholder so that instead of always being a front @-@ runner , she could be rated behind other horses and conserve energy . His strategy was a success as Beholder tracked the leaders before moving up into second place half a mile from the finish . She took the lead two furlongs out and went clear of the field to win easily by 4 1 ⁄ 4 lengths over Close Hatches , with Royal Delta fourth and Princess of Sylmar last of the six runners . After the race Mandella said " I ’ ve been lucky enough to have many good mares in my years of training , but this mare might have to be the best of all " . With her Distaff win , she became the first horse to win both the Breeders ' Cup Juvenile Fillies and the Distaff in consecutive years .
= = = 2014 : four @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Beholder ran only three races in 2014 . She began her third season in the Santa Lucia Stakes at Santa Anita on April 21 . Conceding six pounds to her opponents , she started at odds of 1 – 10 and won by more than five lengths over Legacy . The filly returned to Grade I competition at the Ogden Phipps Stakes at Belmont on June 7 . It was only the second time she had been shipped to race outside California , the only prior trip having been the Kentucky Oaks . Beholder went off as the favorite ahead of Princess of Sylmar and Close Hatches . She raced on the outside and moved up to third on the final turn but could make no further progress and finished fourth behind winner , Close Hatches . | She had sustained an injury during that race , and after returning to training , split the wound site open again during a workout , requiring stitches and missing additional training time . Nonetheless , on September 27 , with Mike Smith riding her for the first time , she won the Zenyatta Stakes for a second time , winning by 3 ⁄ 4 of a length over Tiz Midnight and Iotapa . She was viewed as not at her peak fitness , but progressing well in spite of the delays in training linked to her injury .
Beholder was prepared to defend her Breeders ' Cup Distaff title , and was also consigned to be sold at the 2014 Fasig @-@ Tipton fall sale immediately after . Plans changed when she was found to be running a 104 ° F fever after exercising on October 19 . She was scratched from both the race and the sale , and owner Hughes decided that after she recovered from her illness , she would not be sold , but instead would stay in training and return to racing in 2015 .
= = = 2015 : five @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
For the second year in a row , Beholder took the Santa Lucia Stakes , run at a distance of 1 1 ⁄ 16 miles ( 1 @,@ 700 m ) on April 10 , 2015 . With Stevens returning as her rider , she tracked Uzziel until pulling easily away for a 3 3 ⁄ 4 length win . " The game was pretty much over going into the first turn and it was sort of a glorified workout , which is something you hope for in a race like this , " Stevens said . " She 's the best filly I 've ever sat on and I 'm not sure she 's not the best horse I 've ever ridden . "
After missing the Grade 1 Vanity Stakes and an anticipated match @-@ up with improving Warren 's Veneda in May due to a fever similar to that which prevented her from competing in the 2014 Breeders ' Cup Distaff , Beholder was given time off . She returned in the Grade III Adoration Stakes on June 13 , where she defeated Warren 's Veneda by a comfortable 1 1 ⁄ 4 lengths in 1 : 41 @.@ 67 . Beholder followed up with an easy win in the Grade I Clement L. Hirsch Stakes , winning by 7 lengths , without being touched with the whip . Her behavior had markedly improved as she matured , with Stevens commenting , " she went from being a cantankerous kid to a laid @-@ back grandma . " With that victory , she became the first horse since 1976 , male or female , to win Grade I stakes races at ages 2 , 3 , 4 and 5 . While other horses had won Grade I stakes four years in a row , she was notable for being the only horse to have done so beginning at age two .
On August 22 , 2015 , Beholder became the first filly or mare to win the Grade I Pacific Classic against males . She won by 8 1 ⁄ 4 lengths with a final time of 1 : 59 @.@ 77 , against an otherwise all @-@ male field of nine other horses , including 2014 Breeders ' Cup Classic winner Bayern . She won in the third @-@ fastest winning time in the history of the race , and with the second @-@ largest margin of victory , behind the 2013 win of Game On Dude . Hughes said : “ She ’ s the first horse who has made me feel lucky to be her owner . ” Mandella quipped , " We didn ’ t think she would do it quite like that . We thought it was the girls she was picking on . ” and added later , " I think the boys pissed her off . I think they were telling sexist jokes on the backside . " After the race , her connections announced that she would train with the goal of running in the Breeders ' Cup Classic . They also suggested that she might race again in 2016 and that upon retirement , Hughes would be likely to keep her at his Spendthrift Farm and not offer her for sale .
In her last race of 2015 , she won the Zenyatta Stakes for the third time , stalking the pace until taking the lead in the homestretch , easily winning in a field of eight by 3 1 ⁄ 2 lengths . As she prepared for her next race , the 2015 Breeders ' Cup Classic , the biggest challenge was anticipated to be her reaction to travel ; she had only raced twice outside of California , losing both times , and was known to be a poor shipper . With the 2015 Breeders ' Cup races held at Keeneland , and weather causing difficulties for shipping horses by air , Mandella nonetheless declared , " We plan to run in the big one . ” She shipped to Keeneland on October 19 and developed a slight fever shortly after arrival , thought due to shipping stress , but the fever dropped following treatment and she continued to prep for the race . But on the morning of 29 October , Beholder was sent out for a gallop at the Keeneland training track , and examination after the race revealed that she had bled . She was scratched from the Classic . Mandella explained , " there 's obviously some irritated lung tissue there . She will be fine , but if I put her under the pressure of a race situation , it could cause some real damage . This was obviously due to the fever she had when she arrived " .
= = = 2016 : six @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
In her 2016 debut , Stevens was once again in the saddle , and Beholder won the Adoration Stakes for the second time in succession at Santa Anita Park on May 8th , the day after the 2016 Kentucky Derby . This was her seventh straight victory in 16 wins overall ; 14 of her wins have been stakes wins . On 4 June Beholder appeared to be facing a much sterner task when she took on the 2015 American Champion three @-@ year @-@ old filly Stellar Wind in the Grade I Vanity Mile at Santa Anita . In a slowly @-@ run race Stevens tracked the early leader Lost Bus before taking the lead on the turn and winning " effortlessly " by one and a half lengths from Stellar Wind .
= = Assessment and honors = =
Beholder was named American Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Filly at the Eclipse awards for 2012 , gaining 225 of the available 254 votes . She repeated the following year , winning American Champion Three @-@ Year @-@ Old Filly with 207 votes against 42 for runner @-@ up Princess of Sylmar . In the awards for 2014 , in spite of her abbreviated season , she still received five votes for American Champion Older Female , though the award that year went to Close Hatches by a wide margin . Beholder won her third Eclipse Award in January 2016 when she was named American Champion Older Dirt Female Horse , taking 256 of the 261 votes .
In the 2013 World 's Best Racehorse Rankings , Beholder was rated the second @-@ best three @-@ year @-@ old filly in the world behind the French @-@ trained Treve , and the thirty @-@ eighth best horse in the world of any age or either sex . In September 2015 , following her Pacific Classic win , she was ranked eighteenth , the sixth @-@ highest rated American horse and again second only to Treve as the highest @-@ rated filly or mare .
= = Statistics = =
= = Pedigree = =
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= The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( 2011 film ) =
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo is a 2011 Swedish @-@ American psychological thriller film based on the novel of the same name by Stieg Larsson . This film adaptation was directed by David Fincher and written by Steven Zaillian . Starring Daniel Craig and Rooney Mara , it tells the story of journalist Mikael Blomkvist ( Daniel Craig ) ' s investigation to find out what happened to a woman from a wealthy family who disappeared 40 years prior . He recruits the help of computer hacker Lisbeth Salander ( Rooney Mara ) .
Sony Pictures Entertainment began development on the film in 2009 , the year the first , highly acclaimed adaptation of the novel entered cinemas . It took the company a few months to obtain the rights to the novel , while recruiting Zaillian and David Fincher . The casting process for the lead roles was exhaustive and intense ; Craig faced scheduling conflicts , and a number of actresses were sought for the role of Lisbeth Salander . The script took over six months to write , which included three months of analyzing the novel .
Pre @-@ release screenings occurred in London , New York City , and Stockholm . Critics gave the film favorable reviews , praising its bleak tone and lauding Mara and Craig 's performances . With a production budget of $ 90 million , the film grossed $ 232 @.@ 6 million over its theatrical run . In addition to being included in several publications ' best @-@ of lists , the film was a candidate for numerous awards , and ultimately won nine accolades , including an Academy Award for Best Film Editing .
= = Plot = =
In Stockholm , Sweden , journalist Mikael Blomkvist ( Daniel Craig ) , co @-@ owner of Millennium magazine , has lost a libel case brought against him by businessman Hans @-@ Erik Wennerström ( Ulf Friberg ) . Lisbeth Salander ( Rooney Mara ) , a brilliant but troubled investigator and hacker , compiles an extensive background check on Blomkvist for business magnate Henrik Vanger ( Christopher Plummer ) , who has a special task for him . In exchange for the promise of damning information about Wennerström , Blomkvist agrees to investigate the disappearance and assumed murder of Henrik 's grandniece , Harriet , 40 years ago . After moving to the Vanger family 's compound , Blomkvist uncovers a notebook containing a list of names and numbers that no one has been able to decipher .
Salander , who is under state legal guardianship due to diagnosed mental incompetency , is appointed a new guardian , lawyer Nils Bjurman ( Yorick van Wageningen ) , after her previous guardian Holger Palmgren suffers a stroke . Bjurman abuses his authority to extort sexual favors from Salander and violently rapes her , not realizing she has a hidden video camera on her bag . At their next meeting she stuns him with a stun gun , rapes him with a dildo , and marks him as a rapist with a tattoo on his chest and stomach . Threatening to disclose the video recording , she blackmails him into writing a glowing progress report and granting her full control of her money .
Blomkvist 's daughter Pernilla ( Josefin Asplund ) visits him and notes that the numbers from the notebook are Bible references . Blomkvist tells Vanger 's lawyer , Dirch Frode ( Steven Berkoff ) , that he needs help with his research , and Frode recommends Salander based on the work she did researching Blomkvist himself . Blomkvist hires Salander to investigate the notebook 's content . She uncovers a connection to a series of murders of young women from 1947 through 1967 , with the women either being Jewish or having Biblical names ; many of the Vangers are known antisemites . During the investigation , Salander and Blomkvist become lovers . Henrik 's openly national socialist brother Harald identifies Martin ( Stellan Skarsgård ) , Harriet 's brother and operational head of the Vanger empire , and Blomkvist marks Martin as a possible suspect . Salander 's research uncovers evidence that Martin and his deceased father , Gottfried , committed the murders .
Blomkvist breaks into Martin 's house to look for more clues , but Martin catches him and prepares to kill him . While torturing Blomkvist , Martin brags of having killed women for decades but denies killing Harriet . Salander arrives , subdues Martin and saves Blomkvist . While Salander tends to Blomkvist , Martin flees . Salander , on her motorcycle , pursues Martin in his SUV . He loses control of his vehicle on an icy road and dies when it catches fire . Salander nurses Blomkvist back to health and tells him that she tried to kill her father when she was 12 . Blomkvist deduces that Harriet is still alive and her cousin Anita ( Joely Richardson ) likely knows where she is . He and Salander monitor Anita , waiting for her to contact Harriet . When nothing happens , Blomkvist confronts her , deducing that the woman posing as Anita is Harriet herself . She explains that her father and brother had sexually abused her for years , and that Martin saw her kill their father in self @-@ defense . Her cousin Anita smuggled her out of the island and let her live under her identity . Finally free of her brother , she returns to Sweden and tearfully reunites with Henrik .
As promised , Henrik gives Blomkvist the information on Wennerström , but it proves worthless . Salander hacks into Wennerström 's computer and presents Blomkvist with evidence of Wennerström 's crimes . Blomkvist publishes an article that ruins Wennerström , who flees the country . Salander hacks into Wennerström 's bank accounts and , travelling to Switzerland in disguise , transfers two billion euros to various accounts . Wennerström is found murdered . Salander reveals to her former guardian Holger Palmgren that she is in love with Blomkvist . On her way to give Blomkvist a Christmas present , Salander sees him with his longtime lover and business partner Erika Berger ( Robin Wright ) . Heartbroken , she discards the gift and rides away .
= = Cast = =
Daniel Craig as Mikael Blomkvist :
A co @-@ owner for Swedish lifestyle magazine Millennium , Blomkvist is devoted to exposing the corruptions and malfeasance of government , attracting infamy for his tendency to " go too far " . Craig competed with Brad Pitt , George Clooney , Viggo Mortensen , and Johnny Depp as candidates for the role . Initial concerns over schedule conflicts with the production of Cowboys & Aliens ( 2011 ) and Skyfall ( 2012 ) prompted Craig to postpone the casting process . Given the uncertainty surrounding Skyfall following Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer 's bankruptcy , Sony Pictures Entertainment and DreamWorks worked out a schedule and Craig agreed to take the part . The British actor was required to gain weight and adopted a neutral accent to befit Stockholm 's worldly cultural fabric . Having read the book amid its " initial craze " , Craig commented , " It 's one of those books you just don 't put down " [ ... ] There 's just this immediate feeling that bad things are going to happen and I think that 's part of why they 've been so readable for people . "
Rooney Mara as Lisbeth Salander :
Salander is a computer hacker who has survived severe emotional and sexual abuse . The character was a " vulnerable victim @-@ turned @-@ vigilante " who possessed the " take @-@ no @-@ prisoners " attitude of Lara Croft and the " cool , unsentimental intellect " of Spock . Fincher felt that Salander 's eccentric persona was enthralling , and stated , " there 's a kind of wish fulfillment to her in the way that she takes care of things , the way she will only put up with so much , but there are other sides to her as well . " Casting was complicated by the raft of prominent candidates such as Natalie Portman , Ellen Page , Kristen Stewart , Jennifer Lawrence , Keira Knightley , Anne Hathaway , Olivia Thirlby , Scarlett Johansson , and Emma Watson . Despite the hype , some eventually withdrew from consideration due to the time commitment and low pay . Mara had worked with Fincher in his 2010 film The Social Network . Fincher , while fond of the actress ' youthful appearance , found it difficult at first to mold her to match Salander 's antisocial demeanor , which was a vast contrast from her earlier role as the submissive Erica . Mara went through multiple changes in her appearance to become Salander . Her hair was dyed black and cut into various jagged points , giving the appearance that she cut it herself . In addition to her transgressive appearance , which was described as a " mash @-@ up of brazen Seventies punk and spooky Eighties goth with a dash of S & M temptress " by Lynn Hirschberg of W , Mara participated in a formal screening and was filmed by Fincher on a subway in Los Angeles in an effort to persuade the executives of Sony Pictures that she was a credible choice .
Christopher Plummer as Henrik Vanger :
Vanger is a wealthy businessman who launches an extensive investigation into his family 's affairs . Despite calling the Vanger family " dysfunctional " , Plummer said of the character : " I love the character of the old man , and I sympathize with him . He 's really the nicest old guy in the whole book . Everybody is a bit suspect , and still are at the end . Old Vanger has a nice straight line , and he gets his wish . " Plummer wanted to imbue the character with irony , an element he found to be absent from the novel 's Henrik . " I think that the old man would have it , " he opined , " because he 's a very sophisticated old guy [ ... ] used to a great deal of power . So in dealing with people , he would be very good [ ... ] he would be quite jokey , and know how to seduce them . "
Stellan Skarsgård as Martin Vanger :
Martin is the current CEO of the Vanger Corporation . Skarsgård was allured by the character 's dual nature , and was fascinated that he got to portray him in " two totally different ways " . In regards to Martin 's " very complex " and " complicated " personality , the Swedish actor said , " He can be extremely charming , but he also can seem to be a completely different person at different points in the film . " While consulting with Fincher , the director wanted Skarsgård to play Martin without reference to the book .
Steven Berkoff as Dirch Frode
Robin Wright as Erika Berger : Blomkvist 's business partner and editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Millennium magazine . She 's also Blomkvist 's occasional lover .
Yorick van Wageningen as Nils Bjurman :
As Salander 's legal guardian , he uses his position to sexually abuse and eventually rape her . Salander turns the tables on him , torturing him and branding him as a rapist . Fincher wanted the character to be worse than a typical antagonist , although he did not want to emulate the stereotypical " mustache @-@ twirling pervert " . The director considered Van Wageningen to be the embodiment of a versatile actor — one who was a " full @-@ fledged human being " and a " brilliant " actor . " He was able to bring his performance from a logical place in Bjurman 's mind and find the seething morass of darkness inside , " Fincher stated . Bjurman 's multifaceted psyche was the main reason Van Wageningen wanted to play the role . The Dutch actor said , " This character goes through a lot and I wasn 't quite sure I wanted to go through all that . I started out half way between the elation of getting to work with David Fincher and the dread of this character , but I was able to use both of those things . We both thought the most interesting route would be for Bjurman to seem half affable . The challenge was not in finding the freak violence in the guy but finding the humanity of him . "
Joely Richardson as Harriet Vanger :
Henrik 's long @-@ lost grandniece who went into hiding posing as her cousin Anita . In performing her " tricky " character , Richardson recalled that Fincher wanted her to embrace a " darker , edgier " persona , without sugarcoating , and not " resolved or healed " . " Even if you were starting to move towards the direction of resolved or healed , he still wanted it edgy and dark . There are no straightforward emotions in the world of this film . "
Goran Višnjić as Dragan Armansky , head of Milton Security , Salander 's employer
Donald Sumpter as Detective Morell
Ulf Friberg as Wennerström
Geraldine James as Cecilia Vanger
Embeth Davidtz as Annika Giannini , Mikeal 's sister and a lawyer
Josefin Asplund as Pernilla Blomkvist , Mikeal 's daughter
Per Myrberg as Harald Vanger
Tony Way as Plague , Salander 's hacker friend
Fredrik Dolk as Wennerström 's Lawyer
Alan Dale as Detective Isaksson
Julian Sands as Young Henrik Vanger
David Dencik as Young Morell
Gustaf Hammarsten as Young Harald
Leo Bill as Trinity , another of Salander 's hacker friends
Élodie Yung as Miriam Wu , Salander 's occasional lover
Joel Kinnaman as Christer Malm
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
The success of Stieg Larsson 's novel created Hollywood interest in adapting the book , as became apparent in 2009 , when Lynton and Pascal pursued the idea of developing an " American " version unrelated to the Swedish film adaptation released that year . By December , two major developments occurred for the project : Steven Zaillian , who had recently completed the script for Moneyball ( 2011 ) , became the screenwriter , while producer Scott Rudin finalized a partnership allocating full copyrights to Sony . Zaillian , who was unfamiliar with the novel , got a copy from Rudin . The screenwriter recalled , " They sent it to me and said , ' We want to do this . We will think of it as one thing for now . It 's possible that it can be two and three , but let 's concentrate on this one . ' " After reading the book , the screenwriter did no research on the subject . Fincher , who was requested with partner Cean Chaffin by Sony executives to read the novel , was astounded by the series ' size and success . As they began to read , the duo noticed that it had a tendency to take " readers on a lot of side trips " — " from detailed explanations of surveillance techniques to angry attacks on corrupt Swedish industrialists , " professed The Hollywood Reporter 's Gregg Kilday . Fincher recalled of the encounter : " The ballistic , ripping @-@ yarn thriller aspect of it is kind of a red herring in a weird way . It is the thing that throws Salander and Blomkvist together , but it is their relationship you keep coming back to . I was just wondering what 350 pages Zaillian would get rid of . " Because Zaillian was already cultivating the screenplay , the director avoided interfering . After a conversation , Fincher was comfortable " they were headed in the same direction " .
The writing process consumed approximately six months , including three months creating notes and analyzing the novel . Zaillian noted that as time progressed , the writing accelerated . " As soon as you start making decisions , " he explained , " you start cutting off all of the other possibilities of things that could happen . So with every decision that you make you are removing a whole bunch of other possibilities of where that story can go or what that character can do . " Given the book 's sizable length , Zaillian deleted elements to match Fincher 's desired running time . Even so , Zaillan took significant departures from the book . To Zaillian , there was always a " low @-@ grade " anxiety , " but I was never doing anything specifically to please or displease , " he continued . " I was simply trying to tell the story the best way I could , and push that out of my mind . I didn 't change anything just for the sake of changing it . There 's a lot right about the book , but that part , I thought we could do it a different way , and it could be a nice surprise for the people that have read it . "
Zaillian discussed many of the themes in Larsson 's Millennium series with Fincher , taking the pair deeper into the novel 's darker subjects , such as the psychological dissimilarities between rapists and murderers . Fincher was familiar with the concept , from projects such as Seven ( 1995 ) and Zodiac ( 2007 ) . Zaillian commented , " A rapist , or at least our rapist , is about exercising his power over somebody . A serial killer is about destruction ; they get off on destroying something . It 's not about having power over something , it 's about eliminating it . What thrills them is slightly different . " The duo wanted to expose the novels ' pivotal themes , particularly misogyny . " We were committed to the tack that this is a movie about violence against women about specific kinds of degradation , and you can 't shy away from that . But at the same time you have to walk a razor thin line so that the audience can viscerally feel the need for revenge but also see the power of the ideas being expressed . " Instead of the typical three @-@ act structure , they reluctantly chose a five @-@ act structure , which Fincher pointed out is " very similar to a lot of TV cop dramas . "
= = = Filming = = =
Fincher and Zaillian 's central objective was to maintain the novel 's setting . To portray Larsson 's vision of Sweden , and the interaction of light on its landscape , Fincher cooperated with an artistic team that included cinematographer Jeff Cronenweth and production designer Donald Graham Burt . The film was wholly shot using Red Digital Cinema Camera Company 's RED MX digital camera , chosen to help evoke Larsson 's tone . The idea , according to Cronenweth , was to employ unorthodox light sources and maintain a realistic perspective . " So there may be shadows , there may be flaws , but it 's reality . You allow silhouettes and darkness , but at the same time we also wanted shots to counter that , so it would not all be one continuous dramatic image . " Sweden 's climate was a crucial element in enhancing the mood . Cronenweth commented , " It 's always an element in the background and it was very important that you feel it as an audience member . The winter becomes like a silent character in the film giving everything a low , cool @-@ colored light that is super soft and non @-@ direct . " To get acquainted with Swedish culture , Burt set out on a month @-@ long expedition across the country . He said of the process , " It takes time to start really taking in the nuances of a culture , to start seeing the themes that recur in the architecture , the landscape , the layouts of the cities and the habits of the people . I felt I had to really integrate myself into this world to develop a true sense of place for the film . It was not just about understanding the physicality of the locations , but the metaphysics of them , and how the way people live comes out through design . "
Principal photography began in Stockholm , Sweden in September 2010 . Production mostly took place at multiple locations in the city 's central business district , including at the Stockholm Court House . One challenge was realizing the Vanger estate . They picked an eighteenth @-@ century French architecture mansion Hofsta located approximately 15 miles ( 24 km ) southwest of Stockholm . Filmmakers wanted to use a typical " manor from Småland " that was solemn , formal , and " very Old Money " . " The Swedish are very good at the modern and the minimal but they also have these wonderful country homes that can be juxtaposed against the modern city — yet both speak to money . " Principal photography relocated in October to Uppsala . On Queen Street , the facade of the area was renovated to mimic the Hotel Alder , after an old photograph of a building obtained by Fincher . From December onward , production moved to Zurich , Switzerland , where locations were established at Dolder Grand Hotel and the Zurich Airport . Because of the " beautiful " environment of the city , Fincher found it difficult to film in the area . Principal photography concluded in Oslo , Norway , where production took place at Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . Recorded for over fifteen hours , twelve extras were sought for background roles . Filming also took place in the United Kingdom and the United States .
In one sequence the character Martin Vanger plays the song " Orinoco Flow " by Enya before beginning his torture of Mikael Blomkvist . David Fincher , the director , said that he believed that Martin " doesn ’ t like to kill , he doesn ’ t like to hear the screams , without hearing his favorite music " so therefore the character should play a song during the scene . Daniel Craig , the actor who played Blomkvist , selected " Orinoco Flow " on his iPod as a candidate song . Fincher said " And we all almost pissed ourselves , we were laughing so hard . No , actually , it ’ s worse than that . He said , ‘ Orinoco Flow ! ’ Everybody looked at each other , like , what is he talking about ? And he said , ‘ You know , “ Sail away , sail away ... ” ’ And I thought , this guy is going to make Blomkvist as metro as we need . "
= = = = Title sequence = = = =
Tim Miller , creative director for the title sequence , wanted to develop an abstract narrative that reflected the pivotal moments in the novel , as well as the character development of Lisbeth Salander . It was arduous for Miller to conceptualize the sequence abstractly , given that Salander 's occupation was a distinctive part of her personality . His initial ideas were modeled after a keyboard . " We were going to treat the keyboard like this giant city with massive fingers pressing down on the keys , " Miller explained , " Then we transitioned to the liquid going through the giant obelisks of the keys . " Among Miller 's many vignettes was " The Hacker Inside " , which revealed the character 's inner disposition and melted them away . The futuristic qualities in the original designs provided for a much more cyberpunk appearance than the final product . In creating the " cyber " look for Salander , Miller said , " Every time I would show David a design he would say , ' More Tandy ! ' It 's the shitty little computers from Radio Shack , the Tandy computers . They probably had vacuum tubes in them , really old technology . And David would go ' More Tandy ' , until we ended up with something that looked like we glued a bunch of computer parts found at a junkyard together . "
Fincher wanted the vignette to be a " personal nightmare " for Salander , replaying her darkest moments . " Early on , we knew it was supposed to feel like a nightmare , " Miller professed , who commented that early on in the process , Fincher wanted to use an artwork as a template for the sequence . After browsing through various paintings to no avail , Fincher chose a painting that depicted the artist , covered in black paint , standing in the middle of a gallery . Many of Miller 's sketches contained a liquid @-@ like component , and were rewritten to produce the " gooey " element that was so desired . " David said let 's just put liquid in all of them and it will be this primordial dream ooze that 's a part of every vignette , " Miller recalled . " It ties everything together other than the black on black . "
The title sequence includes abundant references to the novel , and exposes several political themes . Salander 's tattoos , such as her phoenix and dragon tattoos , were incorporated . The multiple flower representations signified the biological life cycle , as well as Henrik , who received a pressed flower each year on his birthday . " One had flowers coming out of this black ooze , " said Fincher , " it blossoms , and then it dies . And then a different flower , as that one is dying is rising from the middle of it . It was supposed to represent this cycle of the killer sending flowers . " Ultimately , the vignette becomes very conceptual because Miller and his team took " a whole thought , and cut it up into multiple different shots that are mixed in with other shots " . In one instance , Blomkvist is strangled by strips of newspaper , a metaphor for the establishment squelching his exposes .
In the " Hot Hands " vignette , a pair of rough , distorted hands that embrace Salander 's face and melt it represent all that 's bad in men . The hands that embrace Blomkvist 's face and shatter it , represent wealth and power . Themes of domestic violence become apparent as a woman 's face shatters after a merciless beating ; this also ties in the brutal beating of Salander 's mother by her father , an event revealed in the sequel , The Girl Who Played with Fire ( 2006 ) .
A cover of Led Zeppelin 's " Immigrant Song " ( 1970 ) plays throughout the title sequence . The rendition was produced by soundtrack composers Atticus Ross and Nine Inch Nails member Trent Reznor , and features vocals from Yeah Yeah Yeahs lead singer Karen O. Fincher suggested the song , but Reznor agreed only at his request . Led Zeppelin licensed the song only for use in the film 's trailer and title sequence . Fincher stated that he sees title sequences as an opportunity to set the stage for the film , or to get an audience to let go of its preconceptions .
Software packages that were primarily used are 3ds Max ( for modeling , lighting , rendering ) , Softimage ( for rigging and animation ) , Digital Fusion ( for compositing ) , Real Flow ( for fluid dynamics ) , Sony Vegas ( for editorial ) , Zbrush and Mudbox ( for organic modeling ) , and VRAY ( for rendering ) .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
Fincher recruited Reznor and Ross to produce the score ; aside from their successful collaboration on The Social Network , the duo had worked together on albums from Nine Inch Nails ' later discography . They dedicated much of the year to work on the film , as they felt it would appeal to a broad audience . Akin to his efforts in The Social Network , Reznor experiments with acoustics and blends them with elements of electronic music , resulting in a forbidding atmosphere . " We wanted to create the sound of coldness — emotionally and also physically , " he asserted , " We wanted to take lots of acoustic instruments [ ... ] and transplant them into a very inorganic setting , and dress the set around them with electronics . "
Even before viewing the script , Reznor and Ross opted to use a redolent approach to creating the film 's score . After discussing with Fincher the varying soundscapes and emotions , the duo spent six weeks composing . " We composed music we felt might belong , " stated the Nine Inch Nails lead vocalist , " and then we 'd run it by Fincher , to see where his head ’ s at and he responded positively . He was filming at this time last year and assembling rough edits of scenes to see what it feels like , and he was inserting our music at that point , rather than using temp music , which is how it usually takes place , apparently . " Finding a structure for the soundtrack was arguably the most strenuous task . " We weren ’ t working on a finished thing , so everything keeps moving around , scenes are changing in length , and even the order of things are shuffled around , and that can get pretty frustrating when you get precious about your work . It was a lesson we learned pretty quickly of , ' Everything is in flux , and approach it as such . Hopefully it ’ ll work out in the end . ' "
= = Release = =
= = = Pre @-@ release = = =
A screening for The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo took place on November 28 , 2011 , as part of a critics @-@ only event hosted by the New York Film Critics Circle . Commentators at the event predicted that while the film would become a contender for several accolades , it would likely not become a forerunner in the pursuit for Academy Award nominations . A promotional campaign commenced thereafter , including a Lisbeth Salander @-@ inspired collection , designed by Trish Summerville for H & M. The worldwide premiere was at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on December 12 , 2011 , followed by the American opening at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City on December 14 and Stockholm the next day . Sony 's target demographics were men and women over the age of 25 and 17 – 34 . The film went into general release in North America on December 21 , at 2 @,@ 700 theaters , expanding to 2 @,@ 974 theaters on its second day . The United Kingdom release was on December 26 , Russia on January 1 , 2012 , and Japan on February 13 . India and Vietnam releases were abandoned due to censorship concerns . A press statement from the Central Board of Film Certification stated : " Sony Pictures will not be releasing The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo in India . The censor board has judged the film unsuitable for public viewing in its unaltered form and , while we are committed to maintaining and protecting the vision of the director , we will , as always , respect the guidelines set by the board . " In contrast , the National Film Board of Vietnam insisted that the film 's withdrawal had no relation to rigid censorship guidelines , as it had not been reviewed by the committee .
= = = Home media = = =
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the film in a DVD and Blu @-@ ray disc combo pack in the United States on March 20 , 2012 . Bonus features include a commentary from Fincher , featurettes on Blomkvist , Salander , the sets and locations , etc . The disc artwork for the DVD version of the film resembles a Sony brand DVD @-@ R , a reference to the hacker Lisbeth Salander . This caused a bit of confusion in the marketplace with consumers thinking they had obtained a bootleg copy . The release sold 644 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , in third place behind The Muppets and Hop . The following week , the film sold an additional 144 @,@ 000 copies generating $ 2 @.@ 59 million in gross revenue . As of January 2014 , 1 @,@ 478 @,@ 230 units had been sold , grossing $ 22 @,@ 195 @,@ 069 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Fincher 's film grossed $ 232 @.@ 6 million during its theatrical run . The film 's American release grossed $ 1 @.@ 6 million from its Tuesday night screenings , a figure that increased to $ 3 @.@ 5 million by the end of its first day of general release . It maintained momentum into its opening weekend , accumulating $ 13 million for a total of $ 21 million in domestic revenue . The film 's debut figures fell below media expectations . Aided by positive word of mouth , its commercial performance remained steady into the second week , posting $ 19 million from 2 @,@ 914 theaters . The third week saw box office drop 24 % to $ 11 @.@ 3 million , totaling $ 76 @.@ 8 million . The number of theaters slightly increased to 2 @,@ 950 . By the fifth week , the number of theaters shrank to 1 @,@ 907 , and grosses to $ 3 @.@ 7 million , though it remained within the national top ten . The film completed its North American theatrical run on March 22 , 2012 , earning over $ 102 @.@ 5 million .
The international debut was in six Scandinavian markets on December 19 – 25 , 2011 , securing $ 1 @.@ 6 million from 480 venues . In Sweden the film opened in 194 theaters to strong results , accounting for more than half of international revenue at the time ( $ 950 @,@ 000 ) . The first full week in the United Kingdom collected $ 6 @.@ 7 million from 920 theaters . By the weekend of January 6 – 8 , 2012 , the film grossed $ 12 @.@ 2 million for a total of $ 29 million ; this included its expansion into Hong Kong , where it topped the box office , earning $ 470 @,@ 000 from thirty @-@ six establishments . The film similarly led the field in South Africa . It accumulated $ 6 @.@ 6 million from an estimated 600 theaters over a seven @-@ day period in Russia , placing fifth . The expansion continued into the following week , opening in nine markets . The week of January 13 – 15 saw the film yield $ 16 @.@ 1 million from 3 @,@ 910 locations in over forty @-@ three territories , thus propelling the international gross to $ 49 @.@ 3 million . It debuted at second place in Austria and Germany , where in the latter , it pulled $ 2 @.@ 9 million from 525 locations . Similar results were achieved in Australia , where it reached 252 theaters . The film 's momentum continued throughout the month , and by January 22 , it had hit ten additional markets , including France and Mexico , from which it drew $ 3 @.@ 25 million from 540 venues and $ 1 @.@ 25 million from 540 theaters , respectively . In its second week in France it descended to number three , with a total gross of $ 5 @.@ 8 million .
The next major international release came in Japan on February 13 , where it opened in first place with $ 3 @.@ 68 million ( ¥ 288 million ) in 431 theaters . By the weekend of February 17 – 19 , the film had scooped up $ 119 @.@ 5 million from international markets . The total international gross for The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was $ 130 @.@ 1 million . MGM , one of the studios involved in the production , posted a " modest loss " and declared that they had expected the film to gross at least 10 % more .
= = = Critical response = = =
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo received very positive reviews from critics , with particular note to the cast , tone , score and cinematography . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 86 % , based on 224 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 6 / 10 . The site 's consensus states , " Brutal yet captivating , The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo is the result of David Fincher working at his lurid best with total role commitment from star Rooney Mara . " At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized score , the film received an average score of 71 out of 100 , based on 41 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
David Denby of The New Yorker asserted that the austere , but captivating installment presented a " glancing , chilled view " of a world where succinct moments of loyalty coexisted with constant trials of betrayal . To USA Today columnist Claudia Puig , Fincher captures the " menace and grim despair in the frosty Scandinavian landscape " by carefully approaching its most gruesome features . Puig noted a surfeit of " stylistic flourishes " and " intriguing " changes in the narrative , compared to the original film . In his three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star review , Chris Knight of the National Post argued that it epitomized a so @-@ called " paradoxical position " that was both " immensely enjoyable and completely unnecessary " . Rene Rodriguez of The Miami Herald said that the " fabulously sinister entertainment " surpassed the original film " in every way " . The film took two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars from Rolling Stone commentator Peter Travers , who concluded : " Fincher 's Girl is gloriously rendered but too impersonal to leave a mark . " A. O. Scott , writing for The New York Times , admired the moments of " brilliantly orchestrated " anxiety and confusion , but felt that The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was vulnerable to the " lumbering proceduralism " that he saw in its literary counterpart , as evident with the " long stretches of drab , hackneyed exposition that flatten the atmosphere " . The Wall Street Journal 's Joe Morgenstern praised Cronenweth 's cinematography , which he thought provided for glossy alterations in the film 's darkness ; " Stockholm glitters in nighttime exteriors , and its subway shines in a spectacular spasm of action involving a backpack . " Rex Reed of The New York Observer professed that despite its occasional incomprehensibility , the movie was " technically superb " and " superbly acted " . In contrast , Kyle Smith of New York Post censured the film , calling it " rubbish " and further commenting that it " demonstrates merely that masses will thrill to an unaffecting , badly written , psychologically shallow and deeply unlikely pulp story so long as you allow them to feel sanctified by the occasional meaningless reference to feminism or Nazis . "
The performances were a frequent topic in the critiques . Mara 's performance , in particular , was admired by commentators . In comparing the performances between Mara and Noomi Rapace , who played Salander in the 2009 film , Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said that Rapace felt more self @-@ conscious in the role . A revelation in the eyes of Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman , he proclaimed that her character was more important than " her ability to solve a crime " . Her " hypnotic " portrayal was noted by Justin Chang of Variety , as well as Salon critic Andrew O 'Hehir , who wrote , " Rooney Mara is a revelation as Lisbeth Salander , the damaged , aggressive computer geek and feminist revenge angel , playing the character as far more feral and vulnerable than Noomi Rapace ’ s borderline @-@ stereotype sexpot Goth girl . " Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club enjoyed the chemistry between Mara and Craig , as did David Germain of the Associated Press ; " Mara and Craig make an indomitable screen pair , he nominally leading their intense search into decades @-@ old serial killings , she surging ahead , plowing through obstacles with flashes of phenomenal intellect and eruptions of physical fury . " Although Puig found Mara inferior to Rapace in playing Salander , with regard to Craig 's performance , he said that the actor shone . This was supported by Morgenstern who avouched that Craig " nonetheless finds welcome humor in Mikael 's impassive affect " .
= = = Accolades = = =
In addition to numerous awards , The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was included on several year @-@ end lists by film commentators and publications . It was named the best film of 2011 by MTV and James Berardinelli of ReelViews . The former wrote , " The director follows up the excellent Social Network with another tour de force , injecting the murder mystery that introduces us to outcast hacker Lisbeth Salander [ ... ] and embattled journalist [ ... ] with style , intensity and relentless suspense . Mara is a revelation , and the film 's daunting 160 @-@ minute runtime breezes by thanks to one heart @-@ racing scene after the next . Dark and tough to watch at times , but a triumph all around . " The film came second in indieWire 's list of " Drew Taylor 's Favorite Films Of 2011 " , while reaching the top ten of seven other publications , including the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch , San Francisco Chronicle , and the New Orleans Times @-@ Picayune . The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was declared one of the best films of the year by the American Film Institute , as well as the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures .
= = Possible sequels = =
In December 2011 , Fincher stated that he wanted to film the sequels , The Girl Who Played with Fire and The Girl Who Kicked the Hornets ' Nest , " back to back . " There was an announced release date of 2013 for a film version of The Girl Who Played with Fire , although by August 2012 it was delayed due to difficulties with the script , being written by Zaillian . In July 2013 , Andrew Kevin Walker was hired to re @-@ write the script .
In September 2014 , Fincher stated that a script for Played with Fire had been written that was " extremely different from the book , " and that , despite the long delay , he was confident that the film would be made because Sony " already has spent millions of dollars on the rights and the script " . Mara , however , has been less optimistic about the project , saying in interviews in both May 2014 and February 2015 that sequels looked unlikely , despite her desire to appear in them .
In November 2015 , TheWrap reported that Sony was rebooting the franchise with an adaptation of The Girl in the Spider 's Web , a 2015 novel by David Lagercrantz that was a continuation of the original Millennium trilogy . According to the report , neither Mara , Craig nor Fincher were likely to return for the film ; Alicia Vikander was discussed as possibly taking over the role of Salander . However , while promoting Carol , Mara stated that she is still signed for the sequel : " As far as I know I 'm doing it until someone tells me otherwise [ ... ] I 'm doing it unless someone tells me that I 'm not — and then I still might do it , " she joked . Steven Knight will serve as screenwriter .
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= 2005 UEFA Super Cup =
The 2005 UEFA Super Cup was an association football match between Liverpool of England and CSKA Moscow of Russia on 26 August 2005 at Stade Louis II , Monaco , the annual UEFA Super Cup contested between the winners of the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup . Liverpool were appearing in the Super Cup for the fifth time , having won the competition in 1977 and 2001 . CSKA Moscow were appearing in the Super Cup for the first time , the first Russian team to appear in the competition .
The teams had qualified for the competition by winning the two seasonal European competitions . Liverpool won the 2004 – 05 UEFA Champions League , defeating Italian team A.C. Milan 3 – 2 in a penalty shootout after the match had finished 3 – 3 . CSKA Moscow won the 2004 – 05 UEFA Cup , beating Portuguese team Sporting CP 3 – 1 .
Watched by a crowd of 17 @,@ 042 , CSKA took the lead in the first half when Daniel Carvalho scored . Liverpool did not respond until the 82nd minute when substitute Djibril Cissé scored . The score remained 1 – 1 until the end of the 90 minutes to send the match into extra @-@ time . Cissé scored again in the 103rd minute to give Liverpool the lead , which was later extended by Luis García . Liverpool held out until the end of extra @-@ time to win the match 3 – 1 , their third Super Cup win .
= = Match = =
= = = Background = = =
Liverpool qualified for the UEFA Super Cup as the reigning UEFA Champions League winners . They had won the Champions League beating Milan 3 – 2 in a penalty shootout after the match had finished 3 – 3 . It would be Liverpool 's fifth appearance in the Super Cup . They had previously won the competition in 1977 and 2001 , beating Hamburger SV and Bayern Munich respectively . The two other appearances in 1978 and 1984 had resulted in losses to Anderlecht and Juventus respectively .
CSKA Moscow had qualified for the Super Cup as a result of winning the 2004 – 05 UEFA Cup . They had beaten Sporting CP 3 – 1 to become the first Russian team to win a European trophy . Therefore , they were making their first appearance in the competition and were the first Russian team to compete in the Super Cup .
Both sides had played several matches already , which was unusual as the Super Cup would normally have been the first significant match the two teams had played . Liverpool had been forced to enter the first qualifying round of the 2005 – 06 UEFA Champions League , despite being champions . They had failed to finish in the top four during the 2004 – 05 FA Premier League , which would ensure Champions League qualification . UEFA granted them special dispensation to enter the competition as holders . Meanwhile , CSKA Moscow were in the middle of their domestic season . At the time of this match they were second in the 2005 Russian Premier League , seven points behind leaders Lokomotiv Moscow .
Both teams valued the competition , despite some commentators being dismissive of the match 's importance . CSKA captain Sergei Ignashevich underlined his team 's determined mood : " We know their players are very strong because they won the Champions League . But we are not thinking about individuals . We will only worry about ourselves and not them . " Likewise Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard was equally determined to be successful : " This is the opportunity to win another trophy . When you play against good teams you have to do your best . I am not thinking about the past and that we won the Champions League . "
CSKA and Liverpool had injury concerns ahead of the match . CSKA striker Ivica Olić , the top scorer in Russia at the time , was sidelined with a serious knee injury . However , fellow CSKA striker Vágner Love was said by manager Valery Gazzaev to have " no problems " over his leg injury . Liverpool were without injured duo Djimi Traoré and Peter Crouch . There was also doubt over whether their captain Steven Gerrard would play . The decision over whether his calf injury had healed sufficiently for the match was left to the last moment . However , Gerrard was not deemed fit enough to play and was left out of the squad . The lead up to the match had been changed from the previous year . The UEFA Club Football Awards were incorporated into the draw for the group stage of the 2005 – 06 UEFA Champions League on the day before the match .
= = = Summary = = =
CSKA kicked @-@ off , but Liverpool had the first chance of the match . Dietmar Hamann shot from 20 yards ( 18 m ) but his shot was saved by CSKA goalkeeper Igor Akinfeev . 11 minutes after the start of the match Luis García was put through on goal from a pass by Hamann , but before he could shoot , Akinfeev had smothered the ball . García was put through on goal again moments later from a Boudewijn Zenden pass but his shot went over the crossbar . Midway through the first @-@ half , García found Fernando Morientes 25 yards ( 23 m ) from goal with a pass , but Morientes ' subsequent shot was saved by Akinfeev . At this point in the match , Liverpool were dominating possession but were unable to convert this into goals . With Liverpool dominate for the majority of the half , CSKA scored against the run of play . Midfielder Daniel Carvalho took the ball past Liverpool goalkeeper Pepe Reina and put the ball into an open goal to give CSKA a 1 – 0 lead . It was not until the 36th minute that Liverpool created another goalscoring opportunity , however García and Steve Finnan both failed to score . Towards the end of the half , Zenden was shown a yellow card for a late tackle on Chidi Odiah .
Liverpool kicked @-@ off the second half and five minutes into the half Liverpool defender Josemi was shown a yellow card for fouling Miloš Krasić . Liverpool 's poor play in front of goal continued after the restart ; Josemi had a chance to score , but his shot from the edge of the penalty area went over the crossbar . After the attack , Liverpool made the first substitution of the match ; Florent Sinama Pongolle replaced Finnan . After just over an hour 's play , a mix @-@ up between Reina and Sami Hyypiä nearly contrived to present a goal to CSKA , before Hyypiä intervened to clear the ball . CSKA made their first substitution in the 66th minute with Deividas Šemberas replacing Yuri Zhirkov . Liverpool followed this by replacing Xabi Alonso with Mohamed Sissoko . Vágner Love had a chance to extend CSKA 's lead in the 77th minute , but he was unable to control the ball after a high pass and lost possession . Despite their lead CSKA were negative in their play ; they were punished when Liverpool replaced John Arne Riise with striker Djibril Cissé . Cissé made an immediate impact ; he ran onto to a pass from García . The pass was cleared by CSKA defender Sergei Ignashevich but it ricocheted off Cissé and left him with an open goal after Akinfeev had come off his line in an attempt to clear the ball . Cissé 's goal meant the match was now drawn at 1 – 1 and with no further goals the match went into extra @-@ time .
CSKA kicked @-@ off the first half of extra @-@ time . Five minutes into the half , Liverpool substitute Sinama Pongolle was booked . With two minutes of the half remaining , the ball was played into the centre of the CSKA half ; Ignashevich misjudged the flight of the ball , which went over his head and fell to Cissé . His subsequent shot was saved by Akinfeev , but the ball rebounded to Cissé who scored to give Liverpool a 2 – 1 lead . The half was brought to an end with Liverpool leading for the first time in the match . Liverpool kicked @-@ off the second half of extra @-@ time . CSKA had the first chance of the half , but Vágner Love 's effort was easily saved by Reina . Liverpool responded midway through the half ; Cissé 's cross from the right side of the pitch was met by García , who scored . No further goals were scored and the referee blew for full @-@ time with the final score 3 – 1 to Liverpool .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez was happy with his players after they had come from behind to win the match : " It was a difficult game . We were controlling the game , passing the ball around and then we made a mistake and had to work really hard to get back . They played well , but I think we controlled the game . To score three goals is not easy . I can say that we are very happy now with this trophy . Now is the time to enjoy our victory . " With five days of the transfer window left , Benítez refused to speculate on whether Liverpool would sign Michael Owen , stating , " I like good players , we have a lot of them here . "
CSKA manager Valery Gazzaev praised his players despite their loss and hinted that injuries may have been a factor in the loss : " The game was satisfactory – we had followed the plan we set out , but still we made two mistakes . On the whole I think our team played very well but of course it is a shame we didn 't win . We had a lot of good opportunities but we couldn 't do it . Liverpool played as we expected – they played quite aggressively . We didn 't feel uncomfortable but we made a couple of mistakes . " Gazzaev rued the injuries his team suffered indicating there might have been a different outcome had certain players been fit .
Despite Cissé 's two goals , there had been speculation linking Liverpool with re @-@ signing Michael Owen , who had left the club for Real Madrid a year earlier . Liverpool fans had even chanted Owen 's name during the match , singing , " There 's only one Michael Owen . " Cissé underlined the importance of scoring twice with speculation rife : " It is clear scoring two goals in the Super Cup is important for me , because there has been a lot of speculation about me of late and about my position within the club . " Liverpool defender Jamie Carragher stated the importance of the two goals for Cissé : " Cissé wanted to prove a point – he wanted to show everyone what he can do and great credit to him . We 're the players – it 's up to us to play and the management decides which players we have . " Carragher confirmed that Liverpool missed their captain Gerrard , but was delighted to win the match despite this .
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= Cars ( film ) =
Cars is a 2006 American computer @-@ animated comedy @-@ adventure produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures . Directed and co @-@ written by John Lasseter , it is Pixar 's final independently @-@ produced motion picture before its purchase by Disney . Set in a world populated entirely by anthropomorphic cars and other vehicles , it features the voices of Owen Wilson , Paul Newman ( in his final non @-@ documentary feature ) , Larry the Cable Guy , Bonnie Hunt , Tony Shalhoub , Cheech Marin , Michael Wallis , George Carlin , Paul Dooley , Jenifer Lewis , Guido Quaroni , Michael Keaton , Katherine Helmond , and John Ratzenberger . Real life race car drivers Dale Earnhardt , Jr . , Mario Andretti and Michael Schumacher , and car enthusiast Jay Leno ( as " Jay Limo " ) voice themselves . It is also the second Pixar film — after A Bug 's Life — to have an entirely non @-@ human cast . The film was accompanied by the short One Man Band for its theatrical and home media releases .
Cars premiered on May 26 , 2006 at Lowe 's Motor Speedway in Concord , North Carolina and was theatrically released on June 9 , 2006 , to positive reviews . It was nominated for two Academy Awards , including Best Animated Feature , and won the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film . The film was released on DVD on November 7 , 2006 and to Blu @-@ ray in late 2007 . Related merchandise , including scale models of several of the cars , broke records for retail sales of merchandise based on a Disney · Pixar film , bringing an estimated $ 10 billion in 5 years since the film 's release . The film was dedicated to Joe Ranft , who was killed in a car accident during the film 's production .
A sequel , Cars 2 , was released on June 24 , 2011 , and a spin @-@ off , Planes , produced by DisneyToon Studios , was released on August 9 , 2013 . A series of short animated films entitled Cars Toons has been airing since 2008 . Cars 3 is scheduled for release on June 16 , 2017 .
= = Plot = =
In a world populated by anthropomorphic vehicles , the last race of the Piston Cup championship ends in a three @-@ way tie between retiring veteran Strip " The King " Weathers , infamous runner @-@ up Chick Hicks , and rookie Lightning McQueen . The tiebreaker race is scheduled for one week later at the ( fictional ) Los Angeles International Speedway in California . Lightning is desperate to win the race , since it would not only make him the first rookie to win a championship , but also allow him to leave the unglamorous sponsorship of Rust @-@ Eze and allow him to take The King 's place as the sponsored car of the lucrative Dinoco team . Eager to start practice in California as soon as possible , he pushes his big rig , Mack , to travel all night long . While McQueen is sleeping , the exhausted Mack drifts off and is startled by a gang of four reckless street racers , causing McQueen to fall out the back of the trailer and onto the road . McQueen wakes in the middle of traffic and speeds off the highway to find Mack , only to end up in the run @-@ down desert town of Radiator Springs , while inadvertently ruining the pavement of its main road .
After being arrested and impounded overnight ( while guarded by a rusty , but friendly , tow truck named Mater ) , McQueen is ordered by the town judge , Doc Hudson , to leave town immediately . The local lawyer Sally Carrera requests that McQueen should instead be given community service to repave the road , to which Doc reluctantly agrees . McQueen tries to repave it in a single day , but it turns out to be shoddy and he is ordered to repave the road again , which takes several days to complete . During this time , he becomes friends with several of the cars , and learns that Radiator Springs used to be a popular stopover along the old U.S. Route 66 , but with the construction of Interstate 40 bypassing it , the town literally vanished from the map . McQueen also discovers that Doc is really the " Fabulous Hudson Hornet " , a three @-@ time Piston Cup winner who was forced out of racing after an accident in 1954 and quickly forgotten by the sport . McQueen finishes the road , which has invigorated the cars to improve their town , and spends an extra day in town with his new friends , before Mack and the media descend on the town , led by a tip to McQueen 's location . McQueen reluctantly leaves with the media to get to California in time for the race , while Sally chastises Doc after discovering that he had tipped off the media to McQueen 's whereabouts , not wanting to be discovered by them instead .
At the speedway , McQueen 's mind is not fully set on the race , and he soon falls into last place . He is surprised to discover that Doc Hudson , who is decked out in his old racing colors , has taken over as his crew chief , along with several other friends from Radiator Springs to help in the pit . Inspired and recalling tricks he learned from Doc and his friends , McQueen quickly emerges to lead the race into the final laps . Refusing to lose , Hicks sideswipes Weathers and sends him into a dangerous spin , causing him to have an accident . Seeing this and recalling Doc 's fate , McQueen stops just short of the finish line , allowing Hicks to win , and drives back to push Weathers over the finish line . The crowd and media condemn Hicks ' victory and give praise to McQueen 's sportsmanship . Though offered the Dinoco sponsorship deal , McQueen declines , insisting on staying with his current sponsors as an appreciation of their past support . Later , back at Radiator Springs , McQueen returns and announces that he will be setting up his headquarters there , helping to put Radiator Springs back on the map .
= = Cast = =
Owen Wilson as Lightning McQueen , described by John Lasseter in the LA Times as " A hybrid between a stock car and a more curvaceous Le Mans endurance racer . "
Paul Newman as Doc Hudson , a 1951 Hudson Hornet who is later revealed to be the Fabulous Hudson Hornet .
Bonnie Hunt as Sally Carrera , a 2002 996 @-@ series Porsche 911 Carrera .
Larry the Cable Guy as Mater , a 1951 International Harvester L @-@ 170 " boom " truck with elements of a mid @-@ 1950s Chevrolet . One @-@ Ton Wrecker Tow Truck .
Tony Shalhoub as Luigi , a 1959 Fiat 500 .
Cheech Marin as Ramone , a 1959 Chevrolet Impala Lowrider .
Michael Wallis as Sheriff , a 1949 Mercury Club Coupe ( police package ) .
George Carlin as Fillmore , a 1960 VW Bus .
Paul Dooley as Sarge , a 1941 Willys model jeep , in the style used by the US Military .
Jenifer Lewis as Flo , a 1957 Motorama show car .
Guido Quaroni as Guido , a custom forklift , resembling an Isetta at the front .
Richard Petty as Strip " The King " Weathers . The car 's design was based on Richard Petty 's 1970 Plymouth Superbird
Michael Keaton as Chick Hicks , described by Pixar as a generic 1980s stock car . Strongly resembles a 1978 – 88 General Motors G @-@ Body such as a Buick Regal or Chevrolet Monte Carlo .
Katherine Helmond as Lizzie , a 1923 Ford Model T.
John Ratzenberger as Mack , a 1985 Mack Super @-@ Liner .
Joe Ranft as Red , a 1960s style fire truck ( most closely resembles a mid @-@ 1960s ) and Peterbilt , this was Ranft 's last voice role before his death in August 2005 .
Tom Hanks , Tim Allen , Billy Crystal , John Goodman , and Dave Foley reprise their vocal roles from previous Pixar films during an end @-@ credits sequence featuring automobile spoofs of Toy Story , Monsters , Inc . , and A Bug 's Life .
= = Production = =
Cars is the last film worked on by Joe Ranft , who died in a car accident in August 2005 . The film was the second to be dedicated to his memory , after Corpse Bride ( that showed the roles he 'd done in the other films directed by John Lasseter during the credits ) . This is also the last ( non @-@ documentary ) movie for Paul Newman before his retirement in 2007 and his death in 2008 . It turned out to be the highest @-@ grossing film of his career .
= = = Development = = =
The genesis of the project came in 1998 as Pixar was finishing work on A Bug 's Life . At that time Jorgen Klubien began writing a new script . . called ( called The Yellow Car , about an electric car living in a gas @-@ guzzling world ) , some of the original drawings and characters were produced in 1998 and the producers agreed that Cars could be the next movie after A Bug 's Life and would be released in early 1999 , particularly around June 4 . However , the movie was eventually scrapped in favor of Toy Story 2 . Later , production resumed with major script changes , like giving Mater , Doc , and a few other characters a bigger part .
Meanwhile , John Lasseter has said that the idea for Cars was born after he took a cross @-@ country road trip with his wife and five sons in 2000 . When he returned to the studio after vacation , he contacted Michael Wallis , a Route 66 historian . Wallis then led eleven Pixar animators in rented white Cadillacs on two different road trips across the route to research the film . In 2001 , the movie 's working title was Route 66 ( after U.S. Route 66 ) , but in 2002 , the title was changed to prevent people from thinking it was related to the 1960 television show with the same name . In addition , Lightning McQueen 's number was originally going to be 57 ( Lasseter 's birth year ) , but was changed to 95 ( the year Toy Story was released ) .
In 2006 , John Lasseter spoke about the inspiration for the film , saying : " I have always loved cars . In one vein , I have Disney blood , and in the other , there 's motor oil . The notion of combining these two great passions in my life — cars and animation — was irresistible . When Joe ( Ranft ) and I first started talking about this film in 1998 , we knew we wanted to do something with cars as characters . Around that same time , we watched a documentary called ' Divided Highways , ' which dealt with the interstate highway and how it affected the small towns along the way . We were so moved by it and began thinking about what it must have been like in these small towns that got bypassed . That 's when we started really researching Route 66 , but we still hadn 't quite figured out what the story for the film was going to be . I used to travel that highway with my family as a child when we visited our family in St. Louis . "
Jorgen Klubien said the movie was both his best and most bitter experience because he was fired before the movie premiered and because he feels John Lasseter wrote him out of the story of how the film got made .
= = = Animation = = =
For the cars themselves , Lasseter also visited the design studios of the Big Three Detroit automakers , particularly J Mays of Ford Motor Company . Lasseter learned how real cars were designed .
In 2006 , John Lasseter spoke about how they worked hard to make the animation believable , saying : " It took many months of trial and error , and practicing test animation , to figure out how each car moves and how their world works . Our supervising animators , Doug Sweetland and Scott Clark , and the directing animators , Bobby Podesta and James Ford Murphy , did an amazing job working with the animation team to determine the unique movements for each character based on its age and the type of car it was . Some cars are like sports cars and they 're much tighter in their suspension . Others are older ' 50s cars that are a lot looser and have more bounce to them . We wanted to get that authenticity in there but also to make sure each car had a unique personality . We also wanted each animator to be able to put some of themself in the character and give it their own spin . Every day in dailies , it was so much fun because we would see things that we had never seen in our lives . The world of cars came alive in a believable and unexpected way . "
Unlike most anthropomorphic cars , the eyes of the cars in this film were placed on the windshield ( which resembles the Tonka Talking Trucks , and the characters from Tex Avery 's One Cab 's Family short and Disney 's own Susie the Little Blue Coupe ) , rather than within the headlights . According to production designer Bob Pauley , " From the very beginning of this project , John Lasseter had it in his mind to have the eyes be in the windshield . For one thing , it separates our characters from the more common approach where you have little cartoon eyes in the headlights . For another , he thought that having the eyes down near the mouth at the front end of the car feels more like a snake . With the eyes set in the windshield , the point of view is more human @-@ like , and made it feel like the whole car could be involved in the animation of the character . This decision was heavily criticized by automotive blog Jalopnik .
In 2006 , supervising animator on the film Scott Clark , spoke about the challenges of animating car characters , saying : " Getting a full range of performance and emotion from these characters and making them still seem like cars was a tough assignment , but that 's what animation does best . You use your imagination , and you make the movements and gestures fit with the design . Our car characters may not have arms and legs , but we can lean the tires in or out to suggest hands opening up or closing in . We can use steering to point a certain direction . We also designed a special eyelid and an eyebrow for the windshield that lets us communicate an expressiveness that cars don 't have . " Doug Sweetland , who also served as supervising animator , also spoke about the challenges , saying : " It took a different kind of animator to really be able to interpret the Cars models , than it did to interpret something like The Incredibles models . With The Incredibles , the animator could get reference for the characters by shooting himself and watching the footage . But with Cars , it departs completely from any reference . Yes they 're cars , but no car can do what our characters do . It 's pure fantasy . It took a lot of trial and error to get them to look right . "
Lasseter also explained that the film started with pencil and paper designs , saying : " Truth to materials . Starting with pencil @-@ and @-@ paper designs from production designer Bob Pauley , and continuing through the modeling , articulation , and shading of the characters , and finally into animation , the production team worked hard to have the car characters remain true to their origins . " Character department manager Jay Ward also explained how they wanted the cars to look as realistic as possible , saying : " John didn 't want the cars to seem clay @-@ like or mushy . He insisted on truth to materials . This was a huge thing for him . He told us that steel needs to feel like steel . Glass should feel like glass . These cars need to feel heavy . They weigh three or four thousand pounds . When they move around , they need to have that feel . They shouldn 't appear light or overly bouncy to the point where the audience might see them as rubber toys . " According to directing animator James Ford Murphy , " Originally , the car models were built so they could basically do anything . John kept reminding us that these characters are made of metal and they weigh several thousand pounds . They can 't stretch . He showed us examples of very loose animation to illustrate what not to do . "
Character shading supervisor on the film Thomas Jordan explained that chrome and car paint were the main challenges on the film , saying : " Chrome and car paint were our two main challenges on this film . We started out by learning as much as we could . At the local body shop , we watched them paint a car , and we saw the way they mixed the paint and applied the various coats . We tried to dissect what goes into the real paint and recreated it in the computer . We figured out that we needed a base paint , which is where the color comes from , and the clearcoat , which provides the reflection . We were then able to add in things like metallic flake to give it a glittery sparkle , a pearlescent quality the might change color depending on the angle , and even a layer of pin @-@ striping for characters like Ramone . " Supervising technical director on the film Eben Ostby explained that the biggest challenge for the technical team was creating the metallic and painted surfaces of the car characters , and the reflections that those surfaces generate , saying : " Given that the stars of our film are made of metal , John had a real desire to see realistic reflections , and more beautiful lighting than we ’ ve seen in any of our previous films . In the past , we ’ ve mostly used environment maps and other matte @-@ based technology to cheat reflections , but for Cars we added a ray @-@ tracing capability to our existing Renderman program to raise the bar for Pixar . "
Rendering lead Jessica McMackin spoke about the use of ray tracing on the film , saying : " In addition to creating accurate reflections , we used ray tracing to achieve other effects . We were able to use this approach to create accurate shadows , like when there are multiple light sources and you want to get a feathering of shadows at the edges . Or occlusion , which is the absence of ambient light between two surfaces , like a crease in a shirt . A fourth use is irradiance . An example of this would be if you had a piece of red paper and held it up to a white wall , the light would be colored by the paper and cast a red glow on the wall . " Character supervisor Tim Milliron explained that the film uses a ground – locking system that kept the cars firmly planted on the road , saying : " The ground @-@ locking system is one of the things I ’ m most proud of on this film . In the past , characters have never known about their environment in any way . A simulation pass was required if you wanted to make something like that happen . On Cars , this system is built into the models themselves , and as you move the car around , the vehicle sticks to the ground . It was one of those things that we do at Pixar where we knew going in that it had to be done , but we had no idea how to do it . "
Technical director Lisa Forsell explained that to enhance the richness and beauty of the desert landscapes surrounding Radiator Springs , the filmmakers created a department responsible for matte paintings and sky flats , saying : " Digital matte paintings are a way to get a lot of visual complexity without necessarily having to build complex geometry , and write complex shaders . We spent a lot time working on the clouds and their different formations . They tend to be on several layers and they move relative to each other . The clouds do in fact have some character and personality . The notion was that just as people see themselves in the clouds , cars see various car @-@ shaped clouds . It ’ s subtle , but there are definitely some that are shaped like a sedan . And if you look closely , you ’ ll see some that look like tire treads . The fact that so much attention is put on the skies speaks to the visual level of the film . Is there a story point ? Not really . There is no pixel on the screen that does not have an extraordinary level of scrutiny and care applied to it . There is nothing that is just throw @-@ away . "
Computers used in the development of the film were four times faster than those used in The Incredibles and 1 @,@ 000 times faster than those used in Toy Story . To build the cars , the animators used computer platforms similar to those used in the design of real @-@ world automobiles .
= = Soundtrack = =
The Cars soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records on June 6 , 2006 . Nine tracks on the soundtrack are by popular artists , while the remaining eleven are score cues by Randy Newman . It has two versions of the classic Bobby Troup jazz standard " Route 66 " ( popularized by Nat King Cole ) , one by Chuck Berry and a new version recorded specifically for the film 's credits performed by John Mayer . Brad Paisley contributed two of the nine tracks to the album , one being " Find Yourself " used for the end credits .
= = Release = =
Cars was originally going to be released on November 4 , 2005 , but on December 7 , 2004 , the movie 's release date was changed to June 9 , 2006 . Analysts looked at the release date change as a sign from Pixar that they were preparing for the pending end of the Disney distribution contract by either preparing non @-@ Disney materials to present to other studios , or they were buying time to see what happened with Michael Eisner 's situation at Disney . When Pixar 's chief executive Steve Jobs made the release date announcement , he stated that the reasoning was due to wanting to put all Pixar films on a Summer release schedule , with DVD sales occurring during the holiday shopping season .
= = = Home media = = =
Cars was released on DVD , in wide- and full @-@ screen editions , on November 7 , 2006 in the United States and Canada . This DVD was also released on October 25 in Australia and New Zealand and on November 27 in the United Kingdom . The release includes the DVD @-@ exclusive short film Mater and the Ghostlight and the film 's theatrical short One Man Band as well as a 16 @-@ minute @-@ long documentary about the film entitled Inspiration for Cars , which features director John Lasseter . It also featured the Pixar short Boundin ' .
According to the Walt Disney Company , five million copies of the DVD were sold the first two days it was available . The first week , it sold 6 @,@ 250 @,@ 856 units and 15 @,@ 370 @,@ 791 in total ( $ 246 @,@ 198 @,@ 859 ) . Unlike previous Pixar DVD releases , there is no two @-@ disc special edition , and no plans to release one in the future . According to Sara Maher , DVD Production Manager at Pixar , John Lasseter and Pixar were preoccupied with productions like Ratatouille .
In the US and Canada , there were bonus discs available with the purchase of the film at Wal @-@ Mart and at Target . The former featured a Geared @-@ Up Bonus DVD Disc that focused on the music of the film , including the music video to " Life Is A Highway " , The Making of " Life Is A Highway " , Cars : The Making of the Music , and Under The Hood , a special that originally aired on the ABC Family cable channel . The latter 's bonus was a Rev 'd Up DVD Disc that featured material mostly already released as part of the official Cars podcast and focused on the inspiration and production of the movie .
Cars was also released on Blu @-@ ray Disc on November 6 , 2007 , one year after the DVD release . It was the first Pixar film to be released on Blu @-@ ray ( alongside Ratatouille and Pixar Short Films Collection , Volume 1 ) , and was re @-@ released as a Blu @-@ Ray Disc and DVD combo pack and DVD only edition in April 2011 . The film was released for the first time in 3D on October 29 , 2013 , as part of Cars : Ultimate Collector 's Edition , which included the releases on Blu @-@ ray , Blu @-@ ray 3D , and DVD .
= = = Video game = = =
A video game of the same name was released on June 6 , 2006 , for Game Boy Advance , Microsoft Windows , Nintendo DS , Nintendo GameCube , PlayStation 2 , PlayStation Portable and Xbox . It was also released on October 23 , 2006 , for Xbox 360 and November 16 , 2006 , for Wii . The video game got mainly positive reviews . GameSpot gave 7 @.@ 0 out of 10 for Xbox 360 and Wii versions , for PlayStation 2 , 7 @.@ 6 out of 10 for the GameCube and Xbox versions , and 7 @.@ 4 out of 10 for the PSP version . Metacritic gave 65 out of 100 for the Wii version , 54 out of 100 for the DS version , 73 out of 100 for the PC version , 71 out of 100 for the PlayStation 2 version , and 70 out of 100 for the PSP version .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Cars was met with positive reviews . Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 74 % approval rating with an average rating of 6 @.@ 9 / 10 based on 196 reviews . The site 's consensus reads " Cars offers visual treats that more than compensate for its somewhat thinly written story , adding up to a satisfying diversion for younger viewers . " Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics , calculated a score of 73 out of 100 based on 39 reviews .
William Arnold of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer praised it as " one of Pixar 's most imaginative and thoroughly appealing movies ever " and Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly called it " a work of American art as classic as it is modern . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film three out of four stars , saying that the movie " is great to look at and a lot of fun , but somehow lacks the extra push of the other Pixar films . Maybe that 's because there 's less at stake here , and no child @-@ surrogate to identify with . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " Fueled with plenty of humor , action , heartfelt drama , and amazing new technical feats , Cars is a high octane delight for moviegoers of all ages . " Richard Corliss of Time gave the film a positive review , saying " Existing both in turbo @-@ charged today and the gentler ' 50s , straddling the realms of Pixar styling and old Disney heart , this new @-@ model Cars is an instant classic . " Brian Lowry of Variety gave the film a negative review , saying " Despite representing another impressive technical achievement , it 's the least visually interesting of the computer @-@ animation boutique 's movies , and -- in an ironic twist for a story about auto racing -- drifts slowly through its semi @-@ arid midsection . " Robert Wilonsky of The Village Voice gave the film a positive review , saying " What ultimately redeems Cars from turning out a total lemon is its soul . Lasseter loves these animated inanimate objects as though they were kin , and it shows in every beautifully rendered frame . " Ella Taylor of L.A. Weekly gave the film a positive review , saying " Cars cheerfully hitches cutting @-@ edge animation to a folksy narrative plugging friendship , community and a Luddite mistrust of high tech . "
Gene Seymour of Newsday gave the film three out of four stars , saying " And as pop flies go , Cars is pretty to watch , even as it loops , drifts and , at times , looks as if it 's just hanging in midair . " Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film a positive review , saying " It takes everything that 's made Pixar shorthand for animation excellence -- strong characters , tight pacing , spot @-@ on voice casting , a warm sense of humor and visuals that are pure , pixilated bliss -- and carries them to the next stage . " Bill Muller of The Arizona Republic gave the film four out of five stars , saying " The truest measure of the movie is that eventually we forget we 're watching a bunch of vehicles with faces and start to think of them as individual characters . It 's quite an accomplishment , and perhaps one only possible by Pixar . " Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave the film four out of five stars , saying " What 's surprising about this supremely engaging film is the source of its curb appeal : It has heart . " Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review , saying " It 's the latest concoction from the geniuses at Pixar , probably the most inventive of the Computer Generated Imagery shop -- and the film 's great fun , if well under the level of the first Toy Story . " Jessica Reaves of the Chicago Tribune gave the film two and a half stars out of four , saying " While it 's a technically perfect movie , its tone is too manic , its characters too jaded and , in the end , its story too empty to stand up to expectations . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film three out of four stars , saying " While Cars may cross the finish line ahead of any of 2006 's other animated films , it 's several laps behind its Pixar siblings . "
Joe Williams of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch gave the film an A- , saying " It 's powered by a human heart through a roadway of natural wonders and cultural signposts en route to the checkered flag . " Lisa Kennedy of The Denver Post gave the film three out of four stars , saying " Cars idles at times . And it 's not until its final laps that the movie gains the emotional traction we 've come to expect from the Toy Story and Nemo crews . " Tom Long of The Detroit News gave the film a B + , saying " It 's touching , it 's funny , it offers cautions about the modern pace of life , and it depends on a sense of rural Americana for its soul . " Rick Groen of The Globe and Mail gave the film two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , saying " For parents out there whose future holds the certain prospect of the DVD version blaring repeatedly from family @-@ room screens , let this be your advisory . Warning : Cars comes unequipped with two essential options -- charm and a good muffler . " Amy Biancolli of the Houston Chronicle gave the film three out of four stars , saying " It thunders ahead with breezy abandon , scoring big grins on its way . " Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News gave the film four out of four stars , saying " It achieves the near impossible , turning cars , trucks , tractors , and farm harvesters into cute Disney characters whose fates you 'll care about . " Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " Cars somewhat self @-@ indulgently runs nearly two hours -- but overall , it 's well worth the trip . " Lisa Rose of the Newark Star @-@ Ledger gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " It 's another innovative piece of entertainment from the animation studio , taking the audience on a kinetic trip into a world populated only by automobiles . "
Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film a positive review , saying " The animation is stunningly rendered . But the story is always the critical element in Pixar movies , and Cars ' story is heartfelt with a clear and unabashed moral . " David Edelstein of New York Magazine gave the film a positive review , saying " Like the Toy Story films , Cars is a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ computer @-@ art plea on behalf of outmoded , wholesome fifties technology , with a dash of Zen by way of George Lucas . " Roger Moore of the Orlando Sentinel gave the film three out of five stars , saying " It 's beautiful to look at . The talking cars feel more alive than talking cars should . " Peter Howell of the Toronto Star gave the film three out of four stars , saying " Cars made me want to hop in my jalopy and to head out to Route 66 , bypassing the boring interstate highways that made the Mother Road redundant . " Moira MacDonald of The Seattle Times gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " Though the central idea of nostalgia for a quieter , small @-@ town life may well be lost on this movie 's young audience -- Cars finds a pleasant and often sparkling groove . " Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film two out of five stars , saying " Cars might get us into car world as a gimmick , but it doesn 't get us into car world as a state of mind . Thus , the animation , rather than seeming like an expression of the movie 's deeper truth , becomes an impediment to it . " Derek Adams of Time Out gave the film a positive review , saying " There are many other brilliant scenes , some just as funny but there are just as many occasions where you feel the film 's struggling to fire on all cylinders . Still , it 's a Pixar film , right ? And they 're always worth a gander no matter what anyone says . "
= = = Box office = = =
In its opening weekend , Cars earned $ 60 @,@ 119 @,@ 509 in 3 @,@ 985 theaters in the United States , ranking number one at the box office . In the United States , the film held onto the number one spot for two weeks before being surpassed by Click and then by Superman Returns the following weekend . It went on to gross $ 461 @,@ 983 @,@ 149 worldwide ( ranking number six in 2006 films ) and $ 244 @,@ 082 @,@ 982 in the United States ( the third highest @-@ grossing film of 2006 in the country , behind Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest and Night at the Museum ) . It was the second highest grossing film released by Walt Disney Pictures , behind Dead Man 's Chest and was the highest @-@ grossing animated film of 2006 in the United States , but lost to Ice Age : The Meltdown with $ 655 @,@ 388 @,@ 158 in worldwide totals .
= = = Accolades = = =
Cars had a highly successful run during the 2006 awards season . Many film critic associations such as the Broadcast Film Critics Association and the National Board of Review named it the best Animated Feature Film of 2006 . Cars also received the title of Best Reviewed Animated Feature of 2006 from Rotten Tomatoes . Randy Newman and James Taylor received a Grammy Award for the song " Our Town , " which later went on to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song ( an award it lost to " I Need to Wake Up " from An Inconvenient Truth ) . The film also earned an Oscar nomination for Best Animated Feature , but it lost to Happy Feet . Cars was also selected as the Favorite Family Movie at the 33rd People 's Choice Awards . The most prestigious award that Cars received was the inaugural Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film . Cars also won the highest award for animation in 2006 , the Best Animated Feature Annie Award . The film was also nominated for AFI 's 10 Top 10 in the " Animation " genre .
= = Similar films = =
Marcus Aurelius Canônico of Folha de S.Paulo described The Little Cars series ( Os Carrinhos in Portuguese ) , a Brazilian computer graphics film series , as a derivative of Cars . Canônico discussed whether lawsuits from Pixar would appear . The Brazilian Ministry of Culture posted Marcus Aurelius Canônico 's article on its website .
It has also been noted that the plot of Cars bears a striking resemblance to that of Doc Hollywood , the 1991 romantic comedy which stars Michael J. Fox as a hotshot young doctor , who , after causing a traffic accident in a small town , is sentenced to work at the town hospital , falls in love with a local law student and eventually acquires an appreciation for small town values . Some have gone so far as to say that the makers of Cars plagiarized the script of Doc Hollywood .
= = Sequels = =
A sequel to the film , titled Cars 2 , was released on June 24 , 2011 . It was directed again by John Lasseter , who was inspired for the film while traveling around the world promoting the first film . In the sequel , Lightning McQueen and Mater head to Japan and Europe to compete in the World Grand Prix , but Mater becomes sidetracked with international espionage . The film failed to meet or exceed the critical success of its predecessor .
Michael Wallis , the voice of Sheriff and a Route 66 consultant for the first two films , said in August 2013 in an interview with WGBZ radio that Pixar will make a third film in the series , which will go back to Route 66 and will also include Route 99 .
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= Gamal Abdel Nasser =
Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein ( Arabic : جمال عبد الناصر حسين , IPA : [ ɡæˈmæːl ʕæbdenˈnɑːsˤeɾ ħeˈseːn ] ; 15 January 1918 – 28 September 1970 ) was the second President of Egypt , serving from 1956 until his death . Nasser led the 1952 overthrow of the monarchy and introduced far @-@ reaching land reforms the following year . Following a 1954 attempt on his life by a Muslim Brotherhood member acting on his own , he cracked down on the organization , put President Muhammad Naguib under house arrest , and assumed executive office , officially becoming president in June 1956 .
Nasser 's popularity in Egypt and the Arab world skyrocketed after his nationalization of the Suez Canal and his political victory in the subsequent Suez Crisis . Calls for pan @-@ Arab unity under his leadership increased , culminating with the formation of the United Arab Republic with Syria ( 1958 – 1961 ) . In 1962 , Nasser began a series of major socialist measures and modernization reforms in Egypt . Despite setbacks to his pan @-@ Arabist cause , by 1963 Nasser 's supporters gained power in several Arab countries , but he became embroiled in the North Yemen Civil War . He began his second presidential term in March 1965 after his political opponents were banned from running . Following Egypt 's defeat by Israel in the 1967 Six @-@ Day War , Nasser resigned , but he returned to office after popular demonstrations called for his reinstatement . By 1968 , Nasser had appointed himself prime minister , launched the War of Attrition to regain lost territory , began a process of depoliticizing the military , and issued a set of political liberalization reforms . After the conclusion of the 1970 Arab League summit , Nasser suffered a heart attack and died . His funeral in Cairo drew five million mourners and an outpouring of grief across the Arab world .
Nasser remains an iconic figure in the Arab world , particularly for his strides towards social justice and Arab unity , modernization policies , and anti @-@ imperialist efforts . His presidency also encouraged and coincided with an Egyptian cultural boom , and launched large industrial projects , including the Aswan Dam and Helwan City . Nasser 's detractors criticize his authoritarianism , his government 's human rights violations , his populist relationship with the citizenry , and his failure to establish civil institutions , blaming his legacy for future dictatorial governance in Egypt .
= = Early life = =
Gamal Abdel Nasser was born on 15 January 1918 in Bakos , Alexandria , the first son of Fahima and Abdel Nasser Hussein . Nasser 's father was a postal worker born in Beni Mur in Upper Egypt and raised in Alexandria , and his mother 's family came from Mallawi , el @-@ Minya . His parents married in 1917 , and later had two more boys , Izz al @-@ Arab and al @-@ Leithi . Nasser 's biographers Robert Stephens and Said Aburish wrote that Nasser 's family believed strongly in the " Arab notion of glory " , since the name of Nasser 's brother , Izz al @-@ Arab , translates to " Glory of the Arabs " — a rare name in Egypt .
Nasser 's family traveled frequently due to his father 's work . In 1921 , they moved to Asyut and , in 1923 , to Khatatba , where Nasser 's father ran a post office . Nasser attended a primary school for the children of railway employees until 1924 , when he was sent to live with his paternal uncle in Cairo , and to attend the Nahhasin elementary school .
Nasser exchanged letters with his mother and visited her on holidays . He stopped receiving messages at the end of April 1926 . Upon returning to Khatatba , he learned that his mother had died after giving birth to his third brother , Shawki , and that his family had kept the news from him . Nasser later stated that " losing her this way was a shock so deep that time failed to remedy " . He adored his mother and the injury of her death deepened when his father remarried before the year 's end .
In 1928 , Nasser went to Alexandria to live with his maternal grandfather and attend the city 's Attarin elementary school . He left in 1929 for a private boarding school in Helwan , and later returned to Alexandria to enter the Ras el @-@ Tin secondary school and to join his father , who was working for the city 's postal service . It was in Alexandria that Nasser became involved in political activism . After witnessing clashes between protesters and police in Manshia Square , he joined the demonstration without being aware of its purpose . The protest , organized by the ultranationalist Young Egypt Society , called for the end of colonialism in Egypt in the wake of the 1923 Egyptian constitution 's annulment by Prime Minister Isma 'il Sidqi . Nasser was arrested and detained for a night before his father bailed him out .
When his father was transferred to Cairo in 1933 , Nasser joined him and attended al @-@ Nahda al @-@ Masria school . He took up acting in school plays for a brief period and wrote articles for the school 's paper , including a piece on French philosopher Voltaire titled " Voltaire , the Man of Freedom " . On 13 November 1935 , Nasser led a student demonstration against British rule , protesting against a statement made four days prior by UK foreign minister Samuel Hoare that rejected prospects for the 1923 Constitution 's restoration . Two protesters were killed and Nasser received a graze to the head from a policeman 's bullet . The incident garnered his first mention in the press : the nationalist newspaper Al Gihad reported that Nasser led the protest and was among the wounded . On 12 December , the new king , Farouk , issued a decree restoring the constitution .
Nasser 's involvement in political activity increased throughout his school years , such that he only attended 45 days of classes during his last year of secondary school . Despite it having the almost unanimous backing of Egypt 's political forces , Nasser strongly objected to the 1936 Anglo @-@ Egyptian Treaty because it stipulated the continued presence of British military bases in the country . Nonetheless , political unrest in Egypt declined significantly and Nasser resumed his studies at al @-@ Nahda , where he received his leaving certificate later that year .
= = = Early influences = = =
Aburish asserts that Nasser was not distressed by his frequent relocations , which broadened his horizons and showed him Egyptian society 's class divisions . His own social status was well below the wealthy Egyptian elite , and his discontent with those born into wealth and power grew throughout his lifetime . Nasser spent most of his spare time reading , particularly in 1933 when he lived near the National Library of Egypt . He read the Qur 'an , the sayings of Muhammad , the lives of the Sahaba ( Muhammad 's companions ) , and the biographies of nationalist leaders Napoleon , Ataturk , Otto von Bismarck , and Garibaldi and the autobiography of Winston Churchill .
Nasser was greatly influenced by Egyptian nationalism , as espoused by politician Mustafa Kamel , poet Ahmed Shawqi , and his anti @-@ colonialist instructor at the Royal Military Academy , Aziz al @-@ Masri , to whom Nasser expressed his gratitude in a 1961 newspaper interview . He was especially influenced by Egyptian writer Tawfiq al @-@ Hakim 's novel Return of the Spirit , in which al @-@ Hakim wrote that the Egyptian people were only in need of a " man in whom all their feelings and desires will be represented , and who will be for them a symbol of their objective " . Nasser later credited the novel as his inspiration to launch the 1952 revolution .
= = Military career = =
In 1937 , Nasser applied to the Royal Military Academy for army officer training , but his police record of anti @-@ government protest initially blocked his entry . Disappointed , he enrolled in the law school at King Fuad University , but quit after one semester to reapply to the Military Academy . From his readings , Nasser , who frequently spoke of " dignity , glory , and freedom " in his youth , became enchanted with the stories of national liberators and heroic conquerors ; a military career became his chief priority .
Convinced that he needed a wasta , or an influential intermediary to promote his application above the others , Nasser managed to secure a meeting with Under @-@ Secretary of War Ibrahim Khairy Pasha , the person responsible for the academy 's selection board , and requested his help . Khairy Pasha agreed and sponsored Nasser 's second application , which was accepted in late 1937 . Nasser focused on his military career from then on , and had little contact with his family . At the academy , he met Abdel Hakim Amer and Anwar Sadat , both of whom became important aides during his presidency . After graduating from the academy in July 1938 , he was commissioned a second lieutenant in the infantry , and posted to Mankabad . It was here that Nasser and his closest comrades , including Sadat and Amer , first discussed their dissatisfaction at widespread corruption in the country and their desire to topple the monarchy . Sadat would later write that because of his " energy , clear @-@ thinking , and balanced judgement " , Nasser emerged as the group 's natural leader .
In 1941 , Nasser was posted to Khartoum , Sudan , which was part of Egypt at the time . Nasser returned to Sudan in September 1942 after a brief stay in Egypt , then secured a position as an instructor in the Cairo Royal Military Academy in May 1943 . In 1942 , the British Ambassador Miles Lampson marched into King Farouk 's palace and ordered him to dismiss Prime Minister Hussein Sirri Pasha for having pro @-@ Axis sympathies . Nasser saw the incident as a blatant violation of Egyptian sovereignty and wrote , " I am ashamed that our army has not reacted against this attack " , and wished for " calamity " to overtake the British . Nasser was accepted into the General Staff College later that year . He began to form a group of young military officers with strong nationalist sentiments who supported some form of revolution . Nasser stayed in touch with the group 's members primarily through Amer , who continued to seek out interested officers within the Egyptian Armed Force 's various branches and presented Nasser with a complete file on each of them .
= = = 1948 Arab – Israeli War = = =
Nasser 's first battlefield experience was in Palestine during the 1948 Arab – Israeli War . He initially volunteered to serve with the Arab Higher Committee ( AHC ) led by Mohammad Amin al @-@ Husayni . Nasser met with and impressed al @-@ Husayni , but was ultimately refused entry to the AHC 's forces by the Egyptian government for reasons that were unclear .
In May 1948 , following the British withdrawal , King Farouk sent the Egyptian army into Palestine , with Nasser serving in the 6th Infantry Battalion . During the war , he wrote of the Egyptian army 's unpreparedness , saying " our soldiers were dashed against fortifications " . Nasser was deputy commander of the Egyptian forces that secured the Faluja pocket . On 12 July , he was lightly wounded in the fighting . By August , his brigade was surrounded by the Israeli Army . Appeals for help from Jordan 's Arab Legion went unheeded , but the brigade refused to surrender . Negotiations between Israel and Egypt finally resulted in the ceding of Faluja to Israel . According to veteran journalist Eric Margolis , the defenders of Faluja , " including young army officer Gamal Abdel Nasser , became national heroes " for enduring Israeli bombardment while isolated from their command .
The Egyptian singer Umm Kulthum hosted a public celebration for the officers ' return despite reservations from the royal government , which had been pressured by the British to prevent the reception . The apparent difference in attitude between the government and the general public increased Nasser 's determination to topple the monarchy . Nasser had also felt bitter that his brigade had not been relieved despite the resilience it displayed . He started writing his book Philosophy of the Revolution during the siege .
After the war , Nasser returned to his role as an instructor at the Royal Military Academy . He sent emissaries to forge an alliance with the Muslim Brotherhood in October 1948 , but soon concluded that the religious agenda of the Brotherhood was not compatible with his nationalism . From then on , Nasser prevented the Brotherhood 's influence over his cadres ' activities without severing ties with the organization . Nasser was sent as a member of the Egyptian delegation to Rhodes in February 1949 to negotiate a formal armistice with Israel , and reportedly considered the terms to be humiliating , particularly because the Israelis were able to easily occupy the Eilat region while negotiating with the Arabs in March .
= = Revolution = =
= = = Free Officers = = =
Nasser 's return to Egypt coincided with Husni al @-@ Za 'im 's Syrian coup d 'état . Its success and evident popular support among the Syrian people encouraged Nasser 's revolutionary pursuits . Soon after his return , he was summoned and interrogated by Prime Minister Ibrahim Abdel Hadi regarding suspicions that he was forming a secret group of dissenting officers . According to secondhand reports , Nasser convincingly denied the allegations . Abdel Hadi was also hesitant to take drastic measures against the army , especially in front of its chief of staff , who was present during the interrogation , and subsequently released Nasser . The interrogation pushed Nasser to speed up his group 's activities .
After 1949 , the group adopted the name " Association of Free Officers " and advocated " little else but freedom and the restoration of their country ’ s dignity " . Nasser organized the Free Officers ' founding committee , which eventually comprised fourteen men from different social and political backgrounds , including representation from Young Egypt , the Muslim Brotherhood , the Egyptian Communist Party , and the aristocracy . Nasser was unanimously elected chairman of the organization .
In the 1950 parliamentary elections , the Wafd Party of el @-@ Nahhas gained a victory — mostly due to the absence of the Muslim Brotherhood , which boycotted the elections — and was perceived as a threat by the Free Officers as the Wafd had campaigned on demands similar to their own . Accusations of corruption against Wafd politicians began to surface , however , breeding an atmosphere of rumor and suspicion that consequently brought the Free Officers to the forefront of Egyptian politics . By then , the organization had expanded to around ninety members ; according to Khaled Mohieddin , " nobody knew all of them and where they belonged in the hierarchy except Nasser " . Nasser felt that the Free Officers were not ready to move against the government and , for nearly two years , he did little beyond officer recruitment and underground news bulletins .
On 11 October 1951 , the Wafd government abrogated the 1936 Anglo @-@ Egyptian Treaty , which had given the British control over the Suez Canal until 1956 . The popularity of this move , as well as that of government @-@ sponsored guerrilla attacks against the British , put pressure on Nasser to act . According to Sadat , Nasser decided to wage " a large scale assassination campaign " . In January 1952 , he and Hassan Ibrahim attempted to kill the royalist general Hussein Sirri Amer by firing their submachine guns at his car as he drove through the streets of Cairo . Instead of killing the general , the attackers wounded an innocent female passerby . Nasser recalled that her wails " haunted " him and firmly dissuaded him from undertaking similar actions in the future .
Sirri Amer was close to King Farouk , and was nominated for the presidency of the Officer 's Club — normally a ceremonial office — with the king 's backing . Nasser was determined to establish the independence of the army from the monarchy , and with Amer as the intercessor , resolved to field a nominee for the Free Officers . They selected Muhammad Naguib , a popular general who had offered his resignation to Farouk in 1942 over British high @-@ handedness and was wounded three times in the Palestine War . Naguib won overwhelmingly and the Free Officers , through their connection with a leading Egyptian daily , al @-@ Misri , publicized his victory while praising the nationalistic spirit of the army .
= = = Revolution of 1952 = = =
On 25 January 1952 , a confrontation between British forces and police at Ismailia resulted in the deaths of 40 Egyptian policemen , provoking riots in Cairo the next day which left 76 people dead . Afterwards , Nasser published a simple six @-@ point program in Rose al @-@ Yūsuf to dismantle feudalism and British influence in Egypt . In May , Nasser received word that Farouk knew the names of the Free Officers and intended to arrest them ; he immediately entrusted Free Officer Zakaria Mohieddin with the task of planning the government takeover by army units loyal to the association .
The Free Officers ' intention was not to install themselves in government , but to re @-@ establish a parliamentary democracy . Nasser did not believe that a low @-@ ranking officer like himself ( a lieutenant colonel ) would be accepted by the Egyptian people , and so selected General Naguib to be his " boss " and lead the coup in name . The revolution they had long sought was launched on 22 July and was declared a success the next day . The Free Officers seized control of all government buildings , radio stations , and police stations , as well as army headquarters in Cairo . While many of the rebel officers were leading their units , Nasser donned civilian clothing to avoid detection by royalists and moved around Cairo monitoring the situation . In a move to stave off foreign intervention two days before the revolution , Nasser had notified the American and British governments of his intentions , and both had agreed not to aid Farouk . Under pressure from the Americans , Nasser had agreed to exile the deposed king with an honorary ceremony .
On 18 June 1953 , the monarchy was abolished and the Republic of Egypt declared , with Naguib as its first president . According to Aburish , after assuming power , Nasser and the Free Officers expected to become the " guardians of the people 's interests " against the monarchy and the pasha class while leaving the day @-@ to @-@ day tasks of government to civilians . They asked former prime minister Ali Maher to accept reappointment to his previous position , and to form an all @-@ civilian cabinet . The Free Officers then governed as the Revolutionary Command Council ( RCC ) with Naguib as chairman and Nasser as vice @-@ chairman . Relations between the RCC and Maher grew tense , however , as the latter viewed many of Nasser 's schemes — agrarian reform , abolition of the monarchy , reorganization of political parties — as too radical , culminating in Maher 's resignation on 7 September . Naguib assumed the additional role of prime minister , and Nasser that of deputy prime minister . In September , the Agrarian Reform Law was put into effect . In Nasser 's eyes , this law gave the RCC its own identity and transformed the coup into a revolution .
Preceding the reform law , in August 1952 , communist @-@ led riots broke out at textile factories in Kafr el @-@ Dawwar , leading to a clash with the army that left nine people dead . While most of the RCC insisted on executing the riot 's two ringleaders , Nasser opposed this . Nonetheless , the sentences were carried out . The Muslim Brotherhood supported the RCC , and after Naguib 's assumption of power , demanded four ministerial portfolios in the new cabinet . Nasser turned down their demands and instead hoped to co @-@ opt the Brotherhood by giving two of its members , who were willing to serve officially as independents , minor ministerial posts .
= = Road to presidency = =
= = = Disputes with Naguib = = =
In January 1953 , Nasser overcame opposition from Naguib and banned all political parties , creating a one @-@ party system under the Liberation Rally , a loosely structured movement whose chief task was to organize pro @-@ RCC rallies and lectures , with Nasser its secretary @-@ general . Despite the dissolution order , Nasser was the only RCC member who still favored holding parliamentary elections , according to his fellow officer Abdel Latif Boghdadi . Although outvoted , he still advocated holding elections by 1956 . In March 1953 , Nasser led the Egyptian delegation negotiating a British withdrawal from the Suez Canal .
When Naguib began showing signs of independence from Nasser by distancing himself from the RCC 's land reform decrees and drawing closer to Egypt 's established political forces , namely the Wafd and the Brotherhood , Nasser resolved to depose him . In June , Nasser took control of the interior ministry post from Naguib loyalist Sulayman Hafez , and pressured Naguib to conclude the abolition of the monarchy .
On 25 February 1954 , Naguib announced his resignation after the RCC held an official meeting without his presence two days prior . On 26 February , Nasser accepted the resignation , put Naguib under house arrest , and the RCC proclaimed Nasser as both RCC chairman and prime minister . As Naguib intended , a mutiny immediately followed , demanding Naguib 's reinstatement and the RCC 's dissolution . While visiting the striking officers at Military Headquarters ( GHQ ) to call for the mutiny 's end , Nasser was initially intimidated into accepting their demands . However , on 27 February , Nasser 's supporters in the army launched a raid on the GHQ , ending the mutiny . Later that day , hundreds of thousands of protesters , mainly belonging to the Brotherhood , called for Naguib 's return and Nasser 's imprisonment . In response , a sizable group within the RCC , led by Khaled Mohieddin , demanded Naguib 's release and return to the presidency . Nasser acquiesced , but delayed Naguib 's reinstatement until 4 March , allowing him to promote Amer to Commander of the Armed Forces — a position formerly occupied by Naguib .
On 5 March , Nasser 's security coterie arrested thousands of participants in the uprising . As a ruse to rally opposition against a return to the pre @-@ 1952 order , the RCC decreed an end to restrictions on monarchy @-@ era parties and the Free Officers ' withdrawal from politics . The RCC succeeded in provoking the beneficiaries of the revolution , namely the workers , peasants , and petty bourgeois , to oppose the decrees , with one million transport workers launching a strike and thousands of peasants entering Cairo in protest in late March . Naguib sought to crack down on the protesters , but his requests were rebuffed by the heads of the security forces . On 29 March , Nasser announced the decrees ' revocation in response to the " impulse of the street " . Between April and June , hundreds of Naguib 's supporters in the military were either arrested or dismissed , and Mohieddin was informally exiled to Switzerland to represent the RCC abroad . King Saud of Saudi Arabia attempted to mend relations between Nasser and Naguib , but to no avail .
= = = Assuming chairmanship of RCC = = =
On 26 October 1954 , Muslim Brotherhood member Mohammed Abdel Latif attempted to assassinate Nasser while he was delivering a speech in Alexandria to celebrate the British military withdrawal . The speech was broadcast to the Arab world via radio . The gunman was 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) away from him and fired eight shots , but all missed Nasser . Panic broke out in the mass audience , but Nasser maintained his posture and raised his voice to appeal for calm . With great emotion he exclaimed the following :
My countrymen , my blood spills for you and for Egypt . I will live for your sake and die for the sake of your freedom and honor . Let them kill me ; it does not concern me so long as I have instilled pride , honor , and freedom in you . If Gamal Abdel Nasser should die , each of you shall be Gamal Abdel Nasser ... Gamal Abdel Nasser is of you and from you and he is willing to sacrifice his life for the nation .
The crowd roared in approval and Arab audiences were electrified . The assassination attempt backfired , quickly playing into Nasser 's hands . Upon returning to Cairo , he ordered one of the largest political crackdowns in the modern history of Egypt , with the arrests of thousands of dissenters , mostly members of the Brotherhood , but also communists , and the dismissal of 140 officers loyal to Naguib . Eight Brotherhood leaders were sentenced to death , although the sentence of its chief ideologue , Sayyid Qutb , was commuted to a 15 @-@ year imprisonment . Naguib was removed from the presidency and put under house arrest , but was never tried or sentenced , and no one in the army rose to defend him . With his rivals neutralized , Nasser became the undisputed leader of Egypt .
Nasser 's street following was still too small to sustain his plans for reform and to secure him in office . To promote himself and the Liberation Rally , he gave speeches in a cross @-@ country tour , and imposed controls over the country 's press by decreeing that all publications had to be approved by the party to prevent " sedition " . Both Umm Kulthum and Abdel Halim Hafez , the leading Arab singers of the era , performed songs praising Nasser 's nationalism . Others produced plays denigrating his political opponents . According to his associates , Nasser orchestrated the campaign himself . Arab nationalist terms such " Arab homeland " and " Arab nation " frequently began appearing in his speeches in 1954 – 55 , whereas prior he would refer to the Arab " peoples " or the " Arab region " . In January 1955 , the RCC appointed him as their president , pending national elections .
Nasser made secret contacts with Israel in 1954 – 55 , but determined that peace with Israel would be impossible , considering it an " expansionist state that viewed the Arabs with disdain " . On 28 February 1955 , Israeli troops attacked the Egyptian @-@ held Gaza Strip with the stated aim of suppressing Palestinian fedayeen raids . Nasser did not feel that the Egyptian Army was ready for a confrontation and did not retaliate militarily . His failure to respond to Israeli military action demonstrated the ineffectiveness of his armed forces and constituted a blow to his growing popularity . Nasser subsequently ordered the tightening of the blockade on Israeli shipping through the Straits of Tiran and restricted the use of airspace over the Gulf of Aqaba by Israeli aircraft in early September . The Israelis re @-@ militarized the al @-@ Auja Demilitarized Zone on the Egyptian border on 21 September .
Simultaneous with Israel 's February raid , the Baghdad Pact was formed between some regional allies of the UK . Nasser considered the Baghdad Pact a threat to his efforts to eliminate British military influence in the Middle East , and a mechanism to undermine the Arab League and " perpetuate [ Arab ] subservience to Zionism and [ Western ] imperialism " . Nasser felt that if he was to maintain Egypt 's regional leadership position he needed to acquire modern weaponry to arm his military . When it became apparent to him that Western countries would not supply Egypt under acceptable financial and military terms , Nasser turned to the Eastern Bloc and concluded a US $ 320 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 armaments agreement with Czechoslovakia on 27 September . Through the Czechoslovakian arms deal , the balance of power between Egypt and Israel was more or less equalized and Nasser 's role as the Arab leader defying the West was enhanced .
= = = Adoption of neutralism = = =
At the Bandung Conference in Indonesia in late April 1955 , Nasser was treated as the leading representative of the Arab countries and was one of the most popular figures at the summit . He had paid earlier visits to Pakistan ( April 9 ) , India ( April 14 ) , Burma , and Afghanistan on the way to Bandung , and previously cemented a treaty of friendship with India in Cairo on 6 April , strengthening Egyptian – Indian relations on the international policy and economic development fronts .
Nasser mediated discussions between the pro @-@ Western , pro @-@ Soviet , and neutralist conference factions over the composition of the " Final Communique " addressing colonialism in Africa and Asia and the fostering of global peace amid the Cold War between the West and the Soviet Union . At Bandung Nasser sought a proclamation for the avoidance of international defense alliances , support for the independence of Tunisia , Algeria , and Morocco from French rule , support for the Palestinian right of return , and the implementation of UN resolutions regarding the Arab – Israeli conflict . He succeeded in lobbying the attendees to pass resolutions on each of these issues , notably securing the strong support of China and India .
Following Bandung , Nasser officially adopted the " positive neutralism " of Yugoslavian president Josip Broz Tito and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as a principal theme of Egyptian foreign policy regarding the Cold War . Nasser was welcomed by large crowds of people lining the streets of Cairo on his return to Egypt on 2 May and was widely heralded in the press for his achievements and leadership in the conference . Consequently , Nasser 's prestige was greatly boosted as was his self @-@ confidence and image .
= = = 1956 constitution and presidency = = =
With his domestic position considerably strengthened , Nasser was able to secure primacy over his RCC colleagues and gained relatively unchallenged decision @-@ making authority , particularly over foreign policy .
In January 1956 , the new Constitution of Egypt was drafted , entailing the establishment of a single @-@ party system under the National Union ( NU ) , a movement Nasser described as the " cadre through which we will realize our revolution " . The NU was a reconfiguration of the Liberation Rally , which Nasser determined had failed in generating mass public participation . In the new movement , Nasser attempted to incorporate more citizens , approved by local @-@ level party committees , in order to solidify popular backing for his government . The NU would select a nominee for the presidential election whose name would be provided for public approval .
Nasser 's nomination for the post and the new constitution were put to public referendum on 23 June and each was approved by an overwhelming majority . A 350 @-@ member National Assembly was established , elections for which were held in July 1957 . Nasser had ultimate approval over all the candidates . The constitution granted women 's suffrage , prohibited gender @-@ based discrimination , and entailed special protection for women in the workplace . Coinciding with the new constitution and Nasser 's presidency , the RCC dissolved itself and its members resigned their military commissions as part of the transition to civilian rule . During the deliberations surrounding the establishment of a new government , Nasser began a process of sidelining his rivals among the original Free Officers , while elevating his closest allies to high @-@ ranking positions in the cabinet .
= = Nationalization of the Suez Canal = =
After the three @-@ year transition period ended with Nasser 's official assumption of power , his domestic and independent foreign policies increasingly collided with the regional interests of the UK and France . The latter condemned his strong support for Algerian independence , and the UK 's Eden government was agitated by Nasser 's campaign against the Baghdad Pact . In addition , Nasser 's adherence to neutralism regarding the Cold War , recognition of communist China , and arms deal with the Eastern bloc alienated the United States . On 19 July 1956 , the US and UK abruptly withdrew their offer to finance construction of the Aswan Dam , citing concerns that Egypt 's economy would be overwhelmed by the project .
Nasser was informed of the British – American withdrawal via a news statement while aboard a plane returning to Cairo from Belgrade , and took great offense . Although ideas for nationalizing the Suez Canal were in the offing after the UK agreed to withdraw its military from Egypt in 1954 ( the last British troops left on 13 June 1956 ) , journalist Mohamed Hassanein Heikal asserts that Nasser made the final decision to nationalize the waterway between 19 and 20 July . Nasser himself would later state that he decided on 23 July , after studying the issue and deliberating with some of his advisers from the dissolved RCC , namely Boghdadi and technical specialist Mahmoud Younis , beginning on 21 July . The rest of the RCC 's former members were informed of the decision on 24 July , while the bulk of the cabinet was unaware of the nationalization scheme until hours before Nasser publicly announced it . According to Ramadan , Nasser 's decision to nationalize the canal was a solitary decision , taken without consultation .
On 26 July 1956 , Nasser gave a speech in Alexandria announcing the nationalization of the Suez Canal Company as a means to fund the Aswan Dam project in light of the British – American withdrawal . In the speech , he denounced British imperialism in Egypt and British control over the canal company 's profits , and upheld that the Egyptian people had a right to sovereignty over the waterway , especially since " 120 @,@ 000 Egyptians had died ( sic ) " building it . The motion was technically in breach of the international agreement he had signed with the UK on 19 October 1954 , although he ensured that all existing stockholders would be paid off .
The nationalization announcement was greeted very emotionally by the audience and , throughout the Arab world , thousands entered the streets shouting slogans of support . US ambassador Henry A. Byroade stated , " I cannot overemphasize [ the ] popularity of the Canal Company nationalization within Egypt , even among Nasser 's enemies . " Egyptian political scientist Mahmoud Hamad wrote that , prior to 1956 , Nasser had consolidated control over Egypt 's military and civilian bureaucracies , but it was only after the canal 's nationalization that he gained near @-@ total popular legitimacy and firmly established himself as the " charismatic leader " and " spokesman for the masses not only in Egypt , but all over the Third World " . According to Aburish , this was Nasser 's largest pan @-@ Arab triumph at the time and " soon his pictures were to be found in the tents of Yemen , the souks of Marrakesh , and the posh villas of Syria " . The official reason given for the nationalization was that funds from the canal would be used for the construction of the dam in Aswan . That same day , Egypt closed the canal to Israeli shipping .
= = = Suez Crisis = = =
France and the UK , the largest shareholders in the Suez Canal Company , saw its nationalization as yet another hostile measure aimed at them by the Egyptian government . Nasser was aware that the canal 's nationalization would instigate an international crisis and believed the prospect of military intervention by the two countries was 80 per cent likely . He believed , however , that the UK would not be able to intervene militarily for at least two months after the announcement , and dismissed Israeli action as " impossible " . In early October , the UN Security Council met on the matter of the canal 's nationalization and adopted a resolution recognizing Egypt 's right to control the canal as long as it continued to allow passage through it for foreign ships . According to Heikal , after this agreement , " Nasser estimated that the danger of invasion had dropped to 10 per cent " . Shortly thereafter , however , the UK , France , and Israel made a secret agreement to take over the Suez Canal , occupy the Suez Canal zone , and topple Nasser .
On 29 October 1956 , Israeli forces crossed the Sinai Peninsula , overwhelmed Egyptian army posts , and quickly advanced to their objectives . Two days later , British and French planes bombarded Egyptian airfields in the canal zone . Nasser ordered the military 's high command to withdraw the Egyptian Army from Sinai to bolster the canal 's defenses . Moreover , he feared that if the armored corps was dispatched to confront the Israeli invading force and the British and French subsequently landed in the canal city of Port Said , Egyptian armor in the Sinai would be cut off from the canal and destroyed by the combined tripartite forces . Amer strongly disagreed , insisting that Egyptian tanks meet the Israelis in battle . The two had a heated exchange on 3 November , and Amer conceded . Nasser also ordered blockage of the canal by sinking or otherwise disabling forty @-@ nine ships at its entrance .
Despite the commanded withdrawal of Egyptian troops , about 2 @,@ 000 Egyptian soldiers were killed during engagement with Israeli forces , and some 5 @,@ 000 Egyptian soldiers were captured by the Israeli Army . Amer and Salah Salem proposed requesting a ceasefire , with Salem further recommending that Nasser surrender himself to British forces . Nasser berated Amer and Salem , and vowed , " Nobody is going to surrender . " Nasser assumed military command . Despite the relative ease in which Sinai was occupied , Nasser 's prestige at home and among Arabs was undamaged . To counterbalance the Egyptian Army 's dismal performance , Nasser authorized the distribution of about 400 @,@ 000 rifles to civilian volunteers and hundreds of militias were formed throughout Egypt , many led by Nasser 's political opponents .
It was at Port Said that Nasser saw a confrontation with the invading forces as being the strategic and psychological focal point of Egypt 's defense . A third infantry battalion and hundreds of national guardsmen were sent to the city as reinforcements , while two regular companies were dispatched to organize popular resistance . Nasser and Boghdadi traveled to the canal zone to boost the morale of the armed volunteers . According to Boghdadi 's memoirs , Nasser described the Egyptian Army as " shattered " as he saw the wreckage of Egyptian military equipment en route . When British and French forces landed in Port Said on 5 – 6 November , its local militia put up a stiff resistance , resulting in street @-@ to @-@ street fighting . The Egyptian Army commander in the city was preparing to request terms for a ceasefire , but Nasser ordered him to desist . The British @-@ French forces managed to largely secure the city by 7 November . Between 750 and 1 @,@ 000 Egyptians were killed in the battle for Port Said .
The US Eisenhower administration condemned the tripartite invasion , and supported UN resolutions demanding withdrawal and a United Nations Emergency Force ( UNEF ) to be stationed in Sinai . Nasser commended Eisenhower , stating he played the " greatest and most decisive role " in stopping the " tripartite conspiracy " . By the end of December , British and French forces had totally withdrawn from Egyptian territory , while Israel completed its withdrawal in March 1957 and released all Egyptian prisoners of war . As a result of the Suez Crisis , Nasser brought in a set of regulations imposing rigorous requirements for residency and citizenship as well as forced expulsions , mostly affecting British and French nationals and Jews with foreign nationality , as well as some Egyptian Jews .
After the fighting ended , Amer accused Nasser of provoking an unnecessary war and then blaming the military for the result . On 8 April , the canal was reopened , and Nasser 's political position was enormously enhanced by the widely perceived failure of the invasion and attempt to topple him . British diplomat Anthony Nutting claimed the crisis " established Nasser finally and completely " as the rayyes ( president ) of Egypt .
= = Pan @-@ Arabism and socialism = =
By 1957 , pan @-@ Arabism had become the dominant ideology in the Arab world , and the average Arab citizen considered Nasser his undisputed leader . Historian Adeed Dawisha credited Nasser 's status to his " charisma , bolstered by his perceived victory in the Suez Crisis " . The Cairo @-@ based Voice of the Arabs radio station spread Nasser 's ideas of united Arab action throughout the Arabic @-@ speaking world , so much so that historian Eugene Rogan wrote , " Nasser conquered the Arab world by radio . " Lebanese sympathizers of Nasser and the Egyptian embassy in Beirut — the press center of the Arab world — bought out Lebanese media outlets to further disseminate Nasser 's ideals . Nasser also enjoyed the support of Arab nationalist civilian and paramilitary organizations throughout the region . His followers were numerous and well @-@ funded , but lacked any permanent structure and organization . They called themselves " Nasserites " , despite Nasser 's objection to the label ( he preferred the term " Arab nationalists " ) .
In January 1957 , the US adopted the Eisenhower Doctrine and pledged to prevent the spread of communism and its perceived agents in the Middle East . Although Nasser was an opponent of communism in the region , his promotion of pan @-@ Arabism was viewed as a threat by pro @-@ Western states in the region . Eisenhower tried to isolate Nasser and reduce his regional influence by attempting to transform King Saud into a counterweight . Also in January , the elected Jordanian prime minister and Nasser supporter Sulayman al @-@ Nabulsi brought Jordan into a military pact with Egypt , Syria , and Saudi Arabia .
Relations between Nasser and King Hussein deteriorated in April when Hussein implicated Nasser in two coup attempts against him — although Nasser 's involvement was never established — and dissolved al @-@ Nabulsi 's cabinet . Nasser subsequently slammed Hussein on Cairo radio as being " a tool of the imperialists " . Relations with King Saud also became antagonistic as the latter began to fear that Nasser 's increasing popularity in Saudi Arabia was a genuine threat to the royal family 's survival . Despite opposition from the governments of Jordan , Saudi Arabia , Iraq , and Lebanon , Nasser maintained his prestige among their citizens and those of other Arab countries .
By the end of 1957 , Nasser nationalized all remaining British and French assets in Egypt , including the tobacco , cement , pharmaceutical , and phosphate industries . When efforts to offer tax incentives and attract outside investments yielded no tangible results , he nationalized more companies and made them a part of his economic development organization . He stopped short of total government control : two @-@ thirds of the economy was still in private hands . This effort achieved a measure of success , with increased agricultural production and investment in industrialization . Nasser initiated the Helwan steelworks , which subsequently became Egypt 's largest enterprise , providing the country with product and tens of thousands of jobs . Nasser also decided to cooperate with the Soviet Union in the construction of the Aswan Dam to replace the withdrawal of US funds .
= = = United Arab Republic = = =
Despite his popularity with the people of the Arab world , by mid @-@ 1957 his only regional ally was Syria . In September , Turkish troops massed along the Syrian border , giving credence to rumors that the Baghdad Pact countries were attempting to topple Syria 's leftist government . Nasser sent a contingent force to Syria as a symbolic display of solidarity , further elevating his prestige in the Arab world , and particularly among Syrians .
As political instability grew in Syria , delegations from the country were sent to Nasser demanding immediate unification with Egypt . Nasser initially turned down the request , citing the two countries ' incompatible political and economic systems , lack of contiguity , the Syrian military 's record of intervention in politics , and the deep factionalism among Syria 's political forces . However , in January 1958 , a second Syrian delegation managed to convince Nasser of an impending communist takeover and a consequent slide to civil strife . Nasser subsequently opted for union , albeit on the condition that it would be a total political merger with him as its president , to which the delegates and Syrian president Shukri al @-@ Quwatli agreed . On 1 February , the United Arab Republic ( UAR ) was proclaimed and , according to Dawisha , the Arab world reacted in " stunned amazement , which quickly turned into uncontrolled euphoria . " Nasser ordered a crackdown against Syrian communists , dismissing many of them from their governmental posts .
On a surprise visit to Damascus to celebrate the union on 24 February , Nasser was welcomed by crowds in the hundreds of thousands . Crown Prince Imam Badr of North Yemen was dispatched to Damascus with proposals to include his country in the new republic . Nasser agreed to establish a loose federal union with Yemen — the United Arab States — in place of total integration . While Nasser was in Syria , King Saud planned to have him assassinated on his return flight to Cairo . On 4 March , Nasser addressed the masses in Damascus and waved before them the Saudi check given to Syrian security chief and , unbeknownst to the Saudis , ardent Nasser supporter Abdel Hamid Sarraj to shoot down Nasser 's plane . As a consequence of Saud 's plot , he was forced by senior members of the Saudi royal family to informally cede most of his powers to his brother , King Faisal , a major Nasser opponent who advocated pan @-@ Islamic unity over pan @-@ Arabism .
A day after announcing the attempt on his life , Nasser established a new provisional constitution proclaiming a 600 @-@ member National Assembly ( 400 from Egypt and 200 from Syria ) and the dissolution of all political parties . Nasser gave each of the provinces two vice @-@ presidents : Boghdadi and Amer in Egypt , and Sabri al @-@ Asali and Akram al @-@ Hawrani in Syria . Nasser then left for Moscow to meet with Nikita Khrushchev . At the meeting , Khrushchev pressed Nasser to lift the ban on the Communist Party , but Nasser refused , stating it was an internal matter which was not a subject of discussion with outside powers . Khrushchev was reportedly taken aback and denied he had meant to interfere in the UAR 's affairs . The matter was settled as both leaders sought to prevent a rift between their two countries .
= = = Influence on the Arab world = = =
In Lebanon , clashes between pro @-@ Nasser factions and supporters of staunch Nasser opponent , then @-@ President Camille Chamoun , culminated in civil strife by May . The former sought to unite with the UAR , while the latter sought Lebanon 's continued independence . Nasser delegated oversight of the issue to Sarraj , who provided limited aid to Nasser 's Lebanese supporters through money , light arms , and officer training — short of the large @-@ scale support that Chamoun alleged . Nasser did not covet Lebanon , seeing it as a " special case " , but sought to prevent Chamoun from a second presidential term .
On 14 July , Iraqi army officers Abdel Karim Qasim and Abdel Salam Aref overthrew the Iraqi monarchy and , the next day , Iraqi prime minister and Nasser 's chief Arab antagonist , Nuri al @-@ Said , was killed . Nasser recognized the new government and stated that " any attack on Iraq was tantamount to an attack on the UAR " . On 15 July , US marines landed in Lebanon , and British special forces in Jordan , upon the request of those countries ' governments to prevent them from falling to pro @-@ Nasser forces . Nasser felt that the revolution in Iraq left the road for pan @-@ Arab unity unblocked . On 19 July , for the first time , he declared that he was opting for full Arab union , although he had no plan to merge Iraq with the UAR . While most members of the Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council ( RCC ) favored Iraqi @-@ UAR unity , Qasim sought to keep Iraq independent and resented Nasser 's large popular base in the country .
In the fall of 1958 , Nasser formed a tripartite committee consisting of Zakaria Mohieddin , al @-@ Hawrani , and Salah Bitar to oversee developments in Syria . By moving the latter two , who were Ba 'athists , to Cairo , he neutralized important political figures who had their own ideas about how Syria should be run . He put Syria under Sarraj , who effectively reduced the province to a police state by imprisoning and exiling landholders who objected to the introduction of Egyptian agricultural reform in Syria , as well as communists . Following the Lebanese election of Fuad Chehab in September 1958 , relations between Lebanon and the UAR improved considerably . On 25 March 1959 , Chehab and Nasser met at the Lebanese – Syrian border and compromised on an end to the Lebanese crisis .
Relations between Nasser and Qasim grew increasingly bitter on 9 March , after Qasim 's forces suppressed a rebellion in Mosul , launched a day earlier by a pro @-@ Nasser Iraqi RCC officer backed by UAR authorities . Nasser had considered dispatching troops to aid his Iraqi sympathizers , but decided against it . He clamped down on Egyptian communist activity due to the key backing Iraqi communists provided Qasim . Several influential communists were arrested , including Nasser 's old comrade Khaled Mohieddin , who had been allowed to re @-@ enter Egypt in 1956 .
By December , the political situation in Syria was faltering and Nasser responded by appointing Amer as governor @-@ general alongside Sarraj . Syria 's leaders opposed the appointment and many resigned from their government posts . Nasser later met with the opposition leaders and in a heated moment , exclaimed that he was the " elected " president of the UAR and those who did not accept his authority could " walk away " .
= = = Collapse of the union and aftermath = = =
Opposition to the union mounted among some of Syria 's key elements , namely the socioeconomic , political , and military elites . In response to Syria 's worsening economy , which Nasser attributed to its control by the bourgeoisie , in July 1961 , Nasser decreed socialist measures that nationalized wide @-@ ranging sectors of the Syrian economy . He also dismissed Sarraj in September to curb the growing political crisis . Aburish states that Nasser was not fully capable of addressing Syrian problems because they were " foreign to him " . In Egypt , the economic situation was more positive , with a GNP growth of 4 @.@ 5 percent and a rapid growth of industry . In 1960 , Nasser nationalized the Egyptian press , which had already been cooperating with his government , in order to steer coverage towards the country 's socioeconomic issues and galvanize public support for his socialist measures .
On 28 September 1961 , secessionist army units launched a coup in Damascus , declaring Syria 's secession from the UAR . In response , pro @-@ union army units in northern Syria revolted and pro @-@ Nasser protests occurred in major Syrian cities . Nasser sent Egyptian special forces to Latakia to bolster his allies , but withdrew them two days later , citing a refusal to allow inter @-@ Arab fighting . Addressing the UAR 's breakup on 5 October , Nasser accepted personal responsibility and declared that Egypt would recognize an elected Syrian government . He privately blamed interference by hostile Arab governments . According to Heikal , Nasser suffered something resembling a nervous breakdown after the dissolution of the union ; he began to smoke more heavily and his health began to deteriorate .
= = = Revival on regional stage = = =
Nasser 's regional position changed unexpectedly when Yemeni officers led by Nasser supporter Abdullah al @-@ Sallal overthrew Imam Badr of North Yemen on 27 September 1962 . Al @-@ Badr and his tribal partisans began receiving increasing support from Saudi Arabia to help reinstate the kingdom , while Nasser subsequently accepted a request by Sallal to militarily aid the new government on 30 September . Consequently , Egypt became increasingly embroiled in the drawn @-@ out civil war until it withdrew its forces in 1967 . Most of Nasser 's old colleagues had questioned the wisdom of continuing the war , but Amer reassured Nasser of their coming victory . Nasser later remarked in 1968 that intervention in Yemen was a " miscalculation " .
In July 1962 , Algeria became independent of France . As a staunch political and financial supporter of the Algerian independence movement , Nasser considered the country 's independence to be a personal victory . Amid these developments , a pro @-@ Nasser clique in the Saudi royal family led by Prince Talal defected to Egypt , along with the Jordanian chief of staff , in early 1963 .
On 8 February 1963 , a military coup in Iraq led by a Ba 'athist – Nasserist alliance toppled Qasim , who was subsequently shot dead . Abdel Salam Aref , a Nasserist , was chosen to be the new president . A similar alliance toppled the Syrian government on 8 March . On 14 March , the new Iraqi and Syrian governments sent Nasser delegations to push for a new Arab union . At the meeting , Nasser lambasted the Ba 'athists for " facilitating " Syria 's split from the UAR , and asserted that he was the " leader of the Arabs " . A transitional unity agreement stipulating a federal system was signed by the parties on 17 April and the new union was set to be established in May 1965 . However , the agreement fell apart weeks later when Syria 's Ba 'athists purged Nasser 's supporters from the officers corps . A failed counter @-@ coup by a Nasserist colonel followed , after which Nasser condemned the Ba 'athists as " fascists " .
In January 1964 , Nasser called for an Arab League summit in Cairo to establish a unified Arab response against Israel 's plans to divert the Jordan River 's waters for economic purposes , which Syria and Jordan deemed an act of war . Nasser blamed Arab divisions for what he deemed " the disastrous situation " . He discouraged Syria and Palestinian guerrillas from provoking the Israelis , conceding that he had no plans for war with Israel . During the summit , Nasser developed cordial relations with King Hussein , and ties were mended with the rulers of Saudi Arabia , Syria , and Morocco . In May , Nasser moved to formally share his leadership position over the Palestine issue by initiating the creation of the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) . In practice , Nasser used the PLO to wield control over the Palestinian fedayeen . Its head was to be Ahmad Shukeiri , Nasser 's personal nominee .
After years of foreign policy coordination and developing ties , Nasser , President Sukarno of Indonesia , President Tito of Yugoslavia , and Prime Minister Nehru of India founded the Non @-@ Aligned Movement ( NAM ) in 1961 . Its declared purpose was to solidify international non @-@ alignment and promote world peace amid the Cold War , end colonization , and increase economic cooperation among developing countries . In 1964 , Nasser was made president of the NAM and held the second conference of the organization in Cairo .
Nasser played a significant part in the strengthening of African solidarity in the late 1950s and early 1960s , although his continental leadership role had increasingly passed to Algeria since 1962 . During this period , Nasser made Egypt a refuge for anti @-@ colonial leaders from several African countries and allowed the broadcast of anti @-@ colonial propaganda from Cairo . Beginning in 1958 , Nasser had a key role in the discussions among African leaders that led to the establishment of the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) in 1963 .
= = Modernization efforts and internal dissent = =
= = = Al @-@ Azhar = = =
In 1961 , Nasser sought to firmly establish Egypt as the leader of the Arab world and to promote a second revolution in Egypt with the purpose of merging Islamic and socialist thinking . To achieve this , he initiated several reforms to modernize al @-@ Azhar , which serves as the de facto leading authority in Sunni Islam , and to ensure its prominence over the Muslim Brotherhood and the more conservative Wahhabism promoted by Saudi Arabia . Nasser had used al @-@ Azhar 's most willing ulema ( scholars ) as a counterweight to the Brotherhood 's Islamic influence , starting in 1953 .
Nasser instructed al @-@ Azhar to create changes in its syllabus that trickled to the lower levels of Egyptian education , consequently allowing the establishment of coeducational schools and the introduction of evolution into school curriculum . The reforms also included the merger of religious and civil courts . Moreover , Nasser forced al @-@ Azhar to issue a fatwā admitting Shia Muslims , Alawites , and Druze into mainstream Islam ; for centuries prior , al @-@ Azhar deemed them to be " heretics " .
= = = Rivalry with Amer = = =
Following Syria 's secession , Nasser grew concerned with Amer 's inability to train and modernize the army , and with the state within a state Amer had created in the military command and intelligence apparatus . In late 1961 , Nasser established the Presidential Council and decreed it the authority to approve all senior military appointments , instead of leaving this responsibility solely to Amer . Moreover , he instructed that the primary criterion for promotion should be merit and not personal loyalties . Nasser retracted the initiative after Amer 's allies in the officers corps threatened to mobilize against him .
In early 1962 Nasser again attempted to wrest control of the military command from Amer . Amer responded by directly confronting Nasser for the first time and secretly rallying his loyalist officers . Nasser ultimately backed down , wary of a possible violent confrontation between the military and his civilian government . According to Boghdadi , the stress caused by the UAR 's collapse and Amer 's increasing autonomy forced Nasser , who already had diabetes , to practically live on painkillers from then on .
= = = National Charter and second term = = =
In October 1961 , Nasser embarked on a major nationalization program for Egypt , believing the total adoption of socialism was the answer to his country 's problems and would have prevented Syria 's secession . In order to organize and solidify his popular base with Egypt 's citizens and counter the army 's influence , Nasser introduced the National Charter in 1962 and a new constitution . The charter called for universal health care , affordable housing , vocational schools , greater women 's rights and a family planning program , as well as widening the Suez Canal .
Nasser also attempted to maintain oversight of the country 's civil service to prevent it from inflating and consequently becoming a burden to the state . New laws provided workers with a minimum wage , profit shares , free education , free health care , reduced working hours , and encouragement to participate in management . Land reforms guaranteed the security of tenant farmers , promoted agricultural growth , and reduced rural poverty . As a result of the 1962 measures , government ownership of Egyptian business reached 51 percent , and the National Union was renamed the Arab Socialist Union ( ASU ) . With these measures came more domestic repression , as thousands of Islamists were imprisoned , including dozens of military officers . Nasser 's tilt toward a Soviet @-@ style system led his aides Boghdadi and Hussein el @-@ Shafei to submit their resignations in protest .
During the presidential referendum in Egypt , Nasser was re @-@ elected to a second term as UAR president and took his oath on 25 March 1965 . He was the only candidate for the position , with virtually all of his political opponents forbidden by law from running for office , and his fellow party members reduced to mere followers . That same year , Nasser had the Muslim Brotherhood chief ideologue Sayyed Qutb imprisoned . Qutb was charged and found guilty by the court of plotting to assassinate Nasser , and was executed in 1966 . Beginning in 1966 , as Egypt 's economy slowed and government debt became increasingly burdensome , Nasser began to ease state control over the private sector , encouraging state @-@ owned bank loans to private business and introducing incentives to increase exports . During the 60 's , the Egyptian economy went from sluggishness to the verge of collapse , the society became less free , and Nasser 's appeal waned considerably .
= = Six @-@ Day War = =
In mid May 1967 , the Soviet Union issued warnings to Nasser of an impending Israeli attack on Syria , although Chief of Staff Mohamed Fawzi considered the warnings to be " baseless " . According to Kandil , without Nasser 's authorization , Amer used the Soviet warnings as a pretext to dispatch troops to Sinai on 14 May , and Nasser subsequently demanded UNEF 's withdrawal . Earlier that day , Nasser received a warning from King Hussein of Israeli @-@ American collusion to drag Egypt into war . The message had been originally received by Amer on 2 May , but was withheld from Nasser until the Sinai deployment on 14 May . Although in the preceding months , Hussein and Nasser had been accusing each other of avoiding a fight with Israel , Hussein was nonetheless wary that an Egyptian @-@ Israeli war would risk the West Bank 's occupation by Israel . Nasser still felt that the US would restrain Israel from attacking due to assurances that he received from the US and Soviet Union . In turn , he also reassured both powers that Egypt would only act defensively .
On 21 May , Amer asked Nasser to order the Straits of Tiran blockaded , a move Nasser believed Israel would use as a casus belli . Amer reassured him that the army was prepared for confrontation , but Nasser doubted Amer 's assessment of the military 's readiness . According to Nasser 's vice president Zakaria Mohieddin , although " Amer had absolute authority over the armed forces , Nasser had his ways of knowing what was really going on " . Moreover , Amer anticipated an impending Israeli attack and advocated a preemptive strike . Nasser refused the call upon determination that the air force lacked pilots and Amer 's handpicked officers were incompetent . Still , Nasser concluded that if Israel attacked , Egypt 's quantitative advantage in manpower and arms could stave off Israeli forces for at least two weeks , allowing for diplomacy towards a ceasefire . Towards the end of May , Nasser increasingly exchanged his positions of deterrence for deference to the inevitability of war , under increased pressure to act by both the general Arab populace and various Arab governments . On 26 May Nasser declared , " our basic objective will be to destroy Israel " . On 30 May , King Hussein committed Jordan in an alliance with Egypt and Syria .
On the morning of 5 June , the Israeli Air Force struck Egyptian air fields , destroying much of the Egyptian Air Force . Before the day ended , Israeli armored units had cut through Egyptian defense lines and captured the town of el @-@ Arish . The next day , Amer ordered the immediate withdrawal of Egyptian troops from Sinai — causing the majority of Egyptian casualties during the war . Israel quickly captured Sinai and the Gaza Strip from Egypt , the West Bank from Jordan , and the Golan Heights from Syria .
According to Sadat , it was only when the Israelis cut off the Egyptian garrison at Sharm el @-@ Sheikh that Nasser became aware of the situation 's gravity . After hearing of the attack , he rushed to army headquarters to inquire about the military situation . The simmering conflict between Nasser and Amer subsequently came to the fore , and officers present reported the pair burst into " a nonstop shouting match " . The Supreme Executive Committee , set up by Nasser to oversee the conduct of the war , attributed the repeated Egyptian defeats to the Nasser – Amer rivalry and Amer 's overall incompetence . According to Egyptian diplomat Ismail Fahmi , who became foreign minister during Sadat 's presidency , the Israeli invasion and Egypt 's consequent defeat was a result of Nasser 's dismissal of all rational analysis of the situation and his undertaking of a series of irrational decisions .
= = = Resignation and aftermath = = =
During the first four days of the war , the general population of the Arab world believed Arab radio station fabrications of imminent Arab victory . On 9 June , Nasser appeared on television to inform Egypt 's citizens of their country 's defeat . He announced his resignation on television later that day , and ceded all presidential powers to his then @-@ Vice President Zakaria Mohieddin , who had no prior information of this decision and refused to accept the post . Hundreds of thousands of sympathizers poured into the streets in mass demonstrations throughout Egypt and across the Arab world rejecting his resignation , chanting , " We are your soldiers , Gamal ! " Nasser retracted his decision the next day .
On 11 July , Nasser replaced Amer with Mohamed Fawzi as general commander , over the protestations of Amer 's loyalists in the military , 600 of whom marched on army headquarters and demanded Amer 's reinstatement . After Nasser sacked thirty of the loyalists in response , Amer and his allies devised a plan to topple him on 27 August . Nasser was tipped off about their activities and , after several invitations , he convinced Amer to meet him at his home on 24 August . Nasser confronted Amer about the coup plot , which he denied before being arrested by Mohieddin . Amer committed suicide on 14 September . Despite his souring relationship with Amer , Nasser spoke of losing " the person closest to [ him ] " . Thereafter , Nasser began a process of depoliticizing the armed forces , arresting dozens of leading military and intelligence figures loyal to Amer .
At the 29 August Arab League summit in Khartoum , Nasser 's usual commanding position had receded as the attending heads of state expected Saudi King Faisal to lead . A ceasefire in the Yemen War was declared and the summit concluded with the Khartoum Resolution . The Soviet Union soon resupplied the Egyptian military with about half of its former arsenals and broke diplomatic relations with Israel . Nasser cut relations with the US following the war , and , according to Aburish , his policy of " playing the superpowers against each other " ended . In November , Nasser accepted UN Resolution 242 , which called for Israel 's withdrawal from territories acquired in the war . His supporters claimed Nasser 's move was meant to buy time to prepare for another confrontation with Israel , while his detractors believed his acceptance of the resolution signaled a waning interest in Palestinian independence .
= = Final years of presidency = =
= = = Domestic reforms and governmental changes = = =
Nasser appointed himself the additional roles of prime minister and supreme commander of the armed forces on 19 June 1967 . Angry at the military court 's perceived leniency with air force officers charged with negligence during the 1967 war , workers and students launched protests calling for major political reforms in late February 1968 . Nasser responded to the demonstrations , the most significant public challenge to his rule since workers ' protests in March 1954 , by removing most military figures from his cabinet and appointing eight civilians in place of several high @-@ ranking members of the Arab Socialist Union ( ASU ) . By 3 March , Nasser directed Egypt 's intelligence apparatus to focus on external rather than domestic espionage , and declared the " fall of the mukhabarat state " .
On 30 March , Nasser proclaimed a manifesto stipulating the restoration of civil liberties , greater parliamentary independence from the executive , major structural changes to the ASU , and a campaign to rid the government of corrupt elements . A public referendum approved the proposed measures in May , and held subsequent elections for the Supreme Executive Committee , the ASU 's highest decision @-@ making body . Observers noted that the declaration signaled an important shift from political repression to liberalization , although its promises would largely go unfulfilled .
Nasser appointed Sadat and Hussein el @-@ Shafei as his vice presidents in December 1969 . By then , relations with his other original military comrades , namely Khaled and Zakaria Mohieddin and former vice president Sabri , had become strained . By mid @-@ 1970 , Nasser pondered replacing Sadat with Boghdadi after reconciling with the latter .
= = = War of Attrition and regional diplomatic initiatives = = =
Meanwhile , in January 1968 , Nasser commenced the War of Attrition to reclaim territory captured by Israel , ordering attacks against Israeli positions east of the then @-@ blockaded Suez Canal . In March , Nasser offered Yasser Arafat 's Fatah movement arms and funds after their performance against Israeli forces in the Battle of Karameh that month . He also advised Arafat to think of peace with Israel and the establishment of a Palestinian state comprising the West Bank and the Gaza Strip . Nasser effectively ceded his leadership of the " Palestine issue " to Arafat .
Israel retaliated against Egyptian shelling with commando raids , artillery shelling and air strikes . This resulted in an exodus of civilians from Egyptian cities along the Suez Canal 's western bank . Nasser ceased all military activities and began a program to build a network of internal defenses , while receiving the financial backing of various Arab states . The war resumed in March 1969 . In November , Nasser brokered an agreement between the PLO and the Lebanese military that granted Palestinian guerrillas the right to use Lebanese territory to attack Israel .
In June 1970 , Nasser accepted the US @-@ sponsored Rogers Plan , which called for an end to hostilities and an Israeli withdrawal from Egyptian territory , but it was rejected by Israel , the PLO , and most Arab states except Jordan . Nasser had initially rejected the plan , but conceded under pressure from the Soviet Union , which feared that escalating regional conflict could drag it into a war with the US . He also determined that a ceasefire could serve as a tactical step toward the strategic goal of recapturing the Suez Canal . Nasser forestalled any movement toward direct negotiations with Israel . In dozens of speeches and statements , Nasser posited the equation that any direct peace talks with Israel were tantamount to surrender . Following Nasser 's acceptance , Israel agreed to a ceasefire and Nasser used the lull in fighting to move SAM missiles towards the canal zone .
Meanwhile , tensions in Jordan between an increasingly autonomous PLO and King Hussein 's government had been simmering ; following the Dawson 's Field hijackings , a military campaign was launched to rout out PLO forces . The offensive elevated risks of a regional war and prompted Nasser to hold an emergency Arab League summit on 27 September in Cairo , where he forged a ceasefire .
= = Death and funeral = =
As the summit closed on 28 September 1970 , hours after escorting the last Arab leader to leave , Nasser suffered a heart attack . He was immediately transported to his house , where his physicians tended to him . Nasser died several hours later , around 6 : 00 p.m. Heikal , Sadat , and Nasser 's wife Tahia were at his deathbed . According to his doctor , al @-@ Sawi Habibi , Nasser 's likely cause of death was arteriosclerosis , varicose veins , and complications from long @-@ standing diabetes . Nasser was a heavy smoker with a family history of heart disease — two of his brothers died in their fifties from the same condition . The state of Nasser 's health was not known to the public prior to his death . He had previously suffered heart attacks in 1966 and September 1969 .
Following the announcement of Nasser 's death , Egypt and the Arab world were in a state of shock . Nasser 's funeral procession through Cairo on 1 October was attended by at least five million mourners . The 10 @-@ kilometer ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) procession to his burial site began at the old RCC headquarters with a flyover by MiG @-@ 21 jets . His flag @-@ draped coffin was attached to a gun carriage pulled by six horses and led by a column of cavalrymen . All Arab heads of state attended , with the exception of Saudi King Faisal . King Hussein and Arafat cried openly , and Muammar Gaddafi of Libya fainted from emotional distress twice . A few major non @-@ Arab dignitaries were present , including Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin and French Prime Minister Jacques Chaban @-@ Delmas .
Almost immediately after the procession began , mourners engulfed Nasser 's coffin chanting , " There is no God but Allah , and Nasser is God 's beloved … Each of us is Nasser . " Police unsuccessfully attempted to quell the crowds and , as a result , most of the foreign dignitaries were evacuated . The final destination was the Nasr Mosque , which was afterwards renamed Abdel Nasser Mosque , where Nasser was buried .
Because of his ability to motivate nationalistic passions , " men , women , and children wept and wailed in the streets " after hearing of his death , according to Nutting . The general Arab reaction was one of mourning , with thousands of people pouring onto the streets of major cities throughout the Arab world . Over a dozen people were killed in Beirut as a result of the chaos , and in Jerusalem , roughly 75 @,@ 000 Arabs marched through the Old City chanting , " Nasser will never die . " As a testament to his unchallenged leadership of the Arab people , following his death , the headline of the Lebanese Le Jour read , " One hundred million human beings — the Arabs — are orphans . " Sherif Hetata , a former political prisoner and later member Nasser 's ASU , said that " Nasser 's greatest achievement was his funeral . The world will never again see five million people crying together . "
= = Legacy = =
Nasser made Egypt fully independent of British influence , and the country became a major power in the developing world under his leadership . One of Nasser 's main domestic efforts was to establish social justice , which he deemed a prerequisite to liberal democracy . During his presidency , ordinary citizens enjoyed unprecedented access to housing , education , jobs , health services and nourishment , as well as other forms of social welfare , while feudalistic influence waned . By the end of his presidency , employment and working conditions improved considerably , although poverty was still high in the country and substantial resources allocated for social welfare had been diverted to the war effort .
The national economy grew significantly through agrarian reform , major modernization projects such as the Helwan steel works and the Aswan Dam , and nationalization schemes such as that of the Suez Canal . However , the marked economic growth of the early 1960s took a downturn for the remainder of the decade , only recovering in 1970 . Egypt experienced a " golden age " of culture during Nasser 's presidency , according to historian Joel Gordon , particularly in film , television , theater , radio , literature , fine arts , comedy , poetry , and music . Egypt under Nasser dominated the Arab world in these fields , producing cultural icons .
During Mubarak 's presidency , Nasserist political parties began to emerge in Egypt , the first being the Arab Democratic Nasserist Party ( ADNP ) . The party carried minor political influence , and splits between its members beginning in 1995 resulted in the gradual establishment of splinter parties , including Hamdeen Sabahi 's 1997 founding of Al @-@ Karama . Sabahi came in third place during the 2012 presidential election . Nasserist activists were among the founders of Kefaya , a major opposition force during Mubarak 's rule . On 19 September 2012 , four Nasserist parties ( the ADNP , Karama , the National Conciliation Party , and the Popular Nasserist Congress Party ) merged to form the United Nasserist Party .
= = = Image = = =
Nasser was known for his intimate relationship with ordinary Egyptians . His availability to the public , despite assassination attempts against him , was unparalleled among his successors . A skilled orator , Nasser gave 1 @,@ 359 speeches between 1953 and 1970 , a record for any Egyptian head of state . Historian Elie Podeh wrote that a constant theme of Nasser 's image was " his ability to represent Egyptian authenticity , in triumph or defeat " . The national press also helped to foster his popularity and profile — more so after the nationalization of state media . Historian Tarek Osman wrote :
The interplay in the Nasser ' phenomenon ' between genuine expression of popular feeling and state @-@ sponsored propaganda may sometimes be hard to disentangle . But behind it lies a vital historical fact : that Gamal Abdel Nasser signifies the only truly Egyptian developmental project in the country 's history since the fall of the Pharoanic [ sic ] state . There had been other projects ... But this was different — in origin , meaning and impact . For Nasser was a man of the Egyptian soil who had overthrown the Middle East 's most established and sophisticated monarchy in a swift and bloodless move — to the acclaim of millions of poor , oppressed Egyptians — and ushered in a programme of ' social justice ' , ' progress and development ' , and ' dignity ' .
While Nasser was increasingly criticized by Egyptian intellectuals following the Six @-@ Day War and his death in 1970 , the general public was persistently sympathetic both during and after Nasser 's life . According to political scientist Mahmoud Hamad , writing in 2008 , " nostalgia for Nasser is easily sensed in Egypt and all Arab countries today " . General malaise in Egyptian society , particularly during the Mubarak era , augmented nostalgia for Nasser 's presidency , which increasingly became associated with the ideals of national purpose , hope , social cohesion , and vibrant culture .
Until the present day , Nasser serves as an iconic figure throughout the Arab world , a symbol of Arab unity and dignity , and a towering figure in modern Middle Eastern history . He is also considered a champion of social justice in Egypt . Time writes that despite his mistakes and shortcomings , Nasser " imparted a sense of personal worth and national pride that [ Egypt and the Arabs ] had not known for 400 years . This alone may have been enough to balance his flaws and failures . "
Historian Steven A. Cook wrote in July 2013 , " Nasser 's heyday still represents , for many , the last time that Egypt felt united under leaders whose espoused principles met the needs of ordinary Egyptians . " During the Arab Spring , which resulted in a revolution in Egypt , photographs of Nasser were raised in Cairo and Arab capitals during anti @-@ government demonstrations . According to journalist Lamis Andoni , Nasser had become a " symbol of Arab dignity " during the mass demonstrations .
= = = Criticism = = =
Sadat declared his intention to " continue the path of Nasser " in his 7 October 1970 presidential inauguration speech , but began to depart from Nasserist policies as his domestic position improved following the 1973 October War . President Sadat 's Infitah policy sought to open Egypt 's economy for private investment . According to Heikal , ensuing anti @-@ Nasser developments until the present day led to an Egypt " [ half ] at war with Abdel @-@ Nasser , half [ at war ] with Anwar El @-@ Sadat " .
Nasser 's Egyptian detractors considered him a dictator who thwarted democratic progress , imprisoned thousands of dissidents , and led a repressive administration responsible for numerous human rights violations . Islamists in Egypt , particularly members of the politically persecuted Brotherhood , viewed Nasser as oppressive , tyrannical , and demonic . Liberal writer Tawfiq al @-@ Hakim described Nasser as a " confused Sultan " who employed stirring rhetoric , but had no actual plan to achieve his stated goals .
Some of Nasser 's liberal and Islamist critics in Egypt , including the founding members of the New Wafd Party and writer Jamal Badawi , dismissed Nasser 's popular appeal with the Egyptian masses during his presidency as being the product of successful manipulation and demagoguery . Egyptian political scientist Alaa al @-@ Din Desouki blamed the 1952 revolution 's shortcomings on Nasser 's concentration of power , and Egypt 's lack of democracy on Nasser 's political style and his government 's limitations on freedom of expression and political participation .
American political scientist Mark Cooper asserted that Nasser 's charisma and his direct relationship with the Egyptian people " rendered intermediaries ( organizations and individuals ) unnecessary " . He opined that Nasser 's legacy was a " guarantee of instability " due to Nasser 's reliance on personal power and the absence of strong political institutions under his rule . Historian Abd al @-@ Azim Ramadan wrote that Nasser was an irrational and irresponsible leader , blaming his inclination to solitary decision @-@ making for Egypt 's losses during the Suez War , among other events . Miles Copeland , Jr . , once described as Nasser 's closest Western adviser , said that the barriers between Nasser and the outside world have grown so thick that all but the information that attest to his infallibility , indispensability , and immortality has been filtered out .
Zakaria Mohieddin , who was Nasser 's vice president , said that Nasser gradually changed during his reign . He ceased consulting his colleagues and made more and more of the decisions himself . Although Nasser repeatedly said that a war with Israel will start at a time of his , or Arab , choosing , in 1967 he started a bluffing game " but a successful bluff means your opponent must not know which cards you are holding . In this case Nasser 's opponent could see his hand in the mirror and knew he was only holding a pair of deuces " and Nasser knew that his army is not prepared yet . " All of this was out of character ... His tendencies in this regard may have been accentuated by diabetes ... That was the only rational explanation for his actions in 1967 " .
Nasser told an East German newspaper in 1964 that " no person , not even the most simple one , takes seriously the lie of the six million Jews that were murdered [ in the Holocaust ] . " However he is not known to have ever again publicly called the figure of six million into question , perhaps because his advisors and East German contacts had corrected him on the subject .
= = = Regional leadership = = =
Through his actions and speeches , and because he was able to symbolize the popular Arab will , Nasser inspired several nationalist revolutions in the Arab world . He defined the politics of his generation and communicated directly with the public masses of the Arab world , bypassing the various heads of states of those countries — an accomplishment not repeated by other Arab leaders . The extent of Nasser 's centrality in the region made it a priority for incoming Arab nationalist heads of state to seek good relations with Egypt , in order to gain popular legitimacy from their own citizens .
To varying degrees , Nasser 's statist system of government was continued in Egypt and emulated by virtually all Arab republics , namely Algeria , Syria , Iraq , Tunisia , Yemen , Sudan , and Libya . Ahmed Ben Bella , Algeria 's first president , was a staunch Nasserist . Abdullah al @-@ Sallal drove out the king of North Yemen in the name of Nasser 's pan @-@ Arabism . Other coups influenced by Nasser included those that occurred in Iraq in July 1958 and Syria in 1963 . Muammar Gaddafi , who overthrew the Libyan monarchy in 1969 , considered Nasser his hero and sought to succeed him as " leader of the Arabs " . Also in 1969 , Colonel Gaafar Nimeiry , a supporter of Nasser , took power in Sudan . The Arab Nationalist Movement ( ANM ) helped spread Nasser 's pan @-@ Arabist ideas throughout the Arab world , particularly among the Palestinians , Syrians , and Lebanese , and in South Yemen , the Persian Gulf , and Iraq . While many regional heads of state tried to emulate Nasser , Podeh opined that the " parochialism " of successive Arab leaders " transformed imitation [ of Nasser ] into parody " .
= = = Portrayal in film = = =
In 1963 , Egyptian director Youssef Chahine produced the film El Nasser Salah El Dine ( " Saladin The Victorious " ) , which intentionally drew parallels between Saladin , considered a hero in the Arab world , and Nasser and his pan @-@ Arabist policies . Nasser is played by Ahmed Zaki in Mohamed Fadel 's 1996 Nasser 56 . The film set the Egyptian box office record at the time , and focused on Nasser during the Suez Crisis . It is also considered a milestone in Egyptian and Arab cinema as the first film to dramatize the role of a modern @-@ day Arab leader . Together with the 1999 Syrian biopic Gamal Abdel Nasser , the films marked the first biographical movies about contemporary public figures produced in the Arab world .
= = Personal life = =
In 1944 , Nasser married Tahia Kazem , the 22 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of a wealthy Iranian father and an Egyptian mother , both of whom died when she was young . She was introduced to Nasser through her brother , Abdel Hamid Kazim , a merchant friend of Nasser 's , in 1943 . After their wedding , the couple moved into a house in Manshiyat al @-@ Bakri , a suburb of Cairo , where they would live for the rest of their lives . Nasser 's entry into the officer corps in 1937 secured him relatively well @-@ paid employment in a society where most people lived in poverty .
Nasser and Tahia would sometimes discuss politics at home , but for the most part , Nasser kept his career separate from his family life . He preferred to spend most of his free time with his children . Nasser and Tahia had two daughters and three sons : Hoda , Mona , Khaled , Abdel Hamid , and Abdel Hakim .
Although he was a proponent of secular politics , Nasser was an observant Muslim who made the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca in 1954 and 1965 . He was known to be personally incorruptible , a characteristic which further enhanced his reputation among the citizens of Egypt and the Arab world . Nasser 's personal hobbies included playing chess , American films , reading Arabic , English , and French magazines , and listening to classical music .
Nasser had few personal vices other than chain smoking . He maintained 18 @-@ hour workdays and rarely took time off for vacations . The combination of smoking and working long hours contributed to his poor health . He was diagnosed with diabetes in the early 1960s and by the time of his death in 1970 , he also had arteriosclerosis , heart disease , and high blood pressure . He suffered two major heart attacks ( in 1966 and 1969 ) , and was on bed rest for six weeks after the second episode . State media reported that Nasser 's absence from the public view at that time was a result of influenza .
= = Writings = =
Nasser wrote the following books , published during his lifetime :
Memoirs of the First Palestine War ( Arabic : يوميات الرئيس جمال عبد الناصر عن حرب فلسطين ) ( 1955 ; Akher Sa 'a )
" Memoirs of the First Palestine War " , in 2 , no . 2 ( Win . 73 ) : 3 – 32 ( First English translation , 1973 , pdf @-@ file from Journal of Palestine Studies )
Egypt 's Liberation : The Philosophy of the Revolution ( Arabic : فلسفة الثورة ) ( 1955 ; Dar al @-@ Maaref )
Towards Freedom ( Arabic : في سبيل الحرية ) ( 1959 ; Cairo @-@ Arabian Company )
= = Honour = =
= = = Foreign honour = = =
Malaysia : Honorary Recipient of the Order of the Crown of the Realm ( 1965 )
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= Progress M1 @-@ 5 =
Progress M1 @-@ 5 was the Progress spacecraft which was launched by Russia in 2001 to deorbit the fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Mir space station before it naturally fell from orbit , potentially landing in a populated area . The Russian Aviation and Space Agency , Rosaviakosmos , was responsible for the mission .
Launched in January 2001 after a short delay due to a problem with Mir , on 27 January Progress M1 @-@ 5 became the last spacecraft to dock with the station . It spent two months attached to the Kvant @-@ 1 module before deorbiting the station on 23 March 2001 . Mir re @-@ entered the atmosphere with Progress M1 @-@ 5 still docked , disintegrating over the Pacific Ocean , with debris falling into the ocean at around 06 : 00 GMT . During the early stages of the unmanned Progress M1 @-@ 5 mission , a manned Soyuz was placed on standby to launch in order to complete the mission if a problem occurred . The decision to deorbit Mir attracted both praise and criticism for Rosaviakosmos , while several campaigns to save the station were conducted .
= = Background = =
Mir was the seventh and last manned space station to be launched as part of the Soviet space programme , and was the first true modular space station to be launched . The first component , the Core Module , was launched by a Proton @-@ K rocket on 19 February 1986 . This had been followed by six more modules , launched between 1987 and 1996 , all using Proton @-@ K rockets , except one which was launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis . Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union , Mir became the property of the Russian government , and the newly established Russian Aviation and Space Agency . It supported 28 long duration crews , visited by 40 manned Soyuz and Shuttle missions , whilst 64 unmanned Progress spacecraft were launched to support it . It was visited by 125 cosmonauts and astronauts , who performed 75 spacewalks .
During the Shuttle @-@ Mir programme , a series of American Space Shuttle missions visited Mir between 1995 and 1998 in preparation for the construction of the International Space Station . After the construction of the International Space Station began in 1998 , Russian resources were split between the two stations . In 2000 , Rosaviakosmos signed an agreement with MirCorp to lease the station for commercial use , with the Soyuz TM @-@ 30 mission , intended to prepare the station for future use and conduct some commercial research , being flown in later that year . This was to have been followed by more missions , including flights with space tourists , however due to the Russian government being concerned about MirCorp 's ability to fund these missions , Rosaviakosmos decided against funding the continued operation of Mir .
In November 2000 , Rosaviakosmos decided to deorbit Mir , and the next month Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov signed an order to do so . By this stage Mir was well past the end of its design life , and Rosaviakosmos General Director Yuri Koptev believed that " any of its systems could well fail at any time " . Therefore , it was decided to deorbit it whilst it was still functioning , rather than risk it falling back to Earth out of control , like Skylab in 1979 and Salyut 7 in 1991 , potentially dropping debris over a populated area . At the time , Mir was the largest spacecraft ever to reenter the Earth 's atmosphere , and there were concerns that sizeable pieces of debris , particularly from the docking assemblies , gyrodynes and external structure , could survive reentry .
Progress M1 @-@ 5 , which had originally been built to resupply and refuel either Mir or the International Space Station , was selected to perform the deorbit manoeuvre . Its mission earned it the nickname Hearse . It was a Progress @-@ M1 11F615A55 spacecraft , with the serial number 254 . An uninhabited area of the southern Pacific ocean was selected for the station to be deorbited into , as had been done with five earlier Salyut spacecraft .
= = Launch and docking = =
Progress M1 @-@ 5 was launched by a Soyuz @-@ U carrier rocket from the Baikonur Cosmodrome , Kazakhstan . It was originally scheduled for launch on 16 January 2001 , but by the first week of January , it was targeting 18 January . It was rolled out to the launch pad on 16 January , with the rocket departing the MIK assembly facility at Site 2 of the cosmodrome at 02 : 00 GMT , and was erected at the launch pad , Site 1 / 5 , within two hours of the start of rollout . Launch was set for 06 : 56 : 26 GMT on 18 January .
On 18 January , a problem with the computers aboard Mir developed shortly before fuelling of the Soyuz @-@ U rocket was scheduled to commence , about five and a half hours before the launch was due to occur . The launch attempt was scrubbed , or cancelled , and the launch was expected to be delayed by four or five days . On 19 January , the launch was rescheduled for 24 January , giving controllers time to restart the computer and the station 's gyroscopes , which had shut down when the computer failed .
Preparations for the launch resumed on 22 January , and the launch occurred successfully at 04 : 28 : 42 GMT on 24 January . Following the launch , Progress M1 @-@ 5 spent three days in free flight before docking with the rear port of the Kvant @-@ 1 module of Mir at 05 : 33 : 31 GMT on 27 January . The docking port had previously been occupied by Progress M @-@ 43 , which departed at 05 : 19 : 49 on 25 January , and subsequently remained in orbit until Progress M1 @-@ 5 had docked with Mir . Progress M @-@ 43 , which had originally been launched to carry supplies and raise Mir 's orbit , in anticipation of manned flights which were never launched , was subsequently deorbited at 02 : 12 GMT on 29 January , burning up during re @-@ entry at 02 : 58 .
Free @-@ flights of Progress spacecraft typically lasted two days from launch to docking with Mir , however Progress M1 @-@ 5 took three days to reach Mir in order to conserve fuel for the deorbit burn . If it had launched on 18 January it would have spent four days in free flight .
= = After docking = =
Progress M1 @-@ 5 spent two months docked to Mir before the deorbit burn occurred . The gap between docking and deorbit was in order to allow the spacecraft to dock whilst Mir was still in a stable orbit , but then to allow some natural decay , or decrease in altitude , to occur in order to conserve the Progress ' fuel . Controllers determined that they should wait for the station 's orbital altitude to reach 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) before deorbiting it . In addition , RKK Energia wanted to wait until after the fifteenth anniversary of the launch of the Core Module , on 19 February .
Following the docking , Mir 's attitude control system was used to spin the station , to provide spin @-@ stabilisation in order to further conserve the fuel , as the station had descended to an altitude at which its gyroscopes could not be used for attitude control . The station would remain in this spin until the deorbit manoeuvres began .
On 20 February , Mir was predicted to descend to 250 kilometres within five days of 9 March . By 1 March , it was at an altitude of 265 kilometres ( 165 mi ) , and descending at a rate of 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) per day . On 7 March , the Russian space agency opted to delay the deorbit burn until the station reached 220 kilometres ( 140 mi ) as a result of natural decay , in order to allow more fuel for the burn , giving a greater range of options in the event of an anomaly during the deorbit manoeuvre . It was predicted that without intervention , the station would have naturally entered the atmosphere on 28 March .
On 12 March computers aboard Mir were reactivated ahead of deorbiting , along with the control system on 13 March . On 14 March it was announced that the procedure would be conducted on 22 March . On 19 March it was delayed one day further due to a lower than expected descent rate , with the start of the first deorbit burn being set for 00 : 31 GMT .
= = Deorbit = =
Progress M1 @-@ 5 carried 2 @,@ 678 kilograms ( 5 @,@ 904 lb ) of fuel with which to perform the manoeuvres to deorbit Mir . These were completed on 23 March , when three deorbit burns were made ; the first two using just docking and attitude control thrusters , and the third using the main engine as well as the thrusters . The first burn began at 00 : 32 : 28 GMT , and lasted 21 @.@ 5 minutes , leaving Mir in an orbit with a perigee of 188 kilometres ( 117 mi ) and an apogee of 219 kilometres ( 136 mi ) . The second burn , which began at 02 : 24 GMT and lasted 24 minutes , placed Mir into a 158 @-@ kilometre ( 98 mi ) by 216 @-@ kilometre ( 134 mi ) orbit . The final deorbit burn began at 05 : 07 : 36 . It was scheduled to last 20 minutes , however flight controllers decided to let the Progress burn to depletion to ensure that the station re @-@ entered as expected . The last signals from Mir were received at 05 : 30 GMT , as it passed out of range of its ground station .
Mir re @-@ entered the atmosphere over the southern Pacific with Progress M1 @-@ 5 still docked at 05 : 44 GMT . It began to disintegrate at 05 : 52 , beginning with the detachment of solar panels , followed by other peripheral structures . The modules then buckled , before detaching completely . Debris came down in the ocean at around 06 : 00 GMT . Debris was intended to fall at around 47 ° S 140 ° W. An official statement announced that Mir " ceased to exist " at 05 : 59 : 24 GMT . The final tracking of Mir was conducted by a United States Army site on Kwajalein Atoll . The European Space Agency , German Federal Ministry of Defence and US National Aeronautics and Space Administration also assisted with tracking Mir during its final orbit and reentry . Former cosmonaut Vladimir Solovyov , who had been a member of the first crew to visit Mir , led the mission control team which was on station during the deorbit .
= = Contingency planning = =
Like all Progress spacecraft , M1 @-@ 5 carried two docking systems , Kurs and TORU . The automated Kurs system was the primary docking system , with TORU , which required manual input , as the backup . Because Mir was unmanned at the time of its docking , and a cosmonaut aboard the station would have been required to perform a TORU docking , or to troubleshoot any other problems during the docking , the Soyuz TM @-@ 32 spacecraft was made ready for a flight to Mir should human intervention be required . The Soyuz may also have been launched if the flight control system aboard Mir failed . Cosmonauts Salizhan Sharipov and Pavel Vinogradov were originally scheduled to have been on standby for this mission , with Talgat Musabayev and Yuri Baturin , the crew who eventually flew TM @-@ 32 to the International Space Station , as the backup crew . However , in December 2000 , they were replaced by Gennady Padalka and Nikolai Budarin , a crew which became known as Expedition Zero . These cosmonauts were chosen because of their training for a similar emergency mission to the International Space Station the previous year , which would have been launched if the Zvezda module had failed to dock . If a manned flight had been launched , controllers would have waited until after it had landed to begin the deorbit of Mir .
Progress M @-@ 43 , which had been launched in 2000 , undocked from Mir the day after Progress M1 @-@ 5 launched , and was kept in orbit until Progress M1 @-@ 5 docked . In the event that Progress M1 @-@ 5 had been unable to dock , Progress M @-@ 43 would have returned to the station and provide supplies of food and oxygen for the Soyuz crew . Progress M @-@ 43 was deorbited after Progress M1 @-@ 5 docked successfully .
If Progress M1 @-@ 5 had launched on 16 January , the Soyuz launch would have occurred on 10 February if it had been required . It was stood down around 22 February , after the decaying altitude of Mir made it too dangerous to send a crew to it .
If Mir 's main computer had failed after Progress M1 @-@ 5 had docked , then the flight plan would have been modified to use either the station 's BUPO rendezvous system , or the Progress for control . Under this plan , the third deorbit burn would have been conducted 24 hours after the first two burns , with the station being spin @-@ stabilised again between the second and third burns . Controllers also planned for a failure of Mir 's power system , which would have resulted in the deorbit being delayed one day , with all guidance and control functions being handled by the Progress spacecraft .
It was reported that Rosaviakosmos had taken out an insurance policy worth 200 million US dollars to cover damage caused by falling debris . The risk of debris from the station reaching land was estimated to be 3 % . Countries located near the target zone monitored events surrounding the deorbit to determine whether precautions should be taken . In New Zealand the Satellite Reentry Committee was responsible for this , whilst Emergency Management Australia handled preparations in Australia . The head of the Japanese Defense Agency , Toshitsugu Saito , postponed a trip to the United States in case any debris fell on Japan , as the station was scheduled to pass over several Japanese islands on its final orbit . Residents of Okinawa were warned to stay indoors as the station passed overhead . Members of the South Pacific Forum requested assurance from Russia that they would not be hit by falling debris . Chan Sek Keong , the attorney general of Singapore , called for greater regulation of space debris .
= = Reaction = =
The reaction to Russia 's announcement and subsequent execution of its plan to deorbit Mir was mixed . Several cosmonauts expressed regrets at the loss of the station , but support for the decision to end the programme ; Vladimir Titov described the station as " a good ship " , but said that he agreed with the decision to prioritise the International Space Station , while Vladimir Dezhurov said that he felt " sad about Mir but we have to look into the future . "
In November 2000 , shortly after plans to deorbit Mir were announced , members of the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia passed a resolution in the Duma , the lower house of the Russian parliament , aimed at preventing it . On 8 February 2001 , a protest against the deorbiting of the station was held in Moscow , and a petition was subsequently sent to Russian president Vladimir Putin . Gennady Zyuganov , the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation , described deorbiting the station to be " incorrect and harmful " , and the act of a " helpless , weak @-@ willed , inefficient and not very responsible " government . Iran attempted to buy the space station , with president Mohammad Khatami offering to fund it for two to three years in return for Russian assistance with cosmonaut training , however by this stage it was too late for such a transaction to be completed .
The major Russian ORT TV station organised a national televised debate as to what should be done with the station . Former cosmonaut Georgi Grechko suggested that it should be kept in orbit long enough to salvage any useful equipment from it , for transfer to the International Space Station or other spacecraft , however Konstantin Feoktistov argued that it would cost more to retrieve the equipment than to replace it . Anatoly Artsebarsky argued that Mir should be kept because he believed that once it had been deorbited , the US would try to marginalise Russian involvement in the ISS . An online opinion poll showed 67 % support worldwide for keeping it in orbit .
Rosaviakosmos and RKK Energia responded to criticism of the decision in an open letter in mid February , which explained that the " actual condition of the onboard systems ... [ does ] not make possible the safe and reliable operation of Mir " , and that attempts to prolong its life " may lead to the loss of control of Mir .. and , as a result , to catastrophic consequences not only for Russia but for the whole world . "
The US Government welcomed the decision to deorbit Mir , as it freed up Russian resources for the International Space Station programme . The Space Frontier Foundation , however criticised the Russian government for yielding to what it claimed was pressure from the American government . SFF co @-@ founder Rick Tumlinson claimed that " Mir was bulldozed to make way for [ the ] International Space Station " . It had previously run a campaign called " Keep Mir Alive " , which aimed to either secure the continued operation of Mir , or to have it placed into a higher orbit , allowing it to be stored until its operation became viable .
In anticipation of the reentry of Mir , the owners of Taco Bell towed a target , measuring 12 by 12 metres ( 40 ft × 40 ft ) out into the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Australia . If the target was hit by a falling piece of Mir , every person in the continental United States would be entitled to a free Taco Bell taco . The company bought a sizeable insurance policy for this " gamble . " No piece of the station struck the target . A group of enthusiasts from the United States , led by Bob Citron , chartered an aircraft to fly over the Pacific and view the reentry .
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= Babe Siebert =
Charles Albert " Babe " Siebert ( January 14 , 1904 – August 25 , 1939 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger and defenceman who played 14 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Montreal Maroons , New York Rangers , Boston Bruins and Montreal Canadiens . He won the 1926 Stanley Cup championship with the Maroons , and was a member of the famous " S Line " , and another with the Rangers in 1933 .
A physical forward known for his fighting ability while with the Maroons and Rangers , an apparent decline in his play was reversed when he switched to defence after he was traded to the Bruins . Siebert was named an all @-@ star three times after the switch and won the Hart Trophy as the NHL 's most valuable player in 1937 as a member of the Canadiens .
Siebert was named the head coach of the Canadiens upon his retirement as a player in 1939 . He never coached a game as he drowned in Lake Huron prior to the 1939 – 40 NHL season . The league organized an all @-@ star benefit game that raised $ 15 @,@ 000 for Siebert 's family . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1964 .
= = Early life = =
Born in Plattsville , Ontario , Siebert grew up in the nearby community of Zurich , located on the eastern shores of Lake Huron . He became obsessed with hockey at an early age , playing the game nearly every day . He played intermediate hockey in Zurich and Exeter before moving to Kitchener to play junior hockey . Though his elder brothers mocked his simple playing style — he used his size and strength to push his way through opponents — Siebert was invited to join the Kitchener Greenshirts in 1922 . He won the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) and eastern Canadian junior championships with Kitchener in 1922 – 23 , but lost the Memorial Cup final to the University of Manitoba . After a year of senior hockey in Kitchener , he moved on to the Niagara Falls Cataracts , winning the OHA senior championship in 1924 – 25 .
= = Professional career = =
Siebert was signed by the Montreal Maroons in 1925 and made his professional debut that same year . He finished second on the team with 16 goals as the Maroons finished second in the NHL standings . Montreal defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates and Ottawa Senators in the playoffs to win the NHL championship . Siebert scored three points in the 1926 Stanley Cup Final as the Maroons defeated the Western Hockey League champion Victoria Cougars to win the Stanley Cup .
When Hooley Smith arrived in Montreal in 1926 – 27 , Siebert was paired with Smith and Nels Stewart . The trio were known as the " S Line " and emerged as one of the top scoring lines in the NHL . Stewart was the goal scorer on the line while Smith set him up with his passing game , but it was Siebert who used his strength and speed to move the puck out of their defensive zone and to create space for his line mates . His physical style of play occasionally resulted in Siebert being brought in front of league president Frank Calder for supplementary discipline , as in December 1927 when he was suspended for a time following a violent melee with Billy Boucher of the New York Americans . When Boucher responded to an elbow by slashing Siebert over the head , the latter player responded with repeated wild swings of his own stick at Boucher , injuring him .
Siebert 's best offensive season came in 1931 – 32 when he finished eighth in league scoring with 39 points . It proved to be his last season with the Maroons , as the team was struggling financially and chose to sell him to the New York Rangers for cash . He went on to win his second Stanley Cup that year . He struggled offensively for much of the season , however , and it was rumoured he would be traded . The trade finally happened early in the 1933 – 34 season as he was sent to the Boston Bruins in exchange for Vic Ripley and Roy Burmeister . The deal reunited Siebert with former S Line member Nels Stewart .
After Eddie Shore was suspended for his assault on Ace Bailey , Bruins coach Art Ross shifted Siebert from left wing to defence . The switch rejuvenated his career ; he enjoyed a comeback season in 1934 – 35 . Frequently remaining on the ice for entire games as one of Boston 's key players , Siebert earned five votes in a 1935 Associated Press poll naming the top comeback player in sport for that year . He later scoffed at the legend of his comeback in Boston , stating that he never lost his ability to play at the same level he did with the Maroons , instead blaming Lester Patrick for improperly utilizing him in New York .
While Shore and Siebert were an effective pairing on defence , tensions between the two were evident . They shared a violent feud when they were opponents , and never spoke a word to the other as teammates . Though he was named a first team all @-@ star in 1935 – 36 , the Bruins decided Siebert 's career was in decline and chose to trade him to the Montreal Canadiens along with Roger Jenkins in exchange for Leroy Goldsworthy , Sammy McManus and cash following the season . He was immediately named the team 's captain , a position he retained until his retirement . In his first season with the Canadiens , Siebert earned his second all @-@ star selection and won the Hart Trophy as the most valuable player in the NHL . He earned his third consecutive all @-@ star selection in 1937 – 38 . Plagued by injuries in his final season , Siebert announced his retirement in 1939 to become the head coach of the Canadiens .
= = Death and family = =
Siebert never had the opportunity to take up his new post . On August 25 , 1939 , while vacationing with his family and swimming with his daughters at Lake Huron , he drowned attempting to retrieve an inflatable tire they were playing with . Shocked by the news , Siebert 's peers lauded his character and play , indicating that his death was a considerable loss to the game of hockey . Among them , his former manager with the Maroons , Tommy Gorman , remarked that Siebert was popular with his fellow players and was a great defenceman who " lost fairly and won modestly " .
At the time of his death , Siebert was visiting his cottage to celebrate the 80th birthday of his father , William . He cherished the time he had with his two daughters Judy and Joan , who were 11 and 10 years old respectively , when they witnessed his drowning . His loss represented a significant financial burden for his family as he spent nearly all of his income paying for his paraplegic wife 's medical costs .
The league organized an all @-@ star benefit game to aid Siebert 's widow with the goal of raising $ 15 @,@ 000 . It was the third such benefit game in NHL history . The Montreal Canadiens faced an all @-@ star team composed of the best players from the remaining teams . The all @-@ stars defeated the Canadiens 5 – 2 in the game held on October 29 , 1939 . Though organizers were disappointed with the attendance of just 6 @,@ 000 fans , they met their $ 15 @,@ 000 target .
A physical player and fighter on the ice , Siebert was a soft spoken family man off it . He was especially faithful to his wife , Bernice , who was left a paraplegic following complications during the birth of their second child . Fans at the Montreal Forum routinely saw him carry his wife to her seat before every home game , and then carry her out after . At home , he did the housework that his wife was unable to do . As a result , he was immensely popular with his peers and fans .
Siebert was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1964 , and is an honoured member of the Waterloo Region Hall of Fame .
= = Career statistics = =
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= Henry Edwards ( entomologist ) =
Henry Edwards ( August 27 , 1827 – June 9 , 1891 ) , known as " Harry " , was an English stage actor , writer and entomologist who gained fame in Australia , San Francisco and New York City for his theater work .
Edwards was drawn to the theater early in life , and he appeared in amateur productions in London . After sailing to Australia , Edwards appeared professionally in Shakespearean plays and light comedies primarily in Melbourne and Sydney . Throughout his childhood in England and his acting career in Australia , he was greatly interested in collecting insects , and the National Museum of Victoria used the results of his Australian fieldwork as part of the genesis of their collection .
In San Francisco , Edwards was a founding member of the Bohemian Club , and a gathering in Edwards ' honor was the spark which began the club 's traditional summer encampment at the Bohemian Grove . As well , Edwards cemented his reputation as a preeminent stage actor and theater manager . After writing a series of influential studies on Pacific Coast butterflies and moths he was elected life member of the California Academy of Sciences . Relocating to the East Coast , Edwards spent a brief time in Boston theater . This led to a connection to Wallack 's Theatre and further renown in New York City . There , Edwards edited three volumes of the journal Papilio and published a major work about the life of the butterfly . His large collection of insect specimens served as the foundation of the American Museum of Natural History 's butterfly and moth studies .
Edwards ' wide @-@ ranging studies and observations of insects brought him into contact with specimens not yet classified . Upon discovering previously unknown insects he would give them names , which led to a number of butterfly , moth and beetle species bearing " Hy . Edw . " ( for Henry Edwards ) as an attribution . From his theater interests to entomology , Edwards carried forward an appreciation of Shakespeare — in the designation of new insect species he favored female character names from Shakespeare 's plays .
= = Early career = =
Henry Edwards was born to Hannah and Thomas Edwards ( c . 1794 – 1857 ) at Brook House in Ross @-@ on @-@ Wye , Herefordshire , England , on August 27 , 1827 , and was christened on September 14 . From his older brother William , he picked up an interest in examining insects . He collected butterflies as a hobby , and studied them under the tutelage of Edward Doubleday . His solicitor father intended a law career for his son , but after a brief period of unsuccessful study , Edwards took a position at a counting house in London , and began acting in amateur theater . He then journeyed to join his brother William who had settled in Australia , nine miles ( 14 km ) north @-@ west of Melbourne along the bank of Merri Creek , a location then called Merrivale . Aboard the sailing ship Ganges from March to June 1853 , he wrote descriptions of creatures such as the albatross that he encountered for the first time . After arriving in Melbourne , Edwards began collecting and cataloging the insects he found on his brother 's land , and further afield . Within two years , he had gathered 1 @,@ 676 species of insects , shot and mounted 200 birds , and pressed some 200 botanical specimens . This collection and that of William Kershaw were purchased by Frederick McCoy to form the nucleus of the new National Museum of Victoria .
The first Australian stage appearance by Edwards was with George Selth Coppin 's company at the Queen 's Theatre in Melbourne . Later , he joined Gustavus Vaughan Brooke 's theatrical group . The part of Petruchio , the male lead in Shakespeare 's The Taming of the Shrew , was filled by Edwards at the Princess 's Theatre in Sydney in November , 1859 , playing opposite tragedian Avonia Jones as Katharine . In December that year Brooke retired from management , yielding the reins of his company to the team of Edwards and George Fawcett Rowe , English actor and playwright . Brooke continued to act under Edwards and Rowe : his starring performance in April 1860 as Louis XI in Dion Boucicault 's play of the same name was a stirring portrayal that Edwards , playing Jacques d 'Armagnac , Duke of Nemours , recalled vividly for the rest of his life . Sharing the stage again in August , Brooke and Edwards were well received in their portrayal of twin brothers in a production of Shakespeare 's The Comedy of Errors in Melbourne , the first Australian mounting of that work . As a twist to pique public interest , Edwards and Brooke exchanged roles after two weeks ' run . However , not all of Edwards ' performances were successful : his turn at Angelo in Shakespeare 's Measure for Measure was called " invertebrate " by drama critic William John Lawrence ; in Lawrence 's estimation , Edwards and his fellow actors paled against the powerful performance of Avonia Jones as Isabella .
The renowned entomologist and collector William Sharp Macleay was sought out by Edwards whenever his stage appearances took him to Sydney . Beginning in 1858 , Macleay mentored Edwards and encouraged him to search for more insect specimens when his theater obligations allowed . Robust and adventuresome , Edwards occasionally trekked out into the wilds of Australia on the hunt for insects . While in Sydney , Edwards went up two times in a hot air balloon as a favor to George Coppin , narrowly avoiding severe injury or death in the first ascent . Edwards ' further travels included New Zealand , Peru , Panama and Mexico in pursuit of insects and dramatic roles .
= = San Francisco = =
In 1865 , Edwards began a 12 @-@ year residence in San Francisco , California . At the 1870 United States Census , Edwards reported himself as a non @-@ voting foreign @-@ born resident , a comedian by trade , living in a home worth $ 1 @,@ 000 . Edwards lived in San Francisco with a white woman listed in the census as " Mariana " , born in England , age 40 , and a 16 @-@ year @-@ old Chinese servant named Heng Gim . The woman Mariana was likely Edwards 's wife , the former Marianne Elizabeth Woolcott Bray who was born about 1822 – 1823 in New Street , Birmingham . In 1851 at the age of 28 , Bray married Gustavus Vaughan Brooke , and the two went to Australia to manage Brooke 's then @-@ new theater company . It was there that Edwards met Brooke and his wife , but after several years of the two men working together , Brooke remarried in February 1863 , taking Avonia Jones ( 1836 – 1867 ) as his second wife . Brooke died in an accident at sea in January 1866 , and Avonia Jones Brooke died in New York City the next year . Later reports spoke of Edwards marrying Brooke 's widow , without naming her .
In 1868 – 1869 Edwards leased and managed the Metropolitan Theater , and he was a founding member of the acting company of the California Theatre , which opened in January 1869 . The theater was directed and managed by actor John McCullough , and among the more notable productions was As You Like It in May 1872 , with McCullough playing Orlando and Edwards the banished Duke Senior . Walter M. Leman , who carried the part of Adam , opined in 1886 that " never since time was has Shakespeare 's charming idyl been better put upon the stage . "
Edwards was one of the founders and the first vice president of the Bohemian Club , and served two terms as president , 1873 – 1875 . He hosted Shakespeare celebrations at the club in April 1873 , 1875 and 1877 , and a Bohemian Christmas celebration in December 1877 : " The Feast of Reason and Flow of Soul " . Edwards became a director of the San Francisco Art Association , and spoke for Lotta Crabtree at the dedication of Lotta 's Fountain in September , 1875 .
Still very much interested in insects , Edwards spent his spare time at the California Academy of Sciences studying butterflies under Hans Hermann Behr , the academy 's curator for Lepidoptera , the scientific order of moths and butterflies . Elected a member of the academy in 1867 , he concentrated on describing the structure and habits of moths and butterflies on the Pacific coast from British Columbia to Baja California . He went to visit John Muir in Yosemite Valley in June 1871 , with a letter of introduction from Jeanne Carr , the wife of California 's chief geologist Ezra S. Carr . The letter described Edwards as " one of Nature 's truest and most devoted disciples " , a sojourner who " has the keys to the Kingdom " . After the visit , Muir occasionally sent specimens from the Sierras to add to Edwards ' collection , carried to San Francisco by men such as geologist and artist Clarence King who were returning from Yosemite field study . Edwards presented a series of papers to the academy entitled Pacific Coast Lepidoptera , and classified two species as new to science . He named one Gyros muiri for Muir , with " Hy . Edw . " as the attribution . In 1872 , Muir sent Edwards a letter , writing " You are now in constant remembrance , because every flying flower is branded with your name . " In 1873 , Edwards became the curator of entomology at the academy , and began to serve on the Publications Committee which produced the journal Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences . Beginning early that year , he befriended George Robert Crotch . Although it is sometimes claimed that he accompanied Crotch on his insect collecting tour of California , Oregon and British Columbia , Edwards was only aware of Crotch 's travels as a correspondent . Edwards independently visited British Columbia in 1873 , missing Crotch by several days at Vancouver Island . In 1874 , Edwards began to serve as one of the academy 's vice presidents , and for the academy in late 1874 after Crotch 's death from tuberculosis , he published a memorial tribute to the man . Edwards also wrote one of many tributes to academician Louis Agassiz at his death in late 1873 . At the academy on January 2 , 1877 , Edwards was elected member for life .
Though successful in San Francisco , Edwards decided to head for Boston and New York City to see if his career as an actor could benefit from appearances in the eastern United States . On June 29 , 1878 , somewhat fewer than 100 of his Bohemian friends gathered in the woods near Taylorville , California ( present @-@ day Samuel P. Taylor State Park ) , for a night @-@ time send @-@ off party in Edwards ' honor . Bohemian Club historian Porter Garnett later wrote that the men at the " nocturnal picnic " were " provided with blankets to keep them warm and a generous supply of liquor for the same purpose " . Japanese lanterns were used for illumination and decoration . This festive gathering was repeated without Edwards by club members the next year , and every year thereafter , eventually evolving and expanding into the club 's annual summer encampment at the Bohemian Grove , famous ( or infamous ) for the casual commingling of top politicians and powerful captains of industry in attendance .
= = Boston to New York = =
In late 1878 , Edwards joined a theater company in Boston , replacing another actor as " Schelm , Chief of Police " at a revival of the spectacle The Exiles at the Boston Theatre on Washington Street . After a four @-@ week run , he performed in other productions at the theater through the 1879 – 1880 season . In June , Edwards answered the 1880 census to report himself an England @-@ born actor living with his English wife " Marian " and his Chinese servant , Gim Hing .
From Boston , Edwards moved to New York to stay for some ten years , performing on stage and participating in insect studies . He was active in the Brooklyn and New York Entomological Societies . In 1881 , he co @-@ founded and edited a butterfly enthusiast 's periodical entitled Papilio , named for the genus Papilio in the swallowtail butterfly family , Papilionidae . Edwards served as editor until January 1884 when he gave the reins to his friend Eugene Murray @-@ Aaron of Philadelphia . Papilio was published until 1885 when its subscription base was merged into the more general Entomologia Americana , published by the Brooklyn Entomological Society .
Beginning in December 1880 under Lester Wallack , the charismatic son of the theater 's founder , Edwards was associated with Wallack 's Theatre in New York , called the " finest theatre company in America " . Now in his 50s , the entomologist and actor appeared in such representative British dramatic roles as Prince Malleotti in Forget Me Not , Max Harkaway in London Assurance , Baron Stein in Diplomacy , and Master Walter in The Hunchback , reprising James Sheridan Knowles 's earlier portrayal . Edwards used Wallack 's Theatre as his professional mailing address , and helped manage it upon occasion . Wallack , already head " Shepherd " of the Lambs Club , a modest meetinghouse of professional stage actors , invited Edwards to join . Once a Lamb , Edwards threw his energies in with those of Wallack and other club members to aid newspaper editor Harrison Grey Fiske in the organization of a charitable fund to support destitute actors or their widows . Wallack was made president of the resulting Actors ' Fund . A year after its first meeting on July 15 , 1882 at Wallack 's Theatre , Edwards was made secretary , a position he held for one year . His wife joined the Women 's Executive Committee of the Fund .
Edwards appeared in early 1882 at Palmer 's Theatre on Broadway and West 30th Street in a production of the English comedy The School for Scandal . Wallack stalwart John Gibbs Gilbert reached the height of his fame in the production , playing Sir Peter Teazle . As Sir Oliver Surface , Edwards , too , was lauded — Gilbert and Edwards shared the stage with Stella Boniface , Osmond Tearle , Gerald Eyre , Madame Ponisi and Rose Coghlan .
Gathering together under one cover his various short subjects , essays , and elegies to fallen friends , Edwards published in 1883 a wryly humorous book entitled A Mingled Yarn , including tales of travels and stories of his time in the Bohemian Club . Dedicated to the Bohemians , " with grateful memories , and feelings of affectionate regard , " the book was favorably reviewed in the New York Tribune . This review was reprinted in the Literary News : " Mr. Edwards — remarkable for attainments in science no less than for versatile proficiency in the art of acting — presents a rare type of the union of talents greatly divergent and seldom found in one and the same person . "
In 1886 , Edwards was interviewed for The Theatre , a weekly magazine published in New York . Edwards was described as " unusually popular and genial " , with a " charming English " wife and a Chinese servant named Charlie who " adores his employers " and had served them for 17 years . The Edwards ' home was observed to be comfortable but decorated with an astonishing collection of wonders from around the globe . Displayed amid the biological specimens , rugs , china , furniture , and valuable photographs were paintings executed by other actors , including ones by Edward Askew Sothern and Joseph Jefferson . Edwards showed letters he had received from a wide array of notables such as writers William Makepeace Thackeray , Charles Dickens , Anthony Trollope and naturalists Charles Darwin , Louis Agassiz and John Lubbock , 1st Baron Avebury . One floor of the residence was seen to be wholly devoted to the entomologist 's collection of specimens , which Edwards said was insured for $ 17 @,@ 000 , $ 448 @,@ 000 in current value . Surrounded by his exotic possessions and " in the most perfect congeniality with his wife " , Edwards was reported to be the host of a " cultivated home " .
= = Last years = =
Two years after Alfred , Lord Tennyson , completed his Idylls of the King , a poetic telling of the King Arthur legend , Edwards and George Parsons Lathrop adapted it to the stage as a drama in four acts . The result was Elaine , a story of young love between Elaine of Astolat and Lancelot , fashioned with " flower @-@ like fragility " and " winning touches of tenderness " . Its first public presentation was a staged " author 's reading " at Madison Square Theatre on April 28 , 1887 , at which Edwards played the part of Elaine 's father , Lord Astolat . Months later it was presented by the company of A. M. Palmer , without Edwards in the cast , opening on December 6 , 1887 , at the same venue . The production proved both popular and profitable for Lathrop and Edwards . Annie Russell 's Elaine was admired for her " sweet simplicity and pathos which captured nearly every heart " . After a successful six @-@ week New York run , Palmer took Elaine on the road .
Actors associated with Wallack 's Theatre announced to the public that beginning in February 1888 a final series of old comedies would be revived , after which the company would be disbanded . Edwards served as stage manager for the run , and reprised several of his earlier roles including those of Max Harkaway in London Assurance and Colonel Rockett in Old Heads and Young Hearts . Taking part once again in The School for Scandal , the sixth and final play of the nostalgic series , Edwards received high praise for his depiction of a wealthy Englishman recently returned from India : " there is probably no better Sir Oliver on our stage than Mr. Edwards . " " Justly esteemed " in the role , he was called a " sterling player " , representative " of a school which is fast disappearing " .
A testimonial production of Hamlet was mounted at the Metropolitan Opera House on May 21 , 1888 , to celebrate the life and accomplishments of an aging Lester Wallack , and to raise money to ease the chronic sciatica that arrested his career . " One of the greatest casts ever assembled " was formed into a company composed of Edwards as the priest , Edwin Booth as Hamlet , Lawrence Barrett as the ghost , Frank Mayo as the king , John Gibbs Gilbert as Polonius , Rose Coghlan as the player queen and Helena Modjeska as Ophelia . Other stars made cameo appearances , and Wallack was assisted up onto the stage to address the standing room crowd at intermission . Notables such as Mayor Hewitt and General Sherman were in attendance . More than $ 10 @,@ 000 was raised for Wallack 's care . In the following months , Edwards teamed with other actors and Wallack 's wife to help him write his memoir ; Wallack died in September .
The next year , Edwards published a significant treatise entitled Bibliographic Catalogue of the Described Transformation of North American Lepidoptera . In response to an invitation and after arranging a business contract , he traveled back to Australia to accept a position as stage manager of a theatrical company in Melbourne . Frustrated with the experience , Edwards sailed back to New York the next year with the intention of returning to acting , but poor health kept him from full enjoyment of the limelight . In March , Edwards appeared as Holofernes in Love 's Labour 's Lost at Augustin Daly 's Daly Theatre , but was often short of breath and unable to keep pace with the run — his part was given to a young Tyrone Power who also covered Edwards ' old role of Sir Oliver Surface for Daly 's road show of The School for Scandal .
To regain his strength , Edwards and his wife took a carriage to a rustic cottage refuge in Arkville in the Catskill Mountains but isolation , plain food and rest yielded little improvement . A physician was called and he informed Mrs. Edwards that there would be no recovery for her husband from the advanced Bright 's disease with complications from chronic pneumonia so she brought him back to New York City . Edwards died at home at 185 East 116th Street in East Harlem late on June 9 , 1891 , just hours after returning .
= = Legacy = =
After his death , Edwards ' collection of 300 @,@ 000 insect specimens , one of the largest in the United States , was bought by his friends for $ 15 @,@ 000 for the financial benefit of his widow , and donated to the American Museum of Natural History ( AMNH ) as the cornerstone of their collection . Mrs. Harry Edwards also donated some of his other specimens , including two eggs of the order Rajiformes , the true rays . Museum trustees purchased the 500 volumes of entomology texts and 1 @,@ 200 pamphlets owned by Edwards to form the " Harry Edwards Entomological Library " , one of the handful of important book acquisitions made by the AMNH to expand their library in its early years . William Schaus , a student that Edwards guided and encouraged , but never met in person , went on to further define moth and butterfly characteristics in a large body of published work .
The " Hy . Edw . " designation appended to some butterfly species names indicates first description by Henry Edwards . This is not to be confused with the " Edw . " designation which stands for William Henry Edwards , an unrelated contemporary and correspondent of Edwards ' . At least two specimens were designated " Mrs. Hy . Edwards . " because they were collected and identified by his wife . Edwards named many butterflies in the families Theclinae , Nymphalidae , Papilionidae and Lycaenidae , but his largest contribution was in the description of moth species in North America including Mexico : Arctiidae , Bombycidae , Hepialidae , Sesiidae , Noctuidae , Sphingidae , Lasiocampidae , Dalceridae , Dysderidae , Geometridae , Pyralidae , Saturniidae , Thyatiridae , Urodidae and Zygaenidae . In choosing names , Edwards favored female characters from the plays of William Shakespeare , such as Ophelia from Hamlet , Hermia from A Midsummer Night 's Dream , and Desdemona from Othello . For example , Edwards collected , classified and named the moth species Catocala ophelia and Catocala hermia in 1880 , and Catocala desdemona in 1882 .
= = = Birth dates = = =
The birth date that Edwards gave as his own varied depending on the time and place he was asked . Parish records show he was christened in England on September 14 , 1827 , and corroborating this date he gave his age as 25 in June 1853 when he first arrived in Australia . However , when questioned in San Francisco for the 1870 United States Census , he gave his birth year as 1830 . Ten years later in Boston , he reported his age as 45 , implying a birth year of 1835 , but he returned to supplying the year 1830 along with the date August 27 for the brief biographical sketches used by theater and entomological publications . Two years before he died , he told a reporter from the Lorgnette that he was born in 1832 . A prominent obituary in The New York Times reported that his family gave his birthday as September 23 , 1830 , but that some published lists of actors ' ages , " not always trustworthy " , put his birth year at 1824 .
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= Conisbrough Castle =
Conisbrough Castle is a medieval fortification in Conisbrough , South Yorkshire , England . The castle was initially built in the 11th century by William de Warenne , the Earl of Surrey , after the Norman conquest of England in 1066 . Hamelin Plantagenet , the illegitimate , parvenu son of Henry II , acquired the property by marriage in the late 12th century . Hamelin and his son William rebuilt the castle in stone , including its prominent 28 @-@ metre ( 92 ft ) -high keep . The castle remained in the family line into the 14th century , despite being seized several times by the Crown . The fortification was then given to Edmund of Langley , passing back into royal ownership in 1461 .
Conisbrough fell into ruin , its outer wall badly affected by subsidence , and was given to the Carey family in the 16th century . Its derelict state prevented it from involvement in the English Civil War of the 17th century and the remains were bought by the Duke of Leeds in 1737 . Sir Walter Scott used the location for his 1819 novel Ivanhoe and by the end of the 19th century the ruins had become a tourist attraction , despite the increasing industrial character of the area .
The state took over the management of the property in 1950 , but by the 1980s the visitor facilities were felt to be unsuitable , leading to a three @-@ way partnership being created between the local council , the state agency English Heritage and a local charitable trust to develop the castle . The keep was re @-@ roofed and re @-@ floored in the 1990s with the help of European Union funding . English Heritage took over control of the castle in 2008 and continue to operate the property as a tourist attraction .
The castle is made up of an inner and an outer bailey , the former surrounded by a stone curtain wall defended by six mural towers and the castle keep . The inner bailey would have included a hall , solar , chapel and other service buildings of which only the foundations survive . The design of Conisbrough 's keep is unique in England , and the historians Oliver Creighton and Stephen Johnson consider it an " architectural gem " and " one of the finest examples of late Norman defensive architecture " . The keep comprises a circular central tower with six massive buttresses ; its four floors would have included a main chamber and a private chamber for the lord above it . Although militarily weak , the design would have been a powerful symbol of Hamelin Plantagenet 's new social status as a major lord .
= = History = =
= = = 11th – 12th centuries = = =
Conisbrough Castle was founded by William de Warenne , the first Earl of Surrey , who had taken part in the Norman conquest of England in 1066 and was rewarded by his father @-@ in @-@ law , William the Conqueror , with extensive estates in Yorkshire , Norfolk and Sussex . As part of these , Earl William was given the manor of Conisbrough , which had previously been owned by the late Harold Godwinson . The manor took its name from the Anglo @-@ Saxon name for the settlement , Cyningesburh , meaning " the king 's fortress " , and formed a large estate comprising 28 townships , centred on an Anglo @-@ Saxon fortified burh at Conisbrough itself .
William built his castle on a rocky Magnesian Limestone spur surrounded by steep banks , and the fortification included a motte , an inner bailey protected by an earth bank and palisades , an outer bailey , and possibly a timber keep . The castle was located around 175 feet ( 53 m ) above the river and would have dominated this part of the Don Valley . It was positioned directly opposite the village , which had probably contained the old Anglo @-@ Saxon burh .
The castle was held by William 's son , also called William , from 1088 to 1138 , and then by his son , another William , until his death in 1147 . Conisbrough and the earldom then passed through Isabel , William 's daughter , to her first husband , William de Blois , and then onto to her second husband , Hamelin Plantagenet , whom she married in 1163 . Hamelin was the illegitimate half @-@ brother of King Henry II , who had arranged the marriage , and the union brought him great wealth . Hamelin extensively rebuilt the castle around 1180 to 1190 , including constructing the stone keep ; given his parvenu status , he probably hoped to reinforce perceptions of his new elevated rank . King John visited the castle in 1201 .
= = = 13th – 15th centuries = = =
The castle continued in the ownership of Hamelin Plantagenet 's family , passing to his son William de Warenne in 1202 . William was probably responsible for the construction of new stone curtain walls around the inner bailey , destroying the former earthwork defences in the process . The inner bailey was levelled and William built a hall and service buildings inside the castle , again in stone . Conisbrough was inherited by William 's young son John de Warenne in 1239 , but he was still a minor and the castle was initially managed by his mother , Maud .
Under John , Conisbrough 's constables carried out a range of what the historian Stephen Johnson terms " colourful if rather unlawful dealings " ; one was ultimately charged with having conducted " devilish and innumerable oppressions " . Further work was carried out in the castle during John 's ownership , including modernising the castle hall and solar .
The castle passed to John 's grandson , also called John , in 1304 , who married Joan de Barr . The marriage broke down but John 's attempts to gain a divorce in 1316 failed in the law courts . John blamed Thomas , the Earl of Lancaster , for this and in response he kidnapped Thomas 's wife ; Thomas then retaliated by seizing Conisbrough Castle . Edward II intervened in the dispute and confirmed Thomas as the new owner of the castle . In 1322 , however , Thomas rebelled against the King and was executed , resulting in Edward taking control of Conisbrough himself . The King visited the castle in 1322 , and spent 40 marks on repairing both Conisbrough and the neighbouring castle of Pontefract . Edward was overthrown by his wife Isabella in 1326 and the castle was returned to John . John had hoped to pass the property to his mistress and two illegitimate sons , but he outlived them and on his death in 1347 it reverted to the control of the Crown .
Edward III gave the castle to his own son , Edmund of Langley , the Duke of York , who controlled it until 1402 . Edmund 's eldest son , Edward , owned it until 1415 , when it passed to Maud Clifford , the widow of Edmund 's younger son Richard , who lived there until 1446 . Richard of York then inherited the castle , and on his death in 1460 during the Wars of the Roses it passed to his son Edward , who seized the throne in 1461 , bringing Conisbrough back into Crown ownership once again .
= = = 16th – 19th centuries = = =
By the 16th century Conisbrough Castle was in a poor state of repair , and a royal survey carried out in 1537 and 1538 showed that the gates , bridge and parts of the walls had collapsed in a spectacular land slippage , and that one floor of the keep had also fallen in . The collapse of the walls was a consequence of the instability of the top soil on top of the limestone spur , which was a mixture of clay and sandstone ; once the clay was washed away over time , the remaining sandstone proved extremely unstable and liable to crack .
Henry VIII gave the ruins to the Carey family , who retained it until it passed by marriage into first the Heviningham and then the Coke families . The castle was not involved in the events of the English Civil War in the 17th century , and escaped the slighting that affected many similar properties , probably because the collapse of the outer walls had already made it indefensible and of little military value . In 1737 , after the death of Edward Coke , the castle and the surrounding manor were bought by Thomas Osborne , the Duke of Leeds , for £ 22 @,@ 500 .
In 1811 the novelist Sir Walter Scott passed by the castle and later used it as the location for his novel Ivanhoe , published in 1819 . Scott only had a partial view of the property from the road and the events portrayed in the novel , set at the end of the 12th century , are fictitious ; Scott believed the castle to have been Saxon in origin , a view shared by many 19th century commentators . Although the writer John Wainwright was still able to praise the " picturesque view " around the castle in 1826 , the antiquarian Ecroyd Smith commented with concern in 1887 on the changing character of the location , in particular the factories that were growing up around the new railway line and the " murky atmosphere " the industrial works created .
In 1859 Francis D 'Arcy @-@ Osborne , the Duke of Leeds , died , leaving Conisbrough to his nephew , Sackville Lane @-@ Fox , the Baron Conyers . The keep remained in good condition , but by 1884 it was apparent that repairs were needed and the antiquarian George Clark recommended urgent work to repair the stonework . If finances allowed it , he also urged the reinstallation of a roof and wooden floors . Limited repairs were subsequently approved by the trustees of Lord Conyers , although Clark 's colleague , A. Ellis , expressed concerns that railings to protect the visitors who routinely climbed to the top of the keep had not been funded . A reported £ 500 was spent by the trustees renovating the castle ruins , including the construction of a lodge in the outer bailey for the castle keeper , completed in 1885 , and improvements to the footpaths .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
Conisbrough Castle was bought by the Conisbrough local council in the 1940s , who placed the castle into the guardianship of the Ministry of Public Works in 1949 , but retained the freehold ownership of the land . Two sets of archaeological excavations were carried out on the site between 1967 and 1969 , exposing the foundations of the buildings in the inner bailey , and then from 1973 to 1977 , examining options for future visitor facilities . By 1984 , when the government agency English Heritage took over the management of the property , the condition of the visitor services was unsatisfactory and the industrial character of the surrounding area was discouraging tourists .
In response , English Heritage and Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council formed a three @-@ way agreement in 1988 with the Ivanhoe Trust , a local charity designed to generate new employment in the region . Under this agreement the trust would manage the site , English Heritage would maintain the historic fabric of the castle , while the council would construct a new visitors ' centre . A new , controversial visitor 's centre was built in the style of a collection of jousting tents , while the floors and roof of the keep were reinstalled between 1993 and 1995 with European Union funding , in an attempt to limit the erosion of the castle stonework .
Visitor numbers following the investments fell far short of expectations , however , and by 2006 had settled at around 30 @,@ 000 each year , only slightly above the level in the early 1980s . The external facilities did not age well and funding shortages led to the new audio @-@ visual effects in the keep being turned off to save money . Discussions between the three partners about the future of the castle took place , but relations broke down and English Heritage resumed the direct management of the castle in 2008 .
The castle was closed for a £ 1 @.@ 1 million programme of renovations in 2013 , funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund , as part of which a new visitors ' centre and visitor facilities were constructed . The castle is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building and as an Ancient Monument .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Inner and outer baileys = = =
Conisbrough Castle has an outer and an inner bailey , approximately 260 by 120 feet ( 79 by 37 m ) and 290 by 205 feet ( 88 by 62 m ) across respectively . The castle was entered through the outer bailey , a rectangular enclosure protected by earthworks , which would have contained the castle 's barns , stables and other service facilities . A drawbridge on the northern side of the outer bailey , now replaced by an earth causeway , linked it with the inner bailey .
The oval inner bailey was formed by scarping and counter @-@ scarping the natural contours of the hill , producing a bank , now largely destroyed , and a protective ditch . The early 13th @-@ century curtain wall is mostly of roughly dressed , coursed stone , up to 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) thick and 35 feet ( 11 m ) high , with two sections repaired with ashlar facings . The wall was defended by six mural towers along its southern and western sides , of which three still survive reasonably intact , and strengthened with pilaster buttresses along the northern edge . The bases of the walls and the towers were splayed , spreading their weight out more broadly , but their footings are only 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 ft 0 in ) deep in places . A barbican protected the link from the drawbridge to the gatehouse of the inner bailey , complete with an additional corner turret . The remains of the collapse of the curtain wall are still visible in the ditch .
Various buildings were constructed along the inside of the inner bailey wall of similar rough stonework to the curtain wall , but only their foundations remain today . In the south @-@ west corner was the solar block , containing the solar and various chambers . Along the north side was the hall , pushed into an awkward corner of the curtain wall , 70 by 30 feet ( 21 @.@ 3 by 9 @.@ 1 m ) in size and originally probably built two storeys high . Initially constructed with a central hearth , a fireplace was added into the outer wall in the later 13th century . Alongside the hall were a kitchen and pantry , the former with a cellar . On the south @-@ east side of the inner bailey was the castle chapel , 20 by 40 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 by 12 @.@ 2 m ) across .
= = = Keep = = =
Conisbrough 's keep was positioned on the north @-@ east side of the inner bailey . It is an important medieval survival : the historian Sidney Toy considered it to be " one of the finest keeps in England " , the historian Oliver Creighton describes it as an " architectural gem " and Stephen Johnson as " one of the finest examples of late Norman defensive architecture " .
The keep comprises a central circular tower , 62 feet ( 19 m ) in diameter , with six , large solid buttresses projecting outwards to form an hexagonal design , unique in England . It was made from magnesian limestone and 28 metres ( 92 ft ) tall with walls up to 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) thick in places . It has four floors : a ground floor that serves as a basement and a vaulted stone support for the chamber above ; the first floor , through which the keep was accessed ; two upper floors and a roof walk , which was probably covered by a pentice and defended by battlements .
The current concrete stairs to the keep are modern , and the original medieval stairway , made from timber and stone , would have incorporated a drawbridge just before the castle doors . The basement contained a well , which could also be drawn from the 1st floor through a hole in the stone floor .
The keep was designed as a private tower for Hamelin Plantagenet , rather than a grander residence . As a result , it was not designed to accommodate several different households and its layout was simpler than that seen at the contemporary keep of Orford Castle , for example . The 2nd and the 3rd floor would have served as the main chamber and the lord 's private chamber , forming a vertical sequence of rooms , with a vaulted , hexagonal chapel leading off the private chamber , cut into one of the buttresses .
Most of the castle would have been very dark due to the lack of natural light . The main chamber , however , had a large window , 1 foot 10 inches ( 0 @.@ 56 m ) by 4 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 42 m ) , with deep recesses to allow for the thickness of the walls ; two carved seats sat alongside the window . A similar window was placed above it in the private chamber . The keep had relatively advanced fireplaces and flues for this period , the fireplace in the main chamber being exceptionally large and decorated with stone columns and carved capitals .
Conisbrough Castle was probably similar to two other castles owned by the Warren earls . Hamelin Plantagenet was also responsible for the development of Mortemer Castle in France , where a similar keep was built on top of a motte , and Conisbrough might also have had resemblances to Sandal Castle in the north of England , also owned by the earls . The keep 's design was poor from a military perspective , as although the central circular tower would have had defensive advantages , the buttresses introduced 12 vulnerable corners into the stonework , and the keep itself had no arrow slots to permit the defenders to fire on any attackers . Rather than being designed primarily for military defence , it was intended to symbolise and reinforce Hamelin 's lordship and new social status .
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= Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington =
" Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " is the second episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 26 , 1991 . In the episode , Lisa enters in an essay contest to write an essay about America 's greatness . When she wins it , she and the family travel to Washington , D.C. where the finals are to be held . Lisa is dismayed after witnessing a bribery scandal in the Senate . In her final essay , she disdains and condemns the government system , which leads to the arrest of the corrupt congressman who accepted the bribe . While Lisa fails to win the contest , her faith in government is restored .
The episode was written by George Meyer and directed by Wes Archer , and it was the first episode for which Al Jean and Mike Reiss served as show runners . It features multiple references to the 1939 film Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , including the scene in which Lisa appeals to Lincoln 's statue at the Lincoln Memorial for advice . Other Washington landmarks referenced in the episode include the Jefferson Memorial , the Watergate Hotel , the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts , the White House , the National Air and Space Museum , and the Washington Monument .
The episode acquired a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 , and was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired . It received mostly positive reviews from television critics , who praised the episode for its satire on American politics . However , the timber industry criticized the scene in which Lisa witnesses a timber industry lobbyist offering a bribe to the congressman in order to demolish the Springfield Forest . The scene was described as " an easy shot at hard @-@ working people whose only crime is to have been born in a timber town . "
= = Plot = =
Homer takes an interest in the Reading Digest magazine after a copy is sent to the Simpson family 's residence . In the magazine , he notices an ad for a children 's contest in which an essay must be written about what makes America great . Lisa chooses to enter , takes a trip to Springfield Forest , and is inspired to write her essay when she sees the forest 's natural beauty and when a bald eagle lands right by the branch she is sitting under . Lisa 's article is approved for entry in the national finals in Washington , D.C. after the contest judge observes Homer 's poor vocabulary and realizes that he could not have written Lisa 's essay for her .
While Bart and Homer abuse the all @-@ expense @-@ paid perks of their trip , Lisa visits famous monuments for inspiration . At one particular monument , she overhears a corrupt congressman , Bob Arnold , taking a bribe from a representative of a logging industry to demolish Springfield Forest . Heartbroken and disillusioned by the dishonesty of government officials , Lisa tears up her essay and writes a more painful yet truthful essay to show the patriotic judges . The new essay , entitled " Cesspool on the Potomac " , disdains and condemns the government system of corruption and greed , and mentions the names of those involved in the bribery . Lisa 's essay causes a ruckus and elicits a hostile reaction from the judges and audience . Messages are quickly sent around the capital regarding Lisa 's speech and Arnold is arrested , expelled from his job , and sent to jail . Lisa 's essay does not win because of its content , but with the news of the congressman arrested and having become a born @-@ again Christian while in prison , her faith in government is restored , while the contest winner commends Lisa for her courage and honesty . The episode ends with Bart slingshotting the annoying pianist that performed at the contest and as Lisa berates him , Bart tells her that she was the one who inspired him to stand up for what he believes in .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by George Meyer . It is one of The Simpsons creator Matt Groening 's favorite episodes of the earlier seasons because he thought it took the show to another level . Meyer said he has a " deep suspicion of social institutions and tradition in general , " which affected the way he wrote the episode . Al Jean and Mike Reiss , who had written for The Simpsons since the start of the show , took over as show runners for the third season . Their first episode as show runners was " Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " and they felt a lot of pressure about running the show . Jean and Reiss were so pressured that they did six to seven rewrites of the script to make it funnier . Jean said " one reason for doing all these rewrites is because I kept thinking ' It 's not good enough . It 's not good enough ' , " and Reiss added that " we were definitely scared . We had never run anything before , and they dumped us on this . "
Wes Archer directed " Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " , which was one of the first episodes to feature the Simpson family traveling to a real @-@ life location . Because much of the episode takes place outside of Springfield , new background and character designs had to be animated . The Simpson family visits several real @-@ life landmarks in Washington , which the animators were able to draw with the help of photographs from the animation studio 's library . The Simpsons director David Silverman grew up in the Washington area so he was able to help out with the designs . Marge 's voice actor , Julie Kavner , said she loved the charm of the family " just being on a trip and experiencing the hotel room they 're staying at , and the integrity of Bart 's character . You know , you just want to kill him for doing all those tricks and pranks . " Jean believes this is one of the secrets of show 's success , the fact that it is about a family and the writers can use experiences from their own or their family 's life as an inspiration in their writing . He thought " Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " was a perfectly constructed episode in that sense .
= = Cultural references = =
The title and plot of the episode is a parody of the 1939 film Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , in which the character Jefferson Smith comes to Washington with patriotic enthusiasm , but is shocked to see evidence of corruption in the government . The Tampa Tribune 's Curtis Ross called this reference one of the best film references in The Simpsons ' history . Lisa 's visit to the Lincoln Memorial is a direct reference to Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , in which Smith appeals to Lincoln 's statue for inspiration like Lisa did in the episode . In his book Abraham Lincoln in the Post @-@ Heroic Era , Barry Schwartz writes that the scene with Lisa at the crowded monument shows how " thoroughly Lincoln 's moral and emotional significance has waned . " Mark Reinhart writes in the book Abraham Lincoln on Screen that the scene sums up " with brilliant wit " the American society 's " annoying and ultimately useless tendency to ask [ themselves ] ' What would Lincoln have done ? ' whenever [ they ] face a political or social dilemma . " Mr. Smith Goes to Washington was once again referenced on The Simpsons in the season fourteen episode " Mr. Spritz Goes to Washington " .
In addition to the Lincoln Memorial , other Washington , D.C. landmarks visited include the Jefferson Memorial , the Watergate Hotel ( where the family stays ) , the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts , the White House , the National Air and Space Museum , and the Washington Monument . When the family visits the White House , they encounter former First Lady Barbara Bush in the bathtub of one of the many bathrooms . Another American landmark mentioned in the episode is Mount Rushmore . The scene mentioning that landmark could imply that Springfield is Springfield , South Dakota since Mount Rushmore is in South Dakota . In addition , Lisa proposes that the family attend the memorial of the fictional Winifred Beecher Howe , an early crusader for women 's rights who later appeared on the unpopular 75 @-@ cent coins according to Lisa . This is a reference to the Susan B. Anthony dollar coin , which was only minted for three years and never became popular .
The episode makes references to several real @-@ life persons . The piano @-@ playing satirist who annoys Bart is a reference to Mark Russell and / or Tom Lehrer . Bob Arnold , the corrupt congressman , tells Lisa that there are quite a few women senators , but Lisa asserts that there are only two . At the time of airing there were indeed only two female senators : Nancy Landon Kassebaum of Kansas and Barbara Mikulski of Maryland . Then @-@ President George H. W. Bush is featured briefly in the episode . Shortly after it aired , Bush disparaged The Simpsons in a speech during his re @-@ election campaign on January 27 , 1992 . At that point family values were the cornerstone of Bush 's campaign platform , so he gave the following speech at the National Religious Broadcasters ' convention in Washington : " We are going to keep on trying to strengthen the American family , to make American families a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons . " As a result , Bush appeared in future episodes in a more negative light .
= = Themes and analysis = =
" Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " has been labeled as a satire on American politics . Michael Bitzer , in an edited book by Joseph Foy and Stanley Schultz entitled Homer Simpson Goes to Washington , said this episode " espouses the virtues , vices , and varieties of American political culture , public opinion , and ultimately the American Dream . " Bitzer also wrote that The Simpsons , through " skillful " use of satire , demonstrates with this episode " insights into the underlying political culture and public opinion of the United States ' governing system ( and , more broadly , society at large ) . " In his book Gilligan Unbound : Pop Culture in the Age of Globalization , Paul Arthur Cantor said he was amazed by how far the episode " willing to take its corrosive satire of national politics . " He said it " attacks the federal government at its foundation , the patriotic myths upon which its legitimacy lies . It makes fun of the very process by which patriotism is inculcated in the nation 's youth , the hokey contests that lead children to outdo each other in progovernment effusions . " When the corrupt congressman is arrested , Lisa proclaims " The system works ! " Benedict Anderson wrote in the book The Spectre of Comparisons that series creator Matt Groening " assumes that his tickled audience is confident that the system barely works [ ... ] So why does he need to show a patriot at all , especially one who is a deluded little female block @-@ head ? Probably because he , too , wishes to be seen as giving America another chance . Mr. Lisa guarantees his good intentions . "
Günter Beck , a lecturer for the German Academic Exchange Service ( DAAD ) at the Haifa Center for German and European Studies at the University of Haifa in Israel , compared Lisa 's role in the episode to the nineteenth @-@ century American poet and philosopher Henry David Thoreau . He writes that Lisa stands up against the public 's indifference towards the political system that Thoreau criticized , and comments that the emphasis should be " on the brave moral decision to stand up for principles and against the broad public . By this courageous act , ' to do what is right ' , an individual could save the well @-@ being of the whole community . And indeed , Lisa ’ s bravery is the impulse for the state ’ s representatives to carry out their democratic obligations , so she can gladly notice ' The system works ! ' — her trust in democracy and its institutions is restored . Thoreau on the other hand , had no lasting trust in the system but only in the people themselves and in the individual ’ s capacity to realize development and democracy . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcast and re @-@ releases = = =
" Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 26 , 1991 . The episode finished 36th in the ratings for the week of September 23 – 29 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 , equivalent to approximately 11 @.@ 9 million viewing households . The Simpsons was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Married ... with Children and In Living Color . " Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " and the episode " When Flanders Failed " were released on videocassette in 1999 , entitled The Best of the Simpsons . The episode was later included on the Simpsons season three DVD set that was released on August 26 , 2003 . Wes Archer , David Silverman , Matt Groening , Al Jean , Mike Reiss , and Julie Kavner participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It was named the third best episode of The Simpsons by Sarah Culp of The Quindecim , and one of the ten best episodes by Jim Schembri of The Age . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , praised the episode for being one of the best Lisa @-@ centric episodes , and called Lisa 's talk with Thomas Jefferson and her nightmare vision of politicians as pigs " especially worthy of note . " Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed gave the episode a 4 @.@ 5 rating and said it is one of the best episodes featuring Lisa , " complete with poignant observations about politics . " He particularly enjoyed the appearance of Barbara Bush at the White House . The Austin American @-@ Statesman 's Steven Stein said this was the first episode of The Simpsons he saw . Even though he did not understand half of the pop culture references , by the end of the episode he was a " Simpsons convert . " He thought there was " something exotic about an issue as serious as political corruption being dealt with in a cartoon and being interrupted by jokes about beer and , yes , doughnuts . "
The episode was praised for its political satire . Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict called the episode a " biting political satire in the guise of a children 's oratory contest " , that " signifies that this season of the series will be all over the map , both emotionally and logically . " Gibron added : " Everything , from the Reader 's Digest rants to the formulaic speeches of the youths , has a resounding ring of truth . And once the story moves to Washington D.C , our nation 's capital is in for a royal reaming as well . " Bryce Wilson of Cinema Blend said the episode solidified the series ' politically satirical voice as it " bitch slapped the Bush administration " that would later badmouth The Simpsons . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson , however , gave the episode a more negative review , stating that it " has its moments but never seems like one of the series ’ better programs . Part of that stems from its somewhat icky ending . The show exhibits a tone that feels more appropriate to a less biting and cynical series . It starts well with Homer ’ s obsession with Reading Digest . After that , the show seems more erratic , and it remains pretty average overall . "
= = = Response from the timber industry = = =
According to The Plain Dealer 's Rodney Ferguson , the timber industry was insulted by the scene in which a timber industry lobbyist offers a bribe to the corrupt congressman so that he can demolish Springfield Forest . The Oregon Lands Coalition , a pro @-@ timber group in Salem , Oregon , " bombarded " the producers of the show with phone calls and mail protesting the episode . The coalition said it portrayed loggers unfairly and is " allowing itself to be used by environmental extremists . " In an open letter to The Simpsons executive producer James L. Brooks , the coalition wrote : " Rather than approach this issue with genuine concern for Mother Earth , you took an easy shot at hard @-@ working people whose only crime is to have been born in a timber town . " Karen Clark , a payroll clerk for a timber company in Stayton , Oregon , said : " The Simpsons portrayed us as greedy , bribery @-@ type people . It didn 't portray us as the everyday people — mothers , fathers , good members of society — that we are . " Luke Popovich , vice president of the American Forest Council , wrote a letter to the show 's producer to protest " the fuzzy @-@ headed characterizations that pass for political correctness , the thinking in Hollywood where people are not very serious about these issues , but interested in pushing the right hot buttons , scoring the right points with audiences . "
The Simpsons creator Matt Groening responded to the criticism in an interview with TV Guide , in which he said he did " research on the ecological damage caused by clear @-@ cutting and over @-@ logging [ and ] it 's really appalling . " Jackie Lang , a timber industry activist in Salem who helped lead the protest against the Fox network and Groening , said she was appalled by Groening 's response , and " he will be sorry he ever made it . " Jake Hogan , supervising producer of the show , defended Groening : " [ The episodes ] are just little stories , little comedies — stories that make people laugh . " On October 15 , 1991 , Groening issued another statement the public , in which he said : " So now a few lumber companies have joined the nuclear power industry , right @-@ wing preachers and high @-@ ranking Republicans in attacking The Simpsons . We must be doing something right . I must point out The Simpsons is a cartoon show — not 60 Minutes . Later in the show , the same lobbyist proposed drilling for oil in Teddy Roosevelt 's head at Mount Rushmore . Please don 't tell the oil companies about this . "
David Reinhard of The Oregonian commented on the criticism : " Hollywood sharpsters can always make a group from the great American hinterland look ridiculous when it zeroes in on one show , particularly if that show is a cartoon . And the Oregon Lands Coalition 's protest was a bit of an overreaction . But the environmental sloganeering of The Simpsons as well as Groening 's cartoon commentary are symptomatic of a Hollywood and a popular culture that are hostile to the concerns and values of most Americans . " After the episode aired , media researchers Robert Lichter and Linda S. Lichter found in a study of prime @-@ time television that when shows dealt with business themes , 89 percent portrayed businessmen as swindlers or liars .
The same day Groening released his second statement , The Simpsons publicist Antonia Coffman was invited by Wayne Giesy , sales manager of Hull @-@ Oakes Lumber Co. in Bellfountain , Oregon , to visit Oregon and see " responsible timber management . " Giesy said they wanted to show the producers " how we log , how we manufacture , what goods we produce for everyone and how we replant for future generations . What most timber companies are interested in is a balanced program . "
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= History of the flags of Romania =
The colors of the national flag of Romania ( Romanian : Drapelul României ) have a long history . Red , yellow and blue were found on late 16th @-@ century royal grants of Michael the Brave , as well as shields and banners . Thus , the late 13th century Wijbergen armorial shows the coat of arms of the Wallachian ruler Litovoi as consisting of a shield of ten vertically alternating gold @-@ and @-@ red bands , which were the colors of the coat of arms of the Second Bulgarian Empire , of which Wallachia was part . The same two colors , gules and or , also appeared on the late 15th century flag and coat of arms of Moldavia , during the reign of Stephen the Great [ 1 ] . Then , from the late 16th century until the mid @-@ 17th century , the historical coat of arms of Transylvania gradually developed as a shield party per fess , consisting of a black eagle on blue background in the upper field , a dividing red band in the middle , and seven red towers on golden background in the lower field . Finally , in the last quarter of the 18th century , Bukovina gets its own coat of arms from the Habsburg Empire , a blue @-@ and @-@ red shield party per pale with a black aurochs ' head in the middle , and three golden six @-@ pointed stars surrounding it . During the Wallachian uprising of 1821 , they were present on the canvas of the revolutionaries ' flag and its fringes ; for the first time a meaning was attributed to them : " Liberty ( sky @-@ blue ) , Justice ( field yellow ) , Fraternity ( blood red ) " .
= = Tricolor = =
The tricolor was first adopted in Wallachia in 1834 , when the reforming domnitor Alexandru II Ghica submitted naval and military colors designs for the approval of Sultan Mahmud II . The latter was a “ flag with a red , blue and yellow face , also having stars and a bird ’ s head in the middle ” . Soon , the order of colors was changed , with yellow appearing in the center . When the flags were handed over for use , Ghica remarked :
In 1840 , in order to differentiate the military colors from the war flag , Ghica adopted a new design for the former : a red @-@ yellow @-@ blue tricolor , with red on top and stripes of equal width . In the center was a white shield bordered with gold and decorated with the Wallachian eagle , wearing the princely crown and with a cross in its beak .
In 1848 , the flag adopted for Wallachia by the revolutionaries that year was a blue @-@ yellow @-@ red tricolor ( with blue above , in line with the meaning “ Liberty , Justice , Fraternity ” ) . Already on 26 April , according to Gazeta de Transilvania , Romanian students in Paris were hailing the new government with a blue , gold and red national flag , “ as a symbol of union between Moldavians and Muntenians ” .
Decree nr . 1 of 14 / 26 June 1848 of the provisional government mentioned that “ the National Flag will have three colors : blue , yellow , red ” , emblazoned with the words “ DPEПTATE ФPЪЦIE ” ( Dreptate , Frăţie or “ Justice , Fraternity ” , in the Romanian transitional alphabet ) . It differed from earlier tricolors in that the blue stripe was on top , the princely symbol was eliminated from the corners , as was the crown atop the eagle at the end of the flagpole , while a motto was now present . These flags were blessed the following day , being intended for use by the National Guard . Today only the Slatina city guard ’ s flag survives . On the blue stripe appear the words ( Frăţie Dreptate or “ Fraternity , Justice ” ) , on the yellow — ( Judeţul Oltŭ or “ Olt County ” ) and on the red — ( Oraşul Slatina or “ The City of Slatina ” ) . It is 124 centimeter long and 110 centimeter wide . The existence of similar flags is confirmed by records , which in some cases even mention the manufacturer ’ s price . Thus , the police observer ’ s flag ( made of chalon or cloth friezed on both sides ) and that of the Bucharest dorobanţi detachment ( made of Tibet wool ) together cost 192 lei and 10 parale . Decree nr . 5 of 18 June ordered garrisons to store old flags in warehouses : “ it being necessary to change flags , new flags will soon be sent to you ” . On 25 June , General Christian Tell asked the provisional government to approve the manufacture of six flags ( three for the infantry and three for the cavalry ) , following which they would be “ submitted to the provisional government for approval ” . His request was granted on 11 July , though the flags were not distributed until 11 September , in a solemn ceremony . On 30 June , Metropolitan Neofit , as prime minister , gave the following disposition : “ the standards of liberty will be raised on all buildings , and the insignia will be carried ” . These symbols were widely employed in demonstrations and raised on public buildings , boats , warships , etc .
Nevertheless , decree nr . 252 of 13 / 25 July 1848 , issued because “ it has not [ yet ] been agreed how the national standards should be designed ” , defined the flag as three vertical stripes , possibly influenced by the French model . The shades were “ dark blue , light yellow and carmine red ” ; as for order , “ near the wood comes blue , then yellow and then red fluttering ” .
Petre Vasiliu @-@ Năsturel observes that from a heraldic point of view , on the French as well as the revolutionary Wallachian flag , the middle stripe represents a heraldic metal ( argent and or respectively ) . Other writers believe that the tricolor was not an imitation of the French flag , instead embodying an old Romanian tradition . This theory is supported by a note from the revolutionary foreign minister to Emin Pasha : “ the colors of the band that we the leaders wear , as well as all our followers , are not of modern origin . We have had our flags since an earlier time . When we received the tricolor insignia and bands we did not follow the spirit of imitation or fashion ” .
Earlier , at the Sibiu Conference of 26 April / 8 May 1848 , Transylvanian revolutionaries had also adopted a blue @-@ white @-@ red national flag ( vertical , according to the memoirs of George Bariţ ) . It was emblazoned with the words “ VIRTUTEA ROMANĂ REÎNVIATĂ ” ( “ ROMAN VIRTUE RESURRECTED ” ) . A number of contemporary sources attests these colors ( including the Blaj newspaper Organul naţionale and Alexandru Papiu Ilarian ’ s Istorie a românilor din Dacia superioară ) . They had a twofold significance : their importance in Romanian costume and their union of the Transylvanian principality ’ s old colors ( blue and red ) with the white symbolizing peace . It appears that the two specimens with blue @-@ yellow @-@ red stripes preserved today at the National Museum of Romanian History were made later to commemorate the events at Blaj ; yellow replaced white as a symbol of Romanian Transylvanians ’ desire to join Romania .
After the revolution was quelled , the old flags were restored and the revolutionaries punished for having worn the tricolor . In 1849 , domnitor Barbu Dimitrie Ştirbei adopted a new design for military colors that nevertheless preserved the colors ’ horizontal layout and only changed decorative elements . Similar to the 1834 flag , this one lasted until 1856 .
During the Caimacam of three ( October 1858 @-@ January 1859 ) , as the acting regents did not have the right to inscribe their initials on military flags , the monograms of the Wallachian domnitori were replaced by eagles .
= = = Merger legend = = =
After 1860 , a legend arose stating that the national tricolor had been formed by merging the colors of the Moldavian and Wallachian flags , probably out of a desire to reconcile all parties to the choice of the Wallachian revolutionary flag of 1848 for all of Romania . This legend was also convenient with respect to the colors attributed to the two principalities ’ flags at the time ( red and blue for Moldavia and blue and yellow for Wallachia ) .
The legend inspired a number of artworks , including a painting by Constantin Lecca . Wishing to depict the brotherhood between Moldavians and Wallachians , he chose a passage from the Bistriţa Chronicle : “ In the year 7015 ( 1506 ) , October 28 , prince Ioan Bogdan Voievod entered the Muntenian land with all his troops to the place Rătezat , near the hillock Căiata , on that side of the Râmnic ; and there arrived an emissary from Radu Voievod [ ... ] who begged prince Bogdan Voievod to make peace with Radu Voievod , because ‘ you are Christians and from the same people ’ ( said he ) ; and many words were exchanged between them and much begging was made [ ... ] and prince Bogdan Voievod , seeing so much begging , followed his wishes and made peace ” . Lecca ’ s painting shows the two domnitori shaking hands in the center . The flags of Moldavia ( blue @-@ red ) and of Wallachia ( yellow @-@ blue ) can also be seen , although these color combinations have not been attested prior to 1832 – 34 .
P. V. Năsturel contests this legend , noting that the red @-@ yellow @-@ blue tricolor predated the union of the principalities and that the three colors , arrayed vertically , represent the flag of the Romanian nation in all lands inhabited by Romanians .
In 1848 , the tricolor was present in Focşani and Râmnicu Sărat ( on opposite sides of the principalities ’ border ) during demonstrations of fraternity held by Moldavians and Wallachians , while in 1857 , around the time of the Moldavian Ad hoc Divan , the civilian population adopted the tricolor as a symbol of union , a fact observed by Count Alexandre Walewski , French foreign minister .
Also that year , the minister of foreign affairs of the Wallachian provisional government assured the extraordinary envoy of the Porte , Suleiman Pasha , that the flag 's three colors had existed “ for a long time ; our ancestors bore them on their standard and their flags . So they are not a borrowing or an imitation from the present or a threat for the future ” .
Another of Lecca ’ s paintings shows the assassination of Michael the Brave in 1601 . Also depicted is the united standard of the three provinces , with yellow on top ( Wallachia ) , red in the middle ( Moldavia ) and blue below ( Transylvania ) . This hypothesis of the three colors ' union has appeared in historical literature , also engendering skepticism regarding the arguments deployed in its favor .
= = Flags of the United Principalities = =
On 6 February 1859 , on his first journey to Bucharest since being elected domnitor of Wallachia , Alexandru Ioan Cuza was greeted at the edge of the city of Buzău by the commander of the dorobanţi , who was carrying a tricolor flag . The sight deeply moved Cuza .
Until 1861 the old flags of Moldavia and Wallachia were used alongside the tricolor . On 22 June of that year , Cuza decreed the tricolor as the United Principalities ’ official civil flag .
The flag was the red @-@ yellow @-@ blue Romanian tricolor , with horizontal stripes . Neither the order of stripes nor the proportion of the civil flag are known . This is first described in Almanahul român din 1866 : “ the tricolor flag , divided in three stripes , red , yellow and blue and laid out horizontally : red above , blue below and yellow in the middle ” . Some sources suggest that the top stripe was blue until 1862 ( as in the revolutionary Wallachian tricolor of 1848 ) , replaced that year by red . An approximate ratio of 1 : 3 has been suggested , although the princely and army flags , both preserved , had a 2 : 3 proportion . As for symbolism , P. V. Năsturel asserts that “ from 1859 to 1866 it represented just what it had done in 1848 : liberty , justice , fraternity " .
The flag gained a degree of international recognition . Relating prince Cuza ’ s May – June 1864 journey to Constantinople , doctor Carol Davila observed : “ The Romanian flag was raised on the great mast , the Sultan ’ s kayaks awaited us , the guard was armed , the Grand Vizier at the door ... The Prince , quiet , dignified , concise in his speech , spent 20 minutes with the Sultan , who then came to review us ... Once again , the Grand Vizier led the Prince to the main gate and we returned to the Europe Palace , the Romanian flag still fluttering on the mast ... ”
= = = Princely flag = = =
A rather worn tricolor is found today in the collections of the National Museum of Romanian History , with inventory number 75045 . Rectangular in shape ( with a 2 : 3 ratio ) , it is made up of three silk strips laid out horizontally ( with red on top . In the center @-@ right of the flag is painted the Wallachian eagle , a cross in its beak and clutching the symbols of princely power , while the Moldavian aurochs appears on the center @-@ left , a six @-@ pointed star between its horns . Six inclined tricolor flags surround the two symbols ( three on the left and three on the right ) ; their flagpoles probably crossed near the bottom , which is now lost . Each flag has a blue ribbon above it and at the tips of their flagpoles are found , one on each side , a Wallachian eagle , the edge of a lance and a Moldavian aurochs . On the red strip are found stitched a princely crown , situated in the center so as to mark the two coats of arms , and the statement “ UNIREA PRINCIPATELOR — FERICIREA ROMÂNILOR . TRĂIASCĂ A. IOAN I ! ” ( “ The Union of the Principalities — the joy of Romanians . Long Live A. Ioan I ! ” ) on both sides of the crown and now partially faded . The flagpole ends in a metal sphere topped by an eagle .
Researchers differ on the origin and date of this flag . Col. Dr. Alexandru Vasile and Dr. Maria Ioniţă consider that this was the United Principalities ’ official flag . The latter dates it to 1859 , the period immediately after the Union , as does Dan Cernovodeanu . Mario to believes it was a military colors used between 1859 and 1861 .
Elena Pălănceanu and Cornelia Apostol believe it was a princely flag designed in 1862 , after the full union of the two entities , proclaimed on 11 / 24 December 1861 . Indeed , Cuza only adopted the title “ Alexandru Ion I ” after this date .
After Cuza ’ s abdication , the flag was kept at the Bucharest Army Arsenal until 1919 , when it was transferred to the National Military Museum . It has been at its present location since 1971 .
It seems that this specimen was preceded by another , dating to 1859 , featuring a tricolor canvas with somewhat smaller dimensions . In this flag , the blue strip is on top , while the two principalities ’ coats of arms are no longer surrounded by flags . Today the inscription on the blue strip is illegible , but differed from that found on the other flag .
Another princely flag , rather different from contemporary designs , is a silk tricolor with vertical stripes ( blue hoist ) and a princely crown painted in the center . It was raised whenever the domnitor was present at Ruginoasa Castle . Today it is found at the Suceava History Museum , part of the Bukovina Museum Complex .
= = = Military colors = = =
Article 45 of the Paris Convention ( 1858 ) provided that “ the armies of both countries will keep their present flags ; but these flags will feature , in the future , a blue banderole , in conformity with the design attached to the present Convention ” .
On 18 March 1863 , the War Minister , General Ion Emanuel Florescu , asked Cuza to approve a design for army flags , agreed upon by the government in its session of 12 March . The flags featured the national tricolor ( horizontal stripes , with red on top ) , over which was a Roman eagle with a cross in its beak . In a solemn order of the day on 19 March , Cuza decided : “ Considering that the army , following the union , should have but one flag ; keeping in mind that the true emblem of Romania can only be the Roman eagle , [ ... ] we have decreed and do decree what follows : the Roman eagle with cross in its mouth shall be placed , as the emblem of Romania , above the army ’ s flags [ ... ] ”
The resulting designs , distributed on 1 September 1863 , differ somewhat from those legislated in March . This , the Roman eagle , wings outstretched , wearing the princely crown , carries the princely scepter in its right talon and the sword in its left ; on its breast appears an open shield topped by the princely crown . On the left of the shield , over azure and gold , is the Wallachian eagle ( a cross in its beak , in left profile and wearing the princely crown ) ; on the right , over red and azure , is the Moldavian aurochs with a star between its horns . Hanging from the scepter and sword is a red ribbon with gold @-@ embossed letters : “ HONOR ET PATRIA ” ( “ honor and Fatherland ” ) . In the fly corners the prince ’ s initial is stitched , surrounded by a laurel wreath ; all are golden . Each flag also had inscribed the unit that bore it . The cloth part was 122 centimeter long and 100 centimeter wide . A metal Roman eagle was affixed to the tip of the flagpole . Although the order of 19 March had the Moldavian symbol in the right , nevertheless the first on the shield is the Wallachian eagle . The design was most likely adopted due to customary usage that arose after Bucharest became the single capital in February 1862 .
These flags were distributed to the following units :
With the occasion of handing over the flags , Cuza delivered the following speech :
These flags were used until 1866 when , after Cuza ’ s abdication , they were changed . Four army flags of the 1863 design are preserved today .
= = Romanian flags until 1918 = =
Article 124 of the 1866 Constitution of Romania provided that “ the colors of the United Principalities will be Blue , Yellow and Red ” . The order and placement of the colors were decided by the Assembly of Deputies in its session of 26 March 1867 . Thus , following a proposal by Nicolae Golescu , they were placed just as in 1848 . The commission ’ s work continued on 30 March as well ; following an affirmative vote by the Senate , these wrapped up with the adoption , on 12 / 24 April 1867 , of the “ Law for fixing the arms of Romania ” .
According to this , the flag ’ s colors had to be placed vertically in the following order : blue hoist , yellow in the middle and red fly . The country ’ s coat of arms was placed only on army and princely flags , in the center ; civilian flags remained without a coat of arms . The same distinction was made between flags for the naval war fleet and the civilian fleet .
The rapporteur Mihail Kogălniceanu , who also conveyed the opinion of Cezar Bolliac , Dimitrie Brătianu , Constantin Grigorescu , Ion Leca , Nicolae Golescu and Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino , said : “ The tricolor flag as it is today is not ( as the minister claims ) the flag of the Union of the principalities . It is much more : it is itself the flag of the Romanian nation in all lands inhabited by Romanians ” .
The “ Law for modifying the country ’ s arms ” of 11 / 23 March 1872 did not change these provisions , only the design of the coat of arms . The design proposed by Ştefan Dimitrie Grecianu was adopted .
= = = Princely and royal standard = = =
According to the laws of 1867 and 1872 , the princely ( later royal ) standard was identical to that of the army , with the country ’ s coat of arms in the center .
Nevertheless , when these were produced a slightly different design was adopted : the yellow stripe was twice as wide as the red and blue ones , and the canvas had a 1 : 1 ratio . Each corner of the flag had sewn into it a silver royal crown . The crown prince ’ s standard was identical except that it lacked the crowns in the corners .
An album dating to the end of the 19th century and the October 1917 National Geographic Magazine show the flags as having stripe ratios of 1 : 3 : 1 .
= = = Military colors = = =
Right after Alexander John Cuza ’ s abdication , the military units ’ military colors were replaced with a new 1866 design ; instead of the coat of arms , the name of the company appeared on the standards . However , the eagle at the edge of the flagpole was preserved .
The flags distributed to the Civic Guard , re @-@ established in March 1866 , had a different design — the colors were vertical , in the center was found the respective city ’ s coat of arms and not the national one , and the eagle at the end of the lance was larger and featured the shield of the United Principalities on its breast . P. V. Năsturel classifies these as 1867 design flags and describes them in detail : the canvas was 114 centimeter long and 95 centimeter wide ( so a 5 : 6 ratio ) and in the center was painted the respective city ’ s coat of arms , covered with a golden mural crown . In the corners , surrounded by laurel wreaths , the number of the legion was stitched in Roman numerals . Golden fringes surrounded the canvas , with tassels from the same fabric hanging at the corners . The eagle at the end of the flagpole had its wings facing downward , had the princely crown on its head and carried a sceptre in its right hand and a sword in its left ; all were made of gold . A shield was carved into the eagle ’ s breast , with the Wallachian eagle in the first half and the Moldavian aurochs ’ head in the second . Above the sword and sceptre a ribbon passed bearing the inscription “ Honor et Patria ” . On 11 September 1867 , Prince Carol I solemnly handed over these flags to the Civic Guards .
In 1873 it was decided that the 1866 design military flags would be replaced with the 1872 design , following the Law for the modification of the national coat of arms of 1872 . Design @-@ wise , these fall into several generations .
Flags produced in 1873 ( 24 flags and 10 standards ) , of which only one , the Firemen ’ s , survived in 1900 , were square , 150 centimeter on each side . In its center was painted , on a maroon background surrounded by a closed wreath of silver laurels , Romania ’ s middle coat of arms . The monogram of Prince Carol was in the corners , surrounded by a laurel crown , while the flagpole was topped by a metal eagle with the motto “ Onóre şi Patria ” ( " honor and Fatherland " ) as well as the unit ’ s number and name . The cavalry flags had canvases of reduced dimensions ( 45 centimeter ) , while the decorative elements were embroided and not painted . All these insignia were distributed to the units on 14 October 1874 , on the field at Băneasa .
Flags produced between 1877 and 1882 differ slightly from the preceding ones . On 17 July 1877 , just ten units created after 1874 received this design , at the Poiana army headquarters . On this occasion , Prince Carol addressed the following words to his troops : “ In giving you the corps ’ flag , I entrust the honor of Romania , which I thus place under the shield of courage , to your devotion and self @-@ denial . For the first time the solemn occasion arises where you receive the flag on the day before going onto the field of honor ; seek to crown it with an undying glory . Never forget that the flag is the symbol of the fatherland ... ”
These two categories of flags were replaced with new ones in 1902 , on the 25th anniversary of the Romanian War of Independence .
Small details differentiate flags produced between 1882 and 1897 from their predecessors . The canvas was square , 156 centimeter to a side ; a ribbon of tricolored thread ending in tassels was attached to the flagpole . The lions holding up the coat of arms had gold teeth and claws this time , while the coat of arms was no longer bordered in maroon . In the middle of the shield , the coat of arms of the House of Hohenzollern was surrounded by a gold border .
These three generations were realized by the Romanian state at Berlin ’ s Collani et Comp house . In 1896 , war minister Anton Berindei , observing that “ the way in which [ the flags ] are woven and the materials used leave something to be desired , as their canvas gets cut and breaks ” , addressed an order to General Ioan Argetoianu , president of the joint commission and inspector general of the military engineers : “ I have the honor of asking you to take measures so that the commission over which you preside can make a detailed description of the flags and standards in existence , on the materials from which they must be produced , dimensions , etc . In the work to be done the law of 8 March 1872 [ ... ] which decided the national insignia and flag , will be kept in mind ” .
Thus , beginning with the 1897 design flags , the ratio was 2 : 3 , the entire national coat of arms appeared in the center ( with modifications made after 1881 ) , and the wreath that surrounded it was sometimes open .
Most of the flags belonging to divisions that took part in World War I were handed to them in 1902 or in 1908 @-@ 1916 , and were used until 1929 when they were transferred to the Military Museum . These are similar to the 1897 design , although after King Carol died on 10 October 1914 , King Ferdinand ’ s monogram began appearing in the corners . Their dimensions vary from 90 × 65 centimeter to 115 × 73 centimeter .
Along with the military colors , through High decrees nr . 355 of February 1871 and nr . 1467 of 21 August 1873 , designs for stakes were defined for each infantry corps , as well as battalion pennants . The latter substituted for military colors where necessary ( each regiment had just a single flag ) , and were vertical tricolors , as provided by the 1867 and 1872 laws regarding Romania ’ s coats of arms .
A flag was also established for Romania ’ s Coast Guard . According to the October 1917 National Geographic , this was identical to the national flag , except that the yellow stripe featured a blue anchor and cable , above which was a silver royal crown .
Also in this period there appeared laws and regulations providing how the military colors should be used , guarded and saluted . Thus , High decree nr . 1451 of 18 August 1873 specified that the flag should be carried by the regiment ’ s adjutant junior officer , aided by the flag @-@ bearing officer . Likewise , the composition of the infantry ’ s flag guard was regulated . This was composed of five sergeants , of whom two in the first row , flanking the adjutant junior officer and having the assistant officer on the right , and three in the second row , behind the first . The “ Regulation concerning infantry exercises and maneuvers ” provided that during military maneuvers the flag ( or pennant ) should be in the center of the second battalion if the regiment was composed of three battalions or in the center of the first battalion if the regiment had only two . The flag @-@ bearer , chosen by the colonel , was not integrated into any subdivision of the battalion . The same regulation listed in its index the honors due to the flag , as well as the manner of saluting with the flag , with the specification that this was reserved for the princely family .
= = = Romanian flags in Transylvania , Banat , Bukovina and Bessarabia = = =
Transylvania , Banat , Bukovina and Bessarabia were provinces of the Austro @-@ Hungarian and Russian empires with substantial Romanian populations . In 1918 , the year they joined Romania , favorable conditions arose for the Romanians there to express openly their desire to unite with the “ Motherland ” .
In Bessarabia , the Moldavian Democratic Republic was created on 2 December 1917 and declared independence on 24 January 1918 . In May 1917 , the heraldist Paul Gore had written a Russian @-@ language study , “ The National colors of the Romanians in Bessarabia ” , which sought to demonstrate that Bessarabians should use the Romanian tricolor correctly : “ A certain esteem for the national past and just a little courage are needed to defend your national legal rights . In no way do I insist that our national flag composed of three stripes colored blue , yellow and red have these stripes arranged vertically . Let these stripes , in the order indicated , be horizontal . But the colors and their order we must preserve , especially because all three of these colors are also in the Coat of Arms of Bessarabia , which represents , if we eliminate the border made up of the Imperial colors , precisely the ancient coat of arms of the Moldavian Principality , and it is known that flags must be designed according to the exact rules of heraldry , according to the colors of the field and the emblems of the corresponding coats of arms ” .
With this perspective in mind , the heraldist Silviu Andrieş @-@ Tabac considers Gore the moral author of the flag of the Moldavian Democratic Republic . This was a blue @-@ yellow @-@ red tricolor with horizontal stripes and the coat of arms in the center of the yellow field and the inscription “ Republica Democratică Moldovenească şi Independentă ” ( “ The Moldavian and Independent Democratic Republic ” ) in the center of the blue field . The flag of Sfatul Ţării was similar , except that “ Sfatul Ţării ” was written on the blue field and the coat of arms , with larger dimensions , was placed in the middle , over yellow and red .
The republic ’ s military colors were fashioned “ several weeks before 6 December [ 1917 ] , when the parade of Moldavian troops from Bessarabia took place ” . These were also tricolors ; on one side was written the regiment ’ s number in silver thread , and on the other , stretching all across the flag , the letters “ R M ” .
In Transylvania , many Romanian flags were produced in anticipation of the Great National Assembly at Alba Iulia . These were horizontal blue @-@ yellow @-@ red tricolors , echoing the 1848 revolution . The images on glass captured at the Assembly by photographer Samoilă Mârza show a massive throng above whom flutter numerous such flags , some of the canvases inscribed with a motto .
The National Museum of Romanian History holds three flags from Assembly participants and the coat of arms of a fourth , which belonged to the Alba Iulia national guard . The first tricolor has dimensions of 235 × 100 centimeter , and each of its stripes ends on the fly in a corner with the tip turned outside . The wooden flagpole is painted black . On second tricolor , 130 × 75 centimeter , just the yellow and red stripes survive , and both end in a corner with the tip on the outside . The third flag is woolen and 190 × 120 centimeter . Its colored stripes all end in a sharp angle with the tip outside ; to each one is sewn a tassel in the respective color . A tricolor ribbon with a tassel on either end is attached to the flagpole .
= = Flags of Greater Romania = =
After Greater Romania came into being , the tricolor remained the official flag , with stripes arranged vertically and without a coat of arms in the center .
= = = Royal standards = = =
On 24 April 1922 new designs for royal standards were adopted .
The king ’ s standard consisted of a red @-@ maroon square flag , bordered by a yellow strip with blue triangles . There were thirteen blue triangles to a side , with an additional four in the corners . The country ’ s lesser coat of arms was found in the middle of the flag ; beneath it was placed the cross of the Order of Michael the Brave . After ascending the throne in 1930 , King Carol II stretched the cross to the edge of the standard , “ as a symbol of heroic royalty ” , and placed the lesser coat of arms above it . When his remains were returned to Romania in 2003 , his coffin was draped in this standard .
The queen ’ s standard was similar to the king ’ s , but the cross was missing . The crown prince ’ s standard was dark blue , with a red border and yellow triangles ; the lesser coat of arms was in the center . The royal princes ’ flag was similar but lacked a border . In 1940 , when Queen Helen returned to Romania , a flag was designed for the queen mother . This was similar to the queen ’ s standard but also lacked a border .
= = = Flags and standards of public officials = = =
Contemporary vexilological albums ( for instance the 1939 edition of Flaggenbuch ) display a number of flags and standards of interwar Romanian public officials . The war minister ’ s flag was a tricolor square with the letter “ M ” in white found on the blue stripe . The other ministers had similar flags but without the “ M ” . The jack employed by Romanian vessels was a yellow square bordered red with the coat of arms in the center . The ship captains ’ standard was the national flag with a royal crown in the center . Pilot boats ’ standard consisted of a national flag bordered in white . The flag ’ s ratio was 3 : 6 and the thickness of the border 2 ; altogether , it had a 10 : 13 ratio . River police had as their standard a blue square with a white “ P ” in the center . The standard of the postal division of the Romanian Maritime Service had a white field ( ratio 4 : 5 ) , with the fly ending in a sharp interior angle . A square national flag with the royal crown in the center appeared in the canton . A blue cord hung from the tricolor , catching a golden postal horn .
= = = Military colors = = =
Military flags were tricolors with the national coat of arms painted in the center . In the corners were found the golden monograms of Kings Ferdinand I , Carol II ( two designs ) or Michael I , crowned and surrounded by a wreath of golden oak leaves . The flagpoles ended in a metal eagle with wings facing downward , crowned and carrying a cross in its beak .
= = = Naval flags = = =
Admirals ’ flags ( including vice- and rear admirals ’ ) , shown in the 1939 Flaggenbuch , were square Romanian tricolors . The Chief of the Naval General Staff had two white stars on the blue stripe of his flag and two crossed anchors ; the three elements were one beneath the other . The vice admiral ’ s flag did not have the anchors , while the rear admiral ’ s standard had just one star on the blue stripe .
Naval captains and commanders had a longer red stripe on their standard , ending in an angle pointing inward ; the ratio was about 11 : 13 . Deputy commanders of ships had a tricolored triangle for their emblem , in a 2 : 3 ratio .
= = = Naval flags of World War II = = =
Shortly before World War II , the flags of military vessels were changed . A specific design was adopted , the yellow portion taking the form of a cross with widened arms . The following models are shown in Flaggenbuch , 1939 :
= = Flags of the Romanian People ’ s Republic = =
On 30 December 1947 , Romania was proclaimed a people ’ s republic and all the kingdom ’ s symbols were outlawed , including the coats of arms and the tricolor flags that showed them . On 8 January 1948 , Decree nr . 3 was issued , regarding specifications for the powers of the Presidium of the Romanian People ’ s Republic . At article 7 , this provided that the republic ’ s new coat of arms should be “ composed of : a tractor , a group of three chimneys against the field of a rising sun , surrounded by bound ears of wheat , tied by a ribbon with the inscription Republica Populară Română and the initials R. P. R. at the end of the ears ” . Article 8 dealt with the national flag : “ the colors of the Romanian People ’ s Republic are : blue , yellow and red , arranged vertically , and having in the center of the yellow field the Coat of Arms of the Republic ” .
According to article 101 of the 1948 Constitution , “ The flag of the Romanian People ’ s Republic is composed of the colors : blue , yellow and red , arranged vertically . In the middle is placed the national coat of arms ” . The 1952 Constitution , at article 103 , added a little detail : “ The flag of the Romanian People ’ s Republic has the colors red , yellow and blue , arranged vertically with blue near the lance . In the middle is placed the coat of arms of the Romanian People ’ s Republic ” . Neither the colors ’ shades nor the flag ’ s proportions were specified . According to provisions of the 1952 Constitution , a five @-@ pointed red star appeared at the upper edge of the coat of arms ( itself altered in March 1948 ) , something that was also reflected on flags and official Romanian standards .
= = = Military colors ; standards = = =
On 28 July 1950 the Great National Assembly issued Decree nr . 189 for the establishment of the military colors of the Armed Forces of the Romanian People ’ s Republic , as well as standards for the Military Air Force and the Naval Forces . Article 2 defined the units ’ military colors as follows : “ three silk stripes colored red , yellow and blue , arranged vertically with blue situated near the flagpole . On the edges the flag has yellow metal fringes of wire , while the fly corners each have a tassel of the same wire . On the side oriented from the flagpole to the right , in the middle , is placed the coat of arms of the R. P. R. in natural colors . Above the coat of arms , on the same side , in an arched line , is written with letters of golden wire : ‘ Pentru Patria noastră ’ ( ‘ For our Fatherland ’ ) . On the other side and in the middle of the flag , the emblem worn on the uniforms of officers of the Armed Forces of the R. P. R. is applied . Under the emblem is written straight , with letters of golden wire , the unit ’ s name . The flagpole ends in an ogive @-@ shaped tip , within which is found a five @-@ pointed star , in the center of which are written the initials RPR ” . The law ’ s annex also specified the dimensions of the flag ( 100 centimeter long by 60 centimeter wide ) , the coat of arms and the emblem ( 20 centimeter high ) , the fringes ( 5 centimeter long ) , the flagpole ( 250 centimeter long ) and of the ogive ( 15 centimeter long by 7 centimeter wide ) .
Article 3 described the Air Force ensign : “ it is made of sky @-@ blue silk . The ensign is rectangular , with each face having applied to it 18 red silk strips in the form of sunrays . On the edges , the ensign has fringes and tassels the same as on the military colors . In the middle of the face oriented from the flagpole to the right is affixed the coat of arms of the R. P. R. , while in the middle of the other face is affixed the emblem worn on the uniforms of officers belonging to the Armed Forces of the R. P. R. The coat of arms of the R. P. R. , the emblem and the inscriptions are identical to those of the military colors ” . The annex specified the dimensions of the ensign and the decorative elements , which were identical to those of the military colors . In the center of the flag , a ray had an angle of 10 ˚ . Also specified was the shade of blue to be used on the flag : “ iron blue ” .
Article 4 described the Romanian Navy ’ s ensign thus : “ made of two pieces of white and blue silk , rectangular , laid horizontally , the blue one , beneath , having a width of 20 centimeter , while the white one , above , having a width of 40 centimeter . The coat of arms of the R. P. R. is applied to the middle of the white surface on the face oriented from the flagpole to the right , while on the other face , also in the middle of the while surface , the emblem worn on the uniforms of officers belonging to the Armed Forces of the R. P. R. is applied . The coat of arms , the emblem , the inscriptions , the fringes and the tassels are the same as those of the military colors ” . The annex specified the flag ’ s dimensions ( also 100 × 60 centimeter ) and those of the coat of arms ( also 20 centimeter high ) , as well as its distance to the edges of the white strip ( 11 centimeter above and 9 centimeter below ) . The words “ Pentru Patria noastră ” ( “ For our Fatherland ” ) were found on the white strip above the coat of arms , while “ Republica Populară Română ” and the unit ’ s name were placed in the middle of the blue strip .
Decree nr . 190 of 1950 , published in the same issue of Buletinul Oficial , established the design of Army soldiers ’ , officers ’ and generals ’ emblems . The officers ’ emblem was a five @-@ pointed , red @-@ enamelled star 34 centimeter in diameter . In the center were two circles : the first , with a radius of 15 centimeter , was enamelled yellow and touched the star ’ s interior angles , while the second , which had a radius of 11 centimeter , was enamelled blue and in the center had the golden initials “ R. P. R. ”
The following year , Decree nr . 124 of 20 July 1951 for the modification of art . 4 of Decree nr . 189 altered the Navy ’ s ensign . The new regulation provided for three separate insignia : the flag of Navy land units , the flag of Navy ships and the flag of Coast Guard ships .
The Navy ’ s land units had as their flag “ two pieces of silk , colored white and blue , rectangular in shape , laid horizontally , the blue piece below , and the white one above . In the middle of the white area facing from the flagpole to the right is affixed the coat of arms of the Romanian People ’ s Republic , in natural colors , while on the other side , also in the middle of the white area , is affixed the symbol worn on the uniforms of officers belonging to the Armed Forces of the Romanian People ’ s Republic . The coat of arms , emblem , inscriptions , fringes and tassels are the same as those of the military colors described in article 2 [ of Decree nr . 189 of 1950 ] ” . According to this decree ’ s annex , the flag ’ s dimensions were 100 × 60 centimeter , the blue strip being 20 centimeter wide and the white 40 centimeter , the coat of arms was 20 centimeter high and it was 11 centimeter away from the top edge of the white strip and 9 centimeter away from the bottom .
Navy ships had an ensign consisting of a “ piece of ordinary rectangular canvas , with the colors white and blue printed on either side , in two stripes laid horizontally , the blue one below . The coat of arms of the Romanian People ’ s Republic , in natural colors , is affixed to the middle of the white area on both sides . The ensign does not have fringes or tassels [ and ] is supplied with cords and a mechanism for raising it on the stern beam or the mast ” . The ensign for Coast Guard ships was different from that of Navy ships only in the color of the lower stripe — Coast Guard green . The law ’ s annex described proportions for the ensign ’ s various elements ; the actual dimensions were to be fixed by the Armed Forces Ministry and the Interior Ministry depending on the ship ’ s size and the place where the ensign was raised . Thus , the flag was 0 @.@ 6 times as wide as it was long , being divided thus : 1 ⁄ 3 colored stripe and 2 ⁄ 3 white stripe . The coat of arms was to be 1 ⁄ 3 the height of the flag ’ s width , being placed 1 ⁄ 6 of this width away from the edges of the white stripe .
Between 1953 and 1964 , due to a spelling reform , the country ’ s name was written on flags as Romînia and not România .
Decree nr . 93 of 17 April 1954 for the modification of art . 4 of Decree nr . 189 established new vexillological devices : the ensign of auxiliary Navy ships ( the previous ensign continuing in use only for battleships ) and pennants for Navy battleships , auxiliary Navy ships and Coast Guard vessels .
The ensign of auxiliary Navy ships was made of an “ ordinary canvas , rectangular and blue . In the upper corner on the side where it attaches to the cord , it has imprinted on both sides the colors white and light blue , in two horizontal stripes , the white one above . To the middle of the white area , on both sides , is affixed the coat of arms of the Romanian People ’ s Republic , in natural colors ” . This ensign ’ s proportions were indicated in the annex . It was 0 @.@ 6 times as wide as it was long : the upper left part of the standard was similar in proportion to the basic elements of the battleship standard , while its dimensions were 0 @.@ 5 of the flag ’ s length and 0 @.@ 3 of its width .
Navy and Coast Guard vessels had a masthead pennant made of an “ ordinary rectangular canvas , red for Navy battleships , blue for auxiliary Navy ships and green for Coast Guard ships [ the width is 0 @.@ 6 of the length ] . At the edge near the cord , the colors white and light blue are imprinted on both sides , in two horizontal stripes , for Navy ships and white and light green on Coast Guard ships [ in proportions of 2 ⁄ 3 and 1 ⁄ 3 respectively ; this area ’ s length is 0 @.@ 075 that of the pennant ’ s length ] . In both cases white shall be above . The coat of arms of the Romanian People ’ s Republic , in natural colors is affixed to the middle of the white area on both sides [ with a height 1 ⁄ 3 of the pennant ’ s width and located 1 ⁄ 4 and 1 ⁄ 6 of this width away from the edges of the white area ] . At the other end , the pennant is cut in the form of a sharp angle pointing inward [ the cut was 1 @.@ 2 times as deep as the length of the white and colored area near the cord ] . The ships ’ pennany is provided with a cord and a mechanism for being raised on a tall mast ” . The proportions of the pennant ’ s component elements were indicated in the annex , with the actual dimensions remaining to be decided by the Armed Forces Ministry and the Interior Ministry .
= = Flags of the Socialist Republic of Romania = =
The Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Romania , adopted in 1965 , provided the following in article 118 : “ The flag of the Socialist Republic of Romania has the colors red , yellow and blue , arranged vertically , with blue near the flagpole . The coat of arms of the Socialist Republic of Romania is affixed to the middle ” .
Decree nr . 972 of 5 November 1968 regarding the insignia of the Socialist Republic of Romania ( RSR ) described in detail the coat of arms , seal , flag and state anthem of the republic . The attached commentary noted that , in the absence of corresponding regulations , “ there have appeared mistaken interpretations of these [ constitutional specifications ] , incorrect or diverging usages of the state insignia ” . Chapter IV of the decree is entirely devoted to describing the flag and the protocol for its use . Thus , the flag is defined as having a ratio of 2 : 3 , with the colored stripes of equal dimensions . The regular colors were printed in the annex and not expressly named . The coat of arms was placed in the center ; its height was 2 ⁄ 5 the flag ’ s width . As before , it was provided that the flag ’ s proportions could differ for ornamental purposes , but the coat of arms must always be in the center , vertical . Articles 13 @-@ 21 specifically and exhaustively covered flag protocol , describing where it was to be raised permanently and temporarily ( art . 13 ) , the protocol for raising it outside the country ’ s borders ( art . 14 ) and during demonstrations by socialist organizations ( art . 15 ) , the conditions for lowering it to half @-@ staff ( art . 16 , 17 and 18 , with art . 20 describing exceptions to the rule ) , the conditions and manner for draping caskets with the flag ( art . 19 ) , as well as the place of the Romanian flag in case it flew besides one or more foreign flags ( art . 21 ) .
= = = Flags of the President , Prime Minister and Minister of the Armed Forces = = =
The President of the RSR ( until 1974 the President of the Council of State ) and the prime minister had their own standard , a square Romanian tricolor with a white edge and a red border beyond that ; the RSR ’ s coat of arms was in the center , 2 ⁄ 3 the height of the tricolor ’ s width . The standard was decorated with fringes of golden thread and tassels of the same material . The flag of the Minister of the Armed Forces of the RSR consisted of a white pennant in a 1 : 2 ratio . The flag of the RSR was placed in the canton , while two red five @-@ pointed stars occupied the fly .
= = = Military colors and standards = = =
Military colors and standards adopted during the Romanian People ’ s Republic were modified or completely changed by Decree nr . 106 of 24 December 1966 regarding regulations for granting the military colors of units and large units from all military branches , modifying the display protocol for ensigns and pennants of navy and Coast Guard ships , establishing a distinctive emblem and commanders ’ emblems for navy and Coast Guard vessels , a jack for navy ships and a distinctive ensign for Coast Guard ships .
In the attached commentary , it was mentioned that the previous regulations were no longer valid , primarily because :
military colors of naval land units no longer featured the national flag colors , but only white and blue ;
ensigns and pennants of the Navy and Coast Cuard ships no longer featured the national flag colors and thus — even at close distances — Romanian ships could be confused with those of other nations ;
the air force flag was no longer necessary , as it did not correspond to the new organization of the military ’ s aviation branch .
Article 2 of the decree provided that “ the military colors are granted by the Council of State of the Romanian Socialist Republic to units and large units from all military branches from the Armed Forces Ministry , as well as to units from the Internal Affairs Ministry , at their founding . The flag is granted , depending on the case , at the initiative of the armed forces minister or the internal affairs minister . The granting of the flag is done in the name of the Council of State of the Romanian Socialist Republic by a representative of the armed forces , respectively of the internal affairs minister ” . The first clause of this article was modified thus by Decree nr . 150 of 19 June 1974 regarding the modification of certain laws and decrees : “ the flag is granted by presidential decree to units and large units of all military branches from the Armed Forces Ministry , as well as to units from the Internal Affairs Ministry , at their founding ” .
Ensigns of navy and Coast Guard vessels consisted of the military colors of the respective units .
The pennant was the device that indicated a ship was armed and commanded by a navy officer . It consisted of an “ ordinary canvas , in the shape of an isosceles triangle , with the base toward the attaching mechanism and with the flag colors and coat of arms of the Romanian Socialist Republic printed on both sides ” .
The jack was “ an ordinary square canvas , having printed on both sides the flag colors and coat of arms of the Romanian Socialist Republic . Two crossed white anchors of the same size as the coat of arms are affixed to the blue area ” .
The distinctive ensign of Coast Guard vessels consisted of “ an ordinary white rectangular canvas , with the half near the attaching mechanism green , upon which is affixed a white anchor ” .
The dimensions of these insignia , as well as their manner of use , were left to the Armed Forces Ministry to decide by regulation .
Decree nr . 90 of 27 April 1977 regarding the establishment of military colors for patriotic guards and the regulation of its granting created a special symbol for units of the Patriotic Guards . This was similar to military colors of military units , with the exception of the inscription on the flag ’ s reverse side — “ Gărzile patriotice ” — in an arched line above the coat of arms , and the administrative unit in which the formation was located ( the municipality or county ) , in a straight line beneath the coat of arms . Its dimensions were indicated in the annex : the canvas was 100 centimeter long and 66 centimeter wide , the text was 6 centimeter high , the fringes 5 centimeter long , the flagpole 240 centimeter long and 4 centimeter wide , while the ogive at the end of the flagpole was 15 centimeter high . According to the Decree , the flag was granted to a unit by commanders of county @-@ level or Bucharest @-@ level Patriotic Guards , or by representatives of the General Staff of the Patriotic Guards from the Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party , following a presidential decree for this purpose . Patriotic Guards that distinguished themselves in training exercises for national defense and that comprised at least 2000 fighters were eligible to receive flags .
= = = Naval rank flags = = =
Decree nr . 1016 of 1966 created a legal framework for the establishment of distinctive rank flags and commanders ’ rank flags , which were raised on Navy and Coast Guard ships , in accordance with the services ’ sailing regulations .
A distinctive rank flag was raised when “ the general secretary of the Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party , the president of the Council of State of the Romanian Socialist Republic or the president of the Council of Ministers of the Romanian Socialist Republic [ was ] on an official visit ” aboard ship .
The commanders ’ rank flag was flown in similar situations for : “ the minister of the armed forces of the Romanian Socialist Republic , the commander of the navy , the commander of a large unit of ships of the commander of a group of ships temporarily constituted ” .
The form , colors and dimensions of the flags remained to be fixed by regulation .
= = Flag of the Romanian Revolution of 1989 = =
Starting on 17 December 1989 , during the revolution at Timișoara , the coat of arms of the Romanian Socialist Republic began to be removed from flags , being viewed as a symbol of Nicolae Ceauşescu ’ s dictatorial regime . Most often , this was accomplished by cutting or ripping out the middle of the yellow stripe , giving rise to the term " the flag with the hole " .
Decree @-@ Law nr . 2 of 27 December 1989 regarding the membership , organization and functioning of the Council of the National Salvation Front and of the territorial councils of the National Salvation Front provided at article 1 , among other matters , that “ the national flag is the traditional tricolor of Romania , with the colors laid out vertically , in the following order , starting from the flagpole : blue , yellow , red ” .
= = Storage , restoration and conservation of old flags = =
In the 19th century , after a modern army was established in the two Danubian Principalities , old military and princely flags were deposited at the Army Arsenal . In 1919 these were all transferred to the National Military Museum . Flags that witnessed the Romanian War of Independence were replaced in 1902 and kept until 1928 @-@ 29 in the throne room of the Royal Palace , after which they entered the Military Museum ’ s collection . In 1971 a significant number of old flags was given to the National History Museum .
In 1966 , there were 1075 Romanian and foreign flags at the Central Military Museum , of which 949 were original , including the flagpole , top decoration and canvas , 42 were copies and reconstructions , and for 84 , just the flagpole and decoration remained . Together with other categories of flags , standards , ship flags , pennants , sashes and ties , the collection reached 1248 items . By the mid @-@ 2000s , the museum ’ s flag and standard collection counted 10 @,@ 826 objects .
A majority of Romania ’ s older flags have a field that is either deteriorated ( some are missing almost entirely ) or slashed by bullets or swords .
Museum experts have taken steps to preserve flags , including : introducing and stitching a double tulle into the majority of flags ( starting in the 1930s ) , washing certain dust @-@ covered flags using special methods , placing dark protective covers over the flags to shield the fabric from light , replacing seriously deteriorated exemplars with copies , photographing flags in order to avoid repeated manipulation , and climate @-@ controlling storage areas and exhibit halls . Certain flags are also subject to restoration work .
= = Acts of heroism under the flag = =
During the Romanian War of Independence , Romanian troops were inspired to bravery by their flag ’ s presence . During an attack on 30 August 1877 , Captain Nicolae Valter Mărăcineanu fell in action while inserting the 8th line Regiment ’ s flag into the parapet of the Griviţa redoubt . Troops from the 3rd cavalry Regiment were among the first to enter Pleven , wading through the Vit with the flag before them .
Following these acts of bravery , the military colors were decorated in a solemn ceremony on 8 October 1878 . Units that participated in the Siege of Griviţa ( 6th line infantry Regiment , dorobanţi Regiments 6 , 10 , 13 and 14 ) , that fought at Pleven ( 6th line infantry Regiment , dorobanţi Regiments 6 and 14 , vânători Battalions 2 and 4 , cavalry Regiments 3 and 7 ) , and Smârdan and Vidin ( 6th line infantry Regiment , 3rd artillery Regiment ) received the Danube Crossing Cross ( Crucea Trecerii Dunării ) . The 13th dorobanţi Regiment also received the Order of the Star of Romania , along with three other regiments , while vânători Battalion 2 received the Great Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania . Among the others decorated were the 9th dorobanţi Regiment and the 4th and 6th line infantry Regiments . Moreover , on 23 September 1879 in Galaţi , the flag of the 6th line infantry Regiment received the Military Bravery medal from Prince Milan IV of Serbia .
World War I also saw sacrifices in defense of the military colors , as a symbol of the duty to defend the nation ’ s land and military honor . In October 1916 , the flag guard of Neagoe Basarab infantry Regiment 83 met a cavalry patrol of the German Army . Although one of his arms was sliced off , the regimental flag @-@ bearer stood his ground until his comrades jumped to his defense and saved the flag . A month later , the Dolj infantry Regiment 1 found itself in dire circumstances , deciding to bury the flag in a peasant ’ s yard in Izbiceni . It was recovered in autumn 1918 after the occupying foreign armies had been driven out . Coast Guard Regiment 1 also faced difficulty in fighting at the Olt Defile . Then , the unit commander decided to bury the eagle from atop the flag , while the canvas was wrapped around the body of a troop who snuck through the confusion . The flag was placed back on a pole in Moldavia and took part in the 1917 campaigns . At the end of the war , it was decorated with the Order of Michael the Brave , the Commemorative Cross of the War of 1916 @-@ 1918 and the Victoria medal .
Many other military colors were decorated at war ’ s end . To name but a few examples , heavy artillery Regiment 1 received the Order of the Star of Romania ( rank of knight with swords ) and the ribbon of Military Virtue . Heavy artillery Regiment 4 was decorated with the Order of the Star of Romania and the Commemorative Cross of the War of 1916 @-@ 1918 . The Mircea Regiment 32 received the Order of Michael the Brave . Infantry Regiment 70 , “ giving proof of the noblest spirit of sacrifice and a powerful patriotism ” , received the Order of Michael the Brave Class III and the Commemorative Cross 1916 @-@ 1918 .
During World War II , units ’ flags that appeared in battle were also decorated . In action on the Western Front , ant @-@ aircraft artillery Regiment 6 and vânători Regiment 2 were decorated with the Order of Aeronautic Virtue with swords . Among the units that received the Order of Michael the Brave with swords were cavalry Regiment 2 , which distinguished itself in battles on the Someş and Mureş rivers and in Czechoslovakia , infantry Regiment 96 , which broke through the Tisza and liberated Budapest , Regiments 18 artillery and 34 infantry , and Battalions 7 and 8 vânători de munte .
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= The Boat Race 1977 =
The 123rd Boat Race took place on 19 March 1977 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford won by seven lengths , their biggest margin of victory for more than 90 years . It was the first time in the history of the event that one of the crews , Oxford , used a plastic boat as opposed to a wooden one . It was also the first race to have an official sponsor in Ladbrokes .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis by seven lengths . Cambridge won the 32nd Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a " hotly contested point of honour " between the two universities . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1976 race by six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 68 victories to Oxford 's 53 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
Both crews rowed in monocoque boats for the first time in the history of the race ; Oxford used a Carbocraft shell ( combining carbon fibre and plastic ) for the first time , while Cambridge raced in a prototype developed by Imperial College London . Journalist and author Christopher Dodd referred to the boats as " the most up @-@ to @-@ date boats that the rowing world has seen " . The race was sponsored for the first time , by British betting company Ladbrokes , who would sponsor the event until the 1987 race when they were replaced by Beefeater Gin .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 13 st 9 @.@ 5 lb ( 86 @.@ 7 kg ) , just over 6 pounds ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Returning Cambridge cox Joe Manser , at 9 st 11 lb , weighed 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) more than his counterpart Colin Moynihan . Along with Manser , Cambridge saw the return of just one other former Blue in David Searle , while Oxford 's crew included three Boat Race participants in Bob Mason , Crispin Money @-@ Coutts and John Wiggins .
= = Race = =
Oxford started the race as " one of the strongest favourites of all time " , with The Guardian 's Christopher Dodd writing that " Oxford have some world @-@ class pedigree " . They won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Within thirty seconds of the start , and in calm conditions , Oxford were a length ahead at Fulham F.C. They moved further ahead to a two @-@ length lead by the Mile Post , and a six @-@ second advantage over the Light Blues . Oxford extended their lead to three lengths and nine seconds by the time both crews shot Hammersmith Bridge , where the crews were subjected to choppy water , but between there and Chiswick Steps , Oxford raced further ahead , gaining at least two further lengths on Cambridge . Twenty seconds ahead at Barnes Bridge , the Dark Blues continued to press home their advantage , and passed the finishing post in a time of 19 minutes 28 seconds , 22 seconds ahead of Cambridge . It was Oxford 's third victory in four years , and the seven @-@ length margin of victory was their greatest since their win in the 1898 race .
In the 13th running of the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis by seven lengths in a time of 19 minutes 35 seconds . It was Goldie 's first victory since 1974 . Cambridge won the 32nd Women 's Boat Race , their fourteenth victory in fifteen years .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford stroke Andy Michelmore was surprised by the conditions : " we couldn 't extend ourselves until the very end . " Of the rough water , Michelmore 's cox , Moynihan , said " a sinking was possible . We shipped , I think , a couple of inches of water and I was more than apprehensive " .
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= MDNA World Tour ( album ) =
MDNA World Tour is the fourth live album by American singer and songwriter Madonna . It was released on September 6 , 2013 , by Live Nation Entertainment and Interscope Records as a full concert on all formats including a double @-@ disc CD , DVD , and Blu @-@ ray . Madonna had embarked on The MDNA Tour for promotion of her twelfth studio album MDNA . The tour was a commercial success although it courted a number of controversies . The performances at the American Airlines Arena in Miami , Florida during the North American leg of The MDNA Tour were documented for video release . The recording was directed by Danny B. Tull and Stephane Sennour who included footage from other shows of the tour .
Madonna had spent six months editing the footage from the films and together with Tull and Seymour she developed the video for the songs she had performed as a mini @-@ movie . Shot as a documentary , MDNA World Tour included the best shots available from different locations of the tour , while emphasizing Madonna 's impact on the younger generation of artists . Prior to the release , a concert television special , Madonna : The MDNA Tour , was broadcast in the United States by Epix on June 22 , 2013 . A premiere took place The Paris Theater , in New York City the same month .
The release received mixed reviews from critics , with one group of reviewers commending the technicality and the visuals attached with the show , while others noting the absence of Madonna 's hit songs from the set list . After the release , news outlets around the world wrote about bad manufacturing of the CD and DVD , with many buyers reportedly choosing to return their purchase . Within a week Interscope released a statement , redacting the Blu @-@ ray discs in the United States .
MDNA World Tour was a moderate success commercially . It reached the top of the album charts in Hungary , and top @-@ ten in France , Israel , Italy , Russia , and Spain , though failed to achieve high chart positions similar to the singer 's previous live releases in the United States and United Kingdom . However , MDNA World Tour became a success on the DVD charts of most nations , earning a triple platinum certification in Brazil , platinum certifications in Canada and Portugal , and finally a gold certification in Poland . The release topped the US Billboard Top Music Videos chart with sales of 11 @,@ 000 copies , becoming her sixth consecutive and tenth video to top the chart — the most for any artist .
= = Background and tour = =
On March 23 , 2012 , Madonna released her twelfth studio album , entitled MDNA , by Interscope Records . The singer worked with a variety of producers such as Alle Benassi , Benny Benassi , Demolition Crew , Free School , Michael Malih , Indiigo , William Orbit and Martin Solveig on the album . An electronic album , MDNA lyrically explores themes such as partying , love for music , infatuation , as well as heartbreak , revenge and separation . The album received generally positive reviews from music critics . Upon its release , it debuted at number one in many countries worldwide , including Australia , Canada , Italy , Spain , the United Kingdom and the United States .
To promote the album , Madonna embarked on The MDNA Tour , which was her ninth concert tour . The tour visited America , Europe and the Middle East , while also marking the singer 's first performances in the United Arab Emirates , Ukraine , Scotland and Colombia . Described by her as " the journey of a soul from darkness to light " , The MDNA Tour was divided into four sections : Transgression , where guns and violence was the main theme , Prophecy , where a mix of joyful songs that bring people together are performed , Masculine / Feminine , a combination of sensuality and fashion with a few of Madonna 's classic songs performed in a French Cabaret @-@ style , and Redemption , which Madonna labelled as " a big party and celebration " . The tour received positive reviews , but courted many controversial subjects such as violence , firearms , human rights , nudity and politics . Nevertheless , it was a commercial success and many venues were instantly sold out . After completion , it was dubbed the highest @-@ grossing tour of 2012 by Billboard . Total gross was $ 305 @.@ 2 million from 88 sold @-@ out shows , becoming the tenth highest @-@ grossing tour of all time and surpassing Celine Dion 's Taking Chances World Tour as the second highest @-@ grossing tour among female artists , behind Madonna 's own Sticky & Sweet Tour .
= = Development and release = =
Initially , the filming of the concert was planned for the shows in Colombia , but due to conflicts with the directors ' schedule , those shows were not filmed . Instead , Madonna announced on her Facebook page that the November 19 and 20 shows in Miami , at the American Airlines Arena , will be filmed for the upcoming tour DVD and Blu @-@ ray release . After accepting the award for Top Touring Artist at the 2013 Billboard Music Awards , Madonna confirmed that she had just finished editing the DVD of the concert , with Billboard predicting the video release to be in September 2013 . It was officially announced by Madonna 's website that the video album for the tour will be released on August 26 , 2013 , by Live Nation and Interscope Records ; the date was later changed to September 6 and 9 for non @-@ US countries and September 10 for US . It documented the November 19 and 20 shows at the American Airlines Arena , but also will include footage from other concert dates . The documentary was directed by Danny B. Tull and Stephane Sennour — who also directed the YouTube concert special MDNA : Live à l 'Olympia and the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary Inside the DNA of MDNA — and was produced by Madonna . MDNA World Tour is Madonna 's tenth live video album and was released on both DVD and Blu @-@ ray . Madonna had spent six months editing the footage from the films and together with Tull and Seymour she constructed each of the performances in the video as a mini @-@ movie .
According to Entertainment Weekly , MDNA World Tour shed light on the impact Madonna has had on the younger generation of artists , dancers , and general fans " who refuse to conform for conformity 's sake " . Tull took the best moments from the 88 different concerts of the tour , to create a cohesive documentary . He recalled that there were numerous footage available from the tour and they had to find the " perfect " shot for Madonna . He gave an example that the performance of " Like a Prayer " had cuts from 50 countries alone . " It was really intense . I think I looked down one day and I was like , ' Oh , my fingers are about to fall off ' . But it was worth it " , Tull concluded . A preview for the DVD was first shown at the Billboard Music Awards and another preview was released in June 2013 , showing the singer performing " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " on the tour , the lead single from MDNA . Another video showed Madonna auditioning for the dancers , while singing an acoustic version of her 2001 single , " Don 't Tell Me " .
A television broadcast of the concert , titled Madonna : The MDNA Tour , aired on Epix in the United States on June 22 , 2013 . The concert premiered at 8 p.m. EST on Epix 's TV network and online at EpixHD.com and on Epix apps . On June 18 , the concert special had a world premiere screening at The Paris Theater , in New York City , with Madonna attending the event in a press conference with the media , celebrities , and fans . A contest was released just for US residents , who had the chance to win two invitations for the special event . The singer wore a black tuxedo and a top hat to the premiere , the ensemble being a tribute to actress Marlene Dietrich and her similar attire in the 1930 film , Morocco . During the Q & A , Madonna recalled how difficult it was to sometimes perform on the tour , but she and her troupe nevertheless did it . At the end of the session , she showed a trailer from her secretprojectrevolution film with photographer Steven Klein ; the one @-@ minute clip featured her background dancers and showed the singer being dragged on the floor . Other shots included Madonna wielding a gun , her dancers in underwear , and religious iconography .
= = Reception = =
Arnold Wayne Jones from the Dallas Voice gave the album four out of five stars , writing that the show " has all of the Material Girl 's majesty and fetishistic eroticism , merged with lots of disturbing , violent imagery and a huge catalog of songs " . Jones concluded that Madonna was more provocative than before with the release . Chuck Campbell from The Republic gave the album three and a half stars out of five , writing that " an ambitious woman like Madonna will not let herself become a nostalgia act " . He added that Madonna makes that clear every time she goes on tour : " she 's living in the moment , and she 's all about her newest material . " The Advocate 's review for the release was positive , saying that the DVD affirms the fact that Madonna 's " musical reign continues " . Entertainment Focus ' Pip Ellwood felt that the highlights of the record were the live performances of " Human Nature " and " Like a Prayer " . He concluded the review by saying that " Making perfect use of her dancers , the video screens and the sets , the MDNA World Tour is one of [ Madonna 's ] most spectacular to date and she still performs with the passion and the energy she always has done . If you went to the show then get your copy of this and treat it like a souvenir . If you didn 't you need to check it out as it 's one of the best shows she 's ever done . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic awarded the release three out of five stars , saying that " there are unexpected musical moments that do make MDNA World Tour worth hearing " , including the performance of " Like a Virgin " and " Like a Prayer " . However , he felt that the CD release was unnecessary since the album would be a better experience with its video .
The North Jersey Media Group gave the DVD 2 @.@ 5 starts out of five , saying that Madonna felt to be " overly " attached to her contemporary songs than her classic releases . They added " that plodding through overlong arrangements of inconsequential songs — from the annoyingly vocoder @-@ treated ' Revolver ' early to the throwaway dance cut ' Celebration ' at the end — will leave listeners wondering why so many substantial hits were given only a nod , if anything at all . " A review by Kevin Taft in online website " Edge on the Net " was overall negative . Taft noticed that Madonna 's vocals were altered and mixed so much that it sounded disembodied and did not match the singer 's lips . He was " shocked " to find that the audio CDs also contained the badly mixed songs . The reviewer explained that " The choice to have the backing track turned down so low doesn 't help much either . In fact , it makes it sound as if Madonna is on a cabaret stage with a five @-@ piece band ... For the six months it took Madge to edit her concert , one would wish she got her vocals to match her lips . " However , Taft commended the overall show and the technical brilliance accompanying it .
In an online chat with website Reddit , Madonna addressed the concerns regarding the mastering issues with the DVD and Blu @-@ ray in Europe , saying that she was horrified about the glitches and her record label was solving it . She concluded by saying that " [ I ] spent 6 months editing and doing the sound mix for the DVD the last thing I want to hear is that the fans aren 't getting the fruits of my labor . " On September 23 , 2013 , Interscope Records announced that they were recalling all the Blu @-@ ray discs issued in US , after hearing continuous reports of glitches in the sound from consumers , adding that an " error in manufacturing " compromised the 5 @.@ 1 audio of the discs . The announcement also added the following :
" Interscope Records would like to make consumers of Madonna 's MDNA World Tour Blu @-@ ray disc aware that the concert will be seen at its most optimal quality by properly adjusting the settings on your television to ' Normal / Movie ' mode rather than ' Dynamic / Enhanced ' mode . Older Blu @-@ ray players or those without a firmware upgrade may experience glitches when navigating the Blu @-@ ray menu . Follow the manufacturer 's instructions to upgrade firmware .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , MDNA World Tour failed to debut within the top @-@ forty of the Billboard 200 , unlike her previous live albums , and entered at number 90 with 4 @,@ 000 copies sold becoming her 26th entry on the chart . However , it entered at number one on the Top Music Videos chart with sales of 11 @,@ 000 copies , becoming her sixth consecutive and tenth video to top the chart — the most for any artist . MDNA World Tour was preceded by Madonna ( four weeks at number @-@ one in 1985 ) , Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour ( 10 weeks in 1986 ) , Ciao Italia : Live from Italy ( eight weeks in 1988 ) , The Immaculate Collection ( four weeks in 1991 ) , Drowned World Tour 2001 ( one week in 2001 ) , I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret ( two weeks in 2006 ) , The Confessions Tour ( two weeks in 2007 ) , Celebration : The Video Collection ( one week in 2009 ) and Sticky & Sweet Tour ( one week in 2010 ) . Keith Caulfield from Billboard noted that the debut on the Billboard 200 was with considerably lesser sales than the preceding album , Sticky & Sweet Tour , which entered the chart at number ten with sales of 28 @,@ 000 copies and atop the Top Music Videos with 5 @,@ 000 copies . Caulfield theorized that the only availability of MDNA World Tour as a digital album and CD on demand from Amazon.com hindered its ranking on the chart and issuing the album on the traditional music release formats of CD @-@ DVD combo would have increased sales . The following week , MDNA World Tour held on to the top spot of the Top Music Videos chart , with an additional sales of 3 @,@ 000 copies . MDNA World Tour became the 29th best selling music video on the year end tabulation of Billboard .
A midweek prediction by Music Week magazine had MDNA World Tour listed at position 37 of the UK Albums Chart . It ultimately debuted at number 55 on the chart with sales of 1 @,@ 759 copies while topping the DVD chart of the country with bigger first week sales of 5 @,@ 599 copies . MDNA World Tour became Madonna 's first live release not to enter the top @-@ twenty of the UK Albums Chart , after the top @-@ twenty placements at number 18 ( 14 @,@ 449 sales ) with I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret ( 2006 ) , number seven ( 22 @,@ 227 sales ) with The Confessions Tour ( 2007 ) and number 17 ( 12 @,@ 405 sales ) with Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2010 ) . The album 's highest placement was in Hungary , where it reached the top of the chart . It also attained top ten positions in France , Israel , Italy , Russia and Spain , while reaching top twenty in Poland and Portugal . Its lowest position was attained in Belgium Flanders region , where it failed to enter the top 100 of the Ultratop chart , reaching a peak of number 116 . MDNA World Tour was successful on the DVD listings of most of the nations , reaching the top of the charts of 17 providers . However , in Australia the album version was disqualified from charting in the ARIA Albums Chart , but it reached the top of the DVD charts for the issue of September 16 , 2013 .
= = Track listings = =
Notes
^ a signifies additional lyrics by
Track list adapted from AllMusic .
" Express Yourself " also contains a sample of Lady Gaga 's song " Born This Way " but the use is not credited in the album 's liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Directors – Danny B. Tull , Stephane Sennour
Production company – Semtex Films
Producer – Madonna
Executive producers – Arthur Fogel , Guy Oseary , Sara Zambreno
Photography – Mark Ritchie
Film editing – Madonna , Danny Tull
Costume designer – Arianne Phillips , Jean Paul Gaultier , Riccardo Tisci
Credits adapted from MDNA World Tour CD liner notes :
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels =
The indirect land use change impacts of biofuels , also known as ILUC , relates to the unintended consequence of releasing more carbon emissions due to land @-@ use changes around the world induced by the expansion of croplands for ethanol or biodiesel production in response to the increased global demand for biofuels .
As farmers worldwide respond to higher crop prices in order to maintain the global food supply @-@ and @-@ demand balance , pristine lands are cleared to replace the food crops that were diverted elsewhere to biofuels ' production . Because natural lands , such as rainforests and grasslands , store carbon in their soil and biomass as plants grow each year , clearance of wilderness for new farms translates to a net increase in greenhouse gas emissions . Due to this change in the carbon stock of the soil and the biomass , indirect land use change has consequences in the GHG balance of a biofuel .
Other authors have also argued that indirect land use changes produce other significant social and environmental impacts , affecting biodiversity , water quality , food prices and supply , land tenure , worker migration , and community and cultural stability .
= = History = =
The estimates of carbon intensity for a given biofuel depend on the assumptions regarding several variables . As of 2008 , multiple full life cycle studies had found that corn ethanol , cellulosic ethanol and Brazilian sugarcane ethanol produce lower greenhouse gas emissions than gasoline . None of these studies , however , considered the effects of indirect land @-@ use changes , and though land use impacts were acknowledged , estimation was considered too complex and difficult to model . A controversial paper published in February 2008 in Sciencexpress by a team led by Searchinger from Princeton University concluded that such effects offset the ( positive ) direct effects of both corn and cellulosic ethanol and that Brazilian sugarcane performed better , but still resulted in a small carbon debt .
After the Searchinger team paper , estimation of carbon emissions from ILUC , together with the food vs. fuel debate , became one of the most contentious issues relating to biofuels , debated in the popular media , scientific journals , op @-@ eds and public letters from the scientific community , and the ethanol industry , both American and Brazilian . This controversy intensified in April 2009 when the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) set rules that included ILUC impacts to establish the California Low @-@ Carbon Fuel Standard that entered into force in 2011 .
In May 2009 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) released a notice of proposed rulemaking for implementation of the 2007 modification of the Renewable Fuel Standard ( RFS ) . EPA 's proposed regulations also included ILUC , causing additional controversy among ethanol producers . EPA 's February 3 , 2010 final rule incorporated ILUC based on modelling that was significantly improved over the initial estimates .
The UK Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation program requires the Renewable Fuels Agency ( RFA ) to report potential indirect impacts of biofuel production , including indirect land use change or changes to food and other commodity prices . A July 2008 RFA study , known as the Gallager Review , found several risks and uncertainties , and that the " quantification of GHG emissions from indirect land @-@ use change requires subjective assumptions and contains considerable uncertainty " , and required further examination to properly incorporate indirect effects into calculation methodologies . A similarly cautious approach was followed by the European Union . In December 2008 the European Parliament adopted more stringent sustainability criteria for biofuels and directed the European Commission to develop a methodology to factor in GHG emissions from indirect land use change .
= = Studies and controversy = =
Before 2008 , several full life cycle ( " Well to Wheels " or WTW ) studies had found that corn ethanol reduced transport @-@ related greenhouse gas emissions . In 2007 a University of California , Berkeley team led by Farrel evaluated six previous studies , concluding that corn ethanol reduced GHG emissions by only 13 percent . However , 20 to 30 percent reduction for corn ethanol , and 85 to 85 percent for cellulosic ethanol , both figures estimated by Wang from Argonne National Laboratory , are more commonly cited . Wang reviewed 22 studies conducted between 1979 and 2005 , and ran simulations with Argonne 's GREET model . These studies accounted for direct land use changes . Several studies of Brazilian sugarcane ethanol showed that sugarcane as feedstock reduces GHG by 86 to 90 percent given no significant land use change . Estimates of carbon intensity depend on crop productivity , agricultural practices , power sources for ethanol distilleries and the energy efficiency of the distillery . None of these studies considered ILUC , due to estimation difficulties . Preliminary estimates by Delucchi from the University of California , Davis , suggested that carbon released by new lands converted to agricultural use was a large percentage of life @-@ cycle emissions .
= = = Searchinger and Fargione studies = = =
In 2008 Timothy Searchinger , a lawyer from Environmental Defense Fund , concluded that ILUC affects the life cycle assessment and that instead of saving , both corn and cellulosic ethanol increased carbon emissions as compared to gasoline by 93 and 50 percent respectively . Ethanol from Brazilian sugarcane performed better , recovering initial carbon emissions in 4 years , while U.S. corn ethanol required 167 years and cellulosic ethanol required a 52 years payback period . The study limited the analysis a 30 @-@ year period , assuming that land conversion emits 25 percent of the carbon stored in soils and all carbon in plants cleared for cultivation . Brazil , China , and India were considered among the overseas locations where land use change would occur as a result of diverting U.S. corn cropland , and it was assumed that new cropland in each of these regions correspond to different types of forest , savanna or grassland based on the historical proportion of each converted to cultivation in these countries during the 1990s .
Fargione and his team published a separate paper in the same issue of Sciencexpress claiming that clearing lands to produce biofuel feedstock created a carbon deficit . This deficit applies to both direct and indirect land use changes . The study examined six conversion scenarios : Brazilian Amazon to soybean biodiesel , Brazilian Cerrado to soybean biodiesel , Brazilian Cerrado to sugarcane ethanol , Indonesian or Malaysian lowland tropical rainforest to palm biodiesel , Indonesian or Malaysian peatland tropical rainforest to palm biodiesel , and U.S. Central grassland to corn ethanol . The carbon debt was defined as the amount of CO2 released during the first 50 years of this process of land conversion . For the two most common ethanol feedstocks , the study found that sugarcane ethanol produced on natural cerrado lands would take about 17 years to repay its carbon debt , while corn ethanol produced on U.S. central grasslands would result in a repayment time of about 93 years . The worst @-@ case scenario is converting Indonesian or Malaysian tropical peatland rainforest to palm biodiesel production , which would require about 420 years to repay .
= = = = Criticism and controversy = = = =
The Searchinger and Fargione studies created controversy in both the popular media and in scientific journals . Robert Zubrin observed that Searchinger 's " indirect analysis " approach is pseudo @-@ scientific and can be used to " prove anything " .
Wang and Haq from Argonne National Laboratory claiming : the assumptions were outdated ; they ignored the potential of increased efficiency ; and no evidence showed that " U.S. corn ethanol production has so far caused indirect land use in other countries . " They concluded that Searchinger demonstrated that ILUC " is much more difficult to model than direct land use changes " . In his response Searchinger rebutted each technical objection and asserted that " ... any calculation that ignores these emissions , however challenging it is to predict them with certainty , is too incomplete to provide a basis for policy decisions . "
Another criticism , by Kline and Dale from Oak Ridge National Laboratory , held that Searchinger et al. and Fargione et al . " ... do not provide adequate support for their claim that bioufuels cause high emissions due to land @-@ use change " , as their conclusions depends on a misleading assumption because more comprehensive field research found that these land use changes " ... are driven by interactions among cultural , technological , biophysical , economic , and demographic forces within a spatial and temporal context rather than by a single crop market " . Fargione et al. responded in part that although many factors contributed to land clearing , this " observation does not diminish the fact that biofuels also contribute to land clearing if they are produced on existing cropland or on newly cleared lands " . Searching disagreed with all of Kline and Dale arguments .
The U.S. biofuel industry also reacted , claiming that the " Searchinger study is clearly a ' worst case scenario ' analysis ... " and that this study " relies on a long series of highly subjective assumptions ... " Searchinger rebutted each claim , concluding that NFA 's criticisms were invalid . He noted that even if some of his assumptions are high estimates , the study also made many conservative assumptions .
= = = Brazil = = =
In February 2010 , Lapola estimated that planned expansion of Brazilian sugarcane and soybean biofuel plantations through 2020 would replace rangeland , with small direct land @-@ use impact on carbon emissions . However , the expansion of the rangeland frontier into Amazonian forests , driven by cattle ranching , would indirectly offset the savings . " Sugarcane ethanol and soybean biodiesel each contribute to nearly half of the projected indirect deforestation of 121 @,@ 970 km2 by 2020 , creating a carbon debt that would take about 250 years to be repaid .... "
The research also found that oil palm would cause the least land @-@ use changes and associated carbon debt . The analysis also modeled livestock density increases and found that " a higher increase of 0 @.@ 13 head per hectare in the average livestock density throughout the country could avoid the indirect land @-@ use changes caused by biofuels ( even with soybean as the biodiesel feedstock ) , while still fulfilling all food and bioenergy demands . " The authors conclude that intensification of cattle ranching and concentration on oil palm are required to achieve effective carbon savings , recommending closer collaboration between the biofuel and cattle @-@ ranching sectors .
The main Brazilian ethanol industry organization ( UNICA ) commented that such studies missed the continuing intensification of cattle production already underway .
A study by Arima et al. published in May 2011 used spatial regression modeling to provide the first statistical assessment of ILUC for the Brazilian Amazon due to soy production . Previously , the indirect impacts of soy crops were only anecdotal or analyzed through demand models at a global scale , while the study took a regional approach . The analysis showed a strong signal linking the expansion of soybean fields in settled agricultural areas at the southern and eastern rims of the Amazon basin to pasture encroachments for cattle production on the forest frontier . The results demonstrate the need to include ILUC in measuring the carbon footprint of soy crops , whether produced for biofuels or other end @-@ uses .
The Arima study is based on 761 municipalities located in the Legal Amazon of Brazil , and found that between 2003 and 2008 , soybean areas expanded by 39 @,@ 100 km ² in the basin 's agricultural areas , mainly in Mato Grosso . The model showed that a 10 % ( 3 @,@ 910 km ² ) reduction of soy in old pasture areas would have led to a reduction in deforestation of up to 40 % ( 26 @,@ 039 km ² ) in heavily forested municipalities of the Brazilian Amazon . The analysis showed that the displacement of cattle production due to agricultural expansion drives land use change in municipalities located hundreds of kilometers away , and that the Amazonian ILUC is not only measurable but its impact is significant .
= = Implementation = =
= = = United States = = =
= = = = California LCFS = = = =
On April 23 , 2009 , California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) approved the specific rules and carbon intensity reference values for the California Low @-@ Carbon Fuel Standard ( LCFS ) that take effect January 1 , 2011 . CARB 's rulemaking included ILUC . For some biofuels , CARB identified land use changes as a significant source of additional GHG emissions . It established one standard for gasoline and alternative fuels , and a second for diesel fuel and its replacements .
= = = = = Controversy = = = = =
The public consultation process before the ruling , and the ruling itself were controversial , yielding 229 comments . ILUC was one of the most contentious issues . On June 24 , 2008 , 27 scientists and researchers submitted a letter saying , " As researchers and scientists in the field of biomass to biofuel conversion , we are convinced that there simply is not enough hard empirical data to base any sound policy regulation in regards to the indirect impacts of renewable biofuels production . The field is relative new , especially when compared to the vast knowledge base present in fossil fuel production , and the limited analyses are driven by assumptions that sometimes lack robust empirical validation . " The New Fuels Alliance , representing more than two @-@ dozen biofuel companies , researchers and investors , questioned the Board intention to include indirect land use change effects into account , wrote " While it is likely true that zero is not the right number for the indirect effects of any product in the real world , enforcing indirect effects in a piecemeal way could have very serious consequences for the LCFS .... The argument that zero is not the right number does not justify enforcing a different wrong number , or penalizing one fuel for one category of indirect effects while giving another fuel pathway a free pass . "
On the other side , more than 170 scientists and economists urged that CARB , " include indirect land use change in the lifecycle analyses of heat @-@ trapping emissions from biofuels and other transportation fuels . This policy will encourage development of sustainable , low @-@ carbon fuels that avoid conflict with food and minimize harmful environmental impacts .... There are uncertainties inherent in estimating the magnitude of indirect land use emissions from biofuels , but assigning a value of zero is clearly not supported by the science . "
Industry representatives complained that the final rule overstated the environmental effects of corn ethanol , and also criticized the inclusion of ILUC as an unfair penalty to domestic corn ethanol because deforestation in the developing world was being tied to U.S. ethanol production . The 2011 limit for LCFS means that Mid @-@ west corn ethanol failed , unless current carbon intensity was reduced . Oil industry representatives complained that the standard left oil refiners with few options , such as Brazilian sugarcane ethanol , with its accompanying tariff . CARB officials and environmentalists counter that time and economic incentives will allow produces to adapt .
UNICA welcomed the ruling , while urging CARB to better reflect Brazilian practices , lowering their estimates of Brazilian emissions .
The only Board member who voted against the ruling explained that he had a " hard time accepting the fact that we 're going to ignore the comments of 125 scientists " , referring to the letter submitted by a group of scientists questioning the ILUC penalty . " They said the model was not good enough ... to use at this time as a component part of such an historic new standard . " CARB advanced the expected date for an expert working group to report on ILUC with refined estimates from January 2012 to January 2011 .
On December 2009 the Renewable Fuels Association ( RFA ) and Growth Energy , two U.S. ethanol lobbying groups , filed a lawsuit challenging LCFS ' constitutionality . The two organizations argued that LCFS violated both the Supremacy Clause and the Commerce Clause , jeopardizing the nationwide ethanol market .
= = = = EPA Renewable Fuel Standard = = = =
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 ( EISA ) established new renewable fuel categories and eligibility requirements , setting mandatory lifecycle emissions limits . EISA explicitly mandated EPA to include " direct emissions and significant indirect emissions such as significant emissions from land use changes . "
EISA required a 20 % reduction in lifecycle GHG emissions for any fuel produced at facilities that commenced construction after December 19 , 2007 to be classified as a " renewable fuel " ; a 50 % reduction for fuels to be classified as " biomass @-@ based diesel " or " advanced biofuel " , and a 60 % reduction to be classified as " cellulosic biofuel " . EISA provided limited flexibility to adjust these thresholds downward by up to 10 percent , and EPA proposed this adjustment for the advanced biofuels category . Existing plants were grandfathered in .
On May 5 , 2009 , EPA released a notice of proposed rulemaking for implementation of the 2007 modification of the Renewable Fuel Standard , known as RFS2 . The draft of the regulations was released for public comment during a 60 @-@ day period , a public hearing was held on 9 June 2009 , and also a workshop was conducted on 10 – 11 June 2009 .
EPA 's draft analysis stated that ILUC can produce significant near @-@ term GHG emissions due to land conversion , but that biofuels can pay these back over subsequent years . EPA highlighted two scenarios , varying the time horizon and the discount rate for valuing emissions . The first assumed a 30 @-@ year time period uses a 0 percent discount rate ( valuing emissions equally regardless of timing ) . The second scenario used a 100 @-@ year time period and a 2 % discount rate .
On the same day that EPA published its notice of proposed rulemaking , President Obama signed a Presidential Directive seeking to advance biofuels research and commercialization . The Directive established the Biofuels Interagency Working Group , to develop policy ideas for increasing investment in next @-@ generation fuels and for reducing their environmental footprint .
The inclusion of ILUC in the proposed ruling provoked complaints from ethanol and biodiesel producers . Several environmental organizations welcomed the inclusion of ILUC but criticized the consideration of a 100 @-@ year payback scenario , arguing that it underestimated land conversion effects . American corn growers , biodiesel producers , ethanol producers and Brazilian sugarcane ethanol producers complained about EPA 's methodology , while the oil industry requested an implementation delay .
On June 26 , 2009 , the House of Representatives approved the American Clean Energy and Security Act 219 to 212 , mandating EPA to exclude ILUC for a 5 @-@ year period , vis a vis RFS2 . During this period , more research is to be conducted to develop more reliable models and methodologies for estimating ILUC , and Congress will review this issue before allowing EPA to rule on this matter . The bill failed in the U.S. Senate .
On February 3 , 2010 , EPA issued its final RFS2 rule for 2010 and beyond . The rule incorporated direct and significant indirect emissions including ILUC . EPA incorporated comments and data from new studies . Using a 30 @-@ year time horizon and a 0 % discount rate , EPA concluded that multiple biofuels would meet this standard .
EPA 's analysis accepted both ethanol produced from corn starch and biobutanol from corn starch as " renewable fuels " . Ethanol produced from sugarcane became an " advanced fuel " . Both diesel produced from algal oils and biodiesel from soy oil and diesel from waste oils , fats , and greases fell in the " biomass @-@ based diesel " category . Cellulosic ethanol and cellulosic diesel met the " cellulosic biofuel " standard .
The table summarizes the mean GHG emissions estimated by EPA modelling and the range of variations considering that the main source of uncertainty in the life cycle analysis is the GHG emissions related to international land use change .
= = = = = Reactions = = = = =
UNICA welcomed the ruling , in particular , for the more precise lifecycle emissions estimate and hoped that classification the advanced biofuel designation would help eliminate the tariff .
The U.S. Renewable Fuels Association ( RFA ) also welcomed the ruling , as ethanol producers " require stable federal policy that provides them the market assurances they need to commercialize new technologies " , restating their ILUC objection .
RFA also complained that corn @-@ based ethanol scored only a 21 % reduction , noting that without ILUC , corn ethanol achieves a 52 % GHG reduction . RFA also objected that Brazilian sugarcane ethanol " benefited disproportionally " because EPA 's revisions lowered the initially equal ILUC estimates by half for corn and 93 % for sugarcane .
Several Midwestern lawmakers commented that they continued to oppose EPA 's consideration of the " dicey science " of indirect land use that " punishes domestic fuels " . House Agriculture Chairman Collin Peterson said , " ... to think that we can credibly measure the impact of international indirect land use is completely unrealistic , and I will continue to push for legislation that prevents unreliable methods and unfair standards from burdening the biofuels industry . "
EPA Administrator Lisa P. Jackson commented that the agency " did not back down from considering land use in its final rules , but the agency took new information into account that led to a more favorable calculation for ethanol " . She cited new science and better data on crop yield and productivity , more information on co @-@ products that could be produced from advanced biofuels and expanded land @-@ use data for 160 countries , instead of the 40 considered in the proposed rule .
= = = Europe = = =
As of 2010 , European Union and United Kingdom regulators had recognized the need to take ILUC into account , but had not determined the most appropriate methodology .
= = = = UK Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation = = = =
The UK Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation ( RTFO ) program requires fuel suppliers to report direct impacts , and asked the Renewable Fuels Agency ( RFA ) to report potential indirect impacts , including ILUC and commodity price changes . The RFA 's July 2008 " Gallager Review " , mentioned several risks regarding biofuels and required feedstock production to avoid agricultural land that would otherwise be used for food production , despite concluding that " quantification of GHG emissions from indirect land @-@ use change requires subjective assumptions and contains considerable uncertainty " . Some environmental groups argued that emissions from ILUC were not being taken into account and could be creating more emissions .
= = = = European Union = = = =
On December 17 , 2008 , the European Parliament approved the Renewable Energy Sources Directive ( COM ( 2008 ) 19 ) and amendments to the Fuel Quality Directive ( Directive 2009 / 30 ) , which included sustainability criteria for biofuels and mandated consideration of ILUC . The Directive established a 10 % biofuel target . A separate Fuel Quality Directive set the EU 's Low Carbon Fuel Standard , requiring a 6 % reduction in GHG intensity of EU transport fuels by 2020 . The legislation ordered the European Commission to develop a methodology to factor in GHG emissions from ILUC by December 31 , 2010 , based on the best available scientific evidence .
In the meantime , the European Parliament defined lands that were ineligible for producing biofuel feedstocks for the purpose of the Directives . This category included wetlands and continuously forested areas with canopy cover of more than 30 percent or cover between 10 and 30 percent given evidence that its existing carbon stock was low enough to justify conversion .
The Commission subsequently published terms of reference for three ILUC modeling exercises : one using a General Equilibrium model ; one using a Partial Equilibrium model and one comparing other global modeling exercises . It also consulted on a limited range of high @-@ level options for addressing ILUC to which 17 countries and 59 organizations responded . The United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food and several environmental organizations complained that the 2008 safeguards were inadequate . UNICA called for regulators to establish an empirical and " globally accepted methodology " to consider ILUC , with the participation of researchers and scientists from biofuel crop @-@ producing countries .
In 2010 some NGOs accused the European Commission of lacking transparency given its reluctance to release documents relating to the ILUC work . In March 2010 the Partial and General Equilibrium Modelling results were made available , with the disclaimer that the EC had not adopted the views contained in the materials . These indicate that a 1 @.@ 25 % increase in EU biofuel consumption would require around 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 hectares ( 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ) of land globally .
The scenarios for varied from 5 @.@ 6 @-@ 8 @.@ 6 % of road transport fuels . The study found that ILUC effects offset part of the emission benefits , and that above the 5 @.@ 6 % threshold , ILUC emissions increase rapidly increase . For the expected scenario of 5 @.@ 6 % by 2020 , the study estimated that biodiesel production increases would be mostly domestic , while bioethanol production would take place mainly in Brazil , regardless of EU duties . The analysis concluded that eliminating trade barriers would further reduce emissions , because the EU would import more from Brazil . Under this scenario , " direct emission savings from biofuels are estimated at 18 Mt CO
2 , additional emissions from ILUC at 5 @.@ 3 Mt CO
2 ( mostly in Brazil ) , resulting in a global net balance of nearly 13 Mt CO
2 savings in a 20 years horizon . The study also found that ILUC emissions were much greater for biodiesel from vegetable oil and estimated that in 2020 even at the 5 @.@ 6 % level were over half the greenhouse gas emissions from diesel .
As part of the announcement , the Commission stated that it would publish a report on ILUC by the end of 2010 .
= = = = = Certification system = = = = =
On June 10 , 2010 , the EC announced its decision to set up certification schemes for biofuels , including imports as part of the Renewable Energy Directive . The Commission encouraged E.U. nations , industry and NGOs to set up voluntary certification schemes . EC figures for 2007 showed that 26 % of biodiesel and 31 % of bioethanol used in the E.U. was imported , mainly from Brazil and the United States .
= = = = = Reactions = = = = =
UNICA welcomed the EU efforts to " engage independent experts in its assessments " but requested that improvements because " ... the report currently contains a certain number of inaccuracies , so once these are corrected , we anticipate even higher benefits resulting from the use of Brazilian sugarcane ethanol . " UNICA highlighted the fact that the report assumed land expansion that " does not take into consideration the agro @-@ ecological zoning for sugarcane in Brazil , which prevents cane from expanding into any type of native vegetation . "
Critics said the 10 % figure was reduced to 5 @.@ 6 % of transport fuels partly by exaggerating the contribution of electric vehicles ( EV ) in 2020 , as the study assumed EVs would represent 20 % of new car sales , two and six times the car industry 's own estimate . They also claimed the study " exaggerates to around 45 percent the contribution of bioethanol — the greenest of all biofuels — and consequently downplays the worst impacts of biodiesel . "
Environmental groups found that the measures " are too weak to halt a dramatic increase in deforestation " . According to Greenpeace , " indirect land @-@ use change impacts of biofuel production still are not properly addressed " , which for them was the most dangerous problem of biofuels
Industry representatives welcomed the certification system and some dismissed concerns regarding the lack of land use criteria . UNICA and other industry groups wanted the gaps in the rules filled to provide a clear operating framework .
The negotiations between the European Parliament and the Council of European Ministers continue . A deal is not foreseen before 2014
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= Endgame ( Megadeth album ) =
Endgame is the twelfth studio album by American thrash metal band Megadeth . It was released on September 15 , 2009 through Roadrunner Records and was produced by Dave Mustaine and Andy Sneap . Endgame was the first album to feature guitarist Chris Broderick , following Glen Drover 's departure in 2008 , and was the band 's last studio album with bassist James LoMenzo ; original bassist David Ellefson rejoined the band several months after the album 's release .
There are eleven tracks on the album , with lyrics inspired by subjects ranging from The Lord of the Rings and the financial crisis of 2007 – 08 , to insanity , torture and crime . Two singles were released from the album : " Head Crusher " and " The Right to Go Insane " ; the former was nominated for " Best Metal Performance " at the 2010 Grammy Awards . Endgame entered the Billboard 200 at number nine , and reached number one on the U.S. Top Hard Rock Albums chart . As of April 2011 it has sold about 150 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S. The album received generally positive reviews from music critics , and was thought to continue the success of the band 's previous album , United Abominations ( 2007 ) .
= = Writing and recording = =
On May 27 , 2009 , Megadeth frontman and guitarist Dave Mustaine confirmed twelve songs were complete and the group was currently mixing and mastering the record . The first preview from Endgame was a six @-@ minute video featuring Sneap describing the process of mixing " Head Crusher " at his studio in Derbyshire , England . In the video , he called the upcoming album " old @-@ school " . Endgame was recorded at the band 's studio , " Vic 's Garage " , in San Marcos , California . The track listing was initially revealed on July 2 , 2009 , although several track titles were later shortened for the final release . The album was produced by Andy Sneap , who also produced Megadeth 's previous album , United Abominations .
Mustaine said of the album : " It is fast , it is heavy , there is singing , yelling , speaking , and guest voices ( maybe not singing – more like in " Captive Honour " ) , the soloing is insane . " He described it as a riff @-@ oriented album , less melodic than the band 's mid @-@ to @-@ late 90s material . Mustaine had saved a number of old rehearsal tapes , which were used as the album 's starting point . The band members had online chats with fans on their website while recording , which according to Mustaine , helped lift the band 's enthusiasm .
= = = Title = = =
On the September 10 , 2009 edition of the Alex Jones Show , Jones suggested the title and cover of Endgame was inspired by the film Endgame , which he wrote and directed . Jones stated he had sent Mustaine a copy of the film after Mustaine made an appearance on the Alex Jones Show in 2008 . This was later confirmed by Mustaine in a subsequent appearance on Jones ' show .
= = Release and promotion = =
Megadeth finished recording the album on May 19 , and on June 18 , the album title was announced to be Endgame . The cover artwork was released online on July 27 , 2009 . John Lorenzi , who designed the cover for United Abominations , returned for the album cover for Endgame The release date for Endgame was announced on the Megadeth official website as September 15 , 2009 , and Metal Hammer was the first to review the album track by track . A week after its release , the album had sold 45 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and 8 @,@ 200 copies in Canada , debuting at number nine on the Billboard 200 , one place lower than the debut of United Abominations in 2007 . The album placed first on the Hard Rock Albums chart and second on the Rock Albums chart .
On May 10 , 2009 , Mustaine announced on TheLiveLine that some music from Megadeth would appear in the film Land of the Lost to help promote Endgame . Whether the music was to be from the album was not clear . During the message Mustaine left on TheLiveLine , it was stated there was new music playing in the background of the message . Ultimately , parts of the song " The Right To Go Insane " , can be heard near the end of the film . Another song from the album , " This Day We Fight ! " , was used as a playable song on Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock . As promotion for Endgame , Megadeth performed " Head Crusher " on the September 17 , 2009 , edition of Late Night with Jimmy Fallon .
Megadeth toured in support of the album , beginning in Grand Rapids , Michigan , in November 2009 and ending on December 13 , in Las Vegas , Nevada . The tour featured Machine Head , Suicide Silence , Warbringer , and Arcanium . Megadeth , Slayer , and Testament were set to embark on the American Carnage tour on January 18 , but it was postponed until summer due to Slayer frontman Tom Araya 's undergoing back surgery .
= = Songs = =
Endgame 's lyrical themes are diverse . " This Day We Fight ! " drew inspiration by Aragorn 's plea to his fighters from the Lord of the Rings trilogy . " 44 Minutes " is about the North Hollywood shootout of 1997 and the title is derived from the film 44 Minutes : The North Hollywood Shoot @-@ Out based on the event . " 1 @,@ 320 " was written about nitro fuel funny cars . Mustaine said " Bite the Hand " was written " about the greed of the fiduciary leaders of the financial world and how they just didn 't care about the responsibility they had to the public . " The title track was written " about a bill that ex @-@ President George W. Bush signed into law that gave him the power to put American citizens in detention centers here in the United States " .
" The Hardest Part of Letting Go … Sealed With a Kiss " is a two @-@ part song which Mustaine wrote for his wife . PopMatters reviewer Adrien Begrand called it a " twisted love song " . " Head Crusher " , describes the medieval torture device of the same name . Mustaine said " How The Story Ends " was inspired by the teachings of Sun Tzu . Begrand describes " The Right to Go Insane " as " [ Mustaine 's ] usual ' I ’ m slowly going nuts ' shtick " ; however , Mustaine stated the song was " about having been wiped out , like so many Americans , from the recession and potential depression years of 2000 [ sic ] " .
= = = Singles = = =
The album 's lead single was " Head Crusher " . According to Roadrunner Records ' website , a download of " Head Crusher " was available for 24 hours on July 7 , starting at 11 : 00 AM Eastern Time Zone . The availability of the download ended the morning of July 8 . The track was previously available for listening by calling Dave Mustaine 's number through the TheLiveLine.com , a service he launched that enables musicians to connect to their audience over the phone . The song was nominated for " Best Metal Performance " at the 52nd annual Grammy Awards – the band 's first Grammy nomination since the 1997 song " Trust " – and received a music video directed by Bill Fishman .
The second single , " The Right to Go Insane " , was released eight months later . A music video for it was released in April 2010 and featured then @-@ recently @-@ returned bass player David Ellefson . The video 's plot is roughly based on the story of Shawn Nelson , an unemployed plumber who rampaged through San Diego in a stolen M60 Patton tank . The video premiered at a show in Austin , Texas on March 26 during the anniversary tour for Rust in Peace . The song hit position 34 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks .
= = Critical reception = =
Endgame received generally positive reviews from critics . Stephanie Burkett from BBC Music said the album is " their most reliable and proficient album since Rust in Peace . " She also noted that Megadeth " are once again asserting their right to be considered one of the best and most consistent heavy metal groups on the planet . " Chad Bowar of About.com awarded four and a half stars saying , " Megadeth is still at the top of their game . Endgame has some old @-@ school moments , but also modern ones . 2007 ’ s United Abominations garnered a lot of critical praise and was on many year @-@ end best of lists that year ... Endgame is even better . " AllMusic 's Eduardo Rivadavia said " Megadeth 's second release for Roadrunner , Endgame , whose title apparently refers to " coming full circle " rather than any sort of goodbye , and finds the latest iteration of Megadeth – debuting new guitarist Chris Broderick ( ex @-@ Nevermore , Jag Panzer ) – working primarily within their technical thrash comfort zone ( think Peace Sells through Rust in Peace ) , with only a few latter @-@ day elements and rare experimental diversions . "
Adrien Begrand of Popmatters noted " not a moment is wasted on Endgame " and said " it 's all due to Mustaine sticking to his strengths , and with the extraordinarily talented Broderick as his new wingman , the record positively scorches with an intensity we haven ’ t heard since Rust in Peace . With its furious back @-@ and @-@ forth solos , opening instrumental ' Dialectic Chaos ' wastes no time in showcasing that dynamic between Mustaine and Broderick , and combined with the pure speed of ' This Day We Fight ! ' , longtime fans will be instantly reminded of the bracing ' Into the Lungs of Hell ' / ' Set the World Afire ' one @-@ two punch that kicks off 1988 's great So Far , So Good ... So What ! . " Mark Eglinton of The Quietus described the album as " a return to form " for Megadeth . Rock guitarist Slash gave a favorable review to Endgame via Twitter . Also , Q gave the album three stars out of five and said : " Endgame starts with an instrumental before hitting the kind of rhythms that once earned Megadeth the tag ' state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art speed @-@ metal @-@ band ' . "
Endgame has since been regarded as a high point of the band 's later career . It follows upon two well @-@ received predecessors , while the band started to change its musical direction on the following two albums . In 2013 , WhatCulture included Endgame as number five on its " Top 5 Megadeth albums " list , behind Killing is My Business ... and Business is Good ! .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Dave Mustaine except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Chart performance = =
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= Miran Pastourma =
Miran Pastourma is a famed pastourma and sujuk charcuterie business and market in Athens , Greece . The market has been in operation since 1922 . It is considered the charcuterie of the connoisseurs . Despite the Greek economic crisis , Miran is expanding its business and has doubled in size to accommodate increased demand . The founder of the shop , Miran Kourounlian , is thought to be the man who brought pastourma to Athens for the first time . Miran is considered the largest company of its kind in the European Union . The flavour of pastourma coming from the historical enterprise permeates Euripides Street in the centre of Athens . Miran and its neighbor Arapian Cold Cuts are considered two of the historical establishments of Athens . Miran has been in the same spot in Euripidou Street since its opening in 1922 . Miran is the recipient of multiple gourmet prizes .
= = History = =
The Miran Pastourma market was founded in Athens in 1922 by Miran Kourounlian , a refugee of the Armenian genocide who managed to escape to Constantinople from his native Kayseri . He eventually settled in Athens , Greece via Chios and then Peiraias . At the time , Miran Kourounlian was already experienced in making pastirma and sujuk and decided to establish a self @-@ named charcuterie business on 45 Evripidou Street near the Omonoia Square of Athens .
The market soon became popular throughout Athens , as it was one of the few pastourma and soutzouki sellers in the city . The company became even more popular when Miran Kourounlian 's son Bedros took over management in 1960 and began distributing the products throughout Greece . The store originally occupied an area of 3 m2 . In 1983 Bedros expanded the Miran product factory to 1300 m2 . After the death of Bedros in the 1990s , the family business was passed to his heirs , brothers Miran and Krikor Kourounlian , who manage the business today .
= = Today = =
Miran Pastourma serves pastourma and soutzouki in its original location on 45 Evripidou Street . In 1994 , the third generation of the Kourounlian pastourma makers has started a further expansion of the business both inside Greece and to the European Union . Under the management of Miran and Krikor Kourounlian , the company obtained a European Union export code in 1994 . It is now distributing products throughout the European Union and other countries . Miran has taken control of the Athens store while his brother Krikor oversees the factory , which produces between seven and ten tons of processed meat products yearly .
According to current manager Miran Kourounlian , the company 's success is due to its traditional preparation methods and the quality of the beef , which is superior overall to that found in Greece , since it is imported from Argentina . He believes that Greek meat lacks a " consistent quality " . Miran Kourounlian has stated in an interview that some of the customers of his store have been patrons since the 1940s and 1950s .
Miran has continued to grow despite Greece 's economic crisis , doubling in size . To celebrate the occasion , the grandson of Miran along with his brother Krikor and their father Bedros organised a party where they introduced their new product , pastourma made of camel meat .
Milan 's products include imported and Greek processed meats , cheese and spices . The Kourounlians have also signed agreements with similar enterprises in Europe under which the foreign enterprises will tailor their recipes according to the Miran product specifications so that their products will appeal to Greek consumers . The company 's products can now be found in major Greek supermarket chains . A postal @-@ delivery system for their products has been established to reach the internal Greek market . The delivery is free inside Greece and the meat is packed in special polystyrene packaging with dry ice to preserve freshness .
= = Reception = =
The Greek edition of Elle magazine includes Miran 's charcuterie in its list of the best of its kind .
According to the Ethnos newspaper , Miran 's meat for pastourma has been described as excellent . Ethnos and Elle praise Miran for cutting the pastourma by hand rather than with a cutting machine . Miran is also commended for aging the meat naturally and not in a warehouse .
Real Taste and Style magazine praises Miran Pastourmas as " the historical place for those seeking rare tastes " and " an art which started with Miran Kourounlian and which has been continued by his progeny " . The same magazine mentions that the Miran store is found in the best tourist guidebooks for Athens .
Lifo magazine describes Miran as the " Mecca of soutzouki " and mentions that the Miran soutzouki is made from lamb as well as beef and has been mixed with all the " beautiful and hot spices of planet Earth " .
= = Prizes = =
Gold medal for soutzouki .
Gold medal for rural sausage of partial maturation .
Silver medal for pastourmas .
Eleftherotypia Gourmet Prize .
= = Products = =
Miran products include :
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= Grave Circle A , Mycenae =
Grave Circle A in Mycenae is a 16th @-@ century BC royal cemetery situated to the south of the Lion Gate , the main entrance of the Bronze Age citadel of Mycenae , southern Greece . This burial complex was initially constructed outside the fortification walls of Mycenae , but was ultimately enclosed in the acropolis when the fortifications were extended during the 13th century BC . Grave Circle A and Grave Circle B , the latter found outside the walls of Mycenae , represent one of the major characteristics of the early phase of the Mycenaean civilization .
The circle has a diameter of 27 @.@ 5 m ( 90 ft ) and contains six shaft graves , where a total of nineteen bodies were buried . It has been suggested that a mound was constructed over each grave , and funeral stelae were erected . Among the objects found were a series of gold death masks , additionally beside the deceased were full sets of weapons , ornate staffs as well as gold and silver cups . The site was excavated by the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in 1876 , following the descriptions of Homer and Pausanias . One of the gold masks he unearthed became known as the " The Death Mask of Agamemnon " , ruler of Mycenae according to Greek mythology . However , it has been proved that the burials date circa three centuries earlier , before Agamemnon is supposed to have lived .
= = Background = =
During the end of the 3rd millennium BC ( circa 2200 BC ) , the indigenous inhabitants of mainland Greece underwent a cultural transformation attributed to climate change , local events and developments ( i.e. destruction of the " House of Tiles " ) , as well as to continuous contacts with various areas such as western Asia Minor , the Cyclades , Albania , and Dalmatia . These Bronze Age people were equipped with horses , surrounded themselves with luxury goods , and constructed elaborate shaft graves . The acropolis of Mycenae , one of the main centers of Mycenaean culture , located in Argolis , northeast Peloponnese , was built on a defensive hill at an elevation of 128 m ( 420 ft ) and covers an area of 30 @,@ 000 m2 ( 320 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The Shaft Graves found in Mycenae signified the elevation of a new Greek @-@ speaking royal dynasty whose economic power depended on long @-@ distance sea trade . Grave Circles A and B , the latter found outside the walls of Mycenae , represent one of the major characteristics of the early phase of the Mycenaean civilization .
= = History = =
Mycenaean shaft graves are essentially an Argive variant of the rudimentary Middle Helladic funerary tradition with features derived from Early Bronze Age traditions developed locally in mainland Greece . Grave Circle A , formed circa 1600 BC as a new elite burial place , was probably first restricted to men and seems to be a continuation of the earlier Grave Circle B and correlates with the general social trend of higher burial investment taking place throughout entire Greece that time . The Grave Circle A site was part of a larger funeral place from the Middle Helladic period . At the time it was built , during the Late Helladic I ( 1600 BC ) , there was probably a small unfortified palace on Mycenae , while the graves of the Mycenaean ruling family remained outside of the city walls . There is no evidence of a circular wall around the site during the period of the burials . The last interment took place circa 1500 BC .
Immediately after the last interment , the local rulers abandoned the shaft graves in favour of a new and more imposing form of tomb already developing in Messenia , south Peloponessus , the tholos . Around 1250 BC , when the fortifications of Mycenae were extended , the Grave Circle was included inside the new wall . A double ring peribolos wall was also built around the area . It appears that the site became a temenos ( sacred precinct ) , while a circular construction , possibly an altar was found above one grave . The burial site had been replanned as a monument , an attempt by the 13th century BC Mycenean rulers to appropriate the possible heroic past of the older ruling dynasty . Under this context , the land surface was built up to make a level precinct for ceremonies , with the stelae over the graves being re @-@ erected . A new entrance , the Lion Gate , was constructed near the site .
= = Findings = =
Grave Circle A , with a diameter of 27 @.@ 5 m ( 90 ft ) , is situated on the acropolis of Mycenae southeast of the Lion Gate . The site is surrounded by two rows of slabs , while the space between the rows was filled with earth and roofed with slabs . The Grave Circle contains six shaft graves , the smallest of which is measured at 3 @.@ 0 m by 3 @.@ 5 m and the largest measured at 4 @.@ 50 m by 6 @.@ 40 m ( the depth of each shaft grave ranges from 1 @.@ 0 m to 4 @.@ 0 m ) . Over each grave a mound was constructed and stelae were erected . These stelae had been probably erected in memory of the Mycenaean rulers buried there ; three of them depict chariot scenes .
A total of nineteen bodies – eight men , nine women and two children – were found in the shafts , which contained two to five bodies each ( with the exception of Grave II , which was a single burial ) . Among the findings , boars ' tusks were found in Grave IV , as well as five golden masks in Graves IV and V. One of them , the supposed Mask of Agamemnon , was found in Grave V. Additionally , gold and silver cups , including Nestor 's Cup and the Silver Siege Rhyton , were found by the side of the deceased . A number of gold rings , buttons and bracelets were also found . Most of the graves were equipped with full sets of weapons , especially swords , and the figural depictions of the objects show fighting and hunting scenes .
Many objects were designed to signify the social rank of the deceased , for instance , decorated daggers , which were objects d 'art and cannot be considered real weapons . Ornate staffs as well as a scepter from Grave IV clearly indicate a very significant status of the deceased . Items such as bulls ' heads with a double axe display clear Minoan influences . At the time that the Grave Circle was built , the Mycenaeans had not yet conquered Minoan Crete . Although it seems that they recognized the Minoans as the providers of the finest in design and craftsmanship , most of the objects decorated in Minoan style and buried in Grave Circle A are not of Minoan but of indigenous craftsmanship . On the other hand , certain motifs such as fighting and hunting scenes are clearly of Mycenaean style .
= = Excavations = =
The site of Mycenae was the first in Greece to be subjected to modern archaeological excavation . It was excavated by the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in 1876 . Schliemann , inspired by Homer ’ s descriptions in the Iliad , in which Mycenae is termed " abounding in gold " , began digging there . He was also following the accounts of the ancient geographer Pausanias who , during the 2nd century AD , described the once prosperous site and mentioned that according to a local tradition , the graves of Agamemnon and his followers , including his charioteer Eurymedon and the two children of Cassandra , were buried within the citadel . What Schliemann discovered in his excavation satisfied both his opinion of Homer 's historical accuracy and his craving for valuable treasures . Among the objects he unearthed in Grave Circle A was a series of gold death masks , including one he proclaimed " The Death Mask of Agamemnon " . Schliemann cleared five shafts and recognized them as the graves mentioned by Pausanias . He stopped his exploration after the fifth grave was explored , believing that he had finished excavating the Grave Circle , however a year later Panagiotis Stamatakis found a sixth shaft grave .
It has since been proven that the burials in Grave Circle A date from 16th century BC , before the traditional time of the Trojan War ( 13th @-@ 12th century BC ) , in which Agamemnon is supposed to have participated .
= = Historical inferences = =
The valuable objects found in the graves suggest that powerful rulers were buried in this site . Although Agamemnon was supposed to have lived centuries later , these graves might have belonged to the former ruling dynasty of Mycenae – according to Greek mythology , the Perseides .
In the 2006 History Channel documentary , The Exodus Decoded , it was suggested that some of the objects are related to the events of the Exodus , the departure of the Israelites from ancient Egypt . It was argued that the Tribe of Dan is linked with the Danaans of the Greek mythology , though this view is not widely supported .
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= Patterns in nature =
Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world . These patterns recur in different contexts and can sometimes be modelled mathematically . Natural patterns include symmetries , trees , spirals , meanders , waves , foams , tessellations , cracks and stripes . Early Greek philosophers studied pattern , with Plato , Pythagoras and Empedocles attempting to explain order in nature . The modern understanding of visible patterns developed gradually over time .
In the 19th century , Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau examined soap films , leading him to formulate the concept of a minimal surface . German biologist and artist Ernst Haeckel painted hundreds of marine organisms to emphasise their symmetry . Scottish biologist D 'Arcy Thompson pioneered the study of growth patterns in both plants and animals , showing that simple equations could explain spiral growth . In the 20th century , British mathematician Alan Turing predicted mechanisms of morphogenesis which give rise to patterns of spots and stripes . Hungarian biologist Aristid Lindenmayer and French American mathematician Benoît Mandelbrot showed how the mathematics of fractals could create plant growth patterns .
Mathematics , physics and chemistry can explain patterns in nature at different levels . Patterns in living things are explained by the biological processes of natural selection and sexual selection . Studies of pattern formation make use of computer models to simulate a wide range of patterns .
= = History = =
Early Greek philosophers attempted to explain order in nature , anticipating modern concepts . Plato ( c 427 – c 347 BC ) — looking only at his work on natural patterns — argued for the existence of universals . He considered these to consist of ideal forms ( εἶδος eidos : " form " ) of which physical objects are never more than imperfect copies . Thus , a flower may be roughly circular , but it is never a perfect mathematical circle . Pythagoras explained patterns in nature like the harmonies of music as arising from number , which he took to be the basic constituent of existence . Empedocles to an extent anticipated Darwin 's evolutionary explanation for the structures of organisms .
In 1202 , Leonardo Fibonacci ( c 1170 – c 1250 ) introduced the Fibonacci number sequence to the western world with his book Liber Abaci . Fibonacci gave an ( unrealistic ) biological example , on the growth in numbers of a theoretical rabbit population . In 1917 , D 'Arcy Wentworth Thompson ( 1860 – 1948 ) published his book On Growth and Form . His description of phyllotaxis and the Fibonacci sequence , the mathematical relationships in the spiral growth patterns of plants , is classic . He showed that simple equations could describe all the apparently complex spiral growth patterns of animal horns and mollusc shells .
The Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau ( 1801 – 1883 ) formulated the mathematical problem of the existence of a minimal surface with a given boundary , which is now named after him . He studied soap films intensively , formulating Plateau 's laws which describe the structures formed by films in foams .
The German psychologist Adolf Zeising ( 1810 – 1876 ) claimed that the golden ratio was expressed in the arrangement of plant parts , in the skeletons of animals and the branching patterns of their veins and nerves , as well as in the geometry of crystals .
Ernst Haeckel ( 1834 – 1919 ) painted beautiful illustrations of marine organisms , in particular Radiolaria , emphasising their symmetry to support his faux @-@ Darwinian theories of evolution .
The American photographer Wilson Bentley ( 1865 – 1931 ) took the first micrograph of a snowflake in 1885 .
In 1952 , Alan Turing ( 1912 – 1954 ) , better known for his work on computing and codebreaking , wrote The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis , an analysis of the mechanisms that would be needed to create patterns in living organisms , in the process called morphogenesis . He predicted oscillating chemical reactions , in particular the Belousov – Zhabotinsky reaction . These activator @-@ inhibitor mechanisms can , Turing suggested , generate patterns of stripes and spots in animals , and contribute to the spiral patterns seen in plant phyllotaxis .
In 1968 , the Hungarian theoretical biologist Aristid Lindenmayer ( 1925 – 1989 ) developed the L @-@ system , a formal grammar which can be used to model plant growth patterns in the style of fractals . L @-@ systems have an alphabet of symbols that can be combined using production rules to build larger strings of symbols , and a mechanism for translating the generated strings into geometric structures . In 1975 , after centuries of slow development of the mathematics of patterns by Gottfried Leibniz , Georg Cantor , Helge von Koch , Wacław Sierpiński and others , Benoît Mandelbrot wrote a famous paper , How Long Is the Coast of Britain ? Statistical Self @-@ Similarity and Fractional Dimension , crystallising mathematical thought into the concept of the fractal .
= = Causes = =
Living things like orchids , hummingbirds , and the peacock 's tail have abstract designs with a beauty of form , pattern and colour that artists struggle to match . The beauty that people perceive in nature has causes at different levels , notably in the mathematics that governs what patterns can physically form , and among living things in the effects of natural selection , that govern how patterns evolve .
Mathematics seeks to discover and explain abstract patterns or regularities of all kinds . Visual patterns in nature find explanations in chaos theory , fractals , logarithmic spirals , topology and other mathematical patterns . For example , L @-@ systems form convincing models of different patterns of tree growth .
The laws of physics apply the abstractions of mathematics to the real world , often as if it were perfect . For example , a crystal is perfect when it has no structural defects such as dislocations and is fully symmetric . Exact mathematical perfection can only approximate real objects . Visible patterns in nature are governed by physical laws ; for example , meanders can be explained using fluid dynamics .
In biology , natural selection can cause the development of patterns in living things for several reasons , including camouflage , sexual selection , and different kinds of signalling , including mimicry and cleaning symbiosis . In plants , the shapes , colours , and patterns of flowers like the lily have evolved to optimise insect pollination ( other plants may be pollinated by wind , birds , or bats ) . European honey bees and other pollinating insects are attracted to flowers by a radial pattern of colours and stripes ( some visible only in ultraviolet light ) that serve as nectar guides that can be seen at a distance ; by scent ; and by rewards of sugar @-@ rich nectar and edible pollen .
= = Types of pattern = =
= = = Symmetry = = =
Symmetry is pervasive in living things . Animals mainly have bilateral or mirror symmetry , as do the leaves of plants and some flowers such as orchids . Plants often have radial or rotational symmetry , as do many flowers and some groups of animals such as sea anemones . Fivefold symmetry is found in the echinoderms , the group that includes starfish , sea urchins , and sea lilies .
Among non @-@ living things , snowflakes have striking sixfold symmetry : each flake is unique , its structure forming a record of the varying conditions during its crystallisation , with nearly the same pattern of growth on each of its six arms . Crystals in general have a variety of symmetries and crystal habits ; they can be cubic or octahedral , but true crystals cannot have fivefold symmetry ( unlike quasicrystals ) . Rotational symmetry is found at different scales among non @-@ living things including the crown @-@ shaped splash pattern formed when a drop falls into a pond , and both the spheroidal shape and rings of a planet like Saturn .
Symmetry has a variety of causes . Radial symmetry suits organisms like sea anemones whose adults do not move : food and threats may arrive from any direction . But animals that move in one direction necessarily have upper and lower sides , head and tail ends , and therefore a left and a right . The head becomes specialised with a mouth and sense organs ( cephalisation ) , and the body becomes bilaterally symmetric ( though internal organs need not be ) . More puzzling is the reason for the fivefold ( pentaradiate ) symmetry of the echinoderms . Early echinoderms were bilaterally symmetrical , as their larvae still are . Sumrall and Wray argue that the loss of the old symmetry had both developmental and ecological causes .
= = = Trees , fractals = = =
Fractals are infinitely self @-@ similar , iterated mathematical constructs having fractal dimension . Infinite iteration is not possible in nature so all ' fractal ' patterns are only approximate . For example , the leaves of ferns and umbellifers ( Apiaceae ) are only self @-@ similar ( pinnate ) to 2 , 3 or 4 levels . Fern @-@ like growth patterns occur in plants and in animals including bryozoa , corals , hydrozoa like the air fern , Sertularia argentea , and in non @-@ living things , notably electrical discharges . Lindenmayer system fractals can model different patterns of tree growth by varying a small number of parameters including branching angle , distance between nodes or branch points ( internode length ) , and number of branches per branch point .
Fractal @-@ like patterns occur widely in nature , in phenomena as diverse as clouds , river networks , geologic fault lines , mountains , coastlines , animal coloration , snow flakes , crystals , blood vessel branching , and ocean waves .
= = = Spirals = = =
Spirals are common in plants and in some animals , notably molluscs . For example , in the nautilus , a cephalopod mollusc , each chamber of its shell is an approximate copy of the next one , scaled by a constant factor and arranged in a logarithmic spiral . Given a modern understanding of fractals , a growth spiral can be seen as a special case of self @-@ similarity .
Plant spirals can be seen in phyllotaxis , the arrangement of leaves on a stem , and in the arrangement ( parastichy ) of other parts as in composite flower heads and seed heads like the sunflower or fruit structures like the pineapple and snake fruit , as well as in the pattern of scales in pine cones , where multiple spirals run both clockwise and anticlockwise . These arrangements have explanations at different levels – mathematics , physics , chemistry , biology – each individually correct , but all necessary together . Phyllotaxis spirals can be generated mathematically from Fibonacci ratios : the Fibonacci sequence runs 1 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 8 , 13 ... ( each subsequent number being the sum of the two preceding ones ) . For example , when leaves alternate up a stem , one rotation of the spiral touches two leaves , so the pattern or ratio is 1 / 2 . In hazel the ratio is 1 / 3 ; in apricot it is 2 / 5 ; in pear it is 3 / 8 ; in almond it is 5 / 13 . In disc phyllotaxis as in the sunflower and daisy , the florets are arranged in Fermat 's spiral with Fibonacci numbering , at least when the flowerhead is mature so all the elements are the same size . Fibonacci ratios approximate the golden angle , 137 @.@ 508 ° , which governs the curvature of Fermat 's spiral .
From the point of view of physics , spirals are lowest @-@ energy configurations which emerge spontaneously through self @-@ organizing processes in dynamic systems . From the point of view of chemistry , a spiral can be generated by a reaction @-@ diffusion process , involving both activation and inhibition . Phyllotaxis is controlled by proteins that manipulate the concentration of the plant hormone auxin , which activates meristem growth , alongside other mechanisms to control the relative angle of buds around the stem . From a biological perspective , arranging leaves as far apart as possible in any given space is favoured by natural selection as it maximises access to resources , especially sunlight for photosynthesis .
= = = Chaos , flow , meanders = = =
In mathematics , a dynamical system is chaotic if it is ( highly ) sensitive to initial conditions ( the so @-@ called " butterfly effect " ) , which requires the mathematical properties of topological mixing and dense periodic orbits .
Alongside fractals , chaos theory ranks as an essentially universal influence on patterns in nature . There is a relationship between chaos and fractals — the strange attractors in chaotic systems have a fractal dimension . Some cellular automata , simple sets of mathematical rules that generate patterns , have chaotic behaviour , notably Stephen Wolfram 's Rule 30 .
Vortex streets are zigzagging patterns of whirling vortices created by the unsteady separation of flow of a fluid , most often air or water , over obstructing objects . Smooth ( laminar ) flow starts to break up when the size of the obstruction or the velocity of the flow become large enough compared to the viscosity of the fluid .
Meanders are sinuous bends in rivers or other channels , which form as a fluid , most often water , flows around bends . As soon as the path is slightly curved , the size and curvature of each loop increases as helical flow drags material like sand and gravel across the river to the inside of the bend . The outside of the loop is left clean and unprotected , so erosion accelerates , further increasing the meandering in a powerful positive feedback loop .
= = = Waves , dunes = = =
Waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move . Mechanical waves propagate through a medium – air or water , making it oscillate as they pass by . Wind waves are sea surface waves that create the characteristic chaotic pattern of any large body of water , though their statistical behaviour can be predicted with wind wave models . As waves in water or wind pass over sand , they create patterns of ripples . When winds blow over large bodies of sand , they create dunes , sometimes in extensive dune fields as in the Taklamakan desert . Dunes may form a range of patterns including crescents , very long straight lines , stars , domes , parabolas , and longitudinal or Seif ( ' sword ' ) shapes .
Barchans or crescent dunes are produced by wind acting on desert sand ; the two horns of the crescent and the slip face point downwind . Sand blows over the upwind face , which stands at about 15 degrees from the horizontal , and falls on to the slip face , where it accumulates up to the angle of repose of the sand , which is about 35 degrees . When the slip face exceeds the angle of repose , the sand avalanches , which is a nonlinear behaviour : the addition of many small amounts of sand causes nothing much to happen , but then the addition of a further small amount suddenly causes a large amount to avalanche . Apart from this nonlinearity , barchans behave rather like solitary waves .
= = = Bubbles , foam = = =
A soap bubble forms a sphere , a surface with minimal area — the smallest possible surface area for the volume enclosed . Two bubbles together form a more complex shape : the outer surfaces of both bubbles are spherical ; these surfaces are joined by a third spherical surface as the smaller bubble bulges slightly into the larger one .
A foam is a mass of bubbles ; foams of different materials occur in nature . Foams composed of soap films obey Plateau 's laws , which require three soap films to meet at each edge at 120 ° and four soap edges to meet at each vertex at the tetrahedral angle of about 109 @.@ 5 ° . Plateau 's laws further require films to be smooth and continuous , and to have a constant average curvature at every point . For example , a film may remain nearly flat on average by being curved up in one direction ( say , left to right ) while being curved downwards in another direction ( say , front to back ) . Structures with minimal surfaces can be used as tents . Lord Kelvin identified the problem of the most efficient way to pack cells of equal volume as a foam in 1887 ; his solution uses just one solid , the bitruncated cubic honeycomb with very slightly curved faces to meet Plateau 's laws . No better solution was found until 1993 when Denis Weaire and Robert Phelan proposed the Weaire – Phelan structure ; the Beijing National Aquatics Center adapted the structure for their outer wall in the 2008 Summer Olympics .
At the scale of living cells , foam patterns are common ; radiolarians , sponge spicules , silicoflagellate exoskeletons and the calcite skeleton of a sea urchin , Cidaris rugosa , all resemble mineral casts of Plateau foam boundaries . The skeleton of the Radiolarian , Aulonia hexagona , a beautiful marine form drawn by Haeckel , looks as if it is a sphere composed wholly of hexagons , but this is mathematically impossible . The Euler characteristic states that for any convex polyhedron , the number of faces plus the number of vertices ( corners ) equals the number of edges plus two . A result of this formula is that any closed polyhedron of hexagons has to include exactly 12 pentagons , like a soccer ball , Buckminster Fuller geodesic dome , or fullerene molecule . This can be visualised by noting that a mesh of hexagons is flat like a sheet of chicken wire , but each pentagon that is added forces the mesh to bend ( there are fewer corners , so the mesh is pulled in ) .
= = = Tessellations = = =
Tessellations are patterns formed by repeating tiles all over a flat surface . There are 17 wallpaper groups of tilings . While common in art and design , exactly repeating tilings are less easy to find in living things . The cells in the paper nests of social wasps , and the wax cells in honeycomb built by honey bees are well @-@ known examples . Among animals , bony fish , reptiles or the pangolin , or fruits like the Salak are protected by overlapping scales or osteoderms , these form more @-@ or @-@ less exactly repeating units , though often the scales in fact vary continuously in size . Among flowers , the Snake 's Head Fritillary , Fritillaria meleagris , have a tessellated chequerboard pattern on their petals . The structures of minerals provide good examples of regularly repeating three @-@ dimensional arrays . Despite the hundreds of thousands of known minerals , there are rather few possible types of arrangement of atoms in a crystal , defined by crystal structure , crystal system , and point group ; for example , there are exactly 14 Bravais lattices for the 7 lattice systems in three @-@ dimensional space .
= = = Cracks = = =
Cracks are linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress . When an elastic material stretches or shrinks uniformly , it eventually reaches its breaking strength and then fails suddenly in all directions , creating cracks with 120 degree joints , so three cracks meet at a node . Conversely , when an inelastic material fails , straight cracks form to relieve the stress . Further stress in the same direction would then simply open the existing cracks ; stress at right angles can create new cracks , at 90 degrees to the old ones . Thus the pattern of cracks indicates whether the material is elastic or not . In a tough fibrous material like oak tree bark , cracks form to relieve stress as usual , but they do not grow long as their growth is interrupted by bundles of strong elastic fibres . Since each species of tree has its own structure at the levels of cell and of molecules , each has its own pattern of splitting in its bark .
= = = Spots , stripes = = =
Leopards and ladybirds are spotted ; angelfish and zebras are striped . These patterns have an evolutionary explanation : they have functions which increase the chances that the offspring of the patterned animal will survive to reproduce . One function of animal patterns is camouflage ; for instance , a leopard that is harder to see catches more prey . Another function is signalling — for instance , a ladybird is less likely to be attacked by predatory birds that hunt by sight , if it has bold warning colours , and is also distastefully bitter or poisonous , or mimics other distasteful insects . A young bird may see a warning patterned insect like a ladybird and try to eat it , but it will only do this once ; very soon it will spit out the bitter insect ; the other ladybirds in the area will remain unmolested . The young leopards and ladybirds , inheriting genes that somehow create spottedness , survive . But while these evolutionary and functional arguments explain why these animals need their patterns , they do not explain how the patterns are formed .
= = = Pattern formation = = =
Alan Turing , and later the mathematical biologist James Murray , described a mechanism that spontaneously creates spotted or striped patterns : a reaction @-@ diffusion system . The cells of a young organism have genes that can be switched on by a chemical signal , a morphogen , resulting in the growth of a certain type of structure , say a darkly pigmented patch of skin . If the morphogen is present everywhere , the result is an even pigmentation , as in a black leopard . But if it is unevenly distributed , spots or stripes can result . Turing suggested that there could be feedback control of the production of the morphogen itself . This could cause continuous fluctuations in the amount of morphogen as it diffused around the body . A second mechanism is needed to create standing wave patterns ( to result in spots or stripes ) : an inhibitor chemical that switches off production of the morphogen , and that itself diffuses through the body more quickly than the morphogen , resulting in an activator @-@ inhibitor scheme . The Belousov – Zhabotinsky reaction is a non @-@ biological example of this kind of scheme , a chemical oscillator .
Later research has managed to create convincing models of patterns as diverse as zebra stripes , giraffe blotches , jaguar spots ( medium @-@ dark patches surrounded by dark broken rings ) and ladybird shell patterns ( different geometrical layouts of spots and stripes , see illustrations ) . Richard Prum 's activation @-@ inhibition models , developed from Turing 's work , use six variables to account for the observed range of nine basic within @-@ feather pigmentation patterns , from the simplest , a central pigment patch , via concentric patches , bars , chevrons , eye spot , pair of central spots , rows of paired spots and an array of dots . More elaborate models simulate complex feather patterns in the Guinea fowl , Numida meleagris , in which the individual feathers feature transitions from bars at the base to an array of dots at the far ( distal ) end . These require an oscillation created by two inhibiting signals , with interactions in both space and time .
Patterns can form for other reasons in the vegetated landscape of tiger bush and fir waves . Tiger bush stripes occur on arid slopes where plant growth is limited by rainfall . Each roughly horizontal stripe of vegetation effectively collects the rainwater from the bare zone immediately above it . Fir waves occur in forests on mountain slopes after wind disturbance , during regeneration . When trees fall , the trees that they had sheltered become exposed and are in turn more likely to be damaged , so gaps tend to expand downwind . Meanwhile , on the windward side , young trees grow , protected by the wind shadow of the remaining tall trees . Natural patterns are sometimes formed by animals , as in the Mima mounds of the Northwestern United States and some other areas , which appear to be created over many years by the burrowing activities of pocket gophers .
In permafrost soils with an active upper layer subject to annual freeze and thaw , patterned ground can form , creating circles , nets , ice wedge polygons , steps , and stripes . Thermal contraction causes shrinkage cracks to form ; in a thaw , water fills the cracks , expanding to form ice when next frozen , and widening the cracks into wedges . These cracks may join up to form polygons and other shapes .
= = = Pioneering authors = = =
Fibonacci , Leonardo . Liber Abaci , 1202 .
----- translated by Sigler , Laurence E. Fibonacci 's Liber Abaci . Springer , 2002 .
Haeckel , Ernst . Kunstformen der Natur ( Art Forms in Nature ) , 1899 – 1904 .
Thompson , D 'Arcy Wentworth . On Growth and Form . Cambridge , 1917 .
= = = General books = = =
Adam , John A. Mathematics in Nature : Modeling Patterns in the Natural World . Princeton University Press , 2006 .
Ball , Philip . Nature 's Patterns : a tapestry in three parts . 1 : Shapes . 2 : Flow . 3 : Branches . Oxford , 2009 .
Murphy , Pat and Neill , William . By Nature 's Design . Chronicle Books , 1993 .
Rothenberg , David . Survival of the Beautiful : Art , Science and Evolution . Bloomsbury Press , 2011 .
Stevens , Peter S. Patterns in Nature . Little , Brown & Co , 1974 .
Stewart , Ian . What Shape is a Snowflake ? Magical Numbers in Nature . Weidenfeld & Nicolson , 2001 .
= = = Patterns from nature ( as art ) = = =
Edmaier , Bernard . Patterns of the Earth . Phaidon Press , 2007 .
Macnab , Maggie . Design by Nature : Using Universal Forms and Principles in Design . New Riders , 2012 .
Nakamura , Shigeki . Pattern Sourcebook : 250 Patterns Inspired by Nature .. Books 1 and 2 . Rockport , 2009 .
O 'Neill , Polly . Surfaces and Textures : A Visual Sourcebook . Black , 2008 .
Porter , Eliot , and Gleick , James . Nature 's Chaos . Viking Penguin , 1990 .
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= Crabble Athletic Ground =
The Crabble Athletic Ground , also known as The Crabble or simply Crabble. is a football stadium located in the northern Dover suburb of River , Kent , England . It was the home of the various incarnations of Dover F.C. from 1931 until the club folded in 1983 . Since then it has been the home of Dover Athletic F.C. , and it was also the temporary home of Margate F.C. between 2002 and 2004 , when the club 's Hartsdown Park stadium was being redeveloped . The stadium has two seated stands and two covered terraces and holds a total of 5 @,@ 745 fans ( including 1 @,@ 010 seats and 3 @,@ 642 covered terracing ) , although in the past , crowds larger than that figure could be accommodated . It also has a clubhouse , which the club completely redeveloped in 2008 .
= = History = =
In 1896 , a syndicate of local businessmen began a project to create a sports complex at the site known as Crabble Meadows on the outskirts of Dover . The word Crabble , which is also found in the name of a local corn mill , derives from the Old English crabba hol , meaning a hole in which crabs are found . The project was an extremely costly one but was completed in 1897 , and football was first played on the Crabble site in the same year . In 1902 , the original owners of the site , beset by financial problems , contemplated selling the land for redevelopment but eventually sold the site to the town council for £ 5 @,@ 500 . The pitch was shared by the town 's cricket and football teams , with the cricketers being given priority , which meant that the football team was forced to begin and end its season either with a long run of consecutive away matches or by playing matches at other , less satisfactory , venues in the town . To resolve the issue , the council opted to lay out a new football pitch further up the hillside , behind the lower pitch 's pavilion . The first match played on the " upper pitch " took place in September 1931 , with a small stand being constructed the following year . The football club then used the upper pitch whenever the lower pitch was unavailable due to cricket commitments .
Dover F.C. applied for permission to build a grandstand on the southern side of the " upper pitch " in 1947 , but the application was rejected . Three years later , the club was permitted to extend the existing small stand on the opposite side and in 1951 , Dover F.C. moved to the upper pitch on a permanent basis , initially paying the council rent of £ 300 a year . The final match on the lower pitch took place on 26 March 1951 , and the first on the upper pitch was held eleven days later , when Fulham were Dover 's opponents in a friendly . Due to a shortage of bolts , the grandstand had not actually been completed at this time . Covered terracing at the Town End , where fans had previously stood on the hillside , was added soon afterwards . Floodlights were added in 1961 and inaugurated with a match against a Chelsea XI .
Dover F.C folded in 1983 , but the newly formed Dover Athletic took over the ground and continued to make improvements . When the team won the Southern League championship in 1990 , however , promotion to the Football Conference was refused on the grounds that the stadium did not meet the standard required by the higher division . Subsequently , new turnstiles were installed and two new terraces were built behind the goals . The seating in the main stand was replaced and a second grandstand was added on the opposite side of the pitch . These improvements meant that the club was able to gain promotion after its second Southern League title in 1993 . In the 2002 – 03 and 2003 – 04 seasons , Margate F.C. played home fixtures at the stadium while redevelopment work took place at their own Hartsdown Park ground . What was originally intended to be a short @-@ term arrangement ended up lasting for two years as the redevelopment work stalled .
Between 2003 and 2004 , the ground was known as the Hoverspeed Stadium under the terms of a sponsorship deal . In 2007 , the club announced that under another such arrangement , the stadium would be known as the SeaFrance Crabble Stadium , however a year later it was announced that the deal would not be renewed due to the ferry operator 's financial constraints . On 1 July 2008 , the club announced local car dealership Perry 's as the club 's new main sponsor , with the stadium being rebranded as the Perry 's Crabble Stadium . In 2008 the club launched a project to replace the existing clubhouse with a new £ 200 @,@ 000 building featuring a larger bar , better audio @-@ visual facilities and a high quality kitchen . The club hopes the new building will become a popular venue for social and business functions .
= = Other uses = =
The lower pitch at Crabble was used by Kent County Cricket Club as one of its home venues for first @-@ class cricket matches from 1907 to 1976 , a total of 106 first @-@ class matches being played there .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The stadium is known for its unusual location , being set into the side of a hill . It has two seated stands and two covered terraces . The Main Stand , which has been in place since 1951 , occupies the length of one side of the pitch and has a roof supported by numerous columns , which obscure the view for some fans . Identical covered terraces for standing spectators are behind both goals , which also suffer from an obstructed view . The small Family Stand occupies a portion of the side opposite the Main Stand . The remainder of this side of the ground is taken up by the clubhouse , toilets and other club facilities . Unlike most football stadiums , the club directors ' lounge is set atop one of the stands . In December 2009 the Football Association gave the stadium 's facilities an A grade , meaning that it meets the minimum standard for entry to the Football League .
The stadium is approximately 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 km ) from Kearsney railway station , which lies on Southeastern 's Chatham Main Line from London Victoria to Dover Priory . Dover Priory itself is further away , but connecting bus services are available . Parking is available around the perimeter of the adjacent rugby club .
= = Records = =
The highest attendance ever recorded at the ground was recorded when " just under 7 @,@ 000 " fans were in attendance for a match between Dover F.C. and Folkestone on 13 October 1951 . Current club Dover Athletic 's record home attendance is the crowd of 5 @,@ 645 for the match against Crystal Palace in the FA Cup on 4 January 2015 .
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= Dan Paul =
Daniel " Dan " Perkins Smith Paul ( July 22 , 1924 – January 24 , 2010 ) was an American attorney best known for arguing the landmark case Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo before the Supreme Court of the United States . The decision established the principle that government could not force a newspaper to publish content .
Paul was born in Jacksonville , Florida , grew up in Daytona , Florida , and was educated at Harvard University , receiving degrees in law and public administration . Setting up practice in Miami , Florida , he specialized in First Amendment and environmental law . His clients included the Miami Dolphins of American football and newspapers such as The Miami Herald and the Wall Street Journal . For his active role in city politics , Paul was nicknamed " the father of Metro " . On June 13 , 2015 supporters led by Emerge Miami , the Urban Environment League and New Tropics named a four ( 4 ) acre Biscayne Bay waterfront site after Dan Paul . The site , owned by Miami @-@ Dade County , was formerly called Parcel B and in 1996 the Miami Heat had promised to turn the site into a public park including a mini @-@ soccer field . Supporters , now including several elected officials , demand the County force the Heat to honor its promise . The site will now be called the Dan Paul park . ( 16 )
= = Early life = =
Dan Paul was born in Jacksonville , Florida on July 22 , 1924 , to Henry Paul , a pharmacist , and Cornelia Smith Paul , a county tax collector . After growing up in Daytona , he attended Harvard University , receiving a law degree in 1948 and a master 's degree in public administration in 1949 .
= = Legal career = =
Paul began to practice in Miami , Florida in 1949 with the firm of Loftin , Anderson , Scott , McCarthy and Preston . In 1954 he formed a partnership with Francis Sams , specializing in corporate law . Over the next decade , he established himself as one of Miami 's most prominent attorneys . In 1966 , the Miami News called him " Dade 's knight " and wrote of him that " the name Dan Paul comes up in so many civic controversies that it is hard to keep up with him " . Paul eventually became known as " the father of Metro " .
In 1967 , a suit filed by Paul against a plan to reapportion and expand the Florida Legislature reached the US Supreme Court . The Court struck down the plan . Paul stated that he had filed the suit because " it would greatly hurt the future of Florida to let the Legislature grow to such monstrous proportions that we would cease to have effective government . "
One of Paul 's specialties was environmental law , and he represented the National Audubon Society in a late @-@ 1960s lawsuit to stop an airport from being constructed in the Florida Everglades , a protected region of subtropical wetlands . He also acted as a parks activist , protesting the removal of sidewalks designed by Brazilian architect Roberto Burle Marx . Paul played a major role in amending Miami 's city code to block the construction of buildings within fifty feet of the shore .
Paul worked for a time in partnership with Parker Thomson in one of the most prominent legal practices in Miami , Paul and Thomson . By the end of their practice , 28 percent of Paul and Thomson 's time was devoted to pro bono work . However , the partners split acrimoniously in 1983 . In the 1970s and ' 80s , Paul also acted as general counsel for the Miami Dolphins of American football .
In 2001 , Harvard established a professorship in his name at the John F. Kennedy School of Government .
= = = First Amendment law = = =
Paul represented the Miami Herald for more than three decades , as well as working for the New York Times , Wall Street Journal , and NBC . James Goodale , a First Amendment specialist , described Paul after his death as " an important figure in freedom @-@ of @-@ press matters nationally and particularly in Florida ... In Florida , in particular , he was a leader in resisting subpoenas for reporters ' sources . "
Paul is best known for acting as the chief lawyer for the Herald in Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo , a 1974 US Supreme Court case . In the case , a political candidate , Pat Tornillo Jr . , had requested that the Herald print his rebuttal to an editorial criticizing him , citing Florida 's " right @-@ to @-@ reply " law , which mandated that newspapers print such responses . The Herald challenged the law , and the case was appealed to the Supreme Court .
The Court unanimously overturned the Florida statute under the Press Freedom Clause of the First Amendment , ruling that " Governmental compulsion on a newspaper to publish that which ' reason ' tells it should not be published is unconstitutional . " The decision showed the limitations of a 1969 decision , Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. Federal Communications Commission — in which a similar " Fairness Doctrine " had been upheld for radio and television — establishing that broadcast and print media had different Constitutional protections . The decision is considered a landmark in First Amendment law .
= = Personal life = =
Paul never married . For hobbies , he enjoyed tennis , speedboating , and waterskiing .
On January 9 , 1980 , Paul was attacked by an 18 @-@ year @-@ old guest , Bradley Schlegel , at his home in Star Island . Schlegel stabbed Paul in the face , chest , arms , and back , and Paul subsequently underwent plastic surgery to repair the wounds . Schlegel was charged with attempted murder , possession of a weapon , and attempted robbery . He initially contended that Paul had made aggressive sexual advances to him , prompting him to stab Paul in self @-@ defense . Schlegel later pleaded no contest to a charge of aggravated battery .
Paul died at his home in Miami on January 24 , 2010 , of Parkinson 's disease .
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= Gulf Stream =
The Gulf Stream , together with its northern extension towards Europe , the North Atlantic Drift , is a powerful , warm , and swift Atlantic ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and stretches to the tip of Florida , and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean . The process of western intensification causes the Gulf Stream to be a northward accelerating current off the east coast of North America . At about 40 ° 0 ′ N 30 ° 0 ′ W , it splits in two , with the northern stream , the North Atlantic Drift , crossing to Northern Europe and the southern stream , the Canary Current , recirculating off West Africa .
The Gulf Stream influences the climate of the east coast of North America from Florida to Newfoundland , and the west coast of Europe . Although there has been recent debate , there is consensus that the climate of Western Europe and Northern Europe is warmer than it would otherwise be due to the North Atlantic drift which is the northeastern section of the Gulf Stream . It is part of the North Atlantic Gyre . Its presence has led to the development of strong cyclones of all types , both within the atmosphere and within the ocean . The Gulf Stream is also a significant potential source of renewable power generation .
The Gulf Stream is typically 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) wide and 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) to 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) deep . The current velocity is fastest near the surface , with the maximum speed typically about 2 @.@ 5 metres per second ( 5 @.@ 6 mph ) .
= = History = =
European discovery of the Gulf Stream dates to the 1512 expedition of Juan Ponce de León , after which it became widely used by Spanish ships sailing from the Caribbean to Spain . A summary of Ponce de León 's voyage log , on April 22 , 1513 , noted , " A current such that , although they had great wind , they could not proceed forward , but backward and it seems that they were proceeding well ; at the end it was known that the current was more powerful than the wind . " Its existence was also known to Peter Martyr d 'Anghiera .
Benjamin Franklin became interested in the North Atlantic Ocean circulation patterns . In 1768 , while in England , Franklin heard a curious complaint from the Colonial Board of Customs : Why did it take British packets several weeks longer to reach New York from England than it took an average American merchant ship to reach Newport , Rhode Island , despite the merchant ships leaving from London and having to sail down the River Thames and then the length of the English Channel before they sailed across the Atlantic , while the packets left from Falmouth in Cornwall ?
Franklin asked Timothy Folger , his cousin twice removed ( Nantucket Historical Society ) , a Nantucket island whaling captain , for an answer . Folger explained that merchant ships routinely crossed the then @-@ unnamed Gulf Stream — identifying it by whale behavior , measurement of the water 's temperature and the speed of bubbles on its surface , and changes in the water 's color — while the mail packet captains ran against it . Franklin worked with Folger and other experienced ship captains , learning enough to chart the Gulf Stream and giving it the name by which it is still known today . He offered this information to Anthony Todd , secretary of the British Post Office , but it was ignored by British sea captains .
Franklin 's Gulf Stream chart was published in 1770 in England , where it was mostly ignored . Subsequent versions were printed in France in 1778 and the U.S. in 1786 .
= = Properties = =
The Gulf Stream proper is a western @-@ intensified current , driven largely by wind stress . The North Atlantic Drift , in contrast , is largely thermohaline circulation – driven . In 1958 the oceanographer Henry Stommel noted that " very little water from the Gulf of Mexico is actually in the Stream " . By carrying warm water northeast across the Atlantic , it makes Western and especially Northern Europe warmer than it otherwise would be .
However , the extent of its contribution to the actual temperature differential between North America and Europe is a matter of dispute , as there is a recent minority opinion within the science community that this temperature difference ( beyond that caused by contrasting maritime and continental climates ) is mainly due to atmospheric waves created by the Rocky Mountains .
= = Formation and behaviour = =
A river of sea water , called the Atlantic North Equatorial Current , flows westward off the coast of Central Africa . When this current interacts with the northeastern coast of South America , the current forks into two branches . One passes into the Caribbean Sea , while a second , the Antilles Current , flows north and east of the West Indies . These two branches rejoin north of the Straits of Florida .
The trade winds blow westward in the tropics , and the westerlies blow eastward at mid @-@ latitudes . This wind pattern applies a stress to the subtropical ocean surface with negative curl across the north Atlantic Ocean . The resulting Sverdrup transport is equatorward .
Because of conservation of potential vorticity caused by the northward @-@ moving winds on the subtropical ridge 's western periphery and the increased relative vorticity of northward moving water , transport is balanced by a narrow , accelerating poleward current , which flows along the western boundary of the ocean basin , outweighing the effects of friction with the western boundary current known as the Labrador current . The conservation of potential vorticity also causes bends along the Gulf Stream , which occasionally break off due to a shift in the Gulf Stream 's position , forming separate warm and cold eddies . This overall process , known as western intensification , causes currents on the western boundary of an ocean basin , such as the Gulf Stream , to be stronger than those on the eastern boundary .
As a consequence , the resulting Gulf Stream is a strong ocean current . It transports water at a rate of 30 million cubic meters per second ( 30 sverdrups ) through the Florida Straits . As it passes south of Newfoundland , this rate increases to 150 million cubic metres per second . The volume of the Gulf Stream dwarfs all rivers that empty into the Atlantic combined , which barely total 0 @.@ 6 million cubic metres per second . It is weaker , however , than the Antarctic Circumpolar Current .
The Gulf Stream is typically 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) wide and 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) to 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) deep . The current velocity is fastest near the surface , with the maximum speed typically about 2 @.@ 5 metres per second ( 5 @.@ 6 mph ) . As it travels north , the warm water transported by the Gulf Stream undergoes evaporative cooling . The cooling is wind @-@ driven : Wind moving over the water causes evaporation , cooling the water and increasing its salinity and density . When sea ice forms , salts are left out of the ice , a process known as brine exclusion . These two processes produce water that is denser and colder ( or , more precisely , water that is still liquid at a lower temperature ) . In the North Atlantic Ocean , the water becomes so dense that it begins to sink down through less salty and less dense water . ( The convective action is not unlike that of a lava lamp . ) This downdraft of cold , dense water becomes a part of the North Atlantic Deep Water , a southgoing stream . Very little seaweed lies within the current , although seaweed lies in clusters to its east .
= = Localised effects = =
The Gulf Stream is influential on the climate of the Florida peninsula . The portion off the Florida coast , referred to as the Florida current , maintains an average water temperature at or above 13 ° C ( 55 ° F ) during the winter . East winds moving over this warm water move warm air from over the Gulf Stream inland , helping to keep temperatures milder across the state than elsewhere across the Southeast during the winter . Also , the Gulf Stream 's proximity to Nantucket , Massachusetts adds to its biodiversity , as it is the northern limit for southern varieties of plant life 2002 , and the southern limit for northern plant species , Nantucket being warmer during winter than the mainland .
The North Atlantic Current of the Gulf Stream , along with similar warm air currents , helps keep Ireland and the western coast of Great Britain a couple of degrees warmer than the east . However , the difference is most dramatic in the western coastal islands of Scotland . A noticeable effect of the Gulf Stream and the strong westerly winds ( driven by the warm water of the Gulf Stream ) on Europe occurs along the Norwegian coast . Northern parts of Norway lie close to the Arctic zone , most of which is covered with ice and snow in winter . However , almost all of Norway 's coast remains free of ice and snow throughout the year . Weather systems warmed by the Gulf Stream drift into Northern Europe , also warming the climate behind the Scandinavian mountains .
= = Effect on cyclone formation = =
The warm water and temperature contrast along the edge of the Gulf Stream often increase the intensity of cyclones , tropical or otherwise . Tropical cyclone generation normally requires water temperatures in excess of 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) . Tropical cyclone formation is common over the Gulf Stream , especially in the month of July . Storms travel westward through the Caribbean and then either move in a northward direction and curve toward the eastern coast of the United States or stay on a north @-@ westward track and enter the Gulf of Mexico . Such storms have the potential to create strong winds and extensive damage to the United States ' Southeast Coastal Areas .
Strong extratropical cyclones have been shown to deepen significantly along a shallow frontal zone , forced by the Gulf Stream itself during the cold season . Subtropical cyclones also tend to generate near the Gulf Stream . 75 percent of such systems documented between 1951 and 2000 formed near this warm water current , with two annual peaks of activity occurring during the months of May and October . Cyclones within the ocean form under the Gulf Stream , extending as deep as 3 @,@ 500 metres ( 11 @,@ 500 ft ) beneath the ocean 's surface .
= = Possible renewable power source = =
The theoretical maximum energy dissipation from Gulf Stream by turbines is in the range of 20 @-@ 60 GW . One idea , which would supply the equivalent power of several nuclear power plants , would deploy a field of underwater turbines placed 300 meters ( 980 ft ) under the center of the core of the Gulf Stream . Ocean thermal energy could also be harnessed to produce electricity utilizing the temperature difference between cold deep water and warm surface water .
= = In culture = =
Some of the RMS Titanic 's victims , whose bodies were buoyed by lifebelts but were never found by rescue or recovery ships sent to find them , are surmised to have been carried away in the Gulf Stream .
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= Black Brunswickers =
The Brunswicker Ducal Corps , in German : Herzoglich Braunschweigisches Korps , commonly known as the Black Brunswickers in English and the Schwarze Schar ( " Black Troop " , also translated as " Black Horde " or " Black Host " ) or Schwarze Legion ( " Black Legion " ) in German were a military unit in the Napoleonic Wars . The corps was raised from volunteers by German @-@ born Frederick William , Duke of Brunswick @-@ Wolfenbüttel ( 1771 – 1815 ) . The Duke was a harsh opponent of Napoleon Bonaparte 's occupation of his native Germany . Formed in 1809 when war broke out between the First French Empire and the Austrian Empire , the corps initially comprised a mixed force , around 2 @,@ 300 strong , of infantry , cavalry and later supporting artillery .
Most units of the corps wore black uniforms , leading to the " black " nicknames of the unit , though some light units ( such as sharpshooters and uhlans ) wore green uniforms . The Brunswickers wore a silvered skull badge on their hats . Their title originated from Duke Frederick William , who claimed the Duchy of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg , which the French had abolished in order to incorporate its lands into the French satellite Kingdom of Westphalia . The Black Brunswickers earned themselves a fearsome reputation over the following decade , taking part in several significant battles including the pre @-@ Waterloo engagement at Quatre Bras on 16 June 1815 , where the Duke lost his life . However , recruiting , the replacement of casualties , and finance had always been problematic , and the corps was disbanded in the early 1820s .
The exploits of the Brunswickers caught the British Victorian public imagination : an example of this can be found in John Everett Millais 's painting The Black Brunswicker . Completed in 1860 , the painting depicts a Brunswicker in his black uniform bidding goodbye to an unnamed woman .
= = Formation and early years = =
= = = War of the Fifth Coalition = = =
In 1806 the Duke of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg , Charles William Ferdinand , was fatally wounded during the Prussian defeat at the Battle of Jena @-@ Auerstedt . Following Prussia 's defeat and the collapse of the Fourth Coalition against Napoleon , his duchy remained under French control . Rather than permit the Duke 's heir , Frederick William , to succeed to his father 's title , Napoleon seized the duchy and , in 1807 , incorporated it into his newly created model Kingdom of Westphalia ruled by his brother Jérôme . Two years later in 1809 the Fifth Coalition against Napoleon was formed between the Austrian Empire and the United Kingdom . The dispossessed Frederick William , who had been a strenuous critic of French domination in Germany , seized this opportunity to seek Austrian help to raise an armed force . To finance this venture he mortgaged his principality in Oels . In its initial incarnation ( dated to 25 July 1809 ) , the 2300 @-@ strong ' free ' corps consisted of two battalions of infantry , one Jäger battalion , a company of sharpshooters , and a mixed cavalry contingent including Hussars and Uhlans .
Despite a successful campaign with their Austrian allies , the defeat of the latter at the Battle of Wagram on 6 July 1809 led to the Armistice of Znaim on 12 July . Frederick William refused to accept this and led his Schwarze Schar ( " Black Host " ) into Germany , succeeding in briefly taking control of the city of Brunswick . Faced with superior Westphalian forces , the Brunswickers conducted a remarkable fighting retreat across Germany , twice holding off the pursuing armies at the Battle of Halberstadt and the Battle of Ölper ; finally being evacuated by the Royal Navy from the mouth of the River Weser . Landing in England , the duke was welcomed by his cousin and brother @-@ in @-@ law , the Prince Regent ( later King George IV ) and the Black Brunswickers entered British service . During the next few years , the Brunswickers earned themselves a sound reputation through service with the British in the Peninsular Campaign . However , steady attrition in battles and skirmishes through Portugal and Spain , combined with a lack of political support and financial difficulties , led to a situation where the unit 's imminent disbandment looked likely .
= = = Peninsular War = = =
When organized for British service , the corps was renamed the Brunswick Oels Jäger and Brunswick Oels Hussar Regiments . Prussians represented a large part of the original officer corps , while the enlisted men were motivated by German patriotism . However , once the Oels entered English service , they were cut off from their natural recruiting grounds . Compelled to enlist men from the prisoner of war camps to fill up the ranks , the quality of soldiers in the Oels decreased . Worse , the King 's German Legion obtained the best of the German recruits , leaving the Oels with the less desirable ones . In addition to Germans , the Oels recruited Poles , Swiss , Danes , Dutch , and Croats . Charles Oman , the Peninsular War historian , calls the Oels a " motley crew , much given to desertion " and records one occasion where ten men were caught deserting in a body . Of these , four were shot and the rest flogged .
Nevertheless , the Brunswick Oels Jägers gave a good account of themselves during the war . The regiment — really a single battalion — arrived in Portugal in early 1811 . The Duke of Wellington distributed one company to the 4th Division and two companies to the 5th Division as skirmishers , while the remaining nine companies served in the newly formed 7th Division . The Oels remained in this organization until the end of the war in April 1814 . During this period , the Oels served in most of the major battles including Fuentes de Onoro , Salamanca , Vitoria , the Pyrenees , Nivelle , the Nive , and Orthez .
= = Waterloo campaign = =
Following Napoleon 's disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 , and his subsequent retreat back into France , Frederick William was able to return to Brunswick in 1813 to reclaim his title . He also took the opportunity to replenish the ranks of his Black Brunswickers . Upon Napoleon 's escape from Elba in 1815 he once more placed himself under the Duke of Wellington 's command and joined the allied forces of the Seventh Coalition in Belgium . The " Brunswick Corps " , as it is called in the order of battle for the Waterloo Campaign , formed up as a discrete division in the allied reserve . Its strength is given as 5376 men , composed of eight infantry battalions ; one Advance Guard or Avantgarde , one Life Guard or Leib @-@ Bataillon , three Light and three Line Battalions . They were supported by both a horse and foot artillery battery of eight guns each . Also included were a regiment of Brunswicker Hussars and a single squadron of Uhlans were often attached to the allied cavalry corps .
= = = Battle of Quatre Bras = = =
Quatre Bras was a hamlet at a strategic crossroads on the road to Brussels . French control of it would not only threaten the city , but divide Wellington 's Allied army from Blucher 's Prussians . At 14 : 00 on 16 June 1815 , after some initial skirmishing , the main French force under Marshall Ney , approached Quatre Bras from the south . They came up against the 2nd Netherlands Division who had formed a line well in advance of the crossroads . Facing three French infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade , the Dutch and Nassau troops were forced back but did not break . Reinforcements arrived at 15 : 00 , being a Dutch cavalry brigade , Picton 's 5th British Division , followed closely by the Brunswick Corps . The sharpshooters of the Brunswick Advance Guard regiment were sent to support Dutch skirmishers in Bossou Wood on the Allied right ( western ) flank ; the rest of the corps took up a reserve position across the Brussels road . The Black Duke reassured his inexperienced troops by walking up and down in front of them , calmly puffing on his pipe .
A French infantry attack was halted by the allied front line , which was attacked in turn by French cavalry . Wellington moved the Brunswick infantry into the front line , where they were subjected to intense French artillery fire , forcing tham to fall back a short distance . As a mass of French infantry advanced up the main road , the Black Duke led a charge by his uhlans , but they were beaten back . Swept by canister shot at short range , the Brunswickers broke and rallied at the crossroads itself . At this point , the Duke , who was reforming his troops , was hit by a musket ball , which passed through his hand and into his liver . He was rescued by the men of the Lieb Regiment , who carried him back using their muskets as a stretcher . He died shortly afterwards . The Duke 's final words , to his aide Major von Wachholtz , were :
Mein lieber Wachholtz , wo ist denn Olfermann ? ( My dear Wachholtz , where is Olfermann ? )
Colonel Elias Olfermann was the Duke 's Adjutant general , who assumed immediate command of the corps . Wellington then ordered the Brunswick hussars to make an unsupported counterattack on the French light cavalry brigade , but they were driven off by heavy fire . Later in the battle , French cuirassiers broke the Allied front line and were only prevented from taking the crossroads by the Brunswick infantry who had formed themselves into squares . By 21 : 00 , Allied reinforcements , including the newly arrived Brunswick 1st and 3rd Light Regiments , had driven the French back to their starting positions . Brunswick losses that day amounted to 188 killed and 396 wounded .
= = = Battle of Waterloo = = =
Only two days later , on Sunday 18 June , the Duke of Wellington positioned his Anglo @-@ Allied Army along a ridge near the village of Waterloo , in order to block Napoleon 's advance along the road to Brussels . The Brunswick Corps formed part of Wellington 's Reserve Corps , under his personal command . In that capacity , they were kept well behind the crest of the ridge and avoided casualties during the opening French bombardment . In the early part of the afternoon , the British Foot Guards moved down the slope to reinforce the Château d 'Hougoumont , which was under fierce French attack ; the Brunswick Corps was brought forward to take their place .
At about 16 : 00 , Marshall Ney decided to attempt to break the centre right of the Allied line with his cavalry . 4 @,@ 800 French horsemen charged up the hill and into the Allied infantry , who had formed themselves into squares to resist them . In all , 9 @,@ 000 cavalry were involved in repeated attacks on the Allied squares but were unable to break any of them , including the Brunswickers , whom some British officers regarded as “ shaky ” . The Brunswick Hussars and Uhlans , who formed part of the 7th British Cavalry Brigade , made harrying attacks on the French whenever they retired to regroup . Eventually , Ney had no choice but to abandon the attacks .
The French capture of the fortified farm of La Haye Sainte had left a gap in the centre of Wellington ’ s line , and the Brunswick infantry were brought along to fill it . It was here that Napoleon sent one of two attacks by his Imperial Guard in a last gasp effort to break Wellington ’ s army . Faced with the veterans of the Grenadiers of the Middle Guard , the inexperienced Brunswickers broke from the line and " fell back in disorder " , but rallied when they reached the cavalry reserve in the rear . The same fate befell the Nassau Infantry Regiment and two British battalions . Finally , the Guards were halted and thrown back when they were surprised by a flank attack from Dutch troops . The Brunswick Corps had recovered sufficiently to participate in the allied “ General Advance ” that swept the French army from the field . British sources give the number of Brunswickers killed in action that day as 154 with 456 wounded and 50 missing .
In the following days , they escorted 2 @,@ 000 French prisoners back to Brussels and then marched on to Paris . They finally returned to Brunswick on 6 December 1815 .
= = Uniform = =
The Brunswickers were awarded various nicknames by their contemporaries , including the Black Crows , the Black Legion and the Black Horde . However , although the uniforms of the individual units that comprised the corps were , as the names suggest , predominantly black , they varied in their details .
Infantry units in 1809 wore a black polrock or " Polish coat " , a type of frock coat derived from a Lithuanian garment called a litewka which had six pairs of black lace fastenings down the front . A tall collar showed the regimental colour . Trousers were black with a blue stripe ; footwear was black shoes with buttoned gaiters . They wore a shako on their heads , with the skull or a hunting horn badge for light infantry , also a black feather or horsehair plume . The shako , backpack and other equipment were of Austrian design and manufacture . The Sharpshooter companies wore a dark green Prussian @-@ style coatee and a tall hat of Austrian origin with an elongated brim turned @-@ up at one side . In the Peninsular War , the polrock was replaced by a short black koller or cavalry @-@ style tunic . Equipment and badges of rank were of British pattern .
The hussar cavalry were garbed in a black , light blue collared dolman , sometimes with a black pelisse . Black overalls were worn over tight breeches of the hussar style . The hussars also wore a black Shako . The sword and equipment were originally of Austrian design . The Uhlan squadron wore a green kurtka or lancer 's jacket with red facings and a traditional czapka cap , their uniform being a copy of the Austrian Graf von Meerveldt Uhlan Regiment . The lance had a red and yellow pennon . By 1815 , the Uhlans were wearing all @-@ black uniforms , but retained the yellow @-@ topped czapka .
Artillerymen wore similar clothing to the cavalry : mostly black in colour with a koller and black trousers . They were additionally equipped with a standard hussar sword should they have need to defend their guns .
There are a number of speculative theories on the origin of the Brunswickers ' dark and seemingly grim choice of garb . It has been suggested that black was chosen to mourn Duke Frederick William 's late father ; as a sign of respect for the Duke ; or in mourning for the Duke 's occupied homeland . Colonel Augustus Frazer , who had served alongside the Brunswickers , reported that black was adopted in mourning for the Duke 's wife , Princess Marie of Baden , who had died in 1808 , and that the black uniforms would not be put aside until Brunswick had been finally liberated .
= = Inspired art = =
The Black Brunswicker ( 1860 ) , by John Everett Millais was inspired in part by the exploits of the Brunswickers and in part by the contrasts of black broadcloth and pearl @-@ white satin in a moment of tender conflict .
The artwork took an estimated three months to paint , and it was greatly admired at the time . It was also bought for the highest price Millais had received from dealer and publisher Ernest Gambart - the lucrative sum of 100 guineas . Later , in 1898 , William Hesketh Lever purchased the work for his private collection . Charles Dickens ' daughter Kate was used as a model for the woman seen in the painting .
= = The Brunswick Corps in later years = =
A single infantry regiment and the hussars were maintained by the Duchy of Brunswick after the end of the Napoleonic War . In 1830 , the uniform colour was changed to blue , but reverted to black in 1850 . The Brunswick units were integrated into the Prussian Army in 1866 with the titles : Braunschweigisches Infanterie @-@ Regiment Nr.92 and Braunschweigisches Husaren Regiment Nr.17 following the Prussian regimental numbering sequence . Both units kept the skull with the crossed bones on their helmets and caps and carried the battle honours " Peninsula @-@ Sicily @-@ Waterloo " until the end of World War I in 1918 , when they were disbanded . At that time , a collection of artefacts and uniforms from the Napoleonic era were presented by the officers of the corps to the Braunschweigisches Landesmuseum , where they can be seen today .
The historic black of the Brunswick Corps was retained by the Husaren Regiment Nr.17 in full dress parade uniform until the outbreak of war in August 1914 . The Brunswick Infanterie @-@ Regiment Nr.92 however adopted the dark blue tunic of the Prussian line infantry .
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= Jordan Slew =
Jordan Michael Slew ( born 7 September 1992 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a striker for League Two side Plymouth Argyle .
Born in Sheffield , Slew began his footballing career at Sheffield United 's academy in 2006 , joining the club at the age of 11 . After making his first @-@ team debut in 2010 , he attracted the interest of a number of clubs including Blackburn Rovers , for whom he signed in September 2011 for a £ 1 @.@ 1 million fee . He subsequently spent time on loan at Stevenage , Oldham Athletic , Rotherham United , Ross County , and Port Vale . He joined Cambridge United in February 2015 and stayed with the club for 12 months . He signed with Chesterfield in February 2016 , and then joined Plymouth Argyle four months later . Slew also made two appearances for the England U19s in 2011 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Sheffield United = = =
Having started his career as a youngster with the Sheffield United academy , Slew made his first @-@ team debut at the start of October 2010 , coming on as an 86th @-@ minute substitute in a 1 – 0 home defeat to Watford . He then signed his first senior professional contract with Sheffield United at the start of November , a deal designed to tie him to the club until the summer of 2012 . After two further late @-@ substitute appearances , he made his first start for Sheffield United in April 2011 , playing the whole game and scoring in a 3 – 1 defeat to Preston North End at Deepdale . He made eight appearances in total for the club during the 2010 – 11 campaign , scoring twice . As well as his breakthrough into the first @-@ team , Slew also played an instrumental part in Sheffield United 's run in the 2010 – 11 FA Youth Cup , where they reached the final before losing to Manchester United 's Academy side over two legs . Slew scored three goals during the cup run , including a goal in the first leg of the final .
By May 2011 , a number of Premier League and Championship teams had enquired about acquiring Slew 's services , with United turning down a £ 500 @,@ 000 offer from Fulham . Shortly after , Slew agreed an improved two @-@ year deal to keep him at Bramall Lane until 2014 . He began the 2011 – 12 season as a first team regular , playing in all of United 's games during that August , scoring once .
= = = Blackburn Rovers = = =
Despite having only recently signed an extended deal with Sheffield United , Slew signed for Premier League side Blackburn Rovers on August transfer deadline day 2011 . Blackburn paid a fee of £ 1 @.@ 1 million for the player , with Slew signing a four @-@ year contract . Arriving as a squad player , Slew had to wait until December 2011 to make his debut for Blackburn , coming on as an 89th @-@ minute substitute against Manchester United at Old Trafford . Unable to achieve a regular place in the Blackburn first team , Slew joined League One side Stevenage on loan in March 2012 , agreeing a deal to run until the end of the 2011 – 12 season . He made his debut for Stevenage a day after joining the club , playing in a 1 – 1 away draw against Exeter City . During his fifth appearance for Stevenage , Slew received a straight red card for " inexplicably raising his arms " to Colchester United midfielder Anthony Wordsworth . Slew returned to Ewood Park having played nine games for Stevenage , but failed to score a goal .
With Blackburn now in the Championship , Slew was still unable to make the break into the first team and was instead loaned to League One side Oldham Athletic for six months in August 2012 . Slew scored on his Oldham debut , netting in a 2 – 4 League Cup loss to Sheffield Wednesday a week after signing . After only four appearances for his temporary club , Slew suffered a stress fracture to his back and was sidelined for over three months , returning to Blackburn Rovers for treatment , and effectively ending his loan spell . Having recovered from his injury , Slew signed a six @-@ week loan deal with League Two side Rotherham United at the end of January 2013 . Slew 's first appearance for Rotherham came just two days later , in a 3 – 1 win against promotion rivals Northampton Town , and he played regularly for the duration of his loan spell , making seven appearances in total . Despite Rotherham hoping to retain Slew 's services until the end of the season , they were unable to agree a deal with Blackburn Rovers , and Slew returned to Ewood Park once more .
The following season , Slew failed to make a first team appearance for Blackburn and on 1 January 2014 he joined Scottish Premiership side Ross County on loan until the end of the season . He made his debut that same day in the Highland derby with Inverness Caledonian Thistle at Caledonian Stadium , helping Derek Adams 's " Staggies " to a 2 – 1 win . He went on to make 20 appearances during his time at Victoria Park , and scored one goal in his final appearance , a 3 – 2 win over Partick Thistle on 10 May .
After being transfer @-@ listed at Blackburn , Slew agreed a loan move to Port Vale in summer 2014 , though manager Micky Adams stated it was " a frustrating chase " as Rovers manager Gary Bowyer refused to sanction the loan agreement until he was sure that a permanent offer would not be made for the player . A loan deal lasting until January 2015 was eventually agreed on 29 August , and Slew scored his first goal for the Valiants on 6 September , netting a late consolation goal in a 3 – 1 defeat at Peterborough United . On 4 October he was sent off in a 1 – 0 defeat at Fleetwood Town after striking an opposition player . He failed to win back his first team spot after returning from suspension , and his loan deal was not extended by manager Rob Page . He had his contract with Blackburn terminated by mutual consent in January 2015 .
= = = Cambridge United = = =
In February 2015 , Slew signed an 18 @-@ month contract with League Two side Cambridge United . He scored one goal in 13 games in the second half of the 2014 – 15 season , and was transfer listed in May by manager Richard Money after Slew admitted he was playing " nowhere near his best " . He failed to score in 12 appearances during the 2015 – 16 season and his contract with the club was cancelled by mutual consent on 1 February .
= = = Chesterfield = = =
Slew joined League One side Chesterfield on a short @-@ term deal in February 2016 , after manager Danny Wilson needed cover for injured strikers Sylvan Ebanks @-@ Blake and Lee Novak . He was released at the end of the 2015 – 16 season having made just seven substitute appearances for the club .
= = = Plymouth Argyle = = =
In July 2016 , Slew signed a contract with League Two club Plymouth Argyle .
= = International career = =
Slew made his international debut for the England U19 side in a 1 – 0 defeat to Germany on 8 February 2011 , replacing Connor Wickham after 60 minutes . He earned his second cap against the Netherlands on 29 March 2011 , coming on as a 72nd @-@ minute substitute in a 3 – 0 defeat .
= = Personal life = =
Born in Sheffield Slew is a lifelong supporter of his first club , Sheffield United . He enjoys classical music and when interviewed by radio station Classic FM , Slew described himself as " ... like an old man in a young man 's body ! " , after admitting to listening to the station while driving his car .
In March 2015 he was caught by police speeding at 156 mph in his BMW M4 on the Cambridgeshire section of the A1 , in what was the fastest recorded speed on a public road in the UK for more than three years ; he was banned from driving for six months and handed a £ 1 @,@ 400 fine .
= = Career statistics = =
As of 12 May 2016 .
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= Wild Eagle =
Wild Eagle is a steel Wing Coaster built by Bolliger & Mabillard at the Dollywood amusement park in Pigeon Forge , Tennessee . It is the first of its kind in the United States and opened to the media on March 23 , 2012 before opening to the public on March 24 , 2012 . The roller coaster reaches a height of 210 feet ( 64 m ) and reaches speeds of 61 miles per hour ( 98 km / h ) . In September 2012 , the ride was voted as the best new ride of 2012 in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards .
= = History = =
Speculation of Wild Eagle began in March 2011 when plans to discuss Dollywood 's 2012 attraction were submitted to the Pigeon Forge Planning Commission . On March 24 , 2011 , those plans were approved and though city officials could not tell exactly what the plans were , some believed it looked to be a roller coaster . On September 4 , 2011 , Wild Eagle was officially announced to the public as the first wing coaster to open in the United States . On October 7 , 2011 , the lift hill was completed , and by the end of October 2011 , the track layout was complete . On February 28 , 2012 , Dollywood unveiled a steel sculpture of an eagle with a wing span of 42 feet ( 13 m ) and a total weight of 8 @,@ 000 pounds ( 3 @,@ 600 kg ) that would be placed near the entrance of the ride . The ride soft opened to the media on March 23 , 2012 , before officially opening to the public on March 24 , 2012 .
= = Experience = =
After departing from the station , the train makes a left turn leading into the 210 @-@ foot ( 64 m ) chain lift hill . Once at the top , the train drops 135 @-@ foot ( 41 m ) , reaching a top speed of 61 miles per hour ( 98 km / h ) . The train enters a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) vertical loop followed by a slight left then a zero @-@ gravity roll where riders experience the feeling of weightlessness . Upon exiting the roll , the train immediately enters an immelmann loop . The train then goes through a trim brake , before entering a corkscrew , then a camelback hill which is a common way of achieving air @-@ time on roller coasters . The train then makes a sharp left turn before making a sharp right turn which leads into the brake run . The train then makes a left turn into another set of brakes before entering the station where the next riders board the train . One cycle of the ride lasts about 2 minutes and 22 seconds .
= = = Trains = = =
Wild Eagle operates with two open @-@ air steel and fiberglass trains , each with seven cars which have four seats each , with two on each side of the track for a total of 28 riders per train . Riders are restrained by flexible over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints and interlocking seat belts . Also , because the seats are on the side of the track , a cantilevered steel arm is used to support the wings . The front of each of the seven train cars is shaped to resemble an eagle with outstretched wings adding to the theme of the ride .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track is 3 @,@ 127 feet ( 953 m ) in length and the height of the lift is approximately 210 feet ( 64 m ) . The track is painted blue and the supports are painted tan . Both friction and magnetic brakes are used on the roller coaster to control the trains speed .
= = Reception = =
Joel Bullock from The Coaster Critic gave Wild Eagle a nine out of ten for its unique experience . He also stated that , " It ’ s smooth , has some fun inversions , and is meant to be a wide @-@ reaching crowd pleaser and it fully delivered " but mentions that the restraints can become uncomfortable from time to time .
In Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards , the roller coaster was voted as the best new attraction for 2012 and 15th best roller steel roller coaster in the world . In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , the ride placed 87th .
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= Antibody =
An antibody ( Ab ) , also known as an immunoglobulin ( Ig ) , is a large , Y @-@ shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to identify and neutralize pathogens such as bacteria and viruses . The antibody recognizes a unique molecule of the harmful agent , called an antigen , via the variable region . Each tip of the " Y " of an antibody contains a paratope ( analogous to a lock ) that is specific for one particular epitope ( similarly analogous to a key ) on an antigen , allowing these two structures to bind together with precision . Using this binding mechanism , an antibody can tag a microbe or an infected cell for attack by other parts of the immune system , or can neutralize its target directly ( for example , by blocking a part of a microbe that is essential for its invasion and survival ) . Depending on the antigen , the binding may impede the biological process causing the disease or may recruit macrophages to destroy the foreign substance . The ability of an antibody to communicate with the other components of the immune system is mediated via its Fc region ( located at the base of the " Y " ) , which contains a conserved glycosylation site involved in these interactions . The production of antibodies is the main function of the humoral immune system .
Antibodies are secreted by B cells of the adaptive immune system , mostly by differentiated B cells called plasma cells . Antibodies can occur in two physical forms , a soluble form that is secreted from the cell to be free in the blood plasma , and a membrane @-@ bound form that is attached to the surface of a B cell and is referred to as the B @-@ cell receptor ( BCR ) . The BCR is found only on the surface of B cells and facilitates the activation of these cells and their subsequent differentiation into either antibody factories called plasma cells or memory B cells that will survive in the body and remember that same antigen so the B cells can respond faster upon future exposure . In most cases , interaction of the B cell with a T helper cell is necessary to produce full activation of the B cell and , therefore , antibody generation following antigen binding . Soluble antibodies are released into the blood and tissue fluids , as well as many secretions to continue to survey for invading microorganisms .
Antibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily . They constitute most of the gamma globulin fraction of the blood proteins . They are typically made of basic structural units — each with two large heavy chains and two small light chains . There are several different types of antibody heavy chains that define the five different types of crystallisable fragments ( Fc ) that may be attached to the antigen @-@ binding fragments . The five different types of Fc regions allow antibodies to be grouped into five isotypes . Each Fc region of a particular antibody isotype is able to bind to its specific Fc Receptor ( except for IgD , which is essentially the BCR ) , thus allowing the antigen @-@ antibody complex to mediate different roles depending on which FcR it binds . The ability of an antibody to bind to its corresponding FcR is further modulated by the structure of the glycan ( s ) present at conserved sites within its Fc region . The ability of antibodies to bind to FcRs helps to direct the appropriate immune response for each different type of foreign object they encounter . For example , IgE is responsible for an allergic response consisting of mast cell degranulation and histamine release . IgE 's Fab paratope binds to allergic antigen , for example house dust mite particles , while its Fc region binds to Fc receptor ε . The allergen @-@ IgE @-@ FcRε interaction mediates allergic signal transduction to induce conditions such as asthma .
Though the general structure of all antibodies is very similar , a small region at the tip of the protein is extremely variable , allowing millions of antibodies with slightly different tip structures , or antigen @-@ binding sites , to exist . This region is known as the hypervariable region . Each of these variants can bind to a different antigen . This enormous diversity of antibody paratopes on the antigen @-@ binding fragments allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide variety of antigens . The large and diverse population of antibody paratope is generated by random recombination events of a set of gene segments that encode different antigen @-@ binding sites ( or paratopes ) , followed by random mutations in this area of the antibody gene , which create further diversity . This recombinational process that produces clonal antibody paratope diversity is called V ( D ) J or VJ recombination . Basically , the antibody paratope is polygenic , made up of three genes , V , D , and J. Each paratope locus is also polymorphic , such that during antibody production , one allele of V , one of D , and one of J is chosen . These gene segments are then joined together using random genetic recombination to produce the paratope . The regions where the genes are randomly recombined together is the hyper variable region used to recognise different antigens on a clonal basis .
Antibody genes also re @-@ organize in a process called class switching that changes the one type of heavy chain Fc fragment to another , creating a different isotype of the antibody that retains the antigen @-@ specific variable region . This allows a single antibody to be used by different types of Fc receptors , expressed on different parts of the immune system .
= = Forms = =
The membrane @-@ bound form of an antibody may be called a surface immunoglobulin ( sIg ) or a membrane immunoglobulin ( mIg ) . It is part of the B cell receptor ( BCR ) , which allows a B cell to detect when a specific antigen is present in the body and triggers B cell activation . The BCR is composed of surface @-@ bound IgD or IgM antibodies and associated Ig @-@ α and Ig @-@ β heterodimers , which are capable of signal transduction . A typical human B cell will have 50 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 antibodies bound to its surface . Upon antigen binding , they cluster in large patches , which can exceed 1 micrometer in diameter , on lipid rafts that isolate the BCRs from most other cell signaling receptors . These patches may improve the efficiency of the cellular immune response . In humans , the cell surface is bare around the B cell receptors for several hundred nanometers , which further isolates the BCRs from competing influences .
= = Antibody – antigen interactions = =
The antibody 's paratope interacts with the antigen 's epitope . An antigen usually contains different epitopes along its surface arranged discontinuously , and dominant epitopes on a given antigen are called determinants .
Antibody and antigen interact by spatial complementarity ( lock and key ) . The molecular forces involved in the Fab @-@ epitope interaction are weak and non @-@ specific – for example electrostatic forces , hydrogen bonds , hydrophobic interactions , and van der Waals forces . This means binding between antibody and antigen is reversible , and the antibody 's affinity towards an antigen is relative rather than absolute . Relatively weak binding also means it is possible for an antibody to cross @-@ react with different antigens of different relative affinities .
Often , once an antibody and antigen bind , they become an immune complex , which functions as a unitary object and can act as an antigen in its own right , being countered by other antibodies . Similarly , haptens are small molecules that provoke no immune response by themselves , but once they bind to proteins , the resulting complex or hapten @-@ carrier adduct is antigenic .
= = Isotypes = =
Antibodies can come in different varieties known as isotypes or classes . In placental mammals there are five antibody isotypes known as IgA , IgD , IgE , IgG , and IgM . They are each named with an " Ig " prefix that stands for immunoglobulin , a name sometimes used interchangeably with antibody , and differ in their biological properties , functional locations and ability to deal with different antigens , as depicted in the table . The different suffixes of the antibody isotypes denote the different types of heavy chains the antibody contains , with each heavy chain class named alphabetically : α , γ , δ , ε , and μ . This gives rise to IgA , IgG , IgD , IgE , and IgM , respectively .
The antibody isotype of a B cell changes during cell development and activation . Immature B cells , which have never been exposed to an antigen , express only the IgM + isotype in a cell surface bound form . The B lymphocyte , in this ready @-@ to @-@ respond form , is known as a " naive B lymphocyte . " The naive B lymphocyte expresses both surface IgM + and IgD + . The co @-@ expression of both of these immunoglobulin isotypes renders the B cell ready to respond to antigen . B cell activation follows engagement of the cell @-@ bound antibody molecule with an antigen , causing the cell to divide and differentiate into an antibody @-@ producing cell called a plasma cell . In this activated form , the B cell starts to produce antibody in a secreted form rather than a membrane @-@ bound form . Some daughter cells of the activated B cells undergo isotype switching , a mechanism that causes the production of antibodies to change from IgM or IgD to the other antibody isotypes , IgE , IgA , or IgG , that have defined roles in the immune system .
= = Structure = =
Antibodies are heavy ( ~ 150 kDa ) globular plasma proteins . They have sugar chains ( glycans ) added to conserved amino acid residues . In other words , antibodies are glycoproteins . The attached glycans are critically important to the structure and function of the antibody . Among other things the expressed glycans can modulate an antibody 's affinity for its corresponding FcR ( s ) .
The basic functional unit of each antibody is an immunoglobulin ( Ig ) monomer ( containing only one Ig unit ) ; secreted antibodies can also be dimeric with two Ig units as with IgA , tetrameric with four Ig units like teleost fish IgM , or pentameric with five Ig units , like mammalian IgM .
The variable parts of an antibody are its V regions , and the constant part is its C region .
= = = Immunoglobulin domains = = =
The Ig monomer is a " Y " -shaped molecule that consists of four polypeptide chains ; two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains connected by disulfide bonds . Each chain is composed of structural domains called immunoglobulin domains . These domains contain about 70 – 110 amino acids and are classified into different categories ( for example , variable or IgV , and constant or IgC ) according to their size and function . They have a characteristic immunoglobulin fold in which two beta sheets create a " sandwich " shape , held together by interactions between conserved cysteines and other charged amino acids .
= = = Heavy chain = = =
There are five types of mammalian Ig heavy chain denoted by the Greek letters : α , δ , ε , γ , and μ . The type of heavy chain present defines the class of antibody ; these chains are found in IgA , IgD , IgE , IgG , and IgM antibodies , respectively . Distinct heavy chains differ in size and composition ; α and γ contain approximately 450 amino acids , whereas μ and ε have approximately 550 amino acids .
Each heavy chain has two regions , the constant region and the variable region . The constant region is identical in all antibodies of the same isotype , but differs in antibodies of different isotypes . Heavy chains γ , α and δ have a constant region composed of three tandem ( in a line ) Ig domains , and a hinge region for added flexibility ; heavy chains μ and ε have a constant region composed of four immunoglobulin domains . The variable region of the heavy chain differs in antibodies produced by different B cells , but is the same for all antibodies produced by a single B cell or B cell clone . The variable region of each heavy chain is approximately 110 amino acids long and is composed of a single Ig domain .
= = = Light chain = = =
In mammals there are two types of immunoglobulin light chain , which are called lambda ( λ ) and kappa ( κ ) . A light chain has two successive domains : one constant domain and one variable domain . The approximate length of a light chain is 211 to 217 amino acids . Each antibody contains two light chains that are always identical ; only one type of light chain , κ or λ , is present per antibody in mammals . Other types of light chains , such as the iota ( ι ) chain , are found in other vertebrates like sharks ( Chondrichthyes ) and bony fishes ( Teleostei ) .
= = = CDRs , Fv , Fab and Fc regions = = =
Some parts of an antibody have the same functions . The arms of the Y , for example , contain the sites that can bind to antigens ( in general , identical ) and , therefore , recognize specific foreign objects . This region of the antibody is called the Fab ( fragment , antigen @-@ binding ) region . It is composed of one constant and one variable domain from each heavy and light chain of the antibody . The paratope is shaped at the amino terminal end of the antibody monomer by the variable domains from the heavy and light chains . The variable domain is also referred to as the FV region and is the most important region for binding to antigens . To be specific , variable loops of β @-@ strands , three each on the light ( VL ) and heavy ( VH ) chains are responsible for binding to the antigen . These loops are referred to as the complementarity determining regions ( CDRs ) . The structures of these CDRs have been clustered and classified by Chothia et al. and more recently by North et al. and Nikoloudis et al . In the framework of the immune network theory , CDRs are also called idiotypes . According to immune network theory , the adaptive immune system is regulated by interactions between idiotypes .
The base of the Y plays a role in modulating immune cell activity . This region is called the Fc ( Fragment , crystallizable ) region , and is composed of two heavy chains that contribute two or three constant domains depending on the class of the antibody . Thus , the Fc region ensures that each antibody generates an appropriate immune response for a given antigen , by binding to a specific class of Fc receptors , and other immune molecules , such as complement proteins . By doing this , it mediates different physiological effects including recognition of opsonized particles ( binding to FcγR ) , lysis of cells ( binding to complement ) , and degranulation of mast cells , basophils , and eosinophils ( binding to FcεR ) .
In summary , the Fab region of the antibody determines antigen specificity while the Fc region of the antibody determines the antibody 's class effect . Since only the constant domains of the heavy chains make up the Fc region of an antibody , the classes of heavy chain in antibodies determine their class effects . Possible classes of heavy chains in antibodies include alpha , gamma , delta , epsilon , and mu , and they define the antibody 's isotypes IgA , G , D , E , and M , respectively . This infers different isotypes of antibodies have different class effects due to their different Fc regions binding and activating different types of receptors . Possible class effects of antibodies include : Opsonisation , agglutination , haemolysis , complement activation , mast cell degranulation , and neutralisation ( though this class effect may be mediated by the Fab region rather than the Fc region ) . It also implies that Fab @-@ mediated effects are directed at microbes or toxins , whilst Fc mediated effects are directed at effector cells or effector molecules ( see below ) .
= = Function = =
The main categories of antibody action include the following :
Neutralisation , in which neutralizing antibodies block parts of the surface of a bacterial cell or virion to render its attack ineffective
Agglutination , in which antibodies " glue together " foreign cells into clumps that are attractive targets for phagocytosis
Precipitation , in which antibodies " glue together " serum @-@ soluble antigens , forcing them to precipitate out of solution in clumps that are attractive targets for phagocytosis
Complement activation ( fixation ) , in which antibodies that are latched onto a foreign cell encourage complement to attack it with a membrane attack complex , which leads to the following :
Lysis of the foreign cell
Encouragement of inflammation by chemotactically attracting inflammatory cells
Activated B cells differentiate into either antibody @-@ producing cells called plasma cells that secrete soluble antibody or memory cells that survive in the body for years afterward in order to allow the immune system to remember an antigen and respond faster upon future exposures .
At the prenatal and neonatal stages of life , the presence of antibodies is provided by passive immunization from the mother . Early endogenous antibody production varies for different kinds of antibodies , and usually appear within the first years of life . Since antibodies exist freely in the bloodstream , they are said to be part of the humoral immune system . Circulating antibodies are produced by clonal B cells that specifically respond to only one antigen ( an example is a virus capsid protein fragment ) . Antibodies contribute to immunity in three ways : They prevent pathogens from entering or damaging cells by binding to them ; they stimulate removal of pathogens by macrophages and other cells by coating the pathogen ; and they trigger destruction of pathogens by stimulating other immune responses such as the complement pathway . Antibodies will also trigger vasoactive amine degranulation to contribute to immunity against certain types of antigens ( helminths , allergens ) .
= = = Activation of complement = = =
Antibodies that bind to surface antigens ( for example , on bacteria ) will attract the first component of the complement cascade with their Fc region and initiate activation of the " classical " complement system . This results in the killing of bacteria in two ways . First , the binding of the antibody and complement molecules marks the microbe for ingestion by phagocytes in a process called opsonization ; these phagocytes are attracted by certain complement molecules generated in the complement cascade . Second , some complement system components form a membrane attack complex to assist antibodies to kill the bacterium directly ( bacteriolysis ) .
= = = Activation of effector cells = = =
To combat pathogens that replicate outside cells , antibodies bind to pathogens to link them together , causing them to agglutinate . Since an antibody has at least two paratopes , it can bind more than one antigen by binding identical epitopes carried on the surfaces of these antigens . By coating the pathogen , antibodies stimulate effector functions against the pathogen in cells that recognize their Fc region .
Those cells that recognize coated pathogens have Fc receptors , which , as the name suggests , interact with the Fc region of IgA , IgG , and IgE antibodies . The engagement of a particular antibody with the Fc receptor on a particular cell triggers an effector function of that cell ; phagocytes will phagocytose , mast cells and neutrophils will degranulate , natural killer cells will release cytokines and cytotoxic molecules ; that will ultimately result in destruction of the invading microbe . The activation of natural killer cells by antibodies initiates a cytotoxic mechanism known as antibody @-@ dependent cell @-@ mediated cytotoxicity ( ADCC ) – this process may explain the efficacy of monoclonal antibodies used in biological therapies against cancer . The Fc receptors are isotype @-@ specific , which gives greater flexibility to the immune system , invoking only the appropriate immune mechanisms for distinct pathogens .
= = = Natural antibodies = = =
Humans and higher primates also produce " natural antibodies " that are present in serum before viral infection . Natural antibodies have been defined as antibodies that are produced without any previous infection , vaccination , other foreign antigen exposure or passive immunization . These antibodies can activate the classical complement pathway leading to lysis of enveloped virus particles long before the adaptive immune response is activated . Many natural antibodies are directed against the disaccharide galactose α ( 1 @,@ 3 ) -galactose ( α @-@ Gal ) , which is found as a terminal sugar on glycosylated cell surface proteins , and generated in response to production of this sugar by bacteria contained in the human gut . Rejection of xenotransplantated organs is thought to be , in part , the result of natural antibodies circulating in the serum of the recipient binding to α @-@ Gal antigens expressed on the donor tissue .
= = Immunoglobulin diversity = =
Virtually all microbes can trigger an antibody response . Successful recognition and eradication of many different types of microbes requires diversity among antibodies ; their amino acid composition varies allowing them to interact with many different antigens . It has been estimated that humans generate about 10 billion different antibodies , each capable of binding a distinct epitope of an antigen . Although a huge repertoire of different antibodies is generated in a single individual , the number of genes available to make these proteins is limited by the size of the human genome . Several complex genetic mechanisms have evolved that allow vertebrate B cells to generate a diverse pool of antibodies from a relatively small number of antibody genes .
= = = Domain variability = = =
The chromosomal region that encodes an antibody is large and contains several distinct gene loci for each domain of the antibody — the chromosome region containing heavy chain genes ( IGH @ ) is found on chromosome 14 , and the loci containing lambda and kappa light chain genes ( IGL @ and IGK @ ) are found on chromosomes 22 and 2 in humans . One of these domains is called the variable domain , which is present in each heavy and light chain of every antibody , but can differ in different antibodies generated from distinct B cells . Differences , between the variable domains , are located on three loops known as hypervariable regions ( HV @-@ 1 , HV @-@ 2 and HV @-@ 3 ) or complementarity determining regions ( CDR1 , CDR2 and CDR3 ) . CDRs are supported within the variable domains by conserved framework regions . The heavy chain locus contains about 65 different variable domain genes that all differ in their CDRs . Combining these genes with an array of genes for other domains of the antibody generates a large cavalry of antibodies with a high degree of variability . This combination is called V ( D ) J recombination discussed below .
= = = V ( D ) J recombination = = =
Somatic recombination of immunoglobulins , also known as V ( D ) J recombination , involves the generation of a unique immunoglobulin variable region . The variable region of each immunoglobulin heavy or light chain is encoded in several pieces — known as gene segments ( subgenes ) . These segments are called variable ( V ) , diversity ( D ) and joining ( J ) segments . V , D and J segments are found in Ig heavy chains , but only V and J segments are found in Ig light chains . Multiple copies of the V , D and J gene segments exist , and are tandemly arranged in the genomes of mammals . In the bone marrow , each developing B cell will assemble an immunoglobulin variable region by randomly selecting and combining one V , one D and one J gene segment ( or one V and one J segment in the light chain ) . As there are multiple copies of each type of gene segment , and different combinations of gene segments can be used to generate each immunoglobulin variable region , this process generates a huge number of antibodies , each with different paratopes , and thus different antigen specificities . Interestingly , the rearrangement of several subgenes ( i.e. V2 family ) for lambda light chain immunoglobulin is coupled with the activation of microRNA miR @-@ 650 , which further influences biology of B @-@ cells .
RAG proteins play an important role with V ( D ) J recombination in cutting DNA at a particular region . Without the presence of these proteins , V ( D ) J recombination would not occur .
After a B cell produces a functional immunoglobulin gene during V ( D ) J recombination , it cannot express any other variable region ( a process known as allelic exclusion ) thus each B cell can produce antibodies containing only one kind of variable chain .
= = = Somatic hypermutation and affinity maturation = = =
Following activation with antigen , B cells begin to proliferate rapidly . In these rapidly dividing cells , the genes encoding the variable domains of the heavy and light chains undergo a high rate of point mutation , by a process called somatic hypermutation ( SHM ) . SHM results in approximately one nucleotide change per variable gene , per cell division . As a consequence , any daughter B cells will acquire slight amino acid differences in the variable domains of their antibody chains .
This serves to increase the diversity of the antibody pool and impacts the antibody 's antigen @-@ binding affinity . Some point mutations will result in the production of antibodies that have a weaker interaction ( low affinity ) with their antigen than the original antibody , and some mutations will generate antibodies with a stronger interaction ( high affinity ) . B cells that express high affinity antibodies on their surface will receive a strong survival signal during interactions with other cells , whereas those with low affinity antibodies will not , and will die by apoptosis . Thus , B cells expressing antibodies with a higher affinity for the antigen will outcompete those with weaker affinities for function and survival . The process of generating antibodies with increased binding affinities is called affinity maturation . Affinity maturation occurs in mature B cells after V ( D ) J recombination , and is dependent on help from helper T cells .
= = = Class switching = = =
Isotype or class switching is a biological process occurring after activation of the B cell , which allows the cell to produce different classes of antibody ( IgA , IgE , or IgG ) . The different classes of antibody , and thus effector functions , are defined by the constant ( C ) regions of the immunoglobulin heavy chain . Initially , naive B cells express only cell @-@ surface IgM and IgD with identical antigen binding regions . Each isotype is adapted for a distinct function ; therefore , after activation , an antibody with an IgG , IgA , or IgE effector function might be required to effectively eliminate an antigen . Class switching allows different daughter cells from the same activated B cell to produce antibodies of different isotypes . Only the constant region of the antibody heavy chain changes during class switching ; the variable regions , and therefore antigen specificity , remain unchanged . Thus the progeny of a single B cell can produce antibodies , all specific for the same antigen , but with the ability to produce the effector function appropriate for each antigenic challenge . Class switching is triggered by cytokines ; the isotype generated depends on which cytokines are present in the B cell environment .
Class switching occurs in the heavy chain gene locus by a mechanism called class switch recombination ( CSR ) . This mechanism relies on conserved nucleotide motifs , called switch ( S ) regions , found in DNA upstream of each constant region gene ( except in the δ @-@ chain ) . The DNA strand is broken by the activity of a series of enzymes at two selected S @-@ regions . The variable domain exon is rejoined through a process called non @-@ homologous end joining ( NHEJ ) to the desired constant region ( γ , α or ε ) . This process results in an immunoglobulin gene that encodes an antibody of a different isotype .
= = = Affinity designations = = =
A group of antibodies can be called monovalent ( or specific ) if they have affinity for the same epitope , or for the same antigen ( but potentially different epitopes on the molecule ) , or for the same strain of microorganism ( but potentially different antigens on or in it ) . In contrast , a group of antibodies can be called polyvalent ( or unspecific ) if they have affinity for various antigens or microorganisms . Intravenous immunoglobulin , if not otherwise noted , consists of polyvalent IgG . In contrast , monoclonal antibodies are monovalent for the same epitope .
= = = Asymmetrical antibodies = = =
Heterodimeric antibodies , which are also asymmetrical and antibodies , allow for greater flexibility and new formats for attaching a variety of drugs to the antibody arms . One of the general formats for a heterodimeric antibody is the “ knobs @-@ into @-@ holes ” format . This format is specific to the heavy chain part of the constant region in antibodies . The “ knobs ” part is engineered by replacing a small amino acid with a larger one . It fits into the “ hole ” , which is engineered by replacing a large amino acid with a smaller one . What connects the “ knobs ” to the “ holes ” are the disulfide bonds between each chain . The “ knobs @-@ into @-@ holes ” shape facilitates antibody dependent cell mediated cytotoxicity . Single chain variable fragments ( scFv ) are connected to the variable domain of the heavy and light chain via a short linker peptide . The linker is rich in glycine , which gives it more flexibility , and serine / threonine , which gives it specificity . Two different scFv fragments can be connected together , via a hinge region , to the constant domain of the heavy chain or the constant domain of the light chain . This gives the antibody bispecificity , allowing for the binding specificities of two different antigens . The “ knobs @-@ into @-@ holes ” format enhances heterodimer formation but doesn ’ t suppress homodimer formation .
To further improve the function of heterodimeric antibodies , many scientists are looking towards artificial constructs . Artificial antibodies are largely diverse protein motifs that use the functional strategy of the antibody molecule , but aren ’ t limited by the loop and framework structural constraints of the natural antibody . Being able to control the combinational design of the sequence and three @-@ dimensional space could transcend the natural design and allow for the attachment of different combinations of drugs to the arms .
Heterodimeric antibodies have a greater range in shapes they can take and the drugs that are attached to the arms don ’ t have to be the same on each arm , allowing for different combinations of drugs to be used in cancer treatment . Pharmaceuticals are able to produce highly functional bispecific , and even multispecific , antibodies . The degree to which they can function is impressive given that such a change shape from the natural form should lead to decreased functionality .
= = Medical applications = =
= = = Disease diagnosis = = =
Detection of particular antibodies is a very common form of medical diagnostics , and applications such as serology depend on these methods . For example , in biochemical assays for disease diagnosis , a titer of antibodies directed against Epstein @-@ Barr virus or Lyme disease is estimated from the blood . If those antibodies are not present , either the person is not infected or the infection occurred a very long time ago , and the B cells generating these specific antibodies have naturally decayed .
In clinical immunology , levels of individual classes of immunoglobulins are measured by nephelometry ( or turbidimetry ) to characterize the antibody profile of patient . Elevations in different classes of immunoglobulins are sometimes useful in determining the cause of liver damage in patients for whom the diagnosis is unclear . For example , elevated IgA indicates alcoholic cirrhosis , elevated IgM indicates viral hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis , while IgG is elevated in viral hepatitis , autoimmune hepatitis and cirrhosis .
Autoimmune disorders can often be traced to antibodies that bind the body 's own epitopes ; many can be detected through blood tests . Antibodies directed against red blood cell surface antigens in immune mediated hemolytic anemia are detected with the Coombs test . The Coombs test is also used for antibody screening in blood transfusion preparation and also for antibody screening in antenatal women .
Practically , several immunodiagnostic methods based on detection of complex antigen @-@ antibody are used to diagnose infectious diseases , for example ELISA , immunofluorescence , Western blot , immunodiffusion , immunoelectrophoresis , and magnetic immunoassay . Antibodies raised against human chorionic gonadotropin are used in over the counter pregnancy tests .
= = = Disease therapy = = =
Targeted monoclonal antibody therapy is employed to treat diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis , multiple sclerosis , psoriasis , and many forms of cancer including non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphoma , colorectal cancer , head and neck cancer and breast cancer .
Some immune deficiencies , such as X @-@ linked agammaglobulinemia and hypogammaglobulinemia , result in partial or complete lack of antibodies . These diseases are often treated by inducing a short term form of immunity called passive immunity . Passive immunity is achieved through the transfer of ready @-@ made antibodies in the form of human or animal serum , pooled immunoglobulin or monoclonal antibodies , into the affected individual .
= = = Prenatal therapy = = =
Rhesus factor , also known as Rhesus D ( RhD ) antigen , is an antigen found on red blood cells ; individuals that are Rhesus @-@ positive ( Rh + ) have this antigen on their red blood cells and individuals that are Rhesus @-@ negative ( Rh – ) do not . During normal childbirth , delivery trauma or complications during pregnancy , blood from a fetus can enter the mother 's system . In the case of an Rh @-@ incompatible mother and child , consequential blood mixing may sensitize an Rh- mother to the Rh antigen on the blood cells of the Rh + child , putting the remainder of the pregnancy , and any subsequent pregnancies , at risk for hemolytic disease of the newborn .
Rho ( D ) immune globulin antibodies are specific for human Rhesus D ( RhD ) antigen . Anti @-@ RhD antibodies are administered as part of a prenatal treatment regimen to prevent sensitization that may occur when a Rhesus @-@ negative mother has a Rhesus @-@ positive fetus . Treatment of a mother with Anti @-@ RhD antibodies prior to and immediately after trauma and delivery destroys Rh antigen in the mother 's system from the fetus . It is important to note that this occurs before the antigen can stimulate maternal B cells to " remember " Rh antigen by generating memory B cells . Therefore , her humoral immune system will not make anti @-@ Rh antibodies , and will not attack the Rhesus antigens of the current or subsequent babies . Rho ( D ) Immune Globulin treatment prevents sensitization that can lead to Rh disease , but does not prevent or treat the underlying disease itself .
= = Research applications = =
Specific antibodies are produced by injecting an antigen into a mammal , such as a mouse , rat , rabbit , goat , sheep , or horse for large quantities of antibody . Blood isolated from these animals contains polyclonal antibodies — multiple antibodies that bind to the same antigen — in the serum , which can now be called antiserum . Antigens are also injected into chickens for generation of polyclonal antibodies in egg yolk . To obtain antibody that is specific for a single epitope of an antigen , antibody @-@ secreting lymphocytes are isolated from the animal and immortalized by fusing them with a cancer cell line . The fused cells are called hybridomas , and will continually grow and secrete antibody in culture . Single hybridoma cells are isolated by dilution cloning to generate cell clones that all produce the same antibody ; these antibodies are called monoclonal antibodies . Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are often purified using Protein A / G or antigen @-@ affinity chromatography .
In research , purified antibodies are used in many applications . Antibodies for research applications can be found directly from antibody suppliers , or through use of a specialist search engine . Research antibodies are most commonly used to identify and locate intracellular and extracellular proteins . Antibodies are used in flow cytometry to differentiate cell types by the proteins they express ; different types of cell express different combinations of cluster of differentiation molecules on their surface , and produce different intracellular and secretable proteins . They are also used in immunoprecipitation to separate proteins and anything bound to them ( co @-@ immunoprecipitation ) from other molecules in a cell lysate , in Western blot analyses to identify proteins separated by electrophoresis , and in immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence to examine protein expression in tissue sections or to locate proteins within cells with the assistance of a microscope . Proteins can also be detected and quantified with antibodies , using ELISA and ELISPOT techniques .
Researchers using antibodies in their work need to record them correctly in order to allow their research to be reproducible ( and therefore tested , and qualified by other researchers ) . Less than half of research antibodies referenced in academic papers can be easily identified . A paper published in F1000 in 2014 provided researchers with a guide for reporting research antibody use .
= = Regulatory validation of monoclonal antibody products for human use = =
Production and testing :
Traditionally , most antibodies are produced by hybridoma cell lines through immortalization of antibody @-@ producing cells by chemically @-@ induced fusion with myeloma cells . In some cases , additional fusions with other lines have created " triomas " and " quadromas " . The manufacturing process should be appropriately described and validated . Validation studies should at least include :
The demonstration that the process is able to produce in good quality ( the process should be validated )
The efficiency of the antibody purification ( all impurities and virus must be eliminated )
The characterization of purified antibody ( physicochemical characterization , immunological properties , biological activities , contaminants , ... )
Determination of the virus clearance studies
Before clinical trials , studies of product safety and feasibility have to be performed :
Product safety testing : Sterility ( bacteria and fungi ) , In vitro and in vivo testing for adventitious viruses , Murine retrovirus testing ... Product safety data needed before the initiation of feasibility trials in serious or immediately life @-@ threatening conditions , it serves to evaluate dangerous potential of the product .
Feasibility testing : These are pilot studies whose objectives include , among others , early characterization of safety and initial proof of concept in a small specific patient population ( in vito or in vivo testing ) .
Preclinical studies :
Testing cross @-@ reactivity of antibody : to highlight unwanted interactions ( toxicity ) of antibodies with previously characterized tissues . This study can be performed in vitro ( Reactivity of the antibody or immunoconjugate should be determined with a quick @-@ frozen adult tissues ) or in vivo ( with appropriates animal models ) . More informations about in vitro cross @-@ reactivity testing .
Preclinical pharmacology and toxicity testing : Preclinical safety testing of antibody is designed to identify possible toxicities in humans , to estimate the likelihood and severity of potential adverse events in humans , and to identify a safe starting dose and dose escalation , when possible .
Animal toxicity studies : Acute toxicity testing , Repeat @-@ dose toxicity testing , Long @-@ term toxicity testing http : / / www.animalresearch.info / en / drug @-@ development / safety @-@ testing /
Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics testing : Use for determinate clinical dosages , antibody activities ( AUC , pharmacodynamics , biodistribution , ... ) , evaluation of the potential clinical effects
= = Structure prediction = =
The importance of antibodies in health care and the biotechnology industry demands knowledge of their structures at high resolution . This information is used for protein engineering , modifying the antigen binding affinity , and identifying an epitope , of a given antibody . X @-@ ray crystallography is one commonly used method for determining antibody structures . However , crystallizing an antibody is often laborious and time @-@ consuming . Computational approaches provide a cheaper and faster alternative to crystallography , but their results are more equivocal , since they do not produce empirical structures . Online web servers such as Web Antibody Modeling ( WAM ) and Prediction of Immunoglobulin Structure ( PIGS ) enables computational modeling of antibody variable regions . Rosetta Antibody is a novel antibody FV region structure prediction server , which incorporates sophisticated techniques to minimize CDR loops and optimize the relative orientation of the light and heavy chains , as well as homology models that predict successful docking of antibodies with their unique antigen .
The ability to describe the antibody through binding affinity to the antigen is supplemented by information on antibody structure and amino acid sequences for the purpose of patent claims .
= = History = =
The first use of the term " antibody " occurred in a text by Paul Ehrlich . The term Antikörper ( the German word for antibody ) appears in the conclusion of his article " Experimental Studies on Immunity " , published in October 1891 , which states that , " if two substances give rise to two different antikörper , then they themselves must be different " . However , the term was not accepted immediately and several other terms for antibody were proposed ; these included Immunkörper , Amboceptor , Zwischenkörper , substance sensibilisatrice , copula , Desmon , philocytase , fixateur , and Immunisin . The word antibody has formal analogy to the word antitoxin and a similar concept to Immunkörper ( immune body in English ) . As such , the original construction of the word contains a logical flaw ; the antitoxin is something directed against a toxin , while the antibody is a body directed against something .
The study of antibodies began in 1890 when Kitasato Shibasaburō described antibody activity against diphtheria and tetanus toxins . Kitasato put forward the theory of humoral immunity , proposing that a mediator in serum could react with a foreign antigen . His idea prompted Paul Ehrlich to propose the side @-@ chain theory for antibody and antigen interaction in 1897 , when he hypothesized that receptors ( described as " side @-@ chains " ) on the surface of cells could bind specifically to toxins – in a " lock @-@ and @-@ key " interaction – and that this binding reaction is the trigger for the production of antibodies . Other researchers believed that antibodies existed freely in the blood and , in 1904 , Almroth Wright suggested that soluble antibodies coated bacteria to label them for phagocytosis and killing ; a process that he named opsoninization .
In the 1920s , Michael Heidelberger and Oswald Avery observed that antigens could be precipitated by antibodies and went on to show that antibodies are made of protein . The biochemical properties of antigen @-@ antibody @-@ binding interactions were examined in more detail in the late 1930s by John Marrack . The next major advance was in the 1940s , when Linus Pauling confirmed the lock @-@ and @-@ key theory proposed by Ehrlich by showing that the interactions between antibodies and antigens depend more on their shape than their chemical composition . In 1948 , Astrid Fagreaus discovered that B cells , in the form of plasma cells , were responsible for generating antibodies .
Further work concentrated on characterizing the structures of the antibody proteins . A major advance in these structural studies was the discovery in the early 1960s by Gerald Edelman and Joseph Gally of the antibody light chain , and their realization that this protein is the same as the Bence @-@ Jones protein described in 1845 by Henry Bence Jones . Edelman went on to discover that antibodies are composed of disulfide bond @-@ linked heavy and light chains . Around the same time , antibody @-@ binding ( Fab ) and antibody tail ( Fc ) regions of IgG were characterized by Rodney Porter . Together , these scientists deduced the structure and complete amino acid sequence of IgG , a feat for which they were jointly awarded the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . The Fv fragment was prepared and characterized by David Givol . While most of these early studies focused on IgM and IgG , other immunoglobulin isotypes were identified in the 1960s : Thomas Tomasi discovered secretory antibody ( IgA ) ; David S. Rowe and John L. Fahey discovered IgD ; and Kimishige Ishizaka and Teruko Ishizaka discovered IgE and showed it was a class of antibodies involved in allergic reactions . In a landmark series of experiments beginning in 1976 , Susumu Tonegawa showed that genetic material can rearrange itself to form the vast array of available antibodies .
= = Antibody mimetic = =
Antibody mimetics are organic compounds that , like antibodies , can specifically bind antigens . They are usually artificial peptides or proteins with a molar mass of about 3 to 20 kDa . Nucleic acids and small molecules are sometimes considered antibody mimetics , but not artificial antibodies , antibody fragments and fusion proteins are composed from these . Common advantages over antibodies are better solubility , tissue penetration , stability towards heat and enzymes , and comparatively low production costs . Antibody mimetics such as the Affimer and the DARPin have being developed and commercialised as research , diagnostic and therapeutic agents .
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= Man on the Moon : The End of Day =
Man on the Moon : The End of Day is the debut studio album by American hip hop recording artist Kid Cudi , released on September 14 , 2009 , by Dream On , GOOD Music and Universal Motown . A concept album , narrated by fellow American rapper Common , it follows the release of his first mixtape A Kid Named Cudi ( 2008 ) . Production for the album took place during 2007 to 2009 and was handled by several record producers , including Cudi , Kanye West , Emile Haynie , Plain Pat , No I.D. , Dot da Genius and Jeff Bhasker , among others .
Man on the Moon : The End of Day spawned three singles – " Day ' n ' Nite " , " Make Her Say " and " Pursuit of Happiness " – that attained chart success , the former of which became a US platinum @-@ certified hit single . To further promote the album , he toured with Asher Roth and Lady Gaga . Man on the Moon : The End of Day received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised it for its music composition and different approach to being a hip @-@ hop record . Aside from being included on music critics list of the best albums of the year , Man on the Moon : The End of Day received three Grammy Awards nominations .
The album debuted at number four on both the US Billboard 200 and Billboard Top Rap Albums chart , selling 104 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release in the United States . It later became certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments exceeding 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US . Outside of the US , the album was less commercially successful , generally peaking outside of the top fifty positions of album charts .
= = Writing and development = =
According to AllMusic , soon after it was announced that Cudi would release this album it became " deep in the category of ' much anticipated ' " . Prior to the album being picked up by the likes of Universal Motown and GOOD Music , he had previously worked with mentor and fellow rapper Kanye West on his 2008 record 808s & Heartbreak , co @-@ writing four hits for it . He said that without those song successes Man on the Moon : The End of Day would not have been picked up by any major labels . Cudi , who became West 's protege and collaborator , hoped Man on the Moon : The End of Day would show people that he had his own voice and set him apart . The record was originally titled Man on the Moon : The Guardians , but its subtitle was later changed to The End of Day . Performance artist Andy Kaufman partly inspired the new title . He planned for this record to be the first in a trilogy , with the next edition being entitled The Ghost and the Machine .
Before the success of " Day ' n ' Nite " , the rapper had said that he would never try to mix politics or jocular things in with his lyrical content . After realizing the power of his voice he then decided to make important and unique songs , focusing on the message , rather than just creating inane music . He said his mode of operation at that time " was just , ' Hey , I ’ m making these cool sounding songs and I have little messages in them ' " , but still had himself in it . Although Cudi had a message in every track , he chose to avoid using dense lyrics , explaining that he did not want to write material that he would not actually say or use in real life , adding that being true to yourself entirely was meaningful to him . " I don ’ t speak like a fucking nerdy guy ; I speak like a regular dude " , he remarked .
He wrote " Day ' n ' Nite " after the death of his uncle . The two were not on speaking terms after his uncle forced him out of his home before Cudi could find another living situation . A bitter Cudi never apologized to him before his death , which he now regrets . Other songs on the album expand upon themes discussed in that single . Back in 2007 , Drake , who was one of Cudi 's first supporters , had shown interest in doing an official remix of the song with him . However , Cudi chose against it since he was not interested in working with people who are in the " same creative realm " as him and because he was in the midst of creating his own works . Beginning in the fourth grade , and getting more tense after his father 's death when he was 11 , Cudi began dreaming of his own death ( which usually was an automobile accident ) . He channeled these things into his material . Speaking to BlackBook in May 2009 , Cudi said of the album and its content ,
" Each song is a message . All the hooks are stadium @-@ worthy , crowd sing @-@ along , powerful joints that I can ’ t wait for people to hear in stadium magnitude . My album definitely needs to be heard loudly , but it ’ s also a great album if you ’ re smoking and you need to go to sleep . So far I have the lineup of how I want the first seven tracks on my album and if I play the first seven from the beginning to the end , I ’ m zoned out and it ’ s the best trip ever . You need to be high to appreciate the instrumentation and how everything is put together on the album — but you don ’ t have to be high just to enjoy it in general . "
= = Composition = =
A concept album , Man on the Moon : The End of Day is an autobiographical track series of moody dark material that is separated into five acts that all surround " Day ' n ' Nite " with an arcane account . One reviewer summed up the story to be : " [ a ] lonely guy sits in his room and dreams of success . He uses drugs to calm his fears and fend off night terrors . He eventually gets recognized as the star he always knew he was , and lives the superstar life … or maybe he ’ s still dreaming about that stage of his life , and we ’ re just witnessing what his dreams sound like . " According to Cudi , more lively songs had to be added so that listeners did not feel like they were listening to a " slit @-@ your @-@ wrists album " . It was observed by a reviewer that on Man on the Moon : The End of Day , Cudi neither raps nor sings , instead he goes " puzzling through some third way : a sort of loose , hazily melodic talking . " Musical collaborators included Kanye West , Ratatat and MGMT , among others , and the record is narrated by Common . Lyrically , he raps about anxiety and his frequent nightmares .
The album 's first two songs are a one @-@ two introduction to the rapper and what he is up to . There is a gloomy interior monologue about success , the lack of it , and Cudi 's inner conflicts , where he welcomes listeners by saying they are in his dreams . " Soundtrack 2 My Life " is a more courageous theme song where he proclaims , " This is the soundtrack to my life " . In it he states that his family did not see the sadness in him and that he has not been right since his father 's death . The third track , which is part of the second half of the introduction , has an outer @-@ space style , which is due in part to the Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark group sample , and showcases the rapper 's readiness to experiment .
Following the opening three @-@ track introduction , there is another three @-@ song section of Man on the Moon : The End of Day where Cudi is confined in his solitary world . Like his current state , the music is appropriately obscure . This chapter of the album is the marijuana section , while in next part the rapper is on psychedelics . References to both drugs are abundant throughout the record , but the latter 's part carry " the blind @-@ to @-@ the @-@ world quality of the former . " They are internal tracks , where Cudi 's mind 's state of being is the subject at hand .
" Day ' n ' Nite " is the album 's turning point , where it transitions from the drab theme of loneliness to vitality . Among the brighter songs are " Enter Galactic ( LoveConnection Part 1 ) " , a " trippy disco anthem " that is inspired by when he and a female friend ate shrooms and listened to music by The Postal Service together . " Make Her Say " includes a sample of pop singers Lady Gaga 's 2009 smash hit " Poker Face " and features verses from West and Common . It takes Gaga 's naughty , mischievous central hook and turns it around to be an unrefined oral sex reference that makes it a " hyper @-@ catchy , forward @-@ looking single . " He channels André 3000 in " Cudi Zone " . Man on the Moon : The End of Day 's closer is " Up Up and Away " , an escapist drug anthem single . Unlike other music 's common theme of drugs being used as an escape from the unpleasant realities , this however , is about breaking free from the rough reality of someone 's own mind and heart .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Singles = = =
The first track from the album to be released as a single was " Day ' n ' Nite " which was a commercial success , when it debuted at number 88 and peaked at number 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Cudi 's highest charting song on that chart . Reaching its highest peak at number 2 on both the United Kingdom and Belgium charts , " Day ' n ' Nite " also found its peak positions within the top ten on the French singles charts , as well as charting in the top twenty positions on Irish , German and Australian charts . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for paid digital downloads of more than one million copies in the United States in July 2009 . Although Cudi was grateful for the opportunity to make a video for " Day ' n ' Nite " and enjoyed the overall concept for it , he was disappointed that a majority of his ideas were ignored and cut out of the video . When he saw the video for the first time , he claims he provided feedback for it , but was ignored . The rapper than decided to make another video for the track , which was directed by French artist and director So Me .
Despite Cudi announcing plans to release " Sky Might Fall " as Man on the Moon : The End of Day 's second single , " Make Her Say " was instead chosen . Compared to its previous single , " Make Her Say " was less successful on the music charts , with its highest peak position being at number 18 on the Belgium Singles Chart . The music video for the track was directed by Nez Khammal and utilizes a split screen effect to create the illusion that the three artists ( Cudi , Kanye West and Common ) were all filmed in the same location . In reality , they had shot their individual scenes on opposite coasts of the United States ; Common and Cudi were filmed in New York City while West was filmed in Los Angeles . The third and last single to be released from Man on the Moon : The End of Day was " Pursuit of Happiness " on January 25 , 2010 . " Pursuit of Happiness " managed to chart at number 59 on the Billboard Hot 100 , with its highest peak position being at number 41 on the Australian Singles Chart .
= = = Touring = = =
Initially Cudi stated that he would " lay low until his album drops to avoid unnecessary hype . " Despite this statement , he went on a tour with rapper Asher Roth between July and August 2009 . He performed all of the albums singles at Maryland 's The Ulalume Music Festival in October 2009 . In 2009 , the rapper also toured with singer Lady Gaga as an opening act during the first leg of her The Monster Ball Tour in North America , where he performed the track " Make Her Say " . Less than a month later , and after an altercation with an audience member in Vancouver , it was announced that due to time conflicts , Cudi chose to leave the tour . An official statement from him read , " Kid Cudi has decided to take an early leave of absence from Lady Gaga 's Monster Ball tour , in order to balance his schedule surrounding the recording of his next album and acting commitments . Cudi does not want to disappoint his fans and will move forward with his individual show dates in December and throughout the month of January . " However , in Complex 's October / November issue the rapper claimed that he was kicked off of the tour , commenting " she 's going to kick me off the tour because she didn 't want that type of negative energy at her shows ? Word ? I never did nothing to that girl " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the week ending on September 23 , 2009 , the album debuted at number 4 on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 104 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release , charting behind Jay Z 's The Blueprint 3 , Whitney Houston 's I Look to You and Muse 's The Resistance . On the 2009 year @-@ end chart for Billboard 200 , Man on the Moon : The End of Day was listed at number 157 . The album also charted and peaked at the same position on Billboard 's Top Rap Albums chart . It failed to rise above its positions on those charts and would later be outperformed by his next studio album , Man on the Moon II : The Legend of Mr. Rager ( 2010 ) . Man on the Moon : The End of Day also peaked within Billboard 's Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums top ten positions .
In November 2010 , Man on the Moon : The End of Day was certified gold for shipping over 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , which is its only certification . As of April 22 , 2016 , the album has sold 860 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In the UK Albums Chart , it charted at number 119 , and again did not rise above this position and had a better chart performance on its R & B Albums Charts , where it peaked at number 8 . In the French Album Charts , it debuted at number 56 , and again did not rise above this position . After charting on the chart for five consecutive weeks , it fell out of the top two @-@ hundred positions by October 2009 . Man on the Moon : The End of Day also found its peak at number fifty @-@ six again on the Swiss Album Charts . In Australia , on the week commencing September 28 , 2009 , the album reached its peak of 85 on the ARIA Chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Man on the Moon : The End of Day received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 71 , based on 15 reviews . The Boston Globe praised the experimental quality of the album : " It 's spacey , adventurous , and ridiculously intriguing if only because it 's so different " . Complimenting Cudi 's " introspective persona , ear for melody , and eclectic taste in beats , " Entertainment Weekly music reviewer Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson called him " a hyped upstart who really does represent a promising new phase in the genre 's evolution . " David Jeffries of AllMusic called it " a soul searcher [ that ] may require more patience than your everyday debut " , but " perfects the futuristic bleak @-@ beat hip @-@ hop Kanye purposed a year earlier , and rewards the listener with every tripped @-@ out return . " Greg Kot , writing in the Chicago Tribune , believed that the album had the potential to turn heads as well as " bum @-@ rush the charts . " Slant Magazine 's Paul Schrodt wrote that the album attempts to be " both a bigger pop platform and indie credibility " , and felt that Cudi 's verses " are too good to ignore " so long as you do not take them too seriously . Ann Power of the Los Angeles Times called Man on the Moon a " standout release " in spite of " Cudi 's voice " . Billboard magazine 's Michael Menachem said that the album is " anything but a traditional hip @-@ hop recording " and that Cudi 's " delivery is confident in a poetic and artful way " . David Bevan of The A.V. Club said that , despite its filler , Cudi 's " thick layer of open , intense self @-@ loathing is a clever way of unifying Man On The Moon as pure mood piece , a stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness pop voyage that ’ s more Phil Collins than rap . "
In a mixed review , Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone was impressed by its music , but found Cudi 's raps " pedestrian " . Ian Cohen of Pitchfork Media gave the album a negative review , finding it frustrating that the album felt like a failed opportunity rather than a " non @-@ starter " . He further wrote that Cudi largely smears his verses with a " flat warble " that is salvaged by auto @-@ tune , which he remarked would be " numbing enough on its own " had it not been for the frequent " terrifyingly underwritten lyric to jolt you into sharp pangs of embarrassment . " In a largely mixed review , Jon Caramanica of The New York Times expressed his astonishment at the emotional honesty embedded into Cudi 's songwriting but felt his restrained vocal performance diminished his presence on the album , writing , that the album " is a colossal , and mystifying , missed opportunity , misguided if it is in fact guided at all . " Citing the tracks " Solo Dolo " and on " Cudi Zone " as Cudi 's most " appealingly creepy " and intricate vocal performance , on his general view of the album , Caramanica wrote that the rest of the album lacks that liveliness and drive , reducing Cudi to a " gaseous nonentity " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Man on the Moon : The End of Day was named Entertainment Weekly 's Best Hip Hop Album of 2009 and called one of the year 's best debut albums . Due to his " key track " , " Day ' n ' Nite " , Cudi was also one of their five breakout stars of the year . Calling it a " wonderfully weird album " , MTV 's James Montgomery listed Man on the Moon : The End of Day as being the nineteenth of twenty best albums of 2009 . Montgomery wrote that the albums collaborations , Commons narration of it and its detailed storytelling as some of the reasons for its inclusion on his list . The album was also Complex 's Best Album of 2009 . Prior to its official release as a single , " Pursuit of Happiness " was listed as being number fifteen on Montgomery 's list of " Best Song 's of 2009 " , and " Day ' n ' Nite " was ranked in at number fifteen on the list of " Best 25 Songs of 2009 " by Rolling Stone . Two singles from Man on the Moon : The End of Day were nominated for awards at the 52nd Grammy Awards . " Day ' n ' Nite " was nominated for Best Rap Song and Best Rap Solo Performance , while " Make Her Say " was also nominated for Best Rap Performance By A Duo or Group category . The lead single was also nominated for two BET Hip Hop Awards and one Urban Music Award . The " Crookers Remix " of " Day ' n ' Night " earned Cudi his first and only Beatport Music Award . In October 2013 , Complex named it the fifth best hip hop album of the last five years .
= = Track listing = =
Sample credits
" Simple As ... " contains a sample of " ABC ( Auto @-@ Industry ) " performed by Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark .
" In My Dreams ( Cudder Anthem ) " contains a sample of " Biceps " performed by Garnegy and Maties
" Solo Dolo " contains a sample of " The Traitor " performed by the Menahan Street Band .
" Make Her Say " contains an interpolation of " Poker Face " ( Piano & Voice Version ) performed by Lady Gaga .
" Make Her Say " contains a sample of " Let 's Ride " performed by Q @-@ Tip .
" Hyyerr " contains a sample of " Early Morning Love " performed by Lou Rawls .
" Man on the Moon ( The Anthem ) " contains a sample of " Aquarium " performed by Nosaj Thing .
" My World " contains a sample of " All What I Have " performed by Le Système Crapoutchik .
" Heart of a Lion " contains an interpolation of " You Make Me Feel Brand New " performed by The Stylistics .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Man on the Moon : The End of Day adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Royal Canadian Air Cadets =
Royal Canadian Air Cadets ( French : Cadets de l 'aviation royale du Canada ) is a Canadian national youth program for persons aged 12 to 18 . Under the authority of the National Defence Act the program is administered by the Canadian Forces ( CF ) and funded through the Department of National Defence ( DND ) . Additional support is provided by the civilian Air Cadet League of Canada ( ACL ) . Together with the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets and Royal Canadian Army Cadets , it forms the " largest federally funded youth program in the country " . Cadets are not members of the military and are not obliged to join the Canadian Forces .
The first squadrons were established in 1941 to train young men for duties during World War II . The purpose has since changed to focus on citizenship , leadership , physical fitness , general aviation and stimulating an interest in the activities of the Canadian Forces .
The majority of cadet training takes place at the local squadron during the regular school year with a percentage of cadets selected for summer training courses at various cadet summer training centres located across Canada . Central to the air cadet program are the gliding and flying scholarships offered to air cadets who qualify . One in five private pilots in Canada is an ex @-@ air cadet and 67 % of commercial and airline pilots began as air cadets . There are 456 squadrons located across the country with an approximate enrolment of 23 @,@ 000 Air Cadets .
= = Overview = =
The aim of the Cadet Program is to develop in youth the attributes of good citizenship and leadership ; promote physical fitness ; and stimulate the interest of youth in the sea , land , and air activities of the Canadian Forces ; however , each focuses on its own parent element . The Air Cadet motto is " To learn . To serve . To advance . " , and was created by Robert Myles Colwell in 1966 when he was a cadet with 625 Squadron in Perth @-@ Andover , NB .
Persons aged 12 to 18 may join the Air Cadet Program . The organization and rank system of the pre @-@ unification Royal Canadian Air Force is used with one additional rank - Flight Corporal - equating to an Army Cadet Master Corporal or a Sea Cadet Master Seaman . Cadets are not members of the Canadian Forces and cadets have no power of command over any CF member . Adult leadership is provided by members of the Canadian Forces Reserve Subcomponent Cadet Organizations Administration and Training Service composed mostly of officers of the Cadet Instructors Cadre ( CIC ) Branch , supplemented , if necessary , by contracted Civilian Instructors , authorized adult volunteers , and , on occasion , officers and non @-@ commissioned members of other CF branches . The CIC Branch is specifically trained to deliver the Royal Canadian Sea , Army , and Air Cadet training program , and like all reservists come from all walks of life and all parts of the community . Some are former cadets , many have former regular or reserve force service .
Along with the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets and Royal Canadian Army Cadets , they form the Canadian Cadet Organizations . Though the cadet programs have a close relationship with the CF , cadets are not members of the Forces , and are not expected or required to join the Canadian Forces . In keeping with Commonwealth custom , the Royal Canadian Air Cadets stand last in the order of precedence , after the Royal Canadian Sea and Army Cadets .
The Canadian Cadet Movement is sponsored by the CF / DND and the civilian Air Cadet League , along with the Navy League and Army Cadet League . Each cadet unit is supported by a local Squadron Sponsoring Committee responsible to the National League through each of the Provincial Committees . The basic Air Cadet program is provided at no cost , including uniforms and activities . Most Air Cadet squadrons are sponsored by a local service organization or club such as a Royal Canadian Legion Branch , Royal Canadian Air Force Association Wing , Rotary Club , Lions Club , or a locally established committee . The local civilian sponsors must raise money to provide for accommodation , utilities , liability insurance , local awards , and additional training resources or special activities , such as mess dinners , band instruments or squadron excursions and trips , not funded by the CF / DND . Cadets and their parents are encouraged to participate in fund @-@ raising activities .
= = History = =
The Air Cadet Organization originated in the early days of World War II when the war effort required young men to meet Canada 's military obligations . By 1938 there existed a couple of groups that would help promote such an effort . In Winnipeg , Manitoba this was the Winnipeg Air Cadets launched by Albert Bennett . Other such group existed in St. Catharines , ON. and in Penhold , AB .
Prior to 1940 , official Air Cadet squadrons did not exist . One corps was opened up under the Royal Canadian Army Cadets in 1939 under the corps designation of 1601 AIR FORCE CADET WING . With the formation of the Royal Canadian Air Cadet movement the corps transferred over and was given the designation 111 VANCOUVER . This was to coincide with the local Royal Canadian Air Force unit stationed in Vancouver No. 111 Squadron . 111 Air Cadet Squadron still exists under the name 111 PEGASUS .
In 1940 , Air Minister Power directed that a nationwide voluntary organization be formed to sponsor and develop a select group of young men who would be trained to meet the increasing need for operational pilots in the Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) during World War II .
On November 11 , 1940 , an Order @-@ in @-@ Council was passed to establish the Air Cadet League of Canada to work in partnership with the RCAF . The first squadrons were organized in 1941 and by 1942 there were 135 squadrons and 10 @,@ 000 cadets , mostly recruited from the Army Cadets . By 1943 , there were 315 squadrons with a membership of 23 @,@ 000 . In 1944 , the program reached its peak membership with 29 @,@ 000 cadets in 374 squadrons .
The first uniform the Air Cadets used were hand me down uniforms from the Pre War era RCAF . It consisted of a blue / gray wool uniform ; cap ( wedge ) , pants and a full collar tunic . This was phased out in 1943 with an open collar variation similar to the war time RCAF enlisted man ’ s tunic . After the war the air cadet organization received more hand me down uniforms from the RCAF before adopting the battle dress style uniform .
After the war , membership dropped to a low of 11 @,@ 000 in 155 squadrons and the Air Cadet program underwent a transformation to reflect the changing needs of Canada and the cadets . The Air Cadet League introduced awards for proficiency and loyalty to the squadrons , summer courses were offered at RCAF stations , and a flying scholarship course was developed . To date , more than 15 @,@ 000 cadets have received their private pilot licence through the scholarship course . Training shifted to be focused on the development of citizenship and an interest in aviation . Interest was renewed ; by 1961 , 332 squadrons were in existence and in 1972 , authority was given for membership of up to 28 @,@ 000 cadets .
In areas where there was a high interest in air cadets , additional squadrons were established with different parade nights to accommodate the numbers . These squadrons were often placed into air cadet wings ( a formation of two or more squadrons ) with a separate wing HQ staff of both officers and senior cadets overseeing the operation . The system was discontinued in the late 1960s and all squadrons became independent once again .
From the early days senior air cadets were given opportunities to work in staff positions beside officers , certain contracted civilians and RCAF / CF members at summer camps across Canada . A system was developed where senior cadets aged 16 or older were temporarily enrolled in the RCAF / CF on short term contracts and given the rank of Acting Corporal . They were referred to as Call @-@ out Corporals . The Senior Leaders Course at Cold Lake later even used the CF rank of Acting Master Corporal among its staff of Call @-@ out Corporals . Later the system was abolished and the " staff cadet " program selected senior cadets for advanced training who were appointed as staff cadets to assist the adult leadership .
With the unification of the Royal Canadian Navy , the Canadian Army and the Royal Canadian Air Force in 1968 , the Canadian Forces became the Air Cadet League 's military partner in the delivery of air cadet training . In 1975 , legislation was changed to officially allow the enrolment of female cadets into the Royal Canadian Sea , Army , and Air Cadets . The " battle dress " style woolen air force blue uniform was changed to a CF rifle green safari style uniform . The style and weight were more suited to the indoor and summer training reality of the program . The first of these was issued to cadet squadrons commencing in 1978 . A new embellished brass cap badge was issued and air cadet wings were worn on the left brest rather than the right . When the CF went back to separate uniform colours in the mid @-@ 1980s , cadets followed again with a new air force blue cadet uniform being issued but following the same style as the outgoing green uniform . Squadrons received these new uniforms commencing in the fall of 1992 .
Today , the Royal Canadian Air Cadets has a membership of approximately 23 @,@ 000 in 456 squadrons ; and together with the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets and Royal Canadian Army Cadets , forms the " largest federally funded youth program in the country " . The membership has also diversified , becoming gender balanced and attracting and retaining visible minorities .
= = Local training = =
Each squadron trains one night per week — a " parade night " — to undertake the local training program . The course of instruction is prescribed by the Director of Cadets and outlined in course training plans distributed to each squadron . The four @-@ year program provides cadets instruction in citizenship , leadership , survival training , instructional techniques , drill and ceremonial and the basics of aviation and aeronautics . In the fifth and subsequent years , cadets may be assigned to instruct these classes to the younger cadets . The local training begins in September and continues until June .
In addition to the mandatory weekly training sylabus , there are additional regularly scheduled activities that cadets can participate in optional training that includes band , firearms safety and marksmanship using the 10 metre air rifle for both training and competition , biathlon , military drill practice , first aid training and competitions , and ground school instruction in preparation for gliding and flying scholarship courses . Many of these activities also involve regional , provincial , or national competitions between teams and individual cadets .
Throughout the year there are weekend exercises organized by the local squadrons . Survival exercises , participation in Remembrance Day ceremonies , and familiarization flights are all common activities . Cadet squadrons participate in community events such as parades and band concerts .
= = = Cadet Program Update – Squadron program = = =
Beginning with the 2008 / 2009 training year , a new training system was introduced replacing the program that was in use since 1992 . The Cadet Program Update ( CPU ) brings new teaching materials and incorporates more contemporary educational and youth development methods . Similar updates to the Sea and Army Cadet programs rationalize the connectivity between the three programs and more efficiently provides the training that is common to all three elements .
The cornerstone of the CPU is the recognition that people between the ages of 12 @-@ 18 pass through three basic " Developmental Periods " ( DPs ) . These DPs mark the development of their cognitive abilities from a purely experienced @-@ based ( i.e. " hands @-@ on " ) method of learning to abstract problem @-@ solving and competency . The training methods used at each training level reflect the target age group of the cadets in that training level .
The delivery of the various performance objectives ( POs ) will be through a mixture of mandatory and complementary enabling objectives ( EOs ) . The mandatory EOs will be the same for all air cadet squadrons . Individual squadrons may chose from a number of complementary EOs to support the mandatory training . The selection of complementary training activities at a local squadron is based on the local resources and the interests of the cadets involved .
The program will be phased in one year at a time with the new proficiency level 5 being introduced for the 2012 / 2013 training year . Cadets already undergoing training in the current system will complete their training under the outgoing system .
= = = Squadron training levels = = =
Air Cadets are challenged to qualify to five training levels . Each level is normally completed in the ten @-@ month training period from September to June . With the approval of the commanding officer , cadets 14 years of age and older may complete levels 1 and 2 in a single training year . Success in meeting the required standard is rewarded with the appropriate level qualification badge . In Level Four cadets learn to instruct so that when they reach Level Five , they are ready to teach other cadets . The chart below displays the training level structure of the Royal Canadian Air Cadets .
= = Summer training = =
Courses offered at Air Cadet summer camps include training in leadership , flying , fitness and sports , survival , military band , pipe band , aerospace , aviation technology , and marksmanship . The courses offered include familiarization , basic , advanced , and national summer training courses .
Familiarization courses
The only familiarization course is the two @-@ week @-@ long General Training course . It provides cadets with an introduction to camp life and outlines the various fields of interest in the Air Cadet Program .
Basic courses
The basic courses deliver training directed more specifically towards certain specialities . All of these courses are three weeks long , and are available to cadets who are level two or above . The Basic Drill & Ceremonial course prepares cadets to fill the role of a peer leader while building on their knowledge and skills in leadership , drill and ceremonial . The Basic Survival course introduces cadets to elementary survival skills and encourages them to pursue specialist training in this area of interest . Basic Aviation introduces cadets to the fundamentals of aviation and provides incentive to pursue specialist training in this area . Basic Fitness and Sports course prepares cadets to serve as an assistant sports instructor while developing personal habits to maintain a good fitness and healthy living . The Basic Aviation Technology and Aerospace course introduces cadets to the fundamentals of the aerospace industry , of airfield operations and the construction and maintenance of aircraft . The Basic Musician course develops cadets ' competence in music and prepare them to support their local military or pipe band .
Advanced courses
The advanced courses provides cadets with the knowledge required to become instructors of their speciality . Advanced Aviation Course increases cadets ' knowledge and skills of the field of aviation and provides incentive to pursue specialist training in this area . Drill And Ceremonial Instructor Course develops cadets to become a specialist with the skills and subject matter knowledge required to be an instructor and team leader for drill and ceremonial activities . Survival Instructor Course develops cadets to become a specialist with the skills and subject matter knowledge required to be an instructor and team leader for aircrew survival activities within the Air Cadet Program . Fitness Sports Instructor Course develops cadets to become a specialist with the skills and subject matter knowledge required to perform the role of a fitness and sports instructor and team leader for fitness and sports activities conducted at the squadron , during regionally directed activities and / or as a Staff Cadet at a CSTC . Air Rifle Marksmanship Instructor Course provides cadets with the opportunity to develop coaching and marksmanship skills necessary to support the squadron marksmanship program and biathlon programs . It also introduces cadets to advanced marksmanship skills . Intermediate and advanced musician courses increases cadets ' musical skills and advances them to the next level of musical qualification , with some instructional techniques relating to music .
National courses
There are seven national courses in the air cadet summer training program . Oshkosh Trip is a two @-@ week trip to Oshkosh , Wisconsin , home to EAA AirVenture Oshkosh . The International Air Cadet Exchange is a three @-@ week exchange that allow cadets to visit air bases , centres of industry , world landmarks , universities , cultural centres and museums , and experience private hospitality with families in their own homes . It is intended for outstanding senior cadets who will represent Canada with distinction . Other national courses include Advanced Aerospace , Advanced Aviation Technology Courses – Airport Operations and Advanced Aviation Technology Courses – Aircraft Maintenance .
Aviation national courses
Glider Pilot Scholarship Program
The Glider Pilot Scholarship ( GPS ) program is a six @-@ week course with an intensive programme of ground school and in @-@ flight glider pilot training . Cadets who successfully complete their flight test and Transport Canada written exam will qualify for a glider pilot licence and be awarded Air Cadet Glider Pilot Wings.The program is also responsible for producing the largest number of glider pilots within Canada . On average , the program produces 320 glider pilots annually . Upon attaining their licences , these pilots join their local headquarters to provide other cadets with glider familiarization flying during the spring and fall seasons .
Private Pilot Scholarship Program
The Power Pilot Scholarship ( PPS ) program is a seven @-@ week course that allows cadets to get their private pilot licence and their Air Cadet Power Pilot Wings . A goal for many cadets within the program is to secure a private pilot licence prior to the age of 19 . Cadets who are aged 17 – 18 apply and are selected to write an exam and interview for the prestigious scholarship . The course provides cadets with both ground school training and in @-@ flight instruction at the various flight centres across Canada . Cadets who have been successful within the program have integrated themselves with commercial airlines , the Canadian Forces , various courier and charter companies , and have also gone on to become instructors at various flight schools . Overall , this opportunity to attain a private pilots ’ licence remains as one of the most prestigious and attractive opportunities available within the Air Cadet program .
After successfully completing a summer course , cadets are presented with a qualification badge to display on their uniform . The badges may be seen on the Cadets.ca website .
= = = Cadet Training Centres ( CTCs ) = = =
The cadet training centres ( CTC ) of the Royal Canadian Air Cadets are distributed across Canada , often co @-@ located with a Canadian Forces base . Here are the following CTCs used for air cadets :
= = = Summer training courses ( 2012 ) = = =
As of the transition to the new program in the 2012 / 2013 training year , the summer training courses varies from year to year .
* A prerequisite for the Power Pilot Scholarship is that cadets must be 17 years old before 1 September of the year of the course . * * A prerequisite for the Glider Pilot Scholarship is that cadets must be 16 years old before 1 September of the year of the course . * * * The Oshkosh trip has been suspended until further notice .
* * * * A prerequisite for being a part of the International Air Cadet Exchange is that cadets must be 17 years old before 1 August of the year of the course . * * * * * A prerequisite for being a Staff Cadet is that cadets must be 16 years old before 1 January of the year of the course . * * * * * * BLC Basic Leadership has been changed to BDCC Basic Drill and Ceremonial Course , LCIC Leadership Ceremonial Instructor Course has been changed to , DCIC Drill and Ceremonial Instructor Course .
= = Flying = =
Throughout the spring and fall approximately 22 @,@ 000 air cadets participate in familiarization gliding at regional gliding centres located across the country . Each summer , 320 cadets earn a Transport Canada Glider Pilot Licence through the Air Cadet Gliding Scholarship and 250 more earn a Private Pilot licence . The Air Cadet Gliding Program conducts approximately 60 @,@ 000 glider flights annually in Schweizer SGS 2 @-@ 33 gliders . The aircraft fleet used in the gliding program is owned by the Air Cadet League of Canada . The fleet , consisting of more than 100 gliders and tow planes is maintained by the Canadian Forces under a memorandum of understanding . Canadian Forces pilots and Civilian Instructors operate the fleet to train cadets . The aircraft that are used during the Power Pilot Scholarship are various , and they depend on the flight school the cadet is posted at during their course . The Power Pilot Scholarship is operated by private flight schools , and the instructors are not affiliated with the cadet program . The aircraft can be a Cessna 152 , Cessna 172 , or DA20 Katana .
Aircraft
= = Uniform = =
Uniforms are provided at no charge . Cadets are responsible for care , cleaning and custody of the issued kit and also to return it when ceasing to be a cadet . The uniform includes : wedge , wide @-@ brimmed tan summer hat , toque , rank slip @-@ ons , short @-@ sleeved shirt , necktie , T @-@ shirt , turtleneck sweater , jacket ( tunic ) , jacket belt , trousers , trousers belt , all @-@ season jacket , boots , grey wool socks , running shoes , grey sports shorts , and blue sports T @-@ shirt .
Cadets in uniform shall be well groomed with footwear cleaned and shone . Their uniform shall be clean and properly pressed at all times . In particular , buttons , fasteners and zippers shall be kept closed . Hair must be of natural colour .
For male cadets , hair should not touch the ears or have excessive length or bulk on the head . At the top of the back of the neck , hair will either be evenly tapered or be clean cut . Moustaches are authorized but must conform to dress regulations . Beards are not authorized except for religious or medical reasons and , when authorized , must conform to dress standards . Otherwise , male cadets must be clean shaven .
For females , short hair must be neat and may not extend past the bottom of the collar , while long hair must be pulled back into a tight bun , and may be contained by a hairnet . Very long hair may be braided or worn as a bun . Hair elastics , bobby pins and hairnets should be the same colour as the cadet 's hair . When braided the cadets hair may be worn in either double or single French braids and in both cases the braids must fall behind the shoulders and not extend past the bottom of the armpit .
Different numbered orders of dress are worn on different occasions . Here are the numbered orders of dress :
C @-@ 1 ( Ceremonial ) : Worn during formal ceremonies or parades ; when parading as part of a guard of Honour ; for church services and parades ; for funerals ; or , other occasions as ordered . Medals are worn with this order of dress .
C @-@ 2 , C @-@ 3 , and C @-@ 4 ( Routine Training ) : C @-@ 2 dress is worn for day to day training ; routine parades ; or other occasions as ordered . It must be worn while travelling to and from a CTC . The dress is the same as C @-@ 1 , except that the medal ribbons replaces the medals . C @-@ 3 and C @-@ 4 is the same as C @-@ 2 , except that the turtleneck and blue T @-@ shirt replaces the shirt and tie respectively ; C @-@ 3 may be worn in cold weather .
C @-@ 5 ( Summer Training ) : Worn during summer training at a CTC . No medals , medal ribbons , pilot wings , or pins are worn with this order of dress .
C @-@ 6 ( Sports ) : Worn as directed by the squadron or CTC CO . CTC staff cadets wearing this order of dress while on duty shall wear their rank brassard .
C @-@ 7 ( CTC Staff Cadet ) : Worn by CTC staff cadets . Rank slip @-@ ons and name tag shall be worn . The wear of medal ribbons and the Certificate of Commendation Pin is authorized on the dress . Metal wings may be worn .
C @-@ 8 ( Mess dress ) Worn during mess or formal dinners , and other occasions as ordered . Same as C @-@ 2 , except that the white collar dress shirt with black bow tie replaces the shirt and tie .
= = Ranks = =
Upon enrollment a new cadet in the Air Cadet Program is known as a " cadet " ( Cdt ) . Appointment ( or promotion ) to higher ranks occurs after the cadet has met certain nationally prescribed standards . The specific criteria for all ranks is established to ensure that all cadets who receive a rank promotion possess the same basic qualifications or similar experience , the successful completion of squadron training serves as the common standard on which all cadets are evaluated , and that every cadet is given the same opportunity to advance .
Because there is a maximum number of established positions for ranks warrant officer first class ( one per squadron ) , promotions are based on the results of a merit review board . The composition of the merit review board includes a minimum of three to a maximum of five members . As appointed by the squadron commanding officer , members include : Commanding officer ( or delegate ) acting as board chairperson ; Air Cadet League or local sponsor representative ; and a minimum of one and maximum of three additional members from the following : representative ( s ) of the RCSU CO ( area Cadet Instructor Cadre officer , regional cadet advisor , area cadet officer , etc . ) , squadron CIC officer ( s ) ( from within own or members of neighbouring squadrons ) , and member ( s ) of the community ( to include : school principal , Legion member , etc . ) . Prior to 1976 the size of the squadron dictated the top rank available and many squadrons were ineligible to carry a WO1 on their establishment effectively capping promotion at WO2 for the squadron 's ranking cadet .
Responsibilities are given to cadets upon reaching corporal ( Cpl ) , the first NCO rank . In September 2007 , the rank of " flight corporal " ( FCpl ) was introduced . The badge is similar to the insignia of a flight sergeant incorporating a crown above two chevrons . The new rank brought the rank progression for the sea , army , and air cadet programs into line . Flight corporals and corporals generally assist a more senior cadet , such as a flight sergeant who leads a flight ( a small , organizational group of air cadets ) . Sergeants are responsible for most of the day @-@ to @-@ day activities of the squadron and assist the flight sergeants as second in command of a flight . Warrant officers work closely with the officer staff of the squadron , assisting with administration , logistical , leadership , and training . In smaller squadrons , these roles may be filled by more junior cadets .
The official phrasing for the ranks uses the word cadet as a preface — as an example , cadet corporal . However , custom omits cadet in casual reference . Thus , corporal is the usual wording . Generally , where there is a need to distinguish between cadets and Canadian Forces members , ranks will be written or spoken as cadet corporal and abbreviated as C / Cpl.
While it is customary within the organization to refer to a cadet receiving a rank as being " promoted , " the official documentation ( Queens Rules and Regulations ( Cadets ) and CATO ) vary : the senior document describing progression as an " appointment " , the other describing progression as " promotion " .
The chart displays the rank structure of the Royal Canadian Air Cadets .
= = Music appointments = =
When a squadron wishes to create a cadet band , the decision to do so must be made in consultation with the sponsoring committee responsible for provision and maintenance of musical instruments . The cadet music program recognizes two types of bands : military bands and pipe bands . Military bands ' instrumentation includes woodwinds , brass , and / or percussion , while pipe bands ' instrumentation includes pipes and drums . The Regional Support Cadet Unit should provide instruments on loan to their squadrons to maximize the use of the instruments held by the region and CSTCs and to better support squadron training . The music proficiency levels are recognized on the cadet uniform using a system of badges based on the music training programs ; the military band badge represents a lyre , while the pipe band badge represents either a pipe or a drum , depending on the instrument played .
The appointment of a Drum Major or Pipe Major is at the discretion of the corps / squadron CO . Requirements considered include : demonstration of skills and knowledge in band drill , commands and formations , qualification of Music Proficiency Level 2 , and holds the minimum rank of Flight Corporal . Only one cadet may be appointed as the squadron Drum Major or Pipe Major at any time .
= = Honours and awards = =
The Canadian Cadet Movement maintains its own Honours and Awards system . Cadets may be awarded these based on criteria including bravery , citizenship , service , outstanding performance on a summer training course , and more . In addition , cadets may also wear , on their uniform , any orders , decorations , and medals of Canada they have been awarded .
Within the system , there are several honours and awards common to all three cadet elements and some that are unique to each . A cadet who transfers from one element to another may continue to wear any medals awarded from their previous service , but in general , air cadets may be eligible for the following eight honours and awards , and are in the order of precedence :
= = Symbols = =
= = = Flags = = =
In some squadrons , the ensign and squadron banner are carried by a flag party with the Flag of Canada ( see image in the Local training section above ) , despite CF custom being for one- or two @-@ flag parties only . Subject to regional regulations , flag party escorts may carry deactivated drill purpose rifles .
The Royal Canadian Air Cadets Banner is flown only on important ceremonial occasions to indicate the presence of a formed body of cadets , and , at the end of useful life , is deposited , after the manner of colours , in some suitable location . The banner was presented in 1991 at the Senior Leaders Course at CFB Cold Lake , and was paraded at the Senior Leaders Course graduation parades each summer until the course was replaced with the Leadership and Ceremonial Instructor Course . Though not consecrated , the flag parallels Air Force Command Colours and is carried in the same manner . Cadets pay compliments to the banner in a similar manner to a consecrated colour . Members of the CF are not required to pay compliments to the banner but may do so as a courtesy .
Originally approved in 1941 , the Royal Canadian Air Cadets Ensign was modified in 1971 to incorporate the National Flag in the canton . The flag parallels a Canadian Forces command flag ( as distinct from a Command Colour ) . The ensign is normally flown at the squadron and often carried as part of a flag party . It is always flown from a mast or pole at air cadet summer training centres .
The squadron banner parallels an Air Force Squadron Standard and is carried by squadrons as their specific unit identifier . Unlike a squadron standard , however , an air cadet squadron banner may not be consecrated nor can they emblazoned with battle honours . Though squadron banners may not be consecrated they may , be dedicated and may be laid up in a manner paralleling similar ceremonies for squadron standards . Compliments are paid to the squadron banner in the same manner as the Air Cadet Banner . The squadron 's name and number are embroidered on the banner . It should be noted , however , that the Air Cadet League did for a brief period allow the acquisition of squadron banners featuring the individual squadron 's badge in place of standard design . It is unclear , should any of these banners require replacement , if anything other than the standard design will be authorized .
= = = Badge = = =
The emblem of the Royal Canadian Air Cadets consists of a circle surrounded by a wreath of maple leaves , superimposed with a flying falcon , the head to the sinister ( left ) . The whole is crowned by the Royal crown — fashioned as a St Edward 's Crown — to symbolise the monarchy of Canada as the Cadets ' source of authority . This all rests on a scroll displaying the words " Royal Canadian Air Cadets / Cadets de l 'aviation royale du Canada " . It is worn as a brass or embroidered badge on the left side of the wedge cap and other formal headdress , and as an embroidered patch on the all @-@ weather jacket . The original hat badge featured an eagle surmounted by single maple leaf with two underlying scrolls reading " Air Cadets Canada " .
= = Cadet Fitness Assessment and Incentive Program = =
The Cadet Fitness Assessment and Incentive Program replaced the old fitness testing program in the 2010 @-@ 2011 training year . It is based on the FITNESSGRAM testing protocol produced by the Cooper Institute .
= = = Fitness assessment = = =
= = = Incentive program = = =
There are four incentive levels cadets can achieve upon doing the fitness assessment : bronze , silver , gold , and excellence . Scoring of the cadet depends on the age and gender of the cadet . Each test in the fitness assessment is scored as follows :
Using incentive level standards , each of the 5 or 6 tests is awarded an achievement level . The minimum achievement level reached of all 5 components is awarded ; only the highest two of the three flexibility tests is used in determining the achievement levels for the Flexibility component .
= = Notable former air cadets = =
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= Rashid Johnson =
Rashid Johnson ( born 1977 ) is an African @-@ American socio @-@ political photographer who produces conceptual post @-@ black art . Johnson first received critical attention when examples of his work were included in the exhibition " Freestyle , " curated by Thelma Golden at the Studio Museum in Harlem in 2001 — when he was 24 . He has studied at Columbia College Chicago and the School of the Art Institute of Chicago . His work has been exhibited around the world and he is held in collections of many of the world 's leading art museums .
In addition to photography , which is where Johnson began , he presents audio ( mostly music ) , video and sculpture art . Johnson is known for both his unusual artistic productions and for his process . He is also known for combining various science with black history so that his materials , which are formally independent , are augmented by their relation to black history . He was a 2012 Hugo Boss Prize finalist .
= = Early life = =
Johnson was born in Illinois to an academic and scholar mother , Dr. Cheryl Johnson @-@ Odim , and a former Vietnam @-@ war veteran father , Jimmy Johnson , who was an artist but worked in electronics . His parents divorced when he was 2 years old . His mother remarried a man of Nigerian descent . Johnson said that growing up his family was based in afrocentrism and that his family celebrated Kwanzaa .
Johnson was raised in the Wicker Park neighborhood of Chicago , Illinois , as well as Evanston , Illinois . A photography major , he earned a 2000 Bachelor of Fine Arts from Columbia College Chicago and a 2005 Master of Fine Arts from the School of the Art Institute of Chicago . While at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago , one of his mentors was Gregg Bordowitz .
After obtaining his Master 's degree , he moved to the Lower East Side in New York City , where he taught at the Pratt Institute . Although he is generally referred to as a photographer and sometimes referred to as a sculptor , in certain contexts , he has been referred to as an artist @-@ magician .
Johnson followed a generation of black artists who focused on the " black experience " and he grew up in a generation that was influenced by hip hop and Black Entertainment Television . Because of his generation 's high exposure to black culture within pop culture , his contemporary audiences have a greater learned understanding of the " black experience . " The basic exposure of many to the black experience has enabled him to achieve a deeper race and identity interaction .
His work has been exhibited at the Art Institute of Chicago ; the Whitney Museum of American Art , New York ; the Detroit Institute of Arts ; the Walker Art Center , Minneapolis ; the Corcoran Museum of Art , Washington , DC ; the Institute of Contemporary Photography , New York ; the Brooklyn Museum of Art , New York ; and the Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago . His art is in the collections of most of these museums , and he is represented by art dealers in Milan , Naples , New York City and Chicago . By 2000 , his work was held by the Studio Museum in Harlem , and by 2001 he had two photographs in the collection at the Art Institute of Chicago .
In 2009 , Johnson collaborated with the local Chicago apparel company Flux Collection . Works utilized in Flux products include " Space " ( 2008 , Spray Enamel on Mirror ) , which was turned into a tee @-@ shirt design .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
As a college junior , he opened his first show at the Schneider Gallery . By 2000 , he had earned a reputation for his unique photo @-@ printing process and his medium and large scale works were priced at up to US $ 3 @,@ 000 . In 2000 , some of his early black @-@ and @-@ white photography work was described as " spectacularly rich " by The New York Times ; the Chicago Sun @-@ Times referred to his 2000 collection of portraits of homeless men " stunning " , and he was noted for a series of large @-@ scale photos of feet that serve as his interpretation of human migration in 2001 . Then , he exhibited in the notable 2001 Freestyle show , a show that is credited with having launched Johnson 's career . The curator of the show , Thelma Golden , is credited with coining the term post @-@ black art in relation to that exhibit , although some suggest the term is attributable to the 1995 book The End of Blackness by Debra Dickerson , who is a favorite of Johnson . The term post @-@ black now refers to art where race and racism are prominent , but where the importance of the interaction of the two is diminished .
Johnson 's most controversial exhibition was entitled Chickenbones and Watermelon Seeds : The African American Experience as Abstract Art . The subject matter was a series of stereotypical African @-@ American food culture items such as watermelon seeds , black @-@ eyed peas , chicken bones , and cotton seeds placed directly onto photographic paper and exposed to light using an iron @-@ reactive process .
In 2002 , he exhibited at the Sunrise Museum in Charleston , West Virginia . The exhibit , entitled Manumission Papers , was named for the papers that freed slaves were required to keep to prove their freedom . The exhibition was described as being as much a cultural commentary as an imagery display , and it related to the previous " Chickenbones " exhibit . He geometrically arranged abstractions of feet , hands , and elbows in shapes such as cubes , church windows and ships . This was a considered as study in racial identity because the body parts were not identifiable . Also in 2002 , presenting his photographic work using chicken bones , Johnson exhibited at the Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago , as part of the UBS 12 x 12 : New Artists , New Work series .
In 2002 he exhibited his homeless men in the Diggs Gallery of Winston @-@ Salem State University . The exhibit was entitled Seeing in the Dark and used partially illuminated subjects against deep black backgrounds . He also exhibited his homeless men work , including George ( 1999 ) , in Atlanta , Georgia as part of the National Black Arts Festival at City Gallery East in July and August 2002 . George was part of the Corcoran Gallery of Art November 2004 – January 2005 Common Ground : Discovering Community in 150 Years of Art , Selections From the Collection of Julia J. Norrell exhibition . George and the Common Ground exhibition appeared in several other places including the North Carolina Museum of Art in 2006 .
He took part in the Chicago Department of Cultural Affairs artist Open Studio Program rotation in the Chicago Landmark / National Register of Historic Places Page Brothers Building during the summer of 2003 with a three @-@ week exhibition . He explored the " historical and contemporary nature of photography " . At that time , he was represented by George N 'Namdi , who owned G.R. N 'Namdi , the oldest African @-@ American @-@ owned , exhibiting commercial gallery in the country .
In conjunction with the Renaissance Society at the University of Chicago , Rashid Johnson exhibited The Evolution of the Negro Political Costume in December 2004 . He presented replicas of three outfits worn by African @-@ American politicians . He included a late 1960s dashiki worn by Jesse Jackson , a 1980s running suit worn by Al Sharpton in the ' 80s and a business suit worn by then United States Senator @-@ elect Barack Obama . The presentation , which invited inspection , was as likely to evoke humorous response to the Jackson dashika as well as critical commentary about the presentation of political attire .
Johnson explored the theme of escapism at the Indianapolis Museum of Contemporary Art in a show entitled The Production of Escapism : A Solo Project by Rashid Johnson . He addressed distraction and relief from reality through art and fantasy . Johnson used photos , video and site @-@ specific installation to study escapist tendencies through often with a sense of humor that bordered on the absurd .
= = = Post @-@ graduate career = = =
During the summer of 2005 , he took part in a Chicago Cultural Center artist exchange program exhibition featuring five emerging Chicago contemporary artists and five from Kaohsiung , Taiwan . Half of the ten were women ( four from Taiwan ) . As part of the Crossings exhibition almost all artists had their first chance to exhibit in the country of the others . In this forum , Chicago Tribune art critic Alan G. Artner said Johnson 's audio selection imposed his artistry on all the other exhibits since he chose a rap song combined with a blunt video . Artner became a Johnson detractor in 2005 when Johnson had this and another simultaneous exhibit appearing in Chicago . He described Johnson 's exploration of the politics of race as " sloganeering or cute self @-@ advertising " in his two @-@ dimensional works , and his apolytical three @-@ dimensional installations as " glib and superficial " representations . He classified Johnson 's work as more suitable for the audience seeking nothing more than American pop culture . The following year , in 2006 , Artner derided Johnson 's short video contribution to the Art Institute of Chicago 's Fool 's Paradise exhibition as a " conflation of gospel singing with beat boxing ... that says nothing worth saying about race . " Other Chicago critics describe Johnson 's subsequent work as relatively hip .
In an ensemble 2006 showing entitled Scarecrow , Johnson exhibited a life @-@ sized photographic nude self @-@ portrait that was supposed to be menacing and abrasive , but that was perceived as interesting and amusing . His Summer 2007 " Stay Black and Die " work in the The Color Line exhibition at the Jack Shainman Gallery left one art critic from The New York Times wondering whether he was viewing a warning or exhortation . However , at the same time he participated in the Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art 's For Love of the Game : Race and Sport in America exhibition that seemed to clearly address manners in which questions about race have been asked and answered on American sports fields of play .
In Dark Matters , a 2007 exhibition at the James Harris Gallery in Seattle , Washington , Johnson is said to mimic Édouard Manet 's Olympia in a work called White Girls and Sam Gilliam and Richard Tuttle in his skyspace backdrops that are perceived as sweeping perfection .
As a post @-@ black artist , his mixed @-@ media work , such as his Spring 2008 exhibition The Dead Lecturer , plays on race while diminishing its significance by playing with contradictions , coded references and allusions ( E.g. , The New Negro Escapist Social and Athletic Club ( Emmett ) , right ) . The exhibit was described as " a fictional secret society of African @-@ American intellectuals , a cross between Mensa and the Masons " that that was a challenge to either condemn or endorse .
Despite Artner 's generally negative reviews of Johnson in earlier years , Johnson was near the top of Artner 's list of exhibitions that he wanted to see in late 2008 . Artner promptly reviewed Johnson 's simultaneous September 2008 showings in Chicago . He claimed that The New Escapist Promised Land Garden and Recreation Center did not come across as either a land garden or recreation center due to the in part because of Johnson 's overwhelming presence and in part because of the long , narrow , cramped venue . He saw too much of the artist in his own work such as Bruce Conner @-@ like paintings and Johnson 's photographic impersonation of tennis champion Jimmy Connors . He perceives the nostalgia as somewhat autobiographical and possibly fictionalized . He perceived part of the work as graffiti and felt the work was unchallenging . Artner described Cosmic Slops , which featured 11 paintings of black soap and wax , plus one simulacrum of a Constructivist canvas made of an animal pelt with glittery ribbons , as descendants of century of history of monochromatic abstractions that discards by titling his work as representations of the heavens . Artner feels these sculptural waxes are inferior to encaustic paintings in terms of artistic quality despite their three @-@ dimensionality . In 2008 he continued to view Johnson less seriously as an artist but felt his work had attitude . However , some experts spoke highly of Johnson 's work in the same newspaper during its run . Reviewers in Time Out Chicago spoke of how he transformed a " space associated with white privilege into a sanctuary for black traditions , " although they note the exhibition seems uncoordinated .
Johnson 's work stood out from the 200 @-@ piece 30 Americans at the Rubell Family Collection to be singularly mentioned in The Miami Herald . His work was described as a fusion of " portraits , sculptures and photography bathed in the color black ... [ that ] represent a fictional secret society of African @-@ American intellectuals " . Johnson described his work as a demonstration of the complexity of the black experience .
= = = Rise to prominence = = =
In November 2011 , he was named as one of six finalists for the Hugo Boss Prize .
In January 2012 , Hauser & Wirth presents ' RUMBLE ' , an exhibition of new works by Johnson . Including painting , sculpture , installation and film , ' RUMBLE ’ will be the artist ’ s first show with the gallery and will take place at their New York City location .
In April 2012 , the Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago , presents Johnson 's first major museum solo exhibition . MCA Pamela Alper Associate Curator Julie Rodrigues Widholm curated the exhibition in close collaboration with the artist . The exhibition is a survey of the past 10 years of the artist 's work . Additionally , a new MCA commission will be shown for the first time .
Johnson is currently represented by Galerie Guido W. Baudach , Berlin ; David Kordansky Gallery , Los Angeles ; and Hauser & Wirth .
= = Techniques and processes = =
Johnson uses " alchemy , divination , astronomy , and other sciences [ sic ] that combine the natural and spiritual worlds " to augment black history . According to a Columbia College Chicago publication , Johnson works in a variety of media with physical and visual materials that have independent artistic significance and symbolism but that are augmented by their connections to black history . According to the culture publication Flavorpill , he challenges his viewers with photography and sculpture that present the creation and dissemination of norms and expectations . However , the Chicago Tribune describes the productions resulting from his processes as lacking complexity or depth . Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer writer Regina Hackett described Johnson as an artist who avoids the struggles of black people and explores their strengths , while inserting himself as subject in his " aesthetic aspirations " through a variety of forums .
Johnson has garnered national attention for both his unusual subject matter and for his process . In addition to portrait photography , Johnson is known for his use of a 19th @-@ century process that uses Van Dyke brown , a transparent organic pigment , and exposure to sunlight . He achieves a painterly feel with his prints with the application of pigment using broad brush strokes . He uses a 8 @-@ by @-@ 10 @-@ inch ( 20 by 25 cm ) Deardorff , which forces him to interact with his subjects .
= = Personal life = =
Johnson is married to artist Sheree Hovsepian . They live in New York City and have one child .
= = Selected exhibitions = =
= = = Solo = = =
2002 : " 12x12 : New Artist / New Work , " Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago , IL
2005 : " The Production of Escapism , " Indianapolis Museum of Contemporary Art , Indianapolis , IN
2008 : " Sharpening My Oyster Knife , " Kunstmuseum Magdeberg , Germany
2009 : " The Dead Lecturer : Laboratory , Dojo , and Performance Space , " Power House Memphis , Memphis , TN
2009 : " Smoke and Mirrors , " Sculpture Centre , Long Island City , NY
2012 : " A Message to Our Folks , " Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago , IL
2012 : " Rumble , " Hauser & Wirth , New York , NY
2013 : " New Growth , " Ballroom Marfa , TX
2015 : " Smile , " Hauser & Wirth ( South Gallery ) , London ( 28 January – 7 March 2015 )
= = = Group = = =
2000 : " A Decade of Acquisitions , " Detroit MI
2001 : " Freestyle , " Studio Museum in Harlem , New York NY
2004 : " Inside Out : Portrait Photographs from the Permanent Collection , " New York NY
2005 : " International Biennale of Contemporary Art 2005 , " Prague , Czech Republic
2006 : " A noir , E blanc , I rouge , U vert , O bleu : colors , " Magdeburg , Germany
2008 : " 30 Americans , " Rubell Family Collection , Miami FL
2009 : " Beg , Borrow and Steal " Rubell Family Collection , Miami FL
2010 : " Selected Works from the MCA Foundation ; Focus on UBS 12x12 , " Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago IL
2010 : " From Then to Now : Masterworks of African American Art , " MOCA , Cleveland OH
2011 : " ILLUMInations " 54th Venice Biennale , Venice , Italy
2011 : " American Exuberance , " Rubell Family Collection , Miami FL
= = Awards = =
2012 : David C. Driskell Prize
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= Sauropelta =
Sauropelta ( / ˌsɔːroʊˈpɛltə / SAWR @-@ o @-@ PEL @-@ tə ; meaning ' lizard shield ' ) is a genus of nodosaurid dinosaur that existed in the Early Cretaceous Period of North America . One species ( S. edwardsorum ) has been named although others may have existed . Anatomically , Sauropelta is one of the most well @-@ understood nodosaurids , with fossilized remains recovered in the U.S. states of Wyoming , Montana , and possibly Utah . It is also the earliest known genus of nodosaurid ; most of its remains are found in a section of the Cloverly Formation dated to 108 @.@ 5 million years ago .
It was a medium @-@ sized nodosaurid , measuring about 5 @.@ 2 metres ( 17 @.@ 1 ft ) long . Sauropelta had a distinctively long tail which made up about half of its body length . Although its body was smaller than a modern black rhinoceros , Sauropelta was about the same mass , weighing in at about 1 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 300 lb ) . The extra weight was largely due to its extensive covering of bony armor , including the characteristically large spines projecting from its neck .
= = Description = =
Sauropelta was a heavily built quadrupedal herbivore with a body length of approximately 5 @.@ 2 m ( 17 @.@ 1 ft ) . The skull was triangular when viewed from above , with the rear end wider than the tapering snout . One skull measured 35 centimeters ( 13 @.@ 75 in ) in width at its widest point , behind the eyes . Unlike some other nodosaurids , the roof of the skull was characteristically flat , not domed . The roof of the skull was very thick and covered in flat , bony plates that are so tightly fused that there appear to be no sutures ( boundaries ) like the ones seen in Panoplosaurus , Pawpawsaurus , Silvisaurus , and many other ankylosaurs . This could also be an artifact of preservation or preparation . As in other ankylosaurs , thick triangular scutes projected from the postorbital bone , above and behind the eyes , as well as the jugal bone , below and behind the eyes . More typically for nodosaurids , leaf @-@ shaped teeth lined both upper and lower jaws , used for cutting plant material . The front end of the skull is unknown , but there would have been a sharp bony ridge ( tomium ) at the end of both upper and lower jaws , as seen in other ankylosaurs . This ridge probably would have supported a keratinous beak .
The tail of Sauropelta was characteristically long and made up nearly half of the body length . One skeleton preserved forty caudal ( tail ) vertebrae , although some were missing , suggesting that the true number of caudal vertebrae may have exceeded fifty . Ossified tendons stiffened the tail along its length . Like other ankylosaurs , Sauropelta had a wide body , with a very broad pelvis and ribcage . The forelimbs were shorter than the hindlimbs , which resulted in an arched back , with the highest point over the hips . Its feet , limbs , shoulders , and pelvis were all very stoutly constructed and reinforced to support a great deal of weight . American paleontologist Ken Carpenter estimated the mass of S. edwardsorum at 1 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 300 lb ) .
Like other nodosaurids , Sauropelta was covered in armor formed from bony masses embedded in the skin ( osteoderms ) . The discovery of a skeleton with the body armor preserved in situ allowed Carpenter and other scientists to accurately describe this protection . Two parallel rows of domed scutes ran down the top of the neck , along the anteroposterior axis ( front to back ) . On the upper surface of the back and tail , the skin was covered in small , bony nodules ( ossicles ) , which separated larger conical scutes arranged in parallel rows along the mediolateral axis ( side to side ) . Over the hips , the ossicles and larger domed plates were interlocked very tightly to form a structure called a sacral shield . This shield is also found in ankylosaurs like Polacanthus and Antarctopelta . Large , pointed spines lined the sides of the neck , increasing in size towards the shoulders , and then decreasing in size again along the side of the body until they stopped just before the hips . Behind the hips , flat triangular plates lined the tail on both sides , pointing laterally ( outwards ) and decreasing in size towards the end of the tail . Carpenter originally described the cervical ( neck ) spines and caudal plates as belonging to a single row on each side , although more recently he and Jim Kirkland reconstructed them in two parallel rows on each side , one above the other . The upper row of cervical spines pointed backwards and upwards ( posterodorsally ) , while the lower row pointed backwards and outwards ( posterolaterally ) . The bases of each pair of cervical spines and each pair of caudal plates were fused together , greatly restricting mobility in both the neck and upper tail .
= = Classification and systematics = =
Since John Ostrom first described Sauropelta in 1970 , it has been recognized as a member of the family Nodosauridae . The nodosaurids , along with the family Ankylosauridae , belong within the infraorder Ankylosauria . Nodosaurids are characterized by certain features of the skull , including the mandible ( lower jaw ) , which curves downwards at the end . Overall , nodosaurids had narrower snouts than the ankylosaurids , and also lacked the heavy ankylosaurid tail clubs . Nodosaurids , like ankylosaurids , are found in North America , Asia , and Europe .
While the systematics ( evolutionary relationships ) of nodosaurids have not been firmly established , the genera Sauropelta , Silvisaurus and Pawpawsaurus are sometimes considered to be basal to geologically younger nodosaurids like Panoplosaurus , Edmontonia , and Animantarx . In a 2001 analysis , Carpenter included the former three genera in a sister clade to a group containing the latter three , although he found that Panoplosaurus could belong to either clade , depending which taxa and characters were chosen .
= = Discovery and naming = =
In the early 1930s , famed dinosaur hunter and paleontologist Barnum Brown collected the holotype specimen of Sauropelta ( AMNH 3032 , a partial skeleton ) from the Cloverly Formation in Big Horn County , Montana . The locality is inside the Crow Indian Reservation . Brown also discovered two other specimens ( AMNH 3035 and 3036 ) . The latter is one of the best @-@ preserved nodosaurid skeletons known to science , includes a large amount of in situ armor , and is on display in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City . AMNH 3035 preserves the cervical armor and most of a skull , missing only the end of the snout . Expeditions in the 1960s led by the equally renowned John Ostrom of Yale University 's Peabody Museum of Natural History recovered additional incomplete specimens from the Cloverly . In 1970 , Ostrom coined the genus Sauropelta to include remains discovered by both expeditions . Derived from the Greek σαυρος / sauros ( ' lizard ' ) and πελτε / pelte ( ' shield ' ) , this name is a reference to its bony armor . Although Ostrom originally named the species S. edwardsi , nomenclaturist George Olshevsky corrected the spelling to S. edwardsorum in 1991 to conform to Latin grammar rules .
Despite the naming of Sauropelta two years earlier , confusion arose in 1972 when the name " Peltosaurus " was inadvertently published as the caption of a photograph of AMNH 3036 . Although Brown never published a name or description for the remains which are now known as Sauropelta edwardsorum , " Peltosaurus " was the name he informally used in lectures and museum exhibits . However , the name Peltosaurus was preoccupied by a genus of North American lizard from an extinct branch of the modern family Anguidae ( the alligator lizards and the legless glass lizards ) and is no longer used to refer to the dinosaur .
In 1999 , Carpenter and colleagues described material of a large nodosaurid from Utah , discovered in a member of the Cedar Mountain Formation called the Poison Strip Sandstone , which is contemporaneous with the Cloverly Formation . He originally referred it to Sauropelta as a possible new species , but it was never named . In more recent publications , Carpenter no longer refers the Poison Strip animal to Sauropelta , only to the family Nodosauridae .
Other recent , but undescribed , discoveries include a complete skull from the Cloverly of Montana and a huge fragmentary skeleton from the Cedar Mountain Formation of Utah . These discoveries have been published only as abstracts for the annual Society of Vertebrate Paleontology conference , and may or may not prove to belong to S. edwardsorum or even Sauropelta when formally published .
= = = Footprint discoveries = = =
In 1932 , Charles Mortram Sternberg reported the presence of the footprints of a large , four @-@ footed dinosaur from Lower Cretaceous rocks in British Columbia , Canada . He described a new ichnogenus and species for these tracks , Tetrapodosaurus borealis , and attributed them to ceratopsians . However , in 1984 paleontologist Kenneth Carpenter re @-@ examined the British Columbian Tetrapodosaurus prints and argued that they were made by ankylosaurs rather than ceratopsians . Specifically , Carpenter concluded that these were probably the footprints of Sauropelta . Five years later , large numbers of Tetrapodosaurus tracks were discovered at the Smoky River Coal Mine near Grande Cache , Alberta . This site is considered the most important ankylosaur track site in the world .
= = Paleoecology = =
Sauropelta was one of the earliest known nodosaurids . All specimens of S. edwardsorum were recovered from the Little Sheep Mudstone section of the Cloverly Formation in Wyoming and Montana , which has been dated to 108 @.@ 5 million years ago , during the Early Cretaceous . Sauropelta lived in wide floodplains around rivers that drained into the shallow inland sea to the north and east , carrying sediment eroded from the low mountains to the west . Periodic flooding of these rivers covered the surrounding plains with new muddy sediments , creating the Cloverly Formation and burying the remains of many animals , some of which would be fossilized . At the end of Cloverly times , the shallow sea would expand to cover the entire region and would eventually split North America completely in half , forming the Western Interior Seaway . Abundant fossil remains of coniferous trees suggest that these plains were covered in forests . Grasses would not evolve until later in the Cretaceous , so Sauropelta and other Early Cretaceous dinosaurian herbivores browsed from a variety of conifers and cycads . Nodosaurids like Sauropelta had narrow snouts , an adaptation seen today in animals that are selective browsers as opposed to the wide muzzles of grazers .
While Sauropelta was an important part of the Cloverly herbivore guild , the most abundant herbivorous dinosaur of the time was the large ornithopod Tenontosaurus . The smaller ornithopod Zephyrosaurus , rare titanosaur sauropods , and an unknown type of ornithomimosaur also lived alongside Sauropelta . The dromaeosaurid theropod Deinonychus fed upon some of these herbivores , and the sheer number of Deinonychus teeth scattered throughout the formation are a testament to its abundance . Microvenator , a small basal oviraptorosaur , hunted smaller prey , while the apex predators of the Cloverly was the large allosauroid theropod Acrocanthosaurus . Lungfish , triconodont mammals , and several species of turtles lived in the Cloverly , while crocodilians prowled the rivers , lakes , and swamps , providing evidence of a year @-@ round warm climate . The Late Jurassic fauna dominated by allosauroids , stegosaurs , and many varieties of huge sauropods gave way by Cloverly times to an Early Cretaceous fauna in which dromaeosaurs , ornithopods , and nodosaurs like Sauropelta were predominant . After the Cloverly ended , a large wave of Asian animals , including tyrannosaurids , ceratopsians , and ankylosaurids would disperse into western North America , forming the mixed fauna seen throughout the Late Cretaceous .
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= Miguel Cotto =
Miguel Ángel Cotto Vázquez ( born October 29 , 1980 ) , best known as Miguel Cotto , is a Puerto Rican professional boxer . He is the first and only Puerto Rican to win world titles in four different weight classes . The Transnational Boxing Rankings Board ( TBRB ) currently ranks him as the world 's fourth best middleweight .
As an amateur , Cotto represented Puerto Rico in the lightweight and light welterweight divisions at various international events including the 1999 Pan American Games , the 2000 Olympics and the 1998 Junior World Championships , where he won a silver medal . Having begun his professional career in 2001 , Cotto defeated Kelson Pinto for the WBO light welterweight title in 2004 . He made six successful defenses before vacating the title when he ascended to welterweight .
In his first welterweight fight , in 2006 , he defeated Carlos Quintana for the vacant WBA welterweight title . Cotto successfully defended this title four times before losing it to Antonio Margarito in 2008 . The following year , Cotto won the vacant WBO welterweight title , defending it once before losing it to Manny Pacquiao . In 2010 , Cotto moved up another division to light middleweight and won the WBA title . Two successful defenses were made in 2011 , one of them including a rematch against Antonio Margarito . Cotto lost the WBA title to Floyd Mayweather Jr. in 2012 , which was one of the most anticipated fights in modern boxing history . The year would end on a sour note for Cotto , as he lost to Austin Trout .
Two years later , Cotto defeated Sergio Martínez to win capture the WBC , Ring magazine and lineal middleweight titles . In doing so , he became the first Puerto Rican fighter in history to win a world title in four different weight classes . In 2015 , he defended his titles once before losing to Canelo Álvarez .
Cotto started out his career as a hard @-@ hitting pressure fighter , but has evolved over the years into a more refined boxer @-@ puncher . Many former opponents name Cotto as their hardest punching opponent , with Paulie Malignaggi ( whom Cotto fought at light welterweight ) going as far as to call Cotto 's power " near superhuman " . Cotto is considered to be one of the greatest fighters of his generation and also to be one of the best Puerto Rican boxers ever , among the likes of Félix Trinidad , Wilfred Benitez , Hector Camacho , Wilfredo Gomez , and Carlos Ortiz .
= = Early years and amateur career = =
Cotto was born in Rhode Island , to Puerto Rican parents , and relocated to Caguas , Puerto Rico with his family before he was two . There are several figures linked to boxing in his family , including his late father Miguel Cotto Sr. , his brother José Miguel Cotto , his second cousin Abner Cotto , and his uncle and former boxing trainer Evangelista Cotto . Cotto began boxing as a child to help lose weight , not anticipating it to end up being his career path . He was taken to the Bairoa Gym in Caguas . There , he was able to develop into a top amateur fighter . The young Cotto participated in several international tournaments , these include : The 1998 Junior World Championships that took place in Buenos Aires , Argentina , where he finished in second place while competing in the Lightweight division . His three victories here were by points , the results were : Andrey Kolevin of Ukraine by points 15 @-@ 3 ; Dana Laframboise of Canada by points 6 @-@ 1 , and Darius Jasevicius representing Lithuania 9 @-@ 5 . His only loss was to Anton Solopov of Russia by points with a score of 8 @-@ 9 . In 1999 , Cotto competed in the Pan American Games that took place in Winnipeg , Canada . He only fought once in a loss to Dana Laframboise of Canada by points with a final score of 2 @-@ 5 . Following his participation in the Pan American tournament , Cotto was part of the Boxing World Championships in Houston , Texas . He lost his only fight by points to Robertas Nomeikas . In his final amateur tournament , Cotto represented Puerto Rico as a Light Welterweight at 2000 Sydney Olympic Games where he lost to Mahamadkadir Abdullayev of Uzbekistan by points . Cotto decided to turn professional after the loss to Abdulaev , ending his amateur career with a record of 125 @-@ 23 .
= = Professional career = =
Early in his career Cotto defeated former world title contender John Brown by decision in the tenth round . He led the score through the entire fight and scored a knockdown in the second round . The judges gave Cotto scores of 100 @-@ 89 twice and 100 @-@ 88 .
In 2001 , Cotto suffered a dangerous injury that threatened his boxing career . As he was driving to the gymnasium at 5 a.m. , he apparently fell asleep and crashed , breaking his arm and requiring hospitalization .
On September 13 , 2003 , Cotto defeated Demetrio Ceballos by knockout in the seventh round at Las Vegas . In a fight where Cotto injured Ceballos with numerous combinations in the sixth round , switching between the orthodox and southpaw stances . In the seventh round Cotto displayed an aggressive style that led to the referee stopping the fight with 0 : 32 remaining in the round . With this , he was ranked number one in his division by the World Boxing Association .
Cotto 's first fight of 2004 , was a fourth round knockout victory over the former world title contender Victoriano Sosa . This was after an eventful week prior to the fight , which included Cotto having to wait four hours for his luggage to arrive ( after a 2 a.m. local time arrival ) at McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas , and almost being removed from the Mandalay Bay Hotel , where the fight was held , by a security guard who thought he was an unaccompanied minor .
On April 8 , 2004 , he defeated the former world title challenger , Lovemore N 'dou , by unanimous decision in Las Vegas . The first three rounds of the fight had a slow pace with neither of the boxers establishing control of the fight . Cotto dominated the fourth and fifth rounds managing to land combinations on N 'dou 's head . N 'dou won the seventh and eighth rounds after landing more accurate hits than Cotto . The last three rounds were even with both fighters establishing short periods of control in the fight . The judges gave Cotto scores of 117 @-@ 111 , 116 @-@ 112 and 115 @-@ 113 .
= = = Junior Welterweight = = =
On September 11 , 2004 , Cotto faced Kelson Pinto from Brazil , for the vacant World Boxing Organization junior welterweight title . This represented the third fight between them , with Pinto being victorious in their two previous encounters , both of which took place while they were still amateurs . The fight was televised by HBO from San Juan , Puerto Rico . During this card Cotto utilized a defensive stance with his hands in a high position instead of his usual aggressive orthodox stance . Over the course of the fight Cotto scored three knockdowns and won the World Boxing Organization Junior Welterweight Championship by knockout in the sixth round .
On December 11 , 2004 , he successfully defended his title , beating former world champion Randall Bailey by knockout in the sixth round , as part of the Vitali Klitschko @-@ Danny Williams undercard in Las Vegas . Cotto 's performance was described as a result of hand speed and accuracy . During the fight Bailey received punches in his face that opened cuts over and under both of his eyes . As a result of the cuts Bailey was examined by the ringside physician . Following this Bailey expressed that he didn 't want to continue and the referee stopped the fight at 1 : 39 of the sixth round . Eleven days later , on December 22 , 2004 the Puerto Rican boxing commission named Cotto as Puerto Rico 's fighter of the year for 2004 . Cotto 's second title defense took place on February 26 , 2005 in the Rubén Rodríguez in Bayamón , Puerto Rico against Demarcus Corley . During the fight Cotto practiced a boxing style that was more aggressive than usual , trading hits with Corley over the course of the first round . During the fight both boxers were deducted one point following illegal low blows . Cotto scored three knockdowns before the fight was stopped by the referee at 2 : 45 of the fifth round following a combination by Miguel . Corley claimed that the referee stopped the fight prematurely stating that " the ref just stopped the fight premature . If he wanted to stop the fight , he could have stopped it when I had [ Cotto ] hurt . " Just a few days after retaining the crown versus Corley , Cotto received a personal blow , when his stablemate and friend , former 2004 Olympian Joseph Serrano , was shot in the head upon leaving the Bairoa gym . Serrano survived the shot , but was in critical but stable condition at a local hospital .
On June 11 , 2005 , Cotto faced the last man to beat him as an amateur , former Olympic gold medalist Mohamed Abdulaev from Uzbekistan . As amateurs , Abdulaev eliminated Cotto from the first round of the 2000 Sydney Olympics . This time they met as professionals in New York City 's Madison Square Garden . Before the beginning of the fight Cotto received a positive ovation from the public . During the first round Miguel went on the offensive scoring hits on Abdullaev 's head and body while he was in a defensive stance . In the fourth round a left hook by Miguel hurt Abdullaev , who proceeded to focus his hits on Cotto 's body . Abdullaev 's offense was effective in the sixth and seventh rounds and as a result of this Cotto assumed a defensive stance . Following the eighth round Abdullaev 's eye was swollen to the point of being almost entirely closed . In the ninth round following accurate punches by Cotto the fight 's referee paused the fight and asked the ringside doctor to examine Abdullaev 's eye . After being examined by the doctor Abdullaev indicated to the referee that he could not continue , this way Cotto retained the Welterweight division championship .
Miguel 's third championship defense took place on September 24 , 2005 at Boardwalk Hall in Atlantic City , New Jersey , against Ricardo Torres of Colombia . In the first round Cotto had an offensive advantage and scored a knockdown on Torres . In the second round after trading hits Torres scored a knockdown on Miguel . The last seconds of the round were evenly matched with both boxers finishing the round injured . Cotto was apparently in better condition when the third round began and was dominating the fight at that point . With two minutes remaining in the round one of Cotto 's punches landed in Torres ' beltline . Following this Torres was granted thirty seconds to recover by the referee . Cotto dominated the fourth round and Torres won the fifth . Cotto won and scored a knockdown in the sixth round . At 1 : 24 of the seventh round a left hook by Cotto knocked Torres out .
On March 4 , 2006 , Cotto defended his WBO Junior Welterweight title by knocking out Gianluca Branco , who had to give up during the eighth round of their bout due to a shoulder injury . Cotto dominated the fight as a result of jab combinations in a card that took place in Bayamón , Puerto Rico . Cotto 's next scheduled match was against the then @-@ undefeated Paul Malignaggi in a fight that took place on June 10 , 2006 in Madison Square Garden . Cotto opened a cut over Malignaggi 's right eye in the first round , which , according to Malignaggi , affected his performance over the course of the fight , by stating " this was the first time in which I was cut , and the blood kept going into my eye . And it bothered me the entire fight . I was not able to see very well . Cotto 's a great fighter , but I 'm disappointed , as I wanted to be the champion " . Cotto won the fight by unanimous decision with scores of 116 @-@ 111 and 115 @-@ 112 . Malignaggi suffered a fractured right orbital bone and his jaw was injured , he was taken to Roosevelt Hospital after the fight 's outcome was announced .
= = = Welterweight = = =
Cotto relinquished his title in late 2006 and announced his intention to move to the welterweight division to challenge Carlos Quintana for the WBA 's championship . The fight took place on December 2 , 2006 . Cotto defeated Quintana by technical knockout in the fifth round . Following a punch to the body , Quintana surrendered prior to the start of the sixth round and Cotto won the vacant World Boxing Association Welterweight Championship . Cotto 's Welterweight reign began successfully on March 3 , 2007 when he retained his belt with a technical knock out victory in the eleventh round over Oktay Urkal . Urkal 's corner threw in the towel because he was apparently down in the fight , and had just had a second point deducted for a head butt , leading to his corner 's belief that the referee was unfair . On June 9 , 2007 , Cotto defended the WBA Welterweight Title against Zab Judah in New York City , performing before a sellout crowd at Madison Square Garden . The bout included a knockdown and a point deduction registered for Cotto , who established dominance on the offensive following a close start . At the moment of the stoppage , the judges had Cotto leading 97 @-@ 91 . Cotto won by technical knockout in the eleventh round when the referee stopped the fight .
Miguel Cotto and Shane Mosley fought on November 10 , 2007 at Madison Square Garden in a card made possible by a legal settlement between Top Rank Boxing , Cotto 's promoter , and Mosley 's promoter , Golden Boy Promotions . The fight was broadcast on HBO Pay @-@ Per @-@ View and was won by Cotto via unanimous decision . During the course of the fight Cotto pursued Mosley who was reacting in a slow fashion . Late in the fight Mosley displayed more aggression at one point becoming the aggressor . Cotto 's performance was described as " a rare moment in sports when a sudden star rises from what is categorically termed as goodness , to the cusp of greatness . " On April 12 , 2008 , Cotto successfully defended the championship against Alfonso Gómez . Throughout the fight Cotto scored three knockdowns before the fight was stopped following the fifth round , when the doctor indicated to the referee that Gómez couldn 't continue . Cotto was selected the World Boxing Association 's " Boxer of the Year " , during the organization 's annual award celebration , which took place in Buenos Aires .
On July 26 , 2008 , at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas , Cotto suffered his first loss as a professional to Antonio Margarito in an unsuccessful title defense . Cotto had taken the early initiative , frequently landing a series of punches on Margarito during the early rounds while using his footwork to avoid danger . However , Margarito presented constant offensive pressure of Cotto and eventually began to wear down Cotto 's resistance by trapping him against the ropes . Cotto was hurt in the seventh round after a pair of Margarito uppercuts caused his nose to bleed . Margarito continued to chase his opponent down and inflicted further damage towards the end of the tenth round . Margarito then threw a series of punches at the start of the eleventh round , with Cotto against the ropes and bleeding profusely . A combination from Margarito finally forced Cotto to his knee . He got up , but Margarito continued landing combinations . Evangelista Cotto threw in the towel after Cotto again fell to the canvas in the corner of the ring . Two judges had Margarito ahead by a score of 96 – 94 at the time of the stoppage , while the third scored the fight even . HBO analyst Harold Lederman had also scored the fight even . Cotto 's loss to Margarito has since come under suspicion due to Margarito 's subsequent attempted use of illegal hand @-@ wraps in a fight against Shane Mosley .
= = = Corner changes = = =
Cotto returned to action on February 21 , 2009 , in a card held at the Madison Square Garden , sporting the first of his trademark tattoos which he has expanded on ever since . This time competing against Michael Jennings for the vacant WBO welterweight title . After both pugilists used the first round to study their opponent 's style , the tempo accelerated during the second . In the third , Cotto pursued the offensive more fluidly , connecting with jabs and hooks . One round later , Cotto scored two knockdowns on Jennings , who was able to continue until the recess . In the fifth , Jennings was trapped against the ropes , which Cotto utilized to connect a right hook to score a third knockdown . Jennings incorporated , but the referee decided to stop the fight . With this action , Cotto was awarded a technical knockout victory , in the process winning his second championship in the welterweight division . On April 8 , 2009 , Cotto fired his uncle from the team 's staff , following a violent discussion where his property was damaged . However , neither side expressed interest in pursuing any sort of legal action . Consequently , Cotto named Joe Santiago , who had served as the team 's nutritionist as his new trainer .
On June 13 , 2009 , Cotto defended this championship against Joshua Clottey , in a fight that was originally intended to be an unification that also included the International Boxing Federation 's title . In the first round he scored a knockdown after connecting a jab . In the third round an accidental head clash opened a severe laceration over Cotto 's left eye . The injury bled profusely during the fourth round , but he was able to control the pace . In the fifth round , Clottey was pushed to the floor during an exchange and was injured in his left knee , receiving time to recover before the contest resumed . In the sixth , Cotto trapped Clottey in a corner and gained offensive advantage . During the next two rounds , Clottey controlled the offensive , noticing that Cotto was unable to see right punches . During the last rounds , Cotto decided to employ his technique from outside , while the fight 's tempo remained close . The judges decided the fight 's outcome by split decision , awarding scores of 115 @-@ 112 and 116 @-@ 111 for Cotto and 114 @-@ 113 for Clottey .
Immediately after this fight , negotiations began to pursue a contest against Manny Pacquiao . Even before Pacquiao defeated Ricky Hatton , Bob Arum , who represents both Cotto and Pacquiao , stated that he was interested in this matchup . Subsequently , Pacquiao expressed interest in fighting Cotto . The fight was sanctioned as a world title fight in the welterweight division , where the weight limit is 147 pounds , however Cotto 's camp agreed to fight at a catchweight of 145 pounds to accommodate Pacquiao 's smaller physique . Cotto 's camp also conceded the larger share of the purse to Pacquiao , who received a 65 % share of pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , compared to Cotto 's 35 % share .
On November 14 , 2009 , Pacquiao defeated Cotto by TKO 55 seconds into the 12th round , dethroning Cotto as a WBO welterweight champion . The fight generated 1 @.@ 25 million buys and 70 million dollars in domestic pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue , making it the most watched boxing event of 2009 . Pacquiao earned around 22 million dollars for his part in the fight , whilst Cotto earned around 12 million dollars . Pacquiao @-@ Cotto also generated a live gate of $ 8 @,@ 847 @,@ 550 from an official crowd of 15 @,@ 930 .
= = = Light Middleweight = = =
= = = = Cotto vs. Foreman = = = =
After the Pacquiao fight , Cotto moved to the light middleweight division . On June 5 , 2010 , he fought against undefeated Israeli WBA Light Middleweight Champion Yuri Foreman at Yankee Stadium in New York . Bob Arum had said that if Cotto were to win , he would become a frontrunner to defend the WBA belt against Manny Pacquiao in November . Cotto stated that he would consider a return to the welterweight division , in case of an interesting fight .
Cotto ended up knocking Foreman down with a signature left hook to the body in the ninth round , after Foreman tore his knee , Cotto , claiming the WBA Light Middleweight title , his fourth overall in three different weight divisions .
On March 12 , 2011 , Cotto defeated Ricardo Mayorga in a 12th round TKO , retaining his WBA Light Middleweight title on the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas , Nevada .
= = = = Cotto vs. Margarito II = = = =
On December 3 , 2011 , Cotto defeated Antonio Margarito via TKO in the 10th round . The fight was stopped at the start of the 10th round because of the condition of Margarito 's right eye , which was swollen shut . This was the same eye that was badly damaged in his fight with Manny Pacquiao and the one that almost kept the New York State Athletic Commission from granting him his boxing license because of the special procedure that was performed on it in 2010 .
= = = = Cotto vs. Mayweather = = = =
On May 5 , 2012 , Floyd Mayweather , Jr. faced Miguel Cotto for the WBA ( Super ) Light Middleweight / Super Welterweight belt . Mayweather came in at 151 , while Cotto came in at 154 pounds . The fight started off with Cotto establishing himself as the fight 's aggressor , but with Mayweather winning the first two rounds using effective counter @-@ punching and body movement to block most of Cotto 's punches . However , in the third round Cotto seemed to successfully swarm Mayweather and land decent flurries to steal himself the round . Then from rounds 4 @-@ 9 the action was closely contested , with both fighters using their partially contrasting styles in attempts to one @-@ up the other . Ultimately though , Mayweather managed to adjust to Cotto 's new rhythm of attacking in flurries and used his now @-@ newly tweaked counter @-@ punching style to win a lot of the final rounds , in what people thought had secured Mayweather the decision victory . Cotto had Mayweather against the ropes many times , resulting in some damage and a lot of bleeding from Mayweather 's nose . Cotto 's eyes had some partial swelling . Mayweather won via unanimous decision . When they hugged at the end , Mayweather told Cotto , " You are a hell of a champion — the toughest guy I fought . "
= = = = Cotto vs. Trout , Rodríguez = = = =
Cotto 's next fight was on December 1 , 2012 , at Madison Square Garden in New York City . His opponent was the undefeated WBA Super Welterweight Champion Austin Trout . Cotto lost the fight via unanimous decision .
Cotto faced Delvin Rodríguez on October 5 , 2013 , at the Amway Center in Orlando , Florida . Cotto looked like the Cotto of old , by displaying an aggressive style early on in the fight and landing powerful body shots . One punch in his arsenal that was brought back to life , was the vicious left hook which he was known for in his days of dominance in the junior welterweight and welterweight divisions . The second round saw Cotto landing body shots at will and with less than 10 seconds left in the round he staggered Rodriguez with a sharp left hook . In the beginning of the third round , with Rodriguez still feeling the effects of the left hook at the end of round two , Cotto forced Rodriguez in to the ropes landed a left hook to the temple , followed by flurry of punches which knocked Rodriguez onto the canvas . The referee then stopped the fight and gave Cotto a third @-@ round TKO victory .
= = = Middleweight = = =
= = = = Cotto vs. Martinez = = = =
Cotto faced WBC and The Ring Middleweight champion Sergio Martinez for the titles on June 7 , 2014 in his first fight in the middleweight division at Madison Square Garden . It should be noted that Martinez was inactive for a year before this bout and had two separate surgeries performed on his right knee . Throughout the fight , journalists and fans alike , noticed Martinez was unable to bend , flex and support his own weight while moving in the ring . Martinez himself proclaimed that his knee had nothing to do with the outcome of the fight and his struggles were a result of a body shot . Cotto knocked Martinez down 3 times in the first round and once in the ninth round before Martinez retired on his stool before the tenth round , giving Cotto the win by ninth @-@ round corner retirement . With the win , Cotto became the first Puerto Rican boxer to win world titles in four different weight classes .
= = = = Cotto vs. Alvarez = = = =
Cotto lost to Saul " Canelo " Alvarez on November 21 , 2015 via unanimous decision . The fight was close throughout as both boxers were cautious in their attacks , neither fighter was seriously hurt . As Cotto attacked with a jab the whole fight , and didn 't sit down on his punches , instead deciding to employ movement . Álvarez responded with power punches , landing especially to the body . Both fighters showed iron chins , with Cotto repeatedly coming back after hard shots to the head . The scorecards at the end of the night were highly controversial as they did not show the competitiveness of the fight , with many boxing pundits having Álvarez winning by a round or two , others called it a draw . There was a fraction of the boxing world that felt Cotto won by both a small margin , while others felt he won decisively . Cotto left immediately after hearing the scorecards , with his team and family .
Cotto did not attend the post @-@ fight press conference , but Freddie Roach in his place stated that he believed his fighter won , by outscoring Canelo and blocking many of his shots . Cotto later told reporters in Puerto Rico that he felt he won .
= = = = WBC withdraws recognition of Cotto = = = =
On November 17 , 2015 in the week leading up to his fight with Alvarez , the WBC announced that they were withdrawing recognition of Cotto as their Middleweight World Champion . The WBC 's reasoning was " After several weeks of communications , countless attempts and good faith time extensions trying to preserve the fight as a WBC World Championship , Miguel Cotto and his promotion did not agree to comply with the WBC Rules & Regulations , while Saúl Alvarez has agreed to do so . " This meant that , though Cotto was stripped of his title , Alvarez still had the opportunity to win the championship . Cotto then stated publicly that the reason the WBC stripped him of his title was because he refused to pay their sanctioning fees , which he believed to be excessive .
= = Professional boxing record = =
= = Personal life = =
Cotto is married to Melissa Guzmán with whom he has two children , Alondra and Miguel Cotto III . Cotto has another daughter from a previous relationship , who was born in November 2006 .
Still an active boxer , Cotto also owns and presides a boxing promotion named " Promociónes Miguel Cotto " , which organizes fight cards in Puerto Rico . Similarly he founded " El Ángel " , a non @-@ profit organization that promotes physical activity and measures against infant obesity . Marc Ecko , fashion designer and owner of Eckō , selected Cotto when promoting the brand within the sport , citing the boxer 's " fearless " demeanor as one of the main reasons behind this agreement . As a product of this partnership , Eckō produced boxing gear for him as well as mainstream clothing accessories for the general public .
= = Titles in boxing = =
Major World Titles :
WBO Light Welterweight Champion ( 140 lbs )
WBA Welterweight Champion ( 147 lbs )
WBO Welterweight Champion ( 147 lbs )
WBA Light Middleweight Champion ( 154 lbs )
WBA ( Super ) Light Middleweight Champion ( 154 lbs )
WBC Middleweight Champion ( 160 lbs )
Minor World Titles :
WBB Light Middleweight Champion ( 154 lbs )
The Ring / Lineal Championship Titles :
The Ring Middleweight Champion ( 160 lbs )
Lineal Middleweight Champion ( 160 lbs )
Regional / International Titles :
WBC International Light Welterweight Champion ( 140 lbs )
WBA Fedelatin Light Welterweight Champion ( 140 lbs )
WBO NABO Light Welterweight Champion ( 140 lbs )
= = Pay @-@ per @-@ view bouts = =
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= Follow Me Home ( song ) =
" Follow Me Home " is a song by English girl group Sugababes from their fourth studio album , Taller in More Ways ( 2005 ) . The electropop and R & B ballad was written by band members Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena and Heidi Range , with Jony Rockstar , Karen Poole and Jeremy Shaw . The producer , Rockstar , developed the idea of a close person as its inspiration . Buena wrote a verse about her daughter , while Buchanan wrote a verse based on her close friend . The song was released as the album 's fourth single on 5 June 2006 and contains vocals from Amelle Berrabah in replacement of Buena 's , who left the band in December 2005 .
" Follow Me Home " received mixed reviews from critics . Although its instrumentation and the group 's vocals were praised , the song was criticised as tedious and uninspiring . The single reached the top forty in Ireland and the United Kingdom , and also charted in Romania , Slovakia , and on the European Hot 100 singles chart . The music video for " Follow Me Home " was directed by Tony Tremlett and filmed in Prague , the Czech Republic . It features the Sugababes in a winter environment and contains various scenes of the group in a large house . The Sugababes performed " Follow Me Home " at the O2 ABC Glasgow , the NIA Academy and on Top of the Pops .
= = Development and composition = =
" Follow Me Home " was written by the Sugababes — Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena , and Heidi Range — in collaboration with Jonathan Lipsey , Karen Poole , and Jeremy Shaw , for the group 's fourth studio album , Taller in More Ways ( 2005 ) . Lipsey developed the idea of a close person as the song 's inspiration . Buena wrote the first verse based upon her daughter Tahlia , who was born in March 2005 . While writing the verse , she pondered questions such as ' What would you say to her if she was ever in trouble ? ' , and ' How would you say , I ’ ll always be there for you ? ' . Buena wanted people to interpret the verse in different ways , and stated that the lyrics came naturally . Buchanan drew inspiration from her close friend when she wrote the other verse . Lipsey produced the song under his production name Jony Rockstar . " Follow Me Home " was mixed and engineered at Metropolis Studios by Tom Elmhirst and Richard Wilkinson , respectively .
" Follow Me Home " is a electropop and R & B ballad . Stuart Heritage of the website HecklerSpray described it as an " R & B @-@ tinged ballad " . Instrumentation consists of keyboards , a guitar , beats and bass , which were provided by Shaw , Rockstar and Cameron McVey . According to Alex Roginski of Sydney Morning Herald , the song is " fleshed out with the string grandeur " of Welsh producers Hybrid , and channels European electropop music . The main concept of " Follow Me Home " is romance , and the song 's lyrical content is about protecting your loved one . During the chorus , the Sugababes sing : " I won 't walk away / I 'll stand by your side / I 'm here for you / For the rest of our lives " .
= = Release and reception = =
In December 2005 , Buena left the Sugababes due to " personal reasons " , and was replaced by Amelle Berrabah in the same month . Some tracks on Taller in More Ways were subsequently re @-@ recorded to feature Berrabah 's vocals in replacement of Buena 's ; these included " Gotta Be You " , " Follow Me Home " and " Red Dress " . Buena expressed her disappointment with the re @-@ recording of " Follow Me Home " , saying : " My verse was talking about my daughter , it was personal . " The song was announced as the fourth and final single from Taller in More Ways , and was released as a CD single and digital download on 5 June 2006 . The CD single contains the radio edit of the song in addition to two remixes . The digital release features a cover of English band Hard @-@ Fi 's single " Living for the Weekend " .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Follow Me Home " received mixed reviews from critics . K. Ross Hoffman of AllMusic described it as an " aptly pitched inspirational mini @-@ epic " , while Stylus Magazine 's Nick Southall complimented the song 's " luscious , romantic strings . " Talia Kraines of BBC noted the song as having a near @-@ level standard of the group 's 2003 single , " Too Lost in You " . QX gave the song seven out of ten stars , writing : " With this film themed track they ’ re staying true to their roots and retain their position as leaders amidst the all @-@ girl band rankings " . Stuart Heritage of Hecklerspray wrote that the song " benefits from some lovely strings and gorgeous , sultry vocals " , although admitted that the single is not as exciting as the album 's previous ones . Daily Record 's Rick Fulton described the song as one of the group 's more thoughtful tracks , but admitted that it lacks " bite " . He applauded the Soul Seekerz Vocal Mix version as " breathing life " into it . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian criticised the song as tedious and stated that it " is every bit as gripping as new parents foisting their baby photos on you " . Linda McGee of RTÉ.ie considered it " nothing special " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Follow Me Home " debuted and peaked at number 32 on the UK Singles Chart in the issue dated 17 June 2006 . The following week , the song dropped ten places to number 42 , and in its third and last week on the chart , it fell to number 72 . It is the group 's lowest @-@ charting single in the UK , and one of their lowest @-@ selling singles . The song achieved more success on the Irish Singles Chart , where it peaked at number 25 and spent four weeks on the chart . The song debuted at number 88 on the Romanian Top 100 singles chart , and peaked at number 64 the following week . " Follow Me Home " achieved minor success on the Slovakian Singles Chart , where it peaked at number 93 . The single 's performance throughout Europe allowed it to chart on the European Hot 100 singles chart , peaking at number 91 .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for " Follow Me Home " was directed by Toby Tremlett , who collaborated with the group on the video for their single " Ugly " . Filming of the video took place in Prague , the Czech Republic , and most scenes take place in a large house . It is set in winter time and features the Sugababes wearing winter clothing such as thick coats and scarves . The video was released onto the iTunes Store on 23 May 2006 and is featured on the song 's CD release . The video opens with a scene of an alcohol bottle and a glass next to it . It then cuts to a scene of Berrabah on a couch , while follow @-@ up scenes show Buchanan against a wall and Range on a bed .
An elderly man is shown by a pool located in the house , while a young girl in a swimsuit is on the other side of it . Another elderly man enters a room in the house where there is another girl . Throughout the video , various scenes of older men and younger women appear . Towards the end of the video , Berrabah , Buchanan and Range are shown standing outside in the dark . A car stops next to the trio and they enter it . In the last scene , an elderly man watches by as the car drives off . Avril Cadden from the Sunday Mail praised the video as " great " . Former group member Buena expressed her dissatisfaction with it , saying : " I just saw a bunch of perverted men and paedophile guys " . The video reached number eight on the UK TV airplay chart .
= = = Live performances = = =
The Sugababes performed " Follow Me Home " in October 2005 at the O2 ABC Glasgow , where they played to a crowd of 300 competition winners to promote the release of Taller in More Ways . The song was included in the set list for the group 's Taller in More Ways tour . Gurdip Thandi from the Birmingham Mail described their performance at Birmingham 's NIA Academy as " polished " . In June 2006 , following its release as a single , the group performed " Follow Me Home " on Top of the Pops .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded and mixed at Metropolis Studios , London
Personnel
Songwriting – Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena , Heidi Range , Jonathan Lipsey , Karen Poole , Jeremy Shaw
Production – Jony Rockstar
Mixing – Tom Elmhirst
Engineering – Richard Wilkinson
Keyboards and guitar – Jeremy Shaw
Beats – Jony Rockstar
Bass – Cameron McVey
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Taller in More Ways .
= = Charts = =
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= Battle of Setauket =
The Battle of Setauket ( August 22 , 1777 ) was a failed attack during the American Revolutionary War on a fortified Loyalist outpost in Setauket , Long Island , New York , by a force of Continental Army troops from Connecticut under the command of Brigadier General Samuel Holden Parsons .
In an attempt to repeat the success of the earlier Meigs Raid against Sag Harbor , Parsons ' force crossed Long Island Sound to attack the Loyalist position . Alerted by spies to the planned assault , Lieutenant Colonel Richard Hewlett strongly fortified the local Presbyterian church , surrounding it with a stockade and earthworks . After Hewlett rejected Parsons ' demand to surrender , a brief firefight ensued that did no significant damage . Parsons then withdrew and returned to Connecticut .
= = Background = =
The American Revolutionary War was a qualified success for the British in 1776 . After being forced to abandon Boston , they captured New York City , but were unable to hold New Jersey when General George Washington surprised them at Trenton and Princeton . The British consolidated their hold on New York City and Long Island during the winter months of early 1777 , while the Continental Army established a land blockade around the city in New Jersey , southern New York , and southwestern Connecticut .
In the spring of 1777 Lieutenant General William Howe launched raiding expeditions against Continental Army and local militia storage depots near the city . A successful raid against Peekskill , New York in March prompted him to organize a more ambitious expedition to raid a depot in Danbury , Connecticut . This expedition , led by the former royal governor of New York , William Tryon , successfully reached Danbury from a landing point in Westport , Connecticut , on April 26 , and destroyed provisions and supplies . The Connecticut militia had mobilized , and over the next two days skirmished with the British as they marched back to their ships , most notably on April 27 at Ridgefield . General Samuel Holden Parsons , leading Connecticut 's defenses , decided to organize an act of reprisal . The raid executed with great success by Colonel Return Jonathan Meigs against Sag Harbor on eastern Long Island prompted Parsons to consider further such actions against other Loyalist positions on the island . On August 16 , Parsons , whose brigade was stationed at Peekskill , New York , received orders from Major General Israel Putnam authorizing an expedition against Loyalist targets on Long Island . Parsons immediately ordered Colonel Samuel Blachley Webb to muster his regiment , numbering about 500 men , and march to Fairfield , Connecticut . Parsons followed , reaching Fairfield on August 21 .
Loyalists recruited from Queens County , New York by Lieutenant Colonel Richard Hewlett for the 3rd battalion DeLancey 's Brigade had established a fortified position in early August on the central north shore of Long Island at Setauket , just across Long Island Sound from Fairfield . Hewlett 's force took over the town 's Presbyterian meeting house , which they fortified . When spies informed Hewlett that Parsons was mustering troops at Fairfield , he set his force to improving the defenses , building a breastwork six feet ( about 2 meters ) high at a distance of 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) all around the meeting house . Upon these works he mounted four small swivel guns .
= = Battle = =
On the night of August 21 , Parsons and Webb set out across Long Island Sound in whaleboats , taking with them a few small brass cannons . Early the next morning they landed at Crane 's Neck ( in present @-@ day Old Field , just west of Setauket ) , and marched to Setauket . Finding the Loyalists strongly entrenched , Parsons first sent a truce flag to demand their surrender . Hewlett refused the demand , and the two forces began a three @-@ hour exchange of gunfire . Neither side incurred significant casualties ( Colonel Webb reported one man wounded ) , and the small American cannons failed to make an impression on the fortifications . Concerned that armed British ships in the Sound would hear the battle and come to investigate , Parsons called off the assault and retreated , taking with him a dozen captured horses and some blankets .
= = Aftermath = =
The attackers successfully recrossed the Sound , and Parsons assigned Webb 's regiment to patrol the Connecticut shore . In December 1777 Parsons , Webb , and Meigs were involved in a more elaborate attempt at taking British military stores at Setauket . This one failed , because rough seas prevented Meigs from crossing , and Webb 's boat was captured by a British ship .
Lieutenant Colonel Hewlett was favorably mentioned in general orders for his defense of the post , although it was abandoned several months later . Although Setauket was never again the target of a major expedition , it was frequently the target of small @-@ scale raids . It was also a significant waypoint for intelligence that made its way from American spies in New York to Washington 's spy chief , Setauket native Benjamin Tallmadge . Tallmadge operated what has since been called the Culper Ring , in which a number of Setauket residents figured prominently .
A Patriot refugee from Long Island , Zachariah Greene , was a member of Parsons ' expedition , and later served as minister to the Setauket Presbyterian congregation . A new building was erected on the site in 1812 .
= = Portrayal = =
A fictionalized portrayal of the battle appears in the season 1 finale of the series Turn : Washington 's Spies . In this portrayal , Major Benjamin Tallmadge led the Continental forces against the British garrison led by a Major Edmund Hewlett .
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= Transfusion ( EP ) =
Transfusion is the second EP by the Australian rock group Powderfinger . It was released on 27 September 1993 by Polydor . The album was the group 's first recording with Polydor , as the group had signed with the label due to the success of the previous EP by the band , Powderfinger .
The song " Reap What You Sow " is the first song by Powderfinger to have a music video . The EP received minor chart success , though not achieving a mainstream ARIA Singles Chart position . It reached the # 1 position on the ARIA Alternative Chart , taking the place of Nirvana 's single " Heart Shaped Box " .
= = History = =
Transfusion was recorded and produced by Powderfinger in 1993 under the Polydor label , at Red Zeds studios in Brisbane . Despite working with Polydor , the group did not sign any contract prior to work on the EP . Says lead singer Bernard Fanning , " We haven ’ t signed anything ... we certainly haven ’ t signed with them ( Polydor ) " . This statement also refuted rumours that the band had signed with various labels including " Red Eye , Emily , Polydor , and Imago " , according to Fanning .
In producing Transfusion , the band aimed to move away from the " sixties " tag that had been placed on them by the musical community . According to Fanning , it is human nature that " you really can ’ t help but categorise " , and this instinct was something the EP attempted to move away from . He went on to say that " it ’ d be nice , in a perfect world , just to be judged on your own merits " , whilst hitting back at those who gave Powderfinger the " sixties " tag by saying that " people that say that aren ’ t really listening , I think " .
= = Release = =
= = = Publicity = = =
In order to publicise the release , Powderfinger decided to film a music video its first track , " Reap What You Sow " . The music video was directed by the advertisement director David Barker of Film Headquarters . This work with Barker proved amicable , and lead to the band 's following seven music videos also being directed by him . The " Reap What You Sow " video used black @-@ and @-@ white footage of Fanning lying in a creek floating and leaning on rocks . These scenes are intercut with more black @-@ and @-@ white scenes of the band performing the song , in one setting on the side of a mountain overlooking their home city of Brisbane . In another setting , the band is shownin full colour playing live to an audience . Later in the video , the whole band are recreating in the creek seen earlier in the video . The video uses a range of filters and effects , including reversed scenes and visual filters .
= = = Response = = =
Transfusion replaced " Heart Shaped Box " by Nirvana at the top of the ARIA alternative music chart in 1993 . Despite appearing a notable achievement , Fanning overlooked its significance , telling Rolling Stone magazine , " All it did was make us aware of how few people buy records . " He estimated that it had taken 1 @,@ 000 sales for the EP to top the alternative music chart . However , Fanning said he hoped that the EP ’ s chart success would open doors for Powderfinger to play at renowned concerts such as the Big Day Out .
" Reap What You Sow " , the opening track on Transfusion , received some air time on Triple M in Brisbane , and on Triple J nationwide in Australia , but its airplay was incomparable to future singles by the band . The song did , however , win the band much local popularity , topping local community radio station and indie record store charts . It was recognisable and appreciated for " ( establishing ) the band 's tone and moral stance from the outset " .
= = = Charts = = =
= = Track listing = =
All music and lyrics written by Bernard Fanning , John Collins , Ian Haug , Darren Middleton , Jon Coghill .
" Reap What You Sow " – 5 : 29
" Change the Tide " – 4 : 40
" Blind to Reason " – 6 : 11
" Mama Harry " – 3 : 11
" Rise Up " – 5 : 00
= = Personnel = =
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= Muslim conquest of Sicily =
The Muslim conquest of Sicily began in June 827 and lasted until 902 , when the last major Byzantine stronghold on the island , Taormina , fell . Isolated fortresses remained in Byzantine hands thereafter , but the island was henceforth under Muslim rule until conquered in turn by the Normans in the 11th century .
Although Sicily had been raided by the Muslims since the mid @-@ 7th century , these raids did not threaten Byzantine control over the island , which remained a largely peaceful backwater . The opportunity for the Aghlabid emirs of Ifriqiya came in 827 , when the commander of the island 's fleet , Euphemius , rose in revolt . Defeated by loyalist forces and driven from the island , Euphemius sought the aid of the Aghlabids . The latter regarded this as an opportunity for expansion and for diverting the energies of their own fractious military establishment and alleviate the criticism of the Islamic scholars by championing jihad , and dispatched an army to aid him . Following the Arab landing on the island , Euphemius was quickly sidelined . An initial assault on the island 's capital , Syracuse , failed , but the Muslims were able to weather the subsequent Byzantine counter @-@ attack and hold on to a few fortresses . With the aid of reinforcements from Ifriqiya and al @-@ Andalus , in 831 they took Palermo , which became the capital of the new Muslim province .
The Byzantine government sent a few expeditions to aid the locals against the Muslims , but preoccupied with the struggle against the Abbasids on their eastern frontier and with the Cretan Saracens in the Aegean Sea , it was unable to mount a sustained effort to drive back the Muslims , who over the next three decades raided Byzantine possessions almost unopposed . The strong fortress of Enna in the centre of the island was the main Byzantine bulwark against Muslim expansion , until its capture in 859 . Following its fall , the Muslims increased their pressure against the eastern parts of the island , and after a long siege captured Syracuse in 878 . The Byzantines retained control of some fortresses in the north @-@ eastern corner of the island for some decades thereafter , and launched a number of efforts to recover the island until well into the 11th century , but were unable to seriously challenge Muslim control over Sicily . The fall of the last major Byzantine fortress , Taormina , in 902 , is held to mark the completion of the Muslim conquest of Sicily .
Under Muslim rule , Sicily prospered and eventually detached itself from Ifriqiya to form a semi @-@ independent emirate . The island 's Muslim community survived the Norman conquest in the 1060s and even prospered under the Norman kings , giving birth to a unique cultural mix , until it was deported to Lucera in the 1220s after a failed uprising .
= = Background = =
Throughout the imperial Roman period , Sicily was a quiet , prosperous backwater . Only in the 5th century did it suffer from raids by the Vandals operating from the coasts of North Africa . In 535 , the island came under Byzantine control and was raided by the Ostrogoths in the Gothic War , but calm returned thereafter . Protected by the sea , the island was spared the ravages inflicted on Byzantine Italy through the Lombard invasions of the late 6th and early 7th centuries , and retained a still flourishing urban life and a civilian administration . It was only the increasing threat of the Muslim expansion that thrust it into the limelight . As John Bagnell Bury writes , " A fruitful land and a desirable possession in itself , Sicily 's central position between the two basins of the Mediterranean rendered it an object of supreme importance to any Eastern sea @-@ power which was commercially or politically aggressive ; while for an ambitious ruler in Africa it was the steppingstone to Italy and the gates of the Adriatic . "
Consequently , the island was early on targeted by the Muslims , the first raid occurring in 652 , only a few years after the establishment of the first Muslim navy . Following the onset of Muslim attacks against North Africa , it became a crucial strategic base , and for a while , in 661 – 668 , it was the residence of the imperial court under Constans II . Constituted as a theme around 690 , its governing strategos also came to assume control over the scattered imperial possessions in the southern Italian mainland . The island was raided thereafter , especially in the first half of the 8th century , but did not come under serious threat until the Muslims completed their conquest of North Africa and moved into Hispania as well . It was Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Fihri , the Abbasid governor of Ifriqiya , who first made plans to invade the island in force and attempt to capture it and Sardinia in 752 – 753 , but he was thwarted by a Berber rebellion .
In 799 , the founder of the Aghlabid dynasty , Ibrahim ibn al @-@ Aghlab , secured recognition of his position as autonomous emir of Ifriqiya by the Abbasid caliph , Harun al @-@ Rashid , thereby marking the establishment of a practically independent state centred on modern Tunisia . In 805 , Ibrahim concluded a ten @-@ year truce with the Byzantine governor of Sicily , which was renewed by Ibrahim 's son and successor Abdallah I in 813 . During this time , the Aghlabids were too preoccupied with their rivalry with the Idrisids to the west to plan any serious assault on Sicily . Instead , there are testimonies of commercial traffic between Sicily and Ifriqiya , and of the presence of Arab traders on the island .
= = Euphemius ' rebellion = =
The occasion for the invasion of Sicily was provided by the rebellion of the tourmarches Euphemius , commander of the island 's fleet . According to later and possibly fictional accounts , driven by lust for a nun , he had forced her to marry him . Her brothers protested to Emperor Michael II , and the Byzantine ruler ordered the island 's strategos , Constantine Soudas , to investigate the matter and if the charges were found true , to cut off Euphemius ' nose as punishment . Thus it came that Euphemius , returning from a naval raid against the African coast , learned that he was to be arrested . Instead , he sailed for Syracuse , occupying the city , while the governor sought refuge in Catana . Euphemius soon managed to gain the support of a large part of the island 's military leadership . Euphemius not only repulsed an attempt by Constantine to recover Syracuse , but pursued him and drove him out of Catana , and eventually captured and executed him . Euphemius was then proclaimed emperor . The historian Alexander Vasiliev doubts the " romantic " story of the origin of Euphemius ' revolt , and believes that the ambitious general simply used an opportune moment , when the central Byzantine government was weakened by the recent Revolt of Thomas the Slav , and by its preoccupation with the contemporary Muslim conquest of Crete , to seize power for himself .
At this point , however , Euphemius was deserted by one of his closest and most powerful allies , a man known through Arab sources as " Balata " ( according to Vasiliev probably a corruption of his title , while Treadgold holds that he was named Plato ) , and his cousin Michael , commander of Palermo . The two men denounced Euphemius ' usurpation of the imperial title and marched against Syracuse , defeated Euphemius and took the city .
Like one of his predecessors , Elpidius , who had rebelled under Irene of Athens , Euphemius resolved to seek refuge among the Empire 's enemies and with a few supporters sailed to Ifriqiya . There he sent a delegation to the Aghlabid court , which pleaded with the Aghlabid emir Ziyadat Allah for an army to help Euphemius conquer Sicily , after which he would pay the Aghlabids an annual tribute . This offer came as a great opportunity for the Aghlabids , who faced long @-@ simmering ethnic tensions between Arab settlers and Berbers , dissension and rebellions within the Arab ruling elite ( the jund ) , and criticism for their preoccupation with worldly concerns , their " un @-@ Islamic " system of taxation and their luxurious lifestyle from the jurists of the Malikite school . Indeed , at the time of Euphemius ' arrival , Ziyadat Allah had just suppressed a dangerous three @-@ year revolt of the jund under Mansur al @-@ Tunbudhi . As Alex Metcalfe writes , " by undertaking a jihad to expand the frontiers of Islam at the expense of the infidels by conquest – the first major undertaking since the invasion of the Iberian Peninsula from 711 – they could silence the criticism of the jurists . At the same time , they could redirect the destructive energies of a restless jund across the Ifriqiyan – Sicilian channel to secure new sources of manpower and wealth " .
Ziyadat Allah 's council was divided over the issue , but in the end the exhortations of the respected qadi of Kairouan , Asad ibn al @-@ Furat , who used quotations from the Quran to support his case , swayed them . Asad was placed at the head of the expedition even while retaining his office of qadi , normally incompatible with a military post . The Muslim expeditionary forces is said to have consisted of ten thousand foot soldiers and seven hundred cavalry , mostly Ifriqiyan Arabs and Berbers , but possibly also some Khurasanis . The fleet comprised seventy or a hundred ships , to which were added Euphemius ' own vessels .
= = Initial operations and conquest of Palermo = =
= = = Muslim landing and siege of Syracuse , 827 – 828 = = =
On 14 June 827 , the allied fleets sailed from the Bay of Sousse , and after three days they reached Mazara in southwestern Sicily , where they landed . There they were met with soldiers loyal to Euphemius , but the alliance soon began to show rifts : a Muslim detachment mistook some of Euphemius ' partisans for loyalist troops , and a skirmish ensued . Although Euphemius ' troops were ordered to place a twig on their helmets as a distinctive mark , Asad announced his intention to wage the campaign without them . Soon after that , Balata , who seems to have taken over the functions , if not the title , of the imperial strategos on the island , appeared nearby with a Byzantine force . The two armies clashed on a plain south @-@ east of Mazara , where Asad 's men , after exhortations by their leader , gained a victory . Balata retreated first to Enna and from there to Calabria on the Italian mainland , where he may have hoped to gather more troops . Instead , he died there shortly after his arrival .
Asad then left Mazara under Abu Zaki al @-@ Kinani , and turned to Syracuse : the Muslim army advanced along the southern shore towards the island 's capital , but at Qalat al @-@ Qurrat ( possibly ancient Acrae ) , it was met by an embassy from the city which offered tribute if the Muslims halted their advance . The proposal was probably designed to buy time for the city to better prepare itself for a siege , but Asad , either persuaded by the emissaries ' assurances or needing to rest his army , halted his advance for a few days . At the same time , Euphemius began to regret his alliance with the Aghlabids , and opened secret contacts with the imperials , urging them to resist the Arabs . The Muslims recommenced their advance soon after , and laid siege to the city . Byzantium , which at the same time was forced to face a threat much closer to home at Crete , was unable to send much aid to the beleaguered island , while the Muslims received reinforcements from Africa . Giustiniano Participazio , the dux of the imperial protectorate of Venice , came to the city 's aid , but was not able to raise the siege . The besiegers however suffered from lack of supplies as well as the outbreak of a disease in spring 828 , which cost Asad his life . He was replaced by Muhammad ibn Abu 'l @-@ Jawari . When a Byzantine fleet arrived , the Arabs raised the siege and tried to sail back to Africa , but were hindered by the Byzantine ships . Thwarted , the Muslim army burned its ships and retreated over land to the castle of Mineo , which surrendered to them after three days .
= = = First siege of Enna and the Byzantine counterattack , 828 – 829 = = =
Despite his contacts with the imperials , Euphemius was now willing to serve as their guide , evidently hoping that the Muslims , humbled by their failure and without the strong will of Asad to guide them , could now be made to serve his purposes . After Mineo surrendered , the Muslim army divided in two : one part took Agrigento in the west , while the other , along with Euphemius , attacked Enna . The garrison of Enna began negotiations , offering to acknowledge Euphemius ' authority , but when Euphemius with a small escort met with their emissaries , he was murdered . It is unknown what happened to Euphemius ' supporters after his death , whether they dispersed or continued fighting alongside the Muslims .
In spring 829 , Michael II sent a new fleet to Sicily under Theodotus , who was well acquainted with the island , having already served as its strategos in the past . After landing , Theodotus marched his army to Enna , where the Arabs were continuing the siege . He was defeated in the subsequent battle , but was able to find refuge in the fortress with most of his men . The Muslims now became so confident of victory that they struck their first coins on the island , in the name of Ziyadat Allah and Muhammad ibn Abu 'l @-@ Jawari , who however died a short while after and was replaced by Zubayr ibn Gawth . Shortly after that , Theodotus managed to reverse the situation : he led a sally that routed a Muslim raiding party and then defeated the main Muslim army on the next day , killing 1 @,@ 000 men and pursuing the rest up to the Muslims ' fortified encampment , which he placed under siege . The Muslims tried to break out in a night sortie , but Theodotus was expecting such a move and routed them in an ambush .
The remains of the Muslim army once again sought refuge in Mineo , where Theodotus blockaded them and soon reduced them to the point of eating their horses and even dogs . When they heard of this reversal , the Arab garrison of Agrigento abandoned the city and retreated to Mazara . Thus , by the autumn of 829 , Sicily had almost been cleared of the Muslim invaders .
= = = Umayyad assistance and death of Theodotus 830 = = =
Theodotus ' success was not to be completed , however as in early summer 830 , a fleet from the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba in al @-@ Andalus , under Asbagh ibn Wakil , arrived in Sicily despite the political difference and rivalry between Abbasid Caliphate and the Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba , the latter sent military assistance for Aghlabids to conquer Sicily although the Aghlabids was clearly serving under Abbasid interest . Ibn Kathir recorded that 300 ships of Umayyad and Aghlabids joint forces were present . Theodotus did not confront them , hoping that they would depart after raiding , but the beleaguered garrison at Mineo managed to get into contact with the raiders and proposed joint action . The Andalusians agreed , provided that Asbagh was recognized as the overall commander , and together with fresh troops from Ifriqiya marched on Mineo . Unable to confront them , Theodotus retreated to Enna and the siege of Mineo was broken ( July or August 830 ) . The combined Ifriqiyan and Andalusian army then torched Mineo and laid siege to another town , possibly Calloniana ( modern Barrafranca ) . However , once again a plague broke out in their camp , killing Asbagh and many others . The town fell later , in autumn , but the Arabs ' numbers were so depleted that they had to abandon it and retreat west . Theodotus launched a pursuit and inflicted heavy casualties , so that most of the Andalusians departed the island . However , Theodotus too was killed at this time , possibly in one of these skirmishes .
= = = Fall of Palermo 831 = = =
Meanwhile , the Ifriqiyans of Mazara , together with some of the Andalusians , had advanced across the island and laid siege to Palermo . The city held out for a year until September 831 , when its commander , the spatharios Symeon , surrendered it in exchange for safe departure for the city 's senior officials and possibly the garrison as well . The city suffered greatly during the siege ; the Arab historian Ibn al @-@ Athir , records with exaggeration that the city 's population fell from 70 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 , who were taken as slaves . The city 's bishop , Luke , managed to escape and reach Constantinople , where he informed Emperor Theophilos of the disaster . The fall of Palermo marks a decisive step in the Muslim conquest of Sicily : the Muslims gained not only an important military base , but possession of the city — henceforth known simply as al @-@ Madina ( " the City " ) — allowed them to consolidate their control over the western portion of the island , which was established as a regular Aghlabid province . Thus , in March 832 , the first Aghlabid governor ( wali ) , Abu Fihr Muhammad ibn Abdallah , arrived in Palermo . Abu Fihr was a capable man , and was able to assuage the often violent dissensions between Ifriqiyans and Andalusians .
= = Expansion of the Muslim province = =
The western third of Sicily fell relatively quickly into Muslim hands , but conquest of the eastern portion of the island was a protracted and haphazard affair . There is little evidence of large @-@ scale campaigns or pitched battles , and warfare was dominated by repeated Arab attacks on Byzantine citadels , coupled with raids ( sa 'ifa ) in the surrounding countryside , aimed at looting or the extraction of tribute and prisoners from the threatened localities . In this type of warfare , the south @-@ eastern third of the island ( Val di Noto ) suffered comparatively more than the more mountainous and inaccessible north @-@ eastern portion .
= = = Expeditions of 832 – 836 = = =
No operations are reported in Sicily for the first two years after the fall of Palermo . The Muslims were probably preoccupied with organizing their new province , while the Byzantines were too weak to react , and could not expect any reinforcements : the Empire faced mounting pressure in the East , where the Abbasid Caliph al @-@ Ma 'mun launched repeated invasions of the Byzantine borderlands and threatened to march on Constantinople itself until his sudden death in August 833 .
The struggle during the next few years focused on Enna , which became the main Byzantine stronghold in central Sicily . In early 834 , Abu Fihr campaigned against Enna , defeated its garrison in the field and forced it to withdraw within the town 's fortifications . In spring , the garrison sallied forth , but was again defeated and driven back . In 835 , Abu Fihr again raided central Sicily , and defeated the army under a Byzantine patrikios ( probably the island 's strategos ) that opposed him , taking the Byzantine commander 's wife and son captive in the process . After his success , Abu Fihr sent Muhammad ibn Salim in a raid against the eastern parts of the island , which reached as far as Taormina . However , dissensions broke out once again among the Muslims : Abu Fihr was murdered , and his killers found refuge among the Byzantines .
The Aghlabids replaced Abu Fihr with al @-@ Fadl ibn Yaqub , who displayed great energy : immediately after his arrival he led a raid against the environs of Syracuse , and then another into central Sicily , around Enna . The Byzantine strategos marched out to meet them , but the Muslims withdrew to a mountainous and thickly forested area where the Byzantines could not pursue . After waiting in vain for the Muslims to accept battle , the strategos turned his army back , but was ambushed by the Muslims who put his men to flight . The Muslims seized most of the Byzantines ' arms , equipment and animals , and almost managed to capture the severely wounded strategos himself . Despite his success , Ibn Yaqub was replaced in September by a new governor , the Aghlabid prince Abu 'l @-@ Aghlab Ibrahim ibn Abdallah ibn al @-@ Aghlab , a first cousin of the emir Ziyadat Allah . At the same time , the long @-@ awaited Byzantine reinforcements arrived . The Byzantine fleet contested the passage of Abu 'l @-@ Aghlab 's small fleet , which lost ships both to the Byzantine attack and to storms ; the Byzantines however could not prevent it from reaching Palermo , and were driven off by a squadron from the city under Muhammad ibn al @-@ Sindi . Abu 'l @-@ Aghlab avenged himself by launching naval raids against Pantelleria and other localities , beheading the Christians taken prisoner . At the same time , a Muslim cavalry raid reached the eastern parts of the island around Mount Etna , burning the villages and crops and taking captives .
In 836 , Abu 'l @-@ Aghlab launched fresh attacks . A Muslim force seized the fortress known in Arabic as Qastaliasali ( probably Castelluccio on the island 's northern coast ) , but were driven away by a Byzantine counter @-@ attack . The Muslim fleet , under al @-@ Fadl ibn Yaqub , raided the Aeolian Islands and seized a number of forts on the northern coast of Sicily , most notably Tyndaris . In the meantime , another cavalry raid was dispatched against the region of Etna and was so successful that the price for Byzantine captives plummeted .
= = = Expeditions of 837 – 841 = = =
In 837 , a Muslim army under Abd al @-@ Salam ibn Abd al @-@ Wahhab attacked Enna , but was defeated by the Byzantines , and Abd al @-@ Salam himself was taken prisoner . The Muslims responded by reinforcing their position around Enna , which they placed under siege . During the following winter , one of the besiegers discovered an unguarded path leading to the town , allowing the Muslims to take the entire lower town . The Byzantines however managed to maintain control of the citadel , and after negotiations secured a Muslim withdrawal in exchange for a large ransom .
Theophilos now undertook a serious effort to relieve Sicily : he assembled a large army and placed it under the command of his son @-@ in @-@ law , the Caesar Alexios Mousele . Mousele arrived in Sicily in spring 838 , in time to relieve the fortress of Cefalù from a Muslim attack . Mousele scored a number of successes against Muslim raiding parties but , back in Constantinople , his enemies launched accusations of contacts with the Arabs and designs on the throne . Furthermore , the death of his infant wife , Maria , cut his link to Theophilos , and the Emperor sent the archbishop of Syracuse , Theodore Krithinos , to recall the Caesar to Constantinople in 839 .
On 11 June 838 the emir Ziyadat Allah had died , and was succeeded by his brother , Abu Iqal ibn al @-@ Aghlab . The new emir sent fresh troops to Sicily , where the Muslims regained the upper hand after Mousele 's departure : in 839 – 840 , the Muslims captured the fortresses of Corleone , Platani , Caltabellotta , and possibly also Marineo , Geraci and other forts , and in 841 , they raided from Enna as far as Grotte .
In the same period , the Sicilian Muslims also established footholds in the Italian mainland . The Muslims were asked to assist the beleaguered Duchy of Naples against Sicard of Benevento in 839 , but then they sacked Brindisi and , following Sicard 's murder and the outbreak of civil war in the Principality of Benevento , seized Tarentum in 840 and Bari in 847 , which they made their bases . Until well into the 880s , the Muslims would launch destructive raids along the coasts of Italy and into the Adriatic Sea from their bases on the Italian mainland — most notably from the Emirate of Bari , until its destruction in 871 .
= = = Muslim advances and the fall of Enna , 842 – 859 = = =
In late 842 or 843 , with Neapolitan support , the Muslims conquered Messina . In 845 , the fortress of Modica also fell , while the Byzantines , now at peace with the Abbasid Caliphate , received reinforcements from the eastern theme of Charsianon . The two armies met near Butera , where the Byzantines suffered a crushing defeat , losing about 10 @,@ 000 men . In the wake of this disaster , the Byzantine position deteriorated rapidly : al @-@ Fadl ibn Ja 'far took Leontini by a ruse in 846 , and the fortress of Ragusa followed in 848 , when its garrison was forced by severe famine to surrender it to the Muslims , who razed it to the ground . At about the same time ( late 847 or 848 ) , an attempt by the Byzantine fleet to land troops near Palermo failed , and subsequently the Byzantines lost seven out of their ten ships in a storm .
In 851 , the capable Muslim governor and general Abu 'l @-@ Aghlab Ibrahim died , and the local Muslims elected Abu 'l @-@ Aghlab al @-@ Abbas ibn al @-@ Fadl , the victor of Butera , as his successor . Without waiting for confirmation of his appointment from Ifriqiya , the new governor attacked and captured the northern fortress of Caltavuturo , and then turned south towards Enna , whose Byzantine commander refused to meet him in the field . Abbas continued his raid , and in 852 – 853 he devastated the Val di Noto . Butera was besieged for five or six months , until its inhabitants came to terms and secured his withdrawal by delivering 5 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 000 prisoners . Little details are known about the events of the next four years , but the picture painted by the sources is one of unopposed Muslim raids across the remaining Byzantine territories . Abbas captured several fortresses , including Cefalù in 857 , whose population was allowed safe departure and which was then razed . Gagliano was also besieged , but not taken . In summer 858 , the two sides were engaged in naval combat , probably off Apulia ; Abbas ' brother Ali managed to defeat the Byzantine fleet of 40 ships in the first engagement , but was in turn defeated and forced to flee in the second .
Then , in January 859 , the Muslims scored a major success through the capture , with the aid of a Byzantine prisoner , of hitherto impregnable Enna . As Metcalfe remarks , the capture of the fortress was of major importance , for Enna was the key to Muslim expansion in eastern Sicily : " without bringing it under their control , the Muslims were not able to capture and consolidate towns further to the eastwithout the risk of losing their gains in counteroffensives . ... Its fall , followed by its comprehensive sacking and the slaughter of its defenders on 24 January 859 was thus , in military terms , the crowning achievement of the early Aghlabids in Sicily since the fall of Palermo " .
The fall of Enna reduced the Byzantines to the eastern coastal strip between Syracuse and Taormina , and forced the emperor to send a large army and a fleet of reportedly 300 ships , under Constantine Kontomytes , which arrived at Syracuse in autumn 859 . Soon after , the Byzantine navy was defeated a major battle with the Muslims , in which the Byzantines lost a third of their fleet . Nevertheless , the arrival of a large Byzantine army induced several settlements , which had previously submitted to the Muslims , to rise in revolt . Abbas soon suppressed these uprisings , and marched against Kontomytes . The two armies met near Cefalù , and in the ensuing battle , the Byzantines were heavily defeated and retired to Syracuse , while Abbas strengthened his position by refortifying and colonizing Enna .
= = Fall of Malta and Syracuse = =
= = = Governorship of Khafaja ibn Sufyan , 861 – 869 = = =
Abbas died in autumn 861 , after another raid into Byzantine territory , and was buried at Caltagirone ; the Byzantines later exhumed and burned his corpse . As his replacement , the Sicilian Muslims chose his uncle Ahmad ibn Ya 'qub . His tenure was short , as in February 862 he was deposed in favour of Abdallah , son of Abbas . Abdallah 's general Rabah was able to capture a few Byzantine fortresses , despite suffering a defeat in battle at first . Abdallah 's elevation , however , was not acknowledged by the Aghlabids , and he was replaced , after only five months in office , by Khafaja ibn Sufyan .
In 863 , Khafaja sent his son Muhammad to raid the environs of Syracuse , but he was defeated by the Byzantines and forced to retire . In February / March 864 , however , with the aid of a Byzantine renegade , the Muslims captured Noto and Scicli . In 865 , Khafaja led in person an expedition against the environs of Enna — which may signify that the Byzantines had retaken it , or that they still held forts in its vicinity — before moving onto Syracuse , but again his son Muhammad was defeated in an ambush , losing 1 @,@ 000 men .
In 866 , Khafaja marched once more against Syracuse . From there he marched along the coast towards the north . There he met a delegation of the citizens of Taormina , who concluded a treaty with him , but soon broke it . In the same year , the Muslims retook Noto and Ragusa , which the Byzantines had apparently recaptured , or which had simply failed to renew their tribute payments after previous capitulations . Khafaja also captured the fortress called " al @-@ Giran " and a few other towns , before an illness forced him to return to Palermo . In the summer of 867 , after the illness had passed , Khafaja led his army towards Syracuse and Catania again , raiding their environs .
In September 867 , the Byzantine emperor Michael III was killed and succeeded by Basil I the Macedonian . The new emperor was more energetic than his predecessor , and the relative peace on his eastern frontier allowed him to soon turn his full attention to the west : in 868 – 869 admiral Niketas Ooryphas was sent to relieve an Arab siege of Ragusa and re @-@ establish imperial authority in Dalmatia , after which he sailed to Italy in an abortive attempt to conclude a marriage alliance and co @-@ ordinate a joint siege of Bari with the western emperor , Louis II . Another fleet was dispatched to Sicily in spring 868 , but the Byzantines were heavily defeated by Khafaja in battle , after which the Muslims freely raided the environs of Syracuse . After Khafaga 's return to Palermo , his son Muhammad launched a raid against mainland Italy , possibly besieging Gaeta .
On his return to Sicily , in January – February 869 , Muhammad led an attempt to capture Taormina through treason , but although a small Muslim detachment gained control of the gates , Muhammad tarried to arrive with the main army and the detachment , fearing capture , abandoned the city . A month later , Khafaja launched an attack on the region of Mount Etna , probably against the town of Tiracia ( modern Randazzo ) , while Muhammad raided around Syracuse . The Byzantines , however , sortied from the city and defeated Muhammad 's men , inflicting heavy casualties , forcing Khafaja to turn on Syracuse himself . He reportedly laid siege to the city for a few weeks , before turning back towards Palermo in June . On his march home , however , he was assassinated by a dissatisfied Berber soldier , who then fled to Syracuse . It was a heavy loss for the Sicilian Muslims . The motives for the murder remain unclear : Metcalfe suggests a dispute over the division of spoils between the various sections of the Muslim army , but Alexander Vasiliev suggested the possibility that the Berber soldier was in the Byzantines ' pay .
= = = Muslim capture of Malta and Syracuse , 870 – 878 = = =
Khafaja was succeeded by his son Muhammad , elected by the Sicilian army and confirmed by the Aghlabid emir . In contrast to his previous energy , Muhammad was a sedentary governor , preferring to remain in his capital rather than campaign in person . His tenure was furthermore cut short when he was assassinated by his court eunuchs on 27 May 871 .
Nevertheless , his tenure is associated with a major success of long @-@ term significance , the capture of Malta . Of all the islands around Sicily , this was the last to remain in Byzantine hands , and in 869 a fleet under Ahmad ibn Umar ibn Ubaydallah ibn al @-@ Aghlab al @-@ Habashi attacked it . The Byzantines , having received timely reinforcements , resisted successfully at first , but in 870 Muhammad sent a fleet from Sicily to the island , whose fortress fell on 29 August 870 . The local governor fell , and the town was plundered — Ahmad al @-@ Habashi reportedly took along the local cathedral 's marble columns to decorate his palace — and its fortifications razed . The fall of Malta had important ramifications for the defence of what remained of Byzantine Sicily : with Reggio in Calabria and now Malta in their hands , the Muslims completed their encirclement of the island , and could easily interdict any aid sent from the east .
From 872 to 877 there was apparently a period of calm , since the sources are silent on any military operations in Sicily . This was probably chiefly due to internal turmoil in Muslim Sicily , with six governors reported as having taken office during this period , as well as the weakness of the Aghlabid government on the Ifriqiyan metropolis . In Italy , Muslim raids continued , but the Byzantines had a major success in 875 or 876 , after the death of Louis II , when they took possession of Bari .
In 875 , the unwarlike and pleasure @-@ loving Aghlabid emir Muhammad II ibn Ahmad ( r . 864 – 875 ) died , and was succeeded by his more energetic brother , Ibrahim II ( r . 875 – 902 ) . The new Emir of Ifriqiya was determined to finally capture Syracuse . He appointed a new governor for the island , Ja 'far ibn Muhammad , and sent a fleet from Ifriqiya to his assistance . Ja 'far began his campaign in 877 , raiding the Byzantine territories and occupying some outlying forts around Syracuse , before settling down to besiege the city . The Muslims , well supplied with siege weapons , launched incessant attacks on the city 's defenders , but Syracuse received scant reinforcements from Constantinople , where the bulk of the imperial fleet was apparently occupied with carrying building materials for a sumptuous new church built by Emperor Basil . During nine months of siege , the Arabs gradually occupied the outer defences , and finally , on 21 May 878 , stormed the city . The population was massacred or enslaved , and the city thoroughly looted over two months .
= = Completion of the Muslim conquest = =
= = = Dissension among the Sicilian Muslims , 878 – 900 = = =
Despite the major success of capturing Syracuse , the Muslim province in Sicily now degenerated into internal strife . Soon after the city 's fall , Ja 'far ibn Muhammad was murdered by his own slaves , at the instigation of his uncle and his brother , who then usurped the governorship . They were in turn overthrown in September 878 , and sent to Ifriqiya where they were executed .
Ibrahim II then briefly named his own son as governor , before the appointment of the Sicilian Husayn ibn Rabah . Husayn renewed the campaigns against the remaining Byzantine strongholds in the northeast , especially Taormina , in 879 – 880 , but without success . Indeed , the Byzantines were able to launch a limited counteroffensive in 880 , when the admiral Nasar defeated an Aghlabid fleet in a daring night attack in the Ionian Sea , and then proceeded to raid the environs of Palermo , before defeating another Aghlabid fleet at the Battle of Stelai . In 881 – 882 , Taormina was again the target of a determined Muslim attack , but held out , and a Muslim army under Abu 'l @-@ Thawr was annihilated by the Byzantines , causing a large @-@ scale mobilization of the Sicilian Muslims . Over the next years , the Muslims launched several raids , against Catania , Taormina and " the king 's city " ( possibly Polizzi ) in 883 , against Rometta and Catania in 884 , and again against Catania and Taormina in 885 . These expeditions were successful in so far as they yielded sufficient booty or tribute to pay the army , but failed to capture any Byzantine strongholds . The same period , 885 – 886 , also saw a resurgence of Byzantine strength in the Italian mainland , where Nikephoros Phokas the Elder won a string of victories against the Muslims .
It was in this climate of military failure that the discontent among broad sections of the Sicilian Muslim population , hitherto kept in check by successful raiding , erupted into open rebellion . In the later narrative sources , this conflict between the ruling elite and the lower classes is often simplified to an " ethnic " struggle between the ( ruling ) " Arabs " and the ( rebel ) " Berbers " . In December 886 , the people of Palermo deposed the governor , Sawada ibn Khafaja , and sent him to Ifriqiya . Emir Ibrahim II appointed a new governor , who was able to calm the situation temporarily through successful raids and the victory over a Byzantine fleet off Milazzo in 888 , which enabled the Sicilian Muslims to launch destructive raids into Calabria .
In the next year , Sawada returned , with fresh Ifriqiyan troops , and launched yet another failed attack on Taormina . However , in March 890 , another rebellion broke out in Palermo , this time apparently among the Sicilian Arabs , and directed against Sawada 's Ifriqiyans . Coupled with a major rebellion in Ifriqiya itself in 894 – 895 , this put an end to Muslim raids against the Byzantines , and resulted in the conclusion of a truce in 895 – 896 . According to its terms , in exchange for peace , over 40 months the Byzantines would gradually release their Muslim prisoners , by turns a group of " Arabs " and a group of " Berbers " , in total some 1 @,@ 000 men . As Metcalfe remarks , " not only does this show the extent of Christian military success against the Aghlabids in eastern Sicily , but it may also have been deliberately aimed at exacerbating tensions within the Muslim army by playing off one faction against another in negotiating their staggered release " .
In the event , a full @-@ scale civil war between " Arabs " and " Berbers " erupted in 898 , prompting the dispatch of Ibrahim II 's son Abu 'l @-@ Abbas Abdallah , who had previously suppressed the rebellion in Iriqiya , to the island at the head of an army in summer 900 . By then , the Muslims ' infighting had acquired a regional dimension , with the Palermitans pitted against the Agrigentans . After negotiations between the Ifriqiyans and the rival Sicilian parties failed , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas Abdallah marched on Palermo , which he captured on 18 September 900 . A great number of the rebels fled the city to the Byzantines in Taormina , with some reaching even Constantinople itself .
= = = Ibrahim II 's arrival and the fall of Taormina , 901 – 902 = = =
The Byzantines tried to take advantage of the revolt , and began assembling forces at Messina and Reggio , while a fleet was dispatched from Constantinople . Abu 'l @-@ Abbas , however , did not tarry and as soon as he had suppressed the rebellion , marched against the Byzantines , ravaging the environs of Taormina and launching an unsuccessful siege of Catania before returning to winter in Palermo . In the next spring , he resumed his attack and assaulted Demona . To disrupt the Byzantine preparations , his forces then crossed over to the mainland . Reggio was captured on 10 July , and was subjected to a savage sack ; a vast booty was collected , over 15 @,@ 000 of its inhabitants were carted off as slaves , and the jizya imposed on the remainder . On his return to Sicily , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas came across a Byzantine fleet that had just arrived from Constantinople and thoroughly defeated it , capturing thirty of its vessels .
In early 902 , Emir Ibrahim II was forced into abdication by his subjects , through the intervention of the Abbasid caliph . Ibrahim exchanged places with Abu 'l @-@ Abbas , who was named as his successor : Abu 'l @-@ Abbas left Sicily for Ifriqiya , while Ibrahim now resolved to take up the mantle of the Holy War , and accompanied a group of volunteers to Sicily in the summer . In an act that broke the long @-@ standing stalemate on the island , Ibrahim and his followers advanced on Taormina , defeated the Byzantine garrison before its walls and laid siege to it . Left unsupported by the imperial government , the town fell on 1 August 902 . Ibrahim then capitalized on his success by sending raiding parties against various strongholds in the vicinity , forcing either their capitulation and destruction or the payment of tribute .
Indefatigable , Ibrahim now crossed over into the mainland , where cities as far as Naples began to prepare to resist his attack . In the end , his advance was stopped at the siege of Cosenza , where Ibrahim died of dysentery on October 24 . His grandson stopped the military campaign and returned to Sicily .
= = Aftermath = =
Although few strongholds in the northeast remained unconquered and in Christian hands , the fall of Taormina marked the effective end of Byzantine Sicily , and the consolidation of Muslim control over the island . However , it did not signal the end of Arab – Byzantine warfare on and around the island .
In 909 , Sicily , like Ifriqiya itself , passed under the control of the Fatimids . The Fatimids ( and after the 950s the Kalbid hereditary governors ) continued the tradition of jihad , both against the Christian strongholds in the northeast ( the Val Demone ) and , more prominently , against the Byzantine possessions in southern Italy , punctuated by truces . Taormina itself threw off Muslim control soon after 902 , and it was not until 962 , possibly in response to the Byzantine reconquest of Crete the previous year , that the Fatimids retook the town , following a 30 @-@ week siege . In the next year , the Muslims attacked the last remaining Christian stronghold on the island , Rometta , which prompted an expedition sent by the Byzantine emperor , Nikephoros II Phokas , to recover Sicily . The Byzantines were at first successful , recapturing Messina and other fortresses in the northeast , but were repulsed before Rometta itself , and retreated back to Calabria . In the next year , they tried to resume their offensive , but were annihilated in the " Battle of the Straits " ( waqi 'at al @-@ majaz ) off Messina . As a result , a lasting truce was concluded by the two powers in 967 .
Sicilian raids on Italy continued , and prompted the intervention of the Western Emperor , Otto II in the peninsula in 982 , where he was defeated at the Battle of Stilo . It was not until the 1020s that the Byzantines turned their attention to Sicily again , after a period of consolidation of their position in southern Italy under the capable Catepan Basil Boioannes . A large force landed in Messina in 1025 , but the expedition was called off when news came of the death of Emperor Basil II . A final effort was made in 1038 , when the talented young general George Maniakes was dispatched to Sicily , taking advantage of internal conflicts between the Kalbids and the Zirids . Maniakes quickly recaptured the entire eastern coast , but the conquest was left incomplete when he was recalled to Constantinople by jealous rivals . The Kalbids soon recovered their losses , and Messina , the last Byzantine outpost , fell in 1042 .
The Arabs remained in control of Sicily until the Norman conquest of the island , which was also a prolonged affair , lasting from the first invasion in 1061 to the surrender of Noto in 1091 .
= = Impact = =
The long Arab – Byzantine struggle left abiding traces on the island 's subsequent history : although under Muslim rule , Sicilian culture quickly became Arabicized , the Christian communities in the central and eastern parts largely resisted islamization . The level of Arab influence , as attested through surviving toponyms , also varied across the island depending on the length of resistance and the extent of Arab settlement : there are many Arab @-@ derived names in the western third ( the medieval Val di Mazara ) , are more mixed in the southeastern third ( Val di Noto ) , while Christian identities survived strongest in the northeastern third of the island ( Val Demone ) , which was the last to fall , where Christian refugees from other parts of Sicily had assembled , and which furthermore remained in contact with Byzantine southern Italy .
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= Greater scaup =
The greater scaup ( Aythya marila ) , just scaup in Europe or , colloquially , " bluebill " in North America , is a mid @-@ sized diving duck , larger than the closely related lesser scaup . It spends the summer months breeding in Alaska , northern Canada , Siberia , and the northernmost reaches of Europe . During the winter , it migrates south to the coasts of North America , Europe , and Japan .
Drake greater scaup are larger and have more rounded heads than the females ; they have a bright blue bill and yellow eyes . Their heads are dark , with a green gloss ; the breast is black , the belly white and the wing shows a white stripe . The females are mostly brown , again with white on the wing . They have dull blue bills and white on the face .
Greater scaup nest near water , typically on islands in northern lakes or on floating mats of vegetation . They begin breeding at age two , but start building nests in the first year . The drakes have a complex courtship , which takes place on the return migration to the summer breeding grounds and concludes with the formation of monogamous pairs . Females lay a clutch of six to nine olive @-@ buff colored eggs . The eggs hatch in 24 to 28 days . The down @-@ covered ducklings are able to follow their mother in her search for food immediately after hatching .
Greater scaup eat aquatic molluscs , plants , and insects , which they obtain by diving underwater . They form large groups , called " rafts " , that can number in the thousands . Their main threat is human development , although they are preyed upon by owls , skunks , raccoons , foxes , coyotes , and humans . Greater scaup populations have been declining since the 1980s ; however , they are still listed as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List .
= = Taxonomy = =
The genus name Aythya is derived from the Ancient Greek aithuia which refers to a seabird mentioned by Aristotle and others and is thought to refer to a duck , auklet or other seabird . The species name marila is from the Greek word for charcoal embers or coal dust . The greater scaup was first studied by Linnaeus in 1761 . Male greater scaup from America are distinguishable from those in Europe and Asia by the stronger vermiculations , worm @-@ like carvings or marks on the mantle and scapulars , and are considered a separate subspecies , A. m. nearctica . Females of the two subspecies are indistinguishable . Based on size differences , a Pleistocene paleosubspecies , Aythya marila asphaltica , has also been described by Serebrovskij in 1941 from fossils recovered at Binagady , Azerbaijan . The greater scaup 's name may come from " scalp " , a Scottish and Northern English word for a shellfish bed , or from the duck 's mating call : " scaup scaup " .
A phylogenetic analysis of the diving ducks , examining the skeletal anatomy and skin , found that the greater and lesser scaups are each other 's closest relatives , with the tufted duck as the next closest relative of the pair .
= = Description = =
The adult greater scaup is 39 – 56 cm ( 15 – 22 in ) long with a 71 – 84 cm ( 28 – 33 in ) wingspan and a body mass of 726 – 1 @,@ 360 g ( 1 @.@ 601 – 2 @.@ 998 lb ) . It has a blue bill and yellow eyes and is 20 % heavier and 10 % longer than the closely related lesser scaup . The male has a dark head with a green sheen , a black breast , a light back , a black tail , and a white underside . The drake or male greater scaup is larger and has a more rounded head than the female . The drake 's belly and flanks are a bright white . Its neck , breast , and tail feathers are a glossy black , while its lower flanks are vermiculated gray . The upper wing has a white stripe starting as the speculum and extending along the flight feathers to the wingtip . Legs and feet of both sexes are gray . The adult female has a brown body and head , with white wing markings similar to those of the male but slightly duller . It has a white band and brown oval shaped patches at the base of the bill , which is a slightly duller shade of blue than the drake 's . Juvenile greater scaup look similar to adult females . The greater scaup drake 's eclipse plumage looks similar to its breeding plumage , except the pale parts of the plumage are a buffy gray . Distinguishing greater from lesser scaups can be difficult in the field . The head of the greater tends to be more rounded , and the white wing stripe is more extensive .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The greater scaup has a circumpolar distribution , breeding within the Arctic Circle both in the Old World ( the Palearctic ) and in North America ( the Nearctic ) . It spends the summer months in Alaska , Siberia , and the northern parts of Europe . It is also found in Asia and is present in the Aleutian Islands year round . The summer habitat is marshy lowland tundra and islands in fresh water lakes . In the fall , greater scaup populations start their migration south for the winter . They winter along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of North America , the coasts of northwest Europe , the Caspian Sea , the Black Sea , the coast of Japan , Yellow Sea and East China Sea . During the winter months , they are found in coastal bays , estuaries , and sometimes inland lakes , such as the lakes of Central Europe and the Great Lakes .
In Europe , the greater scaup breeds in Iceland , the northern coasts of the Scandinavian peninsula , including much of the northern parts of the Baltic Sea , the higher mountains of Scandinavia and the areas close to the Arctic Sea in Russia . These birds spend the winters in the British Isles , western Norway , the southern tip of Sweden , the coast from Brittany to Poland , including all of Denmark , the Alps , the eastern Adriatic Sea , the northern and western Black sea and the southwestern Caspian Sea .
In North America , the greater scaup summers in Newfoundland and Labrador , Ungava Bay , Hudson Bay , Lake Winnipeg , northern Yukon , northern Manitoba , and northern Saskatchewan . It winters along the coasts of North America from northern British Columbia south to the Baja Peninsula and from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick south to Florida , as well as the shores of the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Greater scaup breed in the tundra and the boreal forest ; it is estimated that 75 % of the North American population breed in Alaska . They typically nest on islands in large northern lakes . Greater scaup begin breeding when they are two years old , although they may start nesting at age one . Drake greater scaup have a soft , quick whistle they use to attract the attention of hens during courtship , which takes place from late winter to early spring , on the way back to their northern breeding grounds . Female greater scaup have a single pitch , a raspy “ arrr @-@ arrr @-@ arrr @-@ arrr @-@ arrr ” vocalization . The courtship is complex and results in the formation of monogamous pairs . Pairs nest in close proximity to each other in large colonies , usually near water , on an island or shoreline , or on a raft of floating vegetation . The nest consists of a shallow depression made by the female and lined with her down . After the female lays the eggs , the drake abandons the female and goes with other drakes to a large , isolated lake to molt . These lakes can be close to the breeding grounds or miles away . The lakes chosen are used yearly by the same ducks . The optimal molting lake is fairly shallow and has an abundance of food sources and cover . The female lays six to nine olive @-@ buff @-@ colored eggs , which she incubates for 24 – 28 days . A larger clutch could indicate brood parasitism by other greater scaups or even ducks of other species . Newly hatched chicks are covered with down and are soon able to walk , swim , and feed themselves ; however , they are not able to fly until 40 – 45 days after hatching . The vulnerable small chicks follow their mother , who protects them from predators .
= = = Feeding = = =
The greater scaup dive to obtain food , which they eat on the surface . They mainly eat molluscs , aquatic plants , and aquatic insects . During the summer months , the greater scaup will eat small aquatic crustaceans . There is a report of four greater scaups swallowing leopard frogs ( with body length about 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) ) , which they dredged out of a roadside freshwater pond . In freshwater ecosystems , the greater scaup will eat seeds , leaves , stems and roots , along with sedges , pondweeds , muskgrass , and wild celery . Owing to the greater scaup 's webbed feet and weight , it can dive up to 6 metres ( 20 ft ) and stay submerged for up to a minute , allowing it to reach food sources that are unobtainable to other diving ducks . The greater scaup forms large flocks , some of which can contain thousands of birds . When flocks are in water , they will face the current , and as the ducks float backwards , some fly to the front of the flock to maintain position .
= = Threats = =
Common predators of the greater scaup are owls , skunks , raccoons , foxes , coyotes , and humans . Greater scaup often find themselves entangled in fishing nets , thus large numbers of them drown in nets each year . Greater scaup can catch avian influenza , so future outbreaks have the potential to threaten greater scaup populations .
Although the greater scaup faces numerous threats , the most significant challenge to their survival is habitat degradation caused by a mix of human development and runoff . Greater scaup , when moulting and during the winter , are threatened by escalated levels of organochloride contaminants . Oil and sewage pollution also threaten this duck . Since 80 % of the greater scaup population winters in the urbanized part of the Atlantic Flyway , these ducks are subject to high levels of organic contaminates , along with increased levels of heavy metals in foods and habitat .
A joint group of American and Canadian scientists researching scaup migration across the Great Lakes found that 100 % of female greater scaup , and 77 % of female lesser scaup , had escalated levels of selenium in their bodies . Selenium is an occurring semimetallic trace element that occurs naturally in some soils and minute amounts are necessary for animal life . However excessive selenium can cause reproductive harm and is highly toxic . On their migration across the Great Lakes , greater scaups are at risk of ingesting selenium by eating the invasive zebra mussels , which can render a hen infertile . This sterilization of hens is causing the population to decrease .
In a study of 107 scaup , they all had traces of iron , zinc , manganese , copper , lead , cadmium , cobalt and nickel in their tissue samples with varying concentrations of metals in different types of tissues . Further analysis revealed that the kidneys had the highest levels of cadmium , the liver had the highest levels of copper and manganese , the liver and the stomach had the highest levels of zinc , and the lungs and liver had the highest levels of iron . There was no difference in concentration when comparing genders .
= = Conservation = =
Greater scaup are rated as a species of least concern by the IUCN Redlist . During aerial population surveys greater and lesser scaup are counted together , because they look almost identical from the air . It was estimated that the greater scaup made up about 11 % of the continental scaup population . Since the 1980s , scaup populations have been steadily decreasing . Some of the primary factors contributing to this decline are habitat loss , contaminants , changes in breeding habitat , and a lower female survival rate . The 2010 American scaup population survey was 4 @.@ 2 million scaup , however , the worldwide greater scaup population survey estimated 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 mature greater scaup . Along with the aerial population surveys , there is a banding program for the greater scaup . Metal leg bands are placed on them , so that if the scaup is killed by a hunter or if it is captured by another banding group , the number on the band can be reported to biologists and wildlife organizations . These banding programs yield valuable data about migration patterns , harvest rates , and survival rates .
= = Human interactions = =
Greater scaup are a popular game bird in North America and Europe . They are hunted in Denmark , Germany , Greece , France , the United Kingdom , and Ireland , and in Iran for both sport and commercial reasons . Greater scaup are hunted with shotguns because they must be shot on the fly , a challenging task , as they can fly at up to 121 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Greater scaup are hunted from shorelines and in open water hunting blinds or layout boats , low @-@ profile kayak @-@ like boats that hunters lie inside . Hunters frequently use decoys to attract the birds , often arranged to simulate a raft of greater scaup and featuring an open area to attract the birds to land . In most countries where greater scaup are hunted , a duck stamp is required along with the normal hunting licences that are required to pursue other game . In America and Canada , waterfowl must be hunted with non @-@ toxic shot .
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= Metroid Prime : Trilogy =
Metroid Prime : Trilogy is a compilation of action @-@ adventure games developed by Retro Studios and published by Nintendo for the Wii video game console . It features three games from the Metroid series : Metroid Prime , Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes , and Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption . Prime and Echoes , which were originally released for the GameCube , were updated with many of the features that were first implemented in Corruption , such as a new control scheme based on the Wii Remote and a credits system that was supported by WiiConnect24 .
The compilation was first announced by Nintendo in May 2009 , and was released in North America on August 24 , 2009 ; in Europe on September 4 , 2009 ; and in Australia on October 15 , 2009 . It was not released in Japan , because the Prime and Echoes ports were released as standalone games in the New Play Control ! collection for that region . In January 2010 , Nintendo discontinued the title in both North America and Australia . Metroid Prime : Trilogy was well received by critics , with much praise to the new controls . In January 2015 , the compilation was made available for download from the Wii U 's Nintendo eShop .
= = Overview = =
The updated Wii versions of Prime and Echoes , which were released separately in Japan as part of the New Play Control ! series , utilize the same Wii Remote control scheme introduced in Corruption . Other updates include shorter load times , upgraded textures , bloom lighting , altered visual effects , and 16 : 9 widescreen capabilities ; however , the heads @-@ up display is always displayed at the original aspect ratio , causing it to be stretched horizontally when in widescreen mode .
Additionally , the award system from Corruption was incorporated into the first two games . Players earn credits by accomplishing certain tasks , allowing them to unlock in @-@ game items such as artwork , music , a screenshot feature , decorative items for Samus ' ship in Corruption and the Fusion Suit in Prime , in which the latter was previously unlocked by connecting the Game Boy Advance title Metroid Fusion to the game . Credits could also be shared with registered Wii friends , who also have a copy of Trilogy , via WiiConnect24 which used the Wii 's own 16 @-@ digit number as opposed to a separate Friend Code . Save files from the original version of Corruption cannot be transferred to the Trilogy version due to changes made to the source code .
The game also featured the multiplayer mode from Echoes , but was limited to local four @-@ player games and did not feature online play , which is faithful to the original . In response to complaints from players and critics about Echoes 's high difficulty during some of the boss battles , the difficulty of the encounters was lowered . All three games were printed on a single disc , and accessible via a new , unified start menu designed differently from any of the previous editions of the included games . The menu also allows independent access to the Echoes multiplayer mode , the extras menu , and other settings .
= = = Metroid Prime = = =
Originally released in 2002 for the GameCube , Metroid Prime was the first 3D title in the series , changing the perspective from sidescrolling third person to first @-@ person view , with third @-@ person being used on the Morph Ball gameplay . The game starts with protagonist Samus Aran receiving a distress signal from Space Pirate Frigate Orpheon . After an accident causes the ship to be destroyed , Samus lands on the nearby planet , Tallon IV , where the Space Pirates discovered a powerful radioactive substance known as Phazon . Samus fights off the Pirates and their biological experiments , eventually leading to a battle with Metroid Prime , a highly mutated Metroid that had been feeding off the core of a Phazon meteorite . The game received universal acclaim by critics , winning several Game of the Year awards , and sold over two million units worldwide .
= = = Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes = = =
Released in 2004 , Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes continues from the events of the first Prime , and featured a multiplayer mode . Samus is sent to rescue Galactic Federation Marines from a ship near Aether , a planet inhabited by a race known as the Luminoth . There , she discovers that the troops were slaughtered by the Ing , an evil race that came from an alternate dimension of Aether created by a Phazon meteor . Samus travels to three temples to ensure the destruction of the Ing , while battling Space Pirates and her mysterious doppelgänger called Dark Samus . Although it was positively received , criticism of the game was driven on the steep difficulty and multiplayer components . Sales for Echoes were lower than the first , with a total of 800 @,@ 000 units .
= = = Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption = = =
Released in 2007 , Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption was the first title in the series to be released on the Wii . While fending off a Space Pirate assault , Samus and her fellow bounty hunters are attacked by Dark Samus . After Samus loses contact with the other hunters , the Galactic Federation sends Samus on a mission to determine what happened to them . During the course of the game , Samus works to prevent the Phazon from spreading from planet to planet while being slowly corrupted by the Phazon herself . The game received high critical acclaim , and as of March 2008 , 1 @.@ 31 million copies of the game were sold worldwide .
= = Development = =
In 2004 , while Retro Studios was finishing Echoes , senior producer Bryan Walker suggested to studio president Michael Kelbaugh to " do something for the fans by putting all the games together on a single disc in a collector [ ' ] s ' trilogy ' edition " . Kelbaugh sent the proposal to Nintendo , which the company accepted . Development on the compilation started shortly before the release of Corruption , and used only a few of Retro Studios ' staff , as most of the crew was busy with Donkey Kong Country Returns . Prime series producer Kensuke Tanabe asked the staff to resolve most of the glitches for the Trilogy release to prevent sequence breaking .
Walker considered the compilation to be " an almost unheard of opportunity to take something you had already released and make it better " . Senior designer Mike Wikan said most of the content additions were subtle changes , such as streamlining the engines for steady framerates and shorter loading times , and higher resolution textures . Prime had the addition of light bloom , and Echoes had difficulty tweaks to make it " more accessible to those who were really intimidated early on " . For Corruption , the code was examined to find ways to make it run faster and better than in the original Wii release . Besides the changes , the particle and water ripple effects found in the original versions of Prime were reduced . The word " damn " uttered by the character Admiral Dane in Corruption 's original release was also replaced with " no " . Corruption voice actor Timothy Patrick Miller recalled on a minor dialogue alteration for his voice work : " I realize that video games even more than film is a Director [ ' ] s medium . The Director will take any actor [ ' ] s performance , edit it , cut it and in general mold it to fit his vision of the overall project . Not only do I not have a problem with that , I don ’ t see how it can be any other way . Should they find it not to work I expect the voice will be dropped . "
On October 2 , 2008 , Nintendo presented the New Play Control ! series of GameCube ports , with Prime and Echoes among the initial Japan titles . In May 2009 , Nintendo announced that all three games would be packaged in a single @-@ disk compilation internationally . In April 2011 , a copy of Trilogy — signed by Retro Studios staff and the Prime series producer — was auctioned on Amazon , with 100 percent of proceeds to be donated to the relief efforts for the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . Initially at the 2011 Game Developers Conference , Kelbaugh stated that the studio had no plans for the Trilogy to be re @-@ released . However it was later announced in a Nintendo Direct on January 14 , 2015 , that the Trilogy would see a re @-@ release alongside Super Mario Galaxy 2 on the Wii U eShop .
= = Release = =
Metroid Prime : Trilogy was released in North America on August 24 , 2009 , packaged in a steel @-@ book case , along with an art booklet . The European release in the following month maintained the booklet , while the Australian release in October only had a metallic cardboard slip cover . On January 8 , 2010 , it was reported that Nintendo of America was no longer producing or shipping Metroid Prime : Trilogy , and stated that players may still be able to find second @-@ hand copies of Trilogy via video game stores . On January 11 , 2010 , it was reported that Nintendo Australia had also discontinued the game . Following Nintendo of America 's announcement , Nintendo of Europe assured that the game was not discontinued in their region . Although , the game had since been out of stock at most retailers .
In August 2013 , U.S.-based retailer GameStop announced they acquired a significant stock of pre @-@ owned copies of Metroid Prime : Trilogy , along with Xenoblade Chronicles , another game that Nintendo published with a limited print cycle . GameStop stated that the game is available for purchase exclusively via their website as a " vintage " title ( despite being released merely four years prior ) for $ 84 @.@ 99 , and " with no shrink wrap " , suggesting their pre @-@ owned copies are slightly or never used , including intact Club Nintendo redeeming codes . Whilst the price is high for a pre @-@ owned game , it relatively much cheaper than other copies of the game being offered by other resellers via trade sites such as eBay , as demand remains high for Metroid Prime : Trilogy against the low supply .
In the January 2015 Nintendo Direct , it was announced that Metroid Prime : Trilogy would be released for download through the Wii U 's Nintendo eShop . It was made available in North America and Europe on January 29 , 2015 , and in Australia and New Zealand on January 30 , 2015 .
= = = Technical issues = = =
Metroid Prime : Trilogy uses a dual @-@ layer disc to allow all three games to fit on a single disc due to the size of the game data . Nintendo of America has stated that some Wii consoles may have difficulty reading the high @-@ density software due to a contaminated laser lens . Nintendo offered a free repair for owners who experienced this issue .
= = Reception = =
Metroid Prime : Trilogy was released to critical acclaim . GameSpy 's Phil Theobald praised it for being the compilation of three great games for the price of one . Matt Casamassina of IGN awarded Trilogy a score of 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 , citing the " fantastic gameplay " and " brilliant presentation values " , while Martin Kitts of NGamer UK complimented the addition of achievements system , and said the package had a good money value , calling it a " massive amount of gameplay per pound " . Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed thought the new implementations made it attractive to newcomers and old @-@ time fans , and declared that " not since Super Mario All Stars in the SNES era has Nintendo taken an opportunity to unite one of its great series in such an irresistible way " . 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish liked the implementation of the new control scheme , stating that " the smooth precision of the Wii Remote makes the older games well worth revisiting " .
Metroid Prime : Trilogy has also been subject to criticism . GamePro 's Ashley Schoeller said that graphically , " the games do look a bit dated " and complained that the HUD was " out of aspect " to fit the widescreen . Official Nintendo Magazine 's Fred Dutton said that some aspects of Prime and Echoes had aged , saying the backtracking " feels like more of a chore than it did seven years ago , " and that it is " not until [ Echoes ] enters its final third that things really start to pick up " . GamesRadar considered the achievements too expensive , and that the similarity between the three games gives " an inescapable sense of déjà vu " . Edge noted that the control scheme was not very innovative , and that Echoes and Corruption " favoured graphical flourishes over design innovation " . While Ben Reeves of Game Informer praised the game , the " second opinion " reviewer , Adam Biessener , considered the collection " subpar " , saying it lacked innovation , and that the Wii control scheme , particularly aiming and panning , " is inferior in every way to the traditional scheme from the GameCube titles " .
In IGN 's Top 25 Wii Games list , Metroid Prime : Trilogy ranked third ( 2011 ) , and fourth ( 2012 ) . In a feature article regarding games collections , Bob Mackey of 1UP.com listed Trilogy as the " Hardest @-@ to @-@ find Work of Greatness " , noting that it " had a conspicuously low print run ; finding a copy in the wild proves difficult , and eBay prices often reach 100 dollars . "
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= Siege of St. John 's =
The Siege of St. John 's was a failed attempt by French forces led by Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase to take the fort at St. John 's , Newfoundland during the winter months of 1705 , in Queen Anne 's War . Leading a mixed force of regulars , militia , and Indians , Subercase burned much of the town and laid an ineffectual siege against the fort for five weeks between late January and early March 1705 . Subercase lifted the siege after running out of provisions and gunpowder .
The siege was part of a larger @-@ scale expedition that was an attempt to repeat the highly destructive expedition led by Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville in 1696 . Many outlying English communities were destroyed by Subercase 's men , leading to reprisal raids by the English . Fishing activities on both sides suffered for the duration of the war , which ended with the French cession of its claims to Newfoundland .
= = Background = =
The island of Newfoundland had been contested territory between France and England for some time before Queen Anne 's War broke out in 1702 . French raids during King William 's War in the 1690s had completely destroyed almost all of the English settlements , including the principal port of St. John 's , located on the east side of the Avalon Peninsula of southeastern Newfoundland . However , an English squadron led by Sir John Gibson and Sir John Morris persuaded the displaced fishermen to return and rebuild along their side of the peninsula . The Treaty of Ryswick signed in September 1697 led to the English receiving Newfoundland and the French retaining Acadia . However , the terms of the treaty became void when the French re @-@ established their capital in Plaisance , on the Avalon Peninsula 's west side .
In 1702 , English Captain John Leake raided a number of French settlements in Newfoundland , but avoided Plaisance due to the presence of French warships in the harbour . In 1703 , Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase arrived in Plaisance as the new governor and took command of a 150 @-@ man garrison and facilities that were in poor condition . After raiding Ferryland , he learned of a planned English attack on Plaisance , and prepared for the assault . It never came , as Admiral John Graydon , in what was widely seen in England as a cowardly move , called off the attack despite of having significant advantages . Graydon was subsequently court martialed and dismissed from the service over his conduct in the entire campaign , which also included the failed Siege of Guadeloupe .
= = = French preparations = = =
In late 1704 , Subercase began planning an attack against the English settlements . In addition to his garrison , he recruited Canadiens and Abenakis from the mainland and as many settlers as possible to participate in the effort . In all , his force numbered about 450 when it set out across the peninsula on 8 January 1705 . His corps included a company of over 100 men led by Josué Dubois Berthelot de Beaucours that included Jacques Testard de Montigny and the Abenaki war leader Escumbuit , both of whom had participated in Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville 's 1696 raid against English settlements . While most of the company went overland , a brigantine was sent around the peninsula with some heavy guns .
= = = English defences = = =
St. John 's was under the command of Lieutenant John Moody , with Lieutenant Robert Latham , a military engineer and mason , as his second in command . The principal defences of St. John 's were Fort William , a stone fortification on the north side of the harbour built after the French expedition of 1696 , and the South Castle , a stone fort on the south side of The Narrows which commanded the harbour entrance . Moody had put Latham in command of South Castle , while he commanded at Fort William . The combined defense force numbered between 50 and 60 men , with about a dozen under Latham 's command .
= = Siege = =
The progress of the French was quite slow , due to the extreme winter cold and snow . They first captured Bay Bulls and Ferryland ( small coastal communities south of St. John 's ) without opposition , and then moved on to St. John 's , where they arrived near the town on 31 January . Subercase had wanted to surprise the English , but the opportunity was lost when his advance guard approached within sight of the English defences ( the remaining force having been delayed by poor conditions ) , and was driven off by cannon fire . Most of the community then fled to the protection of Fort William , and Subercase had to content himself with occupying the town while waiting for the brigantine to arrive . While he did take prisoners , he released the women and children to the fort in order to increase the burden on the English supplies . The women ended performing valuable assistance in helping with the fort 's defence .
After about two weeks ' siege , Subercase attempted to use the divisions between Moody and Latham to diminish English morale and possibly achieve a negotiated surrender or gain control of Latham 's post . He sent letters to both men , one from himself to Moody , and a second from one of the prisoners , addressed to Latham . The letter to Latham implied that a deal was in the works with Moody , and Subercase 's agents tried to convince Latham to leave his works to meet with Moody . Latham refused , and Subercase 's effort was ineffective .
After 33 days of waiting , in which the brigantine with the heavy guns never appeared , Subercase , running low on munitions and provisions , lifted the siege . He destroyed the town 's houses and fishing stages , and returned to Plaisance , taking with him 200 civilian captives . Subercase detached Montigny and 70 men , who continued to raid English settlements through the rest of the winter .
= = Aftermath = =
The French expedition took 1 @,@ 200 prisoners in all , most of which were released due to a lack of provisions , and destroyed forty cannon , 2 @,@ 000 fishing shallops , and 200 wagons , but failed to eliminate the stronghold . John Moody returned to England in late 1705 , and was rewarded with a lieutenant 's commission in the Coldstream Guards . He feuded with Latham , charging him with irregularities in his administration of the fortification works and poor command of South Castle , and his complaints led to Latham 's recall .
Subercase continued to develop the French colony in 1705 , which flourished despite the war . He was rewarded for his efforts with the Order of Saint Louis and the governorship of Acadia . There he presided over Port Royal 's defences , successfully fending off British sieges in 1707 , but was then forced to capitulate to overwhelming force in 1710 .
Subercase 's replacement at Plaisance , Philippe Pastour de Costebelle , negotiated an exchange of prisoners from the siege , and successfully captured St. John 's in January 1709 . France gave up claims of sovereignty over Newfoundland in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and , under Costebelle 's supervision , moved the French settlers from Newfoundland to Louisbourg .
The site of Fort William is a National Historic Site of Canada ( marked by a plaque ) , and the South Castle location is part of the Signal Hill National Historic Site .
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= Joseph Schwantner : New Morning for the World ; Nicolas Flagello : The Passion of Martin Luther King =
Joseph Schwantner : New Morning for the World ; Nicolas Flagello : The Passion of Martin Luther King is a classical music album by the Oregon Symphony under the artistic direction of James DePreist , released by Koch International Classics in 1995 . Recorded at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall in Portland , Oregon , in September 1994 , the album is a tribute to Martin Luther King , Jr. and was released in his honor on the following holiday in his name .
The album features two works by American composers , each with text from speeches by King : Joseph Schwantner 's New Morning for the World ( " Daybreak of Freedom " ) and Nicolas Flagello 's cantata The Passion of Martin Luther King . Both works include performances by Raymond Bazemore , who serves as narrator on the former and provides bass vocals on the latter . On the album 's release date , more than 30 United States radio stations broadcast the album version of Schwantner 's composition to commemorate the civil rights leader . Proceeds from the album 's sale benefited the King Center for Nonviolent Social Change . Produced by Michael Fine and engineered by Fred Vogler , the recording reached a peak position of number three on Billboard 's Classical Albums chart and remains the Oregon Symphony 's best @-@ selling album as of 2013 .
= = Composition = =
The album , 58 minutes and 54 seconds in length , contains two compositions : Joseph Schwantner 's New Morning for the World ( " Daybreak of Freedom " ) and Nicolas Flagello 's cantata The Passion of Martin Luther King . Both compositions contain text from speeches by King delivered during the civil rights movement . The first track , 23 minutes and 27 seconds in length , features Schwantner 's work . The Passion of Martin Luther King , 35 minutes and 17 seconds in length , is separated into nine tracks . The album was produced by Michael Fine and engineered by Fred Vogler . Coretta Scott King wrote the introduction for the album 's liner notes .
New Morning for the World , composed in 1982 on commission from AT & T , premiered on January 15 , 1983 ( King 's birthday ) at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts ; David Effron conducted the Eastman Philharmonia , and Willie Stargell , then first baseman and team captain of the Pittsburgh Pirates , served as narrator . Schwantner selected words from public speeches by King that spanned more than a decade of his life . In the album 's liner notes , program annotator and classical music radio host Jim Svejda described the work as having " equal parts " for the orchestra and the speaker , with King 's words " supported and illuminated by an orchestra fabric of unusual variety and flexibility " . Music critics compared Schwantner 's composition to Aaron Copland 's Lincoln Portrait because of its prominent narrative passages and its " broad and lyrical scoring that sounds unmistakably American " . In describing the work , Melinda Bargreen of The Seattle Times wrote that percussion and " soaring " strings helped to emphasize King 's orations . New Morning for the World contains text from the following speeches and writings by King : " Stride Toward Freedom " ( 1958 ) , " Behind the Selma March " ( 1965 ) , and " Letter from Birmingham Jail " ( 1963 ) ; the composition ends with King 's " I Have a Dream " speech .
The Passion of Martin Luther King was composed in 1968 following King 's assassination . The Passion was first recorded in London in 1969 , with Ezio Flagello , the composer 's brother , as the bass baritone soloist . This performance was eventually released by Naxos American Classics in 2012 . DePreist conducted the National Symphony Orchestra 's first performance of the work at the Kennedy Center on February 19 , 1974 . Music critics drew comparisons to Johann Sebastian Bach 's Passions , which recounts Jesus ' death . The Oregon Symphony album was the first published recording of the work . Bazemore provided bass vocals , with additional vocals by the Portland Symphonic Choir , directed by Bruce Browne . The nine sections of the work are performed with a brief pause in between .
= = Reception = =
On the album 's release date , more than 30 United States radio stations broadcast the album 's version of New Morning for the World to commemorate King . Martin Luther King III and Schwanter celebrated the album 's release at Phipps Plaza in Atlanta . Proceeds from sales benefited the King Center for Nonviolent Social Change .
The album received positive commercial and critical reception . It reached a peak position of number three on Billboard 's Classical Albums chart and remains the Oregon Symphony 's best @-@ selling album as of 2013 . In his review for Deseret News , music critic William S. Goodfellow wrote that each work contained " sophistication and substance " . Goodfellow said of Schwanter 's composition : " The more exotic scoring ... as well as Schwantner 's minimalistic treatment of the music 's more militant episodes , gives it a drive and dramatic punch of its own . " The album features Raymond Bazemore as narrator ; Goodfellow described Bazemore 's " occasionally sing @-@ song narration " in New Morning for the World as " Lincolnesque " . He wrote that Flagello 's work contained " writing of remarkable clarity and Italianate warmth " , but thought Bazemore 's voice sounded hoarse towards the end and preferred the solo sections in New Morning for the World . The Seattle Times 's Melinda Bargreen called the album " strong and emotionally convincing " , and praised " excellent performances with strong soloists " . She wrote that both works were composed in " styles that are distinctively modern , but tonal and accessible " . Bargreen described Bazemore 's voice as " deeply affecting " and complimented DePreist for conducting " with an obvious passion for the music , drawing remarkably detailed and virtuosic performances from his orchestra . " Tim Smith of the Sun @-@ Sentinel said both works were " well worth hearing " and encouraged orchestras to explore the pieces , along with works by other African @-@ American composers , to provide the public with broader programming . Smith described New Morning for the World as " remarkably lyrical " and " quite dramatic " ; he found Bazemore 's sing @-@ song narration to be " too affected " but found the conclusion " touching " and complimented the orchestra for its overall " sturdy , communicative " performance . Smith called Flagello 's score " unabashedly romantic " and described as effective the work of Bazemore , DePreist and the orchestra .
= = Track listing = =
" New Morning for the World ( " Daybreak of Freedom " ) " ( Joseph Schwantner ) – 23 : 27
The Passion of Martin Luther King ( Nicolas Flagello )
" Hosanna filio David " – 3 : 27
" At the Center of Nonviolence " – 4 : 04
" Cor Jesu " – 3 : 53
" In the Struggle " – 5 : 25
" Et flagellis subditum " – 3 : 08
" Death is inevitable " – 3 : 48
" Stabat Mater " – 5 : 22
" We 've Got Some Difficult Days Ahead " – 2 : 13
" Finale " – 3 : 48
Track listing adapted from Allmusic and the album 's liner notes .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
= = = Orchestra roster = = =
Orchestra roster adapted from the album 's liner notes .
" * " designates acting orchestra members ; " * * " designates musicians on a leave of absence .
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= Flixton , Greater Manchester =
Flixton is a village and electoral ward in the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford , Greater Manchester , England . The population of the ward at the 2011 census was 10 @,@ 786 . It lies about six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) to the southwest of Manchester city centre , within the historic county boundaries of Lancashire .
Neolithic and Bronze Age artefacts have been found locally and the area may have been inhabited in those periods . Medieval Flixton was a parish within the Hundred of Salford and encompassed the manor of Flixton , along with its church , first mentioned in the 12th century . The parish comprised isolated farmsteads and a manor house . Toward the end of the 17th century its population began to rise , continuing through the 19th century , although at a much slower pace than its neighbours . Flixton was a remote rural area with few transport links and did not witness the level of industrialisation other parts of Manchester saw , but its connection to the railway network in 1873 helped transform the area into a middle @-@ class suburb .
Flixton is represented in Parliament by Labour MP Kate Green .
= = Etymology = =
Flixton has been recorded as fflixton , Fluxton , Flyxton , Flyxeton , Fleece @-@ town , Flixston and Flixtone . It is not mentioned in the Domesday Survey , and first appears in historical records in 1176 or 1177 . The name may be Scandinavian in origin , the Anglo @-@ Saxon ton meaning a farmstead , although along with nearby Urmston , it may be an anglicised personal name from the 10th or 11th centuries and not a primary settlement name from earlier times .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The area may have been inhabited during the Neolithic and Bronze Ages . Stone axes have been found on the banks of the River Mersey in Flixton , as well as on the banks of the River Irwell in Old Trafford . Further afield , two Neolithic arrowheads have been found in Altrincham and Dunham Massey , and a Bronze Age arrowhead in Warburton .
Medieval Flixton was one of several parishes which existed in the Hundred of Salford . The parish encompassed the manors of Urmston and Flixton ; the latter is first mentioned between 1189 and 1181 and was granted by the Mascy family of Dunham . The manor of Flixton 's boundaries are unclear , although they were perhaps formed by a mixture of natural and man @-@ made features including Carr Ditch , which divided Flixton and Urmston . St Michael 's Church is also first recorded at about the same time , although the building may date from an earlier period . In keeping with a pattern found in northern and eastern Cheshire and south @-@ eastern Lancashire , the parish comprised isolated farmsteads and a medieval manor house , rather than a village centre . Notable place names in medieval Flixton include Shaw Hall , located near the present @-@ day Roebuck Hotel , east of the modern Flixton village . The location of Berne is unknown , while Booths was possibly somewhere near Hulme Bridge Farm , close to the Irwell . An area named Wood may have existed in the north @-@ western part of Flixton , near a Woods @-@ end Farm noted in an 1818 survey . A Shaw Hall , whose name first appears in 1508 and was derived from a small wood , was described by historian Michael Nevell as " the most significant medieval estate within the township " . Reputed to be a Jacobean era mansion , it was referred to as a manor in 1594 , although whether this was also the case during the medieval period is unknown . It was the home of the Valentines , the Asshawes and the Egertons , and during the English Civil War was defended against a potential attack by Royalist forces . The Egertons remained at Shaw Hall until 1757 ; thereafter it was occupied by various families , until it was demolished in the 20th century .
An early mention of Flixton appears in the Testa de Nevil , which includes the entry : " Albert Gredle , sen . , gave to Henry , son of Siward , one carucate of land in Flixton by 10s. yearly . The heirs hold that land . " The manor of Flixton was , for a time , controlled by the Grelleys , Barons of Manchester . Robert of Lathom , who inherited the manor , granted the parish of Flixton to the newly created Burscough Priory , located near Ormskirk , in 1190 . The Grelleys may not have been Flixton manor 's only masters , as in 1250 – 1251 part of the area came into the possession of David de Hulton . The Hultons united what in the 12th century was a fragmented manor . In 1330 they sub @-@ let one half of it to the Valentine family and the other to two branches of the Radcliffe family . The Valentines are included in the Exchequer Lay Subsidy Rolls of 1332 , which show five tax payers in Flixton : Richard le Valentine , Henry de l 'Wode , William de l 'Berne , Richard son of Robert and John de Booth . The name Valentine also appears in Flixton 's parish registers , which begin in 1570 . Written on vellum and mostly in Latin , the first records 11 baptisms , 2 marriages and 7 burials . Christian names include Hamlet , Randle and Ralph . The registers show that surnames such as Gilbody , Valentine , Millatt and Low remained prevalent in the area well into the 19th century .
= = = Industrial Revolution = = =
Flixton 's population remained fairly stable until the end of the 17th century , when , along with other nearby parishes , it began to rise steadily . It was by that time a small hamlet , with several buildings around the parish church and its parsonage . The 1664 hearth tax returns show that Flixton had 70 heads of household , who were likely engaged mainly in agricultural activities . Evidence exists to suggest that some areas in the parish were used for textile production , with " yarn croft " in Flixton , Stretford and Warburton indicating the production of flax . Almost 20 per cent of wills and other documents gathered from nearby areas contain references to textiles , hemp and flax .
During the Industrial Revolution many of the townships in the region experienced fairly rapid population growth , although Flixton remained an exception , its population growing by only 22 per cent between 1801 and 1851 . This was in stark contrast to Altrincham ( 165 % ) , Bowdon ( 242 % ) and Stretford ( 238 % ) , and is attributed to the emigration of villagers to more industrialised areas like Manchester , and the agricultural depression of the 1830s and 1840s . The domestic production of textiles , popular during the 17th and early 18th centuries in Flixton and other nearby townships , and the newer factory @-@ based system which replaced it , had disappeared in Altrincham by the middle of the 19th century . Weaving continued in Flixton , although within ten years of the construction of Flixton Cotton Mills in 1851 , domestic textile production had ended . In nearby Urmston , 28 per cent of the township 's population was in 1851 engaged in textile work , but the area did not experience the level of industrialisation seen in towns like Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , east of Manchester , where 16 mills were built between 1815 and 1829 , doubling the population . The reasons for this reliance on land rather than industry are unclear .
Flixton was a remote rural area with few transport links to nearby towns , the rivers Irwell and Mersey for the most part cutting off access to other areas . To the southwest , Carrington Old Bridge , removed in about 1840 , was an old wooden structure too narrow to accommodate carts , which were forced to use a nearby ford . Another ford existed near Flixton Church and yet another near Shaw Hall . An omnibus service carried passengers to and from Stretford , where the nearest railway station was located , but it was the town 's connection on 2 September 1873 to the UK 's railway network , through the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway ( later the Cheshire Lines Committee ) line from Manchester to Liverpool , which helped transform the area . A new bridge across the Mersey was built around 1906 – 1907 , replacing the earlier structure nearer to Carrington . Flixton gradually became a middle @-@ class railway suburb of Manchester .
= = Governance = =
= = = Civic history = = =
In 1841 Davyhulme , Flixton and Urmston became part of the Chorlton Poor Law Union , until 1849 when , with Stretford , it was transferred to Barton upon Irwell Poor Law Union . An 1894 Act of Parliament created urban and rural district councils , and along with Carrington , Davyhulme , Dunham Massey , Hale , Partington , Timperley and Warburton , Flixton became part of Barton upon Irwell Rural District ( Urmston gained an urban district council ) . Land was exchanged between Flixton and Irlam Urban District and Barton Moss civil parish . A further exchange of land occurred in 1920 , with Carrington civil parish . In 1933 the civil parish became a part of Urmston Urban District .
= = = Political representation = = =
From 1918 to 1950 Flixton was a part of the Stretford Division of Lancashire and from 1950 to 1983 a part of the borough constituency of Stretford . From 1983 to 1997 it was included in the new constituency of Davyhulme and represented by the Conservative Party MP Winston Spencer @-@ Churchill , grandson of Winston Churchill . The Davyhulme constituency was replaced in 1997 by Stretford and Urmston , whose first MP was Labour 's Beverley Hughes . She won the 1997 General Election with 58 @.@ 5 per cent of the vote , against the Conservatives ' John Gregory with 30 @.@ 5 per cent . She was replaced in 2010 by Kate Green , who won 48 @.@ 6 per cent of the vote , compared to the Conservatives ' Alex Williams with 28 @.@ 7 per cent . The Liberal Democrats gained 16 @.@ 9 per cent of the vote .
Flixton elects three councillors to Trafford Council ; as of the 2012 local election , all three seats are held by Jonathan Coupe , Paul Lally and Vivienne Ward , for the Conservative Party .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 44 ′ 27 ″ N 2 ° 38 ′ 44 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 4427 ° , -2.3844 ° ) and 170 miles ( 274 km ) northwest of central London , Flixton is located between Urmston and Irlam , which lie to the east and west . For the purposes of the Office for National Statistics , Flixton forms a south westerly part of the Greater Manchester Urban Area , with Manchester city centre 6 @.@ 4 miles ( 10 @.@ 3 km ) to the north @-@ eastnorth .
Flixton ward 's southern boundary is formed by the River Mersey , opposite the neighbouring ward of Bucklow St Martins . With the creation of the Manchester Ship Canal , which roughly followed the former path of the River Irwell , the township 's western boundary with Irlam was adopted in 1896 . Today , the ward 's western boundary lies further east , running south through farmland near Woodsend Circle . Flixton 's north and eastern boundaries are formed by Moorside Road and the area slightly east of Chassen Road railway station . Most of the town 's population lives to the north , the south being mainly open land .
= = Demography = =
As of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Flixton ward 's population was 9 @,@ 473 , 9 @,@ 164 of whom were white , the remainder being either of mixed race , Asian , Black or Chinese . 3 @,@ 789 people are listed as single and 3 @,@ 543 as married for the first time ; the remainder were either remarried , separated , divorced or widowed . 7 @,@ 771 people considered themselves Christian , 952 stated they had no religion and 606 did not state their religion . 86 people are listed as Muslims , 22 as Hindus , 10 as Buddhist and 8 as Jewish .
Of Flixton 's 4 @,@ 530 households 83 @.@ 1 per cent are listed as owner occupied . Most houses in the area are semi @-@ detached ; the rest are detached , terraced or flats . Average household income for 2010 was £ 39 @,@ 231 . According to the 2001 census , of the 6 @,@ 812 people aged 16 – 74 , 46 @.@ 1 per cent were employed on a full @-@ time basis , 11 @.@ 2 per cent part @-@ time , and 7 @.@ 3 per cent self @-@ employed . 1 @.@ 8 per cent were unemployed and seeking work , while 16 @.@ 5 per cent were retired .
= = Culture = =
Flixton Band , formed in 1877 , played at the official opening of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 , attended by Queen Victoria . It was disbanded in 1933 but reformed in 1967 , since when it has performed on television and radio .
Local artist Frances Lennon , born in nearby Stretford , moved with her husband to Flixton in the late 1970s . Following his death she became a full @-@ time painter , releasing several books including A Trafford Childhood ( 1986 ) and A Manchester Childhood ( 2001 ) . Dubbed " the people 's artist " , she was the official artist for the 2002 Commonwealth Games and produced a special book of paintings relating to games and sports .
= = = Religion = = =
Flixton is in the Church of England Diocese of Manchester and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Salford . Historically church life has centred around the Grade II * listed 12th @-@ century St Michaels Church , built on raised land close to the centre of Flixton village . For about 500 years the church was attached to Lichfield Cathedral . Another Church of England place of worship , St John 's Church , can be found on Irlam Road . Flixton 's Catholic Community worships at St Monica 's Church on Woodsend Road South . The parish was founded in 1950 and the church built from 1968 to 1969 .
= = Landmarks = =
Flixton House , a late 18th @-@ century Grade II listed building set in Flixton Park and Gardens , was the focus of one of the first footpath battles in England after its owner , Ralph Wright , in 1824 closed several footpaths crossing his estate . Local residents accepted the closures , but Wright also attempted to change the route of footpaths not on his land , ploughing the entrance to one and sowing it with oats . A local farmer , Samuel Wood , objected to Wright 's tactics and removed each obstruction , restoring the footpath . Wright successfully gained an order supporting his changes at his third attempt , but by then the case had attracted considerable interest and in 1826 the Manchester Society for the Preservation of Ancient Footpaths was formed . After several years of expensive legal wrangling , Wright 's order was quashed and in June 1827 the footpaths affected were reopened . Wright obtained further orders and again closed the footpaths , before the matter was finally resolved at the Quarter Session on 29 October that year , to Wright 's cost . His loss proved to be an important event in the movement for footpath preservation in England .
Abbotsfield Park was the venue for a 1963 Beatles concert , booked before they became famous . The Urmston and District Model Engineering Society operates a miniature railway around the park and ran a yearly May Day Steam rally in conjunction with the Lancashire Traction Engine Club until 2010 . Stocks , once located in Flixton village and seldom used , were removed in 1823 . A tree planted in 1887 to celebrate Queen Victoria 's Golden Jubilee , and known locally as ' The Jubilee Tree ' , now stands in the same area .
To the southwest lies Green Hill , from which the disused Flixton Sewage Works may be viewed . Formed from pulverised fuel ash , the soil provides ideal conditions for flora like gorse and is a habitat for moles . The former sewage works is an important undisturbed wintering site for wildfowl , such as marsh harriers and linnets . Nearby , Duttons Pond is a privately run but publicly accessible location for anglers . West of Dutton 's Pond is Jack Lane nature reserve , a small marshland habitat for wetland birds , surrounded by farmland .
= = Transport = =
Public transport in Flixton is coordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester . Bus services in Flixton run to destinations such as Davyhulme , Urmston , Stretford , Partington , Hulme and Manchester . The two local railway stations , Flixton and Chassen Road , are managed by Northern Rail .
= = Education = =
Flixton has several primary and secondary schools . Its first was founded by Peter Egerton , in 1643 , and built close to the parish church . The building was later replaced by the Dog and Partridge Inn , but another school was opened near the present @-@ day Roebuck pub in 1662 , of thatched wood and plaster . Shawtown school , which was slightly closer to Urmston than the building it replaced , was still extant in 1826 , but was later used as cottages . A school built in 1861 opposite the parish church and expanded in 1893 has since been demolished .
Flixton Girls ' School is a non @-@ selective sports specialist academy school , for girls aged 11 – 16 . Its 2011 Ofsted report describes it as a good school , with " a number of outstanding features including the way in which the school promotes community cohesion " . Another local school , Wellacre Academy , was described by Ofsted as " an outstanding and happy school which knows itself very well " .
= = Sport = =
Flixton was witness to bull and bear baiting , performed in several places throughout the village . One of these was in Shawtown , on " Schoo ' Green " , and another was at " Th ' Grane " , at the top of Woodsend Road , opposite where the Red Lion pub once stood . The practice was ended in 1816 . Badger baiting was also practised , at certain inns . Anecdotal evidence exists to suggest that hunting , cockfighting and horse racing took place in Flixton , the latter in the fields around the parish church .
Formed in 1990 , Trafford Football Club plays in the Northern Premier League . Local golf courses include the municipally owned William Wroe Golf Course and the privately owned Flixton Golf Club . The William Wroe course , named after Councillor William Wroe , was opened in 1973 as a fourteen @-@ hole course , six holes occupying land on the Flixton road side of the railway , and eight on the Church road side . The land it occupies was originally purchased by Urmston District Council in 1935 , but from 1947 to 1970 , aware that it was gradually becoming occupied , Wroe campaigned for the establishment of a municipal golf course . It was expanded to fifteen holes , then eventually to eighteen holes in 1984 , after the nearby Acre Gate Farm became vacant .
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= Skull Tower =
The Skull Tower ( Serbian : Ćele kula , Ћеле Кула , pronounced [ tɕel ̩ e kula ] ) is a tower composed largely of human skulls located in the city of Niš , Serbia . During the 1809 Battle of Čegar , fought during the First Serbian Uprising ( part of the Serbian Revolution , 1804 – 1817 ) , Serbian revolutionaries under Stevan Sinđelić were attacked by Turkish forces on Čegar Hill , near Niš . Rather than be captured by the Turks and impaled , Sinđelić fired his pistol into a powder magazine , killing himself and all Serbian rebels and Turkish soldiers in the vicinity . Afterward , Hurshid Pasha , the Turkish vizier of Niš , ordered that a tower be made from the skulls of the killed Serbian revolutionaries . The tower is 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high , and originally contained 952 skulls embedded on four sides in fourteen rows .
Following the Turkish withdrawal from Niš in 1878 , the tower was roofed over , and in 1892 a chapel was built around it . In 1937 , the chapel was renovated . A bust of Sinđelić was added the following year . In 1948 , Skull Tower and the chapel enclosing it were declared Cultural Monuments of Exceptional Importance and came under the protection of the Socialist Republic of Serbia . Further renovation of the chapel occurred again in 1989 . As of 2013 , 54 skulls remain on the tower ; the one that is said to belong to Sinđelić is enclosed in a glass container . Seen as a symbol of independence by Serbs , the tower is mentioned in the writings of French Romantic poet Alphonse de Lamartine and English travel writer Alexander William Kinglake . In the two centuries following its construction it has become a popular tourist attraction , visited by between 30 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 people annually .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
During the time of the Ottoman Empire , Turkish forces were known to create tower structures from the skulls of their enemies in order to create terror amongst their opponents . The First Serbian Uprising ( part of the Serbian Revolution , 1804 – 1817 ) against Ottoman rule erupted in 1804 , with Karađorđe Petrović as its leader . On 19 May 1809 , 3 @,@ 000 Serbian revolutionaries led by commander ( Serbian : vojvoda , вoјвода ) Stevan Sinđelić were attacked by a large Turkish force on Čegar Hill , located close to the city of Niš . Owing to a lack of coordination between Serb commanders , the revolutionaries failed to receive any support from other Serbian rebel detachments . The numerically superior Turks lost thousands of troops in numerous attacks against the Serbs , but eventually overwhelmed the Serbian lines . Knowing that he and his men risked impalement if captured , Sinđelić took his flintlock and fired at his entrenchment 's gun powder magazine . The resulting explosion killed him , and all the surviving Serb revolutionaries and Turkish soldiers in the vicinity .
= = = Construction = = =
After the battle , the Turkish vizier of Niš , Hurshid Pasha , ordered that the heads of Sinđelić and his men be skinned , stuffed and sent to the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II . The skulls were then returned to Niš , where the Turks built Skull Tower as a warning to future generations intending to revolt against the Ottoman Empire . The tower stands 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high , and originally consisted of 952 skulls embedded on four sides in fourteen rows . In the ensuing years , many skulls fell out from the tower walls , some were taken away for burial by relatives thinking they could identify the skulls of their deceased family members , and some were taken by souvenir hunters . Once the Ottomans withdrew from Niš in 1878 , the tower was roofed over to protect it from the elements . In 1892 , a chapel designed by the architect Dimitrije Leko was built over the tower with donations from across Serbia . A plaque dedicated near the chapel in 1904 reads : " To the first Serbian liberators after Kosovo . " The chapel was renovated in 1937 , and a bust of Sinđelić was added the following year . In 1948 , Skull Tower and the chapel enclosing it were declared Cultural Monuments of Exceptional Importance and came under the protection of the Socialist Republic of Serbia . Further renovation of the chapel occurred again in 1989 . As of 2014 , 54 skulls remain on the tower , and the one that is said to belong to Sinđelić rests in a glass container .
= = = Significance and portrayal in Balkan culture = = =
In the centuries following its construction , the tower has become a symbol of Serbian independence and a pilgrimage site for Serbs . It is considered one of the most visited places in Serbia , with 30 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 tourists visiting it annually . In the early 1830s , French Romantic poet Alphonse de Lamartine wrote of the tower upon visiting Niš , which was at the time still part of the Ottoman Empire , saying :
I saw a large tower rising in the midst of the plain , as white as Parian marble ... [ R ] aising my eyes to the monument , I discovered that the walls , which I supposed to be built of marble or white stone , were composed of regular rows of human skulls ; these skulls bleached by the rain and sun , and cemented by a little sand and lime , formed entirely the triumphal arch which now sheltered me from the heat of the sun . In some places portions of hair were still hanging and waved , like lichen or moss , with every breath of wind . The mountain breeze , which was then blowing fresh , penetrated the innumerable cavities of the skulls , and sounded like mournful and plaintive sighs . My eyes and my heart greeted the remains of those brave men whose cut @-@ off heads made the cornerstone of the independence of their homeland . May the Serbs keep this monument ! It will always teach their children the value of the independence of a people , showing them the real price their fathers had to pay for it .
In 1849 British traveler Alexander William Kinglake described Skull Tower as the building that captivated him most in all of Ottoman Serbia , saying he was impressed by the " simple grandeur of the architect 's conception " and that he was struck by the " exquisite beauty of the fretwork . " An exhibition at the Military Museum in Belgrade contains a replica of the tower . Prior to the dissolution of Yugoslavia , tens of thousands of schoolchildren from across Yugoslavia visited the original in Niš .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Journals = = =
= = = Websites = = =
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= Chalciporus piperatus =
Chalciporus piperatus , commonly known as the peppery bolete , is a small pored mushroom of the family Boletaceae found in mixed woodland in Europe and North America . It has been recorded under introduced trees in Brazil , and has become naturalised in Tasmania and spread under native Nothofagus cunninghamii trees . A small bolete , the fruit body has a 1 @.@ 6 – 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) orange @-@ fawn cap with cinnamon to brown pores underneath , and a 4 – 9 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 7 in ) high by 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) thick stipe . The rare variety hypochryseus , found only in Europe , has yellow pores and tubes .
Described by Pierre Bulliard in 1790 as Boletus piperatus , it is only distantly related to other members of the genus Boletus and was reclassified as Chalciporus piperatus by Frédéric Bataille in 1908 . The genus Chalciporus was an early branching lineage in the Boletaceae and appears to be related to boletes with parasitic properties . Previously thought to be ectomycorrhizal ( a symbiotic relationship that occurs between a fungus and the roots of various plant species ) , C. piperatus is now suspected of being parasitic on Amanita muscaria . The flesh of C. piperatus has a very peppery taste , and can be used as a condiment or flavouring .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
French mycologist Pierre Bulliard described the species as Boletus piperatus in 1790 . In its taxonomic history , it has been transferred to the genera Leccinum ( Samuel Frederick Gray , 1821 ) , Viscipellis ( Lucien Quélet , 1886 ) , Ixocomus ( Quélet , 1888 ) , Suillus ( Otto Kuntze , 1898 ) , and Ceriomyces ( William Alphonso Murrill , 1909 ) . It was reclassified and given its current binomial name in 1908 by Frédéric Bataille when he made it the type species of the newly circumscribed genus Chalciporus . The species name piperatus means " peppery " in Latin . It is commonly known as the " peppery bolete " .
Chalciporus piperatus is a member of the genus Chalciporus , with which the genus Buchwaldoboletus form a group of fungi that is an early offshoot in the Boletaceae . Many members of the group appear to be parasitic .
Two varieties have been described . Chalciporus piperatus var. hypochryseus was originally described as Boletus hypochryseus by Czech mycologist Josef Šutara in 1993 , and was moved to Chalciporus a year later by Regis Courtecuisse . Wolfgang Klofac and Irmgard Krisai @-@ Greilhuber reclassified it as a variety of C. piperatus in 2006 , although some sources continue to regard it as a distinct species . Variety amarellus , first published by Quélet as Boletus amarellus in 1883 and later transferred to Chalciporus by Bataille in 1908 , was described as a variety of C. piperatus in 1974 by Albert Pilát and Aurel Dermek . Authorities disagree as to whether or not it has independent taxonomic significance .
= = Description = =
One of the smaller boletes , Chalciporus piperatus has an orange @-@ fawn 1 @.@ 6 – 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) cap that is initially convex before flattening out in age . The cap surface can be furrowed ; shiny when dry , it can be a little sticky when wet . The colour of the pore surface ranges from cinnamon to dark reddish brown in maturity . When bruised , the pore surface stains brown . Individual pores are angular , measuring about 0 @.@ 5 – 2 mm wide , while the tubes are 3 – 10 mm deep . Slender for a bolete , the stipe measures 4 – 9 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 7 in ) long by 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) thick , and is either roughly the same width throughout its length , or slightly thicker near the base . The colour of the stem is similar to the cap , or lighter , and there is yellow mycelium at the base . The flesh is yellow , sometimes with reddish tones , maturing to purplish brown . It has no odour . The spore print is brown to cinnamon . Variety hypochryseus is essentially identical to the main form except for its bright yellow tubes and pores . Variety amarellus has pinker pores and a taste that is bitter rather than peppery .
The spores are smooth , narrowly fusiform ( fuse @-@ shaped ) , and measure 7 – 12 by 3 – 5 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) measure 20 – 28 by 6 – 8 µm and are hyaline ( translucent ) , four @-@ spored , and narrowly club @-@ shaped , with many internal oil droplets . Cystidia are fusiform , sometimes with a rounded tip , and have dimensions of 30 – 50 by 9 – 12 µm . Some are more or less hyaline , while others are encrusted with a golden pigment . The cap cuticle is a trichodermium , an arrangement in which the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the cap surface . These hyphae are 10 – 17 µm wide and have elliptical to cylindrical cells at their ends that are not gelatinous . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae .
= = = Similar species = = =
The fruit body of the North American species Chalciporus piperatoides are similar , but can be distinguished by its flesh and pores staining blue after cutting or bruising . It has a less peppery taste . Another mild @-@ tasting relative , C. rubinellus , has brighter colours than C. piperatus , including completely red tubes . One European species , C. rubinus , has a shape similar to C. piperatus , but has red pores and a stem covered in red dots .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Fruit bodies of Chalciporus piperatus occur singly , scattered , or in groups on the ground . The fungus occurs naturally in or near coniferous or beech and oak woodlands , often on sandy soils . Fruit bodies appear in Europe in late summer and autumn from August to November . The fungus is widespread across North America , fruiting from July to October in the eastern states and from September to January on the Pacific Coast . It is found in Mexico and Central America . In Asia , it has been collected from Pakistan , West Bengal ( India ) , and Guangdong Province ( China ) . In South Africa , it is known from the southwestern Cape Province and the eastern Transvaal Province .
Chalciporus piperatus grows in conifer plantations associated with the fly agaric ( Amanita muscaria ) and the chanterelle ( Cantharellus cibarius ) . It has been recorded under introduced loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda ) plantations in Santa Catarina and Paraná states in southern Brazil , and under introduced trees in the Los Lagos Region of Chile . It has also spread into native forest in northeastern Tasmania and Victoria , having been found growing with the native myrtle beech ( Nothofagus cunninghamii ) . The rare variety hypochryseus occurs only in Europe , including Austria , the Czech Republic , Greece , Italy , and Spain . Also rare , variety amarellus is widespread in European coniferous forests , where it usually found near pines , spruce , and sometimes fir .
Fruit bodies can be parasitised by the mould Sepedonium chalcipori , a highly specialised mycoparasite that is only known to infect this bolete . Infections result in necrotic mushroom tissue and the production of copious yellow conidia .
Initially thought to be ectomycorrhizal ( symbiotic with plants , like most Boletaceae ) , C. piperatus has not been confirmed as such in multiple synthesis studies or in isotope fractionation studies . There is some speculation that C. piperatus is a mycoparasite on the mycorrhiza of Amanita muscaria . In New Zealand , A. muscaria is thought to have been introduced with Pinus radiata , and has made a host jump to the native Nothofagus trees ; C. piperatus has since been observed fruiting near Nothofagus trees with A. muscaria associations . Buchwaldoboletus lignicola is in the same clade as C. piperatus and is thought to be a parasite as well , strengthening the evidence that C. piperatus and its relatives may be mycoparasites .
= = Uses = =
This mushroom is edible but very peppery . The Italian chef Antonio Carluccio recommends only using it to add flavour to other mushrooms . It has been used as a condiment in many countries . The mushroom should be well @-@ cooked before consumption to minimize the risk of gastric symptoms ; the peppery taste is lost with cooking . In powdered form , it loses its peppery taste quickly . Some guidebooks classify C. piperatus as inedible . Fruit bodies can be used for mushroom dyeing ; depending on the mordant used , yellow , orange , or greenish @-@ brown dyes can be made .
= = Chemistry = =
Sclerocitrin , a pigment compound originally isolated from the common earthball ( Scleroderma citrinum ) , is the major contributor to the yellow colour of the mycelium and the stipe base of C. piperatus fruit bodies . Other compounds that have been isolated from this species include norbadione A , chalciporone , xerocomic acid , variegatic acid , variegatorubin , and another yellow pigment , chalcitrin . Chalciporone is responsible for the bitter taste of the fruit bodies . The pigments sclerocitrin , chalcitrin , and norbadione A are derived biosynthetically from xerocomic acid . Related compounds found in the fruit bodies include the chalciporone isomers isochalciporone and dehydroisochalciporone .
A field study of fungi growing in polluted sites in the Czech and Slovak Republics found that C. piperatus fruit bodies growing near lead smelters and on mine and slag dumps had the greatest ability to bioaccumulate the element antimony . In one collection , an " extremely high " level of the element was detected — 1423 milligrams of antimony per kilogram of dried mushroom . In comparison , the antimony levels detected in other common terrestrial fungi from the same area , both saprobic and ectomycorrhizal , were more than an order of magnitude smaller .
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= Clinton D. " Casey " Vincent =
Clinton D. " Casey " Vincent ( November 29 , 1914 – July 5 , 1955 ) was an American flying ace who became the second youngest general officer in United States Army Air Forces history . Vincent was one of Claire Chennault 's two top fighter commanders in the China Burma India Theater of World War II , and served as the model for two comic strip characters by Milton Caniff : " Colonel Vince Casey " , and " Brigadier General P.G. ' Shanty ' Town " .
Vincent planned and carried out daring offensive air tactics in China , forming the 14th Air Force Forward Echelon which staged out of forward airfields to attack the enemy unexpectedly . The successful concept was twinned and reorganized by Chennault into two mixed @-@ aircraft groups , with Vincent commanding one of them , the 68th Composite Wing . A string of Allied victories throughout 1943 caused the Japanese to plan a major retaliatory move . Beginning in May 1944 , the airmen were hit repeatedly and forced into retreat as the Japanese implemented Operation Ichi @-@ Go . Vincent 's men demolished their valuable airbases and fell back to Chennault 's stronghold at Kunming . Vincent returned to the U.S. afterward , his tour of duty complete .
Back home , Vincent was put in command of a training wing and in 1946 was asked to teach at the Air War College . Following this , he held the position of second @-@ in @-@ command of the Western Air Defense Force . Vincent died of a heart attack in 1955 . The United States Air Force ( USAF ) named an air base after him in 1956 : the Vincent Air Force Base in Yuma , Arizona . The airfield was turned over to the Marines in 1962 , and is today the very busy Marine Corps Air Station Yuma ( Vincent Field ) .
= = Early career = =
Clinton Dermott Vincent was born in 1914 in the small town of Gail , Texas . His parents , Carvin Wyoming Vincent and the former Rosa Lee Burgess , produced 10 or 11 children — Vincent was the youngest . He was nicknamed " Casey " from youth . While still a small child , Vincent moved with his family to Natchez , Mississippi , where he went to school . After excelling in high school , Vincent was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point , becoming a cadet on July 1 , 1932 . Vincent graduated on June 12 , 1936 , and became a second lieutenant .
Vincent transferred to the Air Corps and took primary flight training at Randolph Field in Texas , about 500 miles ( 800 km ) from his parents back home . In January 1937 , during his primary training , his mother died in Natchez at the age of 65 . Following primary , Vincent took the attack course in advanced flying at Kelly Field in San Antonio , Texas . During a dance held at the officer 's club , he met Margaret " Peggy " Hennessey , a young woman with an infant daughter , and fell in love . In November 1937 , he was posted operations officer for the 19th Pursuit Squadron at Wheeler Field near Pearl Harbor . Hennessey traveled to Hawaii to be with him , and on February 10 , 1938 , they married — the couple celebrated the birth of a daughter named Thayer on December 17 . The young father rose in rank to first lieutenant in June 1939 , then was promoted to captain on October 7 , 1940 . In November 1940 , Vincent transferred to the newly formed 35th Pursuit Group at Hamilton Field in Northern California where he served as squadron commander . The Group trained in several fighter aircraft types , including Seversky P @-@ 35s , P @-@ 36 Hawks , P @-@ 39 Airacobras and P @-@ 40 Warhawks . Vincent advanced to group operations officer , then executive officer , then in December 1941 was made group commander .
On December 5 , two days before the attack on Pearl Harbor , Vincent 's wife pinned the gold leaves of a major on his shoulders . That evening , the 35th Pursuit Group shipped out for overseas duty in Manila , to join the group 's 21st and 34th Squadrons already there . The next day Peggy Vincent began to drive her two daughters to San Antonio to be with family . On December 7 when Hawaii was attacked by Japanese naval forces , the unarmed ship carrying Vincent , traveling with no escort , was ordered to return immediately to San Francisco Bay . Vincent remained in California for another month , joined by his wife and daughter , during which time he learned that Manila had fallen , and that fellow Group pilot Sam Marrett , a friend from West Point , had died in its defense . On January 12 , 1942 , the USS Mariposa sailed in convoy with Vincent aboard , headed for the Far East .
= = China = =
Vincent arrived in Melbourne , Australia , in early February , then sailed in a different convoy to Perth . In March , he sailed to Karachi , India , and was posted to Karachi American Air Base , one of the more distant ports that supplied The Hump . There , Vincent served as Director of Pursuit Training for the Tenth Air Force at the rank of lieutenant colonel . Wishing for a combat post , in November 1942 he was ordered by Clayton Bissell , commander Tenth Air Force , to transfer to China to join General Claire Chennault and his China Air Task Force ( CATF ) , a group formed from the Flying Tigers . Bissell 's orders specified Vincent take the position of Chennault 's executive officer , to apply a dose of West Point regimen to the haphazard CATF paperwork , but Chennault , irked at this maneuver by his 2 @,@ 200 @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 500 km ) distant superior , instead assigned Vincent operations officer . Three days into the new job , Vincent wrote in his diary , " Any similarity between the China Air Task Force and a military organization is purely accidental . " He observed that administrative procedures were poor . " ... the Group just runs by itself . All Colonel Scott ( Robert Lee Scott , Jr . ) cares about is fighting — and he is good at that ! "
Vincent cared little what title he served under — he just wanted to fly in combat . After instituting procedural changes regarding the format of official reports originating from CATF , he assigned himself his first air combat flight on November 22 , escorting bombers against the harbor of Haiphong on the coast of French Indochina , during which he dropped a bomb from his fighter into the harbor 's dock area . Five days later , he scored his first aerial victory : a fixed @-@ undercarriage Japanese fighter he encountered during an attack on Canton in which 10 B @-@ 25s and 22 P @-@ 40s downed some 16 to 22 enemy aircraft . Vincent noted that he was effectively serving three desk jobs — " ' Exec ' , ' Intelligence ' , and ' Operations ' " — but that Chennault was pleased to find his new administrator a skilled pilot eager to fight .
In the final weeks of 1942 , the CATF was often grounded by bad weather . Vincent flew combat in Peggy I on December 12 , but two days later he was ordered by Chennault , at Bissell 's insistence , to refrain from flying a mission he had planned . Another pilot took Peggy I on that mission but belly @-@ landed the aircraft on a road . Vincent borrowed a different aircraft to fly reconnaissance missions on December 17 and 19 , but stayed on the ground again during a short visit by Bissell , to satisfy his expectations . General Joseph Stilwell flew in on December 22 to award Chennault the Distinguished Service Medal , and to take him to Chungking , the provisional wartime capital of China . Left in charge of CATF for the rest of December , Vincent led the combat missions he put together . On December 24 he was awarded the Silver Star for his combat performance .
In early January 1943 , Vincent was officially made executive officer of the CATF , taking over the multiple leadership roles held previously by Scott and by Merian C. Cooper , who were both heading home . He checked out in a C @-@ 53 transport , flew it to Chungking for a " short visit with Generalissimo Chiang Kai @-@ Shek " , and was promoted to colonel . On January 24 , Albert " Ajax " Baumler flew a captured and repaired Mitsubishi A6M Zero from Kweilin , and Vincent put it through its paces to become one of only five pilots in the " Zero Club " — China @-@ based U.S. pilots who test @-@ flew this particular aircraft . Starved of fuel and supplies in February , the CATF mounted few missions ; during the same period , Commanding General of the USAAF Henry H. Arnold visited with Chennault and Vincent to inform them that a group of fuel @-@ hungry heavy bombers were to be assigned to the CATF , under Colonel Royden Eugene Beebe , Jr .
= = = Fourteenth Air Force = = =
On March 10 , 1943 , the China Air Task Force became the Fourteenth Air Force , and Vincent was made chief of staff . He prevailed upon Chennault to let him take a fighter squadron deeper into enemy territory via advance bases where the fliers would stop to refuel and re @-@ arm . In May 1943 , a forward echelon commanded by Vincent with Tex Hill as vice commander was flown out of bases in east China , along the Hengyang – Kweilin line . This bold thrust into enemy @-@ held territory put all major Japanese airbases from north China to Indochina and Thailand under threat of U.S. air attack . Flying Peggy II , a new P @-@ 40K he received on June 2 , Vincent racked up four more aerial victories , making him an ace , then number six on August 26 , 1943 . For this , he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Legion of Merit ; the latter " for outstanding leadership of a small force , which , against numerically superior air strength , succeeded in disrupting enemy communications and routing troop columns . " Chennault forbade him from any further combat missions .
Meanwhile , back home in San Antonio , Texas in early 1943 , Peggy Vincent wrote to cartoonist Milton Caniff to tell him that her husband was working under Chennault in China , much like the characters in Caniff 's comic strip Terry and the Pirates . Peggy Vincent sent Caniff photographs of her husband and told the cartoonist about his flying exploits . Caniff worked the flier into his comic strip as " Colonel Vince Casey " around March 1943 . In September and October 1943 , Vincent was rotated back home on leave during which he met Caniff . Nine months after the visit , a second daughter was born to the Vincents , named Patricia .
Upon his return to CBI , Vincent was informed that reconnaissance flights over Formosa ( Taiwan ) showed a growing concentration of Japanese aircraft . To Vincent , they appeared vulnerable to attack from advance bases , so he and Hill planned a long @-@ range mission . On Thanksgiving Day , November 25 , 1943 , Vincent sent Hill in command of a mixed force of eight early Allison @-@ engined P @-@ 51 Mustangs , eight P @-@ 38 Lightnings and fourteen B @-@ 25 Mitchells against 100 bombers and 112 fighters at Hsinchu Air Base — the attackers destroyed 15 of 20 defending fighters as well as 27 enemy bombers on the ground without loss to themselves . Four days later flying escort to B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers , Vincent led the 23d Fighter Group against Tien Ho airdrome at Canton — the group shot down 13 of 20 defending fighters .
The Formosa attack was one of the most devastating in the CBI Theater — it catalyzed the Japanese to lay plans to invade and seize the advance airfields Vincent had developed in east China . These plans became one of the two primary goals of Operation Ichi @-@ Go , Japan 's 1944 invasion of east China .
As an expansion of the 14th Air Force Forward Echelon , the 68th Composite Wing was formed in December 1943 . Vincent commanded the 68th for its first year . The mixed unit was composed of fighters , fighter bombers and medium bombers , flown by both American and Chinese airmen . Vincent flew a B @-@ 25 Mitchell bomber to lead his men in some of the bombing raids . More than 500 @,@ 000 tons of Japanese shipping were sunk by Vincent 's airmen , and the Japanese air power was greatly reduced south of the Yangtze River . On June 2 , 1944 , Vincent was promoted to temporary brigadier general , the second youngest general officer in the USAAF . It had taken him only seven years to rise from second lieutenant to general . An article about the meteoric rise of young military officers was printed in Time on June 19 , 1944 . Among other officers mentioned , Vincent was described as 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall , 175 pounds ( 80 kg ) , a six @-@ kill ace and the prototype for the cartoon character Vince Casey . Of Vincent , Caniff said that he " picked his brain " about living and fighting conditions in China .
Vincent commanded the 68th Composite Group with Tex Hill as his deputy during the whole of the Japanese Operation Ichi @-@ Go of 1944 . The Americans in their advance bases were thrown on the defensive . In late June , Vincent ordered the evacuation of the base built at Hengyang , destroying it with explosives so that the Japanese could not make use of the buildings or the airstrip . Directly afterward , Vincent was called to attend a formal dinner with American and Chinese generals and ambassadors , honoring Vice President Henry A. Wallace who was on a fact @-@ finding mission . Meeting after dinner in his office , Vincent told Wallace " the unvarnished truth — that , barring a miracle , the Japanese will have all of east China by July 15 ! "
Japanese supply problems in east China were as critical as American ones , and the Japanese advance was slowed until September when Vincent was forced to retreat and destroy his advance base at Tanchuk . The same treatment befell his own headquarters at Kweilin in October . As he circled Kweilin one final time in his command B @-@ 25 , he said to Time magazine writer Theodore H. White ( who was evacuating as well ) , " I 'm going to write a book about this campaign . I 'm going to call it Fire and Fall Back . " A month later , Vincent 's HQ , relocated to Liuchow , was abandoned , with the 68th retreating to the 14th Air Force stronghold at Kunming . On December 13 , 1944 , both Hill and Vincent completed their tours of duty and left China , Vincent to command the 30th Training Wing at Turner Field in Georgia .
= = Postwar career = =
In 1946 , Vincent reverted to the permanent rank of captain and began teaching at the Air War College . During this time , the United States Air Force ( USAF ) was formed from the USAAF . From 1949 to 1955 , Vincent rose in rank , reaching temporary brigadier general once again in 1951 . A son was born to him , named Clinton D. Vincent , Jr . , nicknamed Casey Junior .
In 1951 Caniff , who started a new comic strip entitled Steve Canyon four years earlier , used Vincent as a model for a new character , this time making him the youthful " Brigadier General P.G. ' Shanty ' Town " . Caniff made General Town into a hard @-@ working peacetime general , concerned with the defense of America .
In 1953 , Vincent was placed second in command under Major General Walter E. Todd , Commander Western Air Defense Force . Todd 's station was at Hamilton Air Force Base near San Francisco . As Vice Commander , Vincent took an active role in defense developments such as the EC @-@ 121 Warning Star , a large radar @-@ equipped aircraft that held a rotating crew of 31 for extended flights , used to detect the approach of enemy aircraft and to coordinate fighter interception . Vincent held the position until mid @-@ 1955 .
= = Death and legacy = =
In 1955 , Vincent was ordered to Ent Air Force Base in Colorado Springs , Colorado where he was to serve as deputy chief of staff for operations of the Continental Air Command . On July 5 at the age of 40 , after one full day at his new post , Vincent went to bed at his residence on the air base and died of a heart attack in his sleep . His wife , three daughters and one son were still at their residence on Hamilton AFB in California , preparing to move , when they received word . Caniff responded to the tragic news by having his character General Town die from overwork .
On September 1 , 1956 , Yuma Air Force Base was renamed Vincent Air Force Base in Vincent 's honor . A plaque commemorating the event was unveiled by Vincent 's widow , Peggy Vincent , at a ceremony held on October 12 .
In 1975 , Vincent 's war diaries were made into a book : Fire and Fall Back : the World War Two " CBI " story of " Casey " Vincent , compiled and edited by author Glenn E. McClure . " Tex " Hill said of Vincent and the diaries " He was strong , smart — just one hell of a good man . He was never recognized for what he did . He handled it well in China . But you could tell in his diary that he felt like he 'd been left hanging . "
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= 1920 Louisiana hurricane =
The 1920 Louisiana hurricane was a strong tropical cyclone that caused significant damage in parts of Louisiana in September 1920 . The second tropical storm and hurricane of the annual hurricane season , it formed from an area of disturbed weather on September 16 , 1920 , northwest of Colombia . The system remained a weak tropical depression as it made landfall on Nicaragua , but later intensified to tropical storm strength as it moved across the Gulf of Honduras , prior to making a second landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula . Once in the Gulf of Mexico , the storm quickly intensified as it moved towards the north @-@ northwest , reaching its peak intensity as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) prior to making landfall near Houma , Louisiana with no change in intensity . Afterwards , it quickly weakened over land , before dissipating on September 23 over eastern Kansas .
As it approached the United States Gulf Coast , the hurricane forced an estimated 4 @,@ 500 people to evacuate off of Galveston Island , and numerous other evacuations and precautionary measures to occur . At landfall , the hurricane generated strong winds along a wide swath of the coast , uprooting trees and causing damage to homes and other infrastructure . Heavy rainfall associated with the storm peaked at 11 @.@ 9 in ( 300 mm ) in Robertsdale , Alabama . The heavy rains also washed out railroads , leading to several rail accidents . Across the Gulf Coast , damage from the storm totaled to $ 1 @.@ 45 million , and one death was associated with the hurricane .
= = Meteorological history = =
In mid @-@ September , a trough moved across the central Caribbean Sea and into the vicinity of the Colombian islands . Becoming more organized , it developed a closed circulation on September 16 , and as such was classified as a tropical depression at 0600 UTC that day . For much of its early existence the depression remained weak , with winds remaining at 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure below 1 @,@ 005 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . The weak disturbance later made landfall at that intensity on the Mosquito Coast near the border of Honduras and Nicaragua by 0600 UTC on September 18 . The small system gained intensity as it moved over Honduras , attaining tropical storm strength on September 19 prior to entering the Gulf of Honduras near Trujillo , Colón . In the Gulf of Honduras , the tropical storm slightly intensified to maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) on September 20 , and later made landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula as it accelerated towards the north @-@ northwest . Despite initially being reported to have maintained intensity across the peninsula , a reanalysis of the storm determined that it had weakened to minimal tropical storm strength , before entering the Gulf of Mexico late on September 20 .
The weakened tropical storm began to intensify once in the Gulf of Mexico . On September 20 at 0600 UTC , the storm reached hurricane intensity as a modern day Category 1 hurricane . Continuing to intensify in the Gulf , the hurricane attained Category 2 hurricane intensity at 0000 UTC on September 22 , and subsequently reached its peak intensity with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and an estimated minimum pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . The hurricane later made landfall at peak intensity near Houma , Louisiana at 0100 UTC later that day . Maximum winds spanned 32 mi ( 51 km ) from the center at landfall . Ships offshore the Louisiana coast also reported an eye associated with the hurricane . Once over land , the system began to quickly weaken , degenerating to tropical storm strength by 0600 UTC the same day , while located near Iberville Parish . Continuing to accelerate towards the north @-@ northwest , it is estimated that the tropical cyclone dissipated on September 23 over Kansas , based on observations from nearby weather stations .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Hurricane warnings were initially issued for areas of the Gulf Coast between Morgan City , Louisiana and Corpus Christi , Texas , but were later moved eastward to coastal regions between Pensacola , Florida and New Orleans as the hurricane progressed closer to the coast . Additional marine warnings were also issued for offshore regions that could be potentially affected by the hurricane , and boats were evacuated into Gulf Coast ports . Onshore , freight trains on Galveston Island were moved to the mainland in preparation for the storm . Interurban railways also evacuated people out of the island , with an estimated 4 @,@ 500 people being evacuated . The United States Coast Guard were ordered to be ready for immediate service in the event of an emergency , while the US National Guard on strike duty in Galveston 's Camp Hutchings were transferred to a barracks in Fort Crockett . Oil companies abandoned operations in coastal oil fields in advance of the hurricane . People along Lake Ponchartrain evacuated into New Orleans , causing hotels to overflow and forcing refugees to take shelter in other public buildings including post offices .
Strong winds and gusts were reported across the Gulf Coast and in the Gulf of Mexico . A ship reported a minimum central barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) just prior to the storm 's intensification into a hurricane . Grand Isle , Louisiana reported sustained winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) , and winds of at least 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) were reported as far east as Bay St. Louis , Mississippi . As a result , numerous trees were uprooted and power lines were downed . One death occurred New Orleans after being electrocuted by an electric wire that had been downed by the hurricane 's strong winds . The downed power lines also caused a lack of communication from areas affected , hampering relief efforts . In New Orleans , at least 2 @,@ 500 telephones were without service , and homes were unroofed by the strong winds . Along the coast and further inland , rainfall was concentrated primarily on the eastern half of the cyclone , with most rain occurring from September 21 to the 23rd . In Robertsdale , Alabama , 11 @.@ 9 in ( 300 mm ) of rain was recorded , the most associated with the hurricane . A 24 – hour September rainfall record was set when 1 @.@ 60 in ( 41 mm ) of rain was measured in Kelly , Louisiana . However , due to the system 's rapid dissipation over land , rainfall amounts remained generally less than 2 in ( 51 mm ) in interior regions of Louisiana . In Texas , rainfall peaked at 1 @.@ 20 in ( 30 mm ) in Beaumont . The heavy rains caused washouts and damage to railroads across Louisiana . A train running from Louisville , Kentucky to Nashville , Tennessee was left stranded after being washed out near Chef Menteur Pass , and other rail operations were stopped between New Orleans and Mobile , Alabama . Tides of 5 – 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 8 m ) above average were reported in Lake Borgne and Mississippi Sound as the hurricane moved over the coast , while tides of 5 @.@ 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) above average were reported in Biloxi , Mississippi . The strong storm surge caused considerable damage to Grand Isle and Manilla Village , Louisiana . Due to the hurricane 's landfall near low tide , however , major storm surge impacts were mitigated . Overall infrastructural damage caused by the hurricane totaled to $ 750 @,@ 000 , while crop related damage , particularly to rice and sugar cane , totaled to $ 700 @,@ 000 .
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= Courageous @-@ class aircraft carrier =
The Courageous class , sometimes called the Glorious class , was the first multi @-@ ship class of aircraft carriers to serve with the Royal Navy . The three ships — Furious , Courageous and Glorious — were originally laid down as " large light cruisers " ( battlecruisers ) to be used in the Baltic Project during the First World War . While very fast , their minimal armour and few guns limited their long @-@ term utility in the post @-@ war Royal Navy and they were laid up after the war . They were considered capital ships by the terms of the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty and were included in the total amount of tonnage allowed to the Royal Navy . Rather than scrap them , the Navy decided to convert them to aircraft carriers as permitted under the Treaty .
Furious , already partially converted during the war , began her reconstruction in 1921 , before the Treaty came into effect . She was given a three @-@ quarters @-@ length flight deck . In attempt to minimize air turbulence she was given no superstructure or " island " . This was not entirely satisfactory and a small island was added in 1939 . Another problem was that she lacked a standard funnel ; instead , her boiler uptakes ran along the sides of the ship and exhausted out of gratings on the rear of the flight deck , or the sides of the ship if landing operations were in progress . The long ducts reduced her aircraft capacity and the exhaust gases were as much of a problem for landing aircraft as the turbulence would have been . Her half @-@ sisters , Courageous and Glorious , began their conversions to aircraft carriers as Furious neared completion . They drew upon the experience gained by the Royal Navy since Furious had been designed and incorporated an island with a funnel , increasing their aircraft capacity by one @-@ third and making it safer to land .
As the first large , or " fleet " , carrier completed by the Royal Navy , Furious was extensively used to evaluate aircraft handling and landing procedures , including the first @-@ ever carrier night @-@ landing in 1926 . Courageous became the first warship lost by the Royal Navy in the Second World War when she was torpedoed in September 1939 by a German submarine . Glorious unsuccessfully hunted the German cruiser Admiral Graf Spee in the Indian Ocean in 1939 . She participated in the Norwegian Campaign in 1940 , but was sunk by two German battleships in June when she was unwisely allowed to sail home with minimal escort . Furious spent the first months of the war hunting for German raiders and escorting convoys before she began to support British forces in Norway . She spent most of 1940 in Norwegian waters making attacks on German installations and shipping , and most of 1941 ferrying aircraft to West Africa , Gibraltar and Malta before refitting in the United States . She ferried aircraft to Malta as part of the Malta Convoys during 1942 and provided air support to British forces during Operation Torch . Furious spent most of 1943 training with the Home Fleet , but made numerous air strikes against the German battleship Tirpitz and other targets in Norway in 1944 . The old ship was worn out by late 1944 , so she was reduced to reserve status in September before being paid off in 1945 and sold for scrap in 1948 .
= = Careers as battlecruisers = =
The first two ships of the class , Courageous and Glorious , spent the First World War on North Sea patrols , climaxing in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in November 1917 . Their half @-@ sister Furious was designed with a pair of 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) guns — as opposed to four 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) — but was modified while being built to hold a flying @-@ off deck and hangar in lieu of her forward turret and barbette . She made some patrols in the North Sea before her rear turret was removed and another flight deck added . Her aircraft attacked Zeppelin sheds during the Tondern raid in July 1918 .
All three ships were reduced to reserve after the war . The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 limited the signatory nations to a set amount of capital ship tonnage ; all ships in excess of this figure had to be scrapped . However , up to 66 @,@ 000 long tons ( 67 @,@ 000 t ) of existing ships could be converted into aircraft carriers , and the Royal Navy decided to utilize the Courageous @-@ class ships due to their high speed . Each ship was reconstructed with a flight deck during the 1920s .
= = Conversions = =
Furious had been fitted during the First World War with a flying @-@ off and landing deck , but the latter proved largely unusable because of the strong air currents around the superstructure and exhaust gases from the funnel . She was laid up after the war , but was converted to an aircraft carrier between June 1921 and September 1925 . Her design was based on the very limited experience gained with the first two British carriers : Argus , less than three years old , and Eagle , which had only carried out 143 deck landings during preliminary sea trials in 1920 .
Furious 's superstructure , masts , funnel and landing deck were removed and she was given a 576 @-@ by @-@ 92 @-@ foot ( 175 @.@ 6 by 28 @.@ 0 m ) flight deck that extended over three @-@ quarters of her length . This flight deck was not level ; it sloped upwards about three @-@ quarters of the way from the stern to help slow down landing aircraft , which had no brakes at the time it was designed . That era 's fore @-@ and @-@ aft arresting gear , initially 320 feet ( 97 @.@ 5 m ) long on Furious , was not intended to stop landing aircraft — the landing speeds of the time were low enough that this was unnecessary given a good headwind — but rather to prevent aircraft from veering off to one side and potentially falling off the flight deck . Various designs for the flight deck were tested in a wind tunnel by the National Physical Laboratory which showed that the distinctive elliptical shape and rounded edges minimised turbulence . To minimise any turbulence over the flight deck , Furious was flush @-@ decked and lacked an island , like Argus ; instead she was provided with a retractable charthouse at the forward end of the flight deck .
A two @-@ level hangar was built under the flight deck , each level being 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high . The lower hangar was 550 feet ( 167 @.@ 6 m ) long by 35 – 50 feet ( 10 @.@ 7 – 15 @.@ 2 m ) wide and the upper was 520 by 50 feet ( 158 @.@ 5 by 15 @.@ 2 m ) . Each hangar could be sectioned off by electrically operated steel shutters on rollers . Her boilers were ducted down the side of the ship to exhaust either out of gratings at the rear of the flight deck , or , when landing operations were in progress , out of the side of the lower hangar at the rear of the ship . This solution proved to be very unsatisfactory as it consumed valuable space , made parts of the lower hangar unbearable and interfered with landing operations to a greater or lesser degree . Her original flying @-@ off deck remained in place for use by small aircraft like fighters so that the ship could simultaneously land aircraft on the main flight deck while fighters were taking off on the lower deck and could speedily launch her aircraft from both decks . Doors at the forward end of the upper hangar opened onto the lower flying deck . Two 47 @-@ by @-@ 46 @-@ foot ( 14 @.@ 3 by 14 @.@ 0 m ) lifts ( elevators ) were installed to transfer aircraft between the flight deck and hangars . Two 600 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 2 @,@ 700 l ; 720 US gal ) ready @-@ use petrol tanks were provided for aircraft and the ship 's boats on the upper deck . An additional 20 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 91 @,@ 000 l ; 24 @,@ 000 US gal ) of petrol were in bulk storage . The longitudinal arresting gear proved unpopular in service and it was ordered removed in 1927 after tests aboard Furious in 1926 had shown that deck @-@ edge palisades were effective in reducing cross @-@ deck gusts that could blow aircraft over the side . Furious 's long exhaust ducting hampered landing operations , and restricted the size of the hangars and thus the number of aircraft that she could carry .
Glorious and Courageous were converted to aircraft carriers after Furious began her reconstruction , Courageous at Devonport starting on 29 June 1924 , and Glorious at Rosyth on 14 February 1924 . The latter was moved to Devonport to complete the conversion after Furious was finished . Their design was based on Furious with a few improvements based on experience gained since she was designed . All superstructure , guns , and fittings down to the main deck were removed . A two @-@ storey hangar , each level 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high and 550 feet ( 167 @.@ 6 m ) long , was built on top of the remaining hull ; the upper hangar level opened onto a short " flying @-@ off deck " , below and forward of the main flight deck . Two slightly larger 46 @-@ by @-@ 48 @-@ foot ( 14 @.@ 0 by 14 @.@ 6 m ) lifts were installed fore and aft in the flight deck . An island was added on the starboard side with the bridge , flying control station , and funnel , as an island did not create as much turbulence as had been earlier feared . By 1939 both ships could carry 34 @,@ 500 imperial gallons ( 157 @,@ 000 l ; 41 @,@ 400 US gal ) of petrol .
= = Description = =
The Courageous @-@ class ships had an overall length of 786 feet 9 inches ( 239 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 90 feet 6 inches ( 27 @.@ 6 m ) , and a draught of 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) at deep load . These were increases of 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 9 m ) in beam and over 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) in draught compared to their earlier incarnations as battlecruisers . They displaced 24 @,@ 210 long tons ( 24 @,@ 600 t ) at normal load and 26 @,@ 990 long tons ( 27 @,@ 420 t ) at deep load , increases of over 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) . Their metacentric height declined from 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) at deep load to 4 @.@ 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) and the ships had a complete double bottom . In 1939 , Courageous had a complement of 807 officers and enlisted men , plus 403 men in her air group .
Their half @-@ sister Furious was the same length , but had a beam of 89 feet 0 @.@ 75 inches ( 27 @.@ 1 m ) , and an average draught of 27 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 3 m ) at deep load , two feet deeper than before the conversion . She displaced 22 @,@ 500 long tons ( 22 @,@ 900 t ) at normal load and 26 @,@ 500 long tons ( 26 @,@ 900 t ) at deep load , over 3 @,@ 000 long tons more than her previous displacement of 19 @,@ 513 long tons ( 19 @,@ 826 t ) at load and 22 @,@ 890 long tons ( 23 @,@ 260 t ) at deep load . Furious 's metacentric height was 3 @.@ 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load , a reduction of 1 @.@ 48 feet ( 0 @.@ 5 m ) after her conversion . In 1932 , Furious had a complement of 738 officers and enlisted men , plus 468 men in her air group .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Courageous @-@ class ships were the first large warships in the Royal Navy to have geared steam turbines . Arranged in two engine rooms , each of the turbines drove one of the four propeller shafts . Furious 's propellers were 11 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter . The turbines were powered by 18 Yarrow small @-@ tube boilers equally divided among three boiler rooms . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 90 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 67 @,@ 000 kW ) at a working pressure of 235 psi ( 1 @,@ 620 kPa ; 17 kgf / cm2 ) . No significant changes to the machinery were made during the conversion process to any of the three ships , but their increased displacement reduced their speed to approximately 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) .
Furious 's fuel capacity was increased by 700 long tons ( 710 t ) during her reconstruction , which increased her range to 7 @,@ 480 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 850 km ; 8 @,@ 610 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The maximum fuel capacity of Courageous and Glorious was increased during the conversion to 3 @,@ 800 long tons ( 3 @,@ 900 t ) of fuel oil , giving them an endurance of 6 @,@ 630 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 280 km ; 7 @,@ 630 mi ) at 10 knots .
= = = Armament = = =
Furious retained ten of her original eleven breech @-@ loading BL 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk I guns , five on each side , for self @-@ defence from enemy warships . They fired 82 @-@ pound ( 37 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 790 ft / s ( 850 m / s ) . Their maximum range was 16 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) at their maximum elevation of 25 ° , and the rate of fire was 12 rounds per minute .
Half a dozen QF 4 @-@ inch Mark V guns replaced her original anti @-@ aircraft guns . Four were mounted on the sides of the flying @-@ off deck and two on the quarterdeck . They had a maximum depression of − 5 ° and a maximum elevation of 80 ° . The guns fired a 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) high explosive ( HE ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 387 ft / s ( 728 m / s ) at a rate of 10 to 15 rounds per minute . The guns had a maximum ceiling of 31 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 400 m ) , but an effective range of much less . The four guns on the flying @-@ off deck were removed during trials of the lower flight deck in 1926 – 27 , but only two were replaced when the trials were concluded .
Four single QF 2 @-@ pounder pom @-@ poms were installed by 1927 . During Furious 's September 1930 – February 1932 refit , her anti @-@ aircraft outfit was changed by the substitution of two eight @-@ barrel 2 @-@ pounder pom @-@ pom mounts for the forward 4 @-@ inch guns on the flying @-@ off deck removed earlier . The Mark V mount could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of 80 ° . The Mark VIII 2 @-@ pounder gun fired a 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) .91 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 41 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 920 ft / s ( 590 m / s ) to a distance of 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) . The gun 's rate of fire was approximately 96 – 98 rounds per minute .
The 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) and 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns were replaced during Furious 's refit in early 1939 by a dozen QF 4 @-@ inch Mk XVI guns in twin dual @-@ purpose Mark XIX mounts . One mount each was on the former flying @-@ off deck and the quarterdeck while the other four were mounted two per side . The Mark XIX mount could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of 80 ° . The Mark XVI gun fired 15 – 20 35 @-@ pound ( 16 kg ) HE shells per minute at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 660 ft / s ( 810 m / s ) . Against surface targets it had a range of 19 @,@ 850 yards ( 18 @,@ 150 m ) and a maximum ceiling of 31 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 400 m ) , but an effective anti @-@ aircraft range of much less . Two more Mark V 2 @-@ pounder mounts were added fore and aft of the newly added island at the same time .
During the Second World War , Furious , the only surviving ship of the three , received an eventual total of 22 manually operated automatic 20 mm Oerlikon light anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns , which replaced the single quadruple Vickers .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mount . The Oerlikon fired a .272 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 123 kg ) HE shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 750 ft / s ( 840 m / s ) . The maximum ceiling was 10 @,@ 000 feet and the maximum range was 4 @,@ 800 yards ( 4 @,@ 400 m ) although the effective range was under 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) . The cyclic rate of fire was 450 rounds per minute , but the practical rate was between 250 and 320 rounds per minute owing to the need to reload magazines .
A mix of single @-@ purpose anti @-@ surface and anti @-@ aircraft guns in various sizes was considered for Courageous and Glorious by the Admiralty , but was ultimately rejected for a dual @-@ purpose armament of sixteen QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mark VIII guns in single high @-@ angle mounts . One mount was on each side of the lower flight deck and a pair were on the quarterdeck . The remaining twelve mounts were distributed along the sides of each ship . These mounts could depress to − 5 ° and elevate to a maximum of 90 ° . The Mark VIII guns fired a 50 @-@ pound ( 23 kg ) HE shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 457 ft / s ( 749 m / s ) at a rate of eight to twelve rounds per minute . The guns had a maximum ceiling of 32 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 800 m ) , but an effective range of much less . They had a maximum range of 16 @,@ 160 yards ( 14 @,@ 780 m ) against surface targets .
During refits in the mid @-@ 1930s , both ships received multiple 2 @-@ pounder pom @-@ pom mounts . Courageous received three quadruple Mark VII mounts , one on each side of the flying @-@ off deck , forward of the 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns , and one behind the island on the flight deck ( two of these were transferred from the battleship Royal Sovereign ) . Glorious received three octuple Mark VI mounts in the same locations . Both ships received four water @-@ cooled .50 @-@ calibre Mark III machine guns in a single quadruple mounting . This mount could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of 70 ° . The machine guns fired a 1 @.@ 326 @-@ ounce ( 37 @.@ 6 g ) bullet at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 520 ft / s ( 770 m / s ) . This gave the gun a maximum range of about 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) , although its effective range was only 800 yards ( 730 m ) . Neither ship had any further guns added before they were sunk early in the war , in 1939 and 1940 , respectively .
= = = Fire control and radar = = =
To assist its weapon systems in hitting their target , Furious was completed with one fire @-@ control system for each side , with separate directors for low @-@ angle and high @-@ angle guns . The 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns were centrally controlled by a Dreyer Fire @-@ Control Table on the lower deck while the 4 @-@ inch guns had their mechanical computers next to their directors . The existing fire @-@ control directors were removed when Furious received her new dual @-@ purpose 4 @-@ inch mountings in 1939 . New high @-@ angle directors , including two for the pom @-@ poms , were mounted on top of the new island and on the former lower flight deck . Over the course of the war Type 285 gunnery radars were mounted on top of the high @-@ angle directors . She also received a Type 290 air @-@ search radar .
Courageous was initially fitted only with low @-@ angle directors for her guns , but these were replaced by dual @-@ purpose directors when she was refitted in 1930 . ( Glorious , completed later , had hers from the beginning . ) Neither ship was fitted with radar before its early loss .
= = = Protection = = =
Little armour other than that of the barbettes was removed during their conversion to aircraft carriers . The transverse bulkheads were carried through the locations of the former barbettes . The flight deck was .625 inches ( 15 @.@ 9 mm ) in thickness .
Unlike other British battlecruisers , the bulk of the armour of the Courageous @-@ class ships was made from high @-@ tensile steel ( HTS ) , a type of steel used structurally in other ships . Their waterline belt consisted of 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of HTS covered by a 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) thick mild steel skin . It protected roughly the middle two @-@ thirds of the ship with a one @-@ inch extension forward to the two @-@ inch forward transverse bulkhead well short of the bow . The belt had a height of 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) , of which 18 inches ( 0 @.@ 5 m ) was below the designed waterline . From the former forward barbette a three @-@ inch bulkhead extended out to the ship 's side between the upper and lower decks and a comparable bulkhead was in place at the former location of the rear barbette as well . Four decks were armoured with thicknesses varying from 0 @.@ 75 to 3 inches ( 19 to 76 mm ) , thickest over the magazines and the steering gear . After the Battle of Jutland , 110 long tons ( 110 t ) of extra protection was added to the deck around the magazines .
The torpedo bulkheads were increased during building from 0 @.@ 75 inches ( 19 mm ) to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) in thickness . All three ships were fitted with a shallow anti @-@ torpedo bulge integral to the hull , which was intended to detonate the torpedo before it hit the hull proper and deflect the underwater explosion to the surface , away from the ship . However , later testing proved that it was not deep enough to accomplish its task and that it lacked the layers of empty and full compartments that were necessary to absorb the force of the explosion .
= = = Air groups = = =
Normally , Furious could carry only about 36 aircraft . In the 1920s this commonly meant one flight ( squadrons after 1932 ) of fighters ( Fairey Flycatcher ) , two of spotters ( Blackburn Blackburn or Avro Bison ) , one spotter reconnaissance ( Fairey IIID ) and two flights of torpedo bombers ( Blackburn Dart ) . In 1935 there was one squadron of fighters with Hawker Nimrods and Hawker Ospreys , one squadron of Blackburn Baffin torpedo bombers and one squadron of Fairey IIIF spotters . During the Second World War , the carrier typically carried a single fighter squadron and two of strike aircraft of various types , although the mix was often adjusted for specific missions .
Courageous and Glorious were generally similar except that they carried a total of 48 aircraft . They commonly flew the same types of aircraft as Furious , although they are also known to have flown the Fairey Seal , the Blackburn Shark , and the Blackburn Ripon .
= = Pre @-@ war service = =
Furious was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet after commissioning in 1925 , although she spent much of the next several years conducting trials for practically every aircraft in the Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) inventory . These included landing and flying @-@ off tests of Fairey IIID and Fairey Flycatcher floatplanes , with and without wheels , to compare various designs of wooden and metal floats . The lower flight deck was greased to allow them to take off with a minimum of difficulty . A Flycatcher fitted with wooden skids was also tested and behaved perfectly satisfactorily . The arresting gear was barely used during these trials and it was removed shortly afterwards . Deck @-@ edge palisades ( windbreaks ) were installed in 1927 to keep aircraft from blowing over the side in rough weather . The first carrier night @-@ landing was made by a Blackburn Dart on 6 May 1926 aboard Furious .
The ship was reduced to reserve status on 1 July 1930 in preparation for a lengthy overhaul at Devonport from September 1930 to February 1932 , focused on refitting her machinery and re @-@ tubing her boilers . In addition her quarterdeck was raised by one deck , the AA armament was revised and water spraying facilities were fitted in the hangars . Upon completion she ran a full @-@ power trial on 16 February 1932 where her maximum speed was 28 @.@ 8 knots ( 53 @.@ 3 km / h ; 33 @.@ 1 mph ) from a total of 89 @,@ 754 shaft horsepower ( 66 @,@ 930 kW ) .
Furious was recommissioned in May 1932 as part of the Home Fleet with a reduced crew before being brought up to full complement in November . Transverse arresting gear was fitted sometime during the mid @-@ 1930s . She was detached to the Mediterranean Fleet from May to October 1934 . Furious was present at the Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 20 May 1937 for King George VI . She became a deck @-@ landing training carrier in 1937 , although she was refitted between December 1937 and May 1938 in Devonport , where the forward end of her lower flight deck was raised to make her less wet forward . During the Munich Crisis in September 1938 , she embarked Nos. 801 , 821 and 822 Squadrons and joined the fleet at Scapa Flow , before resuming her training duties after the peaceful conclusion of the affair .
She was given a more extensive refit from January to May 1939 that removed her 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns and palisades , mounted AA guns on her flying @-@ off deck , plated in the doors at the forward end of the upper hangar , and gave her a small island on the starboard side . Furious resumed her training duties after the completion of the refit and continued them until October 1939 .
Courageous was recommissioned on 21 February 1928 and assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet from May 1928 to June 1930 . She was relieved by Glorious and refitted from June to August 1930 . The ship was assigned to the Atlantic and Home Fleets from 12 August 1930 to December 1938 aside from a temporary attachment to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1936 . In the early 1930s , transverse arresting gear was installed and she received two hydraulic catapults on the upper flight deck before March 1934 . Courageous was refitted again between October 1935 and June 1936 and received her pom @-@ pom mounts . She was also present at the 1937 Coronation Fleet Review . She became a training carrier in December 1938 when Ark Royal joined the Home Fleet and continued on that duty until the start of the Second World War .
Glorious was recommissioned on 24 February 1930 for service with the Mediterranean Fleet , but was attached to the Home Fleet from March to June 1930 . She relieved Courageous in the Mediterranean Fleet in June 1930 and remained there until October 1939 . In a fog on 1 April 1931 Glorious rammed SS Florida amidships while steaming at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . The impact crumpled 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) of the flying @-@ off deck and forced Glorious to put into Gibraltar for temporary repairs . She had to sail to Malta for permanent repairs which lasted until September 1931 . Sometime in the early 1930s , transverse arresting gear was installed . She was refitted at Devonport from July 1934 to July 1935 where she received two catapults , her flight deck was extended to the rear , her quarterdeck was raised one deck and she received her multiple pom @-@ pom mounts . Glorious also participated in the 1937 Coronation Fleet Review before returning to the Mediterranean .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Courageous = = =
In the early days of the war , hunter @-@ killer groups were formed around the fleet aircraft carriers to find and destroy U @-@ boats . On 17 September 1939 , two torpedoes from U @-@ 29 turned the tables , and Courageous became the first British warship sunk in the Second World War . As Ark Royal had been surprised by a near miss 7 days earlier , the fleet carriers were withdrawn from this duty .
= = = Glorious = = =
Force J , including Glorious , was organised to hunt for the German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee in the Indian Ocean . They were not successful , and Glorious remained in the Indian Ocean until December when she was transferred to the Mediterranean . Glorious was recalled to the Home Fleet in April 1940 to provide air cover for British forces landing in Norway . Gloster Gladiators of No. 263 Squadron RAF were flown aboard to be transferred to Norwegian airbases . Glorious and Ark Royal arrived off central Norway on 24 April where 263 Squadron was flown off and their organic aircraft attacked targets in the Trondheim area before Glorious had to return to Scapa Flow on 27 April to refuel and embark new aircraft . She returned on 1 May , but had been unable to load new aircraft because of poor weather . The task force was under heavy air attack by the Luftwaffe all day and was withdrawn that evening .
Glorious returned on 18 May with six Supermarine Walrus amphibious flying boats of 701 Squadron and 18 Hawker Hurricanes of No. 46 Squadron RAF . The Walruses were quickly flown off to Harstad , but the airfield at Skånland was not yet ready for the Hurricanes and they were still aboard when Glorious returned to Scapa on 21 May . Glorious came back to the Narvik area on 26 May and the Hurricanes were quickly flown off .
However , even this success proved to be ephemeral , and British forces were ordered withdrawn a few days later . The evacuation ( Operation Alphabet ) began in the north on the night of 3 / 4 June , and Glorious arrived off the coast on 2 June to provide support . She only carried nine Sea Gladiators of 802 Squadron and six Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers of 823 Squadron for self @-@ defence , as it was hoped to evacuate the RAF fighters if at all possible . Ten Gladiators of 263 Squadron were flown aboard during the afternoon of 7 June and the Hurricanes of 46 Squadron were also flown aboard without any significant problems in the early evening despite having a much higher landing speed than the biplanes . This was the first time that high performance monoplanes without tailhooks had been landed on an aircraft carrier .
Captain Guy D 'Oyly @-@ Hughes requested and was granted permission to proceed independently to Scapa Flow in the early hours of 8 June . On the way back across the North Sea , Glorious and her two escorting destroyers , Acasta and Ardent , were found by the two German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau . No combat air patrol was being flown , no aircraft were spotted on the deck for quick take off and there was no lookout in the crow 's nest . The German heavy ships sank all three British vessels with most of their crews , although Acasta managed to torpedo Scharnhorst before she was sunk . Only 43 men from Glorious survived .
= = = Furious = = =
Until 2 October 1939 , Furious remained on training duties , combined with anti @-@ submarine sweeps off the east coast of Scotland . She was then assigned to the Home Fleet to replace the sunken Courageous and sortied on 8 October with the fleet to hunt unsuccessfully for the Gneisenau and escorting ships which had been spotted off southern Norway . Furious departed her berth adjacent to the battleship Royal Oak in Scapa Flow for more futile searches for German ships on 13 October , the day before Royal Oak was sunk by U @-@ 47 in Scapa Flow . Furious served as the flagship for the convoy bringing most of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division to Britain in mid @-@ December 1939 .
Furious joined the Home Fleet off the coast of Norway on 10 April 1940 and her Swordfish made several attacks on German ships in Narvik on the following days . She refuelled at Tromsø on the 14th and remained behind after the bulk of the Home Fleet departed on 15 April , her aircraft flying reconnaissance missions until ordered home on 25 April . Her port inner turbine had been damaged by the shock wave from a near miss on 18 April , and the damage was more serious than initially thought . After quick repairs , Furious returned on 18 May carrying the Gladiators of a reformed 263 Squadron ; they were flown off on 21 May once their base at Bardufoss was ready . She sailed to Scapa Flow once all the Gladiators had been flown off .
On 14 June , carrying only half of 816 Squadron for her own protection , Furious sailed unescorted for Halifax , Nova Scotia carrying £ 18 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in gold bullion . On 1 July she escorted a convoy of Canadian troops bound for Iceland from Halifax and ferried over almost 50 aircraft , spare parts and munitions . On his own initiative , Captain Troubridge ordered all available space should be used for sugar bound for Britain . She reembarked her aircraft upon her arrival and made a number of air strikes on shipping in Norwegian waters and on the seaplane base at Tromsø through October 1940 . Furious loaded 55 aircraft in Liverpool on 7 November and sailed for Takoradi , Gold Coast , on 15 November where the aircraft were flown off on 27 November to reinforce fighter units defending Egypt . By 15 December , Furious was back in Liverpool , where she embarked 40 Hurricanes for Takoradi . She sailed on the 21st and joined up with Convoy WS 5A which encountered the German cruiser Admiral Hipper on the 25th . The German ship was driven off by the escorts , and Furious reached Takoradi on 10 January 1941 . She arrived in Britain on 5 February where she was given a brief refit . She made another ferry trip to Takoradi between 4 and 22 March .
Now with a new destination for her ferry trips , Furious transported two dozen Hurricanes to Gibraltar on 25 April where they were transferred to Ark Royal to be flown off for Malta . She returned for another load of Hurricanes and arrived back in Gibraltar on 18 May . Some of these fighters were moved to Ark Royal via planks between the flight decks of the carriers berthed stern to stern . This time she accompanied Ark Royal and the two carriers flew off their fighters from a position south of Sardinia . She would repeat this ferry mission three more times from June through September 1941 . In July and August , however , Furious and Victorious attacked German installations in the Arctic areas of Norway and Finland with limited success and heavy losses . Following her last ferry mission she was sent to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , to refit .
Furious arrived back in the UK in April 1942 and spent the next three months working up . In August she was detailed to accompany the convoy bound for Malta in Operation Pedestal , but she was only to sail far enough with them to allow her 38 Supermarine Spitfires to reach Malta . This she did , just as Eagle was torpedoed , but Furious turned around after flying off her fighters and reached Gibraltar successfully . She loaded another batch of 32 Spitfires on 16 August and they were flown off the following day south @-@ east of the Balearic Islands . After this mission Furious was sent back to Home Fleet for training . One last mission was necessary to reinforce the defences of Malta before Operation Torch , and she arrived on 27 October . She loaded 32 Spitfires and launched them on the 29th before returning to Gibraltar to participate in Torch .
Providing cover for the Central Task Force , Furious 's aircraft neutralised the airfields at La Senia and Tafraoui , both near Oran , Algeria . She remained with Force H until February 1943 before transferring to Home Fleet where she remained for the rest of the war . In July the Home Fleet demonstrated off the coast of Norway in strength to distract attention from the Allied invasion of Sicily ; Furious 's role was to allow a German reconnaissance aircraft to spot the British ships and make a report then shoot it down . She was refitted in August and spent the rest of the year training .
On 3 April 1944 , Fairey Barracudas from Furious and Victorious attacked the German battleship Tirpitz in Altafjord , Norway , as part of Operation Tungsten . Tirpitz was hit 14 times and needed three months to complete her repairs , although four aircraft were lost in the attack . The Home Fleet tried another attack on Tirpitz later in the month , but bad weather prevented any attack from being made . Instead the aircraft attempted to attack installations at Bodø , but found a German convoy instead and sank three ships . Three operations against targets in northern Norway , including two against Tirpitz , had to be abandoned or diverted to other targets in May , but three German ships were sunk and two more were set afire . Furious and other carriers made another attempt to sink the Tirpitz on 17 July , but were unsuccessful against the fully alerted German defences . Four more attacks on Tirpitz were made in August , but only the attack on the 24th was even partially successful as two minor hits were made .
As the war progressed , the ship 's age and limitations became increasingly apparent , and Furious was placed in reserve on 15 September 1944 . She was paid off in April 1945 and used to evaluate the effects of aircraft explosives on the ship 's structure . She was sold in 1948 for scrapping , completed in 1954 at Troon .
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= Chris Metzen =
Christopher Vincent " Chris " Metzen ( born November 22 , 1973 ) is an American game designer , artist , voice actor and author known for his work creating the fictional universes and scripts for Blizzard Entertainment 's three major award @-@ winning media franchises : Warcraft , Diablo and StarCraft . On occasion , Metzen has published his art under the alias " Thundergod " . Metzen was hired by Blizzard Entertainment as an animator and an artist ; his first work for the company was with the video game Justice League Task Force .
Metzen is currently the Senior Vice President of Story and Franchise Development at Blizzard Entertainment and has assisted the company 's projects by providing voice talent for a number of characters , as well as contributing to artistic character design . Outside of Blizzard Entertainment , Metzen authored a graphic novel series based on a futuristic second American civil war .
In his most recent work , Metzen co @-@ authored graphic novels , Transformers : Autocracy and Transformers Monstrosity with author Flint Dille and artist Livio Ramondelli .
= = Career = =
Metzen began his career in design after applying to Blizzard Entertainment , then known as Chaos Studios , on the recommendation of a friend who had seen his work . He was quickly recruited by the company , although Metzen states that at the time he did not really know what Blizzard Entertainment dealt with , assuming it was a graphic design studio rather than a video game developer .
Metzen 's first work for the company was with the game Justice League Task Force , in which he provided artwork and character animation . Around the same time , Metzen also contributed to 1994 's Warcraft : Orcs and Humans by working on artwork , illustrations and the game 's documentation . Later video games by Blizzard Entertainment would frequently include Metzen 's work in manual design , illustration and concept art . However , Metzen 's role in developing later Warcraft games increased significantly with 1995 's Warcraft II : Tides of Darkness , which gave him the opportunity to work on the game 's fantasy @-@ based fictional universe in addition to designing the game 's various scenarios and missions .
In 1996 , Blizzard Entertainment launched its second major franchise with the role @-@ playing game Diablo . Diablo 's fictional universe was created by both Metzen and fellow designer Bill Roper , and Metzen also provided voice acting for some of the game 's characters . On occasion , Metzen would provide voice talent for later video games . In 1998 he took the role of lead designer on the science fiction strategy game StarCraft . Along with James Phinney , Metzen again provided the game 's extensive story and script , as well as organizing the voice casting for the game . In 1999 , Metzen wrote a short story set in the StarCraft universe with fellow Blizzard Entertainment employee Sam Moore . The story , entitled Revelations , was published in the spring issue of Amazing Stories with cover artwork by Samwise Didier . Returning to the Diablo series in 2000 with Diablo II , Metzen worked on the game 's story , script and artwork . In 2001 , he published a novel set in the Warcraft universe , entitled Of Blood and Honor .
With 2002 's Warcraft III : Reign of Chaos , Metzen was the creative director , a role he would hold in all of Blizzard 's later video games , and provided the game 's story concept and script . Metzen 's work with 2004 's massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game World of Warcraft was not as extensive as his earlier work , but he still contributed with script writing , artwork and voice work .
Metzen announced in early 2005 that he was working on a graphic novel series independent of Blizzard Entertainment . The series , entitled Soldier : 76 , is set in a second American civil war in 2010 , with increased domestic and global terror threats and the increase in power for the US federal government over that of local state governments serving as a background . Metzen wrote the series ' script , while Brazilian artist Max Velati was responsible for the illustration and painting of the book . Soldier : 76 would later appear as a character in Overwatch , Blizzard 's online first @-@ person shooter game , released in May 2016 .
Chris Metzen teamed with author Flint Dille and artist Livio Ramondelli to create the 12 @-@ part , bi @-@ weekly digital comic series , Transformers : Autocracy . Autocracy , published by IDW Publishing was published in 2012 . The series focuses on the days just before the Great War . It is set after Megatron Origin , and presents the Decepticons as an established force , sowing dissent across Cybertron primarily through terrorist actions . The series focuses on Orion Pax , an Autobot commander charged with rooting out these cells . Transformers : Autocracy was released as a collected Trade Paperback in July 2012 with a bonus forward authored by Metzen . The same team is current working on the follow @-@ up series , " Transformers : Monstrosity " .
Metzen made a cameo appearance in the 2016 Warcraft film , as a turbaned perfume vendor in Stormwind .
= = Personal life = =
He first started creating comics at the age of twelve , but that he had held an interest in drawing since at least six . He states that he still retains a habit of spending " an average of thirty @-@ five dollars per week " on comics books . A fan of Dungeons & Dragons , Metzen cites the Dragonlance series of novels and Star Wars as the primary inspirations for his fantasy and science fiction creations , and names fantasy and comic book artists such as Walt Simonson and Keith Parkinson as his artistic inspirations .
He defines his artistic style as having been " heavily influenced by Walt Simonson 's and Jim Lee 's pencilling styles for form " while preferring the " costuming , themes and general feel of Larry Elmore and Keith Parkinson 's fantasy paintings " . In addition to art , Metzen 's interests include pop and rock music , the nightlife , and dirt bikes . On April 21 , 2013 , Metzen married his longtime girlfriend Kat Hunter , who is a licensing project manager at Blizzard Entertainment .
= = Roles = =
= = = Video games = = =
Diablo – Skeleton King
StarCraft – Marine , Battlecruiser , Ghost
Warcraft III : Reign of Chaos – Thrall
Warcraft III : The Frozen Throne – Thrall , Vol 'jin
World of Warcraft – Thrall , Vol 'jin , Orcs , Nefarian , Ragnaros , Hakkar the Soulflayer
World of Warcraft : The Burning Crusade – Thrall , Vol 'jin
World of Warcraft : Wrath of the Lich King – Thrall , Vol 'jin , Varian Wrynn , Deathbringer Saurfang / Dranosh Saurfang , Bronjahm
StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty – Marine , Battlecruiser
World of Warcraft : Cataclysm – Thrall , Vol 'jin , Varian Wrynn , Nefarian , Ragnaros , Hakkar the Soulflayer
World of Warcraft : Mists of Pandaria – Thrall , Arcanital Mara 'kah , Captain Halu 'kal , Nalak the Storm Lord , War @-@ God Jalak
Starcraft II : Heart of the Swarm - Marine , Battlecruiser
Hearthstone : Heroes of Warcraft - Thrall , Various minions
World of Warcraft : Warlords of Draenor - Thrall
Heroes of the Storm - Thrall
StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void – Marine , Battlecruiser
Overwatch - Creative director
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= Norse @-@ American medal =
The Norse @-@ American medal was struck at the Philadelphia Mint in 1925 , pursuant to an act of the United States Congress . It was issued for the 100th anniversary of the voyage of the ship Restauration , bringing early Norwegian immigrants to the United States .
Minnesota Congressman Ole Juulson Kvale , a Norse @-@ American , wanted a commemorative for the centennial celebrations of the Restauration journey . Rebuffed by the Treasury Department when he sought the issuance of a special coin , he instead settled for a medal . Sculpted by Buffalo nickel designer James Earle Fraser , the medals recognize those immigrants ' Viking heritage , depicting a warrior on the obverse and a vessel on the reverse . They also recall the early Viking explorations of North America .
Once authorized by Congress , they were produced in various metals and sizes , for the most part prior to the celebrations near Minneapolis in June 1925 . Only 53 were issued in gold , and they are rare and valuable today ; those struck in silver or bronze are much less expensive . They are sometimes collected as part of the commemorative coin series .
= = Background and inception = =
On July 4 or 5 , 1825 , the vessel Restauration sailed from Stavanger , Norway for the United States , with 45 emigrants aboard . According to what The New York Times deemed " bacchanalian " legends of its passage , the expedition anchored off an English seacoast village and traded ashore some of its rum , only to depart in haste when local officials took an interest . Off Madeira , expedition leader Lars Larsen is said to have fished a cask from the sea , which proved to be filled with rare wine that was thoroughly enjoyed by those aboard . After they arrived in New York on October 9 , 1825 , the ship was seized pursuant to a court order , as the passengers exceeded the permitted number for a ship of its size by 21 , counting a baby girl born to the Larsens en route . In addition , a fine was to be imposed , but because the immigrants spoke no English and had no knowledge of American laws , President John Quincy Adams issued a pardon , releasing the ship and remitting the fine . Initially settling on land they purchased near the shore of Lake Ontario , about 35 miles ( 56 km ) from Rochester , New York , the passengers were the first of many Norse @-@ Americans who crossed the Atlantic , especially to the northern and western United States .
Ole Juulson Kvale was a Minnesota congressman of the Farmer @-@ Labor Party , and a proud Norse @-@ American . Kvale was a member of the Norse @-@ American Centennial Commission , which was to organize a 100th anniversary celebration of the Restauration 's voyage . This celebration was important to a Norse @-@ American community that had been perceived as antiwar during World War I , and was attempting to display both ethnic pride and assimilation . Kvale , a Lutheran minister , was also a member of the House Committee on Coinage , Weights , and Measures , and in January 1925 approached the Treasury Department , seeking its support for a commemorative coin in honor of the anniversary . He was told that the Treasury would oppose it . Commemorative coins for ethnic heritage groups were unlikely to pass Congress at that time due to the controversy caused by the 1924 Huguenot @-@ Walloon Tercentenary half dollar , seen by some as Protestant propaganda .
On February 3 , 1925 , Kvale and his son Paul met with Treasury officials , bringing a draft bill authorizing the Bureau of the Mint to strike commemorative medals for the anniversary . Acting Mint Director Mary M. O 'Reilly and Treasury Undersecretary Garrad Winston were dubious about the idea of striking silver medals that would be between the quarter and half dollar in size . Paul Kvale suggested making the medal octagonal or hexagonal . O 'Reilly and Winston favored the idea , and , after Congressman Kvale met with legal counsel to the Treasury and with other officials , he was assured of the department 's full support . Kvale also successfully lobbied the Post Office Department for the issuance of commemorative stamps ; he told Third Assistant Postmaster General Warren I. Glover that , in a broader sense , the medal recognized the North American explorations of the Vikings around the year 1000 . Kvale declared that in seeking the souvenir medal and stamps , he was contributing to the " growth of the Norwegian heritage by having it ' preserved in metal ' as well as ' paper time capsules ' . "
= = Legislation = =
Kvale introduced a bill for a Norse @-@ American medal in the House of Representatives on February 4 , 1925 . It was referred to the Committee on Coinage , Weights , and Measures . On behalf of that committee , Kvale reported it favorably to the full House on February 10 . In the report , Kvale stated that the 40 @,@ 000 medals would be struck without expense to the government , and that Treasury officials supported the bill . " In view of the importance of this celebration to the many descendants of the Norse immigrants into this country , and through these to the State of Minnesota , which is officially sponsoring the event , and to the great Northwest , which they have been such a large factor in developing , the committee believes that such a medal is fitting and proper and that this bill should be enacted into law . "
South Dakota Senator Peter Norbeck also introduced legislation for a Norse @-@ American medal on February 5 , 1925 . It was referred to the Committee on the Library . On the 6th , that committee was discharged of responsibility for the bill and it was referred instead to the Committee on Banking and Currency . Norbeck , on behalf of the Banking Committee , reported the bill favorably and without amendment to the Senate on February 13 . It was passed by the Senate without objection or amendment on the 18th .
The Senate @-@ passed bill then was transmitted to the House of Representatives , and was referred to the Coinage Committee on February 20 . It was brought forward on February 27 , 1925 . When the Speaker , Frederick H. Gillett , asked if there was objection to the consideration of the bill , Ohio 's James T. Begg asked if there was anyone who could give him information about it , and if there was not , he would object . Kvale stated that he could , and when Begg asked if Treasury Secretary Andrew W. Mellon favored the bill , assured the Ohioan that this was so . Kvale had the Senate @-@ passed bill substituted for the one he had introduced , and it received the House 's endorsement without objection or amendment . It was passed into law with the signature of President Calvin Coolidge on March 2 , 1925 .
The act provided for a maximum of 40 @,@ 000 medals , to be struck at the Philadelphia Mint , from design models prepared by the Norse @-@ American Centennial Commission . Medals would be turned over to a designated agent of the commission on payment of the cost of making them . They were to be made subject to the provisions of section 52 of the Coinage Act of 1873 . That section permitted medals of a national character to be struck at the Philadelphia Mint , but forbade Mint personnel from making dies for private medals , and was enacted after Philadelphia Mint Chief Coiner Franklin Peale had for some years run a private medals business on Mint premises , prior to his firing in 1854 .
= = Preparation = =
Kvale hoped that his friend and fellow Minnesotan , Senator Henrik Shipstead , could persuade sculptor Gutzon Borglum to design the medal for no fee or a nominal one . Borglum , who was busy with construction at Stone Mountain in Georgia ( he would later sculpt Mount Rushmore ) , had designed the Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar ; he had no time to accept the work . Buffalo nickel designer James Earle Fraser , a member of the Commission of Fine Arts , was engaged for a fee of $ 1 @,@ 500 , about the usual for a commemorative coin .
Fraser prepared designs and submitted them to the Mint ; O 'Reilly sent them to the Commission of Fine Arts on April 14 , 1925 . The commission approved them ; its only suggestion was that the first " the " be removed from the inscription on the reverse , " AUTHORIZED BY THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA " , and this was done . Sketches had been printed in the Minneapolis Journal on March 29 , provoking some reaction from those who felt that the design implied that Norwegians still dressed like Vikings in 1825 , and that the date , 1000 , should be moved from reverse to obverse to eliminate the confusion . The public objections had no effect on events .
= = Design = =
The obverse of the medal shows a Norwegian Viking chieftain who has just come ashore from his ship ( seen behind him ) and is armed for war , with horned helmet , shield , sword , and svard ( dagger ) . He is intended to be landing at Vinland , the lands in the Americas explored and to some extent settled by the Vikings about the year 1000 . The helmet is most likely an anachronism , as they are not believed to have been used for two millennia prior to the Vinland landing , and were probably ceremonial , rather than intended for battle . The centennial and the years are recognized on the obverse . The reverse shows a Viking ship , along with the authorization by Congress and the approximate year in which Vinland was settled . " OPUS FRASER " ( Fraser 's work ) , the artist 's signature , is to the left of the ship .
Numismatist Anthony Swiatek , in his volume on commemoratives , wonders if Leif Erikson , the famed explorer of that period , would not have been a superior choice . He concludes that Kvale would not have supported such a depiction , because " he was interested in pure romanticization . He saw a Viking ship and his chieftain in full regalia " .
Julie Shultz , in her journal article on the 1925 celebration , finds it significant that the medal has nothing to do with the arrival of the Restauration in an already @-@ formed United States , but symbolizes ethnic pride in the early explorers . Noting that one of the stamps depicts a Viking ship and the other the Restauration , she concludes of these three government issues for the celebration : " Though outwardly , these souvenirs were to symbolize the Norwegian immigrant heritage that began in 1825 , they actually invert the dominant narrative by using an American form to proclaim that Norwegians were the first Europeans to land on American soil . "
= = Production , distribution , and collecting = =
Six thousand silver medals on a thin ( 1 @.@ 6 mm ) planchet were struck between May 21 and 23 , 1925 , at the Philadelphia Mint . They were handled like ordinary coins : they were counted , bagged , and transported to the Fourth Street National Bank of Philadelphia for the centennial commission 's use . Between May 29 and June 13 , a total of 33 @,@ 750 pieces were struck on a thick ( 2 mm ) silver planchet . The reason for the two varieties is uncertain ; Swiatek theorizes that the Norse @-@ American Centennial Commission might not have liked how the thin ones looked , or might have wanted collectors to buy two medals . One hundred were struck in gold , on June 3 and 4 — Kvale received the second one struck . The medals cost the commission 30 cents each for the thin ones , 45 cents for the thick , and $ 10 @.@ 14 for the gold . The retail price of the thin ones is uncertain ( Swiatek estimates $ 1 @.@ 75 ) , the thick ones are known to have cost $ 1 @.@ 25 , and the gold pieces about $ 20 . They were sold by mail order ; none were sold at the celebrations or in person . There was a sales limit of one per person , but purchasers could buy on behalf of as many family members as they wanted . The thin pieces were not offered for sale until November or December 1925 , and sold mostly to numismatists — the commission 's secretary , J.A. Horvik , was frustrated that more " Norsemen " were not buying the medal . After the celebrations , Kvale took 5 @,@ 000 medals to New York , hoping to sell them , but was not successful . Of the 100 gold pieces struck , 47 were eventually returned to the Treasury when they could not be sold , and some of the silver pieces ( most likely thick ones ) were as well .
The Norse @-@ American Immigration Centennial Celebration was held at the Minnesota State Fairgrounds near Minneapolis from June 6 – 9 , 1925 . Automobile caravans were organized to bring attendees from the Red River Valley , bearing the slogan , " The Norsemen are Coming ! " President Coolidge was present ; he called the Viking explorers " these sons of Thor and Odin " , and told attendees , " the pledge of the Norwegian people has never yet gone unredeemed . I have every faith that through the vigorous performance of your duties you will add new lustre to your glories in the days to come . " The New York Times noted that commemorative stamps and a congressionally authorized medal had been issued for the celebration . " Seldom before has the celebration of a similar event been so honored by the Government , as has this centennial . "
The Times had inaccurately described the medal as " the first commemorative medal to be issued in the history of the mint " . The publicity people for the celebration had billed it as the first medal to be issued pursuant to an act of Congress , but in October 1925 , Mint Director Robert J. Grant learned that a medal had been authorized by Congress for the centennial of American independence in 1876 , and it had been issued in different sizes . He informed Kvale , who was intrigued by the fact that the independence medal had been issued in a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) size . The congressman felt that the larger size would allow the detail of his medal to be better shown , which would help when one was exhibited in a museum display case . Not all members of his board were enthusiastic about the idea , but between 60 and 75 of these larger medals were struck , likely in December at the Philadelphia Mint , with Kvale undertaking to purchase any that were not sold . They were plated in silver by a private firm in Washington , D.C. , and about 30 were presented or mailed to dignitaries , including one to President Coolidge .
The Norse @-@ American medal is not a coin , and is not legal tender . Due to its similarity to a coin , and the fact that it was authorized by Congress , it is sometimes collected as part of the U.S. commemorative coin series . Though the silver ones can be purchased for less than $ 100 up to $ 500 , and the silver @-@ plated one for between $ 500 and $ 3 @,@ 500 , the gold specimen has sold for as high as $ 40 @,@ 000 . Some medals were used as pocket pieces or worn in mountings to the fair , and display damage or wear .
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= SMS Amazone =
SMS Amazone was the sixth member of the ten @-@ ship Gazelle class , built by the Imperial German Navy . She was built by the Germaniawerft dockyard in Kiel , laid down in 1899 , launched in October 1900 , and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in November 1901 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , Amazone was capable of a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) .
Amazone served in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet during her peacetime career . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she was deployed as a coastal defense ship . In 1916 , she was disarmed and used as a training ship , and was converted into a barracks ship in 1917 . She was retained by the Reichsmarine after the end of the war and served on active duty with the new German Navy through the 1920s . She was reduced to secondary duties after 1931 , and remained in service as a barracks ship into the 1950s ; Amazone was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1954 .
= = Design = =
Amazon was 104 @.@ 8 meters ( 344 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 2 m ( 40 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 12 m ( 16 @.@ 8 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 082 t ( 3 @,@ 033 long tons ; 3 @,@ 397 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines . They were designed to give 8 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 7 @,@ 891 shp ; 5 @,@ 884 kW ) , for a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . The engines were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . Amazone carried 560 tonnes ( 550 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 3 @,@ 560 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 590 km ; 4 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 243 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition , for 100 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 20 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick . The conning tower had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
Amazone was ordered under the contract name " F " and was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel in 1899 and launched on 6 October 1900 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 15 November 1901 . After her commissioning , Amazone was employed in the reconnaissance forces of the German fleet . In 1902 , she was assigned to the Cruiser Division of the I Squadron of the German home fleet . The Division consisted of the armored cruiser Prinz Heinrich , the flagship , Freya , Victoria Louise , and the light cruisers Hela , and Niobe . The Division participated in the summer fleet maneuvers of August – September 1902 . By 1905 , her sisters Ariadne and Medusa had replaced Hela and Niobe . She continued in the fleet reconnaissance role until the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , when she was reduced to a coastal defense vessel .
On 8 May 1915 , Amazone was patrolling off Cape Arkona when she was attacked by the British submarine HMS E1 . The submarine fired a torpedo from a range of 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) , but it missed Amazone . On 9 September , another British submarine , HMS E18 , unsuccessfully attacked Amazone during the Battle of the Gulf of Riga .
In 1916 , Amazone was disarmed and used as a basic training ship for naval cadets . The following year , she was converted into a barracks ship , based in Kiel , a role she filled until the end of the war . The Treaty of Versailles permitted Germany to retain six light cruisers , and Amazone was among those kept in service of the newly reorganized Reichsmarine . She was modernized at the Reichsmarine Werft in Wilhelmshaven in 1921 – 1923 , and had her ram bow replaced with a clipper bow . She was also rearmed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in U @-@ boat mountings and two 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedo tubes in deck launchers .
Amazone served with the Reichsmarine from 1923 to 1930 . Korvettenkapitän Alfred Saalwächter took command of the ship in 1926 ; he later went on to become a senior admiral during World War II . Amazone was stricken from the naval register on 31 March 1931 . The ship was then used as a floating barracks for the Submarine Acceptance Commission in Kiel , and later as an auxiliary for the Warship Construction Test Office , submarine group . She survived World War II and after 1945 , she was again used as a barracks ship in Bremen . The old cruiser was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1954 in Hamburg .
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= The Doctor 's Wife =
" The Doctor 's Wife " is the fourth episode of the sixth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , which was broadcast on 14 May 2011 in the United Kingdom , and later the same day in the United States . It was written by Neil Gaiman and directed by Richard Clark .
In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) receive a distress call from a living Time Lord , though all other members of the Doctor 's race were thought to be extinct . However , they discover that the call was bait to lure the Doctor to an asteroid outside the universe , where previously the energy of Time Lords ' TARDISes has been consumed by an entity called the House ( voiced by Michael Sheen ) . The matrix of the Doctor 's TARDIS is removed and placed in the body of a woman named Idris ( Suranne Jones ) , who proceeds to help them escape .
" The Doctor 's Wife " was originally intended to be produced as part of the previous series , but was pushed back due to budget constraints . Gaiman revised the script many times , having to add and remove characters and events as production saw fit . The episode was filmed in the autumn of 2010 and featured a makeshift TARDIS control room which was the design from a winner of a contest on the children 's programme Blue Peter . The episode was seen by 7 @.@ 97 million viewers in the UK and was met with positive reviews from critics . The episode won the 2011 Ray Bradbury Award for Outstanding Dramatic Presentation and the 2012 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
While in deep space , the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companions , Amy ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory ( Arthur Darvill ) , receive a communication cube containing a distress call from a Time Lord . Tracing the source of the call to a rift leading outside the universe , the Doctor deletes parts of the TARDIS to generate enough energy to traverse the rift . After landing in a junkyard on a solitary asteroid , the TARDIS shuts down and its matrix disappears . The three travellers explore the asteroid and meet its strange inhabitants : Uncle , Auntie , a green @-@ eyed Ood called Nephew , and an excited young woman named Idris . Idris fawns all over the Doctor , whom she calls " my thief " and then bites him . While Nephew locks up Idris , Amy and Rory return to the TARDIS . The Doctor follows the distress signal and finds a cabinet containing a large number of message cubes . Upon further investigation of Uncle and Auntie , the Doctor finds they are constructed of body parts from other beings , including Time Lords . They are controlled by the asteroid , called House , which is sentient and able to possess other technology around it . House led the Doctor there and removed the TARDIS 's matrix , initially intending to consume its Artron energy . Upon learning that the Doctor is the last Time Lord and that no more will ever arrive , House transfers itself into the TARDIS to escape from the rift . Amy and Rory are trapped inside as the House @-@ controlled TARDIS dematerialises .
The Doctor learns that Idris contains the personality of the TARDIS ' matrix and that they can talk to each other for the first time . Without House 's support meanwhile , Uncle and Auntie die , and Idris 's body only has a short time before it too will fail . Idris reveals that House had stranded many TARDISes before , and that its universe is hours away from collapsing . The Doctor and Idris work together to construct a makeshift TARDIS from scraps , and then pursue House .
Aboard the Doctor 's TARDIS , House threatens to kill Amy and Rory . He plays with their senses as they try to flee through the corridors , and then sends Nephew after them . Idris makes a psychic connection with Rory to give him directions to a secondary control room , where he and Amy are able to lower the TARDIS 's shields without House 's interference . This allows the Doctor to land the makeshift console in the secondary control room , which atomises Nephew . House deletes the secondary control room as he prepares to break through the rift , which the Doctor anticipates . The TARDIS 's safety protocols transfer them to the main control room , where the dying Idris releases the TARDIS 's matrix back to the TARDIS , destroying House . A remnant of the TARDIS 's matrix , in Idris ' body , sadly states that she will not be able to speak to the Doctor again but will be there for him . Idris 's body then disappears as the TARDIS matrix is fully restored .
The Doctor installs a security field around the matrix to prevent it from being compromised again . Rory tells the Doctor that some of Idris 's final words were " the only water in the forest is the river " , which the Doctor doesn 't understand . After Amy and Rory leave to find a new bedroom ( the original having been purged by House ) , the Doctor talks to the TARDIS , and in response a nearby lever moves on its own , sending the TARDIS to its next destination .
= = = Continuity = = =
The Doctor refers to altering the control room 's appearance as changing the desktop theme , as the Fifth Doctor does in " Time Crash " . Like the Third Doctor in Inferno , the Doctor and Idris operate a TARDIS console without an outer TARDIS shell . The Doctor also jettisons TARDIS rooms to create thrust , as he had done previously in stories such as Logopolis and Castrovalva . The Doctor admits he killed all of the Time Lords , alluding to the events of the Time War . In The War Games , the Second Doctor contacted the Time Lords using a cube similar to those seen in this episode . The Doctor refers to himself as " a madman with a box " , reprising Amy 's and his own description of himself in " The Eleventh Hour " . The Doctor refers to Nephew as " another Ood I failed to save " ; in " The Satan Pit " the Doctor commented that he did not have time to save the Ood . Idris ' cryptic words , " the only water in the forest is the river " , are explained in the mid @-@ series finale , " A Good Man Goes to War " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by Neil Gaiman . After Steven Moffat replaced Russell T Davies as the showrunner of Doctor Who , being a fan of Gaiman 's blog , Moffat met with Gaiman and Gaiman asked to write an episode . In an interview Gaiman stated " I came up with something that was one of those things where you thought that nobody 's done that before . " The episode was originally titled " The House of Nothing " before Gaiman sat down to write it , but that was changed to " Bigger on the Inside " . This title remained until about six weeks before the episode aired , but the crew was beginning to worry that " Bigger on the Inside " would give away the surprise that Idris was the TARDIS , so it was changed . " The Doctor 's Wife " was also a fake title attached to the 1984 serial The Caves of Androzani ; then @-@ producer John Nathan @-@ Turner had changed the title to that on his planning board in an attempt to weed out a suspected leak in his office .
Gaiman suggested they make an episode which centres on the TARDIS itself , which was not done before for the entire series since it began in 1963 . The original plan focused on the idea of the Doctor being pursued by an enemy inside the TARDIS , but went through several subsequent changes ; Gaiman changed the plan to focus on the companion due to the Doctor 's knowledge of his ship making it too easy for him to escape his enemy , made the TARDIS the threat rather than just a specific alien to avoid making it a simple ' cat @-@ and @-@ mouse ' game , and then included the idea of Idris to account for what happened to the TARDIS 's mind during this attack . The central idea was a " what if " scenario to see what would happen if the Doctor and the TARDIS got to talk together . Head writer Steven Moffat liked the idea of featuring the TARDIS as a woman , believing this to be the " ultimate love story " for the Doctor .
Gaiman began writing the episode before Matt Smith was even cast as the Eleventh Doctor ; Gaiman had envisioned David Tennant 's performance in the first draft , knowing Smith would play the Doctor differently . Despite this he had no issue writing the dialogue . The episode was originally slated for the eleventh episode of the fifth series . However , it was delayed to the sixth series because of budget issues ; the eleventh episode would be replaced with " The Lodger " . Even so , Gaiman was forced to operate with less money than he would have liked ; for instance , he had to scrap a scene set in the TARDIS ' swimming pool , and instead of being able to use a monster of his own design he had to use an Ood .
The move to the sixth series also meant Gaiman had to include Rory , who had ceased to exist in the original slot in the fifth series . With Rory included , Gaiman had to " reshape " much of the second half of the episode , featuring Amy being on the run in the TARDIS . In the original draft where Amy was the only companion , Gaiman added a " heartbreaking monologue " by the character , further stating " you get to see what it 's like to be the companion from the companion 's point of view , and she got to talk about essentially in that version how sad it is , in some ways . One day something will happen to her , she 'll get married , she 'll get eaten by monsters , she 'll die , she 'll get sick of this , but he 'll go on forever . " At a certain point , Gaiman became tired of re @-@ writing drafts and asked Steven Moffat for help . Moffat wrote in what Gaiman called " several of [ the episode 's ] best lines " and rapidly rewrote several scenes when budget problems harmed filming locations .
= = = Casting = = =
In September 2010 , Suranne Jones announced she was cast a guest spot on Doctor Who as Idris for an episode of the sixth series of Doctor Who . Jones previously played Mona Lisa in The Sarah Jane Adventures episode Mona Lisa 's Revenge . Some time after appearing on The Sarah Jane Adventures , Jones was contacted to appear on Doctor Who at Gaiman 's request , because they were looking for an actress who " is odd ; beautiful but strange @-@ looking , and quite funny . " Moffat meanwhile described Idris as " sexy plus motherly plus utterly mad plus serene . " During a read @-@ through of the script , the producers asked her to " neutralise [ her accent ] a bit , " because they did not want Jones to " be a Northerner " or have a standard accent , but to act " kinda like the Doctor . " Later , in March 2011 , Gaiman confirmed Michael Sheen would also guest star in the episode to voice a character . Adrian Schiller previously appeared in the Eighth Doctor audio drama Time Works where he played Zanith .
= = = Filming = = =
" The Doctor 's Wife " was planned as the third episode in the 2011 series but the order was changed during the production process . Initial production occurred in September , with Gaiman visiting the set during the production period and filming for the associated Confidential . Additional filming took place in October 2010 , with guest star Suranne Jones having been filmed for green screen special effects . The scenes where Amy and Rory are on the run allowed the audience to explore the TARDIS outside the control room , something the producers had wanted to do for a while . A series of corridors was constructed and retained for future use . The episode also featured the return of the older TARDIS control room from the Christopher Eccleston and David Tennant era . Gaiman had originally wanted to reconstruct a console room from the original series , but the cost proved prohibitive . The set was retained after filming for " The Eleventh Hour " , but has since been removed to become part of the Doctor Who Experience exhibit . Arthur Darvill noted the floor of the older set had a cheese grater @-@ like quality to it , so when the scene called for the cast to fall on it , they found it uncomfortable to stay down for a long period of time .
" The Doctor 's Wife " features a makeshift TARDIS console , which was piloted by the Doctor and Idris . The console was designed by Susannah Leah , a schoolgirl from Todmorden , who won a competition on Blue Peter , a children 's programme that challenged its viewers to imagine a TARDIS console based on household objects . Leah 's design was selected by Moffat , Edward Thomas , the production designer for the previous series , and Tim Levell , a Blue Peter editor , along with final input among the three age @-@ group winners from Smith . Michael Pickwoad , the production designer for Series 6 , commented that Leah 's design captured the nature of " bits and pieces " of what TARDIS consoles have been in the past , as well as the nature of the makeshift console needed for this episode . The drawing was redesigned faithfully by the production team into the prop for the show , including the use of a coat hanger to start the makeshift TARDIS . Leah was brought by Blue Peter to see both the set under construction and on location during filming of the makeshift TARDIS scenes , meeting Smith and the other actors and production crew . Character Options will release a toy playset based on Leah 's console later in 2011 . The House planetoid in the pocket universe was filmed on location at a quarry outside Cardiff .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Doctor 's Wife " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 14 May 2011 and on sister station BBC America in the United States on the same day . In the UK , the episode received overnight figures of 6 @.@ 09 million viewers , with a 29 @.@ 5 per cent audience share . It became the third highest broadcast of the night , behind Britain 's Got Talent on ITV1 , and the 2011 Eurovision Song Contest , which was shown later on BBC One . The episode received a final BARB rating of 7 @.@ 97 million with an audience share of 34 @.@ 7 % . It had an overall Appreciation Index of 87 , considered to be excellent .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode was positively received , with many praising Jones 's performance as the TARDIS . The Guardian 's Dan Martin said : " With so many wild ideas at play , this would have been so easy to get wrong ... yet in every sense it was pitched perfectly " . He praised Suranne Jones in particular , saying she was " electrifying throughout " . Martin later rated it the third best episode of the series , though the finale was not included in the list . The A.V. Club gave the episode a score of " A " , saying it was a " pretty terrific [ episode ] ... a brisk , scary , inventive adventure filled with clever concepts and witty dialogue . And a lot of heart when in the way it deals with an important relationship rarely addressed on the series " . He admired the cleverness of the " Idris / TARDIS " characterisation and found the relationship " quite touching " . Gavin Fuller of The Telegraph praised the acting of Smith , Jones , and Sheen , and called the episode " hugely enjoyable " . Neela Debnath of The Independent praised Gaiman for mixing " romance , tragedy and horror , managing to strike a balance while telling a simple story " , though she criticised the frequent deaths of Rory .
SFX magazine reviewer Russell Lewin gave " The Doctor 's Wife " four and a half out of five stars , labelling it as " non @-@ stop intrigue and carefully @-@ controlled suspense all the way " . He particularly praised Smith 's energetic performance , saying " he pings and fizzes around the screen like a Technicolor firework , lighting up every scene he adorns " . IGN 's Matt Risley rated the episode 9 out of 10 and concluded , " Sweet , touching , intelligent , different , utterly imaginative and accessible by both hardcore fans and newbies alike — this is not only Doctor Who , but sci @-@ fi telly at its finest " . He also praised Gaiman 's script for being " a simple idea executed brilliantly " . Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times admitted he was unsure if he was going to like it with the " grungy setting , wacko characters and peculiar dialogue " , but ended up " captivated " . He particularly enjoyed seeing more of the TARDIS ' interior and called it an " instant oddball classic " .
Digital Spy 's Morgan Jeffery rated it four out of five stars , saying it " isn 't perfect , but you 'd be hard @-@ pressed to fault its ambition " . He was critical of Jones ' performance of Idris , as " her early eccentric behavior tends to grate rather than amuse " though her performance calmed down later in the episode . His other " slight criticism " was that Gillan and Darvill were " sidelined " , but praised their performances . Jeffery felt that the strength of the episode was in character rather than in plot , and cited the defeat of the House as a " slightly disappointing " deus ex machina .
The episode won the 2011 Bradbury Award for Outstanding Dramatic Presentation . It also won the 2012 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Short Form ) .
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= Stargate Atlantis ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the television series Stargate Atlantis commenced airing on the Sci Fi Channel in the United States on July 16 , 2004 , concluded on The Movie Network in Canada on January 31 , 2005 , and contained 20 episodes . The show was a spin off of sister show , Stargate SG @-@ 1 . Stargate Atlantis re @-@ introduced supporting characters from the SG @-@ 1 universe , such as Elizabeth Weir and Rodney McKay among others . The show also included new characters such as Teyla Emmagan and John Sheppard . The first season is about a military @-@ science expedition team discovering Atlantis and exploring the Pegasus Galaxy . However , there is no way to return home , and they inadvertently wake a hostile alien race known as the Wraith , whose primary goal is to gather a fleet to invade Atlantis and find their new " feeding ground " , Earth .
The two @-@ hour premiere " Rising " , which aired on July 16 , 2004 , received Sci Fi Channel 's highest @-@ ever rating for a series premiere and episode ever released , it is also the most watched broadcast release ever released by the Sci Fi Channel in the United States . The average viewing rate for the first ten episodes were around 3 @-@ 4 million in the United States . The series was developed by Brad Wright and Robert C. Cooper , who also served as executive producers . Season one regular cast members included Joe Flanigan , Torri Higginson , Rainbow Sun Francks , Rachel Luttrell , and David Hewlett .
= = Cast = =
Joe Flanigan as Major John Sheppard
Torri Higginson as Dr. Elizabeth Weir
Rainbow Sun Francks as First Lieutenant Aiden Ford
Rachel Luttrell as Teyla Emmagan
David Hewlett as Dr. Rodney McKay
Paul McGillion as Dr. Carson Beckett
= = Episodes = =
= = Production = =
For " Rising " , the Pemberton Glacier in British Columbia doubled for Antarctica during the opening flying sequence . Simon , Elizabeth 's fiancé in " Rising " and " Home " , was played by Garwin Sanford , who had previously played Narim on Stargate SG @-@ 1 . Mario Azzopardi makes his return to the Stargate franchise in " Thirty @-@ Eight Minutes " . He had the distinctive honor of directing the pilot episode of Stargate SG @-@ 1 , " Children of the Gods . " This is his first time directing an episode of the franchise since the Season 1 Episode " Cor @-@ Ai . " Mario Azzopardi ( as of December 2006 ) has only directed Season 1 Episodes of both SG @-@ 1 and Atlantis . " Thirty @-@ Eight Minutes " is the only episode in both SG @-@ 1 and Atlantis to actually occur in real @-@ time ; between the opening of the Stargate and the resolution , 38 minutes of screentime do occur . Courtenay J. Stevens , who appears in " Childhood 's End " , had originally played the role of Lieutenant Elliot in Stargate SG @-@ 1 , appearing in the Season 5 episodes " Proving Ground " , " Summit " and " Last Stand " . Writer Martin Gero compared Ares in " Childhood 's End " to a villain in The Incredibles . In the scene of the final confrontation with Major John Sheppard , he began " monologuing , " which is a key feature of villains in the film . The dog that appeared in Dr. Weir 's illusion in " Home " is actually owned by actress Torri Higginson who plays her .
Michael Puttonen , who played Smeadon in " The Storm " , first appeared in the second season of Stargate SG @-@ 1 as Simian , the blind prisoner in the episode " Prisoners . " " The Defiant One " was filmed at the Richmond sand dunes . Richard Ian Cox , who appeared in " The Defiant One " , previously appeared in the season 3 Stargate SG @-@ 1 episode " New Ground " as Nyan . " Letters from Pegasus " is the first clip show episode of Stargate Atlantis . The title of this episode was inspired by the 1987 PBS TV documentary Dear America : Letters Home from Vietnam . This was Samantha Carter 's first appearance on Stargate Atlantis . At the end of the episode , she and Sergeant Harriman were briefly shown at Stargate Command ( SGC ) when they received the data burst from Atlantis . A deleted scene from Part two of " The Siege " showed Sora being returned to the Genii as part of their deal for the nuclear weapons , but this was cut due to time constraints ; so it is unclear if the event occurred or if Sora may still be being held .
= = Release and reception = =
" Rising " was the strongest episode to date gaining a 3 @.@ 2 on the Nielsen ratings . " The Brotherhood " received ratings of 2 @.@ 3 when it initially aired on Sci Fi . The worst rated episode in the season was " Home " , which received an 1 @.@ 7 rating . John Sinnott from DVDTalk called season one a " very good spinoff , " certifying it " highly recommended . " Dan Heaton from Digitally Obsessed was positive to the first season , and said the pilot started " in fashion . " Reviewer Dan Phelps from DVDFanatic gave the series " thumbs up " and gave the series an A- .
" Rising " was nominated for a Leo Award in the category " Dramatic Series : Best Production Design " . " Childhood 's End " was one of only two Stargate franchise episodes ( with " Poisoning the Well " ) directed by Sci @-@ Fi veteran David Winning . It won three international awards for directing ; New York , Chicago and Houston . For " Poisoning The Well " , Paul McGillion and David Nykl were nominated for a Leo Award in the category " Dramatic Series : Best Supporting Performance by a Male " , and Allison Hossack was nominated for a Leo Award in the category " Dramatic Series : Best Supporting Performance by a Female " . " The Storm " was nominated for a Leo Award in the category " Dramatic Series : Best Overall Sound " . " The Eye " was nominated for a Gemini Award in the category " Best Visual Effects " , was nominated for a Leo Award in the category " Dramatic Series : Best Picture Editing " , and won a Leo Award in the category " Dramatic Series : Best Visual Effects " . For " The Defiant One " , director Peter DeLuise was nominated for a Leo Award in the category " Dramatic Series : Best Direction " and in the category " Dramatic Series : Best Screenwriting " . " Before I Sleep " was nominated for a Gemini Award in the category " Best Achievement in Make @-@ Up " . For " The Brotherhood " , writer Martin Gero was nominated for a Gemini Award in the category " Best Writing in a Dramatic Series " .
= = = Cultural references = = =
" The Defiant One " is the first time Rodney McKay refers to John Sheppard as " Captain Kirk " which is a recurring joke in the series . It refers to Sheppard 's protective nature to the puddle jumpers and his tendency to pick up alien women . In the continuing list of references in Stargate to The Wizard of Oz , McKay mentions in " Sanctuary " to " Pay no attention to the man behind the curtain " , a reference to the Emerald Wizard of the story . He also compares Sheppard 's actions with Chaya to Captain Kirk , continuing the links between Stargate and Star Trek .
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= The Amazing Jeckel Brothers =
The Amazing Jeckel Brothers is the fifth studio album by American hip hop group Insane Clown Posse , released on May 25 , 1999 , by Island Records , in association with Psychopathic Records . Recording sessions for the album took place from 1998 to 1999 . The album is the fifth Joker 's Card in the group 's Dark Carnival mythology . The album 's lyrics focus on the 9 circles of hell , and the morality of man as he is torn between righteousness and evil . The album 's titular Jeckel Brothers are spirits who juggle balls of fire , representing the sins committed during the mortal life of the dead .
The Amazing Jeckel Brothers was the second studio album Insane Clown Posse released by Island , and features a more hip hop @-@ based sound , as opposed to the rock @-@ oriented sound of its predecessor , The Great Milenko ( 1997 ) . The Amazing Jeckel Brothers features guest appearances by rappers Ol ' Dirty Bastard and Snoop Dogg , and additional contributions by The Jerky Boys and Twiztid . It debuted at number four on the Billboard charts and was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . It is the group 's 12th overall release .
= = Background = =
After a tumultuous contract with Jive Records sub @-@ label Battery in 1995 , Insane Clown Posse ( ICP ) attempted to find a new record label . Manager Alex Abbiss negotiated a contract with the Walt Disney Company @-@ owned label Hollywood Records , which reportedly paid US $ 1 million to purchase the Insane Clown Posse contract from Battery / Jive Records .
After recording and releasing The Great Milenko , Insane Clown Posse was notified that Hollywood Records had deleted the album within hours of its release , despite having sold 18 @,@ 000 copies and reaching # 63 on the Billboard 200 . It was later revealed that Disney was being criticized by the Southern Baptist Church . The church claimed Disney was turning its back on family values .
In due time , labels such as Interscope Records wanted to sign the group , but Island Records ' Chris Blackwell came to the group 's rescue and agreed to release The Great Milenko as it was originally intended . Thanks to the controversy , and additional promotion by Island , over one million copies of The Great Milenko had been sold by 1998 , and Insane Clown Posse was ready for the fifth Joker 's Card , The Amazing Jeckel Brothers .
= = Recording and production = =
Working with Mike E. Clark and Rich " Legz Diamond " Murrell , Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler developed their album with the highest of hopes . Hoping to receive the respect Bruce and Utsler felt they deserved , they planned to feature well @-@ known , respected rappers on their album . Bruce stated outright that he wanted to involve Snoop Dogg , Ol ' Dirty Bastard , and Ice @-@ T. Snoop Dogg requested that Insane Clown Posse not pay his then @-@ current record label , No Limit Records , and said that he would appear on the album if Bruce and Utsler gave him $ 40 @,@ 000 in a briefcase . Insane Clown Posse agreed , and Snoop Dogg appeared on the song " The Shaggy Show " , which also featured the ska band Gangster Fun playing music before each of the song 's faux commercial breaks . Insane Clown Posse also unsuccessfully attempted to contact Ice Cube to collaborate with them .
Snoop Dogg also helped them contact Ol ' Dirty Bastard , who was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 for his appearance . Ol ' Dirty Bastard recorded his track in a matter of two days ; however , his recording consisted of nothing more than him rambling about " bitches . " It took Bruce and Utsler a week to assemble just four rhymes out of his rambling , using Pro Tools because his raps were out of synch with Clark 's beat . The duo eventually had to re @-@ record their lines and re @-@ title the song " Bitches " . Finally , Insane Clown Posse contacted Ice @-@ T. However , he charged them only $ 10 @,@ 000 . The group felt that Ice @-@ T 's song did not belong on the album , and was instead released on the compilation , Psychopathics from Outer Space ( 2000 ) . The song " Echo Side " was originally released at an Insane Clown Posse concert in Garden City , Michigan as the first ever single from Dark Lotus .
To help increase their positive publicity , Island Records hired the Nasty Little Man publicity team . The team set up a photo shoot for Insane Clown Posse that was to appear on the cover of Alternative Press magazine in Cleveland . On the set of the photo shoot , a member of the publicity team approached Bruce and explained that in the song " Fuck the World " , the lyric that stated " Fuck the Beastie Boys and the Dalai Lama " needed to be changed . Insulted , Bruce exclaimed that his music would not be censored again – referring to Disney 's previous requirement of censure . Nasty Little Man told Bruce that the Beastie Boys were not only clients of the company but also personal friends , and the Beastie Boys told the company to make Bruce change the lyric . In response , Bruce fired Nasty Little Man and asked its team to leave the photo shoot .
= = Musical style = =
While the album 's predecessor , The Great Milenko , was written and recorded in a more rock @-@ oriented style , featuring contributions by guitarists Slash and Steve Jones , The Amazing Jeckel Brothers featured a more hip hop @-@ oriented sound . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic wrote , " Where The Great Milenko [ ... ] was targeted at white @-@ boy , adolescent metalheads [ ... ] The Amazing Jeckel Brothers contains cameos from Snoop Dogg and Ol ' Dirty Bastard , plus a cover of a Geto Boys song , which brings [ Insane Clown Posse ] to street level . "
To produce the album , Insane Clown Posse once again teamed up with renowned Detroit record producer and DJ Mike E. Clark , who utilized standard hip hop techniques such as record scratching and samples ranging from 1970s funk to calliope music . " Another Love Song " was based upon Beck 's song " Jack @-@ Ass " , which itself was derived from a sample of Bob Dylan 's " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " . Bruce loved the song and wanted to rewrite it in his own style . Although the group " lifted the riff from Beck " , since Beck 's song sampled the Dylan composition , Insane Clown Posse 's sample was cleared with Dylan rather than Beck . Rolling Stone writer Barry Walters wrote that Clark 's production incorporates elements of " carnival organ riffs , power chords and shotgun blasts ... banjolike plucking and Van Halen @-@ esque guitar squeals . "
= = Lyrical themes = =
During the two years between The Great Milenko and The Amazing Jeckel Brothers , Insane Clown Posse had become nationally known , but were not taken very seriously . While the controversy over The Great Milenko allowed the duo to attract the attention of Island Records , it also attracted Insane Clown Posse to public criticism for their style and lyrics . Bruce recalls the period as an angry era for the group due to all of the negativity directed toward them . He says that they " used to keep two piles of press at [ their ] office . One pile was all the positive press [ they 've ] gotten , which was under an inch tall . Then [ they ] had the negative press pile , which was spilling over the side of a full basket . " As a result , The Amazing Jeckel Brothers was recorded as a release for their anger .
The Amazing Jeckel Brothers focuses on the 9 circles of hell , and the morality of man as he is torn between righteousness and evil . Jack " the sinister " and Jake " the just " ( bad and good ) emerge from the flame of a candle to determine the fate of the dead . The Jeckel Brothers juggle fire balls . For every sin committed during the mortal life of the dead , another ball is added . Jack attempts to throw Jake curves in an attempt to see a ball drop . If a soul witnesses Jake drop one of the balls , he will be damned to hell . Souls who see Jake successfully complete the act ascend to heaven .
= = Release and reception = =
The Amazing Jeckel Brothers debuted and peaked at # 4 on the Billboard 200 . In order to promote the album , Island released multiple collectible versions of The Amazing Jeckel Brothers , emphasizing the faces of Jake or Jack Jeckel . In 2008 , it achieved platinum certification .
The album received mostly negative reviews from critics . NME wrote that " the slick , dumbed @-@ down Dungeons & Dragons rap @-@ rock schtick [ ... ] is often unbearable " . College Music Journal writer Matt Ashare described the album as " Cirque de so @-@ lame " . Rolling Stone writer Barry Walters gave the album two out of five stars , writing that " no musical sleight of hand can disguise the fact that Shaggy and J remain the ultimate wack MCs . " In The Great Rock Discography , Martin Charles Strong gave the album four out of ten stars .
PopMatters reviewer Brendan Maher accused Insane Clown Posse of misogyny and described The Amazing Jeckel Brothers as " music to strangle your ex @-@ girlfriend to " . Robert Christgau gave the album a C + , writing " Though they claim clown , they rarely get funnier than ' I 'd cut my head off but then I would be dead ' . " However , Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic gave the album a four out of five star rating , writing that " [ Insane Clown Posse ] actually delivered an album that comes close to fulfilling whatever promise their ridiculous , carnivalesque blend of hardcore hip hop and shock @-@ metal had in the first place " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Raffi Torres =
Raphael Torres ( born October 8 , 1981 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger who is currently under contract to the Toronto Maple Leafs . He was drafted by the New York Islanders fifth overall in the 2000 NHL Entry Draft . He has also played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Edmonton Oilers , Columbus Blue Jackets , Buffalo Sabres , Vancouver Canucks , Phoenix Coyotes and San Jose Sharks .
Torres was drafted out of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) , where he played three seasons with the Brampton Battalion . He was a two @-@ time OHL Second Team All @-@ Star during his junior career . Beginning in 2001 – 02 , he turned professional with the Islanders ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate . He spent the better part of two seasons in the AHL before the Islanders traded him to the Oilers in 2003 . He played five seasons in Edmonton , becoming a full @-@ time NHL player with the club . He recorded career numbers as an Oiler in 2005 – 06 , while also helping them to the Stanley Cup Finals that year . In the 2008 off @-@ season , he was dealt to the Blue Jackets , where he played the better part of two seasons . After a brief stint with the Sabres in 2009 – 10 , he signed with the Canucks and played one year for them where they reached the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals . Torres then signed with the Phoenix Coyotes and then with the San Jose Sharks . Internationally , he represented Canada at the 2001 World Junior Championships , winning a bronze medal .
Torres , a physical , forechecking forward with offensive capabilities , has been suspended five times for illegal hits to opponents ' heads . He received the third @-@ longest suspension in the history of the NHL at the time for his hit to the head of Marian Hossa in Game 3 of the 2012 Western Conference Quarterfinals . In October 2015 , Torres received a 41 game ( half @-@ season ) suspension for an illegal hit on Anaheim player Jakob Silfverberg . This is the longest suspension ever given by the NHL for a hit on another player .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Brampton Battalion = = =
Torres played major junior with the Brampton Battalion of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) , beginning in 1998 – 99 . He scored at a point @-@ per @-@ game pace in his rookie season with 35 goals and 62 points , second in team @-@ scoring to Jason Spezza . Improving to a team @-@ leading 43 goals and 91 points in his second junior season , he finished seventh in league scoring and was named to the OHL Second All @-@ Star Team . Qualifying for the playoffs , the Battalion were eliminated in the first round . Torres added seven points in the six @-@ game series .
Going into the 2000 NHL Entry Draft as a top prospect , Torres was selected in the first round , fifth overall , by the New York Islanders . The NHL Central Scouting Bureau described him as a player with some forechecking and offensive skills . The Islanders had obtained the fifth overall pick used to acquire Torres from the Tampa Bay Lightning , in exchange for goaltender Kevin Weekes and defensive prospect Kristian Kudra .
At the time of the draft , Islanders general manager Mike Milbury told reporters Torres ' chances of immediately joining the NHL was questionable . Following his first NHL training camp in New York , Torres was returned to Brampton in late @-@ September . Playing his third and final OHL season , he recorded 33 goals and 70 points over 55 games in 2000 – 01 to be named to the league 's Second All @-@ Star Team once more . The Battalion advanced to the second round of the playoffs , where they were eliminated . Torres had 11 points in eight post @-@ season contests .
= = = New York Islanders = = =
Turning professional in 2001 – 02 , Torres was assigned to the Islanders ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Bridgeport Sound Tigers , following his second NHL training camp . Over the course of his professional rookie campaign , Torres was called up on four different occasions to the NHL . He received his first call @-@ up to New York on November 24 , 2001 , making his NHL debut that night against the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim . Skating on the fourth line , he helped the Islanders to a 5 – 3 win . He notched his first point during a separate call @-@ up on January 4 , 2002 , assisting on a goal by Mark Parrish during a 4 – 2 win against the Pittsburgh Penguins . It was his lone point with the Islanders over 15 NHL games that season .
Later that month , he was reassigned to Bridgeport for the remainder of the campaign . He finished with 20 goals and 30 points over 55 games with the Sound Tigers . Torres became an integral part of Bridgeport 's 2002 playoff run to the Calder Cup Finals , where the club lost in five games to the Chicago Wolves . Over 20 post @-@ season games , Torres ranked third in team @-@ scoring with eight goals and 17 points .
Torres began the 2002 – 03 season in Bridgeport for the second consecutive year . He received four call @-@ ups to New York over the campaign , recording five assists over 17 games . At the NHL trade deadline , he was traded by the Islanders to the Edmonton Oilers , along with forward Brad Isbister , in exchange for defenceman Janne Niinimaa , as well as second @-@ round and fourth @-@ round selections in the 2003 draft .
= = = Edmonton Oilers = = =
Following the trade , the Oilers assigned him to their AHL affiliate , the Hamilton Bulldogs , where he played the final 11 games of the regular season . Between Bridgeport and Hamilton , Torres notched 18 goals and 40 points over 60 games in his second AHL campaign . For the second consecutive year , he appeared in the Calder Cup Finals and lost . He struggled in his second AHL playoff run , managing six goals and an assist over 23 post @-@ season games , as the Bulldogs were defeated in the Finals by the Houston Aeros in seven games . In the off @-@ season , Torres was re @-@ signed by the Oilers to a two @-@ year contract on August 1 , 2003 .
He began the 2003 – 04 season in the NHL , earning a roster spot with the Oilers . He scored his first NHL goal on October 9 , 2003 , against goaltender Evgeni Nabokov during a game against the San Jose Sharks . During the campaign , Torres was chosen to represent the Western Conference at the 2004 NHL YoungStars Game . The following month , he missed two contests due to an ankle injury . He recovered to finish the season with 20 goals and 34 points over 80 games . During the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , he played with the Edmonton Road Runners ( the Oilers ' new minor league affiliate ) of the AHL and tied for the team @-@ scoring lead with Tony Salmelainen , recording 46 points in 67 games .
With the NHL set to resume play for the 2005 – 06 season , Torres re @-@ signed with the Oilers to a two @-@ year deal on August 16 , 2005 . Returning to the Oilers , he scored a career @-@ high 27 goals and 41 points . The Oilers entered the 2006 playoffs as the eighth and final seed in the Western Conference . During the Western Conference Finals against the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim , Torres missed games two and three due to the flu . Following his return the lineup , he scored the series @-@ clinching goal in game five , a 2 @-@ 1 win , to advance the Oilers into the 2006 Stanley Cup Finals . Against the Carolina Hurricanes , the Oilers faced a 3 – 1 series deficit before forcing a game seven . They were defeated in the deciding contest to lose the Stanley Cup . Torres notched four goals and 11 points over 22 post @-@ season games .
In 2006 – 07 , Torres recorded 15 goals and 34 points . The Oilers did not , however , qualify for the playoffs . In the off @-@ season , they re @-@ signed him to a three @-@ year , $ 6 @.@ 75 million deal . The following season , he missed the last 49 games of the campaign to an anterior cruciate ligament injury . Limited to 32 contests , he recorded 11 points .
= = = Columbus and Buffalo = = =
Torres was traded in the off @-@ season to the Columbus Blue Jackets in exchange for forward Gilbert Brulé on July 1 , 2008 . He missed 10 games to begin the 2008 – 09 campaign with a separated right shoulder . A month later , on December 2 , 2008 , he underwent surgery for an injured knee and missed an additional 19 games . With an injury @-@ shortened season for the second consecutive year , he recorded 12 goals and 20 points over 51 games . In the 2009 playoffs , Torres added two assists as Columbus was swept in four games by the Detroit Red Wings .
The following season , on March 3 , 2010 , Torres was traded to the Buffalo Sabres in exchange for defenceman Nathan Paetsch and a second @-@ round draft pick . He had recorded 19 goals and 31 points over 60 games with Columbus before the trade . In 14 games with Buffalo , he notched five assists . The Sabres entered the 2010 playoffs as the third seed in the Eastern Conference . They were eliminated in the first round by the Boston Bruins . Torres ' play struggled against the Bruins and he was benched for the final two games of the series . He recorded two assists over four playoff games .
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
Leaving Buffalo as an unrestricted free agent , Torres signed a one @-@ year , $ 1 million contract with the Vancouver Canucks on August 24 , 2010 . He scored his first goal as a Canuck on October 13 , in a 4 – 3 loss to the Anaheim Ducks . The following month , he registered his first NHL career hat trick on November 2 during a game against the Edmonton Oilers . It marked the first time in Oilers history that a former player scored a hat trick against the club . The hat trick also helped Torres earn First Star of the Week honours as the best player in the NHL for the week ending November 7 , 2010 . Beginning in January 2011 , he underwent a 23 @-@ game goalless streak , snapped on February 19 in a game against the Dallas Stars .
Later in the season , Torres was suspended four games for a hit to the head of Edmonton Oilers forward Jordan Eberle during a game on April 6 , 2011 . Canucks general manager Mike Gillis told media that he " strongly disagree [ d ] with it " , while Torres argued that he did not stick out his elbow or leave his feet to make the hit and that Eberle raised his hand in defence of the oncoming check , indicating that it was not a blindside hit . Eberle was not injured on the play . The suspension ended Torres ' regular season as the Canucks had two games remaining . He finished with 14 goals and 29 points in 80 games . Returning for Game 3 of the opening playoff round against the Chicago Blackhawks , Torres received further scrutiny around the league for a hit on defenceman Brent Seabrook . Although he received a minor penalty on the play , Torres did not receive further suspension from the league . Later in the game , Torres hit Seabrook a second time , taking the defenceman out of the next two games . Vancouver went on to win the series in seven games , before defeating the Nashville Predators and San Jose Sharks en route to the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals . In the opening game of the fourth round , Torres scored the game @-@ winner against the Boston Bruins with 19 seconds remaining in regulation . The Canucks eventually lost the series in seven games .
= = = Phoenix and 21 @-@ game suspension = = =
On July 1 , 2011 , Torres signed a two @-@ year contract worth $ 3 @.@ 5 million with the Phoenix Coyotes . He recorded his first goal nearly a month into the 2011 – 12 season , in a 3 – 2 shootout loss to the Dallas Stars on October 25 , 2011 . Torres continued to build a reputation for targeting opponents ' heads . He was fined $ 2 @,@ 500 for striking Jan Hejda in the head with his forearm in a December 29 , 2011 , game against the Colorado Avalanche . Two nights later , he struck Minnesota 's Nate Prosser in the head after jumping into a hit , earning a two @-@ game suspension .
In an April 17 , 2012 , game during Phoenix 's first round playoff series against Chicago , Torres jumped into a hit that contacted Marian Hossa 's head . Hossa was taken from the ice on a stretcher and sent to hospital by ambulance . While Torres was not penalized on the play , the NHL characterized the hit as violating league rules on interference , charging and illegal contact to the head . Citing his previous history , league disciplinarian Brendan Shanahan suspended Torres for 25 games for the hit — tied for the second @-@ longest suspension for an on @-@ ice incident in modern NHL history — sidelining Torres for the rest of the playoffs . The league reduced Torres ' suspension to 21 games on appeal over the summer . He served 13 games of the suspension during the Stanley Cup playoffs and then missed the first 8 games of the 2012 – 13 NHL season , which was completed on February 1 , 2013 .
= = = San Jose and 41 @-@ game suspension = = =
On April 3 , 2013 , Torres was traded to the San Jose Sharks for a third @-@ round draft pick in the 2013 draft . On April 16 , 2013 , Torres made his first shootout attempt in two years against the Los Angeles Kings to give the Sharks the 3 @-@ 2 victory . Torres scored the game @-@ winning goal in overtime of Game Two of round one for the Sharks against his former team , the Vancouver Canucks . The Sharks swept the series .
In Game One of the second round of the 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs against the Kings , Torres recorded a hit on Jarret Stoll , injuring him . The hit was an illegal check to the head , and Torres was a repeat offender ; therefore , on May 16 , the NHL suspended Torres for the remainder of the second round , which the Sharks lost . On June 20 , 2013 the Sharks announced that they had re @-@ signed Torres to a three @-@ year contract . In the second 2013 preseason game against the Anaheim Ducks , Torres collided with Emerson Etem , causing Torres to injure his ACL , and was out until mid @-@ February of the 2013 – 14 NHL season . Torres returned to the Sharks on February 27 against the Flyers . Torres recorded three points during the Sharks opening round seven game loss to the Los Angeles Kings in the 2014 Stanley Cup Playoffs . He then missed the entire 2014 – 15 NHL season due to injury .
On October 3 , 2015 , in a preseason game against the Ducks , Torres was assessed a match penalty for a late , illegal check to the head of forward Jakob Silfverberg . The NHL stated the hit would be under review , and on October 5 , Torres was suspended a record @-@ shattering 41 games by the league , half of the regular season . Torres forfeited $ 440 @,@ 860 @.@ 29 in salary , which was deposited into the Players ' Emergency Assistance Fund . While the record for longest suspension is held by Billy Coutu , who was suspended for life in 1927 , Torres holds the distinction of the longest non @-@ lifetime ban , which was previously held by Chris Simon for an incident in 2007 . This is also the longest @-@ ever NHL suspension for a hit on another player . Torres did not appeal the suspension and apologized to Silfverberg . Sharks general manager Doug Wilson supported the suspension , saying Torres ' hit was " unacceptable and has no place in our game . "
After returning from his suspension , the Sharks assigned him to their AHL affiliate , the San Jose Barracuda on a conditioning loan . He never returned to the Sharks , as on February 22 , 2016 , San Jose sent Torres to the Toronto Maple Leafs along with two second round draft picks in exchange for Roman Polak and Nick Spaling .
= = International play = =
Torres represented Canada with the country 's under @-@ 20 team at the 2001 World Junior Championships in Moscow . He scored three goals and five points over seven games as Canada won the bronze medal . They lost the semi @-@ final to Finland before defeating Sweden 2 – 1 in the consolation game . Torres scored the game @-@ winning goal against Sweden 37 seconds into overtime .
= = Personal life = =
Torres was born in Toronto , Ontario , Canada to Juan and Anna Torres . His father emigrated from Mexico City with his family in the early 1970s , while his mother is from Lima , Peru , and is of Greek , Italian , and Serbian ancestry . Juan Torres worked several jobs to support his family , including car inspecting and assembly for General Motors , newspaper delivery for the Toronto Sun , construction and general contracting . Anna Torres stayed at home until after Torres and his siblings grew up , at which point she became a personal trainer . The two met in Toronto . At one point , Torres ' father became unemployed and the family applied to the Toronto Maple Leafs Foundation to financially support Torres ' hockey career . Torres is the second youngest among his three brothers .
Torres is married to Gianna , and they are residents of Whitchurch @-@ Stouffville .
On Halloween 2011 , Torres ' costume prompted criticism as he and his wife donned blackface dressed up as a rapper Jay @-@ Z and Gianna as Beyoncé
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
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= NK Maribor =
Nogometni Klub Maribor ( English : Maribor Football Club ) , commonly referred to as NK Maribor or simply Maribor , is a professional football club based in Maribor , Slovenia . Founded on 12 December 1960 , Maribor is one of only three football clubs in the country who have never been relegated from the Slovenian top flight 1 . SNL since its establishment in 1991 . They are regarded as a symbol of Slovenian football , particularly in their home region of Styria ( Slovene : Štajerska ) in the northeastern Slovenia .
Maribor is the most successful club in the country , having won 13 Slovenian PrvaLiga titles , nine Slovenian Cups and four Slovenian Supercups . The club 's most successful period was in the late 1990s and early 2000s , when they overwhelmingly dominated domestic football , winning seven successive league titles and three national cups . Following the 2008 – 09 season , Maribor became the dominant force in Slovenian football for the second time , having won six out of eight championships since then . Since 2011 the club also enjoys a fair amount of success in European football , reaching the group stage of the UEFA Champions League or the UEFA Europa League for four consecutive seasons between 2011 and 2014 . Prior to Slovenia 's independence in 1991 , Maribor played in the Yugoslav football system , where the club , apart from winning the Yugoslav second division in 1967 , had no major success during that period . They are one of only three Slovenian teams who participated in the country 's highest division , Yugoslav First League , between the end of World War II in 1945 and the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991 . In addition , they are the only Slovenian club and one of only four clubs from the former Yugoslavia who participated in group stage of the UEFA Champions League .
They have maintained a fierce rivalry with Olimpija from the capital Ljubljana , with whom they contested the Eternal Derby ( Večni derbi ) . Their other rivalry was against Mura from Murska Sobota and matches between the two were dubbed as the Prekmurian – Styrian derby ( Prekmursko @-@ štajerski derbi ) . However , both Olimpija and Mura folded and were dissolved following the 2004 – 05 season . In 2005 , the " successor " clubs , Bežigrad ( later renamed to Olimpija Ljubljana ) and Mura 05 were established , who regarded themselves as the continuation of the former clubs . Maribor also have a loyal and passionate fan base and the club has the highest average all @-@ time attendance in Slovenia .
The club 's home ground is the Ljudski vrt stadium , which has a capacity of 12 @,@ 702 seats . It was originally built in 1952 and later underwent a series of major reconstructions in the 1990s and 2000s . The club 's Academy , which is hailed as the best in the country , is responsible for youth development at the club and has enjoyed a fair amount of success in producing promising young players . Maribor 's nicknames are The Purples ( Vijoličasti ) and The Violets ( Vijolice ) , both referring to their primary colour purple . The club 's motto is One club , one honour ( En klub , ena čast ) .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
Maribor football club was founded on 12 December 1960 . The board of the newly established club then organized the presidential elections and Dr. Srečko Koren was appointed as the first club president , while Andrija Pflander was appointed as the first head coach and Oto Blaznik as the first team captain . The club played their first match on 5 February 1961 , when they defeated city rivals Kovinar 2 – 1 ( 0 – 0 ) , with Stefan Tolič scoring both goals . Although the team colours , purple and white , were chosen from the beginning , the team played its first match in a green and blue combination , as their violet jerseys were not available in time for the first match . The team won the Slovenian Republic League ( third tier of Yugoslav football ) in their first season and therefore won the right to contest the qualifications for the Yugoslav Second League . Andrija Pflander was the head coach of the team that won the Republic league . However , he had to step down from the position right before the start of the promotion play @-@ off due to illness . His successor was Vladimir Šimunić , the man who eventually guided the team to their promotion to the Yugoslav First League six years later . Maribor won the first two rounds of the qualifying play @-@ off and eventually defeated Croatian side Uljanik from Pula in the final qualifying phase with the score 2 – 1 on aggregate , therefore securing the right to play in the second Yugoslav division .
In 1961 the club received a new stadium named Ljudski vrt . On 2 September of that year football fans across Slovenia witnessed the birth of a new rivalry between Maribor and Olimpija Ljubljana . The first match between the two clubs was played in Ljubljana and ended in a 1 – 1 draw . Matches between these two clubs later became known in Slovenia as the Eternal derby ( Večni derbi ) . After five seasons , the average attendance of home matches was around 8 @,@ 000 spectators , and under the guidance of coach Simunič , the club won the second division title and managed to reach the Yugoslav first league , between the end of World War II in 1945 and the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991 .
= = = Yugoslav top division = = =
The club 's first match in the Yugoslav top division was played in 1967 against Macedonian side Vardar in Skopje ( 1 – 1 ) ; Maras scored the only goal for Maribor . The first top level home match was played on 27 August 1967 against Proleter Zrenjanin in front of 8 @,@ 000 spectators and Maribor won with the score 3 – 0 . The goals were scored by Kranjc , Arnejčič and Binkovski . During the same season , football fans across Slovenia witnessed the first ever match in the Yugoslav top flight involving two clubs from Slovenia , when Maribor hosted a match against their rivals Olimpija Ljubljana in front of 13 @,@ 000 spectators ( 0 – 0 ) . Every match between the two clubs during this period would be sold out , with crowd attendance sometimes as high as 20 @,@ 000 . The team finished their first season in Yugoslav top flight in 12th place .
During their five years in the top division , Maribor played a total of 166 matches and achieved 40 wins , 57 draws and 69 defeats , with a goal difference of 166 – 270 . Maribor 's highest league position was in the 1969 – 70 season when the club finished in 10th place in an 18 @-@ club league . The average league placement of the club in Yugoslav top flight was 13 @.@ 8 . The 1971 – 72 season was their last season in top division as the team finished last with 20 points . Mladen Kranjc , one of the best players in history of the club , was the best goalscorer for the team in each of its five seasons spent in the Yugoslav top division , having scored a total of 54 league goals , which eventually led to his transfer to one of the top Yugoslav clubs , Dinamo Zagreb .
In the next season , Maribor played in the second Yugoslav division and finished as the runners @-@ up , which meant that they qualified for the Yugoslav first division promotion play @-@ off . In the first qualifying round against Montenegrin side Budućnost , Maribor won on penalties and qualified for the decisive round against Proleter . The first leg was played in Maribor on 8 July 1973 , and is acknowledged as one of the most historic matches in history of the club as it still holds the club 's attendance record . There were 20 @,@ 000 spectators , 15 @,@ 000 of whom were already present in the stands almost three hours before kick off , eventually helping Maribor win the game 3 – 1 . However , the two @-@ goal advantage proved to be insufficient as Proleter won the second leg in Zrenjanin 3 – 0 and earned promotion with the score 4 – 3 on aggregate . In the second leg match when the score was 1 – 0 for the home team , Maribor had scored an equaliser in the 23rd minute , but the goal was disallowed . The later TV replay showed that the ball had actually crossed the goal line and that the goal should have stood .
After the dramatic play @-@ off against Proleter , the club entered a period of stagnation . During this period Maribor were again close to promotion to top division in the 1978 – 79 season when they finished in second place , six points behind Bosnian side Čelik .
= = = Bribery scandal and aftermath = = =
At the end of the 1980 – 81 season Maribor were celebrating as the club managed to avoid relegation , when the " Ball " ( Žoga ) bribery scandal emerged , and caused the club to be relegated from second tier to third by the decision of the Football Association of Yugoslavia disciplinary committee . The club had a secret fund that was used for bribing officials and opponents . The fund was abolished in 1968 after the club was promoted to the first division , but was later established again in 1976 . Some club officials were keeping track of the bribery expenses in their black book , which was later confiscated by the authorities . From the book it is clear that Maribor had bribed a total of 31 people . After the scandal and the subsequent relegation to third division , Maribor spent the following years bouncing between the second and third Yugoslav leagues until the independence of Slovenia in 1991 .
In 1988 Maribor joined MŠD Branik organization , to form Maribor Branik . Although the club uses only the name Maribor in domestic and international competitions it is still officially registered as NK Maribor Branik to this day . The club always had close ties to MŠD Branik as NK Branik Maribor , an association football club which was part of MŠD Branik , had been dissolved only a couple of months before Maribor was established and , many fans who had supported Branik simply switched to supporting Maribor as they viewed the club as the successor of Branik . In October that year Mladen Kranjc was involved in a tragic motorcycle accident in Dolnja Počehova . Considered to be one of the best goalscorers in the history of the club , he died at the age of 43 .
= = = After independence = = =
Following the independence of Slovenia , Slovenia 's best clubs joined the newly formed Slovenian League . Maribor were one of the league 's founding members , and are one of only three clubs , along with Gorica and Celje , who have never been relegated from the Slovenian top division . In the first couple of seasons , Maribor 's rivals Olimpija from Ljubljana , who have had a long tradition of playing in the Yugoslav first league and at the time still had their squad composed of players from that era , dominated the league . Although Olimpija dominated the league , Maribor still managed to win the first edition of the Slovenian Cup in 1992 . The final match was played in Ljubljana at Bežigrad Stadium versus Olimpija . It ended in a goalless draw after regular time and was won by Maribor after a penalty shoot @-@ out ( 4 – 3 ) . This was the first major success for Maribor . During the next season the team had their European début , appearing in the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup . They played their first European match on 19 August 1992 , when they hosted Ħamrun Spartans of Malta and won with the score 4 – 0 . Ante Šimundža scored the first historic goal of the match . Olimpija went on to win the first four domestic championships , until their streak was interrupted by Gorica who won it in the 1995 – 96 season . Maribor were runners @-@ up in the 1991 – 92 , 1992 – 93 and 1994 – 95 seasons , before finishing third in 1993 – 94 and then fourth in the 1995 – 96 season . During this period the club managed to win another Slovenian cup in 1993 – 94 , defeating Mura from Murska Sobota in the final with 3 – 2 on aggregate .
The 1996 – 97 season proved to be the turning point in the history of Maribor . The club stormed the Slovenian league and became national champions for the first time in their history . During this season average home attendance was 5 @,@ 289 spectators , which is still a record in the Slovenian League . The final match of the season was played on 1 June 1997 , against Beltinci and attracted a crowd of 14 @,@ 000 , which is also a record of the Slovenian top league . In that season Maribor also won the 1996 – 97 Slovenian Cup , thus winning the domestic Double , a feat also repeated in the 1998 – 99 season . After their first title in 1996 – 97 Maribor went on to win six more titles , bringing their total number to seven consecutive titles by 2003 . During this period the team also won three Slovenian cups and in the 1999 – 2000 season , the club , led by head coach Bojan Prašnikar , defeated Genk of Belgium ( 5 – 1 , 0 – 3 ) and French powerhouse Lyon ( 1 – 0 , 2 – 0 ) and qualify for the 1999 – 2000 UEFA Champions league . Maribor were drawn into the same group with Dynamo Kiev , Bayer Leverkusen and Lazio . To date , Maribor is one of only four clubs ( along with Dinamo Zagreb , Partizan and Hajduk Split ) from the former SFR Yugoslavia who participated in UEFA Champions League group stages since the breakup of the country in 1991 .
= = = Financial difficulties = = =
The 2003 – 04 Slovenian Cup was the last trophy won by Maribor before the darkest era of the club began . Between 2004 and 2008 , the club was plagued by financial difficulties , and Maribor even came close to being disbanded at one point . However , the club did not follow their rivals Olimpija Ljubljana and Mura on that path .
Due to their large debts , which at one point amounted to 4 million euros , the club could not afford to buy new players . As a consequence , the first team at the time consisted mostly of youth players mixed with a couple of foreign players brought to the club on free transfers . In the autumn of 2006 , the leadership of the club changed , with the debt still amounting to over 3 million euros , and it was not until January 2011 that the club announced that the debt had been paid in full . During this period , Maribor never finished above third place in the Slovenian league , and were runners @-@ up in the Slovenian Cup twice . They were , however , one of the 11 winners of the 2006 UEFA Intertoto Cup , in which they defeated Spanish side Villarreal in the final round , only a couple of months after Villareal had played in the semi @-@ final of the UEFA Champions League .
= = = Current status = = =
From the 2007 – 08 season onwards , Slovenian football legends Zlatko Zahovič as the sport director , and soon afterwards , Darko Milanič as the head coach , and former Maribor player Ante Šimundža as the assistant coach , were appointed to head the club 's sports department . On 10 May 2008 , the club re @-@ opened the renovated Ljudski vrt , which had undergone a major reconstruction that lasted almost 20 months . The first match played in the newly refurbished stadium was a league match against Nafta and was won 3 – 1 in front of 12 @,@ 435 spectators . At the start of 2008 – 09 season , Maribor entered history books as the first club who won 1 @,@ 000 points in the Slovenian top division , after a 2 – 1 away win against Rudar Velenje on 26 July 2008 . Under the guidance of head coach Darko Milanič , Maribor won all three domestic trophies available to them ( the Slovenian League , Cup , and Supercup ) in only two seasons with the club , thus becoming the first coach with all three domestic trophies won in Slovenian football . On 12 December 2010 , the club celebrated its 50th anniversary . With the 2 – 1 away victory over Primorje , on 21 May 2011 , Maribor secured its ninth Slovenian league title . Four days later the team played the Slovenian cup final at Stožice stadium and lost to Domžale 4 – 3 .
At the beginning of the 2011 – 12 season , Maribor played in the 2011 Slovenian Supercup against Domžale on 8 July 2012 and lost with the score 2 – 1 after regulation . This was the second consecutive loss for Maribor against Domžale in domestic cup finals in five weeks , after losing the Slovenian cup in May 2011 . In August 2011 , Maribor defeated Rangers and qualified for the group stage of the 2011 – 12 UEFA Europa League . They managed to get one point in six matches , holding Braga to a draw at the home turf . In the same season , Maribor won their tenth league title with a record numbers of points ( 85 ) . The league title was confirmed in the game against Triglav Kranj on 22 April 2012 with an 8 – 0 win . Furthermore , they won the Slovenian domestic cup on 23 May 2012 by defeating their Styrian rivals Celje after penalties , securing their seventh cup title . This was the third time that Maribor managed to win The Double and the first time since the 1998 – 99 season .
At the beginning of the 2012 – 13 season , Maribor played in their fourth successive Supercup final . The match was played on 8 July 2012 at Ljudski vrt stadium . Unlike in the previous two seasons , when the club finished as the runners @-@ up , they managed to win their second Supercup trophy this time , defeating their " eternal rivals " Olimpija Ljubljana 2 – 1 . Maribor qualified to the group stages of the 2012 – 13 UEFA Europa League for the second season in a row as one of the losers in the play @-@ off round of the 2012 – 13 UEFA Champions League , where they were eliminated by Dinamo Zagreb . They managed to get four points this time , defeating Panathinaikos and drawing with Tottenham Hotspur , both at home . Maribor confirmed their eleventh league title on 11 May 2013 , when they defeated Olimpija Ljubljana 2 – 1 . Like in the previous season , they again defeated Celje in the 2013 Cup Final , securing their fourth " Double " in the history .
In the 2013 – 14 season , Maribor qualified to the group stages of the Europa League for the third consecutive time after losing to Viktoria Plzeň in the Champions League play @-@ off stage . This time , the team earned seven points and progressed through the group stages for the first time after defeating Wigan Athletic 2 – 1 in the final matchday . In the Round of 32 , they were eliminated by the future competition winner Sevilla with an aggregate score of 4 – 3 . Maribor qualified for the UEFA Champions League group stages for the second time in their history on 26 August 2014 after eliminating Scottish club Celtic with an aggregate score of 2 – 1 in the play @-@ offs . They were drawn into the Group G alongside Chelsea , Schalke 04 and Sporting CP , where they managed to obtain three points in six games after a draw and a defeat against each team .
In the 2015 – 16 season , Maribor was eliminated from the European competitions after just two matches , being defeated by Astana in the second qualifying round of the UEFA Champions League , meaning the club failed to advance to the third qualifying round of the competition for the first time after the 2003 – 04 season . In the same season , Maribor failed to win the domestic title for the first time since 2009 – 10 after finishing in the second place behind Olimpija Ljubljana .
= = Social identity = =
= = = Kit and colours = = =
Throughout the entire history of Maribor the club 's main colour was purple . At the beginning of the club some officials were favouring the red and white colours , while the traditional colours of Branik were black and white . Because of the fact that many football teams in SFR Yugoslavia wore red @-@ white or black @-@ white jerseys , most notably Crvena Zvezda and Partizan , Maribor officials decided for a new and fresh combination . They decided to follow the example of Fiorentina , which at the time was one of the most successful clubs in Europe , and their purple and white combination . Oto Blaznik , the first captain in history of the club , was the one who proposed the combination after seeing the Italian side play . Eventually they changed the secondary colour to yellow . Today , Maribor play their home matches in purple and away matches in white kits . The team is nicknamed The Purples ( Vijoličasti ) ; another common nickname is The Violets ( Vijolice ) , both referring to their primary colour purple , present on players ' jerseys and in the club crest . The club is also continuously referred to as the Pride of Styria ( Štajerski ponos ) and as The Viole , the latter being popular predominantly in the region of the former Yugoslavia . Maribors ' current kit manufacturer is Adidas .
= = = Crest = = =
The badge of the club is one of the most recognizable sport symbols in Slovenia . It is based on the official emblem of the city of Maribor , which is turn based on a 14th @-@ century seal with minor differences . The badge is formed in a shape of a shield , and shows the former Piramida Castle with open doors that used to stand on top of the Pyramid Hill before it was demolished at the end of the 18th century . A violet blossom forms the backdrop . Unlike the coat of arms of the city of Maribor , the current badge of the club does not represent a white dove facing downwards to the castle but an athlete . At the top of the shield the name of the club and the year of its foundation is inscribed . The entire badge uses only two colours , purple and yellow . Previous versions of the crest included the colour white , a traditional third colour of the club , in the form of a white castle in the centre and a white ball that was on top of the shield . Since May 2012 , the official badge includes a yellow star above the crest , which indicates the first ten Slovenian League titles won by the club .
= = Stadium = =
The Ljudski vrt ( English : People 's Garden , German : Volksgarten ) stadium is the only stadium in Maribor that lies on the left bank of the river Drava . The stadium is a natural , cultural , architectural and sports landmark of the city . The stadium is named after a public park previously located in the area . A cemetery was also located on the same area before the stadium was built . The stadium was opened in 1952 and underwent a major reconstruction in the early 1960s . The club first started to compete in the Ljudski vrt in 1961 , when the current main stand was still under construction . The stand is notable for its 129 @.@ 8 metres long and 18 @.@ 4 m high concrete arch and is still the main stand of the stadium . In 1994 floodlights were installed and the stadium hosted its first evening match . Since then the stadium went through several renovations . The most notable was the one in 2008 when the stadium was completely refurbished . Presently , it has a capacity of 12 @,@ 702 seats .
Beside being the home ground of Maribor , the stadium also hosts matches of the Slovenia national football team and was their main venue used for the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifying matches . It was one of two stadiums in the country which hosted the national team in UEFA Euro 2012 , 2014 FIFA World Cup , and UEFA Euro 2016 qualifiers . The record attendance in the Yugoslav era was 20 @,@ 000 spectators , while the record for a Slovenian League match is 14 @,@ 000 spectators , achieved in the last match of the 1996 – 97 season .
= = Supporters = =
Since their inception in 1960 , Maribor have developed a loyal , passionate and dedicated fanbase and Maribor 's fans are considered the best in the country . After Slovenia declared independence in 1991 , most of the town 's industry perished and over 25 % of the population was unemployed . Still , the people remained loyal to the club . The club is by far the most popular football team in the country and is , in number of football supporters , second only to the Slovenia national football team . Besides the city of Maribor and the surrounding area , the club also has a large fan base in the regions of Styria ( Štajerska ) and Carinthia . A small number of supporters are also present in Ilirska Bistrica in the Slovenian Littoral ( Primorska ) . Soon after the foundation of Maribor , the club was branded as the citizens club , while their city rivals Železničar Maribor has always been branded as the club of the working class . This was mainly because Maribor was seen , by the fans , as the successor of Branik Maribor , a club that folded in 1960 . Many fans of Branik then started to cheer for Maribor , a club that was founded only couple of months later .
Since the establishment of the Slovenian league , PrvaLiga , Maribor had the highest average attendance in almost every season to date ( 20 out of 25 ) , and , overall , had more spectators on its home matches than the second and third most viewed clubs in the league combined . The highest attendance was in the 1996 – 97 season , when on average 5 @,@ 289 people attended Maribor 's matches , which is still a record in Slovenian club football . The highest attendance in a Slovenian league match was on 1 June 1997 , when Maribor played against Beltinci ( 14 @,@ 000 ) . In addition , they are the only club that gathered over one million people on their matches in Slovenian league , since its foundation in 1991 .
In April 2013 the club began with a project Base1960 ( Baza1960 ) , a joint project of Maribor and their fans with the goal of spreading fan awareness and loyalty towards the club and to establish violet bases ( Vijo 'lčne baze ) throughout the country , where Maribor fans would be able to hang out . The bases are usually pubs that were already gathering points for Maribor fans in the past . With the status of the official violet base , those pubs are now able to sell tickets for Maribor 's home and away matches and official fan merchandise or to organize fan zones during Maribor 's matches broadcast on television . Ljudski vrt is regarded as the main base , with 10 others across the eastern part of Slovenia opened as of November 2014 . The first violet base was opened on 29 April 2013 in Dravski Dvor , a small settlement couple of kilometers to the southeast of Maribor . Of the current 10 bases , nine are located in Styria and one in Carinthia .
The club also has an ultras group called Viole Maribor established in 1989 which is , by numbers and organization , considered the biggest in Slovenia . An apolitical group , the core of Viole consists of around 250 members , while the whole group has around 1 @,@ 000 registered members . They are located on the southern stand of the stadium which has a capacity of just over 2 @,@ 000 . The most Maribor fans gathered on an away match in domestic competitions was in 2001 , when 3 @,@ 000 fans gathered in Ljubljana , while the most fans gathered on an away match abroad was in 2014 during the club 's UEFA Champions League campaign , when 1 @,@ 500 fans gathered in London . Their biggest rivals are the Green Dragons of Olimpija Ljubljana . Since early 2000s another fan group emerged to support Maribor at their matches . The group is called ESS ( East Side Supporters ) and consists mostly of former members of Viole Maribor , now season tickets holders . They are , as the name implies , located at the east stand of the stadium .
Famous fans
Famous , non @-@ football related , supporters of NK Maribor are listed on this list alphabetically .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = Eternal derby = = =
Maribor 's biggest rivalry was with Olimpija Ljubljana , against whom they contested the Eternal derby ( Večni derbi ) . Olimpija folded and was dissolved in 2004 . Today , the continuation of the rivalry is considered as the matches between Maribor and the new Olimpija Ljubljana , established in 2005 as NK Bežigrad . The rivalry traced its roots back to the early 1960s , when the first match between the two clubs was played . The two teams represented the two largest cities in Slovenia , the capital city of Ljubljana and the second largest city Maribor , and both teams always had the largest fan bases in the country . Traditionally , Ljubljana represents the richer western part of the country , while Maribor is the center of the poorer eastern part . In addition , Ljubljana was always the cultural , educational , economic and political center of the country and Olimpija and its fans were considered as the representatives of the upper class . Maribor , on the other hand , was one of the most industrialized cities in Yugoslavia , and the majority of its fans were the representatives of the working class , which means that the rivalry usually had political , social , and cultural tensions as well .
The old rivalry reached its peak in the final round of the 2000 – 01 season , when one of the most celebrated matches in Slovenian League history was played . Olimpija met Maribor at their home stadium , Bežigrad , and both teams were competing for their fifth Slovenian League title . The home team needed a win for the title , while a draw was enough for Maribor . The atmosphere was electric days before the kick @-@ off , and the stadium with a capacity of 8 @,@ 500 was completely sold out . At the end , the match ended with a draw ( 1 – 1 ) and Maribor started to celebrate their fifth consecutive title in front of 3 @,@ 000 of their fans that gathered in Ljubljana that day .
An additional intensity to the rivalry is the fact that both Maribor and Olimpija always had support on their matches from ultras groups , called Viole Maribor ( supporting Maribor ) , and the Green Dragons , who support Olimpija . The two groups are the largest in the country , and it is not uncommon that the matches between the two clubs were sometimes interrupted by violent clashes between the two groups or with the police . On many occasions , before or after the matches , the fans of the two clubs would also meet up and fight on the streets . One of the worst incidents , in April 2010 after a match , resulted in a stabbing of a member of the Green Dragons who , with a group of friends , got into a fight with members of the Viole in Ljubljana 's railway station . However , to date , there have not been any fatalities in the country related to football violence .
Because the new Olimpija is supported by most of the fans of the previous Olimpija , including their ultras group , the Green Dragons , who have a long @-@ standing rivalry with Maribor 's own ultras group Viole Maribor , many see the matches between Maribor and the new club as the continuation of the rivalry and refer to it by the same name . However , there are many fans , either the ones from Maribor or the ones from Ljubljana , that do not share the same view and do not share similar beliefs , including part of the media such as RTV Slovenija and Večer . The overall statistics of the old and the new Olimpija are tracked separately by the Football Association of Slovenia and the Association of 1 . SNL . The first match between Maribor and the new Olimpija took place on 24 October 2007 in a Slovenian cup quarter @-@ final match that was won by Maribor , 3 – 1 . At the time Olimpija was still competing under the name Olimpija Bežigrad . Statistically , Maribor is the more successful club either in the case of matches only from the period from 1962 to 2005 or the whole period from 1962 to present day . Maribor is also much more successful in case of the matches against Olimpija , established in 2005 as Bežigrad .
= = = Prekmurian – Styrian derby = = =
The other major rivalry of the club was that against Mura from Murska Sobota . Similar to Olimpija , Mura also folded and was dissolved in 2004 and today the continuation of the rivalry is considered as the matches between Maribor and NŠ Mura , established in 2012 , who consider themselves , together with the fans of the old Mura , as the spiritual continuation of the dissolved club . The match between the two clubs was first played in 1967 in the time of SFR Yugoslavia . Although the first match was played in the late 1960s it was not until the independence of Slovenia in 1991 when most of the matches were played . Before the establishment of the 1 . SNL in 1991 both clubs had never played together in the top division and the rivalry became apparent only after the independence of Slovenia , when both clubs were among the top teams of the newly established national league . Mura comes from a small , rural town of Murska Sobota in eastern Slovenia which is the center of the poorest region in the country , Prekmurje . Prekmurje was , for about a thousand years , part of the Kingdom of Hungary , unlike other Slovene Lands . It therefore maintains certain specific linguistic , cultural and religious features that differentiate it from other traditional Slovenian regions . The Mura river , which runs on the border between Styria ( Štajerska ) , the capital of which is Maribor , and Prekmurje was therefore not just a natural barrier , but political as well . During the 1990s and early 2000s the two clubs were the most successful and popular teams in the eastern part of the country . The rivalry reached its peak in 2003 – 04 season when Mura hosted Maribor at home in the final round of the season . Before the match Maribor was leading the table and was close in winning their eighth consecutive title while the mid table position of Mura was predetermined before the final round . However , Mura won the match 2 – 1 and Maribor eventually finished the season on third place , losing the title by two points .
Mura also has support during their matches from their ultras group , named the Black Gringos . Statistically , both teams always enjoyed one of the biggest attendances on their matches and , in term of numbers , both teams had one of the largest fan bases in the country . The fact that Prekmurje is one of the smallest and least populated regions in Slovenia has made Mura 's fans labeled , by the general public , as one of the most loyal in the country . Statistically , Maribor is the more successful club , considering either the case of matches from the period from 1967 to 2005 , or the whole period from 1967 to present day .
= = Honours = =
= = = Yugoslavia = = =
League
Yugoslav Second League :
Winners ( 1 ) : 1966 – 67
Runners @-@ up ( 3 ) : 1963 – 64 , 1972 – 73 , 1978 – 79
Yugoslav Third League :
Winners ( 5 ) : 1960 – 61 , 1975 – 76 , 1981 – 82 , 1983 – 84 , 1985 – 86
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1987 – 88
Cup
Yugoslav Cup
Semi @-@ finalists ( 1 ) : 1967 – 68
Slovenian Republic Cup :
Winners ( 13 ) : 1961 , 1966 , 1967 , 1972 – 73 , 1973 – 74 , 1976 – 77 , 1978 – 79 , 1980 – 81 , 1982 – 83 , 1984 – 85 , 1985 – 86 , 1987 – 88 , 1988 – 89
Runners @-@ up ( 8 ) : 1963 , 1968 , 1969 , 1970 , 1971 , 1972 , 1983 – 84 , 1986 – 87
= = = Slovenia = = =
League
Slovenian First League :
Winners ( 13 ) : 1996 – 97 , 1997 – 98 , 1998 – 99 , 1999 – 2000 , 2000 – 01 , 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03 , 2008 – 09 , 2010 – 11 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15
Runners @-@ up ( 5 ) : 1991 – 92 , 1992 – 93 , 1994 – 95 , 2009 – 10 , 2015 – 16
Cup
Slovenian Cup :
Winners ( 9 ) : 1991 – 92 , 1993 – 94 , 1996 – 97 , 1998 – 99 , 2003 – 04 , 2009 – 10 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13 , 2015 – 16
Runners @-@ up ( 4 ) : 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08 , 2010 – 11 , 2013 – 14
Slovenian Supercup :
Winners ( 4 ) : 2009 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014
Runners @-@ up ( 3 ) : 2010 , 2011 , 2015
Doubles and Trebles
The Double ( League and Cup ) :
Winners ( 4 ) : 1996 – 97 , 1998 – 99 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13 ( as part of the Treble )
The Treble ( League , Cup and Supercup ) :
Winners ( 1 ) : 2012 – 13
Maribor 's tally of 13 Slovenian Championships and the total of nine Slovenian Cup titles is the highest in Slovenian football . Maribor holds the record for most consecutive league titles ( 7 and 5 respectively ) , ahead of Olimpija ( 4 ) and Gorica ( 3 ) . They are also the only team in the country that has achieved the Slovenian Championship and the Slovenian Cup doubles on more than one occasion ( 4 ) . In addition , they are the only club who has won the Slovenian version of the treble , having won the league , cup and supercup during the 2012 – 13 season . On their official website , UEFA states that Maribor has won one international cup , as Maribor was one of the winners of the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 2006 . However , the trophy itself was awarded to Newcastle United , the team that advanced farthest in the UEFA competitions that season . Maribor have the best top @-@ flight record in history , having finished below fourth place only once . Maribor also have the highest average league finishing position for the Slovenian league , with an average league placing of 2 @,@ 0 . In addition , they were the first team to win 1 @,@ 000 points in Slovenian top flight , achieving that with a 2 – 1 away victory against Rudar Velenje on 26 July 2008 .
= = Youth Academy = =
Maribor 's Academy is responsible for youth development at the club , with the goal of developing young players for the future . The academy is hailed as the best in Slovenia and has been enjoying a fair amount of success in producing promising young players . The academy is composed of four youth selections , ranging from U14 to U19 , and the Children 's Football School , composed by players attending the primary school . Totally , there are over 210 youth players in the system who are trained by professional staff within the club . The vision of the club and its youth system is not only to produce new players but also to prepare young children for the future and life without football . Therefore , each child who wants to be a member of the academy must also be successful not only on the football field but also in the field of education . During the last few years the club has also spread the football school activities to primary schools in the city of Maribor and the surrounding area , in the form of circles , where as part of the Children 's Football School around 300 of the youngest footballers train .
Since the independence of Slovenia in 1991 and the establishment of Maribor 's youth system in its present form , the academy has been the most successful in the country . U19 team holds the record for most titles than any other team , having won six times . The same team has also won three Youth Cups and is therefore the most triumphant team in their category . Other teams are equally successful as both U17 and U15 teams holds the record for most titles ( five ) in their category . Even younger selections of the club also play in top @-@ flight of their respective age categories and share similar success . In addition , Maribor 's youth squads became the first in the country that were able to achieve league victories in the four highest youth levels ( U19 , U17 , U15 and U13 ) during the course of one season . Maribor 's youth academy give , on average , at least 15 players per season to the Slovenia national football team youth selections and players from the academy are continuously tracked by renowned European clubs . In 2012 , a record eight Maribor players were called to the Slovenia national under @-@ 17 football team for the 2012 UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Football Championship .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
The following list of players is current as of the date shown in the update status at the foot of the listing and player inclusion , team positions , nationalities and squad numbers depicted for the players is based solely on the first team squad information that is published and regularly maintained under the " Players " tab of the NK Maribor official website . For the information about reserves and youth players see Maribor B.
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
Information in the above player listing is current as of 24 June 2016 .
= = = Retired numbers = = =
19 – Stipe Balajić , defender ( 1998 – 2005 )
Number 19 is the only retired number in history of Maribor . It was retired in honour of Stipe Balajić , who was with the club for eight seasons in the late 1990s and early 2000s , during the club 's most successful period . He is considered as one of the best players to ever play for the club and played , both , as a defender and midfielder . In his last couple of seasons he was also team captain . Balajić earned a total of 229 official appearances for the club , scoring 37 goals in the process . He played his last match with the club on 7 July 2005 , in a friendly match against his former club Hajduk Split . He started the match and was then substituted after 19 minutes of play in a symbolic gesture .
= = = Purple warrior = = =
The Purple warrior ( Vijoličasti bojevnik or Vijol 'čni bojevnik ) , is a trophy awarded to the most distinguished player in the past year . The winner of the trophy is decided by a popular vote on the official website of the club , where everybody can participate . The voting starts at the end of the year and is usually finished in a month . To be eligible to participate in a poll , a player must appear for the club in at least 10 official matches . The voting was first introduced at the end of 2007 – 08 season , with Czech defender Lubomir Kubica selected as the first ever trophy winner . Defender Elvedin Džinić was the first domestic player that won the award . Between 2007 and 2011 the voting was conducted during the summer and awarded to the best player of the past season , however , the trophy for the season 2011 – 12 was not awarded . Instead , the club had decided to prolong the voting and award the trophy to the most distinguished player of the past full year ( from January until December ) . Marcos Tavares was awarded the award five times , all in successive years .
Winners
= = Notable managers = =
The following managers have won at least one trophy when in charge of Maribor after the independence of Slovenia in 1991 :
= = Club officials = =
Note : Flags indicate staff member 's primary nationality . They may hold more than one secondary nationalities .
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= Neil Peart =
Neil Ellwood Peart , OC ( / ˈpɪərt / ; born September 12 , 1952 ) , is a Canadian @-@ American musician and author , best known as the drummer and primary lyricist for the rock band Rush . Peart has received numerous awards for his musical performances , including an induction into the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame in 1983 , making him the youngest person ever so honored . He is known for his technical proficiency and stamina .
Peart grew up in Port Dalhousie , Ontario ( now part of St. Catharines ) . During adolescence , he floated between regional bands in pursuit of a career as a full @-@ time drummer . After a discouraging stint in England to concentrate on his music , Peart returned home , where he joined a local Toronto band , Rush , in the summer of 1974 .
Early in his career , Peart 's performance style was deeply rooted in hard rock . He drew most of his inspiration from drummers such as Keith Moon and John Bonham , players who were at the forefront of the British hard rock scene . As time passed , he began to emulate jazz and big band musicians Gene Krupa and Buddy Rich . In 1994 , Peart became a friend and pupil of jazz instructor Freddie Gruber . It was during this time that Peart decided to revamp his playing style by incorporating jazz and swing components . Gruber was also responsible for introducing him to the products of Drum Workshop , the company whose products Peart currently endorses .
In addition to being a musician , Peart has published several memoirs about his travels . Peart is also Rush 's primary lyricist . In writing lyrics for Rush , Peart addresses universal themes and diverse subject matter including science fiction , fantasy , and philosophy , as well as secular , humanitarian and libertarian themes . All five of his books are travel @-@ based non @-@ fiction , though they diverge into his life and these subjects as well . Peart currently resides in Santa Monica , California , with his wife , photographer Carrie Nuttall , and daughter , Olivia Louise . He also has a home in the Laurentian Mountains of Quebec , Canada , and spends time in Toronto for recording purposes .
On December 7 , 2015 , Peart announced his retirement from music in an interview with Drumhead Magazine , though bandmate Geddy Lee suggests Peart 's comments are taken out of context .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early childhood = = =
Peart was born in a Hamilton hospital to Glen and Betty Peart and lived his early years on his family 's farm in Hagersville , on the outskirts of Hamilton . The first child of four , his brother Danny and sisters Judy and Nancy were born after the family moved to St. Catharines when Peart was two years old . At this time his father became parts manager for Dalziel Equipment , an International Harvester farm machinery dealer . In 1956 the family moved to the Port Dalhousie area of the town . Peart attended Gracefield School and later Lakeport Secondary School , and describes his childhood as happy and says he experienced a warm family life . By early adolescence he became interested in music and acquired a transistor radio , which he would use to tune into pop music stations broadcasting from Toronto , Hamilton , Welland , Ontario and Buffalo , New York .
His first exposure to musical training came in the form of piano lessons , which he later said in his instructional video A Work in Progress did not have much impact on him . He had a penchant for drumming on various objects around the house with a pair of chopsticks , so for his 13th birthday his parents bought him a pair of drum sticks , a practice drum and some lessons , with the promise that if he stuck with it for a year they would buy him a kit .
His parents bought him a drum kit for his 14th birthday and he began taking lessons from Don George at the Peninsula Conservatory of Music . His stage debut took place that year at the school 's Christmas pageant in St. Johns Anglican Church Hall in Port Dalhousie . His next appearance was at Lakeport High School with his first group , The Eternal Triangle . This performance contained an original number titled " LSD Forever " . At this show he performed his first solo .
Peart got a job in Lakeside Park , in Port Dalhousie on the shores of Lake Ontario , which later inspired a song of the same name on the Rush album Caress of Steel . He worked on the Bubble Game and Ball Toss , but his tendency to take it easy when business was slack resulted in his termination . By his late teens , Peart had played in local bands such as Mumblin ’ Sumpthin ’ , the Majority , and JR Flood . These bands practiced in basement recreation rooms and garages and played church halls , high schools and roller rinks in towns across Southern Ontario such as Mitchell , Seaforth , and Elmira . They also played in the northern Ontario city of Timmins . Tuesday nights were filled with jam sessions at the Niagara Theatre Centre .
= = = Career before joining Rush = = =
At eighteen years of age , after struggling to achieve success as a drummer in Canada , Peart travelled to London , England hoping to further his career as a professional musician . Despite playing in several bands and picking up occasional session work , he was forced to support himself by selling trinkets to tourists in a souvenir shop called The Great Frog on Carnaby Street .
While in London he came across the writings of novelist and Objectivist Ayn Rand . Rand 's writings became a significant early philosophical influence on Peart , as he found many of her writings on individualism and Objectivism inspiring . References to Rand 's philosophy can be found in his early lyrics , most notably " Anthem " from 1975 's Fly by Night and " 2112 " from 1976 's 2112 .
After eighteen months of dead @-@ end musical gigs , and disillusioned by his lack of progress in the music business , Peart placed his aspiration of becoming a professional musician on hold and returned to Canada . Upon returning to St. Catharines , he worked for his father selling tractor parts at Dalziel Equipment .
= = = Joining Rush = = =
After returning to Canada , Peart was recruited to play drums for a St. Catharines band known as Hush , who played on the South Ontario bar circuit . Soon after , a mutual acquaintance convinced Peart to audition for the Toronto @-@ based band Rush , which needed a replacement for its original drummer John Rutsey . Geddy Lee and Alex Lifeson oversaw the audition . His future band mates describe his arrival that day as somewhat humorous , as he arrived in shorts , driving a battered old Ford Pinto with his drums stored in trashcans . Peart felt the entire audition was a complete disaster . While Lee and Peart hit it off on a personal level ( both sharing similar tastes in books and music ) , Lifeson had a less favourable impression of Peart . After some discussion , Lee and Lifeson accepted Peart 's maniacal British style of drumming , reminiscent of The Who 's Keith Moon .
Peart officially joined the band on July 29 , 1974 , two weeks before the group 's first US tour . Peart procured a silver Slingerland kit which he played at his first gig with the band , opening for Uriah Heep and Manfred Mann in front of over 11 @,@ 000 people at the Civic Arena , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania on August 14 , 1974 .
= = = Early career with Rush = = =
Peart soon settled into his new position , also becoming the band 's primary lyricist . Before joining Rush , he had written few songs , but , with the other members largely uninterested in writing lyrics , Peart 's previously underutilized writing became as noticed as his musicianship . The band was working hard to establish themselves as a recording act , and Peart , along with the rest of the band , began to undertake extensive touring .
His first recording with the band , 1975 's Fly by Night , was fairly successful , winning the Juno Award for most promising new act , but the follow @-@ up , Caress of Steel , for which the band had high hopes , was greeted with hostility by both fans and critics . In response to this negative reception , most of which was aimed at the B side @-@ spanning epic " The Fountain of Lamneth " , Peart responded by penning " 2112 " on their next album of the same name in 1976 . The album , despite record company indifference , became their breakthrough and gained a following in the United States . The supporting tour culminated in a three @-@ night stand at Massey Hall in Toronto , a venue Peart had dreamed of playing in his days on the Southern Ontario bar circuit and where he was introduced as " The Professor on the drum kit " by Lee .
Peart returned to England for Rush 's Northern European Tour and the band stayed in the United Kingdom to record the next album , 1977 's A Farewell to Kings in Rockfield Studios in Wales . They returned to Rockfield to record the follow @-@ up , Hemispheres , in 1978 , which they wrote entirely in the studio . The recording of five studio albums in four years , coupled with as many as 300 gigs a year , convinced the band to take a different approach thereafter . Peart has described his time in the band up to this point as " a dark tunnel . "
= = = Playing style reinvention = = =
In 1992 , Peart was invited by Buddy Rich 's daughter , Cathy Rich , to play at the Buddy Rich Memorial Scholarship Concert in New York City . Peart accepted and performed for the first time with the Buddy Rich Big Band . Peart remarked that he had little time to rehearse , and noted that he was embarrassed to find the band played a different arrangement of the song than the one he had learned . Feeling that his performance left much to be desired , Peart decided to produce and play on two Buddy Rich tribute albums titled Burning for Buddy : A Tribute to the Music of Buddy Rich in 1994 and 1997 in order to regain his aplomb .
While producing the first Buddy Rich tribute album , Peart was struck by the tremendous improvement in ex @-@ Journey drummer Steve Smith 's playing , and asked him his " secret . " Smith responded he had been studying with drum teacher Freddie Gruber .
In early 2007 , Peart and Cathy Rich again began discussing yet another Buddy tribute concert . At the recommendation of bassist Jeff Berlin , Peart decided to once again augment his swing style with formal drum lessons , this time under the tutelage of another pupil of Freddie Gruber , Peter Erskine , himself an instructor of Steve Smith . On October 18 , 2008 , Peart once again performed at the Buddy Rich Memorial Concert at New York 's Hammerstein Ballroom . The concert has since been released on DVD .
= = = Family tragedy and recovery = = =
On August 10 , 1997 , soon after the conclusion of Rush 's Test for Echo Tour on July 4 , 1997 , Peart 's first daughter and then @-@ only child , 19 @-@ year @-@ old Selena Taylor , was killed in a single @-@ car accident on Highway 401 near the town of Brighton , Ontario . His common @-@ law wife of 22 years , Jacqueline Taylor , succumbed to cancer only 10 months later on June 20 , 1998 . Peart attributes her death to the result of a " broken heart " and called it " a slow suicide by apathy . She just didn 't care . "
In his book Ghost Rider : Travels on the Healing Road , Peart writes that he told his bandmates at Selena 's funeral , " consider me retired . " Peart took a long sabbatical to mourn and reflect , and travelled extensively throughout North and Central America on his motorcycle , covering 88 @,@ 000 km ( 55 @,@ 000 mi ) . After his journey , Peart decided to return to the band . Peart wrote the book as a chronicle of his geographical and emotional journey .
Peart was introduced to photographer Carrie Nuttall in Los Angeles by long @-@ time Rush photographer Andrew MacNaughtan . They married on September 9 , 2000 . In early 2001 , Peart announced to his bandmates that he was ready to return to recording and performing . The product of the band 's return was the 2002 album Vapor Trails . At the start of the ensuing tour in support of the album , it was decided amongst the band members that Peart would not take part in the daily grind of press interviews and " meet and greet " sessions upon their arrival in a new city that typically monopolize a touring band 's daily schedule . Peart has always shied away from these types of in @-@ person encounters , and it was decided that exposing him to a lengthy stream of questions about the tragic events of his life was not necessary .
Since the release of Vapor Trails and his reunion with bandmates , Peart has returned to work as a full @-@ time musician . Rush released an all @-@ covers EP , Feedback in June 2004 and their 18th studio album Snakes & Arrows in May 2007 , supported by tours in 2004 , 2007 , and 2008 .
In the June 2009 edition of Peart 's website 's News , Weather , and Sports , titled " Under the Marine Layer " , he announced that he and Nuttall were expecting their first child . Olivia Louise Peart was born later that year .
Peart and the rest of the band toured North America , South America and Europe on the Time Machine Tour , which concluded on July 2 , 2011 , at The Gorge Amphitheatre in George , Washington . Following this tour , the band released their most recent studio album , Clockwork Angels on June 12 , 2012 . On January 22 , 2015 , the band officially announced the Rush R40 Tour , celebrating the fortieth anniversary of Peart 's membership in the band .
In the mid @-@ 2010s , Peart acquired American citizenship .
= = = Retirement = = =
Peart announced his retirement in an interview in December 2015 :
Lately Olivia has been introducing me to new friends at school as ' My dad — He 's a retired drummer . ' True to say — funny to hear . And it does not pain me to realize that , like all athletes , there comes a time to ... take yourself out of the game . I would rather set it aside than face the predicament described in our song ' Losing It ' …
Peart had been suffering from chronic tendonitis and shoulder problems . Bandmate Geddy Lee 's interpretation of Peart 's announcement was that Peart was merely confirming his retirement from touring .
= = Musicianship = =
= = = Style and influences = = =
Peart 's drumming skill and technique are well @-@ regarded by fans , fellow musicians , and music journalists . His influences are eclectic , ranging from Pete Thomas , John Bonham , Michael Giles , Ginger Baker , Phil Collins , Steve Gadd , Stewart Copeland , Michael Shrieve and Keith Moon , to fusion and jazz drummers Billy Cobham , Buddy Rich , Bill Bruford and Gene Krupa . The Who was the first group that inspired him to write songs and play the drums . Peart is distinguished for playing " butt @-@ end out " , reversing stick orientation for greater impact and increased rimshot capacity . " When I was starting out " , Peart said , " if I broke the tips off my sticks I couldn 't afford to buy new ones , so I would just turn them around and use the other end . I got used to it , and continue to use the heavy end of lighter sticks – it gives me a solid impact , but with less ' dead weight ' to sling around . "
Peart had long played matched grip , but shifted to traditional as part of his style reinvention in the mid @-@ 1990s under the tutelage of jazz coach Freddie Gruber . He played traditional grip throughout his first instructional DVD A Work in Progress , and on Rush 's Test For Echo studio album . Peart went back to using primarily matched , though he does switch to traditional from time to time when playing songs from Test for Echo and during moments when he feels traditional grip is more appropriate , such as the rudimentary snare drum section of his drum solo . He discusses the details of these switches in the DVD Anatomy of a Drum Solo .
= = = Equipment = = =
With Rush , Peart has played Slingerland , Tama , Ludwig , and Drum Workshop drums , in that order .
Peart played Zildjian A @-@ series cymbals and Wuhan china cymbals until the early 2000s when he switched to Paragon , a line created for him by Sabian . In concert , Peart uses an elaborate 360 @-@ degree drum kit , with a large acoustic set in front and electronic drums to the rear .
During the late 1970s , Peart augmented his acoustic setup with diverse percussion instruments including orchestra bells , tubular bells , wind chimes , crotales , timbales , timpani , gong , temple blocks , bell tree , triangle , and melodic cowbells . Since the mid @-@ 1980s , Peart has replaced several of these pieces with MIDI trigger pads . This was done in order to trigger sounds sampled from various pieces of acoustic percussion that would otherwise consume far too much stage area . Some purely electronic non @-@ instrumental sounds are also used . One classic MIDI pad used is the Malletkat Express which is a two @-@ octave electronic MIDI device that resembles a xylophone or piano . The Malletkat Express is composed of rubber pads for the " keys " so that any stick can be used . Beginning with 1984 's Grace Under Pressure , he used Simmons electronic drums in conjunction with Akai digital samplers . Peart has performed several songs primarily using the electronic portion of his drum kit . ( e.g. " Red Sector A " , " Closer to the Heart " on A Show of Hands and " Mystic Rhythms " on R30 . ) Peart 's drum solos also feature sections performed primarily on the electronic portion of his kit .
Shortly after making the choice to include electronic drums and triggers , Peart added what has become another trademark of his kit : a rotating drum riser . During live Rush shows the riser allows Peart to swap the prominent portions of the kit ( traditional acoustic in front , electronic in back ) . A staple of Peart 's live drum solos has been the in @-@ performance rotation @-@ and @-@ swap of the front and back kits as part of the solo itself . This special effect provides both a symbolic transition of drum styles within the solo and a visual treat for the audience .
In the early 2000s , Peart began taking full advantage of the advances in electronic drum technology , primarily incorporating Roland V @-@ Drums and continued use of samplers with his existing set of acoustic percussion . His digitally @-@ sampled library of both traditional and exotic sounds has expanded over the years with his music .
In April 2006 , Peart took delivery of his third DW set , configured similarly to the R30 set , in a Tobacco Sunburst finish over curly maple exterior ply , with chrome hardware . He refers to this set , which he uses primarily in Los Angeles , as the " West Coast kit " . Besides using it on recent recordings with Vertical Horizon , he played it while composing parts for Rush 's album , Snakes & Arrows . It features a custom 23 @-@ inch bass drum ; all other sizes remain the same as the R30 kit .
On March 20 , 2007 Peart revealed that Drum Workshop prepared a new set of red @-@ painted DW maple shells with black hardware and gold " Snakes & Arrows " logos for him to play on the Snakes & Arrows Tour .
Peart has also designed his own signature series drumstick with Pro @-@ Mark . The Promark PW747W , Neil Peart Signature drumsticks , are made of Japanese White Oak , which adds more weight than a standard hickory stick . They have the thickness of a standard 5A ( 0 @.@ 551 " , 1 @.@ 4 cm ) but are longer ( 16 @.@ 25 " , 41 @.@ 3 cm ) with a thicker taper and larger olive shaped wooden tip . When Rush held their Time Machine Tour , Pro @-@ Mark released three limited edition sticks , each with one of the three designs selected from Peart 's " Steam Punk " tour kit printed with copper ink . Some other artists who use the Neil Peart Signature series include Ben Johnston of Biffy Clyro , Richie Hayward of Little Feat and Paul Garred of The Kooks .
During the 2010 @-@ 11 Time Machine Tour Peart used a new DW kit which was outfitted with copper @-@ plated hardware and time machine designs to match the tour 's steampunk themes . Matching Paragon cymbals with clock imagery were also used .
= = = Solos = = =
Peart is noted for his distinctive in @-@ concert drum solos , characterized by exotic percussion instruments and long , intricate passages in odd time signatures . His complex arrangements sometimes result in complete separation of upper- and lower @-@ limb patterns ; an ostinato dubbed " The Waltz " is a typical example . His solos have been featured on every live album released by the band . On the early live albums ( All the World 's a Stage & Exit ... Stage Left ) , the drum solo was included as part of a song . On all subsequent live albums through Time Machine 2011 : Live in Cleveland , the drum solo has been included as a separate track . The Clockwork Angels Tour album includes three short solos instead of a single long one : two interludes played during other songs and one standalone .
Peart 's instructional DVD Anatomy of a Drum Solo is an in @-@ depth examination of how he constructs a solo that is musical rather than indulgent , using his solo from the 2004 R30 30th anniversary tour as an example .
= = Lyrics = =
Peart is the main lyricist for Rush . Literature has always heavily influenced his writings and , as such , he has tackled a wide range of subjects . In his early days with Rush , much of his lyrical output was influenced by fantasy , science fiction , mythology and philosophy . However , nearly as much would deal with real world or personal issues such as life on the road and parts of his adolescence .
The song " 2112 " focuses on the struggle of an individual against the collectivist forces of a totalitarian state . This became the band 's breakthrough release , but also brought unexpected criticism , mainly because of the credit of inspiration Peart gave to Ayn Rand in the liner notes . " There was a remarkable backlash , especially from the English press , this being the late seventies , when collectivism was still in style , especially among journalists , " Peart said . " They were calling us ' Junior fascists ' and ' Hitler lovers . ' It was a total shock to me " .
Weary of ideological fealty to Rand 's philosophy of Objectivism , Peart has sought to remind listeners of his eclecticism and independence in interviews . He did not try to argue in defence of Rand 's views , saying " For a start , the extent of my influence by the writings of Ayn Rand should not be overstated . I am no one 's disciple . "
The 1980 album Permanent Waves saw Peart cease to use fantasy and mythological themes . 1981 's Moving Pictures showed that Peart was still interested in heroic , mythological figures , but now placed firmly in a modern , realistic context . The song " Limelight " from the same album is an autobiographical account of Peart 's reservations regarding his own popularity and the pressures with fame . From Permanent Waves onward , most of Peart 's lyrics began to revolve around social , emotional , and humanitarian issues , usually from an objective standpoint and employing the use of metaphors and symbolic representation .
1984 's Grace Under Pressure strings together such despondent topics as the Holocaust ( " Red Sector A " ) and the death of close friends ( " Afterimage " ) . Starting with 1987 's Hold Your Fire and including 1989 's Presto , 1991 's Roll the Bones , and 1993 's Counterparts , Peart would continue to explore diverse lyrical motifs , even addressing the topic of love and relationships ( " Open Secrets " , " Ghost of a Chance " , " Speed of Love " , " Cold Fire " , " Alien Shore " ) a subject which he purposefully avoided in the past , out of fear of using clichés . 2002 's Vapor Trails was heavily devoted to Peart 's personal issues , along with other humanitarian topics such as the 9 / 11 terrorist attacks ( " Peaceable Kingdom " ) . The album Snakes & Arrows dealt primarily and vociferously with Peart 's opinions regarding faith and religion . The lyrics of the album 's song " Faithless " exhibit Peart 's life stance , which has been closely identified with secular humanism . Peart has only explicitly discussed his religious views in his book The Masked Rider : Cycling in West Africa , in which he writes " I 'm a linear thinking agnostic , but not an atheist , folks . "
Opinions of Peart 's lyrics have always been divided . While fans have lauded them as thoughtful and intelligent , some critics have called them overwrought and bombastic . In 2007 , he was ranked No. 2 ( after Sting ) on Blender magazine 's list of " worst lyricists in rock " . In contrast , Allmusic has called Peart " one of rock 's most accomplished lyricists . "
= = Political views = =
For most of his career , Peart had never publicly identified with any political party or organization in Canada or the United States . Even so , his political and philosophical views have often been analyzed through his work with Rush and through other sources . In October 1993 , shortly before that year 's Canadian federal election , Peart appeared with then @-@ Liberal Party leader Jean Chrétien in an interview broadcast in Canada on MuchMusic . In that interview , Peart stated he was an undecided voter who supported Quebec federalism .
Peart has often been categorized as an Objectivist and an admirer of Ayn Rand . This is largely based on his work with Rush in the 1970s , particularly the song " Anthem " and the album 2112 ; the latter specifically credited Rand 's work . However , in his 1994 Rush Backstage Club Newsletter , while contending the " individual is paramount in matters of justice and liberty , " Peart specifically distanced himself from a strictly Objectivist line . In a June 2012 Rolling Stone interview , when asked if Rand 's words still speak to him , Peart replied , " Oh , no . That was forty years ago . But it was important to me at the time in a transition of finding myself and having faith that what I believed was worthwhile . " Peart has also ascribed to a philosophy that he has called " Tryism , " which means that anything that one tries to attain will be attained if one tries hard enough .
Although Peart is sometimes assumed to be a " conservative " or " Republican " rock star , he has criticized the Republican Party by stating that the philosophy of the party is " absolutely opposed " to Christ 's teachings . In 2005 he described himself as a " left @-@ leaning libertarian , " and is often cited as a libertarian celebrity . In July 2011 , Peart reiterated those views , calling himself a " bleeding @-@ heart libertarian " .
In a 2015 interview with Rolling Stone , Peart stated that in US politics he supports the Democratic Party .
= = Books = =
Peart is the author of five non @-@ fiction books , the latest released in September 2012 . His growth as an author predates the published work by several years ( not including his work as Rush 's primary lyricist ) , through private letters and short travelogues sent out to a small circle of friends and family .
Peart 's first book , titled The Masked Rider : Cycling in West Africa , was written in 1996 about a month @-@ long bicycling tour through Cameroon in November 1988 . The book details Peart 's travels through towns and villages with four fellow riders . The original had a limited print run , but after the critical and commercial success of Peart 's second book , Masked Rider was re @-@ issued and remains in print as of 2006 .
After losing his wife and ( at the time ) only daughter , Peart embarked on a lengthy motorcycle road trip spanning North America . His experiences were penned in Ghost Rider : Travels on the Healing Road . Peart and the rest of the band were always able to keep his private life at a distance from his public image in Rush . However , Ghost Rider is a first @-@ person narrative of Peart on the road , on a BMW R1100GS motorcycle , in an effort to put his life back together as he embarked on an extensive journey across North America .
Years later , after his marriage to Nuttall , Peart took another road trip , this time by car . In his third book , Traveling Music : The Soundtrack of my Life and Times , he reflects on his life , his career , his family and music . As with his previous two books , it is a first person narrative .
Thirty years after Peart joined Rush , the band found itself on its 30th anniversary tour . Released in September 2006 , Roadshow : Landscape With Drums , A Concert Tour By Motorcycle details the tour both from behind Neil 's drumkit and on his BMW R1150GS and R1200GS motorcycles .
Peart 's next book , Far and Away : A Prize Every Time , was published by ECW Press in May 2011 . This book , which he worked on for two years , is based around his travelling in North and South America . It tells how he found in a Brazilian town a unique combination of West African and Brazilian music . In 2014 , a follow @-@ up book , Far and Near : On Days like These , was published by ECW . It covers travels in North America and Europe .
Peart worked with science fiction author Kevin J. Anderson to develop a novelization of Rush 's 2012 album Clockwork Angels ; the book was published by ECW Press . Snippets of the band 's lyrics can be found throughout the story .
= = Other books = =
Drumbeats ( 1985 ) - with Kevin J. Anderson
Rhythm & Light ( 2010 ) - Neil Peart photographed by Carrie Nuttall
Clockwork Angels ( 2012 ) - written by Kevin J. Anderson , based on the story and lyrics by Neil Peart .
Taking Center Stage - A Lifetime Of Live Performance ( 2013 ) - by Joe Bergamini
Clockwork Angels - The Graphic Novel ( 2015 ) - written by Kevin J. Anderson , Neil Peart & artwork by Nick Robles .
Clockwork Lives ( 2015 ) - written by Kevin J. Anderson & Neil Peart
= = Non @-@ Rush music projects = =
Jeff Berlin 's 1985 album Champion , played drums on two songs , the title track " Champion , " and " Marabi . "
Vertical Horizon 's 2009 album Burning the Days - drums on 3 songs including " Save Me from Myself , " " Welcome to the Bottom , " and " Even Now "
Vertical Horizon 's 2009 album Burning the Days - " Even Now " - co @-@ written by Matt Scannell and Neil Peart
Vertical Horizon 's 2013 album Echoes from the Underground - drums on 2 songs including " Instamatic " and " South for the Winter "
Burning for Buddy : A Tribute to the Music of Buddy Rich ASIN : B001208NUQ
Burning for Buddy : A Tribute to the Music of Buddy Rich , Vol . 2 ASIN : B000002JD4
Peart had a brief cameo in the 2007 film Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film for Theaters , in which samples of his drumming were played .
Peart also had a brief cameo in the 2008 film Adventures of Power and in the DVD extra does a drum @-@ off competition .
= = DVDs = =
Apart from Rush 's video releases as a band , Peart has released the following DVDs as an individual :
A Work in Progress
Anatomy of A Drum Solo S.l. : Hudson Music : Distributed by Hal Leonard . 2005 . ISBN 1 @-@ 4234 @-@ 0700 @-@ 8
The Making Of Burning For Buddy ( A Tribute To The Music Of Buddy Rich ) ASIN : 0739045059
Taking Center Stage : A Lifetime of Live Performance Distributed by Hudson Music . 2011 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4584 @-@ 1174 @-@ 7
Fire on Ice : The Making of the Hockey Theme Distributed by Drum Channel . 2011 . ASIN : B00481YQPW
= = Awards and honours = =
Peart has received the following awards in the Modern Drummer magazine reader 's poll :
Hall of Fame : 1983
Best Rock Drummer * : 1980 , 1981 , 1982 , 1983 , 1984 , 1985 , 1986 , 2006 , 2008
Best Multi @-@ Percussionist * : 1983 , 1984 , 1985 , 1986
Best Percussion Instrumentalist : 1982
Most Promising New Drummer : 1980
Best All Around : 1986
1986 Honor Roll : Rock Drummer , Multi @-@ Percussion
( * – As a member of the Honor Roll in these categories , he is no longer eligible for votes in the above categories . )
Best Instructional Video : 2006 , for Anatomy of A Drum Solo
Best Drum Recording of the 1980s , 2007 , for " YYZ " from Exit ... Stage Left
Best Recorded Performance :
1980 : Permanent Waves
1981 : Moving Pictures
1982 : Exit ... Stage Left
1983 : Signals
1985 : Grace Under Pressure
1986 : Power Windows
1988 : Hold Your Fire
1989 : A Show of Hands
1990 : Presto
1992 : Roll the Bones
1993 : Counterparts
1997 : Test for Echo
1999 : Different Stages
2002 : Vapor Trails
2004 : R30
2007 : Snakes & Arrows
2011 : Time Machine
2012 : Clockwork Angels
Peart has received the following awards from DRUM ! magazine for 2007 :
Drummer of the Year
Best Progressive Rock Drummer
Best Live Performer
Best DVD ( Anatomy Of A Drum Solo )
Best Drumming Album ( Snakes & Arrows )
Peart received the following awards from DRUM ! magazine for 2008 :
Drummer of the Year
Best Progressive Rock Drummer ( Runner @-@ Up )
Best Mainstream Pop Drummer ( Runner @-@ Up )
Best Live Drumming Performer
Peart received the following awards from DRUM ! magazine for 2009 :
Drummer Of The Year
Best Progressive Rock Drummer
Peart received the following awards from DRUM ! magazine for 2010 :
Drummer of the Year
Best Live Performer ( Runner @-@ Up )
Best Progressive Rock Drummer ( Runner @-@ Up )
Along with his bandmates Lee and Lifeson , Peart was made an Officer of the Order of Canada on May 9 , 1996 . The trio was the first rock band to be so honoured , as a group . Peart was inducted into the Canadian Songwriter Hall of Fame along with bandmates Lifeson and Lee . On April 18 , 2013 , Rush was inducted into the Rock And Roll Hall Of Fame .
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= The Answer 's at the End =
" The Answer 's at the End " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released in 1975 on his final album for Apple Records , Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) . Part of the song lyrics came from a wall inscription at Harrison 's nineteenth @-@ century home , Friar Park , a legacy of the property 's original owner , Sir Frank Crisp . This aphorism , beginning " Scan not a friend with a microscopic glass " , had resonated with Harrison since he bought the property in 1970 , and it was a quote he often used when discussing his difficult relationship with fellow ex @-@ Beatle Paul McCartney .
Harrison 's adaptation of the verse for " The Answer 's at the End " coincided with a period of personal upheaval , following the harsh criticism that his 1974 North American tour had received from a number of influential concert reviewers . The song 's plea for tolerance recalls Harrison 's 1970 hit song " Isn 't It a Pity " , and in part of its musical arrangement , " The Answer 's at the End " bears the influence of Nina Simone 's 1972 cover version of that earlier composition .
Like much of the Extra Texture album , the song has traditionally enjoyed a mixed reception from music critics and biographers – being labelled " archaic parlour poetry " and a " bleak assessment of the human condition " on one hand , and a " gorgeously melodic song of forgiveness " on the other . The backing musicians on the recording include members of the band Attitudes , among them David Foster and Jim Keltner , who were signed to Harrison 's Dark Horse record label at the time .
= = Background = =
In March 1970 , George Harrison and his first wife , Pattie Boyd , moved into their Victorian Gothic residence at Friar Park in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames , Oxfordshire . The 120 @-@ room house was built in the 1890s on the site of a thirteenth @-@ century friary by Frank Crisp , a City of London solicitor and microscopist . Harrison was immediately taken with Crisp 's penchant for whimsy , the legacies of which included interior features such as doorknobs and light switches shaped as monks ' faces ( which meant " tweaking " a nose in order to turn each light on ) , and a carving of a monk 's head that showed him smiling on one side and frowning on the other . A keen horticulturalist and an authority on medieval gardening , Crisp established 10 acres of formal gardens , which similarly reflected his eccentric tastes .
From midway through the twentieth century until 1969 , ownership of Friar Park resided with the Roman Catholic Church . As a result , paint masked some of Crisp 's inscriptions inside the house , but outside , signs reading " Don 't keep off the grass " , " Herons will be prosecuted " and " Eton boys are a Harrowing sight " remained intact .
Harrison also discovered inscriptions with a more profound meaning , which he described to his Hare Krishna friend Shyamasundar Das as " like songs really , about the devil , about friendship , life " . One example was " Shadows we are and shadows we depart " , written on a stone sundial ; another began : " Scan not a friend with a microscopic glass / You know his faults , now let his foibles pass ... " This four @-@ line verse was written above an entrance @-@ way in a garden wall , and it was an aphorism that Harrison soon took to quoting in interviews . On 28 April 1970 , just over two weeks after the Beatles ' break @-@ up , he used the words during an interview for New York 's WPLQ Radio , as Village Voice reporter Howard Smith repeatedly pushed for details on the animosity between Paul McCartney and the other three Beatles . In October 1974 – towards the end of what Harrison termed a " bad domestic year " , following his split with Boyd , and shortly before his troubled North American tour with Ravi Shankar – he used the same quote in an interview with BBC Radio 's Alan Freeman , when again discussing the current relationship among the four ex @-@ Beatles .
= = Composition = =
Harrison wrote his first Friar Park @-@ inspired composition , " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " , within two months of moving in . As with the " Crispisms " that surfaced in the lyrics to his 1974 single " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , a number of years elapsed before he incorporated the " Scan not a friend " inscription into a song . In 1975 , it provided the central theme to " The Answer 's at the End " , a composition that , theologian Dale Allison has written , " expresses the personal doubts and religious uncertainty George experienced in the mid @-@ 1970s " . This temporary uncertainty contrasted with his previous devotion to a Hinduism @-@ aligned spiritual path , Allison notes . It was also a period marked by Harrison 's excessive use of alcohol and cocaine – a symptom of his despondency following the 1974 North American tour and the generally unfavourable reception afforded his Dark Horse album .
The song begins in the key of D , before changing key to F for the choruses . In its musical mood , authors Robert Rodriguez and Elliot Huntley liken the released recording to " Isn 't It a Pity " , issued on Harrison 's 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass , while Simon Leng describes " The Answer 's at the End " as a ballad set to a " mellow , reflective soul mood " , like much of its parent album , Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) .
According to the way he renders Crisp 's inscription in his 1980 autobiography , I , Me , Mine , Harrison made a minor alteration to the original text 's third line ( " Life is one long enigma , true , my friend " ) for his opening verse :
Scan not a friend with a microscopic glass
You know his faults , now let his foibles pass
Life is one long enigma , my friend
So read on , read on , the answer 's at the end .
In another passage from I , Me , Mine , read out by his son Dhani in the 2011 documentary George Harrison : Living in the Material World , Harrison explains that these words helped him reach a better understanding of human relationships and others around him .
The theme of tolerance is further reflected in the song 's chorus , where Harrison urges : " Don 't be so hard on the ones that you love / It 's the ones that you love , we think so little of ... " The chorus lyrics echo the message of " Isn 't It a Pity " , in this case , author Ian Inglis writes , providing a " bleak assessment of the human condition " .
The second verse begins with an example of what Harrison biographer Alan Clayson views as the " restricted code " found in the lyrics on much of Extra Texture . Harrison sings , " The speech of flowers excels the flowers of speech / But what 's often in your heart is the hardest thing to reach " – the second line of which , Allison writes , " is surely [ Harrison ] talking about his inability to find God , who for him dwells , above all , inside the human being " . Allison suggests that , with the singer describing life as first an " enigma " and then a " mystery " , the previous certainties of his faith have disappeared ; true to the song title , Allison continues , " Only death will reveal ... whether his religious beliefs have been true or false . "
As a further reference to the sentiment regarding friendship expressed in " Isn 't It a Pity " , the middle section of " The Answer 's at the End " reflects the influence of Nina Simone 's 1972 cover of that earlier song . According to his recollection in I , Me , Mine , Harrison added this section , or coda , when recording " The Answer 's at the End " . In the lines " And isn 't it a pity how / We hurt the ones we love the most of all ... " , Inglis notes the influence of the 1944 pop standard " You Always Hurt the One You Love " .
In the final half @-@ verse , following a brief instrumental passage , Harrison personalises the second line of Crisp 's text to " You know my faults , now let my foibles pass " . Rodriguez remarks that the subject of reserving judgement would have resonated with Harrison at this time , given the " shellacking " he had recently received in music publications such as Rolling Stone .
Among the former Beatle 's biographers , interpretations differ over the message of Extra Texture songs such as " The Answer 's at the End " , with regard to his spirituality . Like Dale Allison , Gary Tillery writes of Extra Texture revealing Harrison 's " inner turmoil at having strayed from his faith " . Leng views this composition as " a deliberate tempering of tone rather than a change in fundamental beliefs " , however , with the song 's choruses " attenuat [ ing ] the search for universal solutions to a simpler , earthbound observation " . Joshua Greene similarly writes that Harrison had " regained strength and relaxed his missionary zeal " during 1975 . Greene references " The Answer 's at the End " while stating that " a modest appeal for tolerance " had now replaced the singer 's earlier " exhortations to chant and warnings about rebirth in the material world " .
= = Recording = =
Harrison taped the basic track for " The Answer 's at the End " at A & M Studios in Los Angeles on 22 April 1975 . During the previous month , Harrison attended a press party held by McCartney and the latter 's band Wings , on board the Queen Mary at Long Beach – an event that marked the first social meeting between the two former bandmates since December 1970 . McCartney biographer Howard Sounes views Harrison 's attendance as evidence of a " Beatles rapprochement " , five years after their break @-@ up .
Authors Nicholas Schaffner and Rodriguez have commented on the rushed and expedient nature of the sessions for Extra Texture , an album that saw out Harrison 's commitments to EMI @-@ affiliated Apple Records and allowed him to sign with his own , A & M @-@ distributed label , Dark Horse Records . Rather than use his Friar Park studio , Harrison recorded the album at a facility he admitted to finding " technically limiting " , since he was in Los Angeles overseeing projects by his various Dark Horse acts when studio time became available , following the cancellation of sessions for Splinter 's second album . Another of these acts was Attitudes , a band put together by his friend , session drummer Jim Keltner . " The timing was perfect , " Leng writes of Harrison 's approach to making Extra Texture , " as this latest signing to Dark Horse provided a ready @-@ made backup band , close at hand . "
Although Attitudes guitarist Danny Kortchmar did not play on the album , " The Answer 's at the End " was one of two songs that featured all three of the other band members : Keltner , pianist / musical arranger David Foster and bassist / lead singer Paul Stallworth . Another guest musician on the recording was keyboard player Gary Wright , a regular contributor to Harrison 's solo work throughout the 1970s and soon to enjoy a career breakthrough with his Dream Weaver album ( 1975 ) . A & M engineer Norman Kinney , who had carried out the mix down for the Concert for Bangladesh recordings four years before , added the song 's percussion , which the mastering sheet lists as tambourine and shaker . As for all the songs on the album , overdubs on the basic track were carried out between 31 May and 6 June .
Huntley describes " The Answer 's at the End " as " the first of the piano songs " on Extra Texture . While piano and other keyboard instrumentation was typically favoured throughout the album , the song also contains multiple guitar parts , in keeping with the sound more traditionally associated with Harrison . Credited to Harrison , these parts comprise 12 @-@ string acoustic guitar , electric guitar arpeggios over the choruses , and a brief solo . During the quieter , " isn 't it a pity how ... " codas , Leng writes , Harrison " semi @-@ scats " the words , " gospel style , over sundown jazz piano " – a vocal affectation that reflected his immersion in the soul genre . Following the first of these codas , the full band returns for the short instrumental break , after which Harrison repeats the choruses , with his singing growing " more impassioned " , Huntley writes . The song ends with what Leng calls a second " smoochy coda " .
A string arrangement , arranged and conducted by Foster , was overdubbed on 6 June at A & M. Over the codas , where Huntley notes " the merest veneer of the strings " accompanying Harrison 's vocal , this orchestral part incorporates aspects of the string arrangement on John Lennon 's recent hit song " # 9 Dream " , which in turn had been inspired by John Barham 's score for " Try Some , Buy Some " , co @-@ produced by Harrison and Phil Spector in 1971 .
= = Release and reception = =
" The Answer 's at the End " was released on 22 September 1975 as the second track on Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) . Music critics immediately derided the song for its funereal tempo , which was all the more obvious after the upbeat album opener , " You " .
Dave Marsh of Rolling Stone referred to " The Answer 's at the End " as " padded subterfuge " which could " easily " have been cut down to two minutes from its length of 5 : 32 . In the NME , Neil Spencer wrote that , following " You " , " hopes of Hari 's revival are comprehensively dashed by five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes of the inordinately dreary ' The Answer 's At The End ' " . Spencer described it as " one of Hari 's Homespun Homilies full of crusty chunks of potted wisdom " .
= = Retrospective assessment = =
Writing 21 years after its release , Alan Clayson dismissed the track , calling it " archaic parlour poetry " , on an album full of " long , dull melodies " . Simon Leng admires the " warm sonic scenes " of " The Answer 's at the End " and recognises it as an " interesting " composition , one that " ponders the nature of relationships " in a similar way to Bob Dylan 's 1975 album Blood on the Tracks . Leng groups the song with another Extra Texture track , " Grey Cloudy Lies " , however , as " two slabs of introspection " that suffer from being " part calls for tolerance and part expression of downright despair " . " [ T ] he old , bold George is no more , " Leng laments of " The Answer 's at the End " . " The certainties of ' The Lord Loves the One ' seem to have dissipated ... The passionate searcher of ' Hear Me Lord ' sounds defeated , asking for a little ' live and let live ' . " While similarly noting the bleakness of the subject matter , Ian Inglis opines : " The lack of optimism in his words is matched by a largely inconspicuous melody and an inconsistent production in which alternate piano , strings , and guitar interludes fail to provide a coherent musical context . "
" The Answer 's at the End " has its admirers , with music journalist Rip Rense citing the song as an example of how " even the rather hasty " Extra Texture offers " some of the most affecting moments in [ Harrison 's ] career " . With reference to the song 's second verse , Rense adds : " and how many songwriters have ever sung a line as wonderful as ' The speech of flowers excels the flowers of speech ? ' " Authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter recognise " The Answer 's at the End " as a " highlight " of the album , while Elliot Huntley terms it a " gorgeously melodic song of forgiveness " . Huntley praises the track 's " epic sweep " and writes of the Simone @-@ inspired coda : " This is one of my favourite moments of the entire Harrison back @-@ catalogue , especially when the ensemble returns to see the song through to its conclusion ... "
AllMusic 's Richard Ginell describes " The Answer 's at the End " as one of Harrison 's " most beautifully harmonized , majestic , strangely underrated ballads " . Along with the Extra Texture tracks " You " and " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " , Ginell rates the song " among the best " from Harrison 's solo career . In his book covering the Beatles ' first decade as solo artists , Fab Four FAQ 2 @.@ 0 , Robert Rodriguez includes " The Answer 's at the End " in a chapter that discusses eight overlooked Harrison compositions , and notes the song 's " grace and majesty " , reminiscent of " Isn 't It a Pity " . In December 2001 , Billboard editor @-@ in @-@ chief Timothy White , a longstanding friend of the former Beatle , titled his Harrison obituary " The Answer 's at the End " , a piece that went on to win an ASCAP @-@ Deems Taylor Award for excellence in music journalism .
Reviewing the 2014 Apple Years reissue of Extra Texture , for The Second Disc , Joe Marchese highlights " the touching ' The Answer 's at the End ' " among the " top @-@ draw material " found on the album . In his review for Paste magazine , Robert Ham views the song as a " [ moment ] when Harrison 's focus returns " on Extra Texture and one of the album 's ballads that " cut deep " . New Zealand music critic Graham Reid writes that " the melancholy and string @-@ enhanced The Answer 's At the End makes a lovely plea " , and he suggests that had Harrison recorded the track with Phil Spector , it " might not have sounded out of place " on All Things Must Pass .
= = Personnel = =
George Harrison – vocals , 12 @-@ string acoustic guitar , electric guitars , slide guitar , backing vocals
David Foster – piano , string arrangement
Gary Wright – organ
Paul Stallworth – bass
Jim Keltner – drums
Norm Kinney – tambourine , shaker
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= Soft Light ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Soft Light " is the twenty @-@ third episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It originally aired on the Fox network on May 5 , 1995 . It was written by Vince Gilligan and directed by James A. Contner . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology , or overarching fictional history . " Soft Light " received a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 5 and was watched by 8 @.@ 1 million households . The episode generally received mixed to positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , an ex @-@ student of Scully 's ( Kate Twa ) asks the agents to help her with her first investigation concerning a number of disappearances with very few clues . Mulder ponders the idea of spontaneous human combustion but rethinks it when they find a man , Chester Ray Banton ( Tony Shalhoub ) , who is afraid of his own shadow . Banton is a scientist researching dark matter , and his shadow has somehow developed the ability to disintegrate people who come across it .
" Soft Light " was the first The X @-@ Files episode written by Gilligan , who would go on to write several acclaimed episodes such as " Pusher " , " Bad Blood " and " Memento Mori " . " Soft Light " was one of the first episodes written by someone not on the main writing staff for The X @-@ Files . Originally , the script called for Banton 's shadow to be able to move independently , but it was rewritten to save on animation costs . In addition , the character of X ( Steven Williams ) was not in the script initially . His character was added to give Banton a legitimate fear of the government .
= = Plot = =
At a hotel in Richmond , Virginia , Chester Ray Banton ( Tony Shalhoub ) frantically knocks on the door of a room , seeking a person named Morris . Banton 's shouts attract the attention of Patrick Newirth , a guest in the room across the hall . When Newirth looks through his peephole , Banton 's shadow slips beneath the door . Newirth suddenly evaporates , leaving a strange burn mark on the floor . Banton realizes what has happened and flees the scene .
The case of Newirth 's death , the latest in several of its kind , is assigned to local detective Kelly Ryan ( Kate Twa ) . She seeks help from Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , her former instructor at the FBI Academy . Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) also takes part in the investigation , believing Newirth died from spontaneous human combustion . While searching the home of an earlier victim , the agents realize that both she and Newirth had recently traveled by train . Meanwhile , Banton sits in a train station , cautiously looking at the floor ; because the room is lit by soft light , his shadow cannot be seen . After he leaves , Banton is confronted by two police officers patrolling the area . Despite Banton 's warnings , the officers step into his shadow and disappear , leaving more burn marks .
The following day , while reviewing the station 's surveillance tapes , Mulder sees footage of Banton staring at the floor . After blowing up the frame , Mulder sees the logo for a company called Polarity Magnetics on Banton 's jacket . The agents visit Polarity Magnetics , where they meet scientist Christopher Davey ( Kevin McNulty ) . He identifies Banton , a physicist conducting research into dark matter . Davey reveals that Banton disappeared five weeks earlier after an incident in his laboratory in which he was locked in a target room with an active particle accelerator and exposed to a large amount of subatomic particles . His account is enough for Scully to consider spontaneous human combustion , but Mulder is now doubtful of this theory .
The agents find Banton at the train station , but he runs to a poorly lit area . He declares that walking into his shadow will kill the agents , so Mulder shoots out the overhead lights . Banton allows himself to be taken to a mental hospital , where he is put in a room with soft light per his own request . He tells the agents that the accident in his laboratory caused his shadow to behave like a black hole , splitting atoms into component particles and reducing matter into pure energy . Banton claims that the deaths were all accidents , and that the government wants to exploit him . Detective Ryan and her superior officer stop the questioning , declaring the case closed , despite Mulder 's objections . Mulder contacts X ( Steven Williams ) , who assures him that the government has no interest in Banton . However , X and two associates later attempt to remove Banton from the hospital by cutting the power . In the process , the two attendants are killed when the emergency lights turn on and Banton 's shadow falls upon them . Banton flees from the hospital .
Banton returns to Polarity Magnetics and is confronted by Ryan , whom he reluctantly kills with his shadow when she tries to arrest him . Banton orders Davey to destroy him with the particle accelerator , but Davey reveals that he has been helping the government hunt him down . Davey locks Banton in with the particle accelerator , but is shot by X. Mulder and Scully arrive soon after , seemingly too late to save Banton from being vaporized by the accelerator ; Mulder realizes that X has betrayed him , and tells X to never contact him again . The case is considered closed , but Mulder notes that Davey disappeared after the incidents . The episode ends as X enters a research facility where experiments are being performed on a despairing Banton .
= = Production = =
" Soft Light " was written by Vince Gilligan and directed by James A. Contner . Gilligan was a fan of The X @-@ Files , and after talking about the show to his agent , who was a relative of series creator Chris Carter , he arranged a meeting between Gilligan and Carter . During it , Gilligan praised the show , and Carter asked if the writer had any ideas for it , to Gilligan 's surprise . His reply was that he had been observing his shadow and thought it would be " creepy " if it began moving independently . Gilligan wrote the episode as a freelancer ; after the episode was finished , Carter asked him to join the staff .
Gilligan inserted a reference to the villain Eugene Victor Tooms from the first season episodes " Squeeze " and " Tooms " in a conversation between Ryan and Mulder . The episode represents one of the first entries in the series to be written by someone from outside the main writing staff of The X @-@ Files . Originally , the script called for Banton 's shadow to be able to move independently ; Carter and writer Howard Gordon rewrote the story to remove this aspect . Gilligan later noted , " they rewrote the episode [ … ] this saved an enormous amount of money in animation costs . " In addition , the character of X was not in the first draft of the script . However , the series staff realized that Banton 's fear of having the government control him should be " more than just paranoia " . Thus , X was written into the story . Writer Frank Spotnitz later noted , " it had been a long time since X had done anything and the character really needed to grow . "
The episode guest stars Tony Shalhoub as Dr. Banton . Shalhoub , who had a recurring role on the NBC series Wings , was not familiar with The X @-@ Files when he was offered the part because at the time he did not watch much television . Instead , he was sent the script and enjoyed it — due to the show 's similarities to The Twilight Zone — and agreed to appear in the episode . When Shalhoub informed people that he was going to Vancouver to film an episode of the series , he claimed that " the response was unbelievable " . Shalhoub was impressed with the on @-@ location filming that the series did ; he noted , " Ninety @-@ nine percent of our filming on Wings is done on a soundstage , while most of their material is shot on location in and around Vancouver . It 's an ideal city because it gives producers so many options . "
The train station was filmed at both Via Rail 's Pacific Central Station and the Pacific Marine Training Institute in Vancouver . The Pacific Marine Training Institute initially only allowed filming after 5 pm , before the persistence of the location managers led the dean of the station to allow the crew to commence filming at 2 pm . During production , Gilligan financed a trip to the show 's filming locations in Vancouver and followed production with a video camera , a feat then unheard of for a writer on The X @-@ Files .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Soft Light " was originally aired in the United States on the Fox Broadcasting Company on May 5 , 1995 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on February 13 , 1996 on BBC One . In its original broadcast , it was watched by 8 @.@ 1 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It received an 8 @.@ 5 rating and 15 share among viewers , meaning that 8 @.@ 5 percent of all households in the United States and 15 percent of all people watching television at the time , viewed the episode .
" Soft Light " received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a " B – " and noted that the episode " gains points for the obscure subject matter " but " loses them for the strained conspiratorial element " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club also gave it a " B – " . He praised the cold open for its strangeness and X 's involvement , but thought that the explanation for Banton 's shadow was not satisfactorily fleshed out . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . The two wrote positively of the episode 's case , calling it one wherein " Mulder and Scully get to investigate properly , coming up with theories that they later build on or retract . " Shearman and Pearson also wrote positively of the episode 's conclusion , noting that " there 's no better illustration for distrusting the government than the brilliant closing scene " which features Shalhoub " fixed to a chair , bombarded with flashes of light , as one single tear rolls down his terrified face . " Other reviews were decidedly more critical . John Keegan from Critical Myth awarded the episode a 5 out of 10 and wrote , " Overall , this episode falls short due to a completely ludicrous central concept , only partially countered by an interesting resolution highlighting the more sinister side of Informant X. Much like last season ’ s final few episodes , this season is ending with plenty of hints that Mulder and Scully are pushing the wrong buttons . "
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= Lavochkin La @-@ 152 =
The Lavochkin La @-@ 152 , ( USAF reporting name - Type 4 ) , and its variants , was a jet fighter prototype designed and manufactured by the Lavochkin Design Bureau ( OKB ) shortly after the end of World War II . Derived from the Lavochkin La @-@ 150 , the 152 used several different engines , but the program was canceled as other fighters with more powerful engines and swept wings showed more promise .
= = Design and development = =
= = = Izdeliye 152 = = =
Following the limited success of the 150 , drastic changes were introduced to improve performance and ease of maintenance . The RD @-@ 10 engine , rated at 8 @.@ 8 kN ( 2 @,@ 000 lbf ) of thrust , was moved to the front of the nose and its cowling formed the bottom of the forward fuselage . This position minimized thrust losses due to the length of the intake duct and allowed the engine to be changed much more easily than its predecessor . The cockpit was widened and moved to a position over the mid @-@ set wings , even with the engine 's exhaust nozzle . The pilot 's seat back was armored and he was protected by an armor plate to his front and a bulletproof windscreen . Three fuel tanks were positioned ahead of the cockpit and one behind it with a total capacity of 620 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 370 lb ) of fuel . The removable , mid @-@ mounted wings used several different laminar flow airfoils over their span . Each wing had a single spar , slotted flaps and ailerons . The tricycle undercarriage retracted into the fuselage , which meant that the aircraft had a very narrow ground track . The aircraft was armed with three 23 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) Nudelman @-@ Suranov NS @-@ 23 autocannon , two on the starboard side of the aircraft 's nose and the other on the port side . Each gun had 50 rounds of ammunition .
The 152 made its first flight on 5 December 1946 and the manufacturer 's trials completed on 23 June 1947 . State acceptance trials commenced on 12 July , but the prototype crashed on the eighth flight when the engine failed on approach . The maximum speed attained by the 152 before its crash was only 840 kilometers per hour ( 520 mph ) .
= = = Izdeliye 154 = = =
The Lavochkin OKB decided to improve the performance of the 152 in late 1946 by replacing the RD @-@ 10 engine with a more powerful Lyulka TR @-@ 1 turbojet of 12 @.@ 3 kN ( 2 @,@ 800 lbf ) thrust . The design work was completed in September 1947 , and construction began of a prototype shortly afterward , but the engine was not yet ready for testing and the project was canceled . The only other significant difference from the 152 was that each cannon was furnished with 75 rounds of ammunition .
= = = Izdeliye 156 = = =
Meanwhile , the OKB had been developing two afterburning versions of the RD @-@ 10 to increase the engine 's power . The more successful model was only 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) longer and weighed an additional 31 kilograms ( 68 lb ) more than the original engine . Its power , however , was increased by an additional 3 @.@ 3 kN ( 740 lbf ) , over 30 % more thrust . This engine was designated the izdeliye YuF by the bureau and was fitted into an aircraft 152 prototype in November 1946 , initially designated as the 150D ( Dooblyor - Second ) . This was changed to Aircraft 156 the following month .
In addition to the more powerful engine , the aircraft now had an ejection seat , additional cockpit armor , and a revised canopy . More importantly , it was fitted with new wings with a greater span and more surface area ; they also had a new airfoil designed to delay Mach tuck . The area of the tailplane and the vertical stabilizer was also increased . Two prototypes were built and the first one was completed in February 1947 and made its first flight on 1 March . The second prototype joined the manufacturer 's trials later that month . One of these aircraft participated in the Tushino flypast on 3 August 1947 , where it was given the USAF reporting name of Type 5 . The additional power increased the aircraft 's top speed by 40 – 70 km / h ( 25 – 43 mph ) over the 152 . The second prototype began state acceptance trials on 9 September and demonstrated a maximum speed of 905 km / h ( 562 mph ) at an altitude of 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 560 ft ) . It could reach 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) in four minutes using afterburner . The aircraft was rejected by the Soviet Air Forces when the trials were concluded on 28 January 1948 . The report said that the YuF engine was required more work before it was ready for production , the aircraft had problems with longitudinal stability , excessive stick forces from the ailerons and elevators , and the undercarriage was troublesome . Lavochkin consequently canceled the program .
= = = Izdeliye 174TK = = =
An experimental version of Izdeliye 156 was built in 1947 under the name of Izdeliye 174TK ( Tonkoye Krylo - thin wing ) . It had a very thin , straight wing of 6 % thickness , believed to be the thinnest yet flown in the world , and an imported Rolls @-@ Royce Derwent V engine , rated at 15 @.@ 6 kN ( 3 @,@ 500 lbf ) , mounted in the nose . The three NS @-@ 23 cannon had to be repositioned on the bottom of the nose to accommodate the engine . It was first flown in January 1948 and had a top speed of 970 km / h ( 600 mph ) at sea level . It reached an altitude of 5 @,@ 000 meters in only 2 @.@ 5 minutes , but even these impressive gains over the 156 were inferior to the swept @-@ wing Lavochkin La @-@ 160 that had flown nine months earlier and the program was canceled .
= = Variants = =
Izdeliye 154 - A second 152 airframe with a Lyulka TR @-@ 1 turbojet . Canceled due to delays with the engine .
Izdeliye 156 - Originally known as Aircraft 152D . A modified 152 with a YuF engine , an afterburning version of the RD @-@ 10 .
Izdeliye 174TK - A thin @-@ wing version of the 156 with a Rolls @-@ Royce Derwent engine , but performance was already overshadowed by the lower @-@ powered Aircraft 160 so further development abandoned .
= = Specifications ( Izdeliye 156 ) = =
Data from Early Soviet Jet Fighters
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 9 @.@ 12 m ( 29 ft 11 in )
Wingspan : 8 @.@ 52 m ( 27 ft 11 in )
Wing area : 13 @.@ 24 m2 ( 142 @.@ 5 sq ft )
Empty weight : 2 @,@ 398 kg ( 5 @,@ 287 lb )
Gross weight : 3 @,@ 521 kg ( 7 @,@ 762 lb )
Fuel capacity : 756
Powerplant : 1 × YuF afterburning version of RD @-@ 10 turbojet , 8 @.@ 5 kN ( 1 @,@ 900 lbf ) thrust dry , 10 @.@ 3 kN ( 2 @,@ 300 lbf ) with afterburner
Performance
Maximum speed : 905 km / h ( 562 mph ; 489 kn )
Range : 680 km ( 423 mi ; 367 nmi )
Service ceiling : 10 @,@ 700 m ( 35 @,@ 105 ft )
Rate of climb : 23 @.@ 6 m / s ( 4 @,@ 650 ft / min )
Wing loading : 264 kg / m2 ( 54 lb / sq ft )
Armament
Guns : 3 × 23 mm Nudelman @-@ Suranov NS @-@ 23 autocannon with 190 rounds total
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= Minoru Yasui =
Minoru " Min " Yasui ( Japanese : 安井稔 Yasui Minoru , October 19 , 1916 – November 12 , 1986 ) was a Japanese American lawyer from Oregon . Born in Hood River , Oregon , he earned both an undergraduate degree and his law degree at the University of Oregon . He was one of the few Japanese Americans after the bombing of Pearl Harbor who fought laws that directly targeted Japanese Americans or Japanese immigrants . His case was the first case to test the constitutionality of the curfews targeted at minority groups .
His case would make its way to the United States Supreme Court , where his conviction for breaking curfew was affirmed . After internment during most of World War II , he moved to Denver , Colorado in 1944 . In Denver , Yasui married and became a local leader in civic affairs , including leadership positions in the Japanese American Citizens League . In 1986 , his criminal conviction was overturned by the federal court .
In 2015 , Senator Mazie K. Hirono nominated Yasui for the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the highest civilian award of the United States . On November 16 , 2015 , President Barack Obama announced that Yasui would receive a posthumous Presidential Medal of Freedom . The Medal was presented to Lori Yasui in a White House ceremony November 24 , 2015 .
= = Early life = =
Born in Hood River , Oregon , on October 19 , 1916 , Minoru Yasui was the son of Japanese immigrants Shidzuyo and Masuo Yasui . The third son of nine children born to this fruit @-@ farming family , he graduated from the local high school in Hood River in 1933 . At the age of eight he spent a summer in Japan , and later was enrolled in a Japanese language school in Oregon for three years . Yasui went on to college after high school at the University of Oregon in Eugene . At the school Yasui earned a bachelor 's degree from the school in 1937 and a law degree from the University of Oregon Law School in 1939 . He also was a member of the United States Army 's Reserve Officer Training Corps ( ROTC ) program at the university , earning a commission after graduation in 1937 . ROTC was a requirement of all male students during this time period for the first two years of the four @-@ year program . Yasui was commissioned on December 8 , 1937 , as a second lieutenant in the Army 's Infantry Reserve .
After law school he passed the bar and began practicing law in Portland , Oregon in 1939 . He found it hard to find work in Portland , but through the connections of his father , he started working for the Japanese government at its consulate in Chicago , Illinois . He was employed as one of several Consular attachés at that office , mainly doing clerical work . Following the attack on Pearl Harbor , which drew the United States into World War II against Japan and Germany , Yasui resigned his position with the consulate on December 8 , 1941 .
= = World War II = =
Yasui returned to Hood River from Chicago after his father , Masuo Yasui , requested that he come home in order to report for military duty . After returning to Hood River , he tried to report for duty with the United States Army at the Vancouver Barracks in neighboring Washington , but was denied from serving on nine occasions . Masuo Yasui was arrested on December 13 , 1941 , by the Federal Bureau of Investigation as an enemy alien , and had his assets frozen . Min Yasui moved to Portland and opened a private law practice in order to help the Japanese Americans put their affairs in order . President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 on February 19 , 1942 , that allowed the military to set up exclusion zones , curfews , and ultimately the internment of Japanese Americans during the war .
On March 28 , 1942 , Yasui deliberately broke the military implemented curfew in Portland , by walking around the downtown area and then presenting himself at a police station after 11 : 00 pm in order to test the curfew ’ s constitutionality . He first asked an officer on the street to arrest him but was told to " Run along home , sonny boy , " and so he walked into the police station . Later , on bail , he learned that a grand jury had indicted him . After the notice was given for the Japanese to evacuate , Yasui notified the authorities that he had no intentions of complying , and went to his family 's home in Hood River . This violated another law restricting travel of Japanese Americans , and authorities arrested him in Hood River .
Yasui had consulted a friend in the FBI prior to arrest , and consulted with other legal minds to try to test the legality of the orders . At trial he was defended by private attorney Earl Bernard . Gus J. Solomon , later a judge for the same court , had asked the national American Civil Liberties Union to defend Yasui as no local Oregon groups elected to support Yasui . One part of the strategy was to proceed with a non @-@ jury trial , leaving the decision only to the judge . Solomon was asked by Fee to help advise the court on the issues , along with eight other attorneys . At his trial , federal judge James Alger Fee came to the conclusion that laws specifically targeting a race , such as the curfew , were unconstitutional when applied to citizens . However , he also declared in his November 16 , 1942 , decision that Yasui had demonstrated his loyalty to Japan and was therefore no longer a U.S. citizen . Yasui was sentenced to one year in prison and given a $ 5000 fine .
Yasui waited nine months for his chance in court for appeal . During this time he was incarcerated at the Multnomah County Jail in Portland , and later sent to the Minidoka War Relocation Center in Idaho . When that chance finally came , the case went first to the Ninth Circuit briefly , but was then moved on to the Supreme Court . There the judges came to the conclusion that Yasui was still a U.S. citizen . After a few days on June 21 , 1943 , however , in Yasui v. United States , the court ruled unanimously that the government did have the authority to restrict the lives of civilian citizens during wartime , deciding the case as a companion case to Hirabayashi v. United States . Yasui was sent back to Fee , who removed the fine and decided that the time already served was enough of a punishment . Yasui was released and moved into the Japanese internment camps .
= = Later years = =
In 1944 , Yasui was allowed to leave the internment camp in the summer and was employed in Chicago before moving to Denver , Colorado , in September 1944 . There he passed the bar in June 1945 , but was only admitted to practice law after an appeal to the Colorado Supreme Court . The following year in November he married former internee True Shibata , and they would have three daughters together , Iris , Holly , and Laurel .
Living in Denver , Yasui became involved with community relations , serving on committee set up by the mayor , and later from 1959 to 1983 on the Commission on Community Relations . This commission dealt with race relations and other social issues , with Yasui as executive director from 1967 to 1983 . In 1954 , he was chairman of the Japanese American Citizens League ’ s ( JACL ) district covering Colorado , Wyoming , Texas , Nebraska , New Mexico , and Montana . The Minoru Yasui Community Service Award was started in 1974 by Denver community leaders , and is awarded annually to Denver area volunteers .
In 1976 , Yasui began working on the JACL ’ s committee concerning redress for the internment during World War II . He continued on that committee until 1984 , serving as its chairman in 1981 . He also filed in federal district court in Oregon a coram nobis to attempt to overturn his conviction in 1984 . His conviction was overturned by the Oregon federal court in 1986 . Minoru Yasui died on November 12 , 1986 , and is buried in his hometown of Hood River .
= = Minoru Yasui Plaza = =
The City and County of Denver owns an office building named after Yasui . Located at 303 West Colfax Avenue in Denver , the building is called Minoru Yasui Plaza , or the Minoru Yasui Building . A bronze bust of Yasui adorns the building 's foyer .
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= Eric Brewer =
Eric Peter Brewer ( born April 17 , 1979 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who is currently a free agent , having last played for the Toronto Maple Leafs of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He is an NHL All @-@ Star and Olympic gold medalist .
He began his career as a distinguished junior ice hockey player , named to the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) West Second All @-@ Star Team and the Western Conference roster for the 1998 WHL All @-@ Star Game ( although he missed the game due to injury ) . Drafted in the first round , fifth overall by the New York Islanders in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft , Brewer has spent parts of his fifteen @-@ year NHL career with the Islanders , the Edmonton Oilers , and the St. Louis Blues , the latter of which he captained for two years . He has also suited up for the Prince George Cougars of the WHL and the Lowell Lock Monsters of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . In 1999 , Brewer was selected for the Prince George Cougars ' all @-@ time team in a Canadian Hockey League promotion .
Brewer has represented Canada at eight International Ice Hockey Federation @-@ sanctioned events , winning three Ice Hockey World Championships gold medals and one World Cup of Hockey gold medal . He won his Olympic gold medal during the 2002 Winter Olympics . For this accomplishment , he was inducted into the BC Sports Hall of Fame with his British Columbian teammates in 2003 .
= = Personal life = =
Brewer was born on April 17 , 1979 , in Vernon , British Columbia , to Anna and Frank Brewer . He was raised in Ashcroft , British Columbia , and began playing ice hockey in the Ashcroft Minor Hockey program . When he was fourteen , his family moved to Kamloops , British Columbia , where he attended junior and senior high school . Brewer excelled with the Kamloops Bantam AAA Jardine Blazers of the British Columbia Amateur Hockey Association ( BCAHA ) . In 1995 , Brewer was exposed to BCAHA Best Ever , a program designed to find and develop players and coaches for play in international competition . As a young hockey player , Brewer looked up to NHL stars Scott Niedermayer and Jeremy Roenick as role models .
In mid @-@ 2004 , Brewer married Rebecca Flann , whom he met while playing junior hockey with the Prince George Cougars ; they live in Vancouver , British Columbia . Brewer 's sister , Kristi , played for the University of British Columbia Thunderbirds women 's ice hockey team . Eric and Rebecca have two daughters .
Brewer is involved in numerous charitable organizations . During the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , Brewer participated in several charity hockey games , playing in the four @-@ game Ryan Smyth and Friends All @-@ Star Charity Tour , the three @-@ game Brad May and Friends Hockey Challenge , as well as the Our Game to Give charity hockey game held at Ivor Wynne Stadium in Hamilton , Ontario . During off @-@ seasons , Brewer has participated in numerous charity golf tournaments , including the Burn Fund Golf Tournament in Prince George and the Recchi @-@ Doan Charity Classic in Kamloops .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Prince George Cougars = = =
Brewer was drafted in the sixth round , 81st overall , by the Prince George Cougars in the 1994 WHL Bantam Draft . After being drafted , he played one final season with the Jardine Blazers , recording 38 points in only forty games . The following year , Brewer began his WHL career with the Cougars , playing 63 games in the 1995 – 96 season . Brewer finished his rookie WHL season with fourteen points , including four goals , and was named Cougars ' Rookie of the Year .
In his sophomore season , Brewer became a leader on the Cougars ' blue line . He was named to play for Team Orr in the 1997 CHL Top Prospects Game in February 1997 at Maple Leaf Gardens . He doubled his point total from the previous season , finishing with 29 points in 71 games played . Brewer followed his regular season by helping the Cougars go on a playoff run . After clinching the last spot in the West Division with a losing record , the Cougars defeated the number @-@ one seed Portland Winter Hawks in the conference quarterfinals and the third @-@ ranked Spokane Chiefs in the conference semifinals before finally losing to the second @-@ ranked Seattle Thunderbirds in the Western Conference final . Brewer finished this run with six points in the Cougars ' fifteen games .
Brewer 's final season with Prince George was his best , statistically , in the WHL . After representing Canada at the 1998 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships , he was named to the Western Conference team for the WHL All @-@ Star Game in Regina , Saskatchewan , which he missed , as well as much of the season , due to injury . However , Brewer finished the year with 33 points in only 34 games , a near one point @-@ per @-@ game average , and was named to the WHL West Second All @-@ Star Team . Brewer was the highest ranked defenceman at sixth overall among North American skaters heading into the 1997 NHL Entry Draft . He was drafted fifth overall by the New York Islanders in June 1997 .
= = = New York Islanders = = =
Just over a year after being drafted , Brewer signed his first professional contract with his draft team , the New York Islanders , in August 1998 . Entering the NHL , Brewer was regarded as a future Norris Trophy candidate , and as a result , his contract was an entry level three @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 775 @-@ million deal complemented by a $ 1 @-@ million signing bonus , the highest base salary available for a rookie . Brewer made his NHL debut on October 10 , 1998 , against the Pittsburgh Penguins , and on November 5 , Brewer scored his first career goal against the Carolina Hurricanes ' Trevor Kidd . Throughout his rookie season , Brewer was considered an integral part of the Islanders ' defence , and , along with Zdeno Chára , Kenny Jönsson and Roberto Luongo , was considered untouchable by management at the 1999 NHL trade deadline . Brewer finished his rookie season with eleven points in 63 games .
After playing just three games of the 1999 – 2000 NHL season , Brewer was assigned to the Islanders ' AHL affiliate , the Lowell Lock Monsters . It was speculated that the reason behind this move was laziness by Brewer , who was benched during the final thirty minutes by head coach Butch Goring after losing a race for the puck against Mike Knuble in the Islanders ' October 11 , 1999 , loss to the New York Rangers . Brewer also took a bad penalty earlier in the game , putting the Islanders down two men . After a two @-@ week , five @-@ game stint with the Lock Monsters , Brewer was subsequently recalled by the Islanders . After playing 26 games with the Islanders in which he only recorded two assists , Brewer was reassigned to the Lock Monsters on January 8 , 2000 , for the remainder of the season . Shortly after joining the Lock Monsters , Brewer suffered a sprained knee and missed the next two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months of the season . Brewer went on to play 25 games for the Lock Monsters , recording two goals and two assists . He also participated in his first professional playoffs , as the Lock Monsters swept the Saint John Flames in three games in the first round , before being swept themselves in four games in the Eastern Conference semifinals by the Providence Bruins .
= = = Edmonton Oilers = = =
At the 2000 NHL Entry Draft , the Islanders traded Brewer , Josh Green and their second round selection ( Brad Winchester ) in the same draft to the Edmonton Oilers for Roman Hamrlík . Although surprised to be traded , Brewer was excited at the prospect of playing for the Oilers , who saw Brewer as a top @-@ four defenceman . However , Brewer 's Oiler career began on a sour note as he suffered a bruised left hip and tailbone in his first game with the team . Brewer missed the next four games before returning to the lineup . Brewer scored his first goal as an Oiler on November 7 , 2000 , against the New York Rangers . Brewer finished his first Oiler season with career highs in goals , assists and points , as well as the best plus / minus rating on the Oilers team , a plus @-@ 15 . Further , Brewer gained his first NHL playoff experience , a quarterfinal series versus the Dallas Stars . Brewer had six points , but the Oilers were eliminated four games to two by the Stars .
The Oilers re @-@ signed Brewer , who was a free agent , to a one @-@ year , $ 907 @,@ 500 contract in August 2001 . In his second season with the Oilers , Brewer was assigned to play against the opposing teams ' best offensive players by Oilers head coach Craig MacTavish . Brewer began to play more minutes in games , typically placing among the NHL leaders in average minutes played per game . With this enhanced role on the team , Brewer finished his season with new career highs in assists and points for the second consecutive season , and matched his career high in goals . Although his single year contract expired , his role on the Oilers had become more important and Brewer expected a large raise for his third season with the Oilers .
After a long holdout that lasted until the beginning of Oilers training camp , Brewer finally signed a two @-@ year , $ 4 @-@ million contract in September 2002 . At the half of the 2002 – 03 NHL season , Brewer was named to play in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game , dressing for the Western Conference in the fifty @-@ third edition of the game . He finished with career highs for assists and points and set a career high for goals for the third consecutive season . He appeared in his second NHL playoffs , another quarterfinal series against the Dallas Stars in which the Oilers were once again eliminated four games to two . Brewer finished the playoffs with four points in the Oilers ' six games .
In his fourth season with the Oilers , Brewer continued his role as a top defenceman . On November 22 , 2003 , Brewer was among the participants in the historic 2003 Heritage Classic ice hockey game versus the Montreal Canadiens at Commonwealth Stadium in Edmonton . Brewer scored the Oilers first goal of the game in a 4 – 3 loss in front of a then record crowd of 57 @,@ 167 . Later in the season , in a game on January 29 , 2004 , versus the Chicago Blackhawks , Brewer recorded his one @-@ hundredth career point . Since his team depended on Brewer to play against the opposing teams ' best offensive players , he finished the season with an average time on ice of 24 : 39 , ranking fourteenth in the league . In the final year of his two @-@ year contract , Brewer finished the season with his point totals matching those from his 2001 – 02 NHL season , a slight fall from his career highs set in his third season with the Oilers .
With the Oilers unwilling to pay what he was expecting , Brewer decided to go to salary arbitration to get a new contract . However , on August 4 , 2004 , Brewer signed a one @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 65 million contract with the Oilers , avoiding his arbitration hearing set for only a few days later . Brewer was unable to play out his new contract due to the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout .
= = = St. Louis Blues = = =
In August 2005 , following the lockout , the Oilers traded Brewer , Jeff Woywitka and Doug Lynch to the St. Louis Blues in exchange for defenceman Chris Pronger . At the time of the trade , Brewer was a restricted free agent , so on August 15 , 2005 , Brewer accepted the Blues ' qualifying offer , signing a one @-@ year , $ 2 @-@ million contract . Brewer 's first season with the Blues was a particularly poor one . After playing the first 18 games of the season , Brewer separated his shoulder on November 16 , 2005 , in a 2 – 0 victory over the Columbus Blue Jackets . Brewer missed ten games before being activated from the injured reserve list , returning to the St. Louis line @-@ up for a game on December 20 , 2005 , against the Phoenix Coyotes . Less than a month later , in a game on January 13 , 2006 , against the Atlanta Thrashers , Brewer collided with the Thrashers ' centre Karl Stewart , and dislocated his left shoulder , which ended his season . In just 32 games , Brewer finished his season with nine points , including six goals , two shy of his career best of eight set in the 2002 – 04 season . Despite his limited play , the Blues re @-@ signed Brewer to a one @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 014 million contract for the 2006 – 07 season .
Brewer 's second season with the Blues began as a disappointment . By the first half of December 2006 , Brewer had only amassed six points and a plus @-@ minus rating of – 11 , often referred to as " the worst player on the ice " by both the media and Blues fans alike . Brewer was often involved in trade rumours , as he was set to become an unrestricted free agent following the completion of the season . Brewer believed his performance was the result of having only played in 32 NHL games since the 2003 – 04 season . However , after the firing of head coach Mike Kitchen on December 11 , 2006 , Brewer began playing much better under new head coach , Andy Murray . Over the next nineteen games , Brewer changed his – 11 into a + 2 and became an integral part of the Blues ' defence . His turnaround was rewarded on February 24 , 2007 , when , rather than being traded as was previously rumoured , Brewer signed a four @-@ year , $ 17 @-@ million contract extension with the Blues . Brewer continued his turnaround through the end of the season , finishing the year with six goals and 23 assists for 29 points , tying his career high for points set in the 2002 – 03 season and setting a new career high for assists .
In his third season with the Blues , Brewer continued to do well under Andy Murray . Brewer evolved into one of the top two @-@ way defencemen in the NHL , with comparisons being made between him and former first overall draft pick Chris Phillips of the Ottawa Senators . His play and leadership abilities were recognized , when on February 8 , 2008 , Brewer was named as the nineteenth captain in the history of the St. Louis Blues , filling the vacancy created when former Blues captain Dallas Drake had his contract bought out following the 2006 – 07 season . On February 17 , 2008 , in a game against the Columbus Blue Jackets , Brewer set a career high for points in a game with four , all assists , eclipsing his previous career high of three points set on January 16 , 2007 . Brewer finished the season with only one goal in his 77 games played , his lowest goal total since the 1999 – 2000 season , although he added 21 assists , three short of a career high . At the completion of the season , Brewer underwent reconstructive surgery on his right shoulder to repair damage suffered in a fight in the Blues ' season opening game against the Phoenix Coyotes on October 4 , 2007 .
= = = Tampa Bay Lightning = = =
On February 18 , 2011 , Brewer was traded to the Tampa Bay Lightning for Brock Beukeboom and Tampa Bay 's third @-@ round selection in the 2011 NHL Entry Draft . In 22 games with Tampa Bay , he notched a goal and an assist . He also led the Lightning in average ice time per game , with 21 : 34 . At the end of the 2010 – 11 season , Brewer recorded a career @-@ high nine goals and also amassed 81 penalty minutes , good for the second @-@ highest total of his NHL career . He also appeared in a career @-@ high 18 post @-@ season contests with the Lightning in the 2011 playoffs , registering three goals and 17 points , helping the Bolts in their first playoff appearance in four seasons . During the 2011 playoffs , he set a career @-@ high with three points in Game 2 of the Eastern Conference Quarter @-@ finals against the Pittsburgh Penguins and ranked third among all post @-@ season skaters with 51 blocked shots . On June 24 , 2011 , Brewer signed a four @-@ year , $ 15 @.@ 4 million contract extension with the Lightning .
= = = Anaheim Ducks = = =
In the final year of his contract with the Lightning during the 2014 – 15 season , Brewer was traded after 17 games to the Anaheim Ducks in exchange for a third @-@ round draft pick in 2015 on November 28 , 2014 . At the time , he was playing in his fifth season with the Lightning . He appeared in 17 games , and had four assists on the year . Brewer played in 246 games with Tampa , scoring 10 goals and 46 assists . He also had 180 penalty minutes in his four @-@ and @-@ a quarter seasons with Tampa Bay . On December 3 , 2014 , the Ducks announced that Brewer was expected to miss four @-@ to @-@ six weeks with a broken bone in his foot from a blocked shot .
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
On March 2 , 2015 , Brewer was traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs , along with a fifth @-@ round draft pick in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft , in exchange for defenceman Korbinian Holzer . On March 21 , 2015 , Brewer skated in his 1,000th NHL game in a Toronto Maple Leafs 5 – 3 loss to the Ottawa Senators . On March 23 , 2015 , the Maple Leafs honored Brewer with his 1,000th game ceremony prior to their game against the Minnesota Wild .
= = International play = =
Throughout his career , Brewer has represented Canada at various international ice hockey tournaments . He first competed internationally as a member of Team Pacific Canada at the 1995 World U @-@ 17 Hockey Challenge in Moncton , New Brunswick . Three years later , he represented Canada as a whole as a member of the national junior team at the 1998 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships , where he was named an alternate captain . This was the tournament in which Canada had its worst ever showing , an eighth @-@ place finish including a loss to Kazakhstan , giving Brewer an unkind welcome to IIHF international ice hockey . Although eligible for the 1999 edition of the same tournament , Brewer was unable to play due to NHL commitments with the New York Islanders .
Brewer made his debut with the Canadian national men 's team on April 24 , 2001 , when he joined Canada for the 2001 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships in Nuremberg , Cologne , and Hanover , Germany . Later that year , on July 24 , 2001 , Brewer was invited to the orientation camp for the Canadian team for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City , Utah . Five months later , on December 12 , 2001 , Brewer was named to the final Canadian roster for the tournament . In the opening game of the tournament against Sweden , Brewer scored Canada 's second goal of the game in a 5 – 2 loss , while in the semi @-@ finals of the tournament , Brewer scored the game @-@ winning goal against Belarus in a 7 – 1 victory , helping send Canada to the gold medal game against the host United States . Canada would go on to defeat the Americans by a score of 5 – 2 , winning their first Olympic gold medal in fifty years .
Shortly after his Olympic experience , Brewer was named to the Canadian roster for the 2002 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships in Gothenburg , Karlstad and Jönköping , Sweden , his second consecutive Ice Hockey World Championships . He represented Canada once again the following year , when on April 22 , 2003 , Brewer was named to the Canadian roster for the 2003 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships . In the tournament quarterfinals versus Germany , Brewer scored the game @-@ winning goal 37 seconds into overtime to give Canada a 3 – 2 victory . Canada would go on to win their first Ice Hockey World Championships gold medal since the 1997 tournament , defeating Sweden 3 – 2 in overtime in the final . Brewer once again participated for Canada at the 2004 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships , his fourth consecutive Ice Hockey World Championships , where he helped Canada win its second consecutive championship after defeating Sweden 5 – 3 in the gold medal game .
On May 15 , 2004 , Brewer was named to the Canadian roster for the 2004 World Cup of Hockey . In the semifinal of the tournament , Brewer scored Canada 's first goal of the game in 4 – 3 overtime victory against the Czech Republic . Team Canada would go on to win the tournament on home ice in Toronto , defeating Finland 3 – 2 in the final . Just under one year following his World Cup appearance , Brewer was named to the orientation camp for the Canadian team at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin , Italy held from August 15 – 20 , 2005 , in Vancouver and Kelowna , British Columbia . Following the camp , on October 18 , 2005 , Brewer was named to the preliminary 81 @-@ man Canadian roster for the tournament . However , when the final roster was announced on December 21 , 2005 , Brewer was not among the 26 players listed . As a result , it would be nearly three years before Brewer would next suit up for his country , when on April 3 , 2007 , Brewer was among the first five players named to play for Canada at the 2007 IIHF World Championship in Moscow and Mytishchi , Russia . For the tournament , Brewer was named as the team 's only permanent alternate captain and helped the team to its third gold medal at the tournament in the past five years .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and achievements = =
= = Transactions = =
June 21 , 1997 – Drafted in the first round , fifth overall by the New York Islanders in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft .
June 24 , 2000 – Traded by the New York Islanders with Josh Green and the Islanders ' second round selection ( Brad Winchester ) in the 2000 NHL Entry Draft to the Edmonton Oilers for Roman Hamrlík .
August 2 , 2005 – Traded by the Edmonton Oilers with Jeff Woywitka and Doug Lynch to the St. Louis Blues for Chris Pronger .
February 18 , 2011 – Traded by the St. Louis Blues to the Tampa Bay Lightning for Brock Beukeboom and the Blues ' third round selection ( Jordan Binnington ) in the 2011 NHL Entry Draft .
November 28 , 2014 - Traded by the Tampa Bay Lightning to the Anaheim Ducks for a third round selection in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft .
March 2 , 2015 - Traded by the Anaheim Ducks to the Toronto Maple Leafs , along with a fifth round selection in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft , in exchange for Korbinian Holzer .
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