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= Daisy Jugadai Napaltjarri =
Daisy Jugadai Napaltjarri ( c . 1955 – 2008 ) was a Pintupi @-@ Luritja @-@ speaking Indigenous artist from Australia 's Western Desert region , and sister of artist Molly Jugadai Napaltjarri . Daisy Jugadai lived and painted at Haasts Bluff , Northern Territory . There she played a significant role in the establishment of Ikuntji Women 's Centre , where many artists of the region have worked .
Influenced by the Hermannsburg School , Jugadai 's paintings reflect her Tjuukurrpa , the complex spiritual knowledge and relationships between her and her landscape . The paintings also reflect fine observation of the structures of the vegetation and environment . Jugadai 's works were selected for exhibition at the National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Awards five times between 1993 and 2001 , and she was a section winner in 2000 . Her paintings are held in major collections including the National Gallery of Victoria , National Gallery of Australia and the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory .
= = Life = =
Daisy Jugadai was born circa 1955 at Haasts Bluff , Northern Territory , daughter of artists Narputta Nangala and Timmy Jugadai Tjungurrayi . The ambiguity around the year of birth is in part because Indigenous people operate using a different conception of time from non @-@ Indigenous Australians , often estimating dates through comparisons with the occurrence of other events .
The people of Papunya and Haasts Bluff , such as Daisy , speak a variety of the Pintupi language referred to as Pintupi @-@ Luritja , a Western Desert dialect . Napaltjarri ( in Western Desert dialects ) or Napaljarri ( in Warlpiri ) is a skin name , one of sixteen used to denote the subsections or subgroups in the kinship system of central Australian Indigenous people . These names define kinship relationships that influence preferred marriage partners and may be associated with particular totems . Although they may be used as terms of address , they are not surnames in the sense used by Europeans . Thus " Daisy Jugadai " is the element of the artist 's name that is specifically hers .
Jugadai 's childhood was spent at both Haasts Bluff and a nearby camp , Five Mile , while she was schooled at Papunya . She married Kelly Multa , and they had a daughter , Agnes . They lived on an outstation , Kungkayunti , but Daisy moved back to Haasts Bluff when Kelly died . It was not until the 1990s that she was remarried , to an Elcho Islander , after which she travelled regularly between Arnhem Land and Haasts Bluff . Jugadai died in 2008 , her funeral held at Haasts Bluff , where she was born . Daisy Jugadai had an older sister , artist Molly Jugadai Napaltjarri , and another sister , Ester , who predeceased her .
= = Art = =
= = = Background = = =
The contemporary Indigenous Australian art movement began in the western desert in 1971 , when Indigenous men at Papunya took up painting , led by elders such as Kaapa Tjampitjinpa , and assisted by teacher Geoffrey Bardon . This initiative , which used acrylic paints to create designs representing body painting and ground sculptures , rapidly spread across Indigenous communities of central Australia , particularly following the commencement of a government @-@ sanctioned art program in central Australia in 1983 . By the 1980s and 1990s , such work was being exhibited internationally . The first artists , including all of the founders of the Papunya Tula artists ' company , had been men , and there was resistance amongst the Pintupi men of central Australia to women painting . However , many women in the communities wished to participate , and in the 1990s many began to create paintings . In the western desert communities such as Kintore , Yuendumu , Balgo , and on the outstations , people were beginning to create art works expressly for exhibition and sale .
Daisy Jugadai came from a family of painters , including her uncle Uta Uta Tjangala and her mother . She learned to draw during her schooling at Papunya and Haasts Bluff , but her first experience as a painter came working on backgrounds for the pictures created by her father . From the Pintupi / Luritja language group , Daisy Jugadai was one of a range of artists who came to painting through the Ikuntji Women 's Centre in the early 1990s . She is credited with a significant role in the centre 's establishment . She began with screen printing and linocut printmaking , but quickly shifted to acrylic painting , producing many of her best works during the mid @-@ 1990s . Western Desert artists such as Daisy Jugadai will frequently paint particular ' dreamings ' or Tjukurrpa for which they have personal responsibility or rights . A complex concept , Tjukurrpa refers to the spiritual knowledge of the landscape and custodianship of it ; it also refers to laws , rules or stories that people must maintain and re @-@ produce in their communities . Daisy Jugadai portrayed in her art both those for which she had personal responsibility , and those of her late husband and late father . These included honey ant , spinifex and emu dreamings ; geographical locations that were the settings for these paintings included Muruntji waterhole and Talabarrdi , and other locations around Kungkayunti , where her family had lived for many years .
= = = Career = = =
Throughout the 1990s , Daisy Jugadai was a regular exhibitor at the Araluen Art Centre in Alice Springs , and well as other major exhibitions such as the Australian Heritage Art Awards in Canberra in 1994 . Recognition came in 1993 , in two forms : an award of a Northern Territory Women 's Fellowship ; and the purchase by the Araluen Arts Centre of a work exhibited in its annual art award . Within her community she was an administrator as well as an artist . A member of the Ikuntji Women 's Centre and a representative on Ikuntji Community Council , Daisy was one of those who successfully lobbied to have artist Marina Strocchi appointed as an art centre coordinator in the early 1990s . The respect between the two women was mutual : Daisy was one of a group of artists whose work was selected for an exhibition that toured regional Australian public galleries in 1999 – 2000 , Ikuntji tjuta – touring , which was curated by Marina Strocchi , the art centre coordinator who had first helped develop the Ikuntji centre in Haasts Bluff some years earlier .
Works by Daisy Jugadai are held by the National Gallery of Victoria , National Gallery of Australia and the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory . They are also held in major private collections , such as Nangara ( also known as the Ebes Collection ) , as well as by Edith Cowan University . First exhibiting in the National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Awards in 1993 , she was a finalist on several occasions including 1995 , 1998 and 2001 , and a section winner in 2000 . Her 1994 entry in the award , Karu kapingku pungu ( Creek after rain ) , belongs to the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory . Her work is also featured alongside other Indigenous artists such as Gloria Petyarre in the Melbourne international airport terminal , completed in 1996 . Antiti , near Five Mile , a 1998 painting , has appeared as cover art on an issue of the Medical Journal of Australia .
= = = Style = = =
Alone amongst the Ikuntji artists , Daisy Jugadai worked at an easel . She cited the Hermannsburg School , a group of Indigenous artists including Albert Namatjira who began painting at Hermannsburg Mission in the 1930s , as an influence on her work . Memory and Five Mile Creek ( 1995 ) represents the country of her childhood . It shows the hills of the region in elevation rather than in plan , and represents the range of vegetation typical of that country . Curator Marina Strocchi notes how Daisy Jugadai 's painting reflects close observation of the complex structures of the vegetation and environment , its features " obsessively detailed " , with the artist " devotedly [ including ] all the bush tucker of that area " , as well as choosing " a time of year in which to depict her country " . Vegetation would be carefully painted with a trimmed brush , while even finer detail , such as pollen , would be rendered using a matchstick . Clouds were always the final features to be included . Despite this devotion to detail , Daisy preferred to paint large canvasses . Memory and Five Mile Creek was included in the National Gallery of Victoria 's 2004 – 05 exhibition " Aboriginal Art Post 1984 " and reviewer Miriam Cosic , while noting its " naive charm " , also drew attention to the work 's title and the implication that , like other more explicitly political painters of her era , " she too is talking of violent dispossession " .
Artist Mandy Martin , who participated in a 2005 collaboration with several painters from the Haasts Bluff region , thought that Daisy 's rendering of bush tucker was achieved with a " stylised but dazzling personal language " . Writer and critic Morag Fraser described Daisy 's work as " extraordinary " , observing that in Daisy 's paintings " nature is so wholly internalised , and its rendering so uninhibited . " A distinguished artist in her community , her death coincided with a vigorous renewal of artistic expression amongst her successors .
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= Murder of Lenford Harvey =
Lenford " Steve " Harvey was a Jamaican activist who campaigned for the rights of those living with HIV / AIDS in Jamaican society . In November 2005 he was abducted from his home and murdered in a robbery that some commentators believed was also a homophobic hate crime . Openly gay , Harvey had worked for Jamaica AIDS Support for Life ( JASL ) since 1997 , becoming the group 's coordinator for Kingston . In this position , he focused on distributing information and services surrounding HIV / AIDS to the most marginalised sectors of Jamaican society , among them prisoners , sex workers , and lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( LGBT ) people . In 2005 , he was selected as the Latin America and Caribbean Council of AIDS Service Organizations ' project coordinator for Jamaica .
In November 2005 , three men carrying guns broke into his home , removing any valuables . They asked if he was gay , and when he refused to respond they kidnapped him , later shooting him dead and dumping the body elsewhere . The police subsequently arrested four individuals and charged them with murder in the furtherance of a robbery . The accused remained in police custody for almost ten years before the case came to court . At that point , the police dropped their murder charges against two of the accused . The other two , Dwayne Owen and Andrew West , went on trial and were found unanimously guilty of murder by a jury . Although prosecutors had requested capital punishment in the case , the judge sentenced them to life in prison with a minimum of thirty years before becoming eligible for parole .
= = Background = =
= = = Harvey 's biography = = =
In 1997 , Harvey became involved with Jamaica AIDS Support for Life ( JASL ) , an organisation that was a partner of Christian Aid . He became the group 's Kingston co @-@ ordinator , and in this position primarily worked to ensure that the marginalised groups within the country – including prisoners , sex workers , and lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( LGBT ) people – had access to information about the HIV / AIDS virus . He was selected as Jamaica 's representative at the Latin America and Caribbean Council of AIDS Service Organizations . He was also a registered delegate to the conference of the People 's National Party . In the week preceding his death , Harvey led JASL 's annual candle @-@ lit vigil in memory of those who had died as a result of AIDS .
= = = Anti @-@ LGBT sentiment in Jamaica = = =
In 2006 , Time magazine asked whether Jamaica was " the most homophobic place on Earth " , and answered that it " may be the worst offender " . The country 's laws criminalising same @-@ sex activity between males were introduced in 1864 , during the British colonial administration . According to the Sexual Offences Act of 2009 , any man convicted under these laws must register as a sex offender . These laws have been cited as contributing to wider homophobic attitudes among the Jamaican populace , including the view that gay people are criminals regardless of whether or not they have committed any crime . Anti @-@ LGBT perspectives have been furthered by the island 's conservative Christian churches . Many reggae and dancehall songs , among them Buju Banton 's " Boom Bye Bye " , call for the killing of gays . Writing for the International Business Times in the summer of 2013 , the journalist Palash Gosh noted that while Jamaica was " awash in crime and violence , gays and lesbians are particularly prominent targets of wanton brutality . " In the summer of 2013 , Human Rights Watch carried out five weeks of fieldwork among Jamaica 's LGBT community , reporting that over half of those interviewed had experienced violence as a result of their sexual orientation or gender identity , sometimes on more than one occasion .
= = Murder = =
On the night of Wednesday 30 November 2005 , three armed men broke into Harvey 's home , confronting him and his two roommates and demanding money . The intruders said " We hear that you are gay " and while the two room mates denied this , Harvey – who was openly gay – remained silent . The two room mates were bound and gagged while Harvey was forced to carry valuables to the criminal 's car . At gunpoint , they forced him into the car and abducted him .
Two hours later , Harvey 's corpse was found at Pinewood Terrace , a rural area far from his home ; his body had gunshot wounds in the head and back . Harvey 's clothes , suitcases , jewellery , cellphones , and watches were recovered by police . Reporter Gary Younge expressed the view that the killing " appears to have been a homophobic attack " , while an editorial in The New York Times noted that " the Harvey killing has the earmarks of a hate crime " .
= = = Arrest and trial = = =
Following investigations , in 2005 police arrested four individuals – Dwayne Owen , Andrew West , Ryan Wilson , and Chevaughn Gibson – charging them all with committing murder in the furtherance of a robbery . The accused were from an area known as Vietnam in Grant 's Pen . Defence lawyers repeatedly complained that the prosecution had been late in handing over relevant documents to them .
The case was brought before the Home Circuit Court on April 24 , 2014 , however it could not proceed because important documents had not been served on the defence . The witnesses for the case , who included ten police officers and two civilians , were bound over . Senior Puisne Judge Gloria Smith stated that no further adjournments of the case would be permitted , ordering the Director of Public Prosecutions to make full disclosure to the defence , and insisting that the trial must start on May 19 . In her words , " This case has been going on for far too long and has reached the point where something must happen . " However , on that date the trial was postponed again due to the unavailability of a courtroom , being rescheduled for June 1 . At that date it was again postponed , this time due to a shortage of available jurors , with the new date being set for July 7 .
In early July 2014 , the prosecution announced that they were dropping all charges against Wilson , who was declared free to go after over eight years in prison . They had determined that at the time of the murder he had been in custody at the Constant Spring Police Station . The prosecution also stated that it was dropping the murder charges against Gibson , who would instead be charged with misprision of felony . After a three week trial , in late July a twelve @-@ person jury unanimously found both Owen and West guilty of murder . The state prosecutors , Kathy Pryce and Karen Seymour Johnson , requested that Owen and West face the death penalty . However , in November Justice Lloyd Hibbert sentenced them to life in prison , stipulating that they must serve a minimum of thirty years before becoming eligible for parole . He stated that in sentencing the pair he took into account the fact that they had already spent a decade in custody . In December , both Owen and West launched appeals against their conviction .
Independently of the Harvey case , West was also charged with being involved in the murder of Jamie Lue , a financial analyst at Alliance Capital Limited , who had been abducted , robbed and killed in December 2005 .
= = Reaction = =
In December 2005 , the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS ( UNAIDS ) issued a statement expressing the view that " Harvey 's death is a profound shock and loss not only to the AIDS movement in Jamaica and the Caribbean , but to the whole world " , furthermore calling on the Jamaican government to ensure that Harvey 's killers be found and convicted . Rebecca Schleifer , a researcher with Human Rights Watch 's HIV / AIDS and Human Rights Program , stated that Harvey was " a person of extraordinary bravery and integrity , who worked tirelessly to ensure that some of Jamaica 's most marginalized people had the tools and information to protect themselves from HIV / AIDS " .
According to Peter Tatchell of the British LGBT rights organisation OutRage ! , " It is thanks to the efforts of Steve and his colleagues that many Jamaican men and women - both gay and straight - have not contracted HIV . They have helped save hundreds of lives . " The Guyanese Society Against Sexual Orientation Discrimination issued a press release condemning Harvey 's killing and calling for the perpetrators to be convicted .
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= Spinner shark =
The spinner shark ( Carcharhinus brevipinna ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , named for the spinning leaps it makes as a part of its feeding strategy . This species occurs in tropical and warm temperate waters worldwide , except for in the eastern Pacific Ocean . It is found from coastal to offshore habitats to a depth of 100 m ( 330 ft ) , though it prefers shallow water . The spinner shark resembles a larger version of the blacktip shark ( C. limbatus ) , with a slender body , long snout , and black @-@ marked fins . This species can be distinguished from the blacktip shark by the first dorsal fin , which has a different shape and is placed further back , and by the black tip on the anal fin ( in adults only ) . It attains a maximum length of 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) .
Spinner sharks are swift and gregarious predators that feed on a wide variety of small bony fishes and cephalopods . When feeding on schools of forage fish , they will speed vertically through the school while spinning on their axis , erupting from the water at the end . Like other members of its family , the spinner shark is viviparous , with females bearing litters of three to 20 young every other year . The newborns are born in shallow nursery areas near the coast , and are relatively fast @-@ growing . This species is not usually dangerous to humans , but may become belligerent when excited by food . Spinner sharks are valued by commercial fisheries across their range for their meat , fins , liver oil , and skin . They are also esteemed as strong fighters by recreational fishers . The IUCN has assessed this species as Near Threatened worldwide and Vulnerable off the southeastern United States .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The spinner shark was originally described as Carcharias ( Aprion ) brevipinna by Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle in their 1839 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen , based on the mounted skin of a 79 @-@ cm @-@ long specimen collected off Java . This species was subsequently moved to the genera Aprion , Squalus , and Aprionodon before being placed within the genus Carcharhinus . The tooth shape and coloration of this species varies significantly with age and between geographical regions , which caused much taxonomic confusion . Other common names include blacktipped shark , great blacktip shark , inkytail shark , large blacktip shark , long @-@ nose grey shark , longnose grey whaler , and smoothfang shark .
Based on similarities in morphology , tooth shape , and behavior , the closest relatives of the spinner shark were originally believed to be the blacktip shark and the graceful shark ( C. amblyrhynchoides ) . However , this interpretation was not supported by Gavin Naylor 's 1992 allozyme analysis , which suggested that these similarities are the product of convergent evolution and that the closest relative of the spinner shark is the copper shark ( C. brachyurus ) . In a 2007 ribosomal DNA study , the spinner shark was found to be the most genetically divergent of all the requiem shark species examined save for the tiger shark ( Galeocerdo cuvier ) , being less related to other Carcharhinus species than the lemon shark ( Negaprion brevirostris ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Some uncertainty exists in the distribution data for the spinner shark due to confusion with the blacktip shark . In the western Atlantic Ocean , it occurs from North Carolina to the northern Gulf of Mexico , including the Bahamas and Cuba , and from southern Brazil to Argentina . In the eastern Atlantic , it occurs from off North Africa to Namibia . In the Indian Ocean , it is found from South Africa and Madagascar , to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden , to India and nearby islands , to Java and Sumatra . In the Pacific Ocean , it occurs off Japan , Vietnam , Australia , and possibly the Philippines . Parasitological evidence suggests that Indian Ocean spinner sharks have passed through the Suez Canal into the Mediterranean Sea , becoming Lessepsian migrants .
The spinner shark has been reported from ocean surface to a depth of 100 m ( 330 ft ) , though it prefers water less than 30 m ( 98 ft ) deep , and occupies all levels of the water column . This species may be found from coastal waters to well offshore , over continental and insular shelves . Juveniles have been known to enter bays , but avoid brackish conditions . The northwest Atlantic subpopulation is known to be migratory ; in spring and summer , they are found in warm inshore waters , and in winter they move south into deeper water .
= = Description = =
The average spinner shark is 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long and weighs 56 kg ( 123 lb ) ; this species attains a maximum known length and weight of 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) and 90 kg ( 200 lb ) . Indo @-@ Pacific sharks are generally larger than those from the northwest Atlantic . This species has a slim , streamlined body with a distinctive , long , pointed snout . The eyes are small and circular . There are prominent forward @-@ pointing furrows at the corners of the mouth . The tooth rows number 15 – 18 in each half of the upper jaw and 14 – 17 in each half of the lower jaw , with two and one tiny symphysial ( central ) teeth , respectively . The teeth have long , narrow central cusps and are finely serrated in the upper jaw and smooth in the lower jaw . The five pairs of gill slits are long .
The first dorsal fin is relatively small and usually originates behind the free rear tip of the pectoral fins . No ridge exists between the first and second dorsal fins . The pectoral fins are moderately short , narrow , and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) . The body is densely covered with diamond @-@ shaped dermal denticles with seven ( rarely five ) shallow horizontal ridges . The coloration is gray above , sometimes with a bronze sheen , and white below , with a faint white band on the sides . Young individuals have unmarked fins ; the tips of the second dorsal fin , pectoral fins , anal fin , and lower caudal fin lobe ( and sometimes the other fins , as well ) are black in larger individuals . The spinner shark differs from the blacktip shark in that its first dorsal fin is slightly more triangular in shape and is placed further back on the body . Adults can also be distinguished by the black tip on the anal fin .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The spinner shark is a fast , active swimmer that sometimes forms large schools , segregated by age and sex . Young individuals prefer cooler water temperatures than adults . Off South Africa , females are found close to shore year @-@ round while males only appear during the summer . Smaller spinner sharks may be preyed upon by larger sharks . Known parasites of the spinner shark include the copepods Kroyeria deetsi , Nemesis pilosus , and N. atlantica , which infest the shark 's gills , Alebion carchariae , which infests the skin , Nesippus orientalis , which infests the mouth and gill arches , and Perissopus dentatus , which infests the nares and the rear margins of the fins .
= = = Feeding = = =
Spinner sharks feed primarily on small bony fish , including tenpounders , sardines , herring , anchovies , sea catfish , lizardfish , mullets , bluefish , tunas , bonito , croakers , jacks , mojarras , and tongue @-@ soles . They have also been known to eat stingrays , cuttlefish , squid , and octopus . Groups of spinner sharks are often found pursuing schools of prey at high speed . Individual prey are seized and swallowed whole , as this shark lacks cutting dentition . This species employs an unusual tactic when feeding on schools of small fish ; the shark charges vertically through the school , spinning on its axis with its mouth open and snapping all around it . The shark 's momentum at the end of these spiraling runs often carries it into the air , giving it its common name . The blacktip shark also performs this behavior , though not as often . Off Madagascar , spinner sharks follow migrating schools of mackerel , tunas , and jacks . Like blacktip sharks , they congregate around shrimp trawlers to feed on the discarded bycatch , and may be incited into feeding frenzies .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other requiem sharks , the spinner shark is viviparous . Adult females have a single functional ovary and two functional uteri ; each uterus is divided into compartments , one for each embryo . The embryos are initially sustained by a yolk sac . When the embryo grows to around 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) long , the supply of yolk has been exhausted and the empty yolk sac develops into a placental connection through which the mother provides nutrients for the remainder of gestation . This species has the smallest ova relative to the fully developed embryo of any viviparous shark known . Females give birth to three to 20 ( usually seven to 11 ) pups every other year , after a gestation period of 11 – 15 months . Mating occurs from early spring to summer , and parturition in August off North Africa , from April to May off South Africa , and from March to April in the northwestern Atlantic . Young are birthed in coastal nursery areas such as bays , beaches , and high @-@ salinity estuaries in water deeper than 5 m ( 16 ft ) .
The length at birth is 66 – 77 cm ( 26 – 30 in ) in the northwestern Atlantic , 61 – 69 cm ( 24 – 27 in ) off Tunisia , and 60 cm ( 24 in ) off South Africa . Spinner sharks are relatively fast @-@ growing sharks : 30 cm ( 12 in ) per year for newborns , 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) per year for one @-@ year @-@ olds , 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) per year for adolescents , and 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) per year for adults . In the northwestern Atlantic , males mature at 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) long and females at 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 6 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 2 ft ) long , corresponding to ages of 4 – 5 years and 7 – 8 years , respectively . Off South Africa , males mature at 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) and females at 2 @.@ 1 m ( 6 @.@ 9 ft ) . Spinner sharks generally do not reproduce until they are 12 – 14 years old . The maximum lifespan has been estimated at 15 – 20 years or more .
= = Human interactions = =
Ordinarily , spinner sharks do not pose a substantial danger to humans ; they do not perceive large mammals as prey , as their small , narrow teeth are adapted for grasping rather than cutting . However , they can become excited by the presence of food , so caution is warranted if this species is encountered while spearfishing . As of 2008 , the International Shark Attack File listed 16 unprovoked attacks and one provoked attack attributable to the spinner shark , none of them fatal .
The meat of the spinner shark is of high quality and sold fresh or dried and salted . In addition , the fins are used for shark fin soup in East Asia , the liver oil is processed for vitamins , and the skin is made into leather products . Spinner sharks are an important catch of the US commercial shark fisheries operating in the northwestern Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico . The meat is marketed under the name " blacktip shark " in the United States , due to that species being considered superior in quality by consumers . It is likely also caught by other fisheries across its range , going unreported owing to confusion with the blacktip shark . The spinner shark is also highly regarded by recreational fishers , being described as a " spectacular fighter " that often leaps out of the water .
The IUCN has assessed the spinner shark as Near Threatened worldwide and Vulnerable in the northwest Atlantic ; its frequent use of coastal habitats render it vulnerable to human exploitation and habitat degradation . The Northwest Atlantic fishery for this species is managed under the US National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) 1999 Fishery Management Plan ( FMP ) for Atlantic Tunas , Swordfish and Sharks . For the purposes of commercial quotas and recreational bag limits , the spinner shark is categorized as a " large coastal shark " .
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= Sagtikos State Parkway =
The Sagtikos State Parkway , also known as the Sagtikos or Sagtikos Parkway , known colloquially as " the Sag " is a 5 @.@ 14 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 27 km ) north – south limited @-@ access parkway in Suffolk County on Long Island , New York , in the United States . It begins at an interchange with the Southern and Heckscher state parkways in the hamlet of West Islip and goes north to a large cloverleaf interchange with the Northern State Parkway in the town of Smithtown , where the Sagtikos ends and the road becomes the Sunken Meadow State Parkway . The parkway comprises the southern half of New York State Route 908K ( NY 908K ) , an unsigned reference route , with the Sunken Meadow State Parkway forming the northern portion . Commercial vehicles are prohibited from using the Sagtikos State Parkway , a restriction that applies to most parkways in the state .
The parkway was proposed to help bridge a gap in the eastern part of the Long Island Parkway system . Construction began in 1949 with the opening of an interchange between Bay Shore Road and the Southern State Parkway . Work on the parkway itself began the following year , with plans calling for connections to three spurs : the Captree State Parkway ( now Robert Moses Causeway ) , the Sunken Meadow Spur ( Sunken Meadow State Parkway ) , and the Heckscher Spur ( Heckscher State Parkway ) . The parkway was completed in 1952 , closing the highway loop on Long Island . In 2001 , a study by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) called for the Sagtikos State Parkway to be widened to include new bus and carpool lanes from end to end .
= = Route description = =
The Sagtikos State Parkway begins at an interchange with the Southern and Heckscher state parkways in the hamlet of West Islip , just north of the Robert Moses Causeway 's junction with the Southern State Parkway . Heading southbound , this junction is signed as exit S4 . The parkway proceeds northward through the town of Islip as a four @-@ lane divided highway , passing through residential parts of the adjacent hamlet of Brentwood to reach exit S3 , a partial cloverleaf interchange with Pine Aire Drive . Just north of the junction , the highway passes over the Main Line of the Long Island Rail Road . Continuing northward through Islip , the Sagtikos Parkway leaves Brentwood ahead of exit S2 , a connection to County Route 13 ( CR 13 , named Crooked Hill Road ) . The southbound exit serves CR 13 by way of access roads through the Pilgrim Psychiatric Center while the northbound direction uses part of G Road to reach CR 13 and Suffolk County Community College 's Grant Campus .
Past the exit , the Sagtikos State Parkway crosses under CR 13 and immediately enters exit S1 , a large modified cloverleaf interchange with the Long Island Expressway ( Interstate 495 or I @-@ 495 ) . The junction brings the parkway into the town of Smithtown , where it bends northwestward and parallels CR 67 ( Vanderbilt Motor Parkway ) for a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) through the town 's Commack section . CR 67 eventually turns westward to pass under the Sagtikos Parkway , at which point the parkway curves back to the north and enters exit SM1E , a cloverleaf interchange serving as the Northern State Parkway 's exit 44 . The Sagtikos State Parkway name ends here while the highway continues northward toward Long Island 's North Shore as the Sunken Meadow State Parkway .
According to annual average daily traffic counts compiled in 2011 by NYSDOT , the most @-@ traveled stretch of the Sagtikos State Parkway was the portion between the Southern State Parkway and the Long Island Expressway . The part between the Southern State and Pine Aire Drive handled an average of 87 @,@ 250 vehicles per day ; slightly lower numbers were recorded along the segment between Pine Aire Drive and the Long Island Expressway , with roughly 85 @,@ 300 vehicles using the section on a daily basis . The portion between the Long Island Expressway and the Northern State Parkway carries an average of 67 @,@ 600 vehicles per day . All three segments saw a rise in traffic over the course of the previous decade , with the Pine Aire Drive – Long Island Expressway segment gaining 14 @,@ 000 vehicles per day during that time .
= = History = =
= = = Construction and opening = = =
The Sagtikos State Parkway was first proposed in the 1920s as a connector between the Northern and Southern state parkways . In order to construct the freeway , the heirs of the late David Gardiner , who owned the historic Sagtikos Manor in West Bay Shore , donated 197 acres ( 80 ha ) of land to the Long Island State Park Commission ( LISPC ) . This donation was considered unusual by the commission as it would break up the family 's estate , which had been constructed in 1692 and served George Washington in 1780 . In addition to this donation , James Fisher , a nearby resident , gave the commission 23 @.@ 5 acres ( 9 @.@ 5 ha ) of land north of the Gardiner property and another 0 @.@ 3 acres ( 0 @.@ 12 ha ) north of the Fisher property to ensure that LISPC had the necessary right @-@ of @-@ way for the new parkway .
The right @-@ of @-@ way on which the parkway was built had originally been part of a private road leading to Sagtikos Manor . The parkway was designed to have connections with the Sunken Meadow Spur ( the future Sunken Meadow State Parkway ) and the Captree State Parkway ( now known as the Robert Moses Causeway ) proposed by New York City highway engineer Robert Moses . On November 13 , 1949 , a new interchange between the Southern State Parkway and Bay Shore Road was opened to traffic . This interchange would eventually serve as the Southern State Parkway 's junction with the Sagtikos , Heckscher and Captree state parkways . Proposals conceived at this time called for grading on the new Sagtikos State Parkway to begin in early 1950 .
In March 1950 , $ 3 million ( 1950 USD ) was earmarked out of a $ 104 @.@ 5 million budget for the start of construction on the parkway . The contract for paving 4 @.@ 76 miles ( 7 @.@ 66 km ) of the Sagtikos Parkway was awarded by the New York State Department of Public Works on June 7 , 1951 , to Hudson Contracting Corporation of Kew Gardens , who entered a bid of $ 1 @,@ 407 @,@ 037 ( 1951 USD ) for the project . The remainder of the parkway was paved as part of a contract valued around $ 418 @,@ 000 ( 1951 USD ) and let by the state on July 11 . A 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) stretch of the Northern State Parkway was also built as part of the project . On September 29 , 1952 , an extension of the Northern State Parkway , Southern State Parkway , and the entire length of the Sagtikos State Parkway were opened without celebration . Robert Moses commented that the completed parkway reflected LISPC 's objective to construct well @-@ designed recreational facilities .
= = = Roadway improvements = = =
From 1997 – 2001 , engineers from NYSDOT worked on a $ 6 @.@ 5 million ( 2001 USD ) study aimed to improve Long Island 's transportation system by 2020 . The resulting plan included proposals to widen 130 miles ( 210 km ) of roads , including the entirety of the Sagtikos State Parkway from the Southern to Northern state parkways . These proposals would give the Sagtikos a restricted @-@ access lane for buses and carpooling drivers , which would be part of a 60 @-@ mile ( 97 km ) system of similar lanes across Long Island .
In 2002 , the Wolkoffs , a family of real estate developers , bought land used by the Pilgrim Psychiatric Center for $ 20 million ( 2002 USD ) with the intent of replacing the property with a new smart growth community named Heartland Town Square . The community , situated near the junction of the Sagtikos Parkway and the Long Island Expressway , would have 9 @,@ 000 housing units and various commercial and recreational buildings . As part of the redevelopment of the property , a study was done on the existing facilities and the surrounding area , which noted several deficiencies in the area 's transportation system , including several related to the Sagtikos . The study determined that the deficiencies would be " exacerbated " if no changes were made .
In response , the study suggested that a third lane be constructed along the Sagtikos from the Southern State Parkway to the Long Island Expressway . The bridges over the Sagtikos at Campus Road and Crooked Hill Road ( CR 13 ) would have to be reconstructed to make room for the added lane , and the interchange with Pine Aire Drive ( exit S3 ) would be completely rebuilt . A new interchange would also be constructed on the parkway between Pine Aire Drive and Campus Road , creating a junction with CR 100 . The project would cost $ 4 billion ( 2011 USD ) and be built in phases for 15 – 20 years .
As of 2012 , progress on the project has been stalled by disagreements between the Wolkoffs and the town of Islip over the amount the Wolkoffs will spend for the transportation piece of the project , and between the family and labor unions over wages and health care . The town of Islip has stated that the Wolkoffs agreed to spend $ 75 million ( 2011 USD ) for the infrastructure improvements ; however , the family stated in a September 2011 letter that they would only commit to $ 27 million ( 2011 USD ) and that they never agreed to the original figure . Gerald Wolkoff thought that the discrepancy stemmed from his belief that transportation should be funded by the government , not from private sources , as his project would generate tax revenue for the government . Despite the issues surrounding the project , the Heartland project received $ 2 @.@ 5 million from the State of New York for roadway improvements in December 2011 . The funding was part of a $ 101 million ( 2011 USD ) package given to Long Island for various economic improvements .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Suffolk County .
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= Lanthanum =
Lanthanum is a soft , ductile , silvery @-@ white metallic chemical element with symbol La and atomic number 57 . It tarnishes rapidly when exposed to air and is soft enough to be cut with a knife . It gave its name to the lanthanide series , a group of 15 similar elements between lanthanum and lutetium in the periodic table . It is also sometimes considered the first element of the 6th @-@ period transition metals , and is traditionally counted among the rare earth elements . As such , it almost always assumes the oxidation state + 3 . Lanthanum has no biological role and is not very toxic .
Lanthanum usually occurs together with cerium and the other rare earth elements . Lanthanum was first found by the Swedish chemist Carl Gustav Mosander in 1839 as an impurity in cerium nitrate – hence the name lanthanum , from the Ancient Greek λανθάνειν ( lanthanein ) , meaning " to lie hidden " . Although it is classified as a rare earth element , lanthanum is the 28th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , being just under three times as abundant as lead . In minerals such as monazite and bastnäsite , lanthanum makes up about a quarter of the lanthanide content . It is extracted from these minerals using a process of such complexity that pure lanthanum metal was not isolated until 1923 .
Lanthanum compounds have numerous applications as catalysts , additives in glass , carbon lighting for studio lighting and projection , ignition elements in lighters and torches , electron cathodes , scintillators , GTAW electrodes , and others . Lanthanum carbonate has been approved as a medicine for treating renal failure .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical = = =
Lanthanum is the first element and prototype of the lanthanide series . In the periodic table , it appears to the right of the alkaline earth metal barium and to the left of the lanthanide cerium . Lanthanum is often considered to be a group 3 element , along with its lighter congeners scandium and yttrium and its heavier congener , the radioactive actinium , although this classification is sometimes disputed . Similarly to scandium , yttrium , and actinium , the 57 electrons of a lanthanum atom are arranged in the configuration [ Xe ] 5d16s2 , with three valence electrons outside the noble gas core . In chemical reactions , lanthanum almost always gives up these three valence electrons from the 5d and 6s subshells to form the + 3 oxidation state , achieving the stable configuration of the preceding noble gas xenon . Some lanthanum ( II ) compounds are also known , but they are much less stable .
Among the lanthanides , lanthanum is exceptional as it does not have any 4f electrons ; indeed , the sudden contraction and lowering of energy of the 4f orbital that is important for the chemistry of the lanthanides only begins to happen at cerium . Thus it is only very weakly paramagnetic , unlike the strongly paramagnetic later lanthanides ( with the exceptions of the last two , ytterbium and lutetium , where the 4f shell is completely full ) . Furthermore , since the melting points of the trivalent lanthanides are related to the extent of hybridisation of the 6s , 5d , and 4f electrons , lanthanum has the second @-@ lowest ( after cerium ) melting point among all the lanthanides : 920 ° C. The lanthanides become harder as the series is traversed : as expected , lanthanum is a soft metal . Lanthanum has a relatively high resistivity of 615 nΩm at room temperature ; in comparison , the value for the good conductor aluminium is only 26 @.@ 50 nΩm . Lanthanum is the least volatile of the lanthanides . Like most of the lanthanides , lanthanum has a hexagonal crystal structure at room temperature . At 310 ° C , lanthanum changes to a face @-@ centered cubic structure , and at 865 ° C , it changes to a body @-@ centered cubic structure .
= = = Chemical = = =
As expected from periodic trends , lanthanum has the largest atomic radius of the lanthanides and the stable group 3 elements . Hence , it is the most reactive among them , tarnishing slowly in air and burning readily to form lanthanum ( III ) oxide , La2O3 , which is almost as basic as calcium oxide . A centimeter @-@ sized sample of lanthanum will corrode completely in a year as its oxide spalls off like iron rust , instead of forming a protective oxide coating like aluminium and its lighter congeners scandium and yttrium . Lanthanum reacts with the halogens at room temperature to form the trihalides , and upon warming will form binary compounds with the nonmetals nitrogen , carbon , sulfur , phosphorus , boron , selenium , silicon and arsenic . Lanthanum reacts slowly with water to form lanthanum ( III ) hydroxide , La ( OH ) 3 . In dilute sulfuric acid , lanthanum readily forms the aquated tripositive ion [ La ( H2O ) 9 ] 3 + : this is colorless in aqueous solution since La3 + has no f electrons . Lanthanum is the strongest and hardest base among the lanthanides .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring lanthanum is made up of two isotopes , the stable 139La and the primordial long @-@ lived radioisotope 138La . 139La is by far the most abundant , making up 99 @.@ 910 % of natural lanthanum : it is produced in the s @-@ process ( slow neutron capture , which occurs in low- to medium @-@ mass stars ) and the r @-@ process ( rapid neutron capture , which occurs in core @-@ collapse supernovae ) . The very rare isotope 138La is one of the few primordial odd @-@ odd nuclei , with a long half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 05 × 1011 years : it is one of the proton @-@ rich p @-@ nuclei which cannot be produced in the s- or r @-@ processes . 138La , along with the even rarer 180mTa , is produced in the ν @-@ process , where neutrinos interact with stable nuclei . All other lanthanum isotopes are synthetic : with the exception of 137La with a half @-@ life of about 60 @,@ 000 years , all of them have half @-@ lives less than a day , and most have half @-@ lives less than a minute . The isotopes 139La and 140La occur as fission products of uranium .
= = = Position in the periodic table = = =
Traditionally , from the 1940s , lanthanum has been placed under scandium and yttrium in group 3 of the periodic table , as its differentiating electron from the previous element goes into a d @-@ orbital . This results in a consistent set of electron configurations in group 3 ( Sc : [ Ar ] 3d14s2 ; Y : [ Kr ] 4d15s2 ; La : [ Xe ] 5d16s2 ) . However , this position has sometimes been disputed , on the grounds that yttrium and to a lesser extent scandium are closer in their chemical properties to lutetium than lanthanum . Indeed , early techniques on separating the rare earths relied on the distinction between the early lanthanides in the cerium group ( whose sodium double sulfates dissolve in water with difficulty ) and the late ones ( as well as yttrium ) in the yttrium group ( whose sodium double sulfates are very water @-@ soluble ) , prompting some researchers in the 1920s and 1930s to place lutetium under yttrium instead . Since the differentiating electron between ytterbium and lutetium also goes into a d @-@ orbital , both lutetium and lanthanum appear by this argument as equally valid candidates for being the third member of group 3 .
Many of the discrepancies between lanthanum and the lighter group 3 elements can simply be explained by its larger size , as expected from periodic trends , as it precedes the lanthanide contraction that makes the early period 6 transition metals so similar to their period 5 homologs . This phenomenon , based on the poor shielding of nuclear charge by the 4f electrons that are added across the lanthanide series , results in a decrease of ionic and atomic radii across the lanthanide series , resulting in the early period 6 transition metals ( just after the lanthanides ) until about rhenium to be very similar to their period 5 homologs . This same effect makes yttrium more similar to lutetium ( [ Xe ] 4f145d16s2 ) than lanthanum , although scandium still shows many differences from lutetium because it is even smaller . Unlike all the other lanthanides , no lanthanum ions have any electrons in f @-@ orbitals ( La + : [ Xe ] 5d2 ; La2 + : [ Xe ] 5d1 ; La3 + : [ Xe ] ) , and in lanthanum metal the f @-@ orbitals are core @-@ like and localized .
= = Compounds = =
Lanthanum oxide is a white solid that can be prepared by direct reaction of its constituent elements . Due to the large size of the La3 + ion , La2O3 adopts a hexagonal 7 @-@ coordinate structure that changes to the 6 @-@ coordinate structure of scandium oxide ( Sc2O3 ) and yttrium oxide ( Y2O3 ) at high temperature . When it reacts with water , lanthanum hydroxide is formed : a lot of heat is evolved in the reaction and a hissing sound is heard . Lanthanum hydroxide will react with atmosphering carbon dioxide to form the basic carbonate .
Lanthanum fluoride is insoluble in water and can be used as a qualitative test for the presence of La3 + . The heavier halides are all very soluble deliquescent compounds . The anhydrous halides are produced by direct reaction of their elements , as heating the hydrates causes hydrolysis : for example , heating hydrated LaCl3 produces LaOCl .
Lanthanum reacts exothermically with hydrogen to produce the dihydride LaH2 , a black , pyrophoric , brittle , conducting compound with the calcium fluoride structure . This is a non @-@ stoichiometric compound , and further absorption of hydrogen is possible , with a concomitant loss of electrical conductivity , until the more salt @-@ like LaH3 is reached . Like LaI2 and LaI , LaH2 is probably an electride compound .
Due to the large ionic radius and great electropositivity of La3 + , there is not much covalent contribution to its bonding and hence it has a limited coordination chemistry , like yttrium and the other lanthanides . Lanthanum oxalate does not dissolve very much in alkali @-@ metal oxalate solutions , and [ La ( acac ) 3 ( H2O ) 2 ] decomposes around 500 ° C. Oxygen is the most common donor atom in lanthanum complexes , which are mostly ionic and often have high coordination numbers over 6 : 8 is the most characteristic , forming square antiprismatic and dodecadeltahedral structures . These high @-@ coordinate species , reaching up to coordination number 12 with the use of chelating ligands such as in La2 ( SO4 ) 3 · 9H2O , often have a low degree of symmetry because of stereochemical factors .
Lanthanum chemistry tends not to involve π bonding due to the electron configuration of the element : thus its organometallic chemistry is quite limited . The best @-@ characterised organolanthanum compounds are the cyclopentadienyl complex La ( C5H5 ) 3 , which is produced by reacting anhydrous LaCl3 with NaC5H5 in tetrahydrofuran , and its methyl @-@ substituted derivatives .
= = History = =
In 1751 , the Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at Bastnäs , later named cerite . Thirty years later , the fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Vilhelm Hisinger , from the family owning the mine , sent a sample of it to Carl Scheele , who did not find any new elements within . In 1803 , after Hisinger had become an ironmaster , he returned to the mineral with Jöns Jacob Berzelius and isolated a new oxide which they named ceria after the dwarf planet Ceres , which had been discovered two years earlier . Ceria was simultaneously independently isolated in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth . Between 1839 and 1843 , ceria was shown to be a mixture of oxides by the Swedish surgeon and chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander , who lived in the same house as Berzelius : he separated out two other oxides which he named lanthana and didymia . He partially decomposed a sample of cerium nitrate by roasting it in air and then treating the resulting oxide with dilute nitric acid . Since lanthanum 's properties differed only slightly from those of cerium , and occurred along with it in its salts , he named it from the Ancient Greek λανθάνειν [ lanthanein ] ( lit. to lie hidden ) . Relatively pure lanthanum metal was first isolated in 1923 .
= = Occurrence and production = =
Lanthanum is the third @-@ most abundant of all the lanthanides , making up 39 mg / kg of the Earth 's crust , behind neodymium at 41 @.@ 5 mg / kg and cerium at 66 @.@ 5 mg / kg . It is almost three times as abundant as lead in the Earth 's crust . Despite being among the so @-@ called " rare earth metals " , lanthanum is thus not actually rare at all , but it is historically so named because it is indeed rarer than " common earths " such as lime and magnesia , and historically only a few deposits were known . Lanthanum is taken into consideration as a rare earth metal because the process to mine it is difficult , time @-@ consuming and expensive .
The La3 + ion is similarly @-@ sized to the early lanthanides of the cerium group ( those up to samarium and europium ) that immediately follow in the periodic table , and hence it tends to occur along with them in phosphate , silicate and carbonate minerals , such as monazite ( MIIIPO4 ) and bastnäsite ( MIIICO3F ) , where M refers to all the rare earth metals except scandium and the radioactive promethium ( mostly Ce , La , and Y ) . Bastnäsite is usually lacking in thorium and the heavy lanthanides , and the purification of the light lanthanides from it is less involved . The ore , after being crushed and ground , is first treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid , evolving carbon dioxide , hydrogen fluoride , and silicon tetrafluoride : the product is then dried and leached with water , leaving the early lanthanide ions , including lanthanum , in solution .
The procedure for monazite , which usually contains all the rare earths as well as thorium , is more involved . Monazite , because of its magnetic properties , can be separated by repeated electromagnetic separation . After separation , it is treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water @-@ soluble sulfates of rare earths . The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with sodium hydroxide to pH 3 @-@ 4 . Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed . After that , the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths to their insoluble oxalates . The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing . The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components , cerium , whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3 . Lanthanum is separated as a double salt with ammonium nitrate by crystallization . This salt is relatively less soluble than other rare earth double salts and therefore stays in the residue . Care must be taken when handling some of the residues as they contain 228Ra , the daughter of 232Th , which is a strong gamma emitter . Lanthanum is relatively easy to extract as it has only one neighbouring lanthanide , cerium , which can be removed by making use of its ability to be oxidised to the + 4 state ; thereafter , lanthanum may be separated out by the historical method of fractional crystallization of La ( NO3 ) 3 · 2NH4NO3 · 4H2O , or by ion @-@ exchange techniques when higher purity is desired .
Lanthanum metal is obtained from its oxide by heating it with ammonium chloride or fluoride and hydrofluoric acid at 300 @-@ 400 ° C to produce the chloride or fluoride :
La2O3 + 6 NH4Cl → 2 LaCl3 + 6 NH3 + 3 H2O
This is followed by reduction with alkali or alkaline earth metals in vacuum or argon atmosphere :
LaCl3 + 3 Li → La + 3 LiCl
Also , pure lanthanum can be produced by electrolysis of molten mixture of anhydrous LaCl3 and NaCl or KCl at elevated temperatures .
= = Applications = =
The first historical application of lanthanum was in gas lantern mantles . Carl Auer von Welsbach used a mixture of 60 % magnesium oxide , 20 % lanthanum oxide , and 20 % yttrium oxide , which he called Actinophor and patented in 1885 . The original mantles gave a green @-@ tinted light and were not very successful , and his first company , which established a factory in Atzgersdorf in 1887 , failed in 1889 .
Modern uses of lanthanum include :
One material used for anodic material of nickel @-@ metal hydride batteries is La ( Ni
3.6Mn
0.4Al
0.3Co
0 @.@ 7 ) . Due to high cost to extract the other lanthanides , a mischmetal with more than 50 % of lanthanum is used instead of pure lanthanum . The compound is an intermetallic component of the AB
5 type .
As most hybrid cars use nickel @-@ metal hydride batteries , massive quantities of lanthanum are required for the production of hybrid automobiles . A typical hybrid automobile battery for a Toyota Prius requires 10 to 15 kilograms ( 22 to 33 lb ) of lanthanum . As engineers push the technology to increase fuel efficiency , twice that amount of lanthanum could be required per vehicle .
Hydrogen sponge alloys can contain lanthanum . These alloys are capable of storing up to 400 times their own volume of hydrogen gas in a reversible adsorption process . Heat energy is released every time they do so ; therefore these alloys have possibilities in energy conservation systems .
Mischmetal , a pyrophoric alloy used in lighter flints , contains 25 % to 45 % lanthanum .
Lanthanum oxide and the boride are used in electronic vacuum tubes as hot cathode materials with strong emissivity of electrons . Crystals of LaB
6 are used in high @-@ brightness , extended @-@ life , thermionic electron emission sources for electron microscopes and Hall @-@ effect thrusters .
Lanthanum trifluoride ( LaF
3 ) is an essential component of a heavy fluoride glass named ZBLAN . This glass has superior transmittance in the infrared range and is therefore used for fiber @-@ optical communication systems .
Cerium @-@ doped lanthanum bromide and lanthanum chloride are the recent inorganic scintillators , which have a combination of high light yield , best energy resolution , and fast response . Their high yield converts into superior energy resolution ; moreover , the light output is very stable and quite high over a very wide range of temperatures , making it particularly attractive for high @-@ temperature applications . These scintillators are already widely used commercially in detectors of neutrons or gamma rays .
Carbon arc lamps use a mixture of rare earth elements to improve the light quality . This application , especially by the motion picture industry for studio lighting and projection , consumed about 25 % of the rare @-@ earth compounds produced until the phase out of carbon arc lamps .
Lanthanum ( III ) oxide ( La
2O
3 ) improves the alkali resistance of glass and is used in making special optical glasses , such as infrared @-@ absorbing glass , as well as camera and telescope lenses , because of the high refractive index and low dispersion of rare @-@ earth glasses . Lanthanum oxide is also used as a grain @-@ growth additive during the liquid @-@ phase sintering of silicon nitride and zirconium diboride .
Small amounts of lanthanum added to steel improves its malleability , resistance to impact , and ductility , whereas addition of lanthanum to molybdenum decreases its hardness and sensitivity to temperature variations .
Small amounts of lanthanum are present in many pool products to remove the phosphates that feed algae .
Lanthanum oxide additive to tungsten is used in gas tungsten arc welding electrodes , as a substitute for radioactive thorium .
Various compounds of lanthanum and other rare @-@ earth elements ( oxides , chlorides , etc . ) are components of various catalysis , such as petroleum cracking catalysts .
Lanthanum @-@ barium radiometric dating is used to estimate age of rocks and ores , though the technique has limited popularity .
Lanthanum carbonate was approved as a medication ( Fosrenol , Shire Pharmaceuticals ) to absorb excess phosphate in cases of end @-@ stage renal failure .
Lanthanum fluoride is used in phosphor lamp coatings . Mixed with europium fluoride , it is also applied in the crystal membrane of fluoride ion @-@ selective electrodes .
Like horseradish peroxidase , lanthanum is used as an electron @-@ dense tracer in molecular biology .
Lanthanum @-@ modified bentonite ( or phoslock ) is used to remove phosphates from water in lake treatments .
= = Biological role = =
Lanthanum has no known biological role . The element is very poorly absorbed after oral administration and when injected its elimination is very slow . Lanthanum carbonate ( Fosrenol ) was approved as a phosphate binder to absorb excess phosphate in cases of end stage renal disease .
While lanthanum has pharmacological effects on several receptors and ion channels , its specificity for the GABA receptor is unique among trivalent cations . Lanthanum acts at the same modulatory site on the GABA receptor as zinc , a known negative allosteric modulator . The lanthanum cation La3 + is a positive allosteric modulator at native and recombinant GABA receptors , increasing open channel time and decreasing desensitization in a subunit configuration dependent manner .
= = Precautions = =
Lanthanum has a low to moderate level of toxicity and should be handled with care . The injection of lanthanum solutions produces hyperglycemia , low blood pressure , degeneration of the spleen and hepatic alterations . The application in carbon arc light led to the exposure of people to rare earth element oxides and fluorides , which sometimes led to pneumoconiosis . As the La3 + ion is similar in size to the Ca2 + ion , it is sometimes used as an easily traced substitute for the latter in medical studies . Lanthanum , like the other lanthanides , is known to affect human metabolism , lowering cholesterol levels , blood pressure , appetite , and risk of blood coagulation . When injected into the brain , it acts as a painkiller , similarly to morphine and other opiates , though the mechanism behind this is still unknown . The first four lanthanides , lanthanum , cerium , praseodymium , and neodymium , act as essential cofactors for the methanol dehydrogenase of the methanotrophic bacterium Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum SolV .
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= Justice ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" Justice " is the eighth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . The episode first aired in broadcast syndication on November 9 , 1987 . Directed by James L. Conway , writer John D. F. Black originally pitched the story , but after Worley Thorne and Gene Roddenberry modified it , Thorne wrote the script . Because of the changes to the story , Black chose to receive his credit under the pseudonym Ralph Wills .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet crew of the Federation starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) is sentenced to death after inadvertently breaking the law on an alien planet . Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) must deal with the powerful and mysterious protector of the planet while deliberating whether to violate the Prime Directive to save Wesley 's life .
This was the first episode of The Next Generation to feature multiple shots filmed on location , with scenes filmed in Van Nuys , Los Angeles , and the Huntington Library in Pasadena , California . " Justice " was the second most viewed episode of the first season , with 12 @.@ 7 million viewers . The episode received a mostly negative response , with critics pointing to issues with the quality of the acting and the predictability of the plot .
= = Plot = =
The USS Enterprise arrives for shore leave at the newly discovered planet of Rubicun III . A small advance party from the ship are sent down to meet with the Edo , the native people of the planet . Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) sends Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) as part of the away team to evaluate the planet on behalf of the young people on board the Enterprise . Upon their arrival , they are greeted by Rivan ( Brenda Bakke ) and Liator ( Jay Louden ) in a very comfortable way , triggering Lt. Worf ( Michael Dorn ) to determine it a " nice planet " , while Wesley leaves the adults to play with the native children . On the Enterprise , Lt. Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) reports something unusual orbiting the planet , but nothing appears on the viewscreen . He sends out a communications signal which reveals another vessel in orbit . A small ball of light enters the bridge and communicates with Picard through Data in a booming voice warning him not to interfere with the Edo , calling them " his children " . The intruder then incapacitates Data .
On Rubicun III , the Edo explain to Lt. Tasha Yar ( Denise Crosby ) and Worf that capital punishment is used to enforce their laws . The away team rush to warn Wesley , only to discover he has accidentally broken a greenhouse whilst playing catch with the Edo children . An Edo attempts to give Wesley a lethal injection for this infraction of the law , but Yar and Worf draw their phasers . On the ship , the sphere leaves Data 's body and departs . Picard , upon hearing of the situation with Wesley , transports to the surface . He meets with representatives of the Edo in a council chamber and explains that Earth no longer practices capital punishment . Some Edo interpret this stance as an attempt by the Federation to push their superiority and suggest that Picard should mount a rescue effort for the boy . He says he cannot , quoting the Prime Directive .
Picard asks about the mysterious vessel in orbit and discovers that the Edo worship it as a god . He returns to his ship with Rivan and Counsellor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) . Rivan sees the strange ship from orbit and confirms it is the Edo 's god . She is transported back to the surface when the ship threatens the Enterprise for taking her away from the planet . Data reveals that , while he was in communication with the entity , it will protect the Edo as if they were its children . After considering their options , Picard returns to the planet 's surface and announces that he is willing to risk the wrath of the entity . He orders the transportation of Wesley to the Enterprise , but the entity does not allow the transporters to operate . Picard pleads with the Edo god that laws must allow for exceptions to ensure justice , and after this statement the transporters go back online and allows the away team to return . Upon leaving the planet , Picard communicates with the entity to inform it that they are leaving and will remove recently placed colonists at a nearby star system under the entity 's jurisdiction . With that , the entity disappears and the Enterprise departs .
= = Production = =
John D. F. Black 's original pitch featured a story about capital punishment . His idea was based on a film treatment detailing the colony planet of Llarof where capital punishment is handed down as a sentence for any offense except against those who are immune from the law . In the treatment , a security officer is killed by a local law enforcement officer , who is then killed himself by his partner for unjustly killing the Enterprise crewman . The planet would have had a rebel faction who wanted to overthrow the laws , which Picard refused to back initially whilst citing the Prime Directive . A second draft featured a rebel leader executed for treason . Black explained the premise of a society that developed laws to prevent terrorism and anarchy : " Let 's say that what we do is kill everybody who is a terrorist or suspected of being a terrorist . Now the people who have killed everybody , what do they do ? "
The idea was re @-@ written by the show 's creator Gene Roddenberry and writer Worley Thorne . It was Roddenberry and Thorne who created the godlike entity and sexed up the Edo . James L. Conway directed the episode , having just finished the MacGyver episode , " Jack in the Box " . Josh Clark , who plays a Conn officer in " Justice " , later appears as Lt. Joe Carey in all seven seasons of Star Trek : Voyager .
" Justice " is the first episode of Star Trek : The Next Generation filmed mostly on location , and the first of any scenes on location other than those set in the holodeck in " Encounter at Farpoint " . Scenes shot at the Tillman Water Reclamation Plant in Van Nuys , Los Angeles , were located under the flight path for the Van Nuys Airport . The noise from overhead planes was so loud , the actors were required to re @-@ record their lines in the studio . Filming for the scene where Wesley crashes into the greenhouse occurred on the grounds of the Huntington Library in Pasadena , California .
= = Reception and home media = =
" Justice " first aired in broadcast syndication on November 8 , 1987 . It received Nielsen ratings of 12 @.@ 7 million , placing it in third place in the timeslot . It ranked the second highest viewed episode of the first season , after the premiere " Encounter at Farpoint " , which was seen by 15 @.@ 7 million viewers .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Castmember Wil Wheaton watched " Justice " for AOL TV in December 2006 . He observed problems with his acting and the plot development , particularly where Picard transports the Edo woman to the Enterprise . Wheaton felt Picard 's actions were a clear breach of the Prime Directive which was otherwise at the heart of the episode . On the other hand , he thought the episode showed a proper dynamic between Picard and the bridge crew , and he believed it tackled a real ethics problem in a manner more frequently seen in the 2004 Battlestar Galactica television series . Wheaton gave the episode of " Justice " a grade of B + .
Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com in May 2011 . He said the episode " collapses under the weight of its own ridiculousness " , and he criticized the Edo as caricatures . DeCandido thought that the plot involving Wesley was predictable , but that the scripting for Picard helped to cement him as a " great character " . He gave the episode a score of two out of ten .
James Hunt reviewed the episode for Den of Geek in November 2012 . He liked the central idea , but said it was typical of the poor quality of the early episodes of the series . Hunt also thought multiple plot details were not addressed , such as the origin of the alien entity and the reason for the Edo 's fear of it . Jamahl Epsicokhan for his website Jammer 's Reviews , said that the episode featured " yet another Trek @-@ cliched Infinitely Superior Life Form " , and featured a debate which was " more obtuse than enlightening " . He gave it a score of one out of four .
" Justice " was first released on VHS cassette in the United States and Canada on July 1 , 1992 . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 . The most recent release was as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
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= The Blues Brothers ( film ) =
The Blues Brothers is a 1980 American musical crime comedy film directed by John Landis . It stars John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd as " Joliet " Jake and Elwood Blues , characters developed from " The Blues Brothers " musical sketch on the NBC variety series Saturday Night Live . The film 's screenplay was written by Aykroyd and Landis . It features musical numbers by rhythm and blues ( R & B ) , soul , and blues singers James Brown , Cab Calloway , Aretha Franklin , Ray Charles , and John Lee Hooker . The film is set in and around Chicago , Illinois , where it was filmed . It features non @-@ musical supporting performances by John Candy , Carrie Fisher , Charles Napier , and Henry Gibson .
The story is a tale of redemption for paroled convict Jake and his brother Elwood , who set out on " a mission from God " to save from foreclosure the Catholic orphanage in which they were raised . To do so , they must reunite their R & B band and organize a performance to earn $ 5 @,@ 000 needed to pay the orphanage 's property tax bill . Along the way , they are targeted by a destructive " mystery woman " , Neo @-@ Nazis , and a country and western band — all while being relentlessly pursued by the police .
Universal Studios , which had won the bidding war for the film , was hoping to take advantage of Belushi 's popularity in the wake of Saturday Night Live , Animal House , and the Blues Brothers ' musical success ; it soon found itself unable to control production costs . The start of filming was delayed when Aykroyd , new to film screenwriting , took six months to deliver a long and unconventional script that Landis had to rewrite before production , which began without a final budget . On location in Chicago , Belushi 's partying and drug use caused lengthy and costly delays that , along with the destructive car chases depicted onscreen , made the final film one of the most expensive comedies ever produced .
Concerns that the film would fail limited its initial bookings to less than half those a film of its magnitude normally received . Released in the United States on June 20 , 1980 , it received generally positive reviews . It earned just under $ 5 million in its opening weekend and went on to gross over $ 115 million in theaters worldwide before its release on home video . It has become a cult classic , spawning the sequel , Blues Brothers 2000 , 18 years later , which was a critical and commercial failure .
= = Plot = =
Jake Blues is released from prison after serving three years for armed robbery , and is picked up by his brother Elwood in the new Bluesmobile , a battered former Mount Prospect police car , replacing their old Cadillac . Jake approves it after Elwood demonstrates its capabilities by jumping an open drawbridge . The brothers visit the Roman Catholic orphanage where they were raised , and learn from Sister Mary " The Penguin " Stigmata that it will be closed unless $ 5 @,@ 000 in property taxes is collected . During a sermon by the Reverend Cleophus James at the Triple Rock Baptist church , Jake has an epiphany : They can re @-@ form the Blues Brothers Band , which broke up while Jake was in prison , and raise the money to pay the tax bill .
That night , Elwood is pulled over for running a red light , and the state troopers attempt to arrest him for driving with a suspended license due to 116 parking tickets and 56 moving violations . After a high @-@ speed chase through the Dixie Square Mall , the brothers escape . The next morning , as the police arrive at the flophouse where Elwood lives , a mysterious woman detonates a bomb that demolishes the building , but miraculously leaves Jake and Elwood unharmed , and saves them from being arrested .
Jake and Elwood begin tracking down members of the band . Trombonist Tom " Bones " Malone , drummer Willie " Too Big " Hall , rhythm guitarist Steve " The Colonel " Cropper , bassist Donald " Duck " Dunn , and keyboardist Murphy " Murph " Dunne are now performing as a lounge band , " Murph and the Magictones " , at a deserted Holiday Inn , and quickly agree to rejoin . Trumpeter Alan " Mr. Fabulous " Rubin , now the maître d ' at an expensive restaurant , turns them down , but the brothers refuse to leave the restaurant until he relents . On their way to meet the final two band members , saxophonist Louis " Blue Lou " Marini and guitarist Matt " Guitar " Murphy , the brothers find the road blocked by a Nazi Party demonstration on a bridge ; Elwood runs them off the bridge into Lake Michigan . Marini and Murphy , who now run a soul food restaurant , ignore the advice of Murphy 's wife ( Aretha Franklin ) and rejoin the band . The reunited group obtain instruments and equipment from Ray 's Music Exchange , and Ray ( Ray Charles ) , as usual , takes an IOU .
As Jake attempts to book a gig , the mystery woman blows up the phone booth he is using ; once again , he is miraculously unhurt . The band stumbles into a gig at Bob 's Country Bunker , a local honky @-@ tonk . They win over the rowdy crowd , but run up a bar tab higher than their pay , and infuriate the country band that was actually booked for the gig , the Good Ol ' Boys .
Realizing that they need one big show to raise the necessary $ 5 @,@ 000 , the brothers persuade their old agent to book the Palace Hotel Ballroom , north of Chicago . They mount a loudspeaker atop the Bluesmobile and drive all over greater Chicago promoting the concert — and alerting the police , the Nazis , and the Good Ol ' Boys of their whereabouts . The ballroom is packed with blues fans , police officers , and the Good Ol ' Boys . Jake and Elwood perform two songs , then sneak offstage , as the tax deadline is rapidly approaching . A record company executive offers them a $ 10 @,@ 000 cash advance on a recording contract — more than enough to pay off the orphanage 's taxes and Ray 's IOU — and then shows the brothers how to slip out of the building unnoticed . As they make their escape via a service tunnel , they are confronted by the mystery woman : Jake 's jilted ex @-@ fiancée ( Carrie Fisher ) . After her volley of M16 rifle bullets leaves them miraculously unharmed , Jake offers a series of ridiculous excuses that she miraculously believes , allowing the brothers to escape to the Bluesmobile .
Jake and Elwood race back toward Chicago , pursued at high speeds by dozens of police cars and the Good Ol ' Boys . They elude them all with a series of improbable maneuvers , including a miraculous , gravity @-@ defying escape from the Illinois Nazis . At the Richard J. Daley Center , they rush inside the adjacent Chicago City Hall building with hundreds of law officers of every conceivable type in hot pursuit . At the office of the Cook County Assessor , the brothers pay the tax bill . As their receipt is stamped " paid " , they are arrested by the mob of law officers . In prison , the band plays " Jailhouse Rock " for the inmates .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Origins = = =
The characters , Jake and Elwood Blues , were created by Belushi and Aykroyd in performances on Saturday Night Live . The name " The Blues Brothers " was the idea of Howard Shore . The fictional back story and character sketches of blood brothers Jake and Elwood were developed by Aykroyd in collaboration with Ron Gwynne , who is credited as a story consultant for the film . As related in the liner notes of the band 's debut album , Briefcase Full of Blues , the brothers grew up in an orphanage , learned the blues from a janitor named Curtis , and sealed their brotherhood by cutting their middle fingers with a steel string said to have come from the guitar of Elmore James .
Belushi had become a star in 1978 as a result of both the Blues Brothers ' musical success and his role in National Lampoon 's Animal House . At one point , he managed the triple feat of being the star of the week 's top @-@ grossing film , top @-@ rated television show , and singing on the number @-@ one album within a year . When Aykroyd and Belushi decided they could make a Blues Brothers film , the bidding war was intense . Universal Studios narrowly beat Paramount Pictures for the project . John Landis , who had directed Belushi in Animal House , was aboard as director .
However , the project had neither a budget nor a script . On the former issue , Universal head Lew Wasserman thought the film could be made for $ 12 million ; the filmmakers wanted $ 20 million . It would be impossible to settle on a specific amount without a screenplay to review , and after Mitch Glazer declined to help him , Aykroyd wrote one on his own .
Aykroyd had never written a screenplay before , he admitted in the 1998 documentary , Stories Behind the Making of The Blues Brothers , or even read one , and he was unable to find a writing partner . Consequently , he put together a very descriptive volume that explained the characters ' origins and how the band members were recruited . His final draft was 324 pages , which was three times longer than a standard screenplay , written not in a standard screenplay format , but more like free verse . To soften the impact , Aykroyd made a joke of the thick script and had it bound with the cover of the Los Angeles Yellow Pages directory for when he turned it in to producer Robert K. Weiss . Landis was given the task of editing the script into a usable screenplay , which took him about two weeks .
The premise of the underlying plot was somewhat unrealistic . It would be unlikely that a church @-@ owned orphanage would have to pay a property tax bill since , in Illinois - as in much of the rest of the world - property owned by religious groups and other not @-@ for @-@ profit organizations is tax @-@ exempt . However , while the script was being written , a legislative proposal to tax such property was under consideration .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began in July 1979 , with the film 's budget still not settled . For the first month , things ran smoothly on and off the set . When Weiss saw the supposedly final $ 17 @.@ 5 million budget , he reportedly joked , " I think we 've spent that much already . "
In the next month , the production began falling behind schedule . Much of the delay was due to Belushi 's partying and carousing . When not on the set , he went out to his familiar Chicago haunts such as Wrigley Field . People often recognized him and slipped him cocaine , a drug he was already using heavily on his own , hoping to use it with him . " Every blue @-@ collar Joe wants his John Belushi story , " said Smokey Wendell , who was eventually hired to keep it away from the star . As a result of his late nights and drug and alcohol use , Belushi would often miss unit calls ( the beginning of a production day ) or go to his trailer after them and sleep , wasting hours of production time . One night , Aykroyd found him crashing on the sofa of a nearby house , where Belushi had already helped himself to food in the refrigerator .
Cocaine was already so prevalent on the set ( like many other film productions of that era ) that Aykroyd , who used far less than his partner , claims a section of the budget was actually set aside for purchases of the drug during night shooting . The stars had a private bar , the Blues Club , built on the set , for themselves , crew , and friends . Carrie Fisher , Aykroyd 's girlfriend at the time , says most of the bar 's staff doubled as dealers , procuring any drug patrons desired .
The original budget was quickly surpassed , and back in Los Angeles , Wasserman grew increasingly frustrated . He was regularly confronting Ned Tanen , the executive in charge of production for Universal , in person over the costs . Sean Daniel , another studio executive , was not reassured when he came to Chicago and saw the production had set up a special facility for the 70 cars used in the chase sequences . Filming there , which was supposed to have concluded in the middle of September , continued into late October .
On the set , Belushi 's drug use worsened . Fisher , who herself later struggled with cocaine addiction , says Landis told her to keep Belushi away from the drug . Wendell was hired to clear any from the places Belushi visited off @-@ camera . Nevertheless , at one point , Landis found Belushi with what he described as a " mountain " of cocaine on a table in his trailer , which led to a tearful confrontation in which Belushi admitted his addiction and feared it could eventually kill him .
After Aykroyd and Belushi 's wife Judy had a talk with him about his antics , the production returned to Los Angeles . Filming there again ran smoothly , until it came time to shoot the final sequence at the Hollywood Palladium . Just beforehand , Belushi fell off a borrowed skateboard and seriously injured his knee , making it unlikely he could go through with the scene , which required him to sing , dance , and do cartwheels . Wasserman persuaded the city 's top orthopedic surgeon to postpone his weekend plans long enough to stop by and sufficiently anesthetize Belushi 's knee , and the scene was filmed as intended .
= = = = Locations = = = =
Much of the film was shot on location in and around Chicago between July and October 1979 , including Wauconda , Illinois , where the car crashes into the side of Route 12 . Made with the cooperation of Mayor Jane M. Byrne , it is credited for putting Chicago on the map as a venue for filmmaking . Nearly 200 movies have been filmed in Chicago . " Chicago is one of the stars of the movie . We wrote it as a tribute , " Dan Aykroyd told the Chicago Sun @-@ Times in an article written to mark the film 's 25th @-@ anniversary DVD release .
The first traffic stop was in Park Ridge , Illinois . The shopping mall car chase was filmed in the real , albeit abandoned , Dixie Square Mall , in Harvey , Illinois . The bridge jump was filmed on an actual drawbridge , the 95th Street bridge over the Calumet River , on the southeast side of Chicago . The main entrance to Wrigley Field ( and its sign reading " Save lives . Drive safely , prevent fires . " ) makes a brief appearance when the " Illinois Nazis " visit it after Elwood falsely registers the ballpark 's location , 1060 West Addison , as his home address on his driver 's license . ( Elwood 's Illinois driver 's license number is an almost @-@ valid encoded number , with Dan Aykroyd 's own birth date embedded . ) Jake 's final confrontation with his girlfriend was filmed in a replica of a section of the abandoned Chicago freight tunnel system . The other chase scenes included lower Wacker Drive , Lake Street , and Richard J. Daley Center .
Jake and Elwood push their fuel @-@ less Blues Mobile off the highway and into a service station named Lloyd 's Tire Clinic . This was located right off IL 38 ( Roosevelt Road ) and IL 59 , four miles west of Belushi 's former high school , Wheaton Central . The station was detonated late one night while filming , but this scene was deleted . While Lloyd 's is long gone , the adjacent West @-@ Wind Motel ( slightly to the east ) at Gary 's Mill Road , where Twiggy 's character waited for a no @-@ show Elwood , survives to this date .
In the final car chase scene , the production actually dropped a Ford Pinto , representing the one driven by the " Illinois Nazis " , from a helicopter at an altitude of about 1 @,@ 200 feet — and had to gain a Special Airworthiness Certificate from the Federal Aviation Administration to do it . The FAA was concerned that the car could prove too aerodynamic in a high @-@ altitude drop , and pose a threat to nearby buildings . The shot leading up to the car drop , where the " Illinois Nazis " drive off a freeway ramp , was shot in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , near the Hoan Bridge on Interstate 794 . The Lake Freeway ( North ) was a planned but not completed six @-@ lane freeway , and I @-@ 794 contained an unfinished ramp off which the Nazis drove . Several Milwaukee skyscrapers are visible in the background as the Bluesmobile flips over , notably the U.S. Bank Center .
The " Palace Hotel Ballroom " , where the band performs its climactic concert , was at the time of filming a country club , but later became the South Shore Cultural Center , named after the Chicago neighborhood where it is located . The interior concert scenes were filmed in the Hollywood Palladium .
The filming in downtown Chicago was conducted on Sundays during the summer of 1979 , and much of the downtown was cordoned off from the public . Costs for filming the largest scene in the city 's history totaled $ 3 @.@ 5 million . Permission was given after Belushi and Aykroyd offered to donate $ 50 @,@ 000 to charity after filming . Although the Bluesmobile was allowed to be driven through the Daley Center lobby , special breakaway panes were temporarily substituted for the normal glass in the building . The speeding car caused $ 7 @,@ 650 in damages to 35 granite paver stones and a bronze air grill in the building . Interior shots of the elevator , staircase , and assessor 's office were all recreated in a film set for filming .
As revealed in the DVD commentary , both Brown and Lee Hooker sang their songs live on set because they couldn 't accurately lip @-@ sync to pre @-@ recorded audio tracks . Charles and Franklin sang to playback , despite the latter 's similar difficulties with lip @-@ sync .
= = = Bluesmobile = = =
The film used thirteen different cars bought at auction from the California Highway Patrol to depict the Bluesmobile , a retired 1974 Mount Prospect , Illinois Dodge Monaco patrol car . The vehicles were outfitted by the studio to do particular driving chores ; some were customized for speed and others for jumps , depending on the scene . For the large car chases , filmmakers purchased 60 police cars at $ 400 each , and most were destroyed at the completion of the filming . More than 40 stunt drivers were hired , and the crew kept a 24 @-@ hour body shop to repair cars .
For the scene when the Blues Brothers finally arrive at the Richard J. Daley Center , a mechanic took several months to rig the car to fall apart . At the time of the film 's release , it held the world record for the most cars destroyed in one film until it was surpassed by its own sequel .
= = = Casting = = =
Soul and R & B stars James Brown , Cab Calloway , Ray Charles , and Aretha Franklin were cast in speaking parts to support musical numbers built around them . This caused friction between Landis and Universal later in the production , as its costs far exceeded the original budget . Since none of them except Charles had had any hits in recent years , the studio wanted the director to replace them with , or add , performances by younger acts such as Rose Royce , whose " Car Wash " had made them disco stars after its use in the 1976 film of that name .
Other notable musicians in the cast include Big Walter Horton , Pinetop Perkins , and John Lee Hooker ( who performed " Boom Boom " during the Maxwell Street scene ) . The members of The Blues Brothers band are notable for their musical accomplishments , as well . Steve Cropper and Donald Dunn are architects of the Stax Records sound ( Cropper 's guitar can be heard at the start of the Sam & Dave song " Soul Man " ) and were half of Booker T. & the M.G. ' s . Horn players Lou Marini , Tom Malone , and Alan Rubin had all played in Blood , Sweat & Tears and the Saturday Night Live band . Drummer Willie Hall had played in The Bar @-@ Kays and backed Isaac Hayes . Matt Murphy is a veteran blues guitarist . As the band developed at Saturday Night Live , pianist Paul Shaffer was part of the act and was cast in the film . However , due to contractual obligations with SNL , he was unable to participate , so actor @-@ musician Murphy Dunne ( whose father , George Dunne , was the Cook County Board President ) was hired to take his role .
Fisher , Freeman , Gibson , and Candy were cast in non @-@ musical supporting roles . The film is also notable for the number of cameo appearances by established celebrities and entertainment @-@ industry figures , including Steve Lawrence as a booking agent , Twiggy as a " chic lady " in a Jaguar convertible whom Elwood propositions at a gas station , Steven Spielberg as the Cook County Assessor 's clerk , John Landis as a state trooper in the mall chase , Paul Reubens ( before Pee @-@ wee Herman ) as a waiter in the Chez Paul restaurant scene , Joe Walsh in a cameo as the first prisoner to jump up on a table in the final scene , and Chaka Khan is the soloist in James Brown 's choir . Muppet performer Frank Oz plays a corrections officer , and in the scene where the brothers crash into Toys R Us , a Grover and Kermit the Frog toy can be spotted . Right before the brothers crash into the Toys R Us , a customer ( played by stunt coordinator Gary McLarty ) asks the cashier if they have a Miss Piggy doll , a Muppet character that is voiced by Oz . The character portrayed by Cab Calloway is named Curtis as an homage to Curtis Salgado , a Portland , Oregon , blues musician who inspired Belushi while he was in Oregon filming Animal House .
Over 500 extras were used for the next @-@ to @-@ last scene , the blockade of the building at Daley Center , including 200 National Guardsmen , 100 state and city police officers , with 15 horses for the mounted police ( and 3 each Sherman tanks , helicopters , and fire engines ) .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Landis ' difficulties continued even after principal photography was completed . The first cut of the film lasted two and a half hours , with an intermission . After one early screening , Wasserman demanded it be shortened , and 20 minutes were cut . The film 's final budget was $ 27 @.@ 5 million ( $ 79 million in modern dollars ) , $ 10 million over its original budget .
Prospects for a successful release did not look good . Aykroyd and Belushi had left SNL at the end of the previous season , reducing their bankability . Belushi 's fame had taken a further hit after the commercial and critical failure of 1941 at the end of the year . One day after the editing was done , Wasserman invited Landis up to his office to speak with Ted Mann , head of the Mann Theatres chain , which dominated film exhibition in the Western United States . He told Landis that he would not book the film at any theaters in predominately white neighborhoods , such as Westwood . Not only did Mann not want black patrons going there to see the film , he surmised that white viewers were unlikely to see a film featuring older black musical stars . Ultimately The Blues Brothers got less than half the bookings nationwide for its initial release than a typical big @-@ budget studio film of the era , which did not bode well for its success at the box office .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The Blues Brothers opened on June 20 , 1980 , with a release in 594 theaters . It took in $ 4 @,@ 858 @,@ 152 , ranking second for that week ( after The Empire Strikes Back ) and 10th for the entire year . Over the years , it has retained a following through television and home video . The film in total grossed $ 57 @,@ 229 @,@ 890 domestically and $ 58 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in foreign box offices for a total of $ 115 @,@ 229 @,@ 890 . By genre , it is the ninth @-@ highest grossing musical and the tenth @-@ highest earner among comedy road movies . It ranks second , between Wayne 's World and Wayne 's World 2 ( which , coincidentally , also take place in the greater Chicago metropolitan area , in the outlying suburb of Aurora , Illinois ) , among films adapted from Saturday Night Live sketches . Director John Landis claimed The Blues Brothers was also the first American film to gross more money overseas than it did in the United States .
The popularity of the film boosted the Ray @-@ Ban Wayfarer , which was yet experiencing some renewed popularity thanks to the rise of the " New Music " movement . From a few thousands sold through the mid @-@ 1970s , sales rose to 18 @,@ 000 during 1981 partly because of the film , bringing the model out from the verge of withdrawal .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Blues Brothers received generally positive reviews from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an 85 % " Certified Fresh " rating , based on 53 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 1 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Too over the top for its own good , but ultimately rescued by the cast 's charm , director John Landis ' grace , and several soul @-@ stirring musical numbers " . It won the Golden Reel Award for Best Sound Editing and Sound Effects , is 14th on Total Film magazine 's " List of the 50 Greatest Comedy Films of All Time " and is number 69 on Bravo 's " 100 Funniest Movies " .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film 3 out of 4 stars , praising it for its energetic musical numbers and said the car chases were " incredible " if so over @-@ the @-@ top that they finally became numbing . Ebert further noted " Belushi and Aykroyd come over as hard @-@ boiled city guys , total cynics with a world @-@ view of sublime simplicity , and that all fits perfectly with the movie 's other parts . There 's even room , in the midst of the carnage and mayhem , for a surprising amount of grace , humor , and whimsy . In his review for The Washington Post , Gary Arnold criticized Landis for engorging " the frail plot of The Blues Brothers with car chases and crack @-@ ups , filmed with such avid , humorless starkness on the streets of Chicago that comic sensations are virtually obliterated " . Time magazine 's Richard Corliss wrote , " The Blues Brothers is a demolition symphony that works with the cold efficiency of a Moog synthesizer gone sadistic " .
Janet Maslin of The New York Times criticized the film for shortchanging viewers on more details about Jake and Elwood 's affinity for African @-@ American culture . She also took director Landis to task for " distracting editing " , mentioning the Soul Food diner scene in which saxophonist Lou Marini 's head is out of shot as he dances on the counter . In the documentary , Stories Behind the Making of The Blues Brothers , Landis acknowledges the criticism , and Marini recalls the dismay he felt at seeing the completed film .
Kim Newman , writing for Empire in 2013 , considered The Blues Brothers to be " an amalgam of urban sleaze , automobile crunch and blackheart rhythm and blues " with " better music than any film had had for many years . " He noted that Belushi and Akyroyd pack in their heroes : " Aretha storming through ' Think ' , Cab Calloway cruising through ' Minnie the Moocher ' , John Lee Hooker boogying through ' Boom Boom ' and Ray Charles on electric piano , not to mention the hottest band . " He observed that " the picture had revived the careers of virtually all the musicians that appeared in it " and concluded " it still sounds great and looks as good as ever through Ray Bans " .
On the 30th anniversary , L 'Osservatore Romano , the daily newspaper of Vatican City State , wrote that the film is filled with positive symbolism and moral references that can be related to Catholicism . They went further , stating , The Blues Brothers " is a memorable film , and , judging by the facts , a Catholic one . "
= = = Cult @-@ film status = = =
The Blues Brothers has become a staple of late @-@ night cinema , even slowly morphing into an audience @-@ participation show in its regular screenings at the Valhalla Cinema , in Melbourne , Australia . John Landis acknowledged the support of the cinema and the fans by a phone call he made to the cinema at the 10th @-@ anniversary screening , and later invited regular attendees to make cameo appearances in Blues Brothers 2000 . The fans act as the members of the crowd during the performance of " Ghost Riders in the Sky " .
In August 2005 , a 25th @-@ anniversary celebration for The Blues Brothers was held at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles . Attendees included Landis , former Universal Studios executive Thom Mount , film editor George Folsey , Jr . , and cast members James Brown , Henry Gibson , Charles Napier , Steve Cropper , and Stephen Bishop . It featured a press conference , a panel discussion where Dan Aykroyd joined by satellite , and a screening of the original theatrical version of the film . The panel discussion was broadcast direct to many other cinemas around the country .
The popularity of the film has also spread overseas . The film was an inspiration for Japanese companies Studio Hibari and Aniplex , which led to the creation of the manga and anime franchise Nerima Daikon Brothers , which contain heavy references to the film .
= = = American Film Institute = = =
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
Think - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
" We 're on a mission from God . " - Nominated
= = Release = =
= = = Home media = = =
When the film was first screened for a preview audience , a producer demanded that director Landis cut 25 minutes from the film . After trimming 15 minutes , it was released in theaters at 132 minutes . It was first released on VHS and Betamax from MCA Videocassette Inc. in 1983 . A Laserdisc from MCA Videodisc was released the same year . It was re @-@ released on VHS , Laserdisc , and Betamax in 1985 from MCA Home Video , and again in 1990 from MCA / Universal Home Video . It was also released in a 2 @-@ Pack VHS box set with along with Animal House . The film 's original length was restored to 148 minutes for the " Collector 's Edition " DVD and a Special Edition VHS and Laderdisc release in 1998 . The DVD and Laserdisc versions included a 56 minute documentary called " The Stories Behind The Making Of The Blues Brothers " . Produced and directed by JM Kenny ( who also produced the Animal House Collector 's Edition DVD the same year ) , it included interviews with Landis , Aykroyd , members of The Blues Brothers Band , producer Robert K. Weiss , editor George Folsey Jr . , and others involved with the film . It also included production photographs , the theatrical trailer , production notes , and cast and filmmaker bios . The 25th @-@ anniversary DVD release in 2005 included both the theatrical cut and the extended version .
The film was released on Blu @-@ ray on July 26 , 2011 , with the same basic contents as the 25th @-@ anniversary DVD . In a March 2011 interview with Ain 't it Cool News , Landis also mentioned he had approved the Blu @-@ ray 's remastered transfer .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The Blues Brothers : Original Soundtrack Recording ( later re @-@ released as The Blues Brothers : Music from the Soundtrack ) was released on June 20 , 1980 as the second album by the Blues Brothers Band , which also toured that year to promote the film . " Gimme Some Lovin ' " was a Top 20 Billboard hit , peaking at number 18 . The album was a followup to their debut , the live album , Briefcase Full of Blues . Later that year they released a second live album , Made in America , which featured the Top 40 track , " Who 's Making Love " .
The songs on the soundtrack album are a noticeably different audio mix than in the film , with a prominent baritone saxophone in the horn line ( also heard in the film during " Shake a Tail Feather " , though no baritone sax is present ) , and female backing vocals on " Everybody Needs Somebody to Love " , though the band had no other backup singers , besides Jake & / or Elwood , in the film . A number of regular Blues Brothers ' members , including saxophonist Tom Scott and drummer Steve Jordan , perform on the soundtrack album , but are not in the film .
According to Landis in the 1998 documentary The Stories Behind the Making of ' The Blues Brothers ' , filmed musical performances by Franklin and Brown took more effort , as neither artist was accustomed to lip @-@ synching their performances on film . Franklin required several takes , and Brown simply rerecorded his performance live . Cab Calloway initially wanted to do a disco variation on his signature tune , " Minnie the Moocher " , having done the song in several styles in the past , but Landis insisted that the song be done faithful to the original big @-@ band version .
" She Caught the Katy " ( Taj Mahal , Yank Rachell ) – The Blues Brothers with lead vocals by Jake Blues - 4 : 10
" Peter Gunn Theme " ( Henry Mancini ) – The Blues Brothers Band - 3 : 46
" Gimme Some Lovin ' " ( Steve Winwood , Muff Winwood , Spencer Davis ) – The Blues Brothers with lead vocals by Jake Blues - 3 : 06
" Shake a Tail Feather " ( Otha Hayes , Andre Williams , Verlie Rice ) – Ray Charles with the Blues Brothers ( Jake and Elwood , backing vocals ) - 2 : 48
" Everybody Needs Somebody to Love " ( Jerry Wexler , Bert Berns , Solomon Burke ) – The Blues Brothers ( Jake Blues , lead vocals ; Elwood Blues , harmonica and vocals ) - 3 : 21
" The Old Landmark " ( Adeline M. Brunner ) – James Brown and the Rev. James Cleveland Choir ( additional choir vocals by Chaka Khan credited in the film ) - 2 : 56
" Think " ( Teddy White , Aretha Franklin ) – Aretha Franklin and the Blues Brothers with backing vocals by Brenda Corbett , Margaret Branch , Carolyn Franklin , Jake , and Elwood - 3 : 13
" Theme from Rawhide " ( Dimitri Tiomkin , Ned Washington ) – Elwood , Jake , and the Blues Brothers Band - 2 : 37
" Minnie the Moocher " ( Cab Calloway , Irving Mills ) – Cab Calloway with the Blues Brothers Band - 3 : 23
" Sweet Home Chicago " ( Robert Johnson ) – The Blues Brothers with lead vocals by Jake Blues ( dedicated to the musician Magic Sam ) - 7 : 48
" Jailhouse Rock " ( Jerry Leiber , Mike Stoller ) – Jake Blues and the Blues Brothers ( Over the closing credits in the film , verses are sung by James Brown , Cab Calloway , Ray Charles , Aretha Franklin and " crew " ) - 3 : 19
Other songs in the film
The film 's score includes " God Music " ( instrumental with choir vocalese ) composed by Elmer Bernstein , who previously had worked with John Landis on National Lampoon 's Animal House . Other songs in the film include :
" Somebody Loan Me a Dime " - composed and performed by Fenton Robinson ( music playing on the radio while Jake is being escorted from his prison cell . )
" Shake Your Moneymaker " – composed and performed by Elmore James ( music playing in Curtis ' basement when Jake and Elwood go to visit the orphanage )
" Soothe Me " / " Hold On ! I 'm Comin ' " – composed by Sam Cooke / Isaac Hayes and David Porter ; performed by Sam & Dave ( both tracks paying on the Bluesmobile 's 8 @-@ track player . The former when Jake and Elwood get pulled over by the police ; latter when they are then chased after resisting arrest )
" I Can 't Turn You Loose " – composed by Otis Redding ; instrumental performed by the Blues Brothers band ( their theme song ; plays during the smashing of the Mall and again when they are introduced at the Palace Hotel Ballroom , incorporating " Time Is Tight " by Booker T. and The M.G. ' s )
" Let the Good Times Roll " – composed and performed by Louis Jordan ( plays on the record player in Elwood 's corner of the flophouse )
" Anema e core " – performed by Ezio Pinza ( plays when Jake and Elwood investigate Tom Malone and Lou Marini 's old home )
" Quando , quando , quando " – performed by Murph and the Magic Tones
" Just the Way You Are " – composed by Billy Joel ; ( plays during the ' Magic Tones ' scene , as a reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape instrumental when the band takes their set break to discuss rejoining Jake & Elwood )
" Die Romantiker " - composed by Joseph Lanner ( 1801 – 1843 ) , performed by an uncredited group ( background music in the Chez Paul restaurant scene )
" Boom Boom " – composed by John Lee Hooker ; performed by John Lee Hooker ( as " Street Slim " ) , vocals and guitar ; Big Walter Horton ( as " Tampa Pete " ) , harmonica ; Pinetop Perkins ( as " Luther Jackson " ) electric piano ; Willie " Big Eyes " Smith , drums ; Luther Johnson ( Guitar Junior ) , guitar ; Calvin " Fuzz " Jones , bass ( plays in the Maxwell Street scene , short version in the theatrical cut , full @-@ length in the extended cut )
" Mama Lawdy " / " Boogie Chillen ' " – composed and performed by John Lee Hooker ( plays in the film twice ; first when Jake tries to phone Maury Sline , again when the band go to Bob 's Country Bunker )
" Your Cheatin ' Heart " – composed by Hank Williams ; performed by Kitty Wells ( heard when Jake and Elwood first enter Bob 's Country Bunker )
" Stand by Your Man " – composed by Tammy Wynette and Billy Sherrill ; performed by the Blues Brothers
Sink The Bismarck - cut from the film
" I 'm Walkin ' " – performed by Fats Domino ( plays during the scenes where Jake , Elwood and the orphans promote the concert )
" Ride of the Valkyries " – composed by Richard Wagner ; performed by the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra ( plays when Jake and Elwood are pursued by the Nazis ; ends abruptly when the Head Nazi 's car falls through the middle of the road )
" The Girl from Ipanema " – composed by Antônio Carlos Jobim ; performed by an uncredited group ( background music while the brothers are in the elevator to the assessor 's office )
= = Sequel = =
The 1998 sequel , Blues Brothers 2000 , had similar traits to the original , including large car @-@ chase scenes and musical numbers . Landis returned to direct the film and Aykroyd reprised his role , joining John Goodman , Joe Morton , and 10 @-@ year @-@ old J. Evan Bonifant as the new Blues Brothers . Franklin and Brown were among the celebrities returning from the first film . There were also musical performances by Sam Moore , Wilson Pickett , Paul Shaffer , B.B. King , and Eric Clapton , among others . Dozens of artists were packed into an all @-@ star band called The Louisiana Gator Boys . Even with many returning cast members , the film was considered a box @-@ office failure , only generating a little over $ 14 million in sales , and critics ' reactions were very poor .
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= Alternative rock =
Alternative rock ( also called alternative music , alt @-@ rock or simply alternative ) is a genre of rock music that emerged from the independent music underground of the 1980s and became widely popular in the 1990s and 2000s . In this instance , the word " alternative " refers to the genre 's distinction from mainstream rock music . The term 's original meaning was broader , referring to a generation of musicians unified by their collective debt to either the musical style or simply the independent , D.I.Y. ethos of punk rock , which in the late 1970s laid the groundwork for alternative music . At times , " alternative " has been used as a catch @-@ all description for music from underground rock artists that receives mainstream recognition , or for any music , whether rock or not , that is seen to be descended from punk rock ( including some examples of punk itself , as well as new wave , and post @-@ punk ) .
Alternative rock is a broad umbrella term consisting of music that differs greatly in terms of its sound , its social context , and its regional roots . By the end of the 1980s magazines and zines , college radio airplay , and word of mouth had increased the prominence and highlighted the diversity of alternative rock , helping to define a number of distinct styles ( and music scenes ) such as gothic rock , jangle pop , noise pop , indie rock , indie pop , grunge , industrial rock , alternative hip hop , and rap rock . Most of these subgenres had achieved minor mainstream notice and a few bands representing them , such as Hüsker Dü and R.E.M. , had even signed to major labels . But most alternative bands ' commercial success was limited in comparison to other genres of rock and pop music at the time , and most acts remained signed to independent labels and received relatively little attention from mainstream radio , television , or newspapers . With the breakthrough of Nirvana and the popularity of the grunge and Britpop movements in the 1990s , alternative rock entered the musical mainstream and many alternative bands became successful .
By the end of the decade , alternative rock 's mainstream prominence declined due to a number of events that caused grunge and Britpop to fade and led to the hiatus of the Lollapalooza festival . Nevertheless , post @-@ grunge remained commercially viable into the start of the 21st century , with the commercial success of Creed and Matchbox Twenty ; Radiohead 's critical acclaim , and the success of some post @-@ Britpop groups like Coldplay . Emo attracted attention in the larger alternative rock world , and the term was applied to a variety of artists , including multi @-@ platinum acts . During the late 1990s and early 2000s , several alternative rock bands emerged , including The White Stripes , The Strokes , Arcade Fire , Franz Ferdinand , and Interpol , that drew from post @-@ punk and new wave . Post @-@ punk revival artists such as Modest Mouse and The Killers had commercial success in the early and mid 2000s .
= = Origin of term = =
Before the term alternative rock came into common usage around 1990 , the sort of music to which it refers was known by a variety of terms . In 1979 , Terry Tolkin used the term Alternative Music to describe the groups he was writing about . In 1979 Dallas radio station KZEW had a late night new wave show entitled " Rock and Roll Alternative " . " College rock " was used in the United States to describe the music during the 1980s due to its links to the college radio circuit and the tastes of college students . In the United Kingdom , dozens of small do it yourself record labels emerged as a result of the punk subculture . According to the founder of one of these labels , Cherry Red , NME and Sounds magazines published charts based on small record stores called " Alternative Charts " . The first national chart based on distribution called the Indie Chart was published in January 1980 ; it immediately succeeded in its aim to help these labels . At the time , the term indie was used literally to describe independently distributed records . By 1985 , indie had come to mean a particular genre , or group of subgenres , rather than simply distribution status .
The use of the term alternative to describe rock music originated around the mid @-@ 1980s ; at the time , the common music industry terms for cutting @-@ edge music were new music and post modern , respectively indicating freshness and a tendency to re contextualize sounds of the past . Individuals who worked as DJs and promoters during the 1980s claim the term originates from American FM radio of the 1970s , which served as a progressive alternative to top 40 radio formats by featuring longer songs and giving DJs more freedom in song selection . According to one former DJ and promoter , " Somehow this term ' alternative ' got rediscovered and heisted by college radio people during the 80s who applied it to new post @-@ punk , indie , or underground @-@ whatever music " . At first the term referred to intentionally non – mainstream rock acts that were not influenced by " heavy metal ballads , rarefied new wave " and " high @-@ energy dance anthems " . Usage of the term would broaden to include new wave , pop , punk rock , post @-@ punk , and occasionally " college " / " indie " rock , all found on the American " commercial alternative " radio stations of the time such as Los Angeles ' KROQ @-@ FM . The use of alternative gained further exposure due to the success of Lollapalooza , for which festival founder and Jane 's Addiction frontman Perry Farrell coined the term Alternative Nation . In the late 1990s , the definition again became more specific . In 1997 , Neil Strauss of The New York Times defined alternative rock as " hard @-@ edged rock distinguished by brittle , ' 70s @-@ inspired guitar riffing and singers agonizing over their problems until they take on epic proportions " .
Defining music as alternative is often difficult because of two conflicting applications of the word . Alternative can describe music that challenges the status quo and that is " fiercely iconoclastic , anticommercial , and antimainstream " , but the term is also used in the music industry to denote " the choices available to consumers via record stores , radio , cable television , and the Internet . " However alternative music has paradoxically become just as commercial and marketable as the mainstream rock , with record companies using the term " alternative " to market music to an audience that mainstream rock does not reach . Using a broad definition of the genre , Dave Thompson in his book Alternative Rock cites the formation of the Sex Pistols as well as the release of the albums Horses by Patti Smith and Metal Machine Music by Lou Reed as three key events that gave birth to alternative rock . Until recent years ( early 2000s ) when indie rock became the most common term in the US to describe modern pop and rock , the terms " indie rock " and " alternative rock " were often used interchangeably ; whilst there are aspects which both genres have in common , indie rock was regarded as a British @-@ based term , unlike the more American alternative rock .
= = Characteristics = =
The name " alternative rock " essentially serves as an umbrella term for underground music that has emerged in the wake of punk rock since the mid @-@ 1980s . Throughout much of its history , alternative rock has been largely defined by its rejection of the commercialism of mainstream culture , although this could be contested ever since some of the major alternative artists have achieved mainstream success or co @-@ opted with the major labels from the 1990s onwards ( especially since the new millennium and beyond ) . Alternative bands during the 1980s generally played in small clubs , recorded for indie labels , and spread their popularity through word of mouth . As such , there is no set musical style for alternative rock as a whole , although The New York Times in 1989 asserted that the genre is " guitar music first of all , with guitars that blast out power chords , pick out chiming riffs , buzz with fuzztone and squeal in feedback . " Sounds range from the gloomy soundscapes of gothic rock to the jangling guitars of indie pop to the dirty guitars of grunge to the 1960s / 1970s revivalism of Britpop . More often than in other rock @-@ styles since the mainstreaming of rock music during the 1970s , alternative rock lyrics tend to address topics of social concern , such as drug use , depression , suicide , and environmentalism . This approach to lyrics developed as a reflection of the social and economic strains in the United States and United Kingdom of the 1980s and early 1990s .
= = History = =
= = = The 1980s = = =
By 1984 , a majority of groups signed to independent record labels mined from a variety of rock and particularly 1960s rock influences . This represented a sharp break from the futuristic , hyper @-@ rational post @-@ punk years .
Throughout the 1980s , alternative rock remained mainly an underground phenomenon . While on occasion a song would become a commercial hit or albums would receive critical praise in mainstream publications like Rolling Stone , alternative rock in the 1980s was primarily featured on independent record labels , fanzines , and college radio stations . Alternative bands built underground followings by touring constantly and by regularly releasing low @-@ budget albums . In the case of the United States , new bands would form in the wake of previous bands , which created an extensive underground circuit in America , filled with different scenes in various parts of the country . Although American alternative artists of the 1980s never generated spectacular album sales , they exerted a considerable influence on later alternative musicians and laid the groundwork for their success . By 1989 the genre had become popular enough that a package tour featuring New Order , Public Image Limited and The Sugarcubes toured the United States arena circuit .
In contrast , British alternative rock was distinguished from that of the United States early on by a more pop @-@ oriented focus ( marked by an equal emphasis on albums and singles , as well as greater openness to incorporating elements of dance and club culture ) and a lyrical emphasis on specifically British concerns . As a result , few British alternative bands have achieved commercial success in the US . Since the 1980s alternative rock has been played extensively on the radio in the UK , particularly by disc jockeys such as John Peel ( who championed alternative music on BBC Radio 1 ) , Richard Skinner , and Annie Nightingale . Artists that had cult followings in the United States received greater exposure through British national radio and the weekly music press , and many alternative bands had chart success there .
= = = = American underground in the 1980s = = = =
Early American alternative bands such as Dream Syndicate , R.E.M. , The Feelies and Violent Femmes combined punk influences with folk music and mainstream music influences . R.E.M. was the most immediately successful ; its debut album , Murmur ( 1983 ) , entered the Top 40 and spawned a number of jangle pop followers . One of the many jangle pop scenes of the early 1980s , Los Angeles ' Paisley Underground revived the sounds of the 1960s , incorporating psychedelia , rich vocal harmonies and the guitar interplay of folk rock as well as punk and underground influences such as The Velvet Underground .
American indie record labels SST Records , Twin / Tone Records , Touch and Go Records , and Dischord Records presided over the shift from the hardcore punk that then dominated the American underground scene to the more diverse styles of alternative rock that were emerging . Minneapolis bands Hüsker Dü and The Replacements were indicative of this shift . Both started out as punk rock bands , but soon diversified their sounds and became more melodic . Michael Azerrad asserted that Hüsker Dü was the key link between hardcore punk and the more melodic , diverse music of college rock that emerged . Azerrad wrote , " Hüsker Dü played a huge role in convincing the underground that melody and punk rock weren 't antithetical . " The band also set an example by being the first group from the American indie scene to sign to a major record label , which helped establish college rock as " a viable commercial enterprise . " By focusing on heartfelt songwriting and wordplay instead of political concerns , The Replacements upended a number of underground scene conventions ; Azerrad noted that " along with R.E.M. [ The Replacements ] were one of the few underground bands that mainstream people liked . "
By the late 1980s , the American alternative scene was dominated by styles ranging from quirky alternative pop ( They Might Be Giants and Camper Van Beethoven ) , to noise rock ( Sonic Youth , Big Black , The Jesus Lizard ) and industrial rock ( Ministry , Nine Inch Nails ) . These sounds were in turn followed by the advent of Boston 's Pixies and Los Angeles ' Jane 's Addiction . Around the same time , the grunge subgenre emerged in Seattle , Washington , initially referred to as " The Seattle Sound " until its rise to popularity in the early 1990s . Grunge featured a sludgy , murky guitar sound that synthesized heavy metal and punk rock . Promoted largely by Seattle indie label Sub Pop , grunge bands were noted for their thrift store fashion which favored flannel shirts and combat boots suited to the local weather . Early grunge bands Soundgarden and Mudhoney found critical acclaim in the U.S. and UK , respectively .
By the end of the decade , a number of alternative bands began to sign to major labels . While early major label signings Hüsker Dü and The Replacements had little success , acts who signed with majors in their wake such as R.E.M. and Jane 's Addiction achieved gold and platinum records , setting the stage for alternative 's later breakthrough . Some bands such as Pixies had massive success overseas while they were ignored domestically .
In the middle of the decade Hüsker Dü 's album Zen Arcade influenced other hardcore acts by tackling personal issues . Out of Washington , D.C. ' s hardcore scene what was called " emocore " or " emo " emerged and was noted for its lyrics which delved into emotional very personal subject matter ( vocalists sometimes cried ) and added free association poetry and a confessional tone . Rites of Spring has been described as the first " emo " band . Former Minor Threat singer Ian MacKaye founded Dischord Records which became the center for the city 's emo scene .
= = = = British genres and trends of the 1980s = = = =
Gothic rock developed out of late @-@ 1970s British post @-@ punk . With a reputation as the " darkest and gloomiest form of underground rock " , gothic rock utilizes a synthesizer @-@ and @-@ guitar based sound drawn from post @-@ punk to construct " foreboding , sorrowful , often epic soundscapes " , and the genre 's lyrics often address literary romanticism , morbidity , religious symbolism , and supernatural mysticism . This genre among bands that took inspiration from late @-@ 1970s British post @-@ punk groups , Joy Division and Siouxsie and the Banshees . Bauhaus ' debut single " Bela Lugosi 's Dead " , released in 1979 , is considered to be the proper beginning of the gothic rock genre . The Cure 's " oppressively dispirited " albums Seventeen Seconds ( 1980 ) , Faith ( 1981 ) , Pornography ( 1982 ) and their opus Disintegration ( 1989 ) cemented that group 's stature in that style and laid the foundation for its large cult following .
The key British alternative rock band to emerge during the 1980s was Manchester 's The Smiths . Music journalist Simon Reynolds singled out The Smiths and their American contemporaries R.E.M. as " the two most important alt @-@ rock bands of the day " , commenting that they " were eighties bands only in the sense of being against the eighties " . Reynolds noted that The Smiths ' " whole stance was predicated on their British audience being a lost generation , exiles in their own land " . The Smiths ' embrace of the guitar in an era of synthesizer @-@ dominated music is viewed as signaling the end of the new wave era and the advent of alternative rock in the United Kingdom . Despite the band 's limited chart success and short career , The Smiths exerted an influence over the British indie scene through the end of the decade , as various bands drew from singer Morrissey 's English @-@ centered lyrical topics and guitarist Johnny Marr 's jangly guitar @-@ playing style . The C86 cassette , a 1986 NME premium featuring Primal Scream , The Wedding Present and others , was a major influence on the development of indie pop and the British indie scene as a whole .
Other forms of alternative rock developed in the UK during the 1980s . The Jesus and Mary Chain 's sound combined the Velvet Underground 's " melancholy noise " with Beach Boys pop melodies and Phil Spector 's " Wall of Sound " production , while New Order emerged from the demise of post @-@ punk band Joy Division and experimented with techno and house music . The Mary Chain , along with Dinosaur Jr . , C86 and the dream pop of Cocteau Twins , were the formative influences for the shoegazing movement of the late 1980s . Named for the band members ' tendency to stare at their feet and guitar effects pedals onstage rather than interact with the audience , shoegazing acts like My Bloody Valentine and Slowdive created an overwhelmingly loud " wash of sound " that obscured vocals and melodies with long , droning riffs , distortion , and feedback . Shoegazing bands dominated the British music press at the end of the decade along with the Madchester scene . Performing for the most part in The Haçienda , a nightclub in Manchester owned by New Order and Factory Records , Madchester bands such as Happy Mondays and The Stone Roses mixed acid house dance rhythms with melodic guitar pop .
= = = Popularization in the 1990s = = =
By the start of the 1990s , the music industry was enticed by alternative rock 's commercial possibilities and major labels actively courted bands including Jane 's Addiction , Red Hot Chili Peppers , Dinosaur Jr . , Firehose , and Nirvana . In particular , R.E.M. ' s success had become a blueprint for many alternative bands in the late 1980s and 1990s to follow ; the group had outlasted many of its contemporaries and by the 1990s had become one of the most popular bands in the world .
The breakthrough success of the band Nirvana led to the widespread popularization of alternative rock in the 1990s . The release of the band 's single " Smells Like Teen Spirit " from its second album Nevermind ( 1991 ) " marked the instigation of the grunge music phenomenon " . Due to constant airplay of the song 's music video on MTV , Nevermind was selling 400 @,@ 000 copies a week by Christmas 1991 . The success of Nevermind surprised the music industry . Nevermind not only popularized grunge , but also established " the cultural and commercial viability of alternative rock in general . " Michael Azerrad asserted that Nevermind symbolized " a sea @-@ change in rock music " in which the hair metal that had dominated rock music at that time fell out of favor in the face of music that was authentic and culturally relevant .
Nirvana 's surprise success with Nevermind heralded a " new openness to alternative rock " among commercial radio stations , opening doors for heavier alternative bands in particular . In the wake of Nevermind , alternative rock " found itself dragged @-@ kicking and screaming ... into the mainstream " and record companies , confused by the genre 's success yet eager to capitalize on it , scrambled to sign bands . The New York Times declared in 1993 , " Alternative rock doesn 't seem so alternative anymore . Every major label has a handful of guitar @-@ driven bands in shapeless shirts and threadbare jeans , bands with bad posture and good riffs who cultivate the oblique and the evasive , who conceal catchy tunes with noise and hide craftsmanship behind nonchalance . " However , many alternative rock artists rejected success , for it conflicted with the rebellious , D.I.Y. ethic the genre had espoused before mainstream exposure and their ideas of artistic authenticity .
= = = = Grunge explosion = = = =
Other grunge bands subsequently replicated Nirvana 's success . Pearl Jam had released its debut album Ten a month before Nevermind in 1991 , but album sales only picked up a year later . By the second half of 1992 Ten became a breakthrough success , being certified gold and reaching number two on the Billboard 200 album chart . Soundgarden 's album Badmotorfinger , Alice in Chains ' Dirt and Stone Temple Pilots ' Core along with the Temple of the Dog album collaboration featuring members of Pearl Jam and Soundgarden , were also among the 100 top @-@ selling albums of 1992 . The popular breakthrough of these grunge bands prompted Rolling Stone to nickname Seattle " the new Liverpool . " Major record labels signed most of the prominent grunge bands in Seattle , while a second influx of bands moved to the city in hopes of success .
At the same time , critics asserted that advertising was co @-@ opting elements of grunge and turning it into a fad . Entertainment Weekly commented in a 1993 article , " There hasn 't been this kind of exploitation of a subculture since the media discovered hippies in the ' 60s . " The New York Times compared the " grunging of America " to the mass @-@ marketing of punk rock , disco , and hip hop in previous years . As a result of the genre 's popularity , a backlash against grunge developed in Seattle . Nirvana 's follow @-@ up album In Utero ( 1993 ) was an intentionally abrasive album that Nirvana bassist Krist Novoselic described as a " wild aggressive sound , a true alternative record . " Nevertheless , upon its release in September 1993 In Utero topped the Billboard charts . Pearl Jam also continued to perform well commercially with its second album , Vs . ( 1993 ) , which topped the Billboard charts by selling a record 950 @,@ 378 copies in its first week of release .
= = = = Britpop = = = =
With the decline of the Madchester scene and the unglamorousness of shoegazing , the tide of grunge from America dominated the British alternative scene and music press in the early 1990s . As a reaction , a flurry of British bands emerged that wished to " get rid of grunge " and " declare war on America " , taking the public and native music press by storm . Dubbed " Britpop " by the media , this movement represented by Pulp , Oasis , Suede , and Blur was the British equivalent of the grunge explosion , in that the artists propelled alternative rock to the top of the charts in their home country . Britpop bands were influenced by and displayed reverence for British guitar music of the past , particularly movements and genres such as the British Invasion , glam rock , and punk rock . In 1995 the Britpop phenomenon culminated in a rivalry between its two chief groups , Oasis and Blur , symbolized by their release of competing singles on the same day . Blur won " The Battle of Britpop " , but Oasis soon eclipsed the other band in popularity with its second album , ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( 1995 ) , which went on to become the third best @-@ selling album in the UK 's history .
= = = = Other trends = = = =
Long synonymous with alternative rock as a whole in the US , indie rock became a distinct form following the popular breakthrough of Nirvana . Indie rock was formulated as a rejection of both alternative rock 's absorption into the mainstream by artists who could not or refused to cross over , and a wariness of its " macho " aesthetic . While indie rock artists share the punk rock distrust of commercialism , the genre does not entirely define itself against that , as " the general assumption is that it 's virtually impossible to make indie rock 's varying musical approaches compatible with mainstream tastes in the first place " .
Labels such as Matador Records , Merge Records , and Dischord , and indie rockers like Pavement , Superchunk , Fugazi , and Sleater @-@ Kinney dominated the American indie scene for most of the 1990s . One of the main indie rock movements of the 1990s was lo @-@ fi . The movement , which focused on the recording and distribution of music on low @-@ quality cassette tapes , initially emerged in the 1980s . By 1992 , Pavement , Guided by Voices and Sebadoh became popular lo @-@ fi cult acts in the United States , while subsequently artists like Beck and Liz Phair brought the aesthetic to mainstream audiences . The period also saw alternative confessional female singer @-@ songwriters . Besides the aforementioned Liz Phair , Lynda Thomas , PJ Harvey and the massively successful Alanis Morissette fit into this sub group .
In 1993 , Smashing Pumpkins album Siamese Dream was a major commercial success . The strong influence of heavy metal and progressive rock on the album helped to legitimize alternative rock to mainstream radio programmers and close the gap between alternative rock and the type of rock played on American 1970s Album Oriented Rock radio .
During the latter half of the 1990s , grunge was supplanted by post @-@ grunge . Many post @-@ grunge bands lacked the underground roots of grunge and were largely influenced by what grunge had become , namely " a wildly popular form of inward @-@ looking , serious @-@ minded hard rock . " ; many post @-@ grunge bands emulated the sound and style of grunge , " but not necessarily the individual idiosyncracies of its original artists . " Post @-@ grunge was a more commercially viable genre that tempered the distorted guitars of grunge with polished , radio @-@ ready production . Originally , post @-@ grunge was a label used almost pejoratively on bands that emerged when grunge was mainstream and emulated the grunge sound . The label suggested that bands labelled as post @-@ grunge were simply musically derivative , or a cynical response to an " authentic " rock movement . Bush , Candlebox and Collective Soul were labelled almost pejoratively as post @-@ grunge which , according to Tim Grierson of About.com , is " suggesting that rather than being a musical movement in their own right , they were just a calculated , cynical response to a legitimate stylistic shift in rock music . " Post @-@ grunge morphed during the late 1990s as post @-@ grunge bands such as Creed and Nickelback emerged .
Post @-@ rock was established by Talk Talk 's Laughing Stock and Slint 's Spiderland albums , both released in 1991 . Post @-@ rock draws influence from a number of genres , including Krautrock , progressive rock , and jazz . The genre subverts or rejects rock conventions , and often incorporates electronic music . While the name of the genre was coined by music journalist Simon Reynolds in 1994 , the style of the genre was solidified by the release of Millions Now Living Will Never Die ( 1996 ) by the Chicago group Tortoise . Post @-@ rock became the dominant form of experimental rock music in the 1990s and bands from the genre signed to such labels as Thrill Jockey , Kranky , Drag City , and Too Pure . A related genre , math rock , peaked in the mid @-@ 1990s . In comparison to post @-@ rock , math rock is more " rockist " and relies on complex time signatures and intertwining phrases . While by the end of the decade a backlash had emerged against post @-@ rock due to its " dispassionate intellectuality " and its perceived increasing predictability , a new wave of post @-@ rock bands such as Godspeed You ! Black Emperor and Sigur Rós emerged who further expanded the genre .
After almost a decade in the underground , ska punk , a mixture of earlier British ska and punk acts , became popular in the United States . Rancid was the first of the " Third Wave Ska Revival " acts to break . In 1996 , the Mighty Mighty Bosstones , No Doubt , Sublime , Goldfinger , Reel Big Fish , Less Than Jake and Save Ferris charted or received radio exposure .
= = = = Decline of popularity = = = =
By the end of the decade , alternative rock 's mainstream prominence declined due to a number of events , notably the death of Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain in 1994 and Pearl Jam 's lawsuit against concert venue promoter Ticketmaster , which in effect barred the group from playing many major venues around the United States . In addition to the decline of grunge bands , Britpop faded as Oasis 's third album , Be Here Now ( 1997 ) , received lackluster reviews and Blur began to incorporate influences from American alternative rock . A signifier of alternative rock 's declining popularity was the hiatus of the Lollapalooza festival after an unsuccessful attempt to find a headliner in 1998 . In light of the festival 's troubles that year , Spin said , " Lollapalooza is as comatose as alternative rock right now " .
Despite alternative rock 's declining popularity , some artists retained mainstream relevance . Post @-@ grunge remained commercially viable into the start of the 21st century , when bands like Creed and Matchbox Twenty became among the most popular rock bands in the United States . At the same time Britpop began to decline , Radiohead achieved critical acclaim with its third album OK Computer ( 1997 ) , and its follow @-@ ups Kid A ( 2000 ) and Amnesiac ( 2001 ) , which were in marked contrast with the traditionalism of Britpop . Radiohead , along with post @-@ Britpop groups like Travis and Coldplay , were major forces in British rock in subsequent years .
In the mid @-@ 1990s Sunny Day Real Estate defined the " emo " genre for many . Weezer 's album Pinkerton ( 1996 ) was also influential . By 2000 and on into the new decade emo was one of the most popular rock music genres . Popular acts included platinum selling success of Bleed American by Jimmy Eat World ( 2001 ) and Dashboard Confessional 's The Places You Have Come to Fear the Most ( 2003 ) . The new emo had a much more mainstream sound than in the 1990s and a far greater appeal amongst adolescents than its earlier incarnations . At the same time , use of the term " emo " expanded beyond the musical genre , becoming associated with fashion , a hairstyle and any music that expressed emotion . The term " emo " has been applied by critics and journalists to a variety of artists , including multi @-@ platinum acts such as Fall Out Boy and My Chemical Romance and disparate groups such as Paramore and Panic ! at the Disco , even when they reject the label .
= = = 2000s revival = = =
During the late 1990s and early 2000s , several alternative rock bands emerged , including The Strokes , Franz Ferdinand , Interpol and The Rapture that drew primary inspiration from post @-@ punk and new wave , establishing the post @-@ punk revival movement . Preceded by the success of bands such as The Strokes and The White Stripes earlier in the decade , an influx of new alternative rock bands , including several post @-@ punk revival artists and others such as Modest Mouse , The Killers , and Yeah Yeah Yeahs , found commercial success in the early and mid 2000s . Owing to the success of these bands , Entertainment Weekly declared in 2004 , " After almost a decade of domination by rap @-@ rock and nu @-@ metal bands , mainstream alt @-@ rock is finally good again . " Worldwide arena tours for alternative rock acts were culled to a few well @-@ established players such as U2 , Muse , Foo Fighters and Coldplay , with American band Thirty Seconds to Mars experiencing a notable rise in popularity during the latter half of the 2000s . American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers entered a new @-@ found popularity in 1999 after the release of their album Californication ( 1999 ) , with continued success throughout the 2000s .
Most references to modern alternative rock music in the United States are to the indie rock genre , a term that previously had limited usage on alternative rock channels and media . While there have been conflicting opinions on the relevance of alternative rock to mainstream audiences beyond 2010 , Dave Grohl commented on an article from the December 29 , 2013 issue of the New York Daily News stating that rock is dead : " speak for yourself ... Rock seems pretty alive to me . "
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= Symeon the New Theologian =
Symeon the New Theologian ( sometimes spelled " Simeon " ) ( Greek : Συμεὼν ὁ Νέος Θεολόγος ; 949 – 1022 AD ) was a Byzantine Christian monk and poet who was the last of three saints canonized by the Eastern Orthodox church and given the title of " Theologian " ( along with John the Apostle and Gregory of Nazianzus ) . " Theologian " was not applied to Symeon in the modern academic sense of theological study , but to recognize someone who spoke from personal experience of the vision of God . One of his principal teachings was that humans could and should experience theoria ( literally " contemplation , " or direct experience of God ) .
Symeon was born into the Byzantine nobility and given a traditional education . At age fourteen he met Symeon the Studite , a renowned monk of the Monastery of Stoudios in Constantinople , who convinced him to give his own life to prayer and asceticism under the elder Symeon 's guidance . By the time he was thirty , Symeon the New Theologian became the abbot of the Monastery of St. Mammas , a position he held for twenty @-@ five years . He attracted many monks and clergy with his reputation for sanctity , though his teachings brought him into conflict with church authorities , who would eventually send him into exile . His most well known disciple was Nicetas Stethatos who wrote the Life of Symeon .
Symeon is recognized as the first Byzantine mystic to freely share his own mystical experiences . Some of his writings are included in the Philokalia , a collection of texts by early Christian mystics on contemplative prayer and hesychast teachings . Symeon wrote and spoke frequently about the importance of experiencing directly the grace of God , often talking about his own experiences of God as divine light . Another common subject in his writings was the need of putting oneself under the guidance of a spiritual father . The authority for many of his teachings derived from the traditions of the Desert Fathers , early Christian monks and ascetics . Symeon 's writings include Hymns of Divine Love , Ethical Discourses , and The Catechetical Discourses .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
The details of Symeon 's life come from his own writings and from the Life of Symeon , written by his disciple Nicetas . He was born at Basileion in Galatia to Basil and Theophano Galaton , members of the Byzantine nobility who supported the Macedonian dynasty . His given name at birth is unclear — it was traditional at that time , when becoming a monk , to take on a new name with the same initial as one 's birth name . Symeon may have ignored that tradition in order to take the same name as his spiritual father , Symeon the Studite . In his writings , he sometimes described the experiences of " George , " which might have been his birth name . Symeon received a basic Greek school education until the age of eleven , when an uncle recognized that he had potential for higher learning . The uncle helped Symeon to complete his secondary education at the court of the emperor Basil II and his brother Constantine VIII .
At age fourteen he met Symeon the Studite ( also called Symeon the Pious ) , a holy monk of the Monastery of Stoudios in Constantinople . That meeting convinced the younger Symeon to forgo higher education and take on Symeon the Studite as his spiritual father . At that time he began studying the life of prayer and asceticism under his guidance , with the desire to immediately enter the monastery . Symeon the Studite asked the young Symeon to wait before becoming a monk , so he spent the years until age twenty @-@ seven serving in the household of a patrician , though according to some sources he served the emperor instead .
Living a worldly life during the day , he reportedly spent his evenings in vigils and prayer , putting into practice the writings of two authors — Marcus Eremita and Diadochos of Photiki — that were given to him by his spiritual father . It was during this time that Symeon had his first experience of God as divine light , as he described later in one of his Discourses ( Disc . 22 @.@ 2 – 4 ) . He attributed the experience to the prayers of Symeon the Studite . In spite of the experience , the young Symeon confessed that he still fell into worldly ways of living . Direct personal experience of God was to become one of Symeon 's central teachings in his writings , and to the monks who followed him .
= = = Abbot of St. Mammas monastery = = =
At age twenty @-@ seven , he entered the Monastery of Stoudios , giving his life over completely to discipleship to his teacher Symeon the Studite . The elder Symeon was not an ordained priest , but a simple monk who was considered holy by many people . The younger Symeon was extremely zealous in his practices and in following his teacher — to such an extent that the abbot of the monastery insisted that Symeon leave after only a few months .
Following the elder Symeon 's advice , he left for the nearby Monastery of St. Mammas in Constantinople , which was described as run down , both physically and spiritually . During his time at St. Mammas he continued to follow Symeon the Studite 's guidance . Within three years after moving to St. Mammas , Symeon was tonsured as a monk , ordained as a priest , and elected as the abbot of the monastery . He spent the next twenty @-@ five years as abbot of St. Mammas , attracting many monks and clergy with his reputation for learning and sanctity .
Not all of the monks were attracted by Symeon 's zealous approach . Symeon attempted to reform the Byzantine monasteries , where monks had become subservient to the emperor and had acquired large holdings of property , libraries , and art . His writings and teachings were aimed at returning the monasteries to their traditional role in the early church , urging the monks to take up a life of simplicity , asceticism , purity of heart , and constant prayer . The strict monastic discipline for which Symeon aimed upset several monks in the monastery . Symeon also took a more emotional approach to worship , suggesting that a monk shouldn 't take the sacrament without tears . The introduction of vegetarian meals , along with other unique practices to instill discipline and humility , also caused some displeasure among the monks .
Fifteen years after becoming abbot , one morning after the Divine Liturgy a group of approximately thirty monks rose against Symeon , who drove them away . Breaking the locks on the monastery gate on their way out , the monks took their appeal to the Patriarch Sisinios , who sided with Symeon and sent the monks into exile . Symeon pleaded on their behalf , doing everything he could to have the monks return to the monastery , including seeking out some of the monks to apologize to them . During his time as abbot , Symeon wrote Hymns of Divine Love ( completed during his exile ) , the Discourses , and many letters and polemical works which have been lost . He also wrote articles relating to his disputes with the church theologians — these survived as his theological and ethical treatises . In 1005 Symeon resigned as abbot of St. Mammas , appointing one of his disciples in his stead , and taking up a more solitary life at the monastery .
= = = Opposition from the church = = =
Symeon endured severe opposition from church authorities , particularly from the chief theologian of the emperor 's court , Archbishop Stephen , who at one time was the Metropolitan of Nicomedia . Stephen was a former politician and diplomat with a reputation for a thorough theoretical understanding of theology , but one which was removed from actual experience of the spiritual life . Symeon , in contrast , held the view that one must have actual experience of the Holy Spirit in order to speak about God , at the same time recognizing the authority of scripture and of the earlier church fathers . Their differing views on the source of authority to speak on spiritual matters was the cause of several years of intense conflict , ending with Symeon 's eventual exile .
Stephen found fault with Symeon especially for his charismatic approach , and his support of individual direct experience of God 's grace . Symeon believed that direct experience gave monks the authority to preach and give absolution of sins , without the need for formal ordination — as practiced by his own teacher , Symeon the Studite . Church authorities also taught from a speculative and philosophical perspective , while Symeon taught from his own direct mystical experience . Symeon 's teachings , especially those regarding the direct experience of God 's grace , brought accusations of heresy from Stephen . Symeon responded to Stephen 's charges by declaring that the real heresy was to teach that it is impossible to have direct experience of God ( Disc . 29 @.@ 4 ) .
Stephen also found fault with Symeon for revering his spiritual father , Symeon the Studite . At that time , formal recognition of saints was seldom practiced and not obligatory , so revered monks were informally recognized and honored by monasteries and by their disciples . Every year the younger Symeon arranged a celebration honoring his teacher , which included an icon of Symeon the Studite and a service to him . Stephen rebuked Symeon for honoring his teacher as a saint , because in his opinion the Studite was not worth of any honor . The conflict between the two lasted for six years .
Stephen was finally able to bring Symeon before the Synod on charges of honoring as a saint someone who Stephen believed was far from saintly . At first , Patriarch Sergius II of Constantinople supported Symeon , going so far as to send candles and perfume in support of the veneration of Symeon the Studite at St. Mammas . Stephen attacked the Studite as unholy and sinful , and was eventually able to convince others that Symeon 's homage was improper by convincing them that the Studite held some unorthodox beliefs . As a compromise , Stephen suggested that the annual festival honoring the elder Symeon be held as a private observance within the monastery . Symeon the New Theologian refused to compromise , declaring that it was his duty to honor the church fathers and the saints , and in January 1009 was condemned to go into exile . Stephen also convinced the Patriarch to order all icons of Symeon the Studite removed from St. Mammas , with many of them destroyed or covered over with soot .
Symeon , for his part , never backed down from the church authorities . In one of his hymns , he had Christ speaking the following rebuke to the bishops :
They ( the bishops ) unworthily handle My Body
and seek avidly to dominate the masses ...
They are seen to appear as brilliant and pure ,
but their souls are worse than mud and dirt ,
worse even than any kind of deadly poison ,
these evil and perverse men ! ( Hymn 58 )
= = = Exile and death = = =
In 1009 Symeon was sent into exile near Paloukiton , a small village near Chrysopolis on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus . According to one account , he was left by church authorities alone and without food , in the middle of winter . There he found a deserted and ruined chapel that had been dedicated to Saint Macrina . It happened to be on land owned by one of Symeon 's spiritual children , Christopher Phagouras , who donated the land and proceeds to start a monastery .
By this time , Symeon had many disciples — some of them , including the patrician Geneseos , appealed to Sergius II , the Patriarch of Constantinople , to lift the order of exile . Out of fear that the dispute would reach the emperor , Sergius II lifted the exile order completely , and then offered to re @-@ establish Symeon at the monastery of St. Mammas and consecrate him as archbishop of an important see in Constantinople . The only qualification was that Symeon must show some restraint in his celebration of Symeon the Studite 's festival day . Symeon refused to compromise — the Patriarch , out of respect for Symeon , gave him his blessing to " live together with your disciples and act according to your good pleasure . "
Symeon remained at the Saint Macrina monastery , where many close disciples , both monks and secular people , gathered around him . At Saint Macrina he was free of monks who were averse to his discipline and zeal , and free from direct conflict with church authorities . He continued to honor Symeon the Studite — most of the clergy from Constantinople , along with many monks and laymen , joined him during those celebrations . He also wrote during that time and made himself accessible to all who wanted to see him . Symeon spent the last thirteen years of his life in exile , dying from dysentery on March 12 , 1022 . According to his biographer and disciple , Nicetas , Symeon foretold his own death many years previously , and on his last day called together all the monks to sing the funeral hymns .
Symeon is now recognized as a saint by the Orthodox Church . The title of " Theologian " was not given to him in the modern academic sense of someone who is learned in theology , but to recognize someone who speaks from personal experience of the vision of God . Until Symeon 's time , that title was reserved mainly for John the Apostle , author of one of the four gospels , and Gregory of Nazianzus , writer of contemplative poetry . His opponents derisively called him the " new " theologian because of his creative approach — his supporters , and later the Church at large , embraced the name in the most positive sense .
= = Writings = =
After Symeon 's death his writings were kept alive by small groups of followers , eventually becoming one of the central teachings of the hesychast movement . Many copies of his works were made in the following centuries , particularly around the 14th century , and among the Eastern Orthodox monasteries on Mt . Athos . His recognition has always been greater outside the official church , its calendar and liturgy . Historians credit this to his zealous personality , his criticism of the church hierarchy , his emphasis on direct experience of God , and some of his unorthodox teachings — including his belief that an unordained monk who had the direct experience of God was empowered to absolve others of their sins .
Symeon wrote in a similar style and taught the traditional views of several early Christian fathers and hesychasts , including St. Augustine , Gregory of Nyssa , Gregory of Nazianzus , and Mark the Hermit . Where Symeon differed from his predecessors was in his transparent and open sharing of his most interior experiences . Symeon was the first Byzantine mystic to freely share those experiences , which were given in the context of his teaching that the direct experience of God was something to which all Christians could aspire .
One catechesis of Symeon 's , On Faith , along with a composite work titled One Hundred and Fifty @-@ Three Practical and Theological Texts , are included in the Philokalia , a collection of texts by early Christian mystics . Another text in the Philokalia , titled The Three Methods of Prayer is also attributed to Symeon — it describes a method of practicing the Jesus Prayer that includes direction on correct posture and breathing while reciting the prayer . It is extremely unlikely that he wrote that text — some scholars attribute it to Nikiphoros the Monk , while others believe it was written by disciples of Symeon .
= = = Discourses = = =
The Discourses are the central work of Symeon 's life , and were written during his time as abbot at St. Mammas ( 980 – 998 ) . They consist of thirty @-@ four discourses , along with two pieces on thanksgiving , that were given as talks to his monks and others interested in the spiritual life — often at St. Mammas during Matins services — and then compiled and likely edited by Symeon himself . They were widely read in Constantinople even before Symeon 's exile . Their style maintains the personality of Symeon as expressed in his live talks : simplicity , sincerity , humility , speaking from the heart , and " full of fire and persuasion . " There is no obvious sequence or order to the Discourses — the topics are apparently a collection of talks given during different liturgical seasons or at feast days of saints .
There are two main themes running through the different discourses . One is the traditional theme of the early hesychasts and mystical theologians of the Christian East , especially the practices of faith ( praxis ) and asceticism ( askesis ) that they frequently taught as the way to reach direct experience of God ( theoria ) . Specific practices discussed by Symeon include : repentance , detachment , renunciation , mercy , sorrow for sins , faith , and contemplation .
Symeon 's other main emphasis is the power of the Holy Spirit to transform , and the profound mystical union with God that is the end result of a holy life . Symeon referred to this as the Baptism of the Holy Spirit , compared to the more ritualistic Baptism of water . Symeon believed that Christianity had descended into formulae and church ritual , which for many people replaced the earlier emphasis on actual and direct experience of God . The Discourses express Symeon 's strong conviction that the life of a Christian must be much more than mere observance of rules , and must include personal experience of the presence of the living Christ . Symeon describes his own conversion and mystical experience of the divine light .
= = = Hymns of Divine Love = = =
In Hymns of Divine Love ( also called Hymns of Divine Eros ) most of which were completed during his time in exile , Symeon describes his vision of God as uncreated divine light . That experience of divine luminosity is associated by Symeon with the Holy Trinity , with God , and sometimes with Christ . The Hymns are similar in theme to the Discourses , but are written with poetic meter and rhyme . He began writing them at the same time as the Discourses but only finished editing them during the last thirteen years of his life at the monastery of St. Macrina . There are 58 hymns totaling approximately 11 @,@ 000 verses .
The Hymns cover various themes , similar to the Discourses : repentance , death , the practice of virtue , charity , detachment , and more . Especially notable are the Hymns that recount Symeon 's mystical experiences and his love for Christ , which have been described as " ecstatic writing and ... mystical content that becomes very personal , both to Symeon and to the reader . "
An excerpt from Hymn 25 includes the following description of Symeon 's mystical union with God as light :
— But , Oh , what intoxication of light , Oh , what movements of fire !
Oh , what swirlings of the flame in me , miserable one that I am ,
coming from You and Your glory !
The glory I know it and I say it is your Holy Spirit ,
who has the same nature with You , and the same honor , O word ;
He is of the same race , the same glory ,
of the same essence , He alone with your Father ,
and with you , O Christ , O God of the universe !
I fall down in adoration before You .
I thank You that You have made me worthy to know , however little it may be ,
the power of Your divinity .
= = = Theological and ethical treatises = = =
Symeon 's theological and ethical treatises were original written works , as compared to many of his other writings that were taken from his talks . They cover his positions on various controversial issues of theology . Many of them were directed at Stephen , his main antagonist in the church , along with other church officials whom Symeon saw as taking an overly theoretical approach to Christianity . In these pieces Symeon defended the traditions of the early Byzantine mystical theologians from the teachings of the church officials of his own time . Central to this defense was Symeon 's view that the revelation of scripture could only be understood through the experience of divine grace given to the pure of heart during contemplation .
The treatises cover a wide range of topics , including Symeon 's defense against Stephen regarding his own views on the unity of the Holy Trinity . He also presents his doctrine on mysticism , the necessity of faith , the possibility of direct experience of God , the Baptism of the Holy Spirit , and more . The last four treatises were written during his exile , and discuss living a holy life while on earth , salvation through faith and good works , and the need for solitude if one wants to become a channel of divine grace to others .
= = Teachings = =
The church authorities regularly challenged Symeon , even though his teachings were rooted in the Gospels . He was also faithful to the early Greek Fathers and the two main traditions of Byzantine spirituality : the Alexandrian School , which took a more intellectual approach , and the " school of the heart " , represented by Mark the Hermit , Pseudo @-@ Macarius , John Climacus , and other early ascetic monks . He combined these different traditions with his own inner experience in a synthesis that was new in Byzantine mysticism .
Symeon often taught that all followers of Christ could have the direct experience of God , or theoria , just as the early church fathers experienced and taught . In that context he frequently described his own experiences of God as divine light . He preached to his monks that the way to God 's grace was through a life of simplicity , asceticism , sanctity , and contemplation , which was also the doctrine of the hermits and monks known as the Desert Fathers . In addition , Symeon placed great emphasis on putting oneself under the complete guidance of a spiritual father .
= = = Direct experience = = =
A central theme throughout Symeon 's teachings and writings is that all Christians should aspire to have actual direct experience of God in deep contemplation , or theoria . Regarding his own mystical experiences , he presented them not as unique to himself , but as the norm for all Christians . He taught that the experience came after purification through prayer , repentance , and asceticism . He especially called on his monks to take on the traditional charismatic and prophetic role in the Church .
In one of his Discourses he defended the frequent sharing of his own inner experiences , writing that it was not presumptuous , but was done to encourage others in their inner life :
We have written them because we are mindful of God 's gifts , which He has bestowed on our unworthy self from the beginning of life until the present moment ... and in gratitude we show to all of you the talent He has entrusted to us . How can we be silent before such an abundance of blessings , or out of ingratitude bury the talent that has been given to us ( Mt . 25 : 18 ) , like ungrateful and evil servants ? ... By our oral teaching we encourage you too to strive that you may have part in His gifts and enjoy them , the gifts of which we , though unworthy , have been partakers through His unutterable goodness . ( Discourse XXXIV )
= = = Divine light = = =
Symeon repeatedly describes the experience of divine light in his writings , as both an inward and outward mystical experience . These experiences began in his youth , and continued all during his life . They came to him during inward prayer and contemplation , and were associated with a feeling of indescribable joy , as well as the intellectual understanding that the light was a vision of God . In his writings , he spoke directly to God about the experience variously as " the pure Light of your face " and " You deigned to reveal Your face to me like a formless sun . " He also described the light as the grace of God , and taught that its experience was associated with a mind that was completely still and had transcended itself . At times he described the light speaking to him with kindness , and explaining who it was .
In Discourse XXVIII Symeon wrote about the light and its power to transform :
It shines on us without evening , without change , without alteration , without form . It speaks , works , lives , gives life , and changes into light those whom it illuminates . We bear witness that " God is light , " and those to whom it has been granted to see Him have all beheld Him as light . Those who have seen Him have received Him as light , because the light of His glory goes before Him , and it is impossible for Him to appear without light . Those who have not seen His light have not seen Him , for He is the light , and those who have not received the light have not yet received grace . Those who have received grace have received the light of God and have received God , even as Christ Himself , who is the Light , has said , " I will live in them and move among them . " ( 2 Cor . 6 : 16 )
= = = Guidance of a spiritual father = = =
Symeon taught that putting oneself under the guidance of a spiritual father was essential for those who were serious about living the spiritual life . That relationship was a historical tradition especially prominent among the Desert Fathers , who defined the qualifications for acting in the role of a spiritual father : personal experience ; an interior life ; purity of heart ; the vision of God ; insight ; inspiration ; discernment . Official ordination as a priest was not a requirement — Symeon 's own spiritual father was a simple unordained monk who had many spiritual children . Symeon also taught that such teachers were empowered by their holiness to preach and to absolve others of their sins , a view that brought him into disagreement with church leaders of his time .
In Hymns of Divine Love Symeon wrote that :
Listen only to the advice of your spiritual father ,
answer him with humility
and , as to God , tell him your thoughts ,
even to a simple meditation , without hiding anything ,
do nothing without his advice .
= = = Absolution of sins = = =
Symeon 's teachings on the hearing of confession and the absolution of sins brought him into regular conflict with church authorities , particularly Archbishop Stephen . According to Symeon , only one who had the grace and direct experience of God was empowered by God to preach and absolve the sins of others . Stephen held the view that only ordained priests had that authority . Symeon 's views were colored by his own spiritual father , Symeon the Studite , who was a simple monk , unordained , and yet who preached and gave absolution . In one of his Ethical Discourses Symeon went further and wrote that one should not give absolution without having first received the experience of God 's grace :
Be careful , I beg you , never to assume the debts of others when you are a debtor yourself ; do not dare give absolution without having received in your heart the One who takes away the sin of the world . " ( Eth . 6 ' )
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= History of the Galveston Bay Area =
For a period of over 7000 years , humans have inhabited the Galveston Bay Area in what is now the United States . Through their history the communities in the region have been influenced by the once competing sister cities of Houston and Galveston , but still have their own distinct history . Though never truly a single , unified community , the histories of the Bay Area communities have had many common threads .
Prior to European settlement the area around Galveston Bay was settled by the Karankawa and Atakapan tribes , who lived throughout the Gulf coast region . Spanish and French explorers traveled the area for many years gradually establishing trade with the local natives . In the early 19th century the pirate Jean Lafitte created a small , short @-@ lived empire around the bay ruled from his base on Galveston Island before his being ousted by the United States Navy .
Following Mexico 's independence from Spain , the new nation established long @-@ term settlements , including Anahuac and San Jacinto , around the bay . Early rebellions by the settlers against Mexican rule occurred in the region and it was later the site of the victory of the Texas army over the Mexican army during the Texas Revolution . Following Texas ' independence from Mexico and its annexation by the United States , economic growth was centered initially on agriculture and cattle ranching . Commerce grew between Galveston , Harrisburg and Houston in the later 19th century , and created additional economic opportunities as railroads were built through the Bay Area to connect these and other commercial centers .
In the early 20th century the region gave birth to some of the state 's earliest oil fields and refineries as the Texas Oil Boom took hold . Refining and manufacturing grew rapidly in the area , particularly around Baytown , Pasadena , and Texas City . The opening of the Port of Texas City , and later Barbours Cut and Bayport , gradually established the region as an important shipping center . As wealth increased in southeast Texas , resorts and other tourist draws developed in the Bay Area . During the 1960s the area became home of the Johnson Space Center , headquarters for the nation 's manned space program , which helped diversify the regional economy and began the development of an aerospace industry , and later other high @-@ tech industries .
= = Early history = =
The present geography of the Gulf Coast was formed during an ice age approximately 30 @,@ 000 years ago when dramatic lowering of the sea level occurred . As the ice later melted , it formed a flow through the Trinity and San Jacinto rivers and carved wide valleys in the soft sediments , resulting in the creation of the modern system of bays and lakes approximately 4500 years ago .
Humans first entered the region as early as 10 @,@ 000 years ago following migrations into the Americas from Asia during the ice age . Research has indicated that the first settlements around Galveston Bay may have been constructed around 5500 BCE . The first ceramics appeared around 100 CE , and arrow points around 650 CE . When Europeans first entered the region there were still significant numbers of Native Americans living there . Along the southern coast around the Colorado River and Matagorda Bay and up toward Galveston Bay lived the Capoque tribe , a branch of the Karankawa people . The northeast was inhabited by the Akokisa , or Han , tribe as part of the Atakapan people 's homelands . The Karankawa were migratory hunter @-@ gatherers . Their diet included deer , bison , peccary , and bears , in addition to fish , oysters , nuts , and berries as they were available . They used portable huts for shelter . Dugout canoes were used to travel the many internal waterways and the coast , an advantage that initially gave them tactical superiority over the Europeans . The Akokisa in the area were similarly hunter @-@ gatherers , and utilized canoes for transport . They became well @-@ known among the Europeans for their hide @-@ tanning abilities , especially for bear hide . During the 18th century the Akokisa population in the area was estimated at about 3500 .
Though earlier surveys of the coastline had been made , the first known Europeans to land in the vicinity were under the command of Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca when he and his crew were shipwrecked in 1528 , though it is unclear precisely where they landed . Though subsequent explorers described cannibalism among the local tribes , Cabeza de Vaca made no mention of the practice . He and the other survivors left the area as soon as they were able traveling to safety into Mexico .
The Rivas @-@ Iriarte expedition , one of several Spanish maritime expeditions charting the Gulf Coast , performed a detailed scientific exploration of the Galveston Bay in 1687 , probably the first such exploration . A 1785 expedition by José Antonio de Evia charting the Gulf Coast gave the bay and the island the name Galveztown , or Galvezton , for the Spanish Viceroy Bernardo de Gálvez .
During the early 18th Century , French traders first began trade with the Akokisa and the nearby Bidai tribes for furs . In 1754 several traders including Joseph Blancpain established a trading post on the Trinity River a just north of the bay , near modern Wallisville . Spanish authorities quickly seized the post and transformed it into the San Augustín de Ahumada fort . They named the site El Orcoquisac and established a Catholic mission . The Spanish were not successful in maintaining trade with the natives and the post was abandoned within a few years . Encroachment by Spanish as well as U.S. settlers continued such that by the end of the century native populations had declined dramatically due to disease and territorial pressures from the Europeans .
In 1816 Galveston Island was claimed by the pirate Louis @-@ Michel Aury as a base of operations to support Mexico 's rebellion against Spain . Aury was succeeded as leader by Jean Lafitte , the famed Louisiana pirate and American hero of the War of 1812 . Lafitte , at the time serving as a privateer for the Spanish Empire , transformed Galveston Island and the bay into a pirate kingdom he called Campeche . He established bases for smuggling and ship repair on the Trinity River near the bay and at Eagle Point ( modern San Leon ) . His gang also created a hide @-@ out on the shores of Clear Lake . As late as 1965 , treasure from this era was discovered at Kemah . In response to the piracy , the United States Navy ousted Lafitte from the island in 1821 and the colony was abandoned . Some settlers in the region remained such as Anson Taylor who had supplied produce and game from the Clear Lake area for Campeche .
= = Mexican dominion and the Republic of Texas = =
In the early 19th century following the Louisiana Purchase , Texas , particularly southeastern Texas , had become an increasing point of contention between Spain and the United States . Various failed attempts , such as the Long Expedition , were made by groups from the U.S. to take control of parts of Texas , resulting in some temporary settlements near the bay including Perry 's Point near modern Anahuac . Spanish authorities began efforts to colonize Texas to help protect its claim to the territory . Hoping to spur settlement , the Spanish government granted land to pioneers from the United States , including Moses Austin .
Soon afterward , though , Mexico declared its independence from Spain and moved to establish its own control over Texas . Because of fears of the indigenous tribes , officials found it difficult to find settlers in Mexico willing to move into the territory 's coastal areas , and therefore continued to allow settlers from the United States into the area with the promise of allegiance to Mexico . Austin 's son , Stephen F. Austin , established a colony which extended from east central Texas to Galveston Bay and the Gulf Coast . Some of Austin 's original Old 300 settlers , including John Dickson , William Scott , and John Iiams , established homesteads and commercial enterprises around the bay . The Port of Galveston and a permanent settlement were established on the island in 1825 to spur trade . Communities including Lynchburg , San Jacinto , and Campbell 's Bayou ( founded by one of Lafitte 's former officers ) were gradually established around the bay . In addition to the Anglo @-@ American and Mexican settlers in the area , a Cajun settlement was established along Armand Bayou . The Mexican Colonization Law of 1824 , however , forbade the creation of settlements near the coast with the intention of protecting the native tribes in the area . The law was not enforced and settlers continued to encroach upon tribal lands . Native tribes remained in the area years afterward but were gradually driven out as European settlers moved into the region . The Akokisa were driven inland where they merged with the Bidai . The Karankwa were driven southward where they eventually established their current homelands in northeastern Mexico .
The Galveston Bay and Texas Land Company was formed in New York in 1830 to promote additional settlement around Galveston Bay and other parts of southeast Texas . The company gradually brought in many colonists from the United States and Europe , although conflict with Mexican officials over colonization laws initially made these efforts difficult . In 1830 , Mexican authorities created a customs and garrison post near the bay commanded by Juan Davis Bradburn . The post , which later became the modern city of Anahuac , was the first major outpost on the mainland shores and temporarily replaced Galveston as a port of entry . New Washington ( modern Morgan 's Point ) and Austinia ( within modern Texas City ) were also founded by settlers from the company . Conflicts between Bradburn and the settlers in the region over land rights , slavery laws , and customs duties led to the Anahuac Disturbances , a prelude to the larger Texas rebellion . As a result , Mexican authorities were driven out of eastern Texas and the settlers began to discuss independence .
Following a coup in the Mexican government , Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna became president and revoked many freedoms previously enjoyed by the Texans further deteriorating the government 's relations with the region 's settlers . Texas declared its independence and revolted in 1835 . Following a number of battles with the Mexican army , the Texas army , under the leadership of General Sam Houston , finally defeated Santa Anna in the Battle of San Jacinto , near modern Pasadena .
The new Republic of Texas grew rapidly . The shores of the bay were initially home to farms and ranches . Longhorn cattle , which had roamed wild throughout Texas , became free resources for producing hides and beef shipped throughout North America . The famed Allen Ranch was established near Harrisburg in what is now southeast Houston and Pasadena , in addition to the Bay Lake Ranch and other ranches established around the bay . The range land of these ranches came to encompass most of the terrain around the bay south of the San Jacinto River . Cedar Bayou ( part of modern Baytown ) , Shoal Point ( part of modern Texas City ) , and other small communities began to develop during this period . Eagle Point ( part of modern San Leon ) became an important shipping and trading post for slaves .
Inland from the bay , the towns of Harrisburg and Houston were both founded on the Buffalo Bayou by entrepreneurs from New York and competed as commercial centers , but neither was as significant as Galveston . Throughout the 19th century these three cities developed increasing influence on the Bay Area communities , particularly as railroads were built through the region .
Multiple hurricanes struck the region during this time and after . Though none during the 19th century were catastrophic , they nevertheless caused substantial damage and caused some loss of life .
= = Annexation by the United States = =
Texas succeeded in its bid to join the United States in 1845 , one of the key causes of the subsequent Mexican @-@ American War . Texas ' annexation brought more people to Texas . Ranching interests expanded around the bay , along with the growth of the farming and lumber enterprises in the region . The construction of the Galveston , Houston and Henderson ( GH & H ) Railroad , begun in 1857 , further spurred more growth in the region .
During the American Civil War , in which Texas seceded from the United States , the area served a limited role in the conflict though no major battles were fought on the mainland shoreline . New fortifications , like Fort Chambers near Anahuac , were constructed to ward off a mainland invasion by Union forces and to protect supply routes to and from Galveston . The GH & H Railroad was used in the recapture of Galveston by Confederate forces in 1863 . Makeshift hospitals , such as the Nolan home in Dickinson , were established in the bayside communities .
In the aftermath of the war the Texan economy declined for a period . Nevertheless , ranching interests became major economic drivers spawning many other economic enterprises like hide processing plants and shipping companies . Some former slaves were able to take advantage of ranching 's economic influence as some successful African American communities were established , including the " Settlement " in what is now League City . The success of the various enterprises in the area and the growth of Galveston as one of the prime commercial centers in the South and Southwest helped promote the construction of the Gulf , Colorado and Santa Fe Railway , and the La Porte , Houston and Northern Railroad over the course of the 19th century . These railroads built lines near the southwest shore of the bay and led to the creation of La Porte , Clear Creek ( modern League City ) , Webster , Edward 's Point / North Galveston ( modern San Leon ) , and others ( eventually including Texas City ) . Toward the end of the century , as ranching 's profitability declined , many communities turned increasingly to agriculture . The farming community of Pasadena was established during this time . By the end of the 19th century , the land south of Buffalo Bayou came to be known as the " Texas Fruit Belt " for the oranges , pears , grapes , and other fruits and vegetables grown in the area . The Sylvan Beach park was created at La Porte as a beachfront summer getaway from Houston . With amenities including bathhouses , boating piers , and a Victorial hotel with a dance pavilion , Sylvan Beach quickly became the most popular tourist destination in the Houston area .
In 1900 a massive hurricane devastated the city of Galveston and heavily damaged communities around the bay . According to some estimates the death toll on the coast outside of Galveston may have been over one thousand . Bridges between Galveston and the mainland were destroyed . Communities along the shoreline declined for some time as economic growth moved inland and Houston became the dominant economic center in Southeast Texas . The region received a population boost from some Galveston refugees who relocated to the mainland following the catastrophe .
= = The wars and the oil boom = =
The sparsely populated communities around the bay transformed during the 20th century . Following the devastating 1900 hurricane , donations by the newly created Red Cross , including millions of strawberry plants to Gulf Coast farmers , helped revive area communities . This and the subsequent establishment of a major strawberry farm in the area by Texaco founder Joseph S. Cullinan made Pasadena an important fruit producer for many years afterward . The newly established community of Texas City opened its port and railroad junctions shipping cotton and grain . In fact , because the port had opened just before the 1900 hurricane , it was able to handle Galveston 's diverted shipping traffic until the island 's damaged port was repaired . Following another hurricane in 1915 , the Texas City Dike was built to protect the Texas City ship channel from sediment movement in future storms , thus helping to build confidence in the safety of the port . One of the most immediate effects of the dike , however , was to increase the salt levels in West Bay , between Galveston and the southwest coastline .
Major tracts of the Allen Ranch were liquidated opening up new development around Pasadena and other bayside communities . Commercial fishing for oysters and shrimp grew as a significant area industry . The lumber industry also continued to grow . A sugar refinery opened in Texas city , a paper mill in Pasadena , and other factories in the early 20th century .
Following the petroleum discovery at Spindletop ( roughly 40 miles ( 64 km ) from Galveston Bay ) in 1901 Texas entered an era of economic development known as the Texas Oil Boom . Petroleum exploration at Galveston Bay began shortly afterward with the discovery of the Goose Creek Oil Field in 1903 . The first well at Goose Creek was built in 1907 with significant production beginning in 1908 ( in 1924 it was the state 's third largest field ) . In 1915 the first offshore oil drilling site in the state was opened at Goose Creek . Gradually other oil fields were discovered around the bay as well , including the Anahuac oil field in 1935 . The first refinery by the bay was built in 1908 at Texas City , followed by refineries in Baytown and Pasadena . The main refinery in Baytown , built by Humble Oil ( now ExxonMobil ) , became the largest in the state .
The wealth brought on by the boom transformed the region . The population increased rapidly due to significant immigration from within the United States , from Mexico , and overseas . Mexicans , fleeing the Mexican Revolution in 1910 , added significantly to the population of what is now Baytown ; Sicilian immigrants added greatly to the community of Dickinson ; and Japanese rice farmers settled in Webster , Pasadena , and League City ( in fact the rice industry on the U.S. Gulf Coast was born in Webster ; see Seito Saibara ) . Major manufacturing centers developed throughout the Bay Area with Houston acting as the corporate and financial center for the boom . Wealthy Houstonians created waterfront retreats in Morgan 's Point and a boardwalk amusement park at Sylvan Beach , La Porte ( together known at the time as the Texas " Gold Coast " ) , as well as summer homes at Seabrook and other communities . The onset of Prohibition made Galveston Bay an important entry point for smuggling illegal liquor , which supplied most of Texas and much of the Midwest . Boats arrived at locations ranging from Galveston to Seabrook . The Maceo crime syndicate , which operated in Galveston at that time , created casino districts in Kemah and Dickinson and other areas of Galveston County . Houstonians often humorously referred to the county line as the " Maceo @-@ Dickinson line " ( a pun referring to the Mason @-@ Dixon line ) . Much of the area around Clear Lake was developed as recreational properties for the wealthy , including a large ranch estate owned by Houston businessman James West . Though the Great Depression closed many businesses in the area petroleum @-@ related growth helped offset the effects .
During the World Wars , factories around the bay were pressed into service mass @-@ producing a variety of products including aviation fuel , synthetic rubber , and ships . The first tin smelter outside of Europe was opened in Texas City becoming one of the world 's main suppliers . The population in the Bay Area grew faster than even Houston as processing plants and factories were built and expanded . Ellington Air Force Base was built to the southeast of Houston ( adjacent to modern Clear Lake City ) and became a major air field and flight training center during the wars .
Industrialization and urbanization during the earlier 20th century led to the pollution of the bay . By the 1970s the bay was described by some sources as " the most polluted body of water in the U.S. " The ship channel and Clear Lake were rated by some sources as having even worse water quality . Drilling for oil and underground water , as well as large wakes from increasing shipping in the bay , led to land subsidence and erosion along the shoreline , especially in the Baytown @-@ Pasadena area . Today approximately 100 acres ( 0 @.@ 40 km2 ) of the historic San Jacinto battleground are submerged , most of Sylvan Beach is gone , and the once prominent Brownwood neighborhood of Baytown has had to be abandoned .
In 1947 , an explosion on a ship at the Port of Texas City caused fires and destruction throughout the city 's industrial complex and other ships creating one of nation 's worst industrial accidents . The tragedy caused more than five hundred deaths , more than four thousand injuries , and more than $ 50 million in damage ( $ 530 million in today 's dollars ) . Though the city 's growth and prosperity were interrupted , the city and the business leaders were able to rebuild .
= = Modern times = =
The war effort had brought about significant diversification in the area 's industrial base . This diversity facilitated the area 's transition to a peacetime economy though the petroleum industry again became a major focus . In 1952 the Gulf Freeway , then part of U.S. Route 75 , was completed providing a fast automobile link between Houston and Galveston . The new freeway , considered an engineering marvel at the time , greatly encouraged new development in the western region of the bay .
Hurricane Carla , Texas ' largest storm on record , struck the coast in 1961 causing substantial flooding and damage in Texas City and other communities . Loss of life was minimal thanks to evacuation efforts . Expansion of the flood control dike and construction on the Texas City seawall occurred a result . The project was completed in 1985 .
NASA 's Johnson Space Center ( JSC ) was established in the area in 1963 . That and the explosive growth of neighboring Houston in the mid @-@ 20th century , especially the 1970s and 1980s , caused the remainder of the communities on the southwestern shore to urbanize . The Clear Lake City community was created by the Friendswood Development Company , a venture of Humble Oil and Dell E. Webb Corporation , to support residential growth near the new NASA facility . The communities around Clear Lake rapidly reoriented toward aerospace related industries , and the region 's economy diversified further . Urban development spread solidly between Houston and the Bay Area communities . Houston formally annexed most of Clear Lake City in 1977 with Pasadena annexing most of the rest . Most of the other communities around the bay , however , had already incorporated , or incorporated soon afterward , and thus were independent of the metropolis .
The economic boom of the 1970s and early 1980s that took place in Texas ( because of the escalation in oil prices ) benefited the Bay Area communities significantly . Industrial operations were expanded including the opening of the U.S. Steel plant in Baytown in 1970 , and the Barbours Cut shipping terminal at Morgan 's Point in 1977 . The Port of Texas City became the third leading port in Texas by tonnage and ninth in the nation . The Barbours Cut terminal , operated by the Port of Houston , became the seventh leading port in the nation . Not all of this development was without controversy , however . In building Barbours Cut , the Port of Houston used its power of eminent domain to evict residents from nearly one third of the homes in Morgan 's Point . Still , when the Texas economy declined in the later 1980s , the economic diversity of the area and substantial annual federal investments related to JSC helped the region fare better than most of Greater Houston .
Conservation efforts in the mid to late 20th century by area industries and municipalities helped to dramatically improve water quality in the bay . The Nature Conservancy and Houston 's Outdoor Nature Club ( ONC ) helped encourage nature preservation efforts including creating the Anahuac National Wildlife Refuge , the Armand Bayou Nature Center , and the Texas City Prairie Preserve . Tourism in the area grew , especially around Clear Lake , led in large part by the Space Center . Some former resort communities of the early 20th century like Kemah and Seabrook re @-@ emerged . The lake itself today holds one of the largest concentrations of marinas in the world .
During the later 20th century and afterward , many of the communities and businesses in the area began cooperative efforts , including the Clear Lake Area Chamber of Commerce , the Bay Area Houston Economic Partnership , and the Bay Area Houston Transportation Partnership , to create a distinct economic and civic identity for the region and to plan regional development . Though most of the communities in the region have been incorporated into municipalities , a few unincorporated communities remain under the extra @-@ territorial jurisdiction of neighboring towns . These include San Leon , Bacliff , and Smith Point . The communities of San Leon and Bacliff , despite their seaside location , their proximity to the relatively prosperous Clear Lake Area , and the development of summer resort communities there in the early 20th century , have suffered economic decline since the mid @-@ 20th century and are among the least affluent parts of the Bay Area today .
In 2008 Hurricane Ike struck the coast causing substantial damage both environmentally and economically . As of 2009 the ecology of the region is still in recovery with damage caused by both natural pollution ( sea salt ) and man @-@ made pollution ( chemicals washed into the freshwater and the bay ) still showing dramatic effects on both the marine and land @-@ dwelling wildlife . Commercial fishing and oyster farming are expected to take decades to fully recover . Most major industry was able to return to normal operations but some tourist areas have taken longer to recover .
Discussions of a proposal to build an Ike Dike that would protect the Bay Area , particularly the nationally critical Houston Ship Channel , were begun in 2009 . As of 2010 the project is still in the conceptual stage .
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= Oklahoma State Highway 9 =
State Highway 9 , abbreviated as SH @-@ 9 , OK @-@ 9 , or simply Highway 9 , is a major east – west highway in the U.S. state of Oklahoma . Spanning across the central part of the state , SH @-@ 9 begins at the Texas state line near Madge , Oklahoma , and ends at the Arkansas state line near Fort Smith , Arkansas . State Highway 9 is a major highway around the Norman area . At 348 @.@ 1 miles ( 560 @.@ 2 km ) , SH @-@ 9 is Oklahoma 's second @-@ longest state highway ( second to State Highway 3 ) .
= = Route description = =
= = = West of Interstate 35 = = =
From the western terminus at State Highway 203 along the Texas border , the highway travels due east for five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) and intersects with SH @-@ 30 between Madge and Vinson . SH @-@ 9 continues east for 23 miles ( 37 km ) without intersecting another highway until meeting US @-@ 283 and SH @-@ 34 two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Mangum . The highway overlaps the other two routes for four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) , going north , before splitting off and heading east again through Granite and Lone Wolf . East of Lone Wolf , the highway forms a concurrency with SH @-@ 44 . Near Hobart , SH @-@ 9 overlaps US @-@ 183 for 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) ( again going northward ) before splitting off again .
Continuing east , SH @-@ 9 passes through Gotebo , Mountain View , and Carnegie . Around Fort Cobb , Oklahoma , the highway begins nine miles ( 14 km ) of travel to the south . There , the route links up with the concurrent U.S. Highways 62 and 281 . While US @-@ 281 will split off in Anadarko , SH @-@ 9 and US @-@ 62 remain concurrent until Newcastle . In Chickasha , US @-@ 277 joins to form another three @-@ route concurrency with US @-@ 62 and SH @-@ 9 . On the eastern edge of Chickasha , US @-@ 62 / 277 / SH @-@ 9 have an interchange with I @-@ 44 , or more commonly known as the H.E. Bailey Turnpike .
Traveling northeast from Chickasha , US @-@ 62 / 277 / SH @-@ 9 are routed to the town of Blanchard . Four miles later , SH @-@ 9 splits away from the two U.S. routes at a diamond interchange that also serves as the eastern terminus of the H.E. Bailey Turnpike Spur . SH @-@ 9 remains without any concurrent routes until Goldsby . The section of road east of US @-@ 62 / 277 , recently upgraded to a four @-@ lane divided highway , provides a link from the H.E. Bailey Turnpike Spur to Interstate 35 . At the interstate , SH @-@ 9 merges onto I @-@ 35 northbound to cross the Canadian River into Norman .
= = = East of Interstate 35 = = =
Through Norman , Highway 9 serves as a major artery providing access to the University of Oklahoma campus ( in particular , the Lloyd Noble Center ) . Around the area , the route is a four @-@ lane divided expressway ( with surface crossings and stoplights ) . However , after a full interchange with US @-@ 77 , the road becomes a two lane highway again .
SH @-@ 9 continues eastward , passing Lake Thunderbird State Park , before reaching the towns of Tecumseh and Seminole . The road intersects the Indian Nation Turnpike near Hanna , and US @-@ 69 near Eufaula . SH @-@ 9 provides access to the south side of Lake Eufaula before reaching Stigler .
SH @-@ 9 overlaps US @-@ 59 for 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) , after which the road becomes concurrent with US @-@ 271 . Both remain concurrent , until the highway ends at the Arkansas border . After passing the Arkansas state line , State Highway 9 becomes I @-@ 540 , and US @-@ 271 continues over the state line concurrent with the Interstate .
= = History = =
Officially designated on 1924 @-@ 08 @-@ 24 , the original route encompassed all of current SH @-@ 9 west of Blanchard . East of Blanchard , SH @-@ 9 followed a more northerly route . Bypassing Norman , SH @-@ 9 ran north to Oklahoma City before going east through Harrah , Meeker , Prague , Henryetta , and Checotah . The highway ended at the original State Highway 3 in Spiro . Upon the creation of the United States Numbered Routes system in 1926 , the section between Oklahoma City and Warner was overlaid with U.S. Highway 266 . Four years later in 1930 , SH @-@ 9 was truncated to Chickasha . By this time , much of the route had become part of U.S. Highway 62 .
On 1935 @-@ 08 @-@ 27 , the route was extended eastward , taking over the original SH @-@ 37 . SH @-@ 9 's eastern terminus became SH @-@ 48 near Seminole . On 1937 @-@ 08 @-@ 25 , the route was brought further east to end at US @-@ 69 in Eufaula . Part of the newly commissioned section was rescinded on 1937 @-@ 10 @-@ 19 , when a small segment just east of SH @-@ 48 and the entire Hughes County portion were dropped from the highway . These sections were re @-@ added on 1938 @-@ 09 @-@ 27 .
State Highway 9 was extended eastward twice in the route 's history . The first extension occurred on 1941 @-@ 02 @-@ 26 , and extended SH @-@ 9 to SH @-@ 2 at Whitefield . The final extension brought SH @-@ 9 to the Arkansas state line on 1941 @-@ 11 @-@ 12 . The only major realignment in SH @-@ 9 's history since 1941 was the Norman expressway bypass , which was designated as SH @-@ 9 on 1971 @-@ 11 @-@ 08 .
After the I @-@ 40 bridge disaster , parts of State Highway 9 in eastern Oklahoma served as an emergency detour for eastbound I @-@ 40 traffic . All eastbound traffic was routed along the section of SH @-@ 9 between SH @-@ 2 in Whitefield and US @-@ 59 . In addition , the section of SH @-@ 9 between US @-@ 59 and the Arkansas state line were used for eastbound traffic for commercial trucks .
= = Future = =
Discussions are under way to widen SH @-@ 9 to four lanes east of US @-@ 77 in Norman . The City of Norman and ODOT have conflict in their proposals for the design of the widened highway . ODOT has proposed a 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) paved median , with 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) shoulders to accommodate bicyclists . Norman 's proposal includes a grass median and a separate bike path along the north side of the right @-@ of @-@ way , running from 24th Avenue S.E. to Lake Thunderbird . ODOT criticized the city 's plan as too expensive . The city is now proposing a compromise , with a narrower raised concrete median and separate bike path .
= = Spurs = =
State Highway 9 creates three spur highways throughout the state . Additionally , it has two business routes , serving towns the main route bypasses . These routes are :
Business SH @-@ 9 , a three @-@ mile ( 5 km ) loop through Hobart .
Another instance of Business SH @-@ 9 that loops through Gotebo . ( This is not shown on the state highway map . )
SH @-@ 9A is a designation for three distinct highways :
A highway that intersects SH @-@ 9 in Earlsboro and links the parent highway to I @-@ 40 and SH @-@ 39 in Konawa . The spur also passes through the town of Maud .
A connector highway from US @-@ 69 to SH @-@ 9 south of Eufaula .
A spur route to SH @-@ 112 in Arkoma . This section is a former alignment of U.S. Highway 271 .
= = Junction list = =
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= Gowanus Canal =
The Gowanus Canal is a canal in the New York City borough of Brooklyn , on the westernmost portion of Long Island . Connected to Gowanus Bay in Upper New York Bay , the canal borders the neighborhoods of Red Hook , Carroll Gardens , and Gowanus , all within South Brooklyn , to the west ; Park Slope to the east ; Boerum Hill and Cobble Hill to the north ; and Sunset Park to the south . It is 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) long . There are seven bridges over the canal , carrying Union Street , Carroll Street ( a landmark ) , Third Street , Ninth Street , Hamilton Avenue , the Gowanus Expressway , and the IND Culver Line of the New York City Subway .
Once a busy cargo transportation hub , the canal is now recognized as one of the most polluted bodies of water in the United States , and is labeled as a Superfund site . The canal 's history has paralleled the decline of domestic shipping via water . The canal is still used for waterborne transportation of goods , notably fuel oil , scrap metal and aggregates . Tugs and barges still navigate the canal daily . A legacy of serious environmental problems has beset the area from the time the canal arose from the local tidal wetlands and fresh water streams . In recent years , there has been a call once again for environmental cleanup . In addition , development pressures have brought speculation that the wetlands of the Gowanus should serve waterfront economic development needs which may not be compatible with environmental restoration .
= = Historical use = =
= = = Mill creek = = =
The Gowanus neighborhood originally surrounded Gowanus Creek , which consisted of a tidal inlet of navigable creeks in original saltwater marshland and meadows teeming with fish and other wildlife . Henry Hudson and Giovanni da Verrazzano both navigated the inlet in their explorations of New York Harbor . The first land patents within Breukelen ( Brooklyn ) , including the land of the Gowanus , were issued by the Dutch Government from 1630 to 1664 . In 1639 , the leaders of New Netherland made one of the earliest recorded real estate deals in New York City history with the purchase of the area around the Gowanus Bay for construction of a tobacco plantation . The early settlers of the area named the waterway " Gowanes Creek " after Gouwane , sachem of the local Lenape tribe called the Canarsee , who lived and farmed on the shorelines .
Adam Brouwer , who had been a soldier in the service of the Dutch West India Company , built and operated the first gristmill patented in New York at Gowanus ( on land patented July 8 , 1645 , to Jan Evertse Bout ) . The tide @-@ water gristmill on the Gowanus was the first in the town of Breukelen and was the first mill ever operated in New Netherland ( located north of Union Street , west of Nevins Street , and next to Bond Street ) . A second mill ( Denton 's Mill , also called Yellow mill ) was built on Denton 's mill pond , after being granted permission to dredge from the creek to the mill pond once located between Fifth Ave and the present day canal at Carroll and Third Street . On May 26 , 1664 , several Breuckelen residents , headed by Brouwer , petitioned director general Peter Stuyvesant and his Council for permission to dredge a canal at their own expense through the land of Frederick Lubbertsen in order to supply water to run the mill . The petition was presented to the council on May 29 , 1664 , and the motion was granted . Another mill , Cole 's Mill , was located just about at present day 9th Street , between Smith Street and the Canal . Cole 's Mill Pond , located north of 9th street , occupied the present location of Public Place . Slave labor was used to excavate the marshland .
In 1700 , a settler , Nicholas Vechte , built a farmhouse of brick and stone now known as the Old Stone House , which later played a critical role in the 1776 Battle of Long Island , when American troops fought off the Redcoats long enough to allow George Washington to retreat . This house sat at the south eastern edge of the Denton 's Mill pond . Brower 's Mill ( also known as Freeks Mill , located at the present day intersection of Union and Nevins streets ) can be seen in drawings depicting the " Battle of Brooklyn " .
Throughout this period , a few Dutch farmers settled along the marshland and engaged in clamming of large oysters that became a notable first export to Europe . The six @-@ foot ( 2 m ) tides of the bay forced salt water up into the creek 's meandering course , creating a brackish mix of water that was ideal for the bivalves , which often grew much larger than today but gradually shrank through a form of negative artificial selection . By the middle of the 19th century , the City of Brooklyn was the third most populous , and fastest growing , city in America and had incorporated the creek and farmland into a greater urban fabric with linear villages flourishing along the shore .
= = = Economic hub = = =
The mills on the Gowanus were also home to public landing sites , connecting the water route to the old Gowanus road . As the local population grew and 19th @-@ century industrial revolution reached Brooklyn , the need for larger navigational and docking facilities grew . Colonel Daniel Richards , a successful local merchant , advocated the building of a canal to benefit existing inland industries and drain the surrounding marshes for land reclamation that would raise property values . In 1849 , the New York Legislature authorized the construction of the Gowanus Canal by deepening Gowanus Creek , to transform it into a mile @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ long commercial waterway connected to Upper New York Bay . The full dredging of Gowanus Creek could not begin until a further act of the legislature in 1867 . After exploring numerous alternative ( and some more environmentally sound ) designs , the final was chosen for its low price tag . United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) Major David Bates Douglass was hired to design the canal , which was essentially complete by 1869 . The cost of the construction came from assessments on the local residents of Brooklyn and State money .
Despite its relatively short length , the Gowanus Canal was a hub for Brooklyn 's maritime and commercial shipping activity . Factories , warehouses , tanneries , coal stores , and manufactured gas refineries sprang up as a result of its construction . Much of the brownstone quarried in New Jersey and the upper Hudson was placed on barges with lumber and brick and shipped through the canal to build the neighborhoods of Carroll Gardens , Cobble Hill , and Park Slope . In addition , the industrial sector around the canal grew substantially over time to include : stone and coal yards ; flour mills ; cement works , and manufactured gas plants ; tanneries , factories for paint , ink , and soap ; machine shops ; chemical plants ; and sulfur producers , all of which emitted substantial water and airborne pollutants . The canal was the first site where chemical fertilizers were manufactured .
With as many as 700 new buildings a year constructed , the South Brooklyn region grew at a remarkable rate . Thriving industry brought many new people to the area but important questions about wastewater sanitation had not been properly addressed to handle such growth . All the sewage from the new buildings drained downhill , into the Gowanus . The building of new sewer connections only compounded the problem by discharging raw sewage from neighborhoods even farther away into the Canal . By the turn of the century , the combination of industrial pollutants and runoff from storm water , fortified with the products of the new sewage system , rendered the waterway a repository of rank odors , euphemistically called by wise @-@ cracking locals " Lavender Lake " . After World War I , with six million annual tons of cargo produced and trafficked though the waterway , the Gowanus Canal became the nation 's busiest commercial canal , and arguably the most polluted . The heavy sewage flow into the canal required regular dredging to keep the waters navigable .
With much fanfare , the US Army Corps of Engineers completed its last dredging of the canal in 1955 and soon afterward abandoned its regular dredging schedule , deeming it to be no longer cost @-@ effective . Brooklyn 's fuel trade was already converting from coal and artificial gas to petroleum , which was served by the wider and deeper Newtown Creek , and natural gas , which arrived by pipeline . With the early 1960s growth of containerization , New York 's loss of industrial waterfront jobs during this period was evident on the canal and , with the failure of the city sewage and pump station infrastructure along the canal , Gowanus was used as a derelict dumping place . Remaining barge traffic mostly carries fuel oil , sand , gravel and scrap metal is exported ; the canal still serves as a port moving goods in and out of Brooklyn . At this point , the issue of revitalizing of the Gowanus area was raised . In 1975 the City of New York established a Gowanus Industrial Renewal Plan for the area , which remained in effect until the year 2011 . Since 1975 , the surrounding community has been calling for the city , state , and federal governments to bring the full power of the Clean Water Act to bear on the environmental conditions left behind in this once thriving urban / industrial waterway .
= = = Degeneration = = =
At the time the canal was built , several designs were proposed for it , some with lock systems that would have allowed daily flushing of the whole waterway . But these designs were considered too expensive , and as a result the Gowanus Canal was constructed with significant design flaws , but within budget . There was no through @-@ flow of water and the canal was open at only one end , in the hope that the tides would be enough to flush the waterway . But with the canal 's wooden and concrete embankments , the strong tides of fresh diurnal doses of oxygenated water from New York Harbor were barred from flowing into the 1 @.@ 8 mile ( 3 km ) channel . Water quality studies have found the concentration of oxygen in the canal to be just 1 @.@ 5 parts per million , well below the minimum 4 parts per million needed to sustain life . With the high level of development in the Gowanus watershed area , excessive nitrates and pathogens are constantly flowing into the canal , further depleting the oxygen and creating breeding grounds for the pathogens responsible for the canal 's odor .
The opaqueness of the Gowanus water obstructs sunlight to one third of the six feet needed for aquatic plant growth . Rising gas bubbles betray the decomposition of sewage sludge that on a warm , sultry day produces the canal 's notable ripe stench . The murky depths of the canal conceal the remnants of its industrial past : cement , oil , mercury , lead , multiple volatile organic compounds , PCBs , coal tar , and other contaminants . A 2007 Science Line report found gonorrhea and unidentified organisms in the canal . In 1951 , with the opening of the elevated Gowanus Expressway over the waterway , easy access for trucks and cars catalyzed industry slightly , but with 150 @,@ 000 vehicles passing overhead each day , the expressway also deposits tons of toxic emissions into the air and water beneath .
There is an urban legend that the canal served as a dumping ground for the Mafia . In Jonathan Lethem 's Motherless Brooklyn , a character refers to it as " the only body of water in the world that is 90 percent guns . " In Lavender Lake , a 1998 documentary film about the Gowanus Canal by Alison Prete , two cops discuss the recent discovery by fishermen of a suitcase full of human body parts that was taken from the waterway . In Joseph O 'Neill 's novel Netherland , the remains of one of the protagonists are found in the Gowanus Canal .
= = = Flushing the canal = = =
The first step to ameliorate pollution in the canal was the construction in the 1890s of the Bond Street sewer pipeline that carried sewage out into the harbor , but this proved inadequate . In the first attempt to improve flow at the northern , closed end of the canal , the " Big Sewer " was constructed from Marcy Avenue in Prospect Heights , down Green Ave to 4th Avenue and into the canal at Butler Street . This sewer design was featured in Scientific American for its innovative construction method and size . The area this sewer ran through was known as " The Flooded District , " and it was believed that this new sewer would serve two purposes : to drain the flooded district , and to use the flow of that excessive water to move the water of the upper Gowanus Canal . Headlines in the Brooklyn Daily Eagle newspaper declared it an engineering blunder shortly after its construction . The Big Sewer still exists under the streets of Brooklyn today .
The existing method to control the pollution of the isolated Gowanus Canal was the installation of the Flushing Tunnel on June 21 , 1911 , which for a time supplied clean water to the upper reaches of the canal through the brick @-@ lined 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) tunnel via Butler Street to Buttermilk Channel between Brooklyn and Governors Island . Unfortunately , this too failed . Aside from numerous operational glitches , a long series of problems and mistakes occurred throughout the 1960s , culminating when a city worker dropped a manhole cover that severely damaged a pump system already suffering from the effect of the corrosive salt water . The Clean Water Act had not yet been passed , and the city , stretched for funds at the time , did nothing to address the issue . As a result of the unrepaired damage to the Flushing Tunnel , and the long stretch of economic recession , the waters of the canal lay stagnant and under @-@ used for years .
According to the New York City Department of Environmental Protection ( DEP ) , plans to reactivate the Flushing Tunnel pump were proposed in 1982 . But , due to bureaucratic delays , the DEP did not take up the project until 1994 . The tunnel was finally reactivated in 1999 . The new design employed a 600 horsepower ( 450 kW ) motor , that pumped an average rate of 200 million gallons a day ( 9 m ³ / s ) of aerated water from Buttermilk Channel of the East River into the head end of the canal . Although water was circulating through the tunnel , it can only be pumped 11 hours a day , due to tidal forces . Water quality has now improved , or at least the quality of water samples taken while the Flushing Pump is operating . Another attempt to control pollution , the construction of the $ 230 million Red Hook Water Pollution Control Plant in 1987 , had similar unsatisfactory results . The Red Hook Treatment plant collected waste from the existing Bond Street sewer that had been dumping into the harbor , but did not take up any additional waste that still spills into the canal from the sewer system 's 14 combined sewer overflow ( CSO ) points . The city has yet to modify the sewer system to reduce sewage overflows into the Gowanus .
= = Environmental cleanup and redevelopment = =
= = = Redevelopment plans = = =
In 1999 , Assemblywoman Joan Millman allocated $ 100 @,@ 000 to the Gowanus Canal Community Development Corporation ( GCCDC ) to produce and distribute a bulkhead study and public access document . The following year , GCCDC received $ 270 @,@ 000 from the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation to construct three street @-@ end public open spaces along the Gowanus Canal through the city 's Green Street program . An additional $ 270 @,@ 000 was funded by Governor George E. Pataki to create a revitalization plan in 2001 and then allocated $ 100 @,@ 000 in capital funds in 2002 to implement a pilot project on the shoreline . In 2003 , Congresswoman Nydia Velázquez allocated an additional $ 225 @,@ 000 to create a comprehensive community development plan . Today this organization relies on community volunteers to maintain and clean these Green Street Projects . The community lacks a community centered redevelopment plan .
In 2002 , the United States Army Corps of Engineers entered into a cost @-@ sharing agreement with the DEP to collaborate on a $ 5 million Ecosystem Restoration Feasibility Study of the Gowanus Canal area to be completed in 2005 , studying possible alternatives for ecosystem restoration such as dredging , and wetland and habitat restoration . Discussions turned to breaking down the hard edges of the canal in order to restore some of the natural processes to improve the overall environment of the Gowanus wetlands area . The DEP also initiated the Gowanus Canal Use and Standards Attainment project , to meet the City 's obligations under the Clean Water Act . As of the summer 2009 , the joint NYC / Army Corps Feasibility study has not been completed .
In early 2006 , the problem of wastewater management arose during a controversy over a planned Brooklyn Nets Arena in nearby central Brooklyn . The project at that point , now called Pacific Park , was to include a basketball arena and 17 skyscrapers , with the resulting sewage would flow into antiquated combined sewers that can overflow when it rains . The Gowanus Canal has 14 combined sewer overflow points , so the fear is that the additional wastewater from the arena would lead to more frequent overflows in the canal .
As the industrial Brooklyn cityscape evolves , new development plans have been debated for the Gowanus Canal and the land abutting it . The adjacent neighborhood to the east ( 4th Avenue ) was rezoned for high density residential use with a strong commercial component . With brownfield redevelopment incentives offered by the State of New York , developers look to this land as another place to build , with substantial help of public money .
In February 2009 , the city of New York granted a zoning change to the developer , Toll Brothers Inc . , allowing for a 480 @-@ unit , twelve @-@ story , super @-@ block residential project , the first permitted along the waterway . Toll Brothers abandoned this project in 2010 when the Gowanus Canal was declared a Superfund cleanup site by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency .
= = = = Different uses = = = =
Paving the way for recreational use of the canal has been the Gowanus Dredgers Canoe Club ( founded in 1999 ) , and The Urban Divers Estuary Conservancy ( founded in 1998 ) , two organizations that are dedicated to providing waterfront access and education related to the estuary and bordering shoreline of the canal . During the 2003 season , over 1 @,@ 000 individuals , including more than 200 youths , participated in Dredger Canoe Club programs , logging over 2 @,@ 000 trips on the Gowanus Canal . The NY Harbor report for that same year showed the Gowanus to have the highest level of pathogens in the entire harbor .
A 9 @.@ 4 acres ( 4 ha ) U.S. Postal Service site on the east side of the Ninth Street canal crossing became available for commercial development . Development groups have not taken their eye off a whole range of possible projects for the site . It has been proposed as the Brooklyn Commons , an entertainment and retail complex featuring a multiplex cinema , a bowling alley , shops and restaurants . After controversy , a lawsuit , and a rival proposal for an IKEA store , a large Lowe 's store was built and opened on April 30 , 2004 , with an adjacent public promenade overlooking the canal . The IKEA company , previously rejected from the Ninth Street location for traffic congestion , opened on the south end of Red Hook on the harbor waterway . That project was objected to by community organizations in the Red Hook and Gowanus neighborhoods .
Another site at Smith and 4th street was taken by the city in 1975 and designated a Public Place , for use as " public recreation space " . Despite this legal standing of the Public Place , developers have continually proposed using this site for other possibilities . National Grid is accountable for a cleanup of the pollution left behind on the site after years of coal gas manufacture . Upon completion of this cleanup , the site was to be turned over to the parks department .
= = = = Activism = = = =
In November 2006 , HABITATS , a festival dedicated to " local action as global wisdom " , celebrated the Gowanus Canal through environmental conferences , collaborative art , educational programs and interactive walks around the area . The canal has been the home to various arts organizations . Issue Project Room once organized art events , and the Yard , an outdoor concert space , opened in the summer of 2007 near the Carroll Street bridge .
= = = Cleanup efforts = = =
In April 2009 , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) proposed that the canal be listed as a Superfund cleanup site . This action was supported by the state Department of Environmental Conservation , which had requested help from the EPA to address the canal 's environmental problems . In May 2009 , the city stepped forward to oppose the Superfund listing and offered , for the first time , to produce a Gowanus cleanup plan that would match the work of a Superfund cleanup , but with a promise to accomplish it faster . The city stated that it could now achieve a faster cleanup than EPA because the city would fund the cleanup through taxpayer dollars from the state and city levels , while the EPA would seek its funding from the polluters . In 2009 , the nonprofit Gowanus Canal Conservancy was founded , which partners with the EPA , the city Department of Environmental Protection ( NYCDEP ) , groups like Riverkeeper and universities such as Cornell and Rutgers . Among other things , it hosts monthly composting events . On March 4 , 2010 , the EPA announced that it had placed the Gowanus Canal on its Superfund National Priorities List .
By 2013 , the NYCDEP was planning to reduce the sewage content of the canal by repairing a tunnel that flushes fresh water into the Gowanus . The repair will not completely eliminate the sewage problem . The EPA has suggested seven plans for the clean up . The Village Voice reported two scenarios as most viable , estimated at taking ten years to complete and costing around $ 350 – $ 450 million . The first step in the plans is dredging , scheduled to begin 2016 . The second is to lay down one of two different proposed " caps " . One cap over the still @-@ polluted canal bed would be made of concrete . The second would have first a layer of clay to absorb pollutants , a layer of sand to act as a buffer , and then a layer of rocks to anchor that floor . Some express concern that the clean @-@ up poses a health risk .
On September 27 , 2013 , the EPA approved a clean @-@ up plan for the Gowanus Canal . The plan is to cost $ 506 million and should be completed by 2022 . The plan divides the canal into three segments : The upper segment runs from the top of the canal to 3rd Street , the middle segment runs from 3rd Street to just south of the Hamilton Avenue Bridge and the lower segment runs from the Hamilton Avenue Bridge to the mouth of the canal . The plan entails removing contaminated sediment from the bottom of canal by dredging , capping the dredged areas and implementing controls on combined sewer overflows to prevent future contamination . It also involves excavating and restoring approximately 475 feet of the former 1st Street Basin and 25 feet of the former 5th Street Basin .
The layer of toxic sediment in the canal averages 10 feet thick , and at some spots reaches 20 feet . EPA will remove approximately 307 @,@ 000 cubic yards of highly contaminated sediment from the upper and middle segments and 281 @,@ 000 cubic yards of contaminated sediment from the lower segment . The dredged sediment will be treated at an off @-@ site facility .
Following dredging , in areas of the canal where contamination has permeated the underlying sediment , EPA will cap with multiple layers of clean material . The multi @-@ layer cap consists of an “ active ” layer made of a specific type of clay that will remove contamination that could well up from below , an “ isolation ” layer of sand and gravel that will ensure that the contaminants are not exposed , and an “ armor ” layer of heavier gravel and stone to prevent erosion of the underlying layers from boat traffic and canal currents . Finally , sufficient clean sand will be placed on top of the “ armor ” layer to fill in the voids between the stones and to establish sufficient depth in order to restore the canal bottom as a habitat . In the middle and upper segment of the canal where the native sediment is contaminated with liquid coal tar , the EPA will stabilize that sediment by mixing it with concrete or similar materials . The stabilized areas will then be covered with the multiple layer cap as described above .
As the Superfund model requires the EPA to seek restitution from the Potentially Responsible Parties ( PRPs ) , the estimated cost of the cleanup plan is to be spread among more than three dozen entities , mostly companies and a few government entities like the City of New York and the United States Navy , for ship work that polluted the canal . Many of the original businesses that once operated alongside the canal have since merged , changed names or moved away , including Brooklyn Union Gas , which eventually became a part of National Grid , Continental Oil and Standard Oil . When companies have been sold or merged , the successor company as well as the current property owner assume the liability . Companies that produced or transported the hazardous substances are also considered responsible . The EPA Superfund Gowanus report has identified the major PRPs as National Grid and New York City .
= = = = Wildlife = = = =
On January 26 , 2013 , a dolphin entered the canal at low tide , was unable to get out , and died . The necropsy on dolphin showed it was middle @-@ aged and sickly before becoming trapped . It had kidney stones , gastric ulcers and parasites .
By 2014 , it has been reported that herons , egrets , bats , Canada geese , small fish and crabs have started to live around the waterway .
= = In popular culture = =
In 2014 , So What ? Press published an issue of its comic series Tales of the Night Watchman , entitled " It Came from the Gowanus Canal " , about a toxic sludge monster who lives in the canal and takes revenge on a gangster who once dumped bodies there . It was written by Dave Kelly and illustrated by Molly Ostertag . The publisher also produced a fake movie poster in conjunction with the Gowanus Souvenir Shop based on the issue in 2015 .
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= 1906 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1906 Atlantic hurricane season was the eleventh @-@ deadliest Atlantic hurricane season in recorded history , with 381 deaths . The season was fairly active , with eleven storms , of which six became hurricanes and three became major hurricanes . The first storm of the season , a tropical storm in the northern Caribbean Sea , formed on June 8 ; although it struck the United States , no major impacts were recorded . July saw a period of inactivity , with no known storms . However , in August , the streak of inactivity ended with two storms , including a powerful hurricane . September brought three storms , including a deadly hurricane , with catastrophic impacts in Pensacola and Mobile . October included three storms , with a powerful hurricane that killed over 200 people . The final storm of the season impacted Cuba in early November and dissipated on November 9 .
= = Methodology = =
Prior to the advent of modern tropical cyclone tracking technology , notably satellite imagery , many hurricanes that did not affect land directly went unnoticed , and storms that did affect land were not recognized until their onslaught . As a result , information on older hurricane seasons was often incomplete . Modern @-@ day efforts have been made and are still ongoing to reconstruct the tracks of known hurricanes and to identify initially undetected storms . In many cases , the only evidence that a hurricane existed was reports from ships in its path , and judging by the direction of winds experienced by ships , and their location in relation to the storm , it is possible to roughly pinpoint the storm 's center of circulation for a given point in time . This is the manner in which all of the eleven known storms in the 1906 season were identified by hurricane expert José Fernández @-@ Partagás 's reanalysis of hurricane seasons between 1851 and 1910 . Partagás also extended the known tracks of three other hurricanes previously identified by scholars . The information Partagás and his colleague uncovered was largely adopted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Atlantic hurricane reanalysis in their updates to the Atlantic hurricane database ( HURDAT ) , with some slight adjustments . HURDAT is the official source for such hurricane data as track and intensity , although due to a sparsity of available records at the time the storms existed , listings on some storms are incomplete .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
The first storm of the season formed on June 8 , south of western Cuba , attaining its peak winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) by June 9 . On June 10 , a weather station in Havana reported a minimum air pressure of 1002 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 59 inHg ) ; however , the minimum pressure of the system itself is unknown . On June 12 , the system caused the sinking of a schooner ; however , all on board the schooner were rescued . The system continued traveling north @-@ northwestward , making landfall near Panama City on June 13 , quickly weakening to a tropical depression as it moved inland . The system became extratropical by June 14 , dissipating shortly thereafter ; no deaths and injuries are known to have been caused by the storm .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
This first hurricane of the season 's effects were first noted in Santa Clara , Cuba , where rainy and windy conditions were observed on the afternoon of June 14 . Several vessels sank during the hurricane during the early morning hours of June 15 . The system was thought to have entered the Florida Straits during the evening . The system began to travel towards the west @-@ northwest , steadily strengthening into a hurricane by the afternoon . On June 17 , a minimum pressure of 979 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 91 inHg ) was recorded , as the hurricane passed over southern Florida .
The hurricane slowly intensified as it traveled offshore , continuing to strengthen throughout the day on June 17 , eventually reaching Category 2 status by June 18 . As the storm headed northeastward , the hurricane began to weaken , becoming a tropical storm by June 21 . The system turned toward the east @-@ southeast on June 21 , later recurving towards the east @-@ northeast on June 22 . It weakened to a tropical depression by June 23 , transitioning into an extratropical cyclone later that day . Impacts caused by the hurricane were minimal — a boat was partially dismantled at Key West , and a wharf at Coconut Grove was also damaged . In addition , the schooner Hidie Feroe sank , although her crew was later rescued .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
This tropical storm was previously unidentified until modern research by José Fernández @-@ Partagás revealed the storm in 1997 . The tropical storm is believed to have originated as a tropical depression in the North Atlantic on August 22 . By August 23 , the depression had intensified into a tropical storm , with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . The system further intensified into a powerful tropical storm on August 24 , with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . However , the storm began to weaken , and it transitioned into an extratropical storm on August 25 , with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
The fourth storm of the season was believed to have originated as a tropical storm off the coast of Africa on August 25 . The storm slowly intensified , eventually reaching hurricane status on August 28 . As the storm headed west @-@ northwestward on August 31 , it passed by the Lesser Antilles as a Category 2 hurricane . The storm became a Category 3 hurricane on September 2 as it passed north of the Dominican Republic . The storm further intensified into a Category 4 hurricane on September 5 , located east of the Bahamas . Throughout the day on September 6 , the hurricane began to curve northward . During the evening , it weakened to Category 3 status and began to travel northeastward on September 7 .
The hurricane maintained its intensity and passed northwest of Bermuda on September 9 , where winds reached 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and air pressures fell to 988 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) . The storm continued to weaken , eventually becoming a Category 2 hurricane on September 11 ; at this time , the Koenigin Luise measured an air pressure of 950 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 06 inHg ) . The system became extratropical later during the day , and lost its identity on September 12 in the North Atlantic near the British Isles . As a result of warnings in advance , little damage was caused by the hurricane .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
The fifth storm of the season formed on September 3 in the western Atlantic . It drifted west @-@ northwestward , slowly gaining intensity , and turned northwest on September 8 . However , the tropical storm then changed course and began to head west @-@ northwest on September 11 as it slowly intensified . By September 12 , the tropical storm had intensified to a minimal hurricane , and began to turn towards the north @-@ northwest on September 13 . It attained its peak winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) on September 14 . As it maintained its intensity on September 15 , the hurricane began to turn westward while it continued to approach the coast of South Carolina on September 17 . The hurricane made landfall near Myrtle Beach later on September 17 , and quickly weakened to a tropical storm as it moved inland . The storm dissipated as a tropical depression on September 18 over Tennessee .
The hurricane caused moderate impacts — two hundred people were stranded at Wrightsville Beach , North Carolina . At Charleston , South Carolina , winds of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) were recorded , in addition to a barometric pressure of 997 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 44 inHg ) . Many small buildings were damaged in Charleston ; damage in the city totaled to $ 1 @,@ 000 , while at the town of Georgetown , damage was estimated to be around $ 15 @,@ 000 . The Laura encountered the hurricane , and three of the crew of four were killed . A schooner called the Seguranca and its crew were also impacted by the hurricane ; the crew on board survived without food for two days . Overall damage to shipping and crops in the Carolinas was moderate ; seven people were killed , and at least $ 2 @,@ 016 @,@ 000 ( 1906 USD ) in damage was recorded .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
The sixth hurricane of the season originated as a tropical depression on September 19 in the southwestern Caribbean Sea . The following day , the depression intensified into a tropical storm . It continued to intensify steadily , eventually reaching hurricane status on September 24 as it exited the Yucatán Channel . The hurricane continued to intensify as it moved north @-@ northwest and attained Category 2 intensity in the Gulf of Mexico . During the afternoon , the storm intensified further into a major hurricane . At this time , the hurricane was 300 miles ( 480 km ) west @-@ northwest of Cuba . The hurricane maintained intensity and continued to drift north @-@ northwest , and weakened to a Category 2 hurricane as it made landfall near Pascagoula , Mississippi , on September 27 . The hurricane weakened as it moved inland , quickly weakening to a tropical storm by September 28 . The storm became extratropical on September 29 .
The hurricane caused severe damage along the Gulf Coast . Many marine vessels were blown ashore or sunken in Pensacola , and railroads in the city were severely damaged . Numerous wharfs were damaged or destroyed , and many roofs were torn off buildings . Three forts in the vicinity of Pensacola suffered damage . Electricity in the city was shut off . A total of 35 people were killed in Pensacola . Mobile and surrounding areas suffered similar damage , including destroyed timber , smashed windows , and sunken watercraft . In Mississippi , over 300 @,@ 000 cotton bales were ruined during the hurricane , amounting to $ 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in damage . Damage in New Orleans was minimal ; however , Lake Pontchartrain overflowed , flooding the city . The hurricane killed a total of 134 people .
= = = Tropical Storm Seven = = =
This tropical storm was previously unidentified and was not considered a tropical storm until research by José Fernández @-@ Partagás in 1997 . The storm is believed to have originated west of the Canary Islands in the northeastern Atlantic on September 22 . The tropical storm moved west @-@ southwestward for several days , maintaining its peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) ; however , the storm began to curve early on September 26 and traveled directly westward before curving northward during the afternoon . The tropical storm continued to change course , turning west @-@ northwestward by September 28 . The transitioned to an extratropical system on October 1 , and reached England on October 3 .
= = = Hurricane Eight = = =
This hurricane originated on October 4 near Barbados as a " cyclonic perturbation " ; however , no closed circulation was evidently associated with the system . Barometric pressures began sinking in Panama as the system drifted westward , and it was considered a tropical storm by October 8 . As the storm headed west , it rapidly strengthened ; the storm became a hurricane on October 9 and intensified into a major hurricane on October 10 . As it began to curve northwestward , the hurricane made landfall in Nicaragua , and weakened to a tropical storm on October 11 . It began to drift north @-@ northwestward later that day , intensifying into a minimal hurricane as it drifted into the Gulf of Honduras .
However , the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm again on October 14 as it moved overland , and began to curve north @-@ northwest , restrengthening to a major hurricane by October 17 while it was west @-@ southwest of Cuba . The hurricane made landfall over Cuba on the evening of October 17 . The hurricane passed over southern Florida near Pigeon Key and Downtown Miami on October 18 . The hurricane continued traveling north @-@ northwest ; however , it was forced to re @-@ curve south @-@ southwest , as a result of a high @-@ pressure area . The hurricane weakened to a tropical storm overland , eventually becoming a tropical depression . The system meandered into the Gulf of Mexico , making a final landfall in Central America on October 23 .
The hurricane wreaked havoc throughout its path — crops in Central America suffered severe damage , and rainfall destroyed many roads and bridges in Nicaragua . In Cuba , at least 29 people were killed , and tobacco crops in the country were ruined . The most severe damage was caused in Florida — the state suffered more than $ 420 @,@ 000 in damage and more than two hundred people were killed . Of the people killed in Florida , 135 were workers on the Florida East Coast Railway , and more than 70 people were drowned near Elliott Key after two steamers sank . Throughout its path , damage caused by the hurricane totaled to at least $ 4 @,@ 135 @,@ 000 and at least 240 deaths were recorded .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
A tropical storm was believed to have formed from a low @-@ pressure area , possibly on the tail end of a cold front on October 14 . The storm moved westward ; however , it began to curve west @-@ southwestward on October 15 , as it reached its peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . The storm continued to trek towards the west @-@ southwest on October 16 , later making landfall in eastern Florida on October 17 as a tropical depression . No damage is known to have been caused by the tropical storm .
= = = Tropical Storm Ten = = =
The tenth storm of the season formed on October 15 as a tropical storm east of the Bahamas and north of Hispaniola . The tropical storm moved northwest , but changed direction and began to curve northeastward on October 17 . As the storm moved eastward , it slowly strengthened ; the storm attained its peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on October 18 . The tropical storm headed directly eastward on October 19 , and dissipated in the open Atlantic on October 20 .
= = = Hurricane Eleven = = =
The final storm of the season started as a tropical depression on November 5 , located in the Caribbean , south of Cuba . It strengthened into a tropical storm later during the day as it curved northward , and the storm turned towards the northeast on November 6 . As it approached Cuba , the storm briefly attained hurricane status ; however , as the hurricane made landfall over Cuba , it weakened to a tropical storm . The storm drifted over the Bahamas as a minimal tropical storm on November 8 while it traced east @-@ northeast . It continued to weaken , and transitioned into an extratropical storm on November 10 . No damage is known to have been caused by the hurricane . Its path , its intensity , and the time of the year in which it formed are very similar to those of Hurricane Katrina of 1981 .
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= X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor =
The X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Oak Ridge , Tennessee , formerly known as the Clinton Pile and X @-@ 10 Pile , was the world 's second artificial nuclear reactor ( after Enrico Fermi 's Chicago Pile @-@ 1 ) and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation . It was built during World War II as part of the Manhattan Project .
While Chicago Pile @-@ 1 demonstrated the feasibility of nuclear reactors , the Manhattan Project 's goal of producing enough plutonium for atomic bombs required reactors a thousand times as powerful , along with facilities to chemically separate the plutonium bred in the reactors from uranium and fission products . An intermediate step was considered prudent . The next step for the plutonium project , codenamed X @-@ 10 , was the construction of a semiworks where techniques and procedures could be developed and training conducted . The centerpiece of this was the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor . It was air @-@ cooled , used nuclear graphite as a neutron moderator , and pure natural uranium in metal form for fuel .
DuPont commenced construction of the plutonium semiworks at the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge on February 2 , 1943 . The reactor went critical on November 4 , 1943 , and produced its first plutonium in early 1944 . It supplied the Los Alamos Laboratory with its first significant amounts of plutonium , and its first reactor @-@ bred product . Studies of these samples heavily influenced bomb design . The reactor and chemical separation plant provided invaluable experience for engineers , technicians , reactor operators , and safety officials who then moved on to the Hanford site . It operated as a plutonium production plant until January 1945 , when it was turned over to research activities , and the production of radioactive isotopes for scientific , medical , industrial and agricultural uses . It was shut down in 1963 , and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1966 .
= = Origins = =
The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938 , followed by its theoretical explanation ( and naming ) by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch , opened up the possibility of a controlled nuclear chain reaction with uranium . At Columbia University , Enrico Fermi and Leo Szilard began exploring how this might be done . Szilard drafted a confidential letter to the President of the United States , Franklin D. Roosevelt , explaining the possibility of atomic bombs , and warning of the danger of a German nuclear weapon project . He convinced his old friend and collaborator Albert Einstein to co @-@ sign it , lending his fame to the proposal . This resulted in support by the U.S. government for research into nuclear fission , which became the Manhattan Project .
In April 1941 , the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) asked Arthur Compton , a Nobel @-@ Prize @-@ winning physics professor at the University of Chicago , to report on the uranium program . His report , submitted in May 1941 , foresaw the prospects of developing radiological weapons , nuclear propulsion for ships , and nuclear weapons using uranium @-@ 235 or the recently discovered plutonium . In October he wrote another report on the practicality of an atomic bomb . Niels Bohr and John Wheeler had theorized that heavy isotopes with odd atomic numbers were fissile . If so , then plutonium @-@ 239 was likely to be .
Emilio Segrè and Glenn Seaborg at the University of California produced 28 μg of plutonium in the 60 @-@ inch cyclotron there in May 1941 , and found that it had 1 @.@ 7 times the thermal neutron capture cross section of uranium @-@ 235 . At the time only such minute quantities of plutonium @-@ 239 had been produced , in cyclotrons , and it was not possible to produce a sufficiently large quantity that way . Compton discussed with Eugene Wigner from Princeton University how plutonium might be produced in a nuclear reactor , and with Robert Serber how the plutonium produced in a reactor might be separated from uranium .
The final draft of Compton 's November 1941 report made no mention of using plutonium , but after discussing the latest research with Ernest Lawrence , Compton became convinced that a plutonium bomb was also feasible . In December , Compton was placed in charge of the plutonium project , which was codenamed X @-@ 10 . Its objectives were to produce reactors to convert uranium to plutonium , to find ways to chemically separate the plutonium from the uranium , and to design and build an atomic bomb . It fell to Compton to decide which of the different types of reactor designs the scientists should pursue , even though a successful reactor had not yet been built . He felt that having teams at Columbia , Princeton , the University of Chicago and the University of California was creating too much duplication and not enough collaboration , and he concentrated the work at the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago .
= = Site selection = =
By June 1942 , the Manhattan Project had reached the stage where the construction of production facilities could be contemplated . On June 25 , 1942 , the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) S @-@ 1 Executive Committee deliberated on where they should be located . Moving directly to a megawatt production plant looked like a big step , given that many industrial processes do not easily scale from the laboratory to production size . An intermediate step of building a pilot plant was considered prudent . For the pilot plutonium separation plant , a site was wanted close to the Metallurgical Laboratory , where the research was being carried out , but for reasons of safety and security , it was not desirable to locate the facilities in a densely populated area like Chicago .
Compton selected a site in the Argonne Forest , part of the Forest Preserve District of Cook County , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) southwest of Chicago . The full @-@ scale production facilities would be co @-@ located with other Manhattan Project facilities at a still more remote location in Tennessee . Some 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 ha ) of land was leased from Cook County for the pilot facilities , while an 83 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 34 @,@ 000 ha ) site for the production facilities was selected at Oak Ridge , Tennessee . By the S @-@ 1 Executive Committee meeting on September 13 and 14 , it had become apparent that the pilot facilities would be too extensive for the Argonne site . Instead , a research reactor would be built at Argonne , while the plutonium pilot facilities ( a semiworks ) would be built in Tennessee .
In December , it was decided that the plutonium production facilities would not be built at Oak Ridge after all , but at the even more remote Hanford Site in Washington state . Compton and the staff at the Metallurgical Laboratory then reopened the question of building the plutonium semiworks at Argonne . But the engineers and management of DuPont , particularly Roger Williams , the head of its TNX Division , which was responsible for the company 's role in the Manhattan Project , disagreed . They felt that there would be insufficient space at Argonne , and that there were disadvantages in having a site that was so accessible , especially to the research staff from the Metallurgical Laboratory , whom they feared would attempt to interfere unduly . A better location , they felt , would be with the production facilities at Hanford . In the end a compromise was reached . On January 12 , 1943 , Compton , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , the director of the Manhattan Project , and Williams agreed that the semiworks would be built at Oak Ridge .
Both Compton and Groves proposed that DuPont operate the semiworks . Williams counter @-@ proposed that the semiworks be operated by the Metallurgical Laboratory . He reasoned that it would primarily be a research and educational facility , and that expertise was at the Metallurgical Laboratory . Compton was shocked . The Metallurgical Laboratory was part of the University of Chicago , so the university would be operating an industrial facility 500 miles ( 800 km ) from its main campus . James B. Conant told him that Harvard University " wouldn 't touch it with a ten @-@ foot pole " , but the University of Chicago 's Vice President , E. T. Filbey took a different view , and told Compton to accept . When University President Robert Hutchins returned , he greeted Compton with " I see Arthur , that while I was gone you doubled the size of my university " .
= = Design = =
A critical design decision was the cooling system . A limiting factor was that the fuel slugs would be clad in aluminum , so the operating temperature of the reactor could not exceed about 200 ° C ( 392 ° F ) . The theoretical physicists in Wigner 's group at the Metallurgical Laboratory developed several designs . They found that in heavy water the number of neutrons produced for every one absorbed ( known as k ) was 10 percent more efficient than the purest graphite . In November 1942 , the DuPont engineers chose helium as the coolant for the production plant , largely on the basis that it did not absorb neutrons.By contrast , the decision that the reactor would use graphite as a neutron moderator caused little debate , as heavy water was unavailable , although there was concern that there was a sufficient supply of uranium and pure graphite .
Not everyone agreed with the decision to use helium . Szilard in particular was an early proponent of using liquid bismuth . But the major opponent was Wigner , who argued strongly in favor of a water @-@ cooled reactor design . He realised that since water absorbed neutrons , k would be reduced by about 3 percent , but had sufficient confidence in his calculations that the water @-@ cooled reactor would . From an engineering perspective , a water @-@ cooled was straightforward to design and build , while helium posed technological problems . Wigner 's team produced a preliminary report on water cooling , designated CE @-@ 140 in April 1942 , followed by a more detailed one , CE @-@ 197 , titled " On a Plant with Water Cooling " , in July 1942 .
Fermi 's Chicago Pile @-@ 1 reactor , constructed under the west viewing stands of the original Stagg Field at the University of Chicago , went critical on December 2 , 1942 . This reactor only generated up to 200 W , but it demonstrated that k was higher than anticipated . This not only removed most of the objections to air @-@ cooled and water @-@ cooled reactor designs , it also greatly simplified other aspects of the design . Wigner 's team submitted blueprints of a water @-@ cooled reactor to DuPont in January 1943 . By this time , the concerns of DuPont 's engineers about the corrosiveness of water had been overcome by the mounting difficulties of using helium , and all work on helium was terminated in February . At the same time , Air was chosen for the reactor at the pilot plant . Since it would be of a quite different design to the production reactors , the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor lost its value as a prototype ; but it was considered more important to get the pilot facility up and running as soon as possible in order to supply quantities of plutonium needed for research . It was hoped that problems would be found in time to correct them in the production plants . The semiworks would also be used for training , and for developing procedures .
= = Construction = =
Although the design of the reactor was not yet complete , DuPont began construction of the plutonium semiworks on February 2 , 1943 , on an isolated 112 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) site in the Bethel Valley about 10 miles ( 16 km ) southwest of Oak Ridge officially known as the X @-@ 10 area . There was a chemical separation plant , research laboratories , waste storage area , training facility for Hanford staff , and administrative and support facilities that included a laundry , cafeteria , first aid center and fire station . Because of the subsequent decision to construct water @-@ cooled reactors at Hanford , only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot . The semiworks eventually became known as the Clinton Laboratories , and was operated by the University of Chicago as part of the Metallurgical Project .
Construction work on the reactor had to wait until DuPont had completed the design . Excavation commenced on April 27 , 1943 . A large pocket of soft clay was soon discovered , necessitating additional foundations . Further delays occurred due to wartime difficulties in procuring building materials . There was an acute shortage of both common and skilled labor ; the contractor had only three @-@ quarters of the required workforce , and there was high turnover and absenteeism , mainly the result of poor accommodations and difficulties in commuting . The township of Oak Ridge was still under construction , and barracks were built to house workers . Special arrangements with individual workers increased their morale and reduced turnover . Finally , there was unusually heavy rainfall , with 9 @.@ 3 inches ( 240 mm ) falling in July 1943 , more than twice the average of 4 @.@ 3 inches ( 110 mm ) .
Some 700 short tons ( 640 t ) of graphite blocks were purchased from National Carbon . The construction crews began stacking it in September 1943 . Cast uranium billets came from Metal Hydrides , Mallinckrodt and other suppliers . These were extruded into cylindrical slugs , and canned by Alcoa , which started production on June 14 , 1943 . The fuel slugs were canned primarily to protect the uranium metal from corrosion that would occur if it came into contact with water , but also to prevent the venting of gaseous radioactive fission products that might be formed when they were irradiated . The cladding had to transmit heat but not absorb too many neutrons . Aluminum was chosen . General Electric and the Metallurgical Laboratory developed a new welding technique to seal the cans airtight . The new equipment was installed in the production line at Alcoa in October 1943 .
Construction commenced on the pilot separation plant before a chemical process for separating plutonium from uranium had been selected . Not until May 1943 would DuPont managers decide to use the Bismuth @-@ phosphate process . The plant consisted of six cells , separated from each other and the control room by thick concrete walls . The equipment was operated from the control room by remote control . Work was completed on 26 November 1943 , but the plant could not operate until the reactor started producing irradiated uranium slugs .
= = Operation = =
The X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor was the world 's second artificial nuclear reactor after Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation . It consisted of a huge block , 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long on each side , of nuclear graphite cubes , weighing around 1 @,@ 500 short tons ( 1 @,@ 400 t ) , that acted as a moderator . They were surrounded by seven feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) of high @-@ density concrete as a radiation shield . In all , the reactor was 38 feet ( 12 m ) wide , 47 feet ( 14 m ) deep and 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) high . There were 36 horizontal rows of 35 holes . Behind each was a metal channel into which uranium fuel slugs could be inserted . An elevator provided access to those higher up . Only 800 ( ~ 64 % ) of the channels were ever used .
The reactor used cadmium @-@ clad steel control rods . Three 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) rods penetrated the reactor vertically , held in place by a clutch to form the scram system . They were suspended from steel cables that were wound around a drum , and held in place by an electromagnetic clutch . If power was lost , these rods would drop into the reactor , halting it . The other four rods , were made of boron steel and horizontally penetrated the reactor from the north side . Two of them , known as " shim " rods , were hydraulically controlled . Sand @-@ filled hydraulic accumulators could be used in the event of a power failure . The other two rods were driven by electric motors .
The cooling system consisted of three 55 @,@ 000 cubic feet per minute ( 1 @,@ 600 m3 / min ) electric fans . Because they used outside air , the reactor could be run at a higher power level on cold days . After going through the reactor , the air was filtered to remove radioactive particles larger than 0 @.@ 00004 inches ( 0 @.@ 0010 mm ) in diameter . This took care of over 99 percent of the radioactive particles . It was then expelled back into the air through a 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) chimney . The reactor was operated from a control room in the southeast corner on the second floor .
In September 1942 , Compton asked a physicist , Martin D. Whitaker , to form a skeleton operating staff for X @-@ 10 . Whitaker became the inaugural director of the Clinton Laboratories , as the semiworks became officially known in April 1943 . The first permanent operating staff arrived from the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago in April 1943 , by which time DuPont began transferring its technicians to the site . They were augmented by one hundred technicians in uniform from the Army 's Special Engineer Detachment . By March 1944 , there were some 1 @,@ 500 people working at X @-@ 10 .
Supervised by Compton , Whitaker and Fermi , the reactor went critical on 4 November 1943 with about 30 short tons ( 27 t ) of uranium . A week later the load was increased to 36 short tons ( 33 t ) , raising its power generation to 500 kW , and by the end of the month the first 500 mg of plutonium was created . The reactor normally operated around the clock , with 10 @-@ hour weekly shutdowns for refueling . During startup , the safety rods and one shim rod were completely removed . The other shim rod was inserted at a predetermined position . When the desired power level was reached , the reactor was controlled by adjusting the partly inserted shim rod .
The first batch of canned slugs to be irradiated was received on December 20 , 1943 , allowing the first plutonium to be produced in early 1944 . The slugs used pure metallic natural uranium , in air @-@ tight aluminum cans 4 @.@ 1 inches ( 100 mm ) long and 1 inch ( 25 mm ) in diameter . Each channel was loaded with between 24 and 54 fuel slugs . The reactor went critical with 30 short tons ( 27 t ) of slugs , but in its later life was operated with as much as 54 short tons ( 49 t ) . To load a channel , the radiation @-@ absorbing shield plug was removed , and the slugs inserted manually in the front ( east ) end with long rods . To unload them , they were pushed all the way through to the far ( west ) end , where they fell onto a neoprene slab and fell down a chute into a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) deep pool of water that acted as a radiation shield . Following weeks of underwater storage to allow for decay in radioactivity , the slugs were delivered to the chemical separation building .
By February 1944 , the reactor was irradiating a ton of uranium every three days . Over the next five months , the efficiency of the separation process was improved , with the percentage of plutonium recovered increasing from 40 to 90 percent . Modifications over time raised the reactor 's power to 4 @,@ 000 kW in July 1944 . Unfortunately , operations did not detect the effect of the neutron poison xenon @-@ 135 , which caused problems with the startup of the Hanford B reactor .
The X @-@ 10 semiworks operated as a plutonium production plant until January 1945 , when it was turned over to research activities . By this time , 299 batches of irradiated slugs had been processed . A radioisotope building , a steam plant , and other structures were added in April 1946 to support the laboratory 's peacetime educational and research missions . All work was completed by December 1946 , adding another $ 1 @,@ 009 @,@ 000 to the cost of construction at X @-@ 10 , and bringing the total cost to $ 13 @,@ 041 @,@ 000 . Operational costs added another $ 22 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 .
X @-@ 10 supplied the Los Alamos Laboratory with the first significant samples of plutonium . Studies of these by Emilio G. Segrè and his P @-@ 5 Group at Los Alamos revealed that it contained impurities in the form of the isotope plutonium @-@ 240 , which has a far higher spontaneous fission rate than plutonium @-@ 239 . This meant that it would be highly likely that a plutonium gun @-@ type nuclear weapon would predetonate and blow itself apart during the initial formation of a critical mass . The Los Alamos Laboratory was thus forced to turn its development efforts to creating an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon — a far more difficult feat .
The X @-@ 10 chemical separation plant also proved the bismuth phosphate process that was used in the full @-@ scale separation facilities at Hanford . Finally , the reactor and chemical separation plant provided invaluable experience for engineers , technicians , reactor operators , and safety officials who then moved on to the Hanford site .
= = Peacetime use = =
After the war ended , the graphite reactor became the first facility in the world to produce radioactive isotopes for peacetime use . On August 2 , 1946 , Oak Ridge National Laboratory director Eugene Wigner presented a small container of carbon @-@ 14 to the director of the Barnard Free Skin and Cancer Hospital , for medical use at the hospital in St. Louis , Missouri . Subsequent shipments of radioisotopes , primarily iodine @-@ 131 , phosphorus @-@ 32 , molybdenum @-@ 99 / technetium @-@ 99m and carbon @-@ 14 , were for scientific , medical , industrial and agricultural uses .
The X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor was shut down on November 4 , 1963 , after twenty years of use . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 21 , 1965 , and was designated a National Historic Landmark on October 15 , 1966 . In 1969 the American Society for Metals listed it as a landmark for its contributions to the advancement of materials science and technology , and in 2008 it was designated as a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society . The control room and reactor face are accessible to the public during scheduled tours offered through the American Museum of Science and Energy . During 2015 tours were part of a general three @-@ hour tour of the Clinton Engineer Works facilities , and were conducted on Mondays through Fridays at noon , from June 4 to September 30 , except on July 4 and 5 .
= = Similar reactors = =
The Brookhaven Graphite Research Reactor was the first nuclear reactor to be constructed in the United States following World War II . Led by Lyle Benjamin Borst , the reactor construction began in 1947 and reached criticality for the first time on August 22 , 1950 . The reactor consisted of a 700 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 640 t ) , 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) cube of graphite fueled by natural uranium . Its primary mission was applied nuclear research in medicine , biology , chemistry , physics and nuclear engineering . One of the most significant discoveries at this facility was the development of production of moybdenum @-@ 99 / technetium @-@ 99m , used today in tens of millions of medical diagnostic procedures annually , making it the most commonly used medical radioisotope . The graphite reactor was shut down in 1969 and fully decommissioned in 2012 .
When Britain began planning to build nuclear reactors to produce plutonium for weapons in 1946 , it was decided to build a pair of air @-@ cooled graphite reactors similar to the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Windscale . Natural uranium was used as enriched was not available , and similarly graphite was chosen as a neutron moderator because beryllia was toxic and hard to manufacture , while heavy water was unavailable . Use of water as a coolant was considered , but there were concerns about the possibility of a catastrophic nuclear meltdown in the densely @-@ populated British Isles if the cooling system failed , an event that did indeed occur in the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 . Helium was again the preferred choice as a coolant gas , but the main source of it was the United States , and under the 1946 McMahon Act , the United States would not supply it for nuclear weapons production , so , in the end , air cooling was chosen . Construction began in September 1947 , and the two reactors became operational in October 1950 and June 1951 . Both were decommissioned after the disastrous Windscale fire in October 1957 . They would be last major air @-@ cooled plutonium @-@ producing reactors ; the UK 's follow @-@ on Magnox and AGR designs used carbon dioxide instead .
As of 2016 , another reactor of similar design to the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor is still in operation , the Belgian BR @-@ 1 reactor of the SCK • CEN , located in Mol , Belgium . Financed through the Belgian uranium export tax with the help of British experts , the 4 MW research reactor became critical for the first time on May 11 , 1956 . It is used for scientific purposes , such as neutron activation analysis , neutron physics experiments , calibration of nuclear measurement devices and the production of neutron transmutation doped silicon .
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= Charles Keating =
Charles Humphrey Keating , Jr . ( December 4 , 1923 – March 31 , 2014 ) was an American athlete , lawyer , real estate developer , banker , financier , and activist best known for his role in the savings and loan scandal of the late 1980s .
Keating was a champion swimmer for the University of Cincinnati in the 1940s . From the late 1950s through the 1970s , he was a noted anti @-@ pornography activist , founding the organization Citizens for Decent Literature and serving as a member on the 1969 President 's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography .
In the 1980s , Keating ran American Continental Corporation and the Lincoln Savings and Loan Association , and took advantage of loosened restrictions on banking investments . His enterprises began to suffer financial problems and were investigated by federal regulators . His financial contributions to , and requests for regulatory intervention from five sitting U.S. senators led to those legislators being dubbed the " Keating Five " .
When Lincoln failed in 1989 , it cost the federal government over $ 3 billion and about 23 @,@ 000 customers were left with worthless bonds . In the early 1990s , Keating was convicted in both federal and state courts of many counts of fraud , racketeering and conspiracy . He served four and a half years in prison before those convictions were overturned in 1996 . In 1999 , he pleaded guilty to a more limited set of wire fraud and bankruptcy fraud counts , and was sentenced to the time he had already served . Keating spent his final years in low @-@ profile real estate activities until his death in 2014 .
= = Early life and military service = =
Keating was born on December 4 , 1923 , in Cincinnati , Ohio , into a devout Roman Catholic family . He was the son of Adele ( Kipp ) and Charles Humphrey Keating . He grew up in the Avondale and Clifton neighborhoods of that city . His younger brother William was born in 1927 . Their father came from Kentucky and managed a dairy . Charles Keating , Sr. lost a leg in a hunting accident , and then fell into a long decline from Parkinson 's disease around 1931 , and was nursed by his wife until his death in 1964 .
Keating began swimming at a Catholic summer camp and became passionately involved in the sport . He attended St. Xavier High School , where he was a good student , was on the swim team all four years , and also ran track and played football . In swimming he led the team to three Greater Catholic League championships , set several school records , was named all @-@ state , and was captain of the team in his senior year . Keating graduated from St. Xavier in 1941 .
After one semester at the University of Cincinnati in fall 1941 , Keating left because of poor grades , although he advanced to the NCAA Men 's Swimming and Diving Championships in 1942 , finishing sixth in the 200 yard breaststroke . He enlisted in the United States Navy , where he would spend four years . He trained in the Naval Air Corps to become a carrier @-@ based night fighter pilot flying F6F Hellcats .
During World War II , Keating was stationed in the U.S. , sometimes at Banana Creek in Florida , and flew Hellcats to armed services swimming meets . He narrowly escaped serious injury one night at Naval Air Station Vero Beach when he neglected to lower the landing gear on his Hellcat and wrecked the plane in an unexpected belly landing . Due to additional training on new intercept methods and the vagaries of squadron transfers , the war ended before he could be deployed to any combat theater .
= = Education and swimming = =
Keating was ready to return to college after finishing his Navy service in 1945 . His abilities as a swimmer made him an attractive recruit , despite his having dropped out earlier . He cut a deal with the University of Cincinnati wherein it would accept for academic credit much of his Navy service , then he would take six months of liberal arts courses before entering its law school .
Keating won the 200 @-@ yard breaststroke at the Ohio Intercollegiate Conference championship in 1945 . On March 30 , 1946 , Keating competed in the 200 @-@ yard breaststroke at the NCAA Men 's Swimming and Diving Championships , before a packed house of 2 @,@ 500 spectators at Yale University 's Payne Whitney Gymnasium . In an exciting , back @-@ and @-@ forth contest with Paul Murray of Cornell University and future coaching legend James Counsilman of Ohio State University , he prevailed by a foot to win the championship with a time of 2 : 26 @.@ 2 . ( The event was later reclassified as the butterfly in NCAA records due to a definitional evolution involving the two strokes . )
This was the first ever national championship in any sport for the University of Cincinnati . He and teammate Roy Lagaly become the first @-@ ever Bearcats to be named All @-@ Americans . Keating was an imposing 6 feet 5 inches , a natural leader and co @-@ captain of the team with Lagaly . Of Keating , Lagaly said , " You could tell even then he was going to be very successful . He was very ambitious . Whatever he did , he did all the way . " Keating followed this by swimming for Cincinnati Gym , finishing second to future Olympic gold medalist Joseph Verdeur in the 220 @-@ yard breaststroke at the April 1946 national AAU championships .
Keating received his law degree from the University of Cincinnati College of Law in 1948 , and would later be named a member of the university 's Athletic Hall of Fame .
Charles Keating was a long @-@ time supporter of U.S. swimming and beginning in 1969 he and his brother William donated $ 600 @,@ 000 to St. Xavier High School in Cincinnati to build a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art competition pool . The school 's swimming team went on to win many state titles . St. Xavier named the Keating Natatorium after the brothers ' father , and inducted Charles Keating into its initial Athletic Hall of Fame class in 1985 . The University of Cincinnati 's 2006 athletic building is named the Keating Aquatic Center , in honor of William Keating , and donations from the Keating family used to construct it . Charles Keating funded Cincinnati 's Marlins swim club ; six swimmers on the 1980 Summer Olympics squad were from its roster , including future Olympic champion Mary T. Meagher . When he later moved to Phoenix , Charles Keating built the Phoenix Swim Club , where Olympians also trained .
= = Marriage and family = =
Keating married Mary Elaine Fette in 1949 . She was an athletically @-@ minded Catholic from an established Cincinnati family . They had six children : daughters Kathleen , Mary , Maureen , Elaine , and Elizabeth , and a son , Charles Keating III .
His daughter Mary married Gary Hall , Sr. , who would go on to swim in the 1968 , 1972 , and 1976 Summer Olympics , winning a medal in each one . Charles Keating III swam in the 1976 Summer Olympics , finishing fifth in the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke . Keating 's grandson Gary Hall Jr. competed in the 1996 , 2000 , and 2004 Summer Olympics as a swimmer and won ten medals overall .
Another Keating grandson , Petty Officer 1st Class Charlie Keating IV , a Navy SEAL , was killed at age 31 in combat with ISIS in Iraq in 2016 .
= = Early legal and business career = =
After law school graduation , Keating did spot legal work for the FBI , then joined a law firm doing corporate law . On the side , he entered the business world where his ventures involved selling life insurance , running a fruit stand , and working for Roto @-@ Rooter .
In 1952 , along with his brother , William , and a mutual friend from law school , he became a founding partner of the Cincinnati law firm Keating , Muething & Keating . Beginning in the late 1950s they took on Carl Lindner , Jr. as a client . Lindner was rapidly accumulating ice cream stores , supermarkets , real estate , and savings and loans , and soon essentially became Keating 's sole client . In 1956 , he filed requests for Q clearances on behalf of a small company of former Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory scientists with an office in Newtown , Ohio ; unknown to Keating , the FBI suspected the application was fraudulent and launched an investigation of him , but no charges were made . Keating was admitted to the U.S. Supreme Court bar in 1958 .
In 1960 , Lindner and Keating created American Financial Corporation , a holding company of Lindner 's disparate businesses that created further subsidiaries and financial instruments , all doing business with each other . Keating was named to the board of directors of the company in 1963 .
= = Anti @-@ pornography activism = =
In 1956 , Keating joined a priest leading a group of concerned Catholics in Cincinnati who were concerned about the dangers of pornography , and he began giving talks on the subject to parents and other groups . In 1958 , Keating testified before the House Judiciary Committee on mail @-@ order pornography , saying that it was " capable of poisoning any mind at any age and of perverting our entire younger generation " , and that it was closely tied to juvenile delinquency , while also quoting a Senate Committee report that " part of the Communist conspiracy was to print ( obscene materials ) " . Keating mentioned links between pornography and Communism at other times , but distanced himself from the more fervent anti @-@ Communist groups of the early 1960s . He stated that 90 percent of obscene materials were produced for profit , not ideological reasons , and told Congress in 1960 , " I had better say [ ... ] that I am not blaming obscenity in America on the Communists . "
Keating founded Citizens for Decent Literature ( CDL ) in 1958 ( later renamed a number of times , the best known of which is Citizens for Decency through Law ) , which advocated reading classics not " smut . " It would grow to 300 chapters and 100 @,@ 000 members nationwide and become the largest anti @-@ pornography organization in the nation . It absorbed some other groups , such as National Citizens for Decent Literature and the Pittsburgh National Better Magazines Council . The structure of CDL was initially decentralized , but Keating grew frustrated with some local chapters taking aggressive actions he did not approve of , and so he gave it a more controlled focus with a national magazine , film production , and a greater role in legal actions .
Over the next two decades , CDL mailed some 40 million letters on behalf of its position and filed a series of amicus curiae briefs before the U.S. Supreme Court . Keating gained the nickname " Mr. Clean " .
In 1964 – 65 , Keating produced Perversion for Profit , a film featuring announcer George Putnam . It was a survey of then @-@ available prurient and obscene materials , and asserted that pornography led to moral decay . It , along with two lesser @-@ known films produced or distributed by CDL , was screened frequently throughout the country and remained in print for a long time .
In 1969 , Keating 's national reputation on the issue led President Nixon to appoint him to the President 's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography , which had been begun under Nixon 's predecessor , Lyndon B. Johnson . The majority on the commission issued a report which concluded that pornography does not degrade the morals of adults or cause crime and recommended that all federal , state , and local laws preventing consenting adults from obtaining pornographic materials be repealed . Keating , Nixon 's only appointee on the 18 @-@ person commission , was the leading commission dissenter from the report .
In September 1970 , Keating was granted a temporary restraining order from the D.C. Federal District Court to delay publication of the report , stating that he needed access to all the report 's backing materials and time to write a dissent . Several days later , Keating was given the desired materials and two weeks to write his report by the committee .
Keating filed his dissent , saying , " At a time when the spread of pornography has reached epidemic proportions in our country and when the moral fiber of our nation seems to be rapidly unravelling , the desperate need is for enlightenment and intelligent control of the poisons which threaten us – not the declaration of moral bankruptcy inherent in the repeal of the laws which have been the defense of decent people against the pornographer for profit . " Keating wrote , " One can consult all the experts he chooses , can write reports , make studies , etc . , but the fact that obscenity corrupts lies within the common sense , the reason , and the logic of every man . "
The Nixon administration tacitly supported Keating 's legal efforts , and Counsellor to the President John Ehrlichman assigned White House speechwriter Pat Buchanan to help draft the dissenting report . The commission 's majority report was denounced by congressional leaders of both parties as well as by the administration .
The commission involvement earned Keating further national attention , which he used to push towards stringent behavior in Cincinnati . In 1969 , Keating obtained an injunction preventing the showing in Cincinnati of softcore sexploitation master Russ Meyer 's film Vixen ! , claiming it was obscene , and the film was seized by the police the first day it opened . Showing of the film was successfully stopped in other parts of Ohio as well , and Meyer spent $ 250 @,@ 000 in defense against Keating legal actions . Keating said Meyer had done more to undermine morals in the nation than anyone else ; Meyer responded that " I was glad to do it . " The Cincinnati Vixen ! case was appealed and in 1971 the Supreme Court of Ohio upheld the prohibition .
In 1970 , Keating tried to block a closed @-@ circuit showing of the musical Oh ! Calcutta ! in Cincinnati , saying that " it appeals to a prurient interest in sex . " During 1972 , a Keating legal action kept a sex film theater shut as a " public nuisance " . He tried to prevent newsstands near his office from selling Playboy and Oui magazines . He denounced the Ramada Inn chain for offering adult programming on cable television to guests . Other local actions involving shutting stores and removing books from public libraries were attributed by civil liberties advocates to the " oppressive " trend that Keating had set . Such was Keating and his organization 's effectiveness that when the U.S. Supreme Court handed down the 1973 Miller v. California decision establishing that obscenity definitions be based upon local community standards , every adult bookstore and movie house in Cincinnati was closed within hours .
Citizens for Decent Literature and Keating often warned about homosexuality as an example of what they saw as perverse behavior . The film Perversion for Profit had included a claim that homosexuals had a slogan saying that " today 's conquest is tomorrow 's competition " ; in a 1977 speech in Miami , Keating repeated this phrase , concluding from it that homosexuality represented an endless " seduction of the innocent " .
In 1975 , Oui magazine gave Keating the top spot on its " Enemies of pornography " list . Hamilton County prosecutor Simon L. Leis , Jr. put Ohio pornographer Larry Flynt on trial in 1976 for pandering obscenity and for engaging in a form of organized crime . Local public opinion ran against Flynt . Flynt was convicted on both counts and received the maximum sentence of 7 to 25 years in prison . While the conviction was later overturned on appeal , the verdict again established Cincinnati 's community standards in this regard , and even after Keating left for Arizona , his influence remained in Cincinnati being a center of anti @-@ pornography fervor . In the 1996 biopic , The People vs. Larry Flynt , which reportedly exaggerated Keating 's role in the prosecution and trial , Keating was portrayed by actor James Cromwell . Attempts to show Vixen ! in Cincinnati would continue , but by the late 1990s it was still illegal to do so .
= = American Financial Corporation = =
While officially an outside lawyer , Keating functioned as a public face for Carl Lindner and American Financial Corporation and the two were close associates on business as well as legal matters ; Lindner would sometimes refer to Keating as a " founder " of American Financial . The company had easy access to credit lines , which allowed it to continually grow . The web of transactions involving the company and its subsidiaries was large and complex , and one stock analyst stated in 1977 that he had " never come across a company that has so much strange paper on its books . "
Keating left his law practice in 1972 and formally joined American Financial Corporation , by now a $ 1 billion enterprise , as executive vice president . Keating became Lindner 's person in charge of firing employees from newly acquired companies . Within business circles Keating gained a reputation for aggressiveness and arrogance . He took on an operational involvement in The Cincinnati Enquirer , the town 's only morning newspaper . He interfered in editorial decisions , such as adding coverage to high school sports that he or Lindner 's sons were involved in . The paper was then sold to a group including his brother , William , who had been a Republican congressman from Ohio 's 1st congressional district in the early 1970s . Charles Keating was involved in American Financial 's 1974 sale of Bantam Books , and its decision that year not to enter the investment banking field .
In 1975 and 1976 , several stockholder lawsuits were filed against American Financial , and Keating was under fire for aspects involving unsecured loans , stock warrants , and the sale of the Enquirer . The Securities and Exchange Commission launched a major investigation of the company and charged Lindner , Keating and others with having defrauded investors and filing false SEC reports . At particular issue was a $ 14 million loan that the SEC said was made on preferential terms . Keating resigned from American Financial in August 1976 , with conflicting stories as to whether or not Keating and Lindner had remained close or whether they had fallen out .
= = American Continental Corporation = =
Keating moved to Phoenix , Arizona in 1976 to run the real estate firm American Continental Homes , a struggling , millions @-@ losing homebuilding spin @-@ off of American Financial that was given over to Keating for $ 300 @,@ 000 as part of his departure package . The move was completed when his family followed him in 1978 . In 1979 the SEC case with American Financial was settled , with Keating signing a consent agreement where he neither admitted nor denied guilt but agreed not to violate federal fraud and securities statutes . In practice , Keating was blamed for much of the irregular financial practices that had gone on and his reputation was significantly damaged .
Keating reaped benefits from the move to Arizona , a wide @-@ open territory in both a physical and business sense that allowed someone a fresh start . He turned the now @-@ renamed American Continental Corporation around , adding various operations and divisions in a structure somewhat reminiscent of American Financial . As chairman and controlling stockholder , Keating relied heavily upon family members , employing his son and four of his sons @-@ in @-@ law in prominent positions . Charles Keating III had a fast career rise within the company .
In 1979 , Keating served as head of fundraising in the Southwest for John Connally 's campaign for the 1980 Republican Party presidential nomination . Connally was a favorite of the business community , but his campaign had difficulty parlaying its fundraising successes into popular support . In early December 1979 , Keating was named campaign manager , with the existing manager being demoted to campaign strategist . Keating 's first action was as a " pruner " who immediately fired twenty workers at the campaign 's Virginia headquarters . The campaign continued to struggle , and , by late February 1980 , Keating was out as manager , with Connally taking the role . Connally 's campaign ended two weeks later , famously known for having spent $ 11 million and gaining only one delegate .
Having won the 1980 election , President Reagan contacted Keating about becoming U.S. Ambassador to the Bahamas , where Keating had spent considerable time . When Keating 's run @-@ in with the SEC resurfaced in press reports , however , he was dropped from consideration . This dismayed Keating , who subsequently said , " To keep people like me out of positions like that because of yellow journalism , I don 't know what good it does . "
By the early 1980s , American Continental 's profits were in the millions and it had become the biggest single @-@ family home builder in Phoenix and Denver . At its peak it would have $ 6 billion in assets , a large number of subsidiaries , 2 @,@ 500 employees , and a headquarters complex on Phoenix 's Camelback Road . It had three corporate jets and a helicopter . He was a very hard worker and a strong presence to his employees ; one later said , " It 's almost magnetic . When he moves , things happen . The office would come alive when he walked in . " He inspired both camaraderie and fervent loyalty in them . While he demanded long hours , he often rewarded employees monetarily and with gifts . Businesspeople outside his company often found Keating arrogant and difficult to deal with . Congressman William Keating , who was well @-@ liked , said of his brother : " Charlie is impatient , aggressive , always on the move . He has clearly defined goals . I don 't think he worries about the popularity of his positions . " A Fortune profile in 1977 reported , " It seems almost impossible to find anyone who actually likes Charlie Keating . " The story rankled Keating , who later had over five thousand large yellow " I Like Charlie Keating " buttons made up which he handed out to employees and visitors . Keating said , " There are a lot of people that would say nasty things , I 'm sure , about me , but it ain 't true that nobody ever liked Charlie Keating . "
A devout Catholic , Keating became a heavy donor to charity when he moved to Phoenix , donating $ 100 @,@ 000 to the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul , more than $ 1 million to Covenant House , and another more than $ 1 million to Mother Teresa 's operations , including lending her his helicopter when she was in Arizona so that she could visit remote Indian reservations in the state . Covenant House 's Father Bruce Ritter said of Keating , " He makes you believe in Providence . " In 1983 , Keating and his companies made legal but unusually large campaign donations in races for the Phoenix City Council , who were responsible for approving his building projects including water usage for residential developments built around artificial ponds . The scale of donations represented a change from past practice in local Phoenix politics ; some council figures opposed the trend , while others readily asked for the funds .
= = Lincoln Savings and the Keating Five = =
In 1984 , American Continental Corporation bought Lincoln Savings and Loan Association for just over $ 50 million . Up through the early 1980s , Lincoln had been a conservatively @-@ run enterprise , with almost half its assets in home loans and only a quarter of its assets considered at risk . It made slow growth at best , and had shown a loss for several years until it made a profit of a few million dollars in 1983 . Once he took over , Keating fired the existing management . Savings and loan associations had been deregulated in the early 1980s , allowing them to make high @-@ risk investments with their depositors ' money , a change of which Keating and other savings and loan operators took advantage . When Keating later was asked why he got into savings and loans , he said , " I know the business inside out , and I always felt that an S & L , if they 'd relax the rules , was the biggest moneymaker in the world . "
Over the next four years Lincoln 's assets increased from $ 1 @.@ 1 billion to $ 5 @.@ 5 billion . Lincoln 's particular investments took the form of buying land , taking equity positions in real estate development projects , and buying high @-@ yield junk bonds . A sales document from this period urges staff to , " always remember the weak , meek and ignorant are always good targets . "
Beginning in 1985 the Federal Home Loan Bank Board ( FHLBB ) feared that the savings industry 's risky investment practices were exposing the government 's insurance funds to huge losses . It instituted a rule whereby savings associations could hold no more than 10 percent of their assets in " direct investments " , and were thus prohibited from taking ownership positions in certain financial entities and instruments . Lincoln had become burdened with bad debt resulting from its past aggressiveness , and by early 1986 its investment practices were being investigated and audited by the San Francisco office of the FHLBB : in particular whether it had violated these direct investment rules ; Lincoln had directed accounts insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation into commercial real estate ventures . By the end of 1986 , that office of the FHLBB had found that Lincoln had $ 135 million in unreported losses and had surpassed the regulated direct investments limit by $ 600 million .
Keating believed that the regulators were against him because he opposed their rules . He also told his staff that some of the San Francisco regulators were likely " homos " who were " out to get him " for his strong moral views . Keating took measures to oppose the FHLBB , including recruiting a study from then @-@ private economist Alan Greenspan saying that direct investments were not harmful , trying to hire FHLBB members or their wives , and getting President Ronald Reagan to make a recess appointment of a Keating ally , real estate developer Lee H. Henkel Jr . , to the FHLBB . By March 1987 , however , the ally had resigned upon news of his having large loans due to Lincoln . It appeared as though the government might seize Lincoln for being insolvent .
Starting in January 1987 , Keating looked for help from what would become known as " the Keating Five " : U.S. Senators Alan Cranston ( D @-@ CA ) , Dennis DeConcini ( D @-@ AZ ) , John Glenn ( D @-@ OH ) , John McCain ( R @-@ AZ ) and Donald W. Riegle ( D @-@ MI ) . Keating had , or would soon make , legal political contributions of about $ 1 @.@ 3 million to the senators , and he called on them to help him resist the regulators . Keating became a personal friend of McCain following their initial contacts in 1981 , and McCain was the only one of the five with close social and personal ties to Keating . McCain and his family had made several trips at Keating 's expense , sometimes aboard American Continental 's jet , for vacations at Keating 's opulent Bahamas retreat at Cat Cay .
Keating asked that Lincoln be given a lenient judgment by the FHLBB , so it could limit its high risk investments and get into the relatively safe home mortgage business , allowing the business to survive . A letter from audit firm Arthur Young & Co. bolstered Keating 's case that the government investigation was taking a long time . McCain initially refused to meet with Keating over the FHLBB matter and Keating called McCain a " wimp " behind his back . The two had a heated , contentious meeting in which McCain said he had not spent years in North Vietnamese prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps to have his courage or integrity questioned ; the friendship ended and they would not speak again . In April 1987 , the group of senators met twice with FHLBB members who were investigating American Continental Corporation and Lincoln , in an attempt to end the investigation . Meanwhile , Keating filed a lawsuit against the FHLBB , saying it had leaked confidential information about Lincoln . The outgoing head of the FHLBB in Washington deferred judgment and the new head was more sympathetic to Keating . In May 1988 , the FHLBB agreed to an unprecedented memorandum of understanding giving Lincoln a clean slate and forgiveness for any violations up to that point . ( In 1991 , the senators would be rebuked to various degrees by the Senate Ethics Committee , with Cranston receiving the harshest verdict and Glenn and McCain the least . McCain later testified against Keating in a civil lawsuit brought by Lincoln bondholders , while the other four refused to testify . )
= = Failure of Lincoln and American Continental = =
Lincoln stayed in business ; from mid @-@ 1987 to April 1989 , its assets grew from $ 3 @.@ 91 billion to $ 5 @.@ 46 billion . Following Keating 's past practices with Lindner , American Continental amassed a large collection of confusingly connected subsidiaries in real estate , banking , and insurance businesses ; these numbered at least 54 , and there were some overseas ones that auditors were not aware of . Keating was triumphant in having defeated the regulators , whom he despised as useless relics from an outmoded financial past , and defended his high salary and business practices . He spent about $ 500 @,@ 000 on radio advertisements in the Phoenix area to improve his public image ; the commercials stressed his real estate projects and his family @-@ oriented values . A 1988 Los Angeles Times profile assessed Keating as " a businessman without apparent peer in Arizona in terms of riches , clout and color . " While Keating had taken Citizens for Decency through Law with him , he had generally de @-@ emphasized his anti @-@ pornography work when he moved to Arizona . Nevertheless , X @-@ rated movies and Playboy magazine were banned from his hotels .
In October 1988 , Keating opened his most extravagant real estate project ever , the 250 acres ( 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) , 600 @-@ room The Phoenician resort at the base of Camelback Mountain . Its construction cost $ 300 million , included many opulent , imported features , and saw a number of instances of Keating or his decorator wife making wholesale late design changes at great expense . His other grand project was Estrella , a 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 km2 ) mixed @-@ use development outside of Phoenix in Goodyear , Arizona in the direction of the Sierra Estrella . Incorporating homes , offices , industrial buildings , schools , shopping , a resort and a hospital , it was intended to eventually house 200 @,@ 000 people and become a model 21st century city . American Continental wrote rules saying that Estrella homeowners could not " intentionally terminat [ e ] a human pregnancy " or possess " adult material " , but removed them once Keating was informed that such covenants were unconstitutional . A late 1980s downturn in the Sun Belt real estate market put Estrella in jeopardy before much building could be done .
Asked in an interview if he ever worried about going broke , Keating responded , " All the time , every day . I come into the office with this hollow feeling in my stomach lots of time .... You get trapped almost . You get too many responsibilities . It 's a bellyfull to carry . It 's risky . Dangerous . There 's the possibility of failure with it every day and every night . But in a way , it 's a challenge . It 's invigorating . There isn 't any point in not being a player – you 're here .... It 's not only the money . It 's the disgrace , yourself , your manhood . I 'm not sure I 'd have a big problem with that . On the other hand I 'm not sure I wouldn 't . "
As Lincoln grew , money was siphoned from Lincoln to the parent American Continental Corporation under a variety of schemes , and American Continental spent lavishly on speculative investments and personal expenses . A new regulatory investigation began in July 1988 . After Arthur Young indicated doubts about some accounting practices , Keating fired them in September 1988 and switched to Touche Ross . American Continental was desperate for cash inflow to make up for losses in real estate purchases and projects . Lincoln 's branch managers and tellers convinced customers to replace their federally @-@ insured certificates of deposit with higher @-@ yielding bond certificates of American Continental ; the customers later said they were never properly informed that the bonds were uninsured and very risky given the state of American Continental 's finances . The regulators had already adjudged the bonds to have no solvent backing . Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation chair L. William Seidman would later write that Lincoln 's push to get depositors to switch was " one of the most heartless and cruel frauds in modern memory . " In late 1988 , Keating began desperate attempts to sell Lincoln ; regulators rejected one $ 50 million potential sale due to the buyers not meeting federal requirements .
A December 1988 audit by the FHLBB found Lincoln in violation of many regulations and in danger of default . The following month they ordered Keating to stop transferring cash from Lincoln to American Continental , which imperiled the latter 's survival strategy and caused its stock price to nosedive . Keating tried to arrange junk bond deals with Michael Milken and place bets in the global currency markets to generate cash , but the moves failed and he lost $ 11 million in one month alone . Keating got Senators DeConcini and Cranston to pressure the regulators to let a sale go through , but this time the lawmakers were ignored .
American Continental went bankrupt in April 1989 , and Lincoln was seized by the FHLBB . About 23 @,@ 000 customers were left with worthless bonds . Many investors , often ones living in California retirement communities , lost their life savings , and later claimed to have suffered emotional trauma for having been duped on top of their financial devastation . The total bondholder loss came to between $ 250 million and $ 288 million .
The federal government was eventually liable for $ 3 @.@ 4 billion to cover Lincoln 's losses when it seized the institution . In talking to reporters in April 1989 , Keating maintained that he was the victim of a federal government that had spent years trying to destroy him , and then said , " One question , among many raised in recent weeks , had to do with whether my financial support in any way influenced several political figures to take up my cause . I want to say in the most forceful way I can : I certainly hope so . "
In September 1989 , Keating was hit with a $ 1 @.@ 1 billion fraud and racketeering action , filed against him by the regulators . He proclaimed that , " We 've lost everything in this thing , my wife and I. It 's devastating . " In November 1989 , Keating was subpoenaed to testify before the House Banking Committee , but refused to answer questions , invoking his right against self @-@ incrimination under the Fifth Amendment . Also in November , his Phoenician Resort was seized by the FBI ; under their operation it became known as " Club Fed " before later being sold to a Kuwaiti group . The vastly ambitious Estrella project would remain deserted and was sold in 1993 to an investment group .
By November 1989 , the estimated cost of the overall savings and loan crisis had reached $ 500 billion , and the media 's coverage often highlighted Keating 's role as part of what became a feeding frenzy . Keating and Lincoln Savings became convenient symbols for arguments about what had gone wrong in America 's financial system and society , as well as for 1980s greed in general , and were featured in popular culture references . A deck of playing cards would be marketed , called " The Savings and Loan Scandal " , that featured on their face Charles Keating holding up his hand , with images of the Keating Five senators portrayed as puppets on his fingers .
= = Legal consequences = =
Keating blamed government regulators for the failure of Lincoln Savings and sued for control over the bank . The suit was dismissed in August 1990 , with the judge calling the seizure fully justified . , Keating 's legal fees were running at $ 1 million per month .
In September 1990 , Keating and his associates were indicted by the State of California on 42 counts related to having duped Lincoln 's customers into buying worthless junk bonds of American Continental Corporation . Keating went to jail when he could not post a $ 5 million bond . He was convicted in December 1991 of 17 counts of fraud , racketeering , and conspiracy . Mother Teresa asked the court to show leniency to Keating , in recognition of the considerable sums he had donated to her charitable operations . In April 1992 , California Superior Court Judge Lance Ito gave Keating the maximum 10 @-@ year prison sentence , quoting Woody Guthrie , to wit " More people have suffered from the point of a fountain pen than from a gun . " Keating was sent to the medium @-@ security Federal Correctional Institution , Tucson to serve his time .
In May 1992 , Keating 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Robert M. Wurzelbacher Jr . , a senior vice president of American Continental , and chief executive of an investment firm owned by Lincoln Savings , was also implicated , pleaded guilty to three federal fraud counts in connection with the collapse of the Lincoln Savings and Loan Association and agreed to testify against Keating . ( In December 1993 , Wurzelbacher was sentenced to a 40 @-@ month prison term . )
In January 1993 , a federal conviction followed , on 73 counts of fraud , racketeering and conspiracy . In July 1993 , Keating was given a 12 ½ year sentence . The judge ordered Keating to pay restitution of $ 122 million to the government , but Keating said he was $ 10 million in debt and had no assets to sell .
One case filed by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission was settled in 1994 : Keating said he was bankrupt but agreed to repay millions should any hidden assets be discovered . A third case filed by the Resolution Trust Corporation resulted in a summary judgment of $ 4 @.@ 3 billion against Keating and his wife in 1994 , the largest judgment ever against a private person . The judgment was overturned on appeal in 1999 , on grounds that Keating could not be held personally liable to the government without a specific criminal conviction or some other decision at trial . Throughout his incarceration , Keating maintained his innocence , saying he was a " political prisoner " of the U.S. government and a scapegoat for the largest banking scandal in the nation 's history .
In April 1996 , the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco ruled that state trial judge Ito had given the jury faulty instructions about the law regarding fraud . The conviction was overturned . In December 1996 , the same Court of Appeals ruled that some of the jurors in the federal case might have been influenced by their knowledge and discussion of the results of the state case , and threw out the federal conviction . Keating was freed after 4 ½ years in prison ; he later said that staying tough during his incarceration was the thing he was proudest of . He was said to have gotten along well with other prisoners and served as best man at weddings for some that he met there .
In April 1999 , on the eve of the retrial of the federal case , Keating entered a plea agreement . He admitted to having committed four counts of wire and bankruptcy fraud by extracting nearly $ 1 million from American Continental Corp. while already anticipating the collapse that happened weeks later . The federal prosecutors dropped all other charges against him and his son , Charles Keating III . He was sentenced to time served .
In October 2000 , the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear the government 's appeal of the overturning of the state conviction . This left Keating without any convictions other than that from his plea bargain . State prosecutors declined to move for a retrial , saying it would bring no more than a six @-@ month jail sentence and that many witnesses had died in the interim or were in bad health . Keating replied that if the government had left him alone , investors " would all be rich . "
= = Final years and death = =
Following his release from prison , Keating separated from his wife Mary . He moved in with his daughter Mary and son @-@ in @-@ law Gary Hall , Sr. in the Paradise Valley neighborhood of Phoenix .
During the 2000s , Keating worked as a business consultant and as of 2008 was involved in some successful real estate developments in the Phoenix market . He kept a low profile in his business operations , and declined comment during John McCain 's 2008 presidential campaign when the Keating Five scandal was brought up again by the press . During his final years , Keating maintained good physical shape through swimming and walking and was able to go out in public without being recognized .
Charles Keating died in a Phoenix hospital on March 31 , 2014 , at the age of 90 , after an undisclosed illness for several weeks .
= = Legacy = =
The Chicago Tribune 's lengthy profile of Keating in 1990 said in summary :
To say that Charles Keating is a complex man seems a gross understatement . Some see him as an aggressive man who got desperate when the real estate market bottomed out and crossed the line between " business as usual " and fraud . Others see him as a con artist who finally got caught , a hyprocrite who masked his greed with phony piety .
Michael Binstein and Charles Bowden 's 1993 book , Trust Me : Charles Keating and the Missing Billions , also presents Keating as a complex individual with contradictory tendencies , and concludes :
Charlie Keating built things , and , at some level that haunts anyone who looks over his records , he thought his schemes would work . He did not simply rob a bank . He broke a bank with his dreams . If he is simply a thief , why did he put the money into deals and projects instead of into his own pocket ? If he is just a hardworking businessman simply trying to make a profit and create jobs , why the need for jets , fancy meals , big paychecks to his family ? If he is such a devout communicant of his faith , why did he peddle hundreds of millions of dollars ' worth of junk bonds to old people when he knew his empire was in serious jeopardy ?
Keating steadfastly maintained that it was not his mistakes or criminal deeds but regulators ' actions that were responsible for the major losses . A 2004 Milken Institute study also made the claim that regulators ' actions were responsible for the Lincoln failure and presents Keating 's actions in a favorable light . The Milken institute was founded by Michael Milken , the " junk bond " king also convicted on felony charges , for violating U.S. securities laws .
Some of Keating 's 1980s judgment as a developer was later vindicated . The Phoenician became a successful hotel in the luxury segment , and the Estrella project achieved at least some of Keating 's vision and was acquired again in 2005 .
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= Latin American Boom =
The Latin American Boom was a flourishing of literature , poetry and criticism in Latin America during the 1960s and 1970s , when writers from this region explored new ideas and came to international renown in a way that had not happened previously . Major figures of the boom include Julio Cortázar , Gabriel García Márquez , Carlos Fuentes , Jorge Luis Borges and Mario Vargas Llosa .
= = Background = =
The 1960s and 1970s were decades of political turmoil all over Latin America , in a political and diplomatic climate strongly influenced by the dynamics of the Cold War . This climate formed the background for the work of the writers of the Latin American Boom , and defined the context in which their sometimes radical ideas had to operate . The Cuban Revolution in 1959 and the subsequent USA attempt to thwart it through the Bay of Pigs Invasion can be seen as the start of this period . Cuba 's vulnerability led it to closer ties with the USSR , resulting in the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 when the US and USSR came dangerously close to nuclear war . Throughout the 1960s and 1970s military authoritarian regimes ruled in Argentina , Brazil , Chile , Paraguay , Peru and many others . For example , on September 11 , 1973 the democratically elected President Salvador Allende was overthrown in Chile and replaced by General Augusto Pinochet who would go on to rule until the end of the 1980s . Chile under Pinochet became " infamous for [ ... ] human rights abuses and torture techniques " , and in Argentina the 1970s brought the Dirty War , notorious for its human rights violations and the disappearances of Argentine citizens . Many of these governments ( which were supported by the US ) cooperated with each other in terms of torturing or eliminating political opponents and " disposing of their bodies " in " the so @-@ called Operation Condor . "
The period between 1950 and 1975 saw major changes in the way in which history and literature were approached in terms of interpretation and writing . It also produced a change in the self perception of Spanish American novelists . The development of the cities , the coming of age of a large middle class , the Cuban Revolution , the Alliance for Progress , an increase in communication between the countries of Latin America , the greater importance of the mass media , and a greater attention to Latin America from Europe and the United States all contributed to this change . The most important political events of the period were the Cuban Revolution in 1959 and the Chilean coup d 'état in 1973 . The fall of General Perón in Argentina , the protracted violent struggle of the urban guerrillas , brutally repressed in Argentina and Uruguay , and the unending violence in Colombia also affected writers , as they generated explanations , or testimonies , or provided a troubling background for their work .
The greater attention paid to Spanish American novelists and their international success in the 1960s , a phenomenon that was called the Boom , affected all writers and readers in that period . What mainly brought writers together and focused the attention of the world on Hispanic America was the triumph of the Cuban Revolution in 1959 , which promised a new age . The period of euphoria can be considered closed when in 1971 the Cuban government hardened its party line and the poet Heberto Padilla was forced to reject in a public document his so @-@ called decadent and deviant views . The furor over Padilla 's case brought to an end the affinity between Spanish American intellectuals and the Cuban inspirational myth . The Padilla affair is thought by some to have signalled the beginning of the end of the Boom . However , in a significant sense , the Boom has not ended ; the writers associated with the Boom have continued to publish books that have been read by audiences far larger than those enjoyed by Latin American writers prior to the Boom . The books of such writers as Carlos Fuentes and Mario Vargas Llosa are widely distributed and translated into other major European and Asian languages to a much greater extent than those of such significant pre @-@ Boom writers as José María Arguedas , Eduardo Mallea or Manuel Rojas .
= = Literary influences = =
The rise of Latin American literature began with the writings of Jose Martí , Ruben Darío and José Asunción Silva 's modernist departures from the European literary canon . European modernist writers like James Joyce have also influenced the writers of the Boom , as have the Latin American writers of the Vanguardia movement . Elizabeth Coonrod Martinez argues that the writers of the Vanguardia were the " true precursors " to the Boom , writing innovative and challenging novels before Borges and others conventionally thought to be the main Latin American inspirations for the mid @-@ 20th century movement .
In 1950 , Spanish American novelists were tolerated but marginal in the literary landscape , with Paris and New York representing the center of the literary world ; by 1975 they were celebrated as central figures . As well as being a publishing phenomenon , the Boom introduced a series of novel aesthetic and stylistic features to world literature . In general — and considering there are many countries and hundreds of important authors — at the start of the period , Realism prevails , with novels tinged by an existentialist pessimism , with well @-@ rounded characters lamenting their destinies , and a straightforward narrative line . In the 1960s , language loosens up , gets hip , pop , streetwise , characters are much more complex , and the chronology becomes intricate , making of the reader an active participant in the deciphering of the text . Late in the period the political adventure goes sour , while the linguistic sophistication reaches a new height , and novelists turn more to a reflection on their own writing , a fiction on fiction or metafiction , while characters and story lines show the corrosive power of a postmodern society , where all is equally available and insignificant .
With the success of the Boom , the work of a previous generation of writers gained access to a new and expanded public . These precursors include Jorge Luis Borges , Miguel Ángel Asturias , Arturo Uslar Pietri and Alejo Carpentier , Juan Carlos Onetti , and Juan Rulfo .
= = Origins = =
While most critics agree that the Boom started some time in the 1960s , there is some disagreement as to which work should be considered the first Boom novel . Some ( such as Alfred McAdam ) would start with Julio Cortázar 's Hopscotch ( Rayuela in Spanish ) from 1963 while others prefer Vargas Llosa 's The Time of the Hero ( La ciudad y los perros in Spanish ) which won the Biblioteca Breve Award in 1962 . Fernando Alegria considers Augusto Roa Bastos ' Hijo de hombre the inaugural work of the Boom even though , as Shaw notes , " it was published in 1959 . " One could , however , even go as far back as Miguel Ángel Asturias 's 1949 novel Men of Maize .
Another variation is articulated by Randolph D. Pope : " The story of the Boom could start chronologically with Miguel Ángel Asturias 's El Señor Presidente ( published in 1946 , but started in 1922 ) . Other starting points could be Ernesto Sabato 's " El túnel " ( 1948 ) or Onetti 's " El pozo " ( 1939 ) , or even the vanguardist movements of the 1920s . However , the writers of the Boom declared themselves orphaned and without any autochthonous model , caught between their admiration for Proust , Joyce , Mann , Sartre and other European writers and their need to have a Spanish American voice , even if they rejected the most respected Spanish American writers Indigenistas , Criollistas , and Mundonovistas . "
The major representatives of the Boom claimed that they were an " orphan " literary generation , without a " Latin American " father " of influence ; however , they owe much of their stylistic innovation to the Vanguardists . Jean Franco writes that the Boom marks " a refusal to be identified with the rural or with anachronistic narratives such as the novela de la tierra . "
= = Hallmarks = =
The Boom novels are essentially modernist novels . They treat time as nonlinear , often use more than one perspective or narrative voice and feature a great number of neologisms ( the coining of new words or phrases ) , puns and even profanities . As Pope writes , in reference to the style of the Boom : " It relied on a Cubist superposition of different points of view , it made time and lineal progress questionable , and it was technically complex . Linguistically self assured , it used the vernacular without apologies . " Other notable characteristics of the Boom include the treatment of both " rural and urban settings " , internationalism , an emphasis on both the historical and the political , as well as " questioning of regional as well as , or more than , national identity ; awareness of hemisphereic as well as worldwide economic and ideological issues ; polemicism ; and timeliness . " Boom literature breaks down the barriers between the fantastical and the mundane , transforming this mixture into a new reality . Of the Boom writers , Gabriel García Márquez is most closely associated with the use of magical realism ; indeed , he is credited with bringing it " into vogue " after the publishing of One Hundred Years of Solitude in 1967 .
= = = Magical realism = = =
In The Ends of Literature , Brett Levinson writes that magical realism , " a key aesthetic mode within recent Latin American fiction ... materializes when Latin American history reveals itself as incapable of accounting for its own origin , an incapacity which traditionally ... represents a demand for a myth : mythos as a means to explain the beginnings which escape history 's narrative . " The writings of the Chroniclers of the Indies depicted the exotic " new world " and their accounts of conquering strange new lands became accepted as history . These often fantastical stories helped to bring about a new aesthetic , which morphed into magical realism and " ( as conceived by Alejo Carpentier ) marvelous realism or lo real maravilloso . According to this aesthetic , unreal things are treated as if realistic and mundane , and mundane things as if unreal . Plots , while often based on real experiences , incorporate strange , fantastic , and legendary elements , mythical peoples , speculative settings , and characters who , while plausible , could also be unreal , and combine the true , the imaginary , and the nonexistent in such a way that they are difficult to separate . "
= = = Historical fiction = = =
An interest in history is another characteristic of the novels of the Boom period . The epitome of this is the dictator novel where historical figures and events were portrayed in a way that connections between them and contemporary events in Latin America could not be doubted . An example is Roa Bastos 's I , the Supreme , which depicts the 19th century Paraguayan dictatorship of José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia but was published at the height of Alfredo Stroessner 's regime . Nunn writes that " novelists of the Boom themselves evinced a sophisticated grasp of their genre 's ability to depict parallel and alternative history . And they actively participated in the cultural and political debates of the region that questioned the very meaning and worth of history . "
= = Major representatives = =
Who is and who is not to be included in the Boom has been widely debated and never settled . On the other hand , a few writers exerted wide and undisputed influence . While the names of many other writers may be added to the list , the following may not be omitted :
= = = Julio Cortázar = = =
Julio Cortázar was born in Belgium in 1914 to Argentinian parents with whom he lived in Switzerland until moving to Buenos Aires at the age of four . Like other Boom writers , Cortázar grew to question the politics in his country : his public opposition to Juan Domingo Perón caused him to leave his professorial position at the University of Mendoza and , ultimately , led to his exile . He moved to France , where he spent most of his professional life and , in 1981 , he became a French citizen . Like García Márquez , Cortázar publicly supported the Cuban government of Fidel Castro , as well as leftist Chilean President Salvador Allende and other left @-@ wing movements like the Sandinistas in Nicaragua . In his fiction , however , political elements were generally muted or absent until the publication of the explicitly political novel Libro de Manuel in 1973 .
Cortázar was influenced by Borges , as well as by Edgar Allan Poe . He was perhaps the most radically experimental of all the Boom authors . His most important work , and the one that propelled him to international recognition , is the highly experimental novel Hopscotch ( 1963 ) . This consists of 155 chapters , 99 of which are " expendable " , which can be read in multiple orders according to the reader 's predilection .
His other works include the short story collections Bestiario ( 1951 ) , Final del juego ( 1956 ) , Las armas secretas ( 1959 ) , Todos los fuegos el fuego ( 1966 ) . He also wrote novels such as Los premios ( 1960 ) and Around the Day in Eighty Worlds ( 1967 ) , and the unclassifiable Historias de cronopios y de famas ( 1962 ) . Cortázar died in Paris , France in 1984 .
= = = Carlos Fuentes = = =
Carlos Fuentes was born on November 11 , 1928 and began to publish in the 1950s . He was the son of a Mexican diplomat and lived in cities such as Buenos Aires , Quito , Montevideo and Rio de Janeiro , as well as Washington , D. C .. His experiences with anti @-@ Mexican discrimination in the United States led him to examine Mexican culture more closely . His 1962 novel The Death of Artemio Cruz ( La muerte de Artemio Cruz in Spanish ) , which employs innovative changes in narrative point @-@ of @-@ view , describes the life of a former Mexican revolutionary on his deathbed . Other important works include Where the Air Is Clear ( 1959 ) , Aura ( 1962 ) , Terra Nostra ( 1975 ) , and the post @-@ Boom novella The Old Gringo ( 1985 ) .
Fuentes not only wrote some of the most important novels of the period , but was also a critic and publicist of Spanish America . In 1955 Fuentes and Emmanuel Carballo founded the journal Revista Mexicana de Literatura which introduced Latin Americans to the works of European Modernists and the ideas of Jean @-@ Paul Sartre and Albert Camus . In 1969 he published the important critical work , La nueva novela hispanoamericana . Fuentes held the position of professor of Latin American literature at Columbia University ( 1978 ) and at Harvard ( 1987 ) and more recently was associated with Brown University . He once said that " the so @-@ called Boom , in reality , is the result of four centuries that , literarily , reached a moment of urgency in which fiction became the way to organize lessons from the past . " Fuentes died on May 15 , 2012 .
= = = Gabriel García Márquez = = =
Gabriel García Márquez is undoubtedly the most internationally renowned of the Boom writers . He started out as a journalist and has written many acclaimed non @-@ fiction and short stories ; his earliest published writings were short stories which appeared in Bogotá 's El Espectador newspaper in the 1940s .
He is best known for novels such as One Hundred Years of Solitude ( 1967 ) and The Autumn of the Patriarch ( 1975 ) , No One Writes to the Colonel ( 1962 ) , and post @-@ Boom work such as Love in the Time of Cholera ( 1985 ) . He has achieved significant critical acclaim and widespread commercial success , most notably for introducing what has been labeled magical realism to the literary world . He experimented with more or less traditional approaches to reality , so that " the most frightful , the most unusual things are told with the deadpan expression " . A commonly cited example is the physical and spiritual ascending into heaven of a character while she is hanging the laundry out to dry in One Hundred Years of Solitude . García Márquez is now considered one of the most significant authors of the 20th century , as is attested by his winning the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature . García Márquez died on April 17 , 2014 .
= = = Mario Vargas Llosa = = =
Mario Vargas Llosa is a Peruvian novelist , short story writer , playwright , journalist and literary and political critic . He attended Lima 's University of San Marcos and subsequently attained a doctorate in Latin American literature in Spain . In fact , his thesis was on Gabriel García Márquez . He shot to fame with his novel The Time of the Hero ( 1963 ) , a scathing indictment of cruelty and corruption in a Peruvian military academy ( and , by implication , in Peruvian society ) .
Vargas Llosa also wrote The Green House ( 1966 ) , the epic Conversation in the Cathedral ( 1969 ) , Captain Pantoja and the Special Service ( 1973 ) , and post @-@ Boom novels such as Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter ( 1977 ) . Vargas Llosa returned to Lima in 2000 , following the resignation of President Fujimori who won the 1990 Peruvian election , beating Vargas Llosa . The Swedish Academy awarded him the 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature . He is the most important living representative of the boom .
= = Other figures = =
Several other writers have been associated with the Boom . Juan Rulfo , the author of two books , only one of them a novel , was the acknowledged master incorporated a posteriori ; a writer who balances social concern , verbal experimentation and unique style . Augusto Roa Bastos of Paraguay wrote Hijo de hombre , considered by some to be the first novel of the Boom . His highly experimental I , the Supreme has been compared to Joyce 's Ulysses and is " one of the most highly regarded works of fictional history to ever come out of South America . " Manuel Puig , an Argentine , is a central figure , along with Vargas Llosa , of the Seix @-@ Barral publishing world . The Cuban novelist José Lezama Lima , though not widely known in the English @-@ language publishing world , can also be regarded as a major figure on the basis of his major novel , Paradiso ( 1966 ) . José Donoso is a Chilean writer of both the Boom and the post @-@ Boom . In his book , Historia Personal del " Boom " , Donoso also mentions other writers associated with the movement . Examples are Jorge Amado ( although he began writing novels back in the 1930s ) of Brazil , Salvador Garmendia and Adriano González León of Venezuela , Gastón Suárez and Marcelo Quiroga Santa Cruz of Bolivia and David Viñas of Argentina , among many others .
= = Publishing Latin American Boom novelists = =
Publishing played a crucial role in the advent of the Boom . Major publishing houses based in Havana , Mexico City , Buenos Aires , Montevideo , Asunción or Santiago were responsible for publishing most of the Boom novels , and these cities became strong centers of cultural innovation .
Santiago in Chile , is presided over by the criticism of Alone , while the older generation of Benjamín Subercaseaux , Eduardo Barrios , Marta Brunet , and Manuel Rojas were quietly superseded by José Donoso . Other writers , such as Enrique Lafourcade , have a large national readership .
Cuba is a lively cultural center , first with the group of Orígenes , and then with Lunes de Revolución .
In Colombia the rural novels of Eduardo Caballero Calderón were displaced by García Márquez who was followed by Alvarez Gardeazábal .
Mexico continues a tradition of strong regional writers and diverse schools of writing , from Yáñez to Sainz , with novelists such as Luis Spota or Sergio Fernández , the first a popular , the other a refined , writer , both better known in Mexico than abroad .
It should be noted , however , that this period saw the publishing of Boom novels in Barcelona , reflecting the new interest of Spanish publishing houses in the Spanish American market . However , as Alejandro Herrero @-@ Olaizola notes , the revenue generated by the publishing of these novels gave a boost to the Spanish economy , even as the works were subjected to Franco 's censors . Some of the Seix Barral @-@ published novels include Mario Vargas Llosa 's The Time of the Hero ( 1963 ) and his Captain Pantoja and the Special Service ( 1973 ) , and Manuel Puig 's Betrayed by Rita Hayworth ( 1971 ) . A crucial figure " in the promotion of Latin American literature in Spain " , ( and elsewhere ) was the " super @-@ agent " Carmen Balcells , whom Vargas Llosa referred to as " The Big Mama of the Latin American novel . "
= = Critique = =
A common criticism of the Boom is that it is too experimental and has a " tendency toward elitism . " In his study of the Post @-@ Boom Donald L. Shaw writes that Mario Benedetti was very critical of Boom writers like García Márquez who , in Benedetti 's view , " represent a privileged class that had access to universal culture and were thus utterly unrepresentative of average people in Latin America . " In his article on Donoso 's break from the Boom Philip Swanson articulates another critique of the " new novel " ( i.e. Boom novel ) : " Though [ it ] was essentially a reaction against a perceived staleness in conventional realism , many of the formal experiments and innovations of modern fiction have themselves become standardized features of modern writing , leading to another form of traditionalism where one set of stereotypes has been replaced with another . " Also often criticized is the Boom 's emphasis on masculinity , both in the fact that all of the movement 's representatives were male and the treatment of female characters within the novels . The Boom fiction 's emphasis on history and the fantastic has also been the subject of criticism as it was claimed that it is too removed from the realities of Latin American political situations that it criticized .
= = Impact = =
The Boom had an immediate impact as it changed the way Latin American culture was viewed around the world . The commercial success of the Boom writers had the effect of elevating them almost to rock star status in Latin America . Of course , translation played a major role in the success of the Boom writers because it gave them a much larger audience . These authors continued to produce best @-@ sellers for four decades . In addition , the Boom opened the door for new Latin American writers in terms of the international scene . A testimony to the Boom 's global impact is the fact that " up @-@ and @-@ coming international writers " look upon the likes of Fuentes , García Márquez or Vargas Llosa as their mentors .
= = = Post @-@ Boom = = =
Since the 1980s it has become common to speak of Post @-@ Boom writers , most of whom were born during the 1940s , 1950s , and 1960s , such as Roberto Bolaño , the post Boom Spanish language writer who has made the greatest impact on world literature . It is difficult to clearly situate the Post @-@ Boom as many of its writers were active before the end of the Boom . Indeed , some writers , like Jose Donoso could be said to belong to both movements . His novel The Obscene Bird of Night ( El obsceno pájaro de la noche , 1970 ) is considered , as Philip Swanson notes , " one of the classics of the Boom . " His later work , however , fits more comfortably into the post @-@ Boom . Manuel Puig and Severo Sarduy are considered writers whose works embody the transition from the Boom to the Post @-@ Boom . It is important to note that this uneasiness in categorization is perpetuated by the fact that major writers of the Boom ( Fuentes , García Márquez and Vargas Llosa ) continued writing well after the end of the Boom . The post @-@ Boom is distinct from the Boom in various respects , most notably in the presence of female authors such as Isabel Allende , Luisa Valenzuela , Giannina Braschi , Cristina Peri Rossi , and Elena Poniatowska . While Valenzuela and Poniatowska were both active writers during , and in Poniatowska 's case even before , the Boom period , Allende is considered " a product of the Boom . " Shaw also identifies Antonio Skármeta , Rosario Ferre and Gustavo Sainz as Post @-@ Boom writers . The Post @-@ Boom writers challenge the perceived elitism of the Boom by using a simpler , more readable style and going back to realism .
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= Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest =
Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest is an adventure platform video game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) . It was first released on 20 November 1995 in North America , 21 November 1995 in Japan and on 14 December 1995 in Europe . It is the second instalment of the Donkey Kong Country series and serves as a direct sequel to Donkey Kong Country . It was also re @-@ released for the Game Boy Advance in 2004 . The game was made available for download on the Wii 's Virtual Console in 2007 , and for the Wii U 's Virtual Console in 2015 . On 15 April 2016 it was also re @-@ released on the eShop for the New Nintendo 3DS . It was followed by a sequel , Donkey Kong Country 3 : Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! in 1996 .
The story revolves around Diddy Kong and his girlfriend , Dixie Kong , who try to rescue Donkey Kong after he is abducted by King K. Rool . The game is set on " Crocodile Isle " , in which there are eight worlds of varying environments , totalling to 47 levels . The game utilises the same Silicon Graphics technology from the original , which features the use of pre @-@ rendered 3D imagery . Diddy 's Kong Quest received critical acclaim . Praise was directed at its graphics , gameplay and varying colour palette . It is considered by many to be the best game in the series , as well as one of the most graphically and musically ambitious games on the SNES . It was the second best selling game of 1995 and the sixth best @-@ selling game on the SNES .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a 2D side @-@ scrolling platformer in which the player controls either Diddy Kong or his girlfriend Dixie Kong through 47 varying levels over eight different worlds . The main objective of the game is to rescue Donkey Kong from King K. Rool . The game features a wide amount of enemies , which include land @-@ based reptilian Kremlings , rats , bees and vultures . Enemies in underwater sections include pufferfish , eels and sharks . Each world culminates with a boss fight , which is required to be defeated in order to progress through that world . Similar to its predecessor , the player @-@ characters may neutralise most hostiles by jumping on their heads , cartwheeling through them , or throwing a barrel at them . When hit by an enemy , the active character leaves the screen , thus control will immediately switch to the other character . The player can reclaim their partner from marked DK barrels throughout the game . If both characters die , the player will lose a life and will restart from the last checkpoint , which come in the form as a star @-@ painted barrel . If the player loses all of their lives , the game will end .
Both Diddy and Dixie have unique attributes ; Diddy is more agile and will run faster , whereas Dixie has a higher jump and can spin her hair in order to float . The player can also pick up the other character and throw them in any direction , in similar vain to barrels . The game also features " Animal Friends " , which returns from its predecessor . Playable animals include Squitter the spider , Glimmer the anglerfish , Rambi the rhino , Rattly the rattlesnake , Clapper the seal , Enguarde the swordfish and Squawks the parrot . These animals have unique abilities which the player can utilise , such as Rambi 's ability to charge at enemies , Squawks ' ability of flight , and Rattly 's ability to jump extreme heights .
The game features environmental effects throughout some levels , which includes fog , rain and thunder storms . Some levels feature different mechanics and settings , such as underwater sections , riding a mine cart , grappling onto vines , and " honey " levels which feature sticky surfaces . As with its predecessor , the game features barrels which will propel the player in any direction they are facing . Aside from checkpoint barrels , some give the player temporary invincibility or an " Animal Buddy " . Bonus barrels hidden throughout the game transport the player to a bonus game , which features a challenge such as eliminating all enemies in order to earn a " Kremcoin " . In addition , there are some barrels that can only be activated by a specific character . Players may earn extra lives by collecting balloons , earning 100 bananas or collecting four letters which spell " KONG " .
The game is Dixie Kong 's first appearance in the Donkey Kong franchise . Other characters include Cranky Kong , situated in " Monkey Museum " , who is back due to " popular demand " to divulge secrets of the game world , provide comic relief , as well as offering advice . Wrinkly Kong , the wife of Cranky Kong and grandmother of Donkey Kong , makes her first appearance in this game . She runs an educational facility called " Kong Kollege " , where she gives guidance to the player . Swanky Kong runs a gameshow quiz where the player may complete quizzes and earn extra lives . Funky Kong offers an aeroplane that can connect the player to the next world . Additionally , the player can meet a large Kremling called " Klubba " , at " Klubba 's Kiosk " , who demands a number of Kremkoins from the characters if they want to pass onto the " Lost World " and complete a secret level .
= = Plot = =
Diddy , standing on the deck of a pirate ship , finds a note stating that Donkey Kong has been kidnapped by King K. Rool , who had demanded the entire Banana Hoard that he stole in the previous game for a ransom from the Kongs . Diddy , aided by Dixie , subsequently attempts to rescue Donkey Kong from K. Rool . Together , the two travel through Crocodile Isle and are helped on their way by an assortment of animals to defeat K. Rool and rescue Donkey Kong . Diddy and Dixie eventually battle and defeat K. Rool , though he escapes after releasing Donkey Kong . Shortly after , Diddy and Dixie discover a secret area known as the " Lost World " . After going through the Lost World , they once again defeat K. Rool in " Krocodile Kore " , in a hidden geyser at the heart of Crocodile Island . Upon being defeated , K. Rool is hurled into the geyser , causing it to clog up and explode . The explosion causes all of Crocodile Island to sink , as the Kongs watch K. Rool escape on a small sailboat .
= = Development = =
Similar to its predecessor , the game utilises the same Silicon Graphics ( SGI ) and Advanced Computer Modelling ( ACM ) rendering technology . Pre @-@ rendered animations are modelled as 3D objects and then transformed into 2D sprites and background layers . Rare founder Tim Stamper served as director of the game , whereas his colleague Brendan Gunn , who had worked on the original , returned to design the game . Development of Diddy 's Kong Quest began shortly after the release of its predecessor . Rare took significant financial risks in purchasing the expensive SGI equipment used to render the graphics . David Wise , Rare 's composer from 1985 to 1994 , admitted that the workstations Rare purchased were worth £ 80 @,@ 000 each . A new compression technique they developed allowed them to incorporate more detail and animation for each sprite for a given memory footprint than previously achieved on the SNES , which better captured the pre @-@ rendered graphics .
Diddy 's Kong Quest 's soundtrack was composed entirely by Wise . In addition , the game 's soundtrack was the focus of an OverClocked ReMix collaboration titled Serious Monkey Business . The final track , " Donkey Kong Rescued " , was remixed by David Wise himself , featuring Grant Kirkhope on electric guitar and Robin Beanland on trumpet . Wise cited Koji Kondo 's music for the Mario and Zelda games , Geoff and Tim Follin 's music for Plok , and synthesizer @-@ based film soundtracks released in the 1980s as influences in creator the music for Donkey Kong Country series . As with its predecessor , the music was produced for the SNES 's SPC700 chip for the game to sound similar to the Korg Wavestation synthesizer .
= = Reception = =
The game received critical acclaim . The SNES version holds an aggregate score of 90 % at GameRankings , whereas the Virtual Console re @-@ release and the Game Boy Advance version both hold a score of 80 % at GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively . Diddy 's Kong Quest sold a combined 4 @.@ 37 million copies in the United States and Japan on the SNES ; the total number of copies sold in Japan at 2 @.@ 21 million , and 2 @.@ 16 million in the United States . It was also the second best @-@ selling game of 1995 , after Yoshi 's Island , and the sixth best @-@ selling game on the SNES .
The graphics and gameplay were the most praised aspects of the game . Aaron Kosydar of AllGame thought that Diddy 's Kong Quest 's graphics were superior than that of its predecessor , stating that the game " looks as cool as it plays " . Reviewing the SNES version , Frank Provo of GameSpot heralded the graphics as " more detailed " although admitting that it appeared stylistically similar to the first game . In a separate review regarding the Game Boy Advance version , Provo praised the graphics as richer and " livelier " than those of the original . In a retrospective review , Mark Birnbuam of IGN stated that whilst the original " boasted some of the most beautiful graphics " on the SNES at the time , Diddy 's Kong Quest offered a superior experience due to its detail , smooth animation and varying colour palette .
Jeff Pearson of Nintendojo stated that Rare improved the graphics for Diddy 's Kong Quest , and that the character animations appeared " much smoother and more cartoon like " in contrast to the computer generated feel in of the original . Pearson also heralded the background designs as reaching " newer heights " of quality . A reviewer of Cubed3 heralded the visuals as " unbelievable " for a 16 @-@ bit game . A reviewer of Jeux Video stated that the game " pushed the boundaries " of the console and that every detail was " devilishly handsome " , and also praised the handling of the gameplay as being " pushed to a climax " .
Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer stated that the graphics of the game were similar its predecessor , although he praised them both as " impressively " . However , Whitehead criticised the gameplay was " mediocre " and not " terribly imaginative " . Whitehead also expressed concern over the lack of ambition from the sequel , stating that the gameplay uses the defence of " if it ain 't broke , don 't fix it " .
= = = Sequels and re @-@ releases = = =
A direct sequel , Donkey Kong Country 3 : Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! , was released for the SNES in 1996 to positive reviews . In the game , Dixie Kong and Kiddy Kong must find both Donkey and Diddy Kong , who have been once again abducted by K. Rool . It was further followed by a succession of more related Donkey Kong video games , such as Donkey Kong 64 in 1999 and Donkey Kong Country Returns in 2010 . Diddy 's Kong Quest was later released for the Game Boy Advance on 15 November 2004 and on the Wii 's Virtual Console on 21 May 2007 . It was made available for the Wii U 's Virtual Console in 2015 .
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= Thomas Metcalfe ( Kentucky ) =
Thomas Metcalfe ( March 20 , 1780 – August 18 , 1855 ) , also known as Thomas Metcalf or as " Stonehammer " , was a U.S. Representative , Senator , and the tenth Governor of Kentucky . He was the first gubernatorial candidate in the state 's history to be chosen by a nominating convention rather than a caucus . He was also the first governor of Kentucky who was not a member of the Democratic @-@ Republican Party .
At age 16 , Metcalfe was apprenticed to his older brother and became a stonemason . He helped construct the Green County courthouse , known as the oldest courthouse in Kentucky . Later , political opponents would mock his trade , giving him the nickname " Old Stone Hammer . " His political career began with four terms in the Kentucky House of Representatives . His service was interrupted by the War of 1812 , in which he commanded a company in the defense of Fort Meigs . At the age of thirty @-@ eight , he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives . He held his seat in the House for five terms , then resigned to run for governor . In an election decided by 709 votes , Metcalfe defeated William T. Barry in the gubernatorial election of 1828 . Metcalfe 's predecessor , Joseph Desha was so stunned by his party 's loss that he threatened not to vacate the governor 's mansion . Ultimately , however , he respected the will of the people , and allowed an orderly transition .
Metcalfe 's primary concern as governor was the issue of internal improvements . Among his proposed projects were a road connecting Shelbyville to Louisville and a canal on the Falls of the Ohio . When President Andrew Jackson vetoed funds to construct a turnpike connecting Maysville and Lexington , Metcalfe built it anyway , paying for it entirely with state funds . Following his term as governor , he served in the state senate , and completed the unfinished term of John J. Crittenden in the U.S. Senate in 1848 . After this , he retired to " Forest Retreat " , his estate in Nicholas County , where he died of cholera in 1855 . Metcalfe County , Kentucky was named in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Thomas Metcalfe was born on March 20 , 1780 to John Metcalfe and his third wife , Sarah " Sally " Dent ( Chinn ) Metcalfe in Fauquier County , Virginia . His father served as a captain in the Revolutionary War . In 1784 , the Metcalfe family settled near Russell 's Cave in Fayette County , Kentucky . Some years later , they would move to a farm in Nicholas County .
Metcalfe received only a rudimentary education , and at age sixteen , he was apprenticed to his brother and learned the craft of stonemasonry . Three years later , their father died , leaving the brothers to provide for their mother and younger siblings . Metcalfe became one of the most prominent stonemasons and building contractors during the settlement period of Kentucky . A number of his stone houses survive and are listed on the National Register of Historic Places , including his first home in Robertson County . Other structures built by the Metcalfe brothers are the state 's first governor 's mansion and the Green County courthouse , known as the oldest courthouse in Kentucky , and the Presbyterian church at West Union in far southern Ohio .
On October 2 , 1801 , Metcalfe enlisted as a lieutenant in the 29th Regiment of the Kentucky Militia . He was promoted to captain on October 12 , 1802 . About 1806 , Metcalfe married Nancy Mason of Fairfax , Virginia . The couple had four children . Between 1817 and 1820 , Metcalfe built a house for his family in Nicholas County . The estate was dubbed " Forest Retreat " by statesman Henry Clay who , on his first visit to the newly constructed house , told Metcalfe , " Tom , you have here a veritable Forest Retreat . "
= = Political career = =
Metcalfe 's political career began in 1812 when he was elected to represent Nicholas County in the Kentucky House of Representatives . His service was interrupted by the War of 1812 . In 1813 , he raised a company of volunteers and commanded them at the Battle of Fort Meigs . While he was away at war , the voters of his district re @-@ elected him to the Kentucky House ; only thirteen votes were cast against him . He continued to serve in the Kentucky House until 1816 .
= = = In the House of Representatives = = =
At the age of thirty @-@ eight , Metcalfe was elected to the Sixteenth Congress , defeating Joshua Desha . During his tenure in the House , which lasted five terms , he was the chairman of the Committee on Indian Affairs and the Committee on Militia . He opposed the Second Bank of the United States , but favored extension of credit to purchasers of public land . In 1821 , he proposed granting preemption rights to squatters . He also opposed restrictions on slavery in Missouri and the Louisiana Purchase .
In James Monroe 's annual address to the legislature in December 1822 , he called on Congress to report on how to best deal with the Seminoles that inhabited the recently acquired territory of Florida . As chair of the Committee on Indian Affairs , Metcalfe delivered the report on February 21 , 1823 . His committee found that , under the terms of the Adams @-@ Onis Treaty that transferred control of Florida to the United States from Spain , the Seminoles were to be accorded the same privileges as U.S. citizens . Accordingly , the committee recommended that each Seminole family be given a land grant . They hoped that this would help break the tribal loyalties of the Seminoles and expedite their amalgamation into white society . The committee 's report was largely ignored .
In 1826 , Metcalfe served on a House committee that investigated allegations that Vice @-@ President John C. Calhoun had improperly benefited from a contract he awarded while serving as Secretary of War in 1822 . While Calhoun was cleared of any wrongdoing , his friend , South Carolina Representative George McDuffie , began an exchange of correspondence with Metcalfe regarding the proceedings . The correspondence became heated , and McDuffie challenged Metcalfe to a duel . As the recipient of the challenge , Metcalfe had the right to choose the terms of the engagement . He chose rifles as the weapon at a distance of 90 feet . McDuffie insisted that wounds from a previous duel had left him incapable of handling a rifle , and proposed pistols as an alternative . Metcalfe replied that he had never handled a pistol in his life . Unable to come to an agreement on the conditions of the duel , both sides eventually dropped the matter entirely .
= = = Governor of Kentucky = = =
Metcalfe resigned his seat in the House on June 1 , 1828 in order to run for the governorship of Kentucky . He was chosen as the candidate of the National Republican Party at their nominating convention and was the first gubernatorial candidate in the state to be chosen using this method . He defeated William T. Barry by a margin of 709 votes , but his running mate , Joseph R. Underwood , was badly defeated by the Democratic @-@ Republican nominee , John Breathitt . Metcalfe 's election in 1828 marked the first time the governorship had been won by a candidate who was not a Democratic @-@ Republican . However , only one Democratic @-@ Republican would hold the office between Metcalfe 's term and the election of Lazarus W. Powell in 1851 .
Joseph Desha , the outgoing governor , refused to believe that his party had lost the election . He disliked Metcalfe not only due to his party affiliation , but also because of his occupation as a stonemason , which he believed was too low a calling for a governor . Metcalfe 's opponents made slights on the quality of his stone work and his views on the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy . When told about these charges , Metcalfe remarked " They may say what they like about my views , but the first man that dares to attack my character , I will cleave his skull with my stone hammer , as I would cleave a rock . " As word of this remark spread , Metcalfe was given the nickname " Old Stone Hammer . " Despite his threats to remain in the governor 's mansion until the legislature convened , Desha respected the will of the people , and left the residence on September 2 , 1828 .
Metcalfe opposed the spoils system and the doctrine of nullification . He favored protective tariffs and federal aid for internal improvements . He oversaw the establishment of a road connecting Shelbyville to Louisville . When President Andrew Jackson vetoed federal aid for a turnpike connecting Maysville and Lexington , Metcalfe continued constructing it with state funds . ( The road is now a portion of U.S. Route 68 . ) Metcalfe 's term also saw the commissioning of the state 's first railroad and the beginning of plans for a canal at the Falls of the Ohio . At the governor 's recommendation , the state legislature approved additional aid for education , and the creation of district schools .
= = Later life and death = =
Following his term as governor , Metcalfe represented Nicholas and Bracken Counties in the Kentucky Senate from 1834 to 1838 . In 1836 , he served as a Whig presidential elector , and he presided over the Kentucky Whig Convention in Harrodsburg on August 26 , 1839 . From 1840 to 1849 , he served as president of the state board of internal improvements . Finally , he was appointed and subsequently elected as a Whig to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of John J. Crittenden . He served from June 23 , 1848 , to March 3 , 1849 . During his short tenure , he denounced secession , and asserted that Kentucky would remain part of the Union .
After his term in the Senate Metcalfe engaged in agricultural pursuits near Carlisle , Kentucky . He died of cholera in his home on August 18 , 1855 . He was interred in the family burial ground at Forest Retreat . Metcalfe County , Kentucky was formed in 1860 and named in his honor . " Forest Retreat " was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 2 , 1973 .
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= Leonardo DiCaprio =
Leonardo Wilhelm DiCaprio ( / dᵻˈkæpri.oʊ / ; born November 11 , 1974 ) is an American actor and a film producer .
In the early 1990s , DiCaprio began his career by appearing in television commercials , after which he had recurring roles in various television series such as the soap opera , Santa Barbara , and the sitcom , Growing Pains . In 1993 , he began his film career by starring as Josh in Critters 3 ( 1991 ) . He starred in the film adaptation of the memoir , This Boy 's Life ( 1993 ) , and was praised for his supporting role in What 's Eating Gilbert Grape ( 1993 ) . He gained public recognition with leading roles in The Basketball Diaries ( 1995 ) , and the romantic drama Romeo + Juliet ( 1996 ) , before achieving international fame with James Cameron 's epic romance , Titanic ( 1997 ) , which became the highest @-@ grossing film to that point .
Since 2000 , DiCaprio has received critical acclaim for his work in a wide range of film genres . DiCaprio 's subsequent films include , The Man in the Iron Mask ( 1998 ) , the biographical crime drama Catch Me If You Can ( 2002 ) , and the epic historical drama Gangs of New York ( 2002 ) , which marked his first of many collaborations with director , Martin Scorsese . He was acclaimed for his performances in the political war thriller Blood Diamond ( 2006 ) , the neo @-@ noir crime drama The Departed ( 2006 ) , the espionage thriller Body of Lies ( 2008 ) , the drama Revolutionary Road ( 2008 ) , the psychological thriller Shutter Island ( 2010 ) , the science fiction thriller Inception ( 2010 ) , the biographical film J. Edgar ( 2011 ) , the western Django Unchained ( 2012 ) , and the period drama The Great Gatsby ( 2013 ) .
DiCaprio 's portrayals of Howard Hughes in The Aviator ( 2004 ) and Hugh Glass in The Revenant ( 2015 ) won him the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama , and his role as Jordan Belfort in The Wolf of Wall Street ( 2013 ) won him the award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy . He won his first BAFTA award for Best Actor for The Revenant . He has been nominated for six Academy Awards — five for acting and one for producing — and in 2016 , he won the Academy Award for Best Actor for The Revenant .
DiCaprio is the founder of his own production company , Appian Way Productions .
= = Early life = =
DiCaprio was born in Hollywood , California , the only child of Irmelin ( née Indenbirken ) , a German @-@ born legal secretary , and George DiCaprio , an underground comics artist and producer and distributor of comic books . DiCaprio 's father is of half Italian ( from the Naples area ) and half German ( from Bavaria ) descent . DiCaprio 's maternal grandfather , Wilhelm Indenbirken , was German . His maternal grandmother , Helene Indenbirken ( 1915 – 2008 ) , a German citizen , was born as Yelena Smirnova in Russia . In an interview in Russia , DiCaprio referred to himself as " half Russian " and said that two of his late grandparents were Russians .
DiCaprio 's parents met while attending college and subsequently moved to Los Angeles . He was named Leonardo because his pregnant mother was looking at a Leonardo da Vinci painting in a museum in Italy when DiCaprio first kicked . His parents separated when he was a year old , and he lived mostly with his mother . The two lived in several Los Angeles neighborhoods , such as Echo Park , and at 1874 Hillhurst Avenue in the Los Feliz district ( which was later converted into a local public library ) , while his mother worked several jobs to support them . He attended Seeds Elementary School ( now UCLA Lab School ) and John Marshall High School a few blocks away , after attending the Los Angeles Center for Enriched Studies for four years . However , he dropped out of high school following his third year , eventually earning his general equivalency diploma ( GED ) . DiCaprio spent part of his childhood in Germany with his maternal grandparents , Wilhelm and Helene . He speaks a little German and Italian .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
DiCaprio 's career began with his appearance in several commercials and educational films . After being removed from the set of children 's television series Romper Room for being disruptive at the age of five , he followed his older stepbrother Adam Farrar into television commercials , landing an ad for Matchbox cars at 14 . In 1990 , he got his break on television when he was cast in the short @-@ lived series based on the movie Parenthood . After Parenthood , DiCaprio had bit parts on several shows , including The New Lassie and Roseanne , as well as a brief stint on the soap opera Santa Barbara , playing the young Mason Capwell . His involvement in Parenthood and the daily soap earned him a nomination for the Young Artist Award for Best Young Actor each .
= = = 1991 – 95 : Breaking into film = = =
DiCaprio 's debut film role was in the comedic sci @-@ fi horror film Critters 3 , in which he played the stepson of an evil landlord , a role that DiCaprio described as " your average , no @-@ depth , standard kid with blond hair . " Released in 1991 , the movie went direct @-@ to @-@ video . Soon after , he became a recurring cast member on the ABC sitcom Growing Pains , playing Luke Brower , a homeless boy who is taken in by the Seaver family . DiCaprio made his big screen breakthrough in 1992 , when he was handpicked by Robert De Niro out of 400 young actors to play the lead role in This Boy 's Life .
Later in 1993 , DiCaprio co @-@ starred as the mentally handicapped brother of Johnny Depp 's character in What 's Eating Gilbert Grape , a comic @-@ tragic odyssey of a dysfunctional Iowa family . Director Lasse Hallström admitted he was initially looking for a less good @-@ looking actor but finally settled on DiCaprio as he had emerged as " the most observant actor " among all auditionees . Budgeted at US $ 11 million , the film became a critical success , resulting in various accolades for DiCaprio , who was awarded the National Board of Review Award and nominated for both an Academy Award and a Golden Globe for his portrayal . New York Times critic Janet Maslin praised DiCaprio 's performance , writing " the film 's real show @-@ stopping turn comes from Mr. DiCaprio , who makes Arnie 's many tics so startling and vivid that at first he is difficult to watch . The performance has a sharp , desperate intensity from beginning to end . "
DiCaprio 's first effort of 1995 was Sam Raimi 's The Quick and the Dead , a western film . Sony Pictures was dubious over DiCaprio 's casting , and as a result , co @-@ star Sharon Stone decided to pay the actor 's salary herself . The film was released to a dismal box office performance , barely grossing US $ 18 @.@ 5 million in the US , and received mixed reviews from critics . DiCaprio next starred in Total Eclipse , a fictionalized account of the homosexual relationship between Arthur Rimbaud and Paul Verlaine . He replaced River Phoenix , who died during pre @-@ production on the project . A minor art @-@ house success , the film grossed US $ 0 @.@ 34 million throughout its domestic theatrical run .
DiCaprio appeared in the mostly improvised short film called Don 's Plum , as a favor to aspiring director R. D. Robb . When Robb decided to expand the black @-@ and @-@ white film to feature length , however , DiCaprio and costar Tobey Maguire had its release blocked by court order , arguing that they never intended to make it a theatrical release , as it would have commercial value thanks to their stardom . The film eventually premiered at the 2001 Berlin International Film Festival , where it was well received by critics . DiCaprio 's last film of the year 1995 was The Basketball Diaries , a biopic about Jim Carroll .
= = = 1996 – 2001 : Mainstream success = = =
In 1996 , DiCaprio appeared opposite Claire Danes in Baz Luhrmann 's film Romeo + Juliet , an abridged modernization of William Shakespeare 's romantic tragedy of the same name , which retained the original Shakespearean dialogue . The project achieved a worldwide box office take of $ 147 million .
Later that year , he starred in Jerry Zaks ' family drama Marvin 's Room , reuniting with Robert De Niro . Based on Scott McPherson 's screenplay adaptation of his own 1991 stage play of the same name , the film revolves around two sisters , played by Meryl Streep and Diane Keaton , who are reunited through tragedy after 17 years of estrangement . DiCaprio portrayed Hank , Streep 's character 's troubled son , who has been committed to a mental asylum for setting fire to his mother 's house .
In 1997 , DiCaprio starred in James Cameron 's Titanic ( 1997 ) as twenty @-@ year @-@ old Jack Dawson , a penniless Wisconsin man who wins two tickets for the third @-@ class on the ill @-@ fated RMS Titanic . DiCaprio initially refused to portray the character but was eventually encouraged to pursue the role by Cameron , who strongly believed in his acting ability . Against expectations , the film went on to become the highest @-@ grossing film to date ( it was surpassed in 2010 by Cameron 's film Avatar ) , grossing more than $ 1 @.@ 843 billion in box @-@ office receipts worldwide , and transformed DiCaprio into a commercial movie superstar , resulting in fan worship among teenage girls and young women in general that became known as " Leo @-@ Mania " . In May 1998 , for example , his face appeared on the covers of at least four teen magazines , and three books about DiCaprio were among the top six paperbacks on The New York Times Best Seller List . More than 200 fans contacted the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to protest his not being nominated for the 70th Academy Awards . He was nominated for other high @-@ profile awards , including a second Golden Globe nomination . Upon the success of Titanic , DiCaprio stated in 2000 : " I have no connection with me during that whole Titanic phenomenon and what my face became around the world [ ... ] I 'll never reach that state of popularity again , and I don 't expect to . It 's not something I 'm going to try to achieve either . "
The following year , DiCaprio made a self @-@ mocking cameo appearance in Woody Allen 's caustic satire of the fame industry , Celebrity ( 1998 ) . That year , he also starred in the dual roles of the villainous King Louis XIV and his secret , sympathetic twin brother Philippe in Randall Wallace 's The Man in the Iron Mask , based on the same @-@ titled 1939 film . Despite receiving a rather mixed to negative response , the film became a box office success , grossing US $ 180 million internationally . Though DiCaprio 's performance was generally well @-@ received , with Entertainment Weekly critic Owen Gleiberman writing that " the shockingly androgynous DiCaprio looks barely old enough to be playing anyone with hormones , but he 's a fluid and instinctive actor , with the face of a mischievous angel , " he was awarded a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Screen Couple for both incarnations the following year .
DiCaprio 's next project was the drama film The Beach ( 2000 ) , an adaption of Alex Garland 's 1996 novel of the same name . He played an American backpacking tourist looking for the perfect way of life in a secret island commune in the Gulf of Thailand . Budgeted at $ US50 million , the film became a financial success , grossing $ US144 million worldwide , but as with DiCaprio 's previous project , the film was largely panned by critics . Todd McCarthy of Variety noted that " Richard [ DiCaprio 's role ] is too much the American Everyman and not enough of a well @-@ defined individual to entirely capture one 's interest and imagination , and DiCaprio , while perfectly watchable , does not endow him with the quirks or distinguishing marks to make this man from nowhere a dimensional character . " The next year , he was nominated for another Razzie Award for his work on the film .
= = = 2002 – 07 = = =
DiCaprio 's first film of 2002 was the biographical crime drama film Catch Me If You Can , based on the life of Frank Abagnale Jr . , who , before his 19th birthday , used his charm , confidence , and several different personas , to make millions in the 1960s writing bad checks . Directed by Steven Spielberg , the film was shot in 147 different locations in only 52 days , making it " the most adventurous , super @-@ charged movie @-@ making " DiCaprio had experienced yet . Catch Me If You Can received favorable reviews and proved to be an international success , becoming DiCaprio 's highest @-@ grossing film since Titanic with a total of US $ 351 @.@ 1 million worldwide . Roger Ebert praised his performance , and noted that while " DiCaprio , who in recent films [ ... ] has played dark and troubled characters , is breezy and charming here , playing a boy who discovers what he is good at , and does it . " The following year , DiCaprio received his third Golden Globe nomination for his work in the film .
Also in 2002 , DiCaprio appeared in Martin Scorsese 's Gangs of New York , a historical film set in the mid @-@ 19th century in the Five Points district of New York City . Director Scorsese initially struggled selling his idea of realizing the film until DiCaprio became interested in playing protagonist Amsterdam Vallon , a young leader of the Irish faction , and thus , Miramax Films got involved with financing the project . Nonetheless production on the film was plagued by blown @-@ out budgets and producer @-@ director squabbles , resulting in a marathon eight @-@ month shoot and , at US $ 103 million , the most expensive film Scorsese had ever made . Upon its release , Gangs of New York became a financial and critical success . DiCaprio 's acting was well @-@ received but was overshadowed by Daniel Day @-@ Lewis ' performance among most critics .
Forging a collaboration with Scorsese , the two paired again for a biopic of the eccentric and obsessive American film director and aviation pioneer Howard Hughes in The Aviator ( 2004 ) . Centering on Hughes ' life from the late 1920s to 1947 , DiCaprio initially developed the project with Michael Mann , who decided against directing it after back @-@ to @-@ back film biographies in Ali and The Insider . The actor eventually pitched John Logan 's script to Scorsese , who quickly signed on to direct . The Aviator became a critical and financial success . DiCaprio received rave reviews for his performance and won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor , also receiving another Academy Award nomination .
In 2005 , DiCaprio was made a commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Minister of Culture for his contributions to the arts . The following year , the actor starred in both Blood Diamond and The Departed . In Edward Zwick 's war film Blood Diamond , he starred as a diamond smuggler from Rhodesia who is involved in the Sierra Leone Civil War . The film itself received generally favorable reviews , and DiCaprio was praised for the authenticity of his South African Afrikaner accent , known as a difficult accent to imitate . In Scorsese 's The Departed he played the role of Billy Costigan , a state trooper working undercover in an Irish Mob in Boston . Highly anticipated , the film was released to overwhelmingly positive reviews and became one of the highest @-@ rated wide release films of 2006 . Budgeted at US $ 90 million , it also emerged as DiCaprio and Scorsese 's highest @-@ grossing collaboration to date , easily beating The Aviator ´ s previous record of US $ 213 @.@ 7 million . DiCaprio 's performance in The Departed was applauded by critics and earned him a Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor . The same year , both the Golden Globes and the Screen Actors Guild nominated DiCaprio twice in the Best Actor category for both of his 2006 features , and in addition , DiCaprio earned his third Academy Award nomination for Blood Diamond .
= = = 2008 – 12 = = =
In 2008 , DiCaprio starred in Body of Lies , a spy film based on the novel of the same name by David Ignatius , set in context of the Middle East and the War on Terror , telling the story of three men battling a terrorist organization , and each other . Directed by Ridley Scott , DiCaprio dyed his hair brown and wore brown contacts for the role , which he chose to pursue because he considered it a throwback to political films of the 1970s such as The Parallax View ( 1974 ) and Three Days of the Condor ( 1975 ) . The film received mixed reviews from critics , and at a budget of US $ 67 @.@ 5 million , became a moderate box office success , grossing US $ 115 million worldwide .
The same year , DiCaprio reunited with Kate Winslet to film the drama Revolutionary Road ( 2008 ) , directed by Winslet 's then @-@ husband Sam Mendes . As both actors had been reluctant to make romantic films similar to Titanic , it was Winslet who suggested that both should work with her on a film adaptation of the 1961 novel of the same name by Richard Yates after reading the script by Justin Haythe , knowing that plot had little in common with the 1997 blockbuster . Once DiCaprio agreed to do the film , it went almost immediately into production . He noted that he saw his character as " unheroic " and " slightly cowardly " and that he was " willing to be just a product of his environment . " Portraying a couple in a failing marriage in the 1950s , DiCaprio and Winslet watched period videos promoting life in the suburbs to prepare themselves for Revolutionary Road , which eventually earned them favorable reviews . For his portrayal DiCaprio garnered his seventh Golden Globes nomination .
DiCaprio continued his collaborative streak with Scorsese in the 2010 psychological thriller film Shutter Island ( 2010 ) , based on the 2003 novel of the same name by Dennis Lehane . He played U.S. Marshal Edward " Teddy " Daniels , who is investigating a psychiatric facility located on an island and comes to question his own sanity . The film grossed $ 294 million .
Also in 2010 , DiCaprio starred in director Christopher Nolan 's science @-@ fiction film Inception . Inspired by the experience of lucid dreaming and dream incubation , DiCaprio portrays the character of Dom Cobb , an " extractor " who enters the dreams of others to obtain information that is otherwise inaccessible . Cobb is promised a chance to regain his old life in exchange for planting an idea in a corporate target 's mind . DiCaprio was " intrigued by this concept — this dream @-@ heist notion and how this character 's gonna unlock his dreamworld and ultimately affect his real life . " Released to critical acclaim , the film grossed over $ 825 million worldwide . To star in this film , DiCaprio agreed to a pay cut from his $ 20 million fee , in favor of splitting first @-@ dollar gross points , which means he receives money coming directly off the top of ticket sales . This risk paid off , with DiCaprio earning $ 50 million from the film to become his highest payday yet . In July 2010 , it was announced that DiCaprio had pulled out of a Viking movie to be directed by Mel Gibson amid controversy over Gibson 's rage @-@ fueled rant tapes and domestic violence probe .
In 2011 , DiCaprio starred alongside Armie Hammer and Naomi Watts in Clint Eastwood 's J. Edgar , a biopic about J. Edgar Hoover . Written by Dustin Lance Black , the film focuses on the career of the FBI director from the Palmer Raids onwards , including an examination of his private life as an alleged closeted homosexual . Reviews towards the film were mostly mixed , with many critics commending DiCaprio 's performance but feeling that , overall , the film lacked coherence . Roger Ebert praised DiCaprio 's performance as a " fully @-@ realized , subtle and persuasive performance , hinting at more than Hoover ever revealed , perhaps even to himself . "
In 2012 , DiCaprio starred as villainous Calvin Candie in Quentin Tarantino 's spaghetti western , Django Unchained . While filming Django Unchained , DiCaprio accidentally cut his hand on glass , but continued filming despite the injury , and Tarantino elected to use the take in the final movie . The film received positive reviews from critics and earned DiCaprio his ninth nomination from the Golden Globes . Django Unchained grossed $ 424 million worldwide .
= = = 2013 – present = = =
DiCaprio 's next film was The Great Gatsby , again with Baz Luhrmann ( who directed him in Romeo + Juliet in 1996 ) , an adaptation of F. Scott Fitzgerald 's 1925 novel , also starring Carey Mulligan and Tobey Maguire ; the film was released on May 10 , 2013 . It received mixed reviews from critics , however DiCaprio 's portrayal as Jay Gatsby was praised . Critic Rafer Guzman of Newsday praised DiCaprio by stating , " As for Leonardo DiCaprio , he is now the Gatsby to beat . Despite a borderline comedic entrance -- haloed by fireworks and accompanied by Gershwin 's " Rhapsody in Blue " — DiCaprio nails this maddeningly enigmatic character . He 's as tough as Alan Ladd in ' 49 , as suave as Redford in ' 74 , but also vulnerable , touching , funny , a faker , a human . You hear it all in Gatsby 's favorite phrase , " old sport , " a verbal tic that stumped other actors . It 's a tremendous , hard @-@ won performance . " Matt Zoller Seitz of Roger Ebert.com described his performance as Gatsby as " The movie 's greatest and simplest special effect , " and states " This is an iconic performance — maybe his career best . " The film grossed $ 348 million worldwide and became Luhrmann 's highest @-@ grossing film .
DiCaprio reunited with Scorsese for the fifth time in The Wolf of Wall Street , a film based on the life of stockbroker Jordan Belfort , who was arrested in the late 1990s for securities fraud and money laundering . Filming began on August 8 , 2012 , in New York , and the film was released on December 25 , 2013 . The role earned him a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy and his fourth Academy Award nomination for acting . In January 2013 , DiCaprio said he was going to take a long break from acting and would " fly around the world doing good for the environment . "
In 2015 , DiCaprio played fur trapper Hugh Glass in the survival drama The Revenant , directed by Alejandro González Iñárritu . The film was well received by critics and DiCaprio 's performance garnered universal acclaim that earned him numerous awards , including his first win at the Academy Awards in the Best Actor category , his eleventh nomination and third win at Golden Globes in the Best Actor Drama category , and his first BAFTA award for Best Actor . On August 10 , 2015 , it was announced that Martin Scorsese will direct an adaptation of Erik Larson 's The Devil in the White City , which will star DiCaprio with a screenplay to be written by Billy Ray .
In October 2015 , Appian Way acquired the movie rights for a book about the Volkswagen emissions scandal .
= = Personal life = =
DiCaprio 's romantic relationships have been widely covered in the media . Among those he has dated were actress Bijou Phillips in the late 90s , model Kristen Zang , and British model and socialite Emma Miller . In 2000 , he met Brazilian model Gisele Bündchen who he dated until 2005 . He was romantically involved with Israeli model Bar Refaeli from 2005 through 2011 , during which time he met with Israeli president Shimon Peres and visited Refaeli 's hometown of Hod HaSharon .
DiCaprio dated actress Blake Lively in 2011 , then model Erin Heatherton for most of 2012 . In 2013 he dated German model Toni Garrn until late 2014 . He dated model Kelly Rohrbach in 2015 .
DiCaprio owns a home in Los Angeles , California and an apartment in Battery Park City , New York . In 2009 , he bought an island off mainland Belize , on which he is planning to create an eco @-@ friendly resort . In 2014 , he purchased the original Dinah Shore residence designed by mid @-@ century modern architect Donald Wexler in Palm Springs , California .
In 2005 , DiCaprio 's face was severely injured when model Aretha Wilson hit him over the head with a broken bottle at a Hollywood party . After pleading guilty in 2010 , Wilson was sentenced to prison for two years .
During the 2004 presidential election , DiCaprio campaigned and donated to John Kerry 's presidential bid . The FEC showed that DiCaprio gave $ 2 @,@ 300 to Barack Obama 's presidential campaign in the 2008 election , the maximum contribution an individual could give in that election cycle , and $ 5 @,@ 000 to Obama 's 2012 campaign .
= = = Environmental activism = = =
Following the success of Titanic in 1997 along with earlier films , 24 @-@ year @-@ old DiCaprio established the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation in 1998 , a non @-@ profit organization devoted to promoting environmental awareness . Although concerned with all areas of the environment , it focuses on global warming , preserving Earth 's biodiversity and supporting renewable energy . It has worked on projects in over 40 countries and has produced two short web documentaries , Water Planet and Global Warning .
Because of his active involvement in those causes , he has received praise from environmental groups . Among the accolades received were the Martin Litton Environment Award , in 2001 , from Environment Now , and the Environmental Leadership Award in 2003 from Global Green USA .
DiCaprio chaired the national Earth Day celebration in 2000 , where he interviewed President Clinton and they discussed plans to deal with global warming and the environment . In 2007 he had a major role in The 11th Hour , a documentary about people 's relationship to nature and global warming . He co @-@ produced , co @-@ wrote and narrated the film . From a benefit " 11th Hour " fine art auction he organized in 2013 , he raised nearly $ 40 million to toward his foundation . He told attendees , " Bid as if the fate of the planet depended on us . " It became the world 's highest @-@ grossing environmental charity event ever held . DiCaprio states that global warming is the world 's " number @-@ one environmental challenge " . In July 2016 his foundation awarded $ 15 @.@ 6 million to help protect wildlife and the rights of native Americans , along with combating climate change .
He has been an active supporter of numerous environmental organizations and has sat on the board of the World Wildlife Fund , Global Green USA , International Fund for Animal Welfare and the Natural Resources Defense Council . He traveled to Indonesia in early 2016 where he criticized the government 's palm oil industry 's slash @-@ and @-@ burn forest clearing methods .
He drives environment @-@ friendly vehicles , including an electric Tesla Roadster , a Fisker Karma plug @-@ in hybrid , and a Toyota Prius . His home is powered by solar panels . At the 2007 Oscar ceremony , DiCaprio and former Vice President Al Gore appeared to announce that the Academy Awards had incorporated environmentally intelligent practices in its production . He presented at the 2007 American leg of Live Earth , and in 2010 his environmental work earned DiCaprio a nomination for the VH1 Do Something Award , honoring people who do good . In 2014 he was appointed as a United Nations representative on climate change , and later that year he made an opening statement to members of the UN Climate Summit . He again spoke at the UN in April 2016 prior to the signing of Paris Climate Change Agreement .
In 2015 , DiCaprio executive produced a new Netflix @-@ exclusive cut of Cowspiracy . The film explored the impact of animal agriculture on the environment and the positions of several environmental organizations on the issue .
At the 2016 Oscar ceremony , DiCaprio won the award for Best Actor . He used his acceptance speech to express his appreciation and worry for the environment when he said :
Climate change is real , it is happening right now . It is the most urgent threat facing our entire species , and we need to work collectively together and stop procrastinating . We need to support leaders around the world who do not speak for the big polluters , but who speak for all of humanity , for the indigenous people of the world , for the billions and billions of underprivileged people out there who would be most affected by this . For our children ’ s children , and for those people out there whose voices have been drowned out by the politics of greed .
DiCaprio 's use of private jets and superyachts has attracted criticism by some sections of the media . In 2016 , during a vacation in Cannes , France , he made a one @-@ day visit to New York City by private jet to collect an environmental award . Robert Rapier , an environmental analyst , said DiCaprio 's lifestyle “ diminishes his moral authority to lecture others on reducing their own carbon emissions . He demonstrates exactly why our consumption of fossil fuels continues to grow . “ It ’ s because everyone loves the combination of cost and convenience they offer . Alternatives usually require sacrifice of one form or another . ”
= = = Philanthropy = = =
In 1998 , DiCaprio and his mother donated $ 35 @,@ 000 for a " Leonardo DiCaprio Computer Center " at the Los Feliz branch of the Los Angeles Public Library , the site of his childhood home . It was rebuilt after the 1994 Northridge earthquake and opened in early 1999 . During the filming of Blood Diamond , DiCaprio worked with 24 orphaned children from the SOS Children 's Village in Maputo , Mozambique , and was said to be extremely touched by his interactions with the children . In 2010 , he donated $ 1 million to relief efforts in Haiti after the earthquake .
In November 2010 , DiCaprio donated $ 1 million to the Wildlife Conservation Society at Russia 's tiger summit . DiCaprio 's persistence in reaching the event after encountering two plane delays caused then Prime Minister Vladimir Putin to describe him as a " muzhik " or " real man " . In 2011 , DiCaprio joined the Animal Legal Defense Fund 's campaign to free Tony , a tiger who has spent the last decade at the Tiger Truck Stop in Grosse Tete , Louisiana . In April 2013 , DiCaprio donated $ 61 @,@ 000 to GLAAD , an organization which promotes the image of LGBT people in the media .
In early 2016 , at a meeting with Pope Francis , he gave a charity donation and spoke about environmental issues . A few days later , possibly influenced by his meeting with DiCaprio , the Pope said he would act in a planned faith @-@ based charity film , Beyond the Sun . It would be his first acting experience , and would also be the first time in history that a Pope appeared in a feature film . Profits from the film would be given to charities in Argentina .
= = Filmography and awards = =
Leonardo DiCaprio filmography
List of awards and nominations received by Leonardo DiCaprio
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= Duncan Robinson ( basketball ) =
Duncan McBryde Robinson ( born April 22 , 1994 ) is an American college basketball player for the Michigan Wolverines who has completed his redshirt sophomore season for the 2015 – 16 team . He transferred to Michigan after leading the NCAA Division III Williams Ephs to the 2014 NCAA Men 's Division III Basketball Tournament championship game . He was the 2014 Division III Rookie of the Year and a Division III All @-@ American .
He had played high school basketball for The Governor 's Academy before a postgraduate season at the Phillips Exeter Academy where he led the team to a New England Preparatory School Athletic Council ( NEPSAC ) Class A championship in 2013 . He earned the 2013 NEPSAC Class A tournament MVP . He was a NEPSAC All @-@ League First Team selection in both 2012 ( Class B ) and 2013 ( Class A ) .
Robinson made a splash at Michigan , leading the Big Ten Conference in three point shooting percentage from the beginning of conference play in December until early February . In both of Michigan 's wins in the 2016 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament , Robinson made three point shots to tie the score with less than a minute remaining .
= = Early life = =
Born April 22 , 1994 in York , Maine , Robinson is the son of the Elisabeth and Jeffrey Robinson and the youngest of their three children ( after sister Marta and brother Eli ) . Jeffrey , who is 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) , had played one season for the Maine Black Bears men 's basketball team . Robinson grew up on the remote New Hampshire island of New Castle where his Maude H. Trefethen Elementary School 6th grade graduating class was composed of four students and he had to leave the island to continue his education . He attended Rye Junior High School and elected to attend The Governor 's Academy rather than Portsmouth High School , which was the public high school for students in New Castle . Without Robinson , Portsmouth still reached four consecutive New Hampshire Interscholastic Athletic Association final fours and won the 2012 state championship .
Robinson began his freshman season as a 5 @-@ foot @-@ 7 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) point guard for The Governor 's Academy in 2008 , but did not play much until he became " serviceable " as a junior . In his early years , he shot for hours , attempting to make 1600 shots per week . Robinson started working with trainer Noah LaRoche during his junior season . After Christmas of his junior year , he began to see a future in basketball although he was still coming off the bench . After averaging 18 @.@ 5 points as a senior at The Governor 's Academy , he was selected to the 2012 All @-@ NEPSAC Class B first team and the 2012 All @-@ Independent School League ( ISL ) team . He graduated with a 3 @.@ 55 G.P.A. Following his senior season , he still had visions of an NCAA Division I scholarship offer and opted for the spring and summer Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) circuit and a postgraduate year . Robinson played for Michael Crotty Jr . ' s Middlesex Magic AAU team , who helped win the Basketbull National HOF Championship . Crotty had been a two @-@ time All @-@ American at Williams College , having served as point guard for the 2003 NCAA Division III Tournament champions ( and 2004 Tournament runners up ) . Following his senior season , Robinson measured 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) and 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) . By the end of the summer , he had become 6 feet 8 inches ( 2 @.@ 03 m ) and 195 pounds ( 88 @.@ 5 kg ) .
During the last weekend of September 2012 while on a campus visit , Division III Williams made Robinson an offer that he accepted immediately . At the time , Williams was ranked the number one liberal arts college in the country according to U.S. News & World Report , and the school was a Division III basketball powerhouse . They had gone 93 – 22 over the prior four seasons under head coach Mike Maker . In 2013 , Robinson led Phillips Exeter Academy to its first NEPSAC Class A championship victory on March 10 against Choate Rosemary Hall with a 24 @-@ point , 10 @-@ rebound MVP performance . Exeter finished the season at 28 – 1 . Nonetheless , his only scholarship offer was from NCAA Division II Merrimack College . He also had interest from Division I Brown Bears men 's basketball and Columbia Lions men 's basketball as well as Division III Bates and Amherst .
= = College career = =
= = = Williams College = = =
Prior to the November 15 , 2013 season opener against Southern Vermont College , Williams was the number one ranked Division III basketball program in the nation according to the preseason The Sporting News poll , but Williams lost in the shadow of a home court scheduling conflict despite 5 – 6 shooting by Robinson . Robinson became the only freshman starter in Maker 's six @-@ year tenure as head coach at Williams . In his 2013 – 14 freshman season at Williams , Robinson was twice named New England Small College Athletic Conference ( NESCAC ) Player of the Week during the regular season . Williams reached the 2014 NCAA Men 's Division III Basketball Tournament championship game , but fell 75 – 73 to University of Wisconsin – Whitewater as Robinson scored 17 points . After Williams took a one @-@ point lead with 4 @.@ 9 seconds left , Wisconsin pushed the ball upcourt without calling time @-@ out to score the winning basket in what Chris Strauss of USA Today described as the best NCAA basketball tournament game of the weekend . Robinson had posted 30 points in the tournament semifinal against bitter rival Amherst College who had defeated Williams in the season 's three previous meetings . Williams finished the season with a 28 – 5 record . That season , he led Williams in minutes played ( a school record 1 @,@ 110 ) , points scored ( 548 ) , three @-@ point shots made ( 81 – 179 ) , three + -point % ( 45 @.@ 3 ) , free throw percentage ( 87 @.@ 8 % ) , blocks ( 36 ) and steals ( 36 ) . He averaged 17 @.@ 1 points , 6 @.@ 5 rebounds and 34 @.@ 7 minutes per game . Following the season , he was the NESCAC Rookie of the Year and a Second Team All @-@ NESCAC selection . Robinson became Williams ' first freshman to be named All @-@ American ( 4th team , D3Hoops.com ) , first D3Hoops.com National Rookie of the Year , first freshman NCAA All @-@ Tournament Team selection and first freshman 500 @-@ point scorer . His season was described as " one of the best freshman seasons in Division III men 's basketball history " by Jeremy Leveille of WGAM in a story for NHNotebook.com.
Following the 2013 – 14 season , Maker left Williams to become the head coach for Marist Red Foxes men 's basketball . Robinson was immediately contacted by schools from the ACC , Big 12 , Big Ten , Pac @-@ 12 , Atlantic 10 , Ivy League , Patriot League and American East conferences . Among the schools that were interested were Creighton , Boston College and Providence . After his freshman success , he had decided that he would only leave Williams to play for a winning program that was an elite academic institution and that used a system and style that he had become use to . Robinson had played against Nik Stauskas in NEPSAC play and was impressed with how Michigan 's John Beilein had developed " under @-@ recruited players " such as Stauskas who was a 1st round selection in the 2014 NBA Draft . Maker had been an assistant coach for Beilein at West Virginia from 2005 – 07 . At both Exeter and Williams , Robinson had played in systems that were similar to the one that Beilein runs at Michigan . Robinson asked Maker to contact Beilein who on faith replied that Michigan may have interest at the preferred walk @-@ on level . Robinson was not interested in walk @-@ on consideration given competing scholarship offers . A week later , after seeing video , Beilein said Michigan was considering a scholarship offer . Robinson scheduled visits to Michigan and new Atlantic 10 member Davidson . After the visit to Michigan , Robinson committed to the school . He announced his decision via Twitter on August 6 , 2014 .
= = = University of Michigan = = =
Robinson is the first player to transfer from Division III to Division I with a full scholarship according to some sources . During the 2014 – 15 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season , Robinson redshirted for the 2014 – 15 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team , meaning that he could not participate in games , but could practice with the team . In December 2014 with assistant coach Jeff Meyer as his rebounder , Robinson broke Stauskas ' Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball practice record for three @-@ pointers in a drill ( five minutes , one ball , one rebounder ) by posting 78 , surpassing Stauskas by 3 .
In Robinson 's second game for the 2015 – 16 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team , he posted 19 points on 6 – 6 shooting ( 5 – 5 3 @-@ point shots ) from the floor against Elon . On December 12 , Michigan defeated Delaware State 80 – 33 , as Robinson made his first career start for Michigan by posting 11 points on 3 – 5 three @-@ point shooting . At the time Robinson ranked third in the nation in three @-@ point shooting percentage . Note that various sources have various eligibility thresholds . E.g. , while BigTen.org only requires a minimum of 1 @.@ 0 made per game , NCAA.org requires a minimum of 2 @.@ 5 made per game . On December 23 , Robinson tied his career high ( set twice at Williams ) with six assists against Bryant . The game marked the ninth consecutive game in which he made at least 3 3 @-@ point shots . Robinson entered conference play as the Big Ten leader in three @-@ point field goal percentage and led the Big Ten Conference in both three @-@ point field goals ( 52 ) and three @-@ point field goal percentage ( .565 ) through the first week of the Big Ten Conference schedule . On January 12 , with leading scorer Caris LeVert sidelined , Michigan defeated ( # 3 / # 3 ) Maryland 70 – 67 as Robinson contributed 17 points on 5 – 9 three @-@ point shooting . On January 23 , Michigan defeated Nebraska 81 – 68 , behind a game @-@ high and season @-@ high 21 points by Robinson . With the Cornhusker defense challenging his three @-@ point shot , he scored more points inside the three @-@ point line than outside it for the first time as a Wolverine . The January 27 game against Rutgers marked the 17th consecutive game in which Robinson made at least two three @-@ point shots . Robinson made only one three @-@ point shot in each the subsequent two games against Penn State and ( # 22 / 21 ) Indiana . Nonetheless , Robinson entered the February 6 Michigan – Michigan State men 's basketball rivalry game against the # 10 @-@ ranked 2015 – 16 Spartans as the Big Ten Conference leader in three @-@ point shots made and three @-@ point field goal percentage , but he was held to 0 – 3 three @-@ point shooting in the game . The game marked the first time since the season opener , that Robinson did not make a single three point shot , ending a 22 @-@ game streak . On February 10 , Michigan defeated Minnesota as Robinson posted a game- and season @-@ high nine rebounds to go along with 14 points on 4 @-@ for @-@ 7 three @-@ point shooting .
On March 10 , in Michigan 's first game of the 2016 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament against Northwestern , Robinson scored 21 points including a three @-@ point shot that tied the score with 46 @.@ 5 seconds remaining in overtime . The following day , in the quarterfinals against No. 1 @-@ seeded ( # 10 / # 10 ) Indiana , Robinson again put Michigan in position to win by tieing the score with a three @-@ point shot with 46 seconds remaining ( this time in regulation ) . The following day , in the semifinals against ( # 13 / # 13 ) Purdue , Robinson recorded his 90th three @-@ pointer of the season , becoming just the fifth Wolverine in history to reach the milestone . On March 16 , in the First Four round of the 2016 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , Michigan defeated Tulsa , 67 – 62 , with support from Robinson who recorded his first double @-@ double as a Wolverine with 13 points and a season @-@ high 11 rebounds . Robinson finished the season second to Bryn Forbes ( 48 @.@ 1 % ) among Big Ten players in three @-@ point field goal percentage with a 45 @.@ 0 % mark .
Following the season , several other wing players left the team . Caris LeVert graduated . Aubrey Dawkins transferred to play for the UCF Knights , Kameron Chatman announced his intention to transfer .
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= Frederick III , German Emperor =
Frederick III ( German : Friedrich III . , Deutscher Kaiser und König von Preußen ; 18 October 1831 – 15 June 1888 ) was German Emperor and King of Prussia for ninety @-@ nine days in 1888 , the Year of the Three Emperors . Friedrich Wilhelm Nikolaus Karl , known informally as " Fritz " , was the only son of Emperor Wilhelm I and was raised in his family 's tradition of military service . Although celebrated as a young man for his leadership and successes during the Second Schleswig , Austro @-@ Prussian and Franco @-@ Prussian wars , he nevertheless professed a hatred of warfare and was praised by friends and enemies alike for his humane conduct . Following the unification of Germany in 1871 his father , then King of Prussia , became the German Emperor . Upon Wilhelm 's death at the age of ninety on 9 March 1888 , the throne passed to Frederick , who had by then been Crown Prince for seventeen years . Frederick was suffering from cancer of the larynx when he died on 15 June 1888 , aged fifty @-@ six , following unsuccessful medical treatments for his condition .
Frederick married Princess Victoria , eldest daughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom . The couple were well @-@ matched ; their shared liberal ideology led them to seek greater representation for commoners in the government . Frederick , in spite of his conservative militaristic family background , had developed liberal tendencies as a result of his ties with Britain and his studies at the University of Bonn . As the Crown Prince , he often opposed the conservative Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , particularly in speaking out against Bismarck 's policy of uniting Germany through force , and in urging that the power of the Chancellorship be curbed . Liberals in both Germany and Britain hoped that as emperor , Frederick III would move to liberalize the German Empire .
Frederick and Victoria were great admirers of the Prince Consort of the United Kingdom , Victoria 's father . They planned to rule as consorts , like Albert and Queen Victoria , and to reform what they saw as flaws in the executive branch that Bismarck had created for himself . The office of Chancellor , responsible to the Emperor , would be replaced with a British @-@ style cabinet , with ministers responsible to the Reichstag . Government policy would be based on the consensus of the cabinet . Frederick " described the Imperial Constitution as ingeniously contrived chaos . "
The Crown Prince and Princess shared the outlook of the Progressive Party , and Bismarck was haunted by the fear that should the old Emperor die — and he was now in his seventies — they would call on one of the Progressive leaders to become Chancellor . He sought to guard against such a turn by keeping the Crown Prince from a position of any influence and by using foul means as well as fair to make him unpopular .
However , his illness prevented him from effectively establishing policies and measures to achieve this , and such moves as he was able to make were later abandoned by his son and successor , Wilhelm II .
The timing of Frederick 's death and the length of his reign are important topics among historians . The premature demise of Frederick III is considered a potential turning point in German history ; and whether or not he would have made the Empire more liberal if he had lived longer is still discussed .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Frederick William was born in the New Palace at Potsdam in Prussia on 18 October 1831 . He was a scion of the House of Hohenzollern , rulers of Prussia , then the most powerful of the German states . Frederick 's father , Prince William , was a younger brother of King Frederick William IV and , having been raised in the military traditions of the Hohenzollerns , developed into a strict disciplinarian . William fell in love with his cousin Elisa Radziwill , a Princess of the Polish nobility , but his parents felt Elisa 's rank was not suitable for the bride of a Prussian Prince and forced a more suitable match . The woman selected to be his wife , Princess Augusta of Saxe @-@ Weimar , had been raised in the more intellectual and artistic atmosphere of Weimar , which gave its citizens greater participation in politics and limited the powers of its rulers through a constitution ; Augusta was well @-@ known across Europe for her liberal views . Because of their differences , the couple did not have a happy marriage and , as a result , Frederick grew up in a troubled household , which left him with memories of a lonely childhood . He had one sister , Louise ( later Grand Duchess of Baden ) , who was eight years his junior and very close to him . Frederick also had a very good relationship with his uncle , King Frederick William IV , who has been called " the romantic on the throne " .
Frederick grew up during a tumultuous political period as the concept of liberalism in Germany , which evolved during the 1840s , was gaining widespread and enthusiastic support . The liberals sought a unified Germany and were constitutional monarchists who desired a constitution to ensure equal protection under the law , the protection of property , and the safeguarding of basic civil rights . Overall , the liberals desired a government ruled by popular representation . When Frederick was 17 , these emergent nationalistic and liberal sentiments sparked a series of political uprisings across the German states and elsewhere in Europe . In Germany , their goal was to protect freedoms , such as the freedom of assembly and freedom of the press , and to create a German parliament and constitution . Although the uprisings ultimately brought about no lasting changes , liberal sentiments remained an influential force in German politics throughout Frederick 's life .
Despite the value placed by the Hohenzollern family on a traditional military education , Augusta insisted that her son also receive a classical education . Accordingly , Frederick was thoroughly tutored in both military traditions and the liberal arts . His private tutor was Ernst Curtius , a famous archaeologist . Frederick was a talented student , particularly good at foreign languages , becoming fluent in English and French , and studying Latin . He also studied history , geography , physics , music and religion , and excelled at gymnastics ; as required of a Prussian Prince , he became a very good rider . Hohenzollern princes were made familiar with the military traditions of their dynasty at an early age ; Frederick was ten when he was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the First Infantry Regiment of Guards and invested with the Order of the Black Eagle . As he grew older , he was expected to maintain an active involvement in military affairs . But , at the age of 18 , he broke with family tradition and entered the University of Bonn where he studied history , law and governance and public policy . During his time at Bonn ( 1850 @-@ 1852 ) , his teachers included Ernst Moritz Arndt and Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann . His time spent at the university , coupled with the influence of less conservative family members , were instrumental in his embrace of liberal beliefs .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
Royal marriages of the 19th century were arranged to secure alliances and to maintain blood ties among the European nations . As early as 1851 , Queen Victoria of Great Britain and her German @-@ born Prince @-@ Consort Prince Albert were making plans to marry their eldest daughter , Victoria , Princess Royal , to Frederick . The royal dynasty in Britain was predominantly German ; there was little British blood in Queen Victoria , and none in her husband . The monarchs desired to maintain their family 's blood ties to Germany , and Prince Albert further hoped that the marriage would lead to the liberalization and modernization of Prussia . King Leopold I of Belgium , uncle of the British monarch and consort , also favoured this pairing ; he had long treasured Baron Stockmar 's idea of a marriage alliance between Britain and Prussia . Frederick 's father , Prince William , had no interest in the arrangement , hoping instead for a Russian Grand Duchess as his daughter @-@ in @-@ law . However , Princess Augusta was greatly in favour of a match for her son that would bring closer connections with Britain . In 1851 , his mother sent Frederick to England , ostensibly to visit the Great Exhibition but in truth she hoped that the cradle of liberalism and home of the industrial revolution would have a positive influence on her son . Prince Albert took Frederick under his wing during his stay but it was Albert 's daughter , only eleven at the time , who guided the German prince around the Exhibition . A regular exchange of letters between Victoria and Frederick followed .
Frederick proposed to Victoria in 1855 , when she was 14 years old . The betrothal of the young couple was announced on May 19 , 1857 at Buckingham Palace and the Prussian Court , and their marriage took place on 25 January 1858 in the Chapel Royal of St. James 's Palace , London . To mark the occasion , Frederick was promoted to Major @-@ General in the Prussian army . Although it was an arranged marriage , the newlyweds were compatible from the start and their marriage was a loving one ; Victoria too had received a liberal education and shared her husband 's views . Of the two , Victoria was the dominant one in the relationship . The couple often resided at the Crown Prince 's Palace and had eight children : Wilhelm in 1859 , Charlotte in 1860 , Henry in 1862 , Sigismund in 1864 , Victoria in 1866 , Waldemar in 1868 , Sophia in 1870 and Margaret in 1872 . Sigismund died at the age of 2 and Waldemar at age 11 , and their eldest son , Wilhelm , suffered from a withered arm — probably due to his difficult and dangerous breech birth , although it could have also resulted from a mild case of cerebral palsy . Wilhelm , who became emperor after Frederick 's death , shared none of his parent 's liberal ideas ; his mother viewed him as a " complete Prussian " . This difference in ideology created a rift between Wilhelm and his parents , and relations between them were strained throughout their lives .
= = Political life = =
= = = Crown Prince = = =
When his father succeeded to the Prussian throne as King William I on 2 January 1861 , Frederick became the Crown Prince . Already twenty @-@ nine years old , he would be Crown Prince for a further twenty @-@ seven years . The new king was initially considered politically neutral ; Frederick and Prussia 's liberal elements hoped that he would usher in a new era of liberal policies . The liberals managed to greatly increase their majority in the Prussian Diet ( Landtag ) , but William soon showed that he preferred the conservative ways . On the other hand , Frederick declared himself in complete agreement with the " essential liberal policy for internal and foreign affairs " .
Because William was a dogmatic soldier and unlikely to change his ideas at the age of sixty @-@ four , he regularly clashed with the Diet over policies . In September 1862 , one such disagreement almost led to Frederick being crowned and replacing his father as king ; William threatened to abdicate when the Diet refused to fund his plans for the army 's reorganization . Frederick was appalled by this action , and said that an abdication would " constitute a threat to the dynasty , country and Crown " . William reconsidered , and instead on the advice of Minister of War Albrecht von Roon appointed Otto von Bismarck , who had offered to push through the military reform even against the majority of the Diet , as Minister @-@ President . The appointment of Bismarck , an authoritarian who would often ignore or overrule the Diet , set Frederick on a collision course with his father and led to his exclusion from affairs of state for the rest of William 's reign . Frederick insisted on bloodless " moral conquests " , unifying Germany by liberal and peaceful means , but it was Bismarck 's policy of blood and iron that prevailed . His protests against William 's rule peaked at Danzig on 4 June 1863 , where at an official reception in the city he loudly denounced Bismarck 's restrictions on freedom of the press . He thereby made Bismarck his enemy and his father extremely angry . Consequently , Frederick was excluded from positions of political power throughout his father 's reign . Retaining his military portfolio , he continued to represent Germany and its Emperor at ceremonies , weddings , and celebrations , such as Queen Victoria 's Golden Jubilee in 1887 .
Frederick was severely reproached by his father for his liberal ideas , so he spent a large portion of time in Britain where Queen Victoria frequently allowed him to represent her at ceremonies and social functions .
Frederick fought in the wars against Denmark , Austria and France . Although he had opposed military action in each case , once war had started he supported the Prussian military wholeheartedly and took positions of command . Since he had no political influence at all , these were opportunities to prove himself . Frederick experienced his first combat in the Second Schleswig War . Appointed to supervise the supreme German Confederation commander Field Marshal Wrangel and his staff , the Crown Prince tactfully managed disputes between Wrangel and the other officers . The Prussians and their Austrian allies defeated the Danes and conquered the southern part of Jutland , but after the war they spent two years politicking to assume leadership of the German states . This culminated in the Austro @-@ Prussian War . Frederick " was the only member of the Prussian Crown Council to uphold the rights of the Duke of Augustenberg and oppose the idea of a war with Austria which he described as fratricide . " Although he supported unification and the restoration of the medieval empire , " Fritz could not accept that war was the right way to unite Germany . " . However , when war with Austria broke out , he accepted command of one of Prussia 's three armies , with General Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal as his chief of staff . The timely arrival of his II Army was crucial to the Prussian victory in 1866 at the decisive Battle of Königgrätz , which won the war for Prussia . After the battle , William presented Frederick with the Order Pour le Mérite for his personal gallantry on the field and leadership of the II Army . Nevertheless , the bloodshed caused him great dismay . A few days before Königgrätz , Frederick had written to his wife , expressing his hope that this would be the last war he would have to fight . On the third day of the battle he wrote to her again : " Who knows whether we may not have to wage a third war in order to keep what we have now won ? "
Four years later Frederick was in action again , this time during the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 , in which he was once more paired with Blumenthal and commanded the III Army , consisting of troops from the southern German states . He was praised for his leadership after defeating the French at the battles of Wissembourg and Wörth , and met with further successes at the Battle of Sedan and during the Siege of Paris . Frederick 's humane treatment of his country 's foes earned him their respect and the plaudits of neutral observers . After the Battle of Wörth , a London journalist witnessed the Crown Prince 's many visits to wounded Prussian soldiers and lauded his deeds , extolling the love and respect the soldiers held for Frederick . Following his victory , Frederick had remarked to two Paris journalists , " I do not like war gentlemen . If I should reign I would never make it . " One French journalist remarked that " the Crown Prince has left countless traits of kindness and humanity in the land that he fought against . " For his behaviour and accomplishments , The Times wrote a tribute to Frederick in July 1871 , stating that " the Prince has won as much honour for his gentleness as for his prowess in the war " .
= = = German Empire and brief reign = = =
In 1871 , following Prussia 's victories , the German states were united into the German Empire , with William as the Emperor and Frederick as heir @-@ apparent to the new German monarchy . Although William thought the day when he became Emperor the saddest of his life , Frederick was excited to be witness to a great day in German history . Bismarck , now Chancellor , disliked Frederick and distrusted the liberal attitudes of the Crown Prince and Princess . Often at odds with his father 's and Bismarck 's policies and actions , Frederick sided with the country 's liberals in their opposition to the expansion of the empire 's army . The Crown Prince also became involved in many public works projects , such as the establishment of schools and churches in the area of Bornstedt near Potsdam . To assist his father 's effort to turn Berlin , the capital city , into a great cultural centre , he was appointed Protector of Public Museums ; it was largely due to Frederick that considerable artistic collections were acquired , housed in Berlin 's new Kaiser Friedrich Museum ( later known as the Bode Museum ) after his death . In 1878 , when his father was incapacitated by injury from an assassination attempt , Frederick briefly took over his tasks but was soon relegated to the sidelines once again . His lack of influence affected him deeply , even causing him to think about suicide .
During an effort led , between 1879 and 1881 , by the völkisch historian Heinrich von Treitschke and the court chaplain , Adolf Stoecker to dis @-@ emancipate German Jews , the Crown Prince and Crown Princess were in opposition , Victoria writing that she saw " Treitschke and his supporters as lunatics of the most dangerous sort " , and opining that Pastor Stoecker properly belonged in an insane asylum . She went on to write that she felt ashamed of her adopted country because people like Treitschke and Stoecker " behave so hatefully towards people of a different faith and another race who become an integral part ( and by no means the worst ) of our nation ! " . Clad in the uniform of a Prussian field marshal Frederick , together with Victoria , attended a synagogue service in Berlin in 1880 to show support for tolerance in contrast to what Victoria called Treitscke 's " disgraceful attacks " . Shortly afterward , Frederick gave a speech denouncing the anti @-@ Semitic movement in Germany as " a shameful blot on our time " , adding that " We are ashamed of the Judenhetze which has broken all bounds of decency in Berlin , but which seems to flourish under the protection of the Court clerics . " In 1881 , Frederick and Victoria again attended a synagogue service , this time in Wiesbaden " to demonstrate as clearly as we can what our convictions are " . Frederick followed this up by giving a speech in which he spoke out for " poor , ill @-@ treated Jews " of Europe . Frederick 's mother @-@ in @-@ law , Queen Victoria , wrote to thank him for his speech , saying she was proud that her daughter had married someone like him , but within Junker circles , Frederick was widely criticised for his actions in support of the Jews . Prominent among the Crown Prince 's critics was his eldest son , Prince Wilhelm , who called his father a weak , cowardly man controlled by his British mother and the Jews . Beyond Wilhelm , many of the " reactionary and ' chauvinistic ' circles in Germany " had , in the words of the British historian John C. G. Röhl come to the " ... conviction that the Crown Prince and his liberal English wife were an alien , un @-@ German force that must not be allowed to accede to the throne " .
Germany 's progressive elements hoped that William 's death , and thus Frederick 's succession , would usher the country into a new era governed along liberal lines . The conservative William , however , lived a long life , dying at the age of 90 on 9 March 1888 . Logically , Frederick should have taken as his regnal name either Frederick I ( if the Bismarckian empire was considered a new entity ) or Frederick IV ( if it was considered a continuation of the old Holy Roman Empire , which had had three emperors named Frederick ) ; he himself preferred the latter . However , on the advice of Bismarck that this would create legal problems , he opted to simply keep the same regnal name he had as king of Prussia . By the time he ascended the throne , Frederick was 56 years old and suffering from a debilitating cancer of the larynx . He viewed his illness with dismay , crying " To think I should have such a horrid disgusting illness ... I had so hoped to have been of use to my country . " He received conflicting medical advice regarding treatment . In Germany , Doctor Ernst von Bergmann proposed to remove the larynx completely , but his colleague , Doctor Rudolf Virchow , disagreed ; such an operation had never been performed without the death of the patient . The British doctor Sir Morell Mackenzie , who had diagnosed the cancer , advised a tracheotomy , to which Frederick and his wife agreed . On 8 February , a month before his father died , a cannula was fitted to allow Frederick to breathe ; for the remainder of his life he was unable to speak and often communicated through writing . During the operation , Dr. Bergmann almost killed him by missing the incision in the trachea and forcing the cannula into the wrong place . Frederick started to cough and bleed , and Bergmann placed his forefinger into the wound to enlarge it . The bleeding subsided after two hours , but Bergmann 's actions resulted in an abscess in Frederick 's neck , producing pus which gave the new Emperor discomfort for the remaining months of his life . Later , Frederick would ask " Why did Bergmann put his finger in my throat ? " and complain that " Bergmann ill @-@ treated [ me ] " . The diagnosis and treatment of Prince Frederick 's fatal illness caused some medical controversy well into the next century .
In spite of his illness , Frederick did his best to fulfill his obligations as Emperor . Immediately after the announcement of his accession , he took the ribbon and star of his Order of the Black Eagle from his jacket and pinned it on the dress of his wife ; he was determined to honor her position as Empress . As the German Emperor , he officially received Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom ( his mother @-@ in @-@ law ) and King Oscar II of Sweden and Norway , and attended the wedding of his son Prince Henry to his niece Princess Irene . However , Frederick reigned for only 99 days , and was unable to bring about much lasting change . An edict he penned before he ascended to the throne that would limit the powers of the chancellor and monarch under the constitution was never put into effect , although he did force Robert von Puttkamer to resign as Prussian Minister of the Interior on 8 June , when evidence indicated that Puttkamer had interfered in the Reichstag elections . Dr. Mackenzie wrote that the Emperor had " an almost overwhelming sense of the duties of his position " . In a letter to Lord Napier , Empress Victoria wrote " The Emperor is able to attend to his business , and do a great deal , but not being able to speak is , of course , most trying . " Frederick had the fervour but not the time to accomplish his desires , lamenting in May 1888 , " I cannot die ... What would happen to Germany ? "
Frederick III died in Potsdam on 15 June 1888 , and was succeeded by his 29 @-@ year @-@ old son Wilhelm II . Frederick is buried in a mausoleum attached to the Friedenskirche in Potsdam . After his death , William Ewart Gladstone described him as the " Barbarossa of German liberalism " . Empress Victoria went on to continue spreading Frederick 's thoughts and ideals throughout Germany , but no longer had power within the government .
= = Legacy = =
Frederick believed a state should not act against the popular opinion of its inhabitants . He had a long history of liberalism , and had discussed his ideas and intentions with Victoria and others before his reign . Admiring Prince Albert of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha and the British parliamentary system , Frederick and his wife planned to rule as consorts and liberalize Germany through the appointment of more liberal ministers . They intended to severely limit the office of Chancellor , and reorganize Germany to include many elements of British liberalism . Many historians , including William Harbutt Dawson and Erich Eyck , consider that Frederick 's early death put an end to the development of liberalism within the German empire . They believe that , given a longer reign and better health , Frederick might indeed have transformed Germany into a more liberal democratic country , and prevented its militaristic path toward war . Dr. J. McCullough claims that Frederick would have averted World War I — and by extension the resulting Weimar Republic — while other historians such as Michael Balfour go even further by postulating that , as the end of World War I directly affected the state of the world 's development , the liberal German Emperor might also have prevented the outbreak of World War II . Author Michael Freund states outright that both world wars would have been averted had Frederick lived longer . Frederick 's life inspired historian Frank Tipton to speculate : " What would have happened had his father died sooner or if he himself had lived longer ? "
Other historians , including Wilhelm Mommsen and Arthur Rosenberg , oppose the idea that Frederick could have , or would have , liberalized Germany . They believe that he would not have dared to oppose both his father and Bismarck to change Germany 's course ; a natural soldier , he was steeped in his family 's strong military tradition , and had happily reported to his father since he joined the army at the age of ten . Andreas Dorpalen notes that Frederick had complied with most of William 's and Bismarck 's policies early in his life , and would have been unlikely to change his behaviour . According to Arthur Rosenberg , despite his liberal tendencies Frederick still firmly believed in Bismarck and his system , with Dorpalen adding that in any case Frederick had too weak and ineffectual a character to have brought about real change , regardless of how long he reigned . James J. Sheehan states that the political climate and party system of Germany during that period were too steeped in the old ways for Frederick to overcome with liberalization . Dorpalen also observes that Frederick 's liberal persona may have been exaggerated after his death , to keep the liberal movement strong in Germany , and he points out that the many mistakes made by Wilhelm II helped to paint his father in a more favorable light .
Frederick 's children — Wilhelm in particular — held various political positions and greatly influenced Europe . Unlike his father , Wilhelm had not personally experienced the horrors of war , and he enthusiastically embraced his family 's military heritage , coming under Bismarck 's tutelage . The Chancellor , who disapproved of Frederick 's and Victoria 's liberal ways , felt bound to increase the tensions between Wilhelm and his parents . Wilhelm grew up full of disdain for their opinions on government , and shortly after his father 's death , proclaimed that he would follow the path of his grandfather , William I. He made no reference to Frederick III . William II abandoned all of his father 's policies and ideas , and eventually led Germany into World War I.
Bismarck 's plan of undermining Frederick and Victoria , and of using Wilhelm II as a tool for retaining his own power , led to his own downfall . As it turned out , Wilhelm did share his father 's conviction that the position of the chancellor was too strong and should be modified in favour of a more powerful Emperor . When Bismarck realized that Wilhelm II was about to dismiss him :
All Bismarck 's resources were deployed ; he even asked Empress Victoria to use her influence with her son on his behalf . But the wizard had lost his magic ; his spells were powerless because they were exerted on people who did not respect them , and he who had so signally disregarded Kant 's command to use people as ends in themselves had too small a stock of loyalty to draw on . As Lord Salisbury told Queen Victoria : ' The very qualities which Bismarck fostered in the Emperor in order to strengthen himself when the Emperor Frederick should come to the throne have been the qualities by which he has been overthrown . ' The Empress , with what must have been a mixture of pity and triumph , told him that her influence with her son could not save him for he himself had destroyed it .
Churches honouring Frederick include the Kaiser @-@ Friedrich @-@ Gedächtniskirche in Berlin and the former Kalthof Church in Königsberg . Mount Frederick William in the Jervis Inlet area of the British Columbia Coast in Canada is named in his honour .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
18 October 1831 – 2 January 1861 : His Royal Highness Prince Frederick of Prussia
2 January 1861 – 18 January 1871 : His Royal Highness The Crown Prince of Prussia
18 January 1871 – 9 March 1888 : His Imperial and Royal Highness The German Crown Prince , Crown Prince of Prussia
9 March 1888 – 15 June 1888 : His Imperial and Royal Majesty The German Emperor , King of Prussia
= = = Honours = = =
Domestic
He was Grand Master of the following orders :
Order of the Black Eagle
Order of Merit of the Prussian Crown
Order of the Red Eagle
Order of the Crown ( Prussia )
Royal House Order of Hohenzollern
Pour le Mérite
Grand Cross of the Iron Cross
Order of St. John ( Bailiwick of Brandenburg )
Kingdom of Bavaria : Knight Grand Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph
Kingdom of Bavaria : Knight of the Order of Saint Hubert
Kingdom of Saxony : Knight Grand Cross of the Military Order of Saint Henry
Foreign
Denmark : Knight of the Order of the Elephant
Holy See : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem
Hungary : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Kingdom of Italy : Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation
Kingdom of Italy : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Kingdom of Italy : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy
Sovereign Military Order of Malta : Knight of the Order of Malta
Russia : Knight of the Order of St. Andrew
Russia : Knight of the Order of St. George
Spain : Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece
Sweden : Knight of the Order of Charles XIII
United Kingdom : Knight of the Order of the Garter
United Kingdom : Royal Victorian Order
= = Ancestry = =
= = Issue = =
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= Saw ( 2004 film ) =
Saw is a 2004 American psychological horror film directed by James Wan . It is Wan 's feature film directorial debut . The screenplay , written by Leigh Whannell , is based on a story by Wan and Whannell . The film stars Cary Elwes , Danny Glover , Monica Potter , Michael Emerson , Ken Leung , Tobin Bell and Leigh Whannell . In the film , Elwes and Whannell portrayed two men who awake to find themselves chained in a large dilapidated bathroom , with one being ordered to kill the other or his family will die . It is the first installment of the seven @-@ part Saw franchise .
The debut of Wan and Whannell , the screenplay was written in 2001 , but after failed attempts to get the script produced in Wan and Whannell 's home country of Australia , they were urged to travel to Los Angeles . In order to help attract producers they shot a low @-@ budget short film of the same name from a scene out of the script . This proved successful in 2003 as producers from Evolution Entertainment were immediately attached and also formed a horror genre production label Twisted Pictures . The film was given a small budget and shot for 18 days .
Saw was first screened on January 19 , 2004 . Lionsgate picked up the rights and released the film in the United States and Canada on October 29 , 2004 . Critical responses were generally mixed and divided , but the film gained a cult following . Compared to its low budget , Saw performed very well at the box office , grossing more than $ 100 million worldwide and becoming , at the time , one of the most profitable horror films since 1996 's Scream . The success of the film prompted a green @-@ light of a sequel soon after Saw 's opening weekend , which was released the following October .
The film was theatrically re @-@ released by Lionsgate on October 31 , 2014 to celebrate its tenth anniversary .
= = Plot = =
Adam , a photographer , awakens in a bathtub in a large dilapidated bathroom , and finds himself chained at the ankle to a pipe . Lawrence Gordon , an oncologist , is similarly shackled across the room , and between them is a corpse holding a revolver and a microcassette recorder . Each man has a tape in his pocket , and Adam is able to retrieve the recorder . Adam 's tape urges him to escape the bathroom , while Lawrence 's tape tells him to kill Adam by six o 'clock , or his wife and daughter will be killed and he will be left to die . Adam finds a bag containing two hacksaws inside a toilet tank ; they attempt to cut through the chains , but Adam 's saw breaks and he angrily throws it at the mirror . Lawrence realizes the hacksaws are meant for their feet and identifies their captor as the Jigsaw Killer , whom Lawrence knows of because he was a suspect five months before .
Flashbacks show that while Lawrence was discussing the terminal brain cancer of a patient , identified as John by an orderly named Zep Hindle , with his medical students , he was approached by Detectives David Tapp and Steven Sing , who found his penlight at the scene of a Jigsaw " game " , of which at least three have been investigated . Lawrence 's alibi clears him , but he reluctantly agrees to view the testimony of the only known survivor , a heroin addict named Amanda Young , who believes Jigsaw has helped her .
Meanwhile , Alison and Diana Gordon are being held captive in their home by Zep , who is watching Adam and Lawrence through a camera behind a two @-@ way mirror in the bathroom . The house is simultaneously being watched by Tapp , who has since been discharged from the force . Flashbacks show that Tapp became obsessed with the Jigsaw case after hearing Amanda 's testimony , and eventually found Jigsaw 's warehouse using the videotape from her game . He and Sing entered the warehouse , where they apprehended Jigsaw and saved a man from a drill trap , but Jigsaw escaped after slashing Tapp 's throat , and Sing was killed by a shotgun trap while pursuing him . Convinced that Lawrence is Jigsaw , Tapp began stalking him after his discharge .
In the bathroom , Lawrence finds a box containing a lighter , two cigarettes , and a one @-@ way cellphone . He then recalls his abduction : he was trying to use his phone after being trapped in a parking garage , and was suddenly attacked by a pig @-@ masked figure . They try to use a cigarette dipped in the corpse 's " poisoned " blood to stage Adam 's death , but the plan fails when Adam is zapped through his ankle chain . Adam then recalls his own abduction : he woke up in his photo development room to find the power was out and , after finding a puppet , was attacked by a similar pig @-@ masked figure . At gunpoint , Alison calls Lawrence and tells him not to trust Adam , who admits he was being paid to take photos of Lawrence , many of which were in the hacksaw bag . Adam also reveals his knowledge of Lawrence 's affair with one of his medical students ; Lawrence had been with her before he was abducted . Lawrence realizes from Adam 's description that Tapp was paying him . Adam finds a photo he didn 't take , of a man staring out a window of Lawrence 's house , whom Lawrence identifies as Zep . The clock then strikes six .
As Alison , who managed to free herself , calls Lawrence at gunpoint again , she fights Zep for the gun . The struggle gets Tapp 's attention , and he saves the Gordons and chases Zep to the sewers , where he is eventually shot during a struggle . Lawrence , aware only of gunshots and screaming , is zapped as well and loses reach of the phone ; in desperation , he saws off his foot and shoots Adam with the corpse 's revolver . Zep enters the bathroom to kill Lawrence , but is knocked down and beaten to death with the toilet tank cover by Adam , who only suffered a flesh wound . As Lawrence crawls out of the room to find help , Adam searches Zep 's body for a key and finds another microcassette recorder , which reveals that Zep was another victim , following the rules of his own game to survive a slow @-@ acting poison . As the tape ends , the " corpse " rises and is revealed to be Lawrence 's patient , John , the real Jigsaw Killer . He says the key to the chain is in the bathtub , which was drained when Adam awoke . He zaps Adam , who loses reach of Zep 's pistol , and then turns off the lights and seals the bathroom door , leaving Adam to die .
= = Cast = =
Cary Elwes as Dr. Lawrence Gordon
Leigh Whannell as Adam Stanheight
Tobin Bell as John Kramer
Danny Glover as David Tapp
Monica Potter as Alison Gordon
Michael Emerson as Zep Hindle
Ken Leung as Detective Steven Sing
Makenzie Vega as Diana Gordon
Shawnee Smith as Amanda Young
Dina Meyer as Detective Allison Kerry
Alexandra Bokyun Chun as Carla
Mike Butters as Paul Leahy
Paul Gutrecht as Mark Wilson
Ned Bellamy as Jeff Ridenhour
Oren Koules as Donnie Greco
= = Production = =
= = = Development and writing = = =
After finishing film school , Australian director James Wan and Australian writer Leigh Whannell wanted to write and fund a film . The inspiration that they needed came after watching the low @-@ budget independent film The Blair Witch Project . Another film that inspired them to finance the film themselves was Darren Aronofsky 's Pi . The two thought the cheapest script to shoot would involve two actors in one room . Whannell said , " So I actually think the restrictions we had on our bank accounts at the time , the fact that we wanted to keep the film contained , helped us come up with the ideas in the film . " One idea was to have the entire film set with two actors stuck in an elevator and being shot in the point of view of security cameras .
Wan pitched the idea to Whannell of two men chained to opposite sides of a bathroom with a dead body in the middle of the floor and they are trying to figure out why and how they are there . By the end of the film they realize the person lying on the floor is not dead and he is the reason they are locked in the room . Whannell initially did not give Wan the reaction he was looking for . He said , " I 'll never forget that day . I remember hanging up the phone and started just going over it in my head , and without any sort of long period of pondering , I opened my diary that I had at the time and wrote the word ' Saw ' . " Before instantaneously writing the word " Saw " in a blood @-@ red , dripping font , the two had not come up with a title . " It was one of those moments that made me aware that some things just really are meant to be . Some things are just waiting there to be discovered , " Whannell said .
The character of Jigsaw did not come until months later , when Whannell was working at a job he was unhappy with and began having migraines . Convinced it was a brain tumor , he went to a neurologist to have an MRI and while sitting nervously in the waiting room he thought , " What if you were given the news that you had a tumor and you were going to die soon ? How would you react to that ? " He imagined the character Jigsaw having been given one or two years to live and combined that with the idea of Jigsaw putting others in a literal version of the situation , but only giving them a few minutes to choose their fate .
Wan did not intend to make a " torture porn " film as the script only had one short segment of " torture . " He said the film " played out like a mystery thriller . " It was not until the sequels that the plot focused more on torture scenes .
= = = Funding = = =
Whannell and Wan initially had $ 30 @,@ 000 to spend on the film , but as the script developed it was clear that more funds would be needed . The script was optioned by a producer in Sydney for a year but the deal eventually fell through . After other failed attempts to get the script produced in Australia from 2001 to 2002 , literary agent Ken Greenblat read the script and suggested they travel to Los Angeles , where their chances of finding an interested studio were greater . Wan and Whannell initially refused , due to lack of traveling funds but the pair 's agent , Stacey Testro , convinced them to go . In order to help studios take interest in the script , Whannell provided A $ 5 @,@ 000 ( US $ 5 @,@ 000 ) to make a seven @-@ minute short film based on the script 's jaw trap scene , which they thought would prove most effective . Whannell played David , the man wearing the Reverse Bear Trap . Working at the Australian Broadcasting Corporation , Whannell and Wan knew cameramen who were willing to provide technical assistance for the short .
Wan shot the short with a 16mm camera in over two days and transferred the footage to DVDs to ship along with the script . Whannell wanted to play the lead character in the feature film . The short helped show that Wan and Whannell was a " director @-@ actor team " rather than just wanting to sell the script . Wan said , " Leigh and I just loved the project so much and we wanted a career in filmmaking so we stuck to our guns and said , ' Look , guys , if you want this project , we 're coming on board - Leigh has to act in it and I have to direct it . "
In early 2003 , while in Los Angeles and before they met with producer Gregg Hoffman , Hoffman 's friend pulled him into his office and showed him the short . Hoffman said , " About two or three minutes into it , my jaw hit the floor . " He quickly showed the short and script to his partners Mark Burg and Oren Koules of Evolution Entertainment . They later formed Twisted Pictures as a horror genre production label . The producers read the screenplay that night and two days later offered Wan and Whannell creative control and 25 % of the net profits . Even though Wan and Whannell received " better offers " from studios like DreamWorks and Gold Circle Films , they were not willing to chance Wan 's directing and Whannell acting in the lead role . In order to finance the film , Hoffman , Burg , and Koules put up a second mortgage on their Highland Avenue headquarters . Saw was given a production budget of between $ 1 million and $ 1 @.@ 2 million .
= = = Casting = = =
Elwes was sent the short film on DVD and immediately became interested in the film . He read the script in one sitting and was drawn in by the " uniqueness and originality " of the story . To prepare for his role as an oncologist , he met with a doctor at UCLA 's Department of Neurosurgery .
Smith , who is not a horror fan , initially refused the role , calling the script " horrific . " However , after watching the short , she agreed to the role , which was the part that Whannell portrayed in the short .
On taking the role of Jigsaw , Bell said - " I did Saw because I thought it was a fascinating location for a film to be made . These guys locked in a room , to me , was fresh . I did not anticipate the ending when I read the script , so I was quite caught by surprise and it was clear to me that if the filmmakers shot the scene well , the audience would be caught by surprise as well . The film was worth doing for that moment alone . "
= = = Filming and post @-@ production = = =
With a shooting budget of $ 700 @,@ 000 , Saw began principal photography on September 22 , 2003 at Lacy Street Production Facility in Los Angeles for 18 days . The bathroom was the only set that had to be built . Danny Glover completed his scenes in two days . Due to the tight shooting schedule , Wan could not afford to shoot more than a couple of takes per actor . " It was a really tough struggle for me . Every day , it was me fighting to get the shots I did not get . I had high aspirations , but there 's only so much you can do . I wanted to make it in a very Hitchcockian style of filmmaking , but that style of filmmaking takes time to set up and so on , " Wan said about the very short shooting schedule . He said the style instead ended up being " more gritty and rough around the edges due to the lack of time and money that we had to shoot the movie with " and it ultimately became the aesthetic of the film .
In post @-@ production , Wan found he did not have enough shots or takes to work with as he was basically shooting rehearsals . Having a lot of missing gaps in the final product , he and editor Kevin Greutert created shots to mend together during editing ; such as making a shot look like a surveillance camera feed and using still photographs . " We did a lot of things to fill in gaps throughout the film . Whatever we cut to newspaper clippings and stuff like that , or we cut to surveillance cameras , or we cut to still photography within the film , which now people say , ' Wow , that 's such a cool experimental style of filmmaking ' , we really did that out of necessity to fill in gaps we did not get during the filming , " he explained .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack was mainly composed by Charlie Clouser , which took six weeks to complete . Other songs were performed by Front Line Assembly , Fear Factory , Enemy , Pitbull Daycare and Psycho Pumps . Megadeth 's song " Die Dead Enough " was originally set to be featured in the film , but was not used for undisclosed reasons .
The soundtrack was released on October 5 , 2004 by Koch Records . Johnny Loftus of Allmusic gave it three out of five stars . He said that Clouser " really nails it with his creaky , clammy score " and that he " understands that Saw 's horror only works with a heady amount of camp , and he draws from industrial music in the same way . " He particularly liked , " Cigarette " ; " Hello , Adam " ; and " F * * k This S * ! t , " commenting that they " blend chilling sounds with harsh percussion and deep @-@ wound keyboard stabs . "
= = Release = =
Lionsgate picked up Saw 's worldwide distribution rights at the Sundance Film Festival days before the film premiered on January 19 , 2004 . There it played to a packed theater for three nights to a very positive reaction . It was the closing film at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 18 , 2004 . Lionsgate initially planned to release the film direct @-@ to @-@ video , but due to the positive reaction at Sundance , they chose to release it theatrically by Halloween . It was released on October 1 , 2004 in the United Kingdom , October 29 , 2004 in the United States and December 2 , 2004 in Australia . The film was originally rated NC @-@ 17 ( No children under 17 permitted ) by the Motion Picture Association of America for strong graphic violence , though after being re @-@ edited , it was released with an R rating . Lionsgate held the first annual " Give Til It Hurts " blood drive for the Red Cross and collected 4 @,@ 249 pints of blood .
= = = Tenth anniversary re @-@ release = = =
On October 31 , 2014 , in honor of the film 's 10th anniversary , Saw was re @-@ released to theatres for one week .
The release was a box office bomb , earning only $ 650 @,@ 051 in its opening weekend , and is the third lowest @-@ grossing wide opening . At the end of its run , the release had grossed $ 815 @,@ 324 , bringing the film 's overall domestic gross to $ 56 @,@ 000 @,@ 369 .
= = = Home media = = =
The theatrical version of the film was released on VHS and DVD on February 15 , 2005 in the United States . After its first week , it made $ 9 @.@ 4 million in DVD rentals and $ 1 @.@ 7 million in VHS rentals , making it the top rental of the week . For the second week it remained as the number one DVD rental with $ 6 @.@ 8 million , for a $ 16 @.@ 27 million two @-@ week total . It dropped to third place in VHS rentals with $ 1 @.@ 09 million , for a $ 2 @.@ 83 million two @-@ week total . The film went on to sell more than $ 70 million worth of video and DVDs . A two @-@ disc " Uncut Edition " was released on October 18 , 2005 to tie in with the release of Saw II . The short film , also entitled Saw , was included on the DVD . The film was subsequently included in a boxed set with all six sequels entitled Saw : The Complete Movie Collection , which was released in September , 2014 for the film 's tenth anniversary . The set contained the unrated editions of all seven films , though it lacked any of the special features from previous releases .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Saw opened at # 3 on Halloween weekend 2004 in 2 @,@ 315 theaters and grossed $ 18 @.@ 2 million , behind Ray ( $ 20 million ) and The Grudge ( $ 21 @.@ 8 million ) . According to Lionsgate 's exit poll , 60 % of the mostly male audience was under 25 years of age . Saw had also become Lionsgate 's second best opening , after Fahrenheit 9 / 11 's $ 23 @.@ 9 million ( 2004 ) . On its second weekend , an additional 152 theaters were added , bringing the theater count to 2 @,@ 467 . It dropped to number four , making $ 11 million , a 39 % drop from the opening weekend .
Saw opened in the United Kingdom to $ 2 @.@ 2 million in 301 theaters , grossing a $ 12 @.@ 3 million total in seven weeks . In Australia , it opened in 161 theaters with $ 1 @.@ 2 million and totaled out to $ 3 @.@ 1 million in six weeks . In Italy , the film opened on January 14 , 2005 in 267 theaters to $ 1 @.@ 7 million and grossed $ 6 @.@ 4 million in six weeks . Saw opened to $ 1 @.@ 5 million 187 theaters in France on March 16 , 2005 and made $ 3 @.@ 1 million by the end of its four @-@ week run . Saw came to gross $ 55 @.@ 1 million in the United States and Canada and $ 47 @.@ 9 million in other markets for a worldwide total of $ 103 million . It is the second lowest grossing film in the series after Saw VI . At the time , it became the most profitable horror film after Scream ( 1996 ) .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Critical reception to Saw was mixed . On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 48 % , based on 181 reviews , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 5 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads , " Saw is more than nasty enough for genre junkies , but far too twisted , gory , and shallow for more discerning horror fans . " Metacritic gave the film a score of 46 out of 100 , based on 32 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
Dennis Harvey of Variety gave the film a negative review after its Sundance premiere . He called it a " crude concoction sewn together from the severed parts of prior horror / serial killer pics . " He called the screenplay " convoluted , " criticizing the use of " flashbacks within flashbacks " and red herrings . He described the film as being " too hyperbolic to be genuinely disturbing . " Carla Meyer of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film a positive review saying the film " combined B @-@ movie acting with a twisted mind @-@ set and visual tricks designed to camouflage cheap effects " and that it was " terrifying at some moments and insinuatingly creepy at many others . " She called the killing scenes " amazingly evocative for such a low @-@ budget movie . "
Empire 's Kim Newman gave the film four out of five stars . He said Saw is styled like early David Fincher films and " boasts an intricate structure - complex flashbacks @-@ within @-@ flashbacks explain how the characters have come to this crisis - and a satisfying mystery to go with its ghastly claustrophobia . " He ended his review saying , " As good an all @-@ out , non @-@ camp horror movie as we 've had lately . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B minus , calling it " derivative and messy and too nonsensical for its own good . " He described Jigsaw 's intent as " to show you the serial killer lurking inside yourself . " Gleiberman criticized Elwes ' performance by saying , " [ Elwes ] ought to be featured in a seminar on the perils of overacting . " Daniel M. Kimmel of the Telegram & Gazette called it " one of the most loathsome films this critic has seen in more than 20 years on the job . "
The New York Times 's Stephen Holden gave a mixed review saying the film " does a better @-@ than @-@ average job of conveying the panic and helplessness of men terrorized by a sadist in a degrading environment , but it is still not especially scary . What sets its demon apart from run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill movie serial killers is his impulse to humiliate and torture his victims and justify it with some twisted morality . " He said the film is " seriously undermined by the half @-@ baked , formulaic detective story in which the horror is framed . " Carina Chocano of the Los Angeles Times also gave the film a mixed review saying , " Saw is so full of twists it ends up getting snarled . For all of his flashy engineering and inventive torture scenarios , the Jigsaw Killer comes across as an amateur . Hannibal Lecter would have him for lunch . " She said the film " carelessly underscores its own shaky narrative at every turn with its mid @-@ budget hokiness . " She also noted that Elwes and Whannell had trouble keeping an American accent . Another mixed review came from Roger Ebert , who gave the film 2 out of 4 stars and lamented the gimmicks and plot contrivances but nonetheless described Saw as " well made and acted , and does what it does about as well as it could be expected to . "
= = = Comparisons to Seven ( 1995 ) = = =
When asked if the 1995 thriller film Seven was an inspiration to Saw , Whannell said " For me as the writer , definitely . I mean , Seven is just a very well constructed film , and if you 're writing a thriller , it can 't hurt to study it . In terms of the story though , James and I never really felt Seven was that close to our film . I guess if you stand back , you have two detectives chasing a psychopath , who uses vile methods to teach people lessons , and those points echo Seven . What we always liked about Saw , though , was the fact that the story is told from the point of view of two of the psychopath 's victims , instead of the police chasing after him , as you so often see . " Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman compared the plot to Seven saying , " In a blatant imitation of Seven , Saw features a lunatic sadist whose ghoulish crimes are meant , in each case , to mirror the sins of his victims . The twist here is that the psycho doesn 't do the killing . " Richard J. Leskosky of Champaign @-@ Urbana 's The News @-@ Gazette said " Saw wants to be taken as another Seven . Though it features perverse gross @-@ out scenes and a villain with a superficially pedantic motive behind his crimes ( his victims , if they survive , have learned to appreciate life more ) , it lacks the finesse and polish of the David Fincher film . "
= = = Accolades = = =
On Empire magazine 's list of the 500 greatest films , Saw ranked 499th . Bloody Disgusting ranked the film tenth in its list of the Top 20 Horror Films of the Decade , with the article calling Saw " perhaps the most influential horror film of the decade , which kick @-@ started a franchise .... In light of its measly $ 1 @.@ 2 million price tag the film 's quality relative to bigger @-@ budget horror films is striking . It also takes itself seriously , which came as a breath of fresh air following the trend of wimpy tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek horror that had dominated the multiplexes post @-@ Scream . More than anything , this twisted morality tale is a film made by horror fans , for horror fans ; it 's gory , it 's depraved , and best of all it introduced a new horror icon in Jigsaw . " The Daily Telegraph listed the film number 14 on their Top 100 list that defined the 2000s .
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= Lawrence Wetherby =
Lawrence Winchester Wetherby ( January 2 , 1908 – March 27 , 1994 ) was an American politician who served as lieutenant governor and governor of Kentucky . He is the only governor in state history born in Jefferson County , despite the fact that Louisville , the county seat , is the state 's most populous city .
After graduating from the University of Louisville , Wetherby held several minor offices in the Jefferson County judicial system before being elected lieutenant governor in 1947 . He was called Kentucky 's first " working " lieutenant governor because Governor Earle C. Clements asked him to carry out duties beyond his constitutional responsibility to preside over the state Senate , such as preparing the state budget and attending the Southern Governors Conference . In 1950 , Clements resigned to assume a seat in the U.S. Senate , elevating Wetherby to governor . Wetherby won immediate acclaim by calling a special legislative session to increase funding for education and government benefits from the state 's budget surplus . In 1951 , he won a four @-@ year full term as governor , during which he continued and expanded many of Clements ' programs , including increased road construction and industrial diversification . He endorsed the Supreme Court 's 1954 desegregation order in the case of Brown v. Board of Education and appointed a biracial commission to oversee the successful integration of the state 's schools . As chair of the Southern Governors Conference in 1954 and 1955 , he encouraged other southern governors to accept and implement desegregation .
Limited to one term by the state constitution , Wetherby supported Bert T. Combs to be his successor , but Combs lost in the Democratic primary to A. B. " Happy " Chandler , a former governor and factional opponent of both Wetherby and Clements . Chandler 's failure to support Wetherby 's 1956 bid to succeed Democrat Alben Barkley in the Senate contributed to his loss to Republican John Sherman Cooper . From 1964 to 1966 , Wetherby served on a commission charged with revising the state constitution , and in 1966 he was elected to the Kentucky Senate , where he provided leadership in drafting the state budget . Following this , he retired from politics and served as a consultant for Brighton Engineering . He died March 27 , 1994 of complications from a broken hip and was buried in Frankfort Cemetery in Frankfort , Kentucky .
= = Early life and career = =
Lawrence Wetherby was born January 2 , 1908 in Middletown , Kentucky . He was the fourth child of Samuel Davis and Fanny ( Yenowine ) Wetherby . His grandfather was a surgeon in the Union Army during the Civil War . His father was also a physician and farmer , and during his childhood years , Wetherby worked on the family farm .
After graduating from Anchorage High School , Wetherby enrolled in the pre @-@ law program at the University of Louisville . He was a letterman on the football team in 1927 and 1928 ; he also played second base on the baseball team in 1928 and 1929 , and was a letterman in that sport in 1929 . He was later inducted into the university 's Athletic Hall of Fame . In 1929 , he earned his Bachelor of Laws degree and went to work for Judge Henry Tilford . The two would remain partners until 1950 . On April 24 , 1930 , he married Helen Dwyer ; the couple had three children .
Thanks to his father 's influence , Wetherby became interested in local politics at an early age . School board races fascinated him , and he allied himself with a faction of the Jefferson County Democratic Party headed by Leland Taylor and Ben Ewing . When Ewing was elected county judge in 1933 , he appointed Wetherby as a part @-@ time attorney for the Jefferson County juvenile court . He held this position through 1937 , then returned to it in 1942 and 1943 . In March 1943 , he was appointed the first trial commissioner of the juvenile court .
= = Lieutenant governor = =
Wetherby was elected chairman of the 34th Legislative District Democratic Committee in 1943 and held the position through 1956 . In March 1947 , he resigned as trial commissioner of the juvenile court in order to run for lieutenant governor . The strongest of his four opponents in the Democratic primary was Bill May , the nephew of U.S. Representative Andrew J. May . May had sought the support of gubernatorial candidate Earle C. Clements , but Clements refused , possibly because Congressman May was an ally of Clements ' political opponent John Y. Brown . Wetherby was also unable to secure Clements ' public endorsement , but he won the primary and went on to defeat Republican Orville M. Howard by over 95 @,@ 000 votes .
Despite Clements ' refusal to endorse Wetherby in the primary , the two generally agreed on their legislative agendas and worked well together . Some observers called Wetherby Kentucky 's first " working " lieutenant governor . Previous lieutenant governors did little beyond their constitutionally mandated duty of presiding over the Kentucky Senate , but during Clements ' administration , Wetherby was charged with preparing a state budget , presiding over the Legislative Research Commission , leading tours for the state Chamber of Commerce , and attending the Southern Governors Conference . Clements also made Wetherby executive secretary of the State Democratic Central Committee , which allowed Wetherby to make many important political contacts .
= = Governor of Kentucky = =
On November 27 , 1950 , Clements resigned to accept a seat in the U.S. Senate , elevating Wetherby to governor . One of his first actions was to call a special legislative session to convene on March 6 , 1951 for the purpose of allocating the state 's $ 10 million budget surplus . Among the expenditures approved in the special session were increases in teachers ' salaries and state benefits for the needy and government employees . Wetherby 's popularity soared as a result of this session , and he seriously considered running for the Senate seat vacated by the death of Virgil Chapman in 1951 . Instead , after talking with Clements and other Democratic leaders , he decided to seek a full , four @-@ year term as governor .
= = = Election of 1951 = = =
Among the potential candidates for the Democratic gubernatorial nomination in 1951 was former governor A. B. " Happy " Chandler , who was about to be released as baseball commissioner . Chandler and Clements were bitter political enemies , and the possibility of a Chandler candidacy provided the Clements faction of the Democratic party with the impetus to unite behind Wetherby to prevent Chandler from gaining the nomination . Ultimately , Chandler did not seek the nomination and , despite implying that Clements controlled Wetherby , Chandler endorsed Wetherby on May 15 , 1951 . Wetherby had little trouble defeating Howell Vincent and Jesse Cecil in the Democratic gubernatorial primary , polling the largest majority ever in a Kentucky primary race .
In the general election , Wetherby faced Republican Court of Appeals judge Eugene Siler . Siler was a fundamentalist Christian who claimed that the state government was full of corruption , and only he could stop it . Citing the gambling in Northern Kentucky , bribery accusations against members of Clements ' and Wetherby 's administrations , and a 1951 scandal involving the University of Kentucky men 's basketball team , he referred to Frankfort as " our Nineveh on the Kentucky River " . Wetherby countered Siler 's accusations of corruption by removing one of the officials accused of bribery from office . He deployed the newly organized Kentucky State Police to counter organized crime in Campbell and Henderson counties . To further discourage crime , he supported legislation to revoke the alcohol licenses of establishments that allowed gambling . Siler 's pro @-@ temperance and anti @-@ Catholic views played well in the state 's rural areas , but cost him the vote of the growing urban population . Wetherby won the election by a vote of 346 @,@ 345 to 288 @,@ 014 .
= = = Administration = = =
Early in Wetherby 's term , the state 's revenues were inflated by the Korean War . Having adopted a pay @-@ as @-@ you @-@ go program for the state , he was forced to raise additional revenue after the war ended . He did so by imposing sin taxes on cigarettes , alcoholic beverages , and parimutuel betting , but he was unable to convince the General Assembly to adopt a sales tax .
Because three members of Wetherby 's close family had been killed in automobile accidents on the state 's roadways , improving roads was a high priority for Wetherby . Using revenue from a two @-@ cent @-@ per @-@ gallon gasoline tax passed under the Clements administration , Wetherby authorized the building , re @-@ building , or re @-@ surfacing of nearly 6 @,@ 000 miles ( 9 @,@ 700 km ) of roads during his administration . The most important of these was the state 's first toll road — the Kentucky Turnpike — connecting Louisville and Elizabethtown . He encouraged President Dwight D. Eisenhower to construct a federal toll road connecting the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico . Other political leaders joined him , convincing Eisenhower to construct the long @-@ talked @-@ about Interstate Highway System . Improved roads brought increased tourism , which Wetherby supported by increasing funding to the state park system and adding Breaks Interstate Park , a new park owned jointly by Kentucky and Virginia . Wetherby also brought national attention to Kentucky as prime hunting and fishing land by conducting his own personal sporting excursions in the state .
Wetherby tried to diversify the industries located in Kentucky to balance the state 's primarily agrarian economy . He expanded the Agricultural and Industrial Development Board and charged it with conducting land surveys to identify potential industrial sites . He encouraged the development of modern airports in the state and supported the canalization of the Big Sandy River and improvement of the locks and dams on the Kentucky River . He continued to personally lead tours given by the state 's Chamber of Commerce . Among the industries that came to the state during his administration were the General Electric Appliance Park in Louisville and the Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant in Paducah . In 1954 , he used the state police to quash labor unrest in Central City and other parts of the Western Coal Fields . He was not a pawn of industry , however : he secured passage of the state 's first laws regulating strip mining and killed a right @-@ to @-@ work bill in 1954 .
Neither did Wetherby ignore the needs of agriculture . Under his Green Pastures Program , measures were enacted to diversify crop production , improve beef production , and encourage soil conservation . He secured federal flood control programs for the watersheds of the Salt , Licking , Green , and Kentucky Rivers , saving valuable farmland . In 1952 , Wetherby organized an agricultural council to consolidate the work of the state 's agricultural bureaucracy . He oversaw completion of the state fairgrounds in Louisville , a project begun under Clements , to better display the state 's agricultural products .
Improvements in education were a hallmark of Wetherby 's term as governor . Over the course of his administration , he increased funding to education by $ 20 million . He called for the creation of an educational television network and initiated the state 's first publicly funded bookmobile program . He supported the 1954 Minimum Foundation Program , an amendment to the state constitution that allowed funding to be allocated to school districts based upon need rather than number of pupils .
In 1954 and 1955 Wetherby served as chairman of the Southern Governors Conference and urged the southern governors to peacefully implement desegregation as required by the Supreme Court 's decision in Brown v. Board of Education . He was one of five southern governors that refused to sign a statement opposing integration . In Kentucky , he appointed an advisory council of both white and black citizens to oversee public school integration , which was accomplished with little acrimony compared to other states . Desegregation was one issue where Wetherby and his lieutenant governor , Emerson " Doc " Beauchamp , disagreed , but because Beauchamp believed he would succeed Wetherby as governor , he did not openly oppose Wetherby 's actions .
Among Wetherby 's other accomplishments were the creation of a Department of Mental Health and the construction of fifteen hospitals and thirty health centers throughout the state . In 1952 , he created the Youth Authority as a central point for the administration of services to delinquent children . He constructed new state prisons , modernized the probation and parole systems , and established a more orderly system of selecting grand and petit juries . He also oversaw some voting reform measures , including the provision of funds to purchase voting machines in areas where they were desired . He was not as successful in the area of government reform . He failed in his efforts to amend the state 's constitution to allow the governor to succeed himself in office . He was also unable to win support for a plan to consolidate some of Kentucky 's counties . In 1955 , the state 's voters approved a constitutional amendment granting suffrage to eighteen @-@ year @-@ olds over Wetherby 's objections .
= = Later life = =
Both Clements and Wetherby endorsed Bert T. Combs to succeed Wetherby as governor . Wetherby had named Combs to the Kentucky Court of Appeals in 1951 to fill a vacancy created by the death of Judge Roy Helm . Happy Chandler , Clements ' old foe , ran against Combs in the primary and painted him as a pawn of " Clementine " and " Wetherbine " , his derogatory nicknames for Clements and Wetherby . In fact , Chandler ran the entire campaign not just against Combs , but against Clements and Wetherby as well . He charged both Clements and Wetherby with extravagant spending in their administrations . Among his allegations were that Clements had purchased a $ 20 @,@ 000 rug for his office and that Wetherby had paneled his office with African mahogany . Chandler promised that , if elected , he would use " good , honest Kentucky wood " in his office and that all Kentuckians would be invited to the capitol to walk on the $ 20 @,@ 000 rug . Ultimately , invoices showed that no $ 20 @,@ 000 rug had been purchased by Clements and Wetherby 's paneling had been purchased from and installed by a local contractor . Chandler 's charges may have been inaccurate , but he defeated Combs in the primary and went on to win the general election .
Following his term as governor , Wetherby resumed his private law practice . In 1956 , Senator Alben Barkley unexpectedly died of a heart attack . The timing of his death meant that the state would elect two senators in 1956 — Clements ' term was expiring and now Barkley 's seat was vacant . President Eisenhower convinced former senator and ambassador John Sherman Cooper to be the Republican candidate for the seat , hoping Cooper 's immense popularity in the state would help his own re @-@ election bid . Barkley 's death occurred so late in the year that there was not time for a Democratic primary to choose the party 's candidate for the open seat . The Democratic state committee chose Wetherby , who was only six months removed from his term as governor .
Neither Wetherby nor Clements enjoyed the support of Governor Chandler . Coupled with this , Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson suffered a heart attack during the campaign , and as majority whip , Clements assumed the role of acting majority leader . This took him away from the campaign trail for extended periods of time . During the infrequent visits he was able to make to the state , he campaigned for his former lieutenant governor , Wetherby . In the general election , Cooper defeated Wetherby by 65 @,@ 000 votes and Clements lost to Thruston Ballard Morton by about 7 @,@ 000 votes . It was the first time Clements had lost a race in thirty years , and Kentucky Democrats would not elect a senator again for another sixteen years .
After this defeat , Wetherby moved to Franklin County and secured a position at Brighton Engineering with help from his old primary opponent , Bill May . From 1964 to 1966 , he was a delegate to an assembly charged with revising the state constitution . In 1965 , May backed Wetherby in his campaign for the Kentucky Senate . He won the election , defeating the candidate favored by Chandler , and was chosen president of that body from 1966 to 1968 . He was so effective in this position that the state 's 1966 budget was debated for only ten days before passing by a vote of 31 – 5 in virtually the same form as it was presented .
After his service in the state senate , Wetherby returned to Brighton Engineering , where he eventually became a vice @-@ president . He died March 27 , 1994 of complications from a broken hip . He is buried at the Frankfort Cemetery . The administration building at Western Kentucky University and a gymnasium at Morehead State University were named in his honor .
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= English Reformation =
The English Reformation was a series of events in 16th century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church . These events were , in part , associated with the wider process of the European Protestant Reformation , a religious and political movement that affected the practice of Christianity across all of Europe during this period . Many factors contributed to the process : the decline of feudalism and the rise of nationalism , the rise of the common law , the invention of the printing press and increased circulation of the Bible , the transmission of new knowledge and ideas among scholars , the upper and middle classes and readers in general . However , the various phases of the English Reformation , which also covered Wales and Ireland , were largely driven by changes in government policy , to which public opinion gradually accommodated itself .
Based on Henry VIII 's desire for an annulment of his marriage ( first requested of Pope Clement VII in 1527 ) , the English Reformation was at the outset more of a political affair than a theological dispute . The reality of political differences between Rome and England allowed growing theological disputes to come to the fore . Until the break with Rome , it was the Pope and general councils of the Church that decided doctrine . Church law was governed by the code of canon law with final jurisdiction in Rome . Church taxes were paid straight to Rome , and the Pope had the final word in the appointment of bishops .
The break with Rome was effected by a series of acts of Parliament passed between 1532 and 1534 , among them the 1534 Act of Supremacy which declared that Henry was the " Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England " . ( This title was renounced by Mary I in 1553 in the process of restoring papal jurisdiction ; when Elizabeth I reasserted the royal supremacy in 1559 her title was Supreme Governor . ) Final authority in doctrinal and legal disputes now rested with the monarch , and the papacy was deprived of revenue and the final say on the appointment of bishops .
The theology and liturgy of the Church of England became markedly Protestant during the reign of Henry 's son Edward VI largely along lines laid down by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer . Under Mary , the whole process was reversed and the Church of England was again placed under papal jurisdiction . Soon after , Elizabeth reintroduced the Protestant faith but in a more moderate manner . The structure and theology of the church was a matter of fierce dispute for generations .
The violent aspect of these disputes , manifested in the English Civil Wars , ended when the last Roman Catholic monarch , James II , was deposed , and Parliament asked William and Mary to rule jointly in conjunction with the English Bill of Rights in 1688 ( in the " Glorious Revolution " ) , from which emerged a church polity with an established church and a number of non @-@ conformist churches whose members at first suffered various civil disabilities but which were removed over time . The legacy of the past Roman Catholic Establishment remained an issue for some time , and still exists today . A substantial minority remained Roman Catholic in England , and in an effort to disestablish it from British systems , their church organisation remained illegal until the 19th century .
= = Background = =
= = = Henry VIII : marriages and desire for a male heir = = =
Henry VIII ascended the English throne in 1509 at the age of 17 . He made a dynastic marriage with Catherine of Aragon , widow of his brother Arthur , in June 1509 , just before his coronation on Midsummer 's Day . Unlike his father , who was secretive and conservative , the young Henry appeared the epitome of chivalry and sociability . An observant Roman Catholic , he heard up to five masses a day ( except during the hunting season ) ; of " powerful but unoriginal mind , " he let himself be influenced by his advisors from whom he was never apart , by night or day . He was thus susceptible to whoever had his ear .
This contributed to a state of hostility between his young contemporaries and the Lord Chancellor , Cardinal Thomas Wolsey . As long as Wolsey had his ear , Henry 's Roman Catholicism was secure : in 1521 , he had defended the Roman Catholic Church from Martin Luther 's accusations of heresy in a book he wrote — probably with considerable help from the conservative Bishop of Rochester John Fisher — entitled The Defence of the Seven Sacraments , for which he was awarded the title " Defender of the Faith " ( Fidei Defensor ) by Pope Leo X. ( Successive English and British monarchs have retained this title to the present , even after the Anglican Church broke away from Roman Catholicism , in part because the title was re @-@ conferred by Parliament after the split . ) Wolsey 's enemies at court included those who had been influenced by Lutheran ideas , among whom was the attractive , charismatic Anne Boleyn .
Anne arrived at court in 1522 , from years in France where she had been educated by Queen Claude of France , as maid of honour to Queen Catherine , a woman of " charm , style and wit , with will and savagery which made her a match for Henry . " By the late 1520s , Henry wanted his marriage to Catherine annulled . She had not produced a male heir who survived into adulthood , and Henry wanted a son to secure the Tudor dynasty .
Before Henry 's father ( Henry VII ) ascended the throne , England had been beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown . Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession . Catherine 's only surviving child was Princess Mary .
Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was " blighted in the eyes of God . " Catherine had been his late brother 's wife , and it was therefore against biblical teachings for Henry to have married her ( Leviticus 20 : 21 ) ; a special dispensation from Pope Julius II had been needed to allow the wedding in the first place . Henry argued that this had been wrong and that his marriage had never been valid . In 1527 Henry asked Pope Clement VII to annul the marriage , but the Pope refused . According to Canon Law the Pope cannot annul a marriage on the basis of a canonical impediment previously dispensed . Clement also feared the wrath of Catherine 's nephew , Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , whose troops earlier that year had sacked Rome and briefly taken the Pope prisoner .
The combination of his " scruple of conscience " and his captivation by Anne Boleyn made his desire to rid himself of his Queen compelling . The indictment of his chancellor Cardinal Wolsey in 1529 for praemunire ( taking the authority of the Papacy above the Crown ) , and subsequent death in November 1530 on his way to London to answer a charge of high treason left Henry open to the opposing influences of the supporters of the Queen and those who sanctioned the abandonment of the Roman allegiance , for whom an annulment was but an opportunity .
= = = Parliamentary debate and legislation = = =
In 1529 the king summoned Parliament to deal with annulment , thus bringing together those who wanted reform but who disagreed what form it should take ; it became known as the Reformation Parliament . There were Common lawyers who resented the privileges of the clergy to summon laity to their courts ; there were those who had been influenced by Lutheran evangelicalism and were hostile to the theology of Rome ; Thomas Cromwell was both . Henry 's Chancellor , Thomas More , successor to Wolsey , also wanted reform : he wanted new laws against heresy .
Cromwell was a lawyer and a member of Parliament — a Protestant who saw how Parliament could be used to advance the Royal Supremacy , which Henry wanted , and to further Protestant beliefs and practices Cromwell and his friends wanted . One of his closest friends was Thomas Cranmer , soon to be Archbishop .
In the matter of the annulment , no progress seemed possible . The Pope seemed more afraid of Emperor Charles V than of Henry . Anne and Cromwell and their allies wished simply to ignore the Pope , but in October 1530 a meeting of clergy and lawyers advised that Parliament could not empower the archbishop to act against the Pope 's prohibition . Henry thus resolved to bully the priests .
= = = Actions by the king against English clergy = = =
Having brought down his Chancellor , Cardinal Wolsey , Henry VIII finally resolved to charge the whole English clergy with praemunire to secure their agreement to his annulment . The Statute of Praemunire , which forbade obedience to the authority of the Pope or of any foreign rulers , enacted in 1392 , had been used against individuals in the ordinary course of court proceedings . Now Henry , having first charged Queen Catherine 's supporters , Bishops John Fisher , Nicholas West and Henry Standish and Archdeacon of Exeter , Adam Travers , decided to proceed against the whole clergy . Henry claimed £ 100 @,@ 000 from the Convocation of Canterbury of the Church of England for their pardon , which was granted by the Convocation on 24 January 1531 . The clergy wanted the payment to be spread over five years . Henry refused . The Convocation responded by withdrawing their payment altogether , and demanded Henry fulfill certain guarantees before they would give him the money . Henry refused these conditions . He agreed only to the five @-@ year period of payment and added five articles that specified that :
The clergy recognise Henry as the " sole protector and Supreme Head of the Church and clergy of England "
The King had spiritual jurisdiction
The privileges of the Church were upheld only if they did not detract from the royal prerogative and the laws of the realm
The King pardoned the clergy for violating the statute of praemunire , and
The laity were also pardoned .
= = = Further legislative acts = = =
In Parliament , Bishop John Fisher championed Catherine and the clergy ; he had inserted into the first article , the phrase " ... as far as the word of God allows ... " . In Convocation , however , Archbishop Warham requested a discussion but was met by a stunned silence ; then Warham said , " He who is silent seems to consent , " to which a clergyman responded , " Then we are all silent . " The Convocation granted consent to the King 's five articles and the payment on 8 March 1531 .
That same year Parliament passed the Pardon to Clergy Act 1531 .
The breaking of the power of Rome proceeded little by little . In 1532 , Cromwell brought before Parliament the Supplication Against the Ordinaries , which listed nine grievances against the Church , including abuses of power and Convocation 's independent legislative power . Finally , on 10 May , the King demanded of Convocation that the Church renounce all authority to make laws . On 15 May , the Submission of the Clergy was subscribed , which recognised Royal Supremacy over the church so that it could no longer make canon law without royal licence — i.e. , without the King 's permission — thus emasculating it as a law @-@ making body . ( The Parliament subsequently passed this in 1534 and again in 1536 . ) The day after this , More resigned as Chancellor , leaving Cromwell as Henry 's chief minister . ( Cromwell never became Chancellor . His power came — and was lost — through his informal relations with Henry . )
Several Acts of Parliament then followed . The Act in Conditional Restraint of Annates proposed that the clergy pay no more than 5 % of their first year 's revenue ( annates ) to Rome . This was initially controversial , and required that Henry visit the House of Lords three times to browbeat the Commons .
The Act in Restraint of Appeals , drafted by Cromwell , apart from outlawing appeals to Rome on ecclesiastical matters , declared that
" This realm of England is an Empire , and so hath been accepted in the world , governed by one Supreme Head and King having the dignity and royal estate of the Imperial Crown of the same , unto whom a body politic compact of all sorts and degrees of people divided in terms and by names of Spirituality and Temporality , be bounden and owe to bear next to God a natural and humble obedience . "
This declared England an independent country in every respect . English historian Geoffrey Elton called this Act an " essential ingredient " of the " Tudor revolution " in that it expounded a theory of national sovereignty . The Act in Absolute Restraint of Annates outlawed all annates to Rome , and also ordered that if cathedrals refused the King 's nomination for bishop , they would be liable to punishment by praemunire . Finally in 1534 the Acts of Supremacy made Henry " supreme head in earth of the Church of England " and disregarded any " usage , custom , foreign laws , foreign authority [ or ] prescription . "
Meanwhile , having taken Anne to France on a pre @-@ nuptial honeymoon , Henry married her in Westminster Abbey in January 1533 . This was made easier by the death of Archbishop Warham , a strong opponent of an annulment . Henry appointed Thomas Cranmer as his successor as Archbishop of Canterbury . Cranmer was prepared to grant the annulment of the marriage to Catherine as Henry required , going so far as to pronounce the judgement that Henry 's marriage with Catherine was against the law of God on 23 May . Anne gave birth to a daughter , Princess Elizabeth , in September 1533 . The Pope responded to the marriage by excommunicating both Henry and Cranmer from the Roman Catholic Church ( 11 July 1533 ) . Henry was excommunicated again in December 1538 .
Consequently , in the same year the Act of First Fruits and Tenths transferred the taxes on ecclesiastical income from the Pope to the Crown . The Act Concerning Peter 's Pence and Dispensations outlawed the annual payment by landowners of one penny to the Pope . This Act also reiterated that England had " no superior under God , but only your Grace " and that Henry 's " imperial crown " had been diminished by " the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions " of the Pope .
In case any of this should be resisted , Parliament passed the Treasons Act 1534 , which made it high treason punishable by death to deny Royal Supremacy . The following year , Thomas More and John Fisher were executed under this legislation . Finally , in 1536 , Parliament passed the Act against the Pope 's Authority , which removed the last part of papal authority still legal . This was Rome 's power in England to decide disputes concerning Scripture .
= = Theological radicalism = =
The break with Rome was not , by itself , a Reformation . That was to come from the dissemination of ideas . The views of the German reformer Martin Luther and his school were widely known and disputed in England . A major manifestation of theological radicalism in England was Lollardy , a movement deriving from the writings of John Wycliffe , the 14th century Bible translator , which stressed the primacy of Scripture . But after the execution of Sir John Oldcastle , leader of the Lollard rebellion of 1415 , they never again had access to the levers of power , and by the 15th century were much reduced in numbers and influence .
Many Lollards were still about , especially in London and the Thames Valley , in Essex and Kent , Coventry , Bristol and even in the North , who would be receptive to the new ideas when they came , who looked for a reform in the lifestyle of the clergy . They emphasised the preaching of the word over the sacrament of the altar , holding the latter to be but a memorial , but they were not party to the actions of the government . Other ideas , critical of the papal supremacy were held , not only by Lollards , but by those who wished to assert the supremacy of the secular state over the church but also by conciliarists such as Thomas More and , initially , Cranmer . Other Roman Catholic reformists , including John Colet , Dean of St Paul 's , warned that heretics were not nearly so great a danger to the faith as the wicked and indolent lives of the clergy .
The impact of Luther 's thinking was of a different order . The main plank of his thinking , justification by faith alone rather than by good works , threatened the whole basis of the Roman Catholic penitential system with its endowed masses and prayers for the dead as well as its doctrine of purgatory . Faith , not pious acts , prayers or masses , in this view , can secure the grace of God . Moreover , printing , which had become widespread at the end of the previous century , meant that vernacular Bibles could be produced in quantity . A further English translation by William Tyndale was banned but it was impossible to prevent copies from being smuggled and widely read . The Church could no longer effectively dictate its interpretation .
A group in Cambridge , which met at the White Horse tavern from the mid @-@ 1520s and became known as Little Germany , soon became influential . Its members included Robert Barnes , Hugh Latimer , John Frith and Thomas Bilney — all eventually burned as heretics . Cranmer 's change of mind , borne partly by his membership of the team negotiating for the annulment , finally came through his stay with Andreas Osiander in Nuremberg in 1532 . ( Cranmer also secretly married Osiander 's niece ) . Even then the position was complicated by the fact that Lutherans were not in favour of the annulment . Cranmer ( and Henry ) felt obliged to seek assistance from Strasbourg and Basel , which brought him into contact with the more radical ideas associated with Zwingli .
Cromwell 's programme , assisted by Anne Boleyn 's influence over episcopal appointments , was not merely against the clergy and the power of Rome . He persuaded Henry that safety from political alliances that Rome might attempt to bring together lay in negotiations with the German Lutheran princes . There also seemed to be a possibility that Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , might act to avenge his rejected aunt ( Queen Catherine ) and enforce the Pope 's excommunication . It never came to anything but it brought to England Lutheran ideas : three sacraments only — baptism , Eucharist and penance — which Henry was prepared to countenance to maintain the possibility of an alliance .
More noticeable , and objectionable to many , were the Injunctions , first of 1536 and then of 1538 . The programme began with the abolition of many feast days , " the occasion of vice and idleness " which , particularly at harvest time , had an immediate effect on village life . The offerings to images were discouraged , as were pilgrimages — these injunctions were issued while monasteries were being dissolved . In some places images were burned on the grounds that they were objects of superstitious devotion , candles lit before images were prohibited , and Bibles in both English and Latin were to be bought . Thus did the Reformation begin to affect the towns and villages of England and , in many places , people did not like it .
= = = Dissolution of the Monasteries = = =
In 1534 , Cromwell initiated a Visitation of the Monasteries ostensibly to examine their character , but in fact , to value their assets with a view to expropriation . The Crown was undergoing financial difficulties , and the wealth of the church , in contrast to its political weakness , made appropriation of church property both tempting and feasible . Suppression of monasteries to raise funds was not unknown previously . Cromwell had done the same thing on the instructions of Cardinal Wolsey to raise funds for two proposed colleges at Ipswich and Oxford years before .
Now the Visitation allowed for an inventory of what the monasteries possessed , and the visiting commissioners claimed to have uncovered sexual immorality and financial impropriety amongst the monks and nuns , which became the ostensible justification for their suppression . The Church owned between one @-@ fifth and one @-@ third of the land in all England ; Cromwell realised that he could bind the gentry and nobility to Royal Supremacy by selling to them the huge amount of Church lands , and that any reversion to pre @-@ Royal Supremacy would entail upsetting many of the powerful people in the realm . For these various reasons the Dissolution of the Monasteries began in 1536 with the Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries Act , affecting smaller houses — those valued at less than £ 200 a year . Henry used the revenue to help build coastal defences ( see Device Forts ) against expected invasion , and all the land was given to the Crown or sold to the aristocracy . Whereas the royal supremacy had raised few eyebrows , the attack on abbeys and priories affected lay people . Mobs attacked those sent to break up monastic buildings . Suppression commissioners were attacked by local people in several places . In Northern England there were a series of uprisings by Roman Catholics against the dissolutions in late 1536 and early 1537 .
In the autumn of 1536 there was a great muster , reckoned to be up to 40 @,@ 000 in number , at Horncastle in Lincolnshire . The nervous gentry managed , with difficulty , to disperse these masses — who had tried unsuccessfully to negotiate with the king by petition . The Pilgrimage of Grace was a more serious matter . Revolt spread through Yorkshire , and the rebels gathered at York . Robert Aske , their leader , negotiated the restoration of sixteen of the twenty @-@ six northern monasteries , which had actually been dissolved . However , the promises made to them by the Duke of Suffolk were ignored on the king 's orders . Suffolk was instructed to put the rebellion down . Forty @-@ seven of the Lincolnshire rebels were executed , and 132 from the northern pilgrimage . Further rebellions took place in Cornwall in early 1537 , and in Walsingham ( in Norfolk ) . These received similar treatment .
It took Cromwell four years to complete the process . In 1539 he moved to the dissolution of the larger monasteries that had escaped earlier . Many houses gave up voluntarily , though some sought exemption by payment . When their houses were closed down some monks sought to transfer to larger houses . Many became secular priests . A few , including eighteen Carthusians , refused and were killed to the last man .
Henry VIII personally devised a plan to form at least thirteen new dioceses so that most counties had one based on a former monastery ( or more than one ) , though this scheme was only partly carried out . New dioceses were established at Bristol , Gloucester , Oxford , Peterborough , Westminster and Chester , but not , for instance , at Shrewsbury , Leicester or Waltham .
= = = Reformation reversed = = =
The abolition of papal authority made way not for orderly change , but for dissension and violence . Iconoclasm , destruction , disputes within communities that led to violence , and radical challenge to all forms of faith were reported daily to Cromwell — developments which he tried to hide from the King . Once Henry knew what was afoot , he acted . Thus at the end of 1538 , a proclamation was issued forbidding free discussion of the Sacrament and forbidding clerical marriage , on pain of death .
Henry personally presided at the trial of John Lambert in November 1538 for denying the real presence . At the same time , he shared in the drafting of a proclamation giving Anabaptists and Sacramentaries ten days to get out of the country . In 1539 Parliament passed the Six Articles reaffirming Roman Catholic practices such as transubstantiation , clerical celibacy and the importance of confession to a priest and prescribed penalties if anyone denied them . Henry himself observed the Easter Triduum in that year with some display .
On 28 June 1540 Cromwell , Henry 's longtime advisor and loyal servant , was executed . Different reasons were advanced : that Cromwell would not enforce the Act of Six Articles ; that he had supported Barnes , Latimer and other heretics ; and that he was responsible for Henry 's marriage to Anne of Cleves , his fourth wife . Many other arrests under the Act followed . Cranmer lay low .
In 1540 Henry began his attack upon the free availability of the Bible . In 1536 Cromwell had instructed each parish to acquire " one book of the whole Bible of the largest volume in English " by Easter 1539 . This instruction had been largely ignored , so a new version , the Great Bible ( largely William Tyndale 's English translation of the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures ) , was authorised in August 1537 . But by 1539 Henry had announced his desire to have it " corrected " ( which Cranmer referred to the universities to undertake ) .
Many parishes were , in any case , reluctant to use English Bibles . Now the mood was conservatism , which expressed itself in the fear that Bible reading led to heresy . Many Bibles that had been put in place were removed . By the 1543 Act for the Advancement of True Religion , Henry restricted Bible reading to men and women of noble birth . He expressed his fears to Parliament in 1545 that " the Word of God , is disputed , rhymed , sung and jangled in every ale house and tavern , contrary to the true meaning and doctrine of the same . "
By 1546 the conservatives , the Duke of Norfolk , Wriothesly , Gardiner and Tunstall were in the ascendent . They were , by the king 's will , to be members of the regency council on his death . However , by the time he died in 1547 , Edward Seymour , Earl of Hertford , brother of Jane Seymour , Henry 's third wife ( and therefore uncle to the future Edward VI ) , managed — by a number of alliances with influential Protestants such as Lisle — to gain control over the Privy Council . He persuaded Henry to change his will to replace Norfolk , Wriothesly , Gardiner and Tunstall as executors with Seymour 's supporters .
= = Edward 's Reformation = =
When Henry died in 1547 , his nine @-@ year @-@ old son , Edward VI , inherited the throne . Edward was a precocious child who had been brought up as a Protestant , but was initially of little account politically . Edward Seymour was made Lord Protector . He was commissioned as virtual regent with near sovereign powers . Now made Duke of Somerset , he proceeded at first hesitantly , partly because his powers were not unchallenged . When he acted it was because he saw the political advantage in doing so .
The 1547 Injunctions against images were a more tightly drawn version of those of 1538 , but they were more fiercely enforced , at first informally , and then by instruction . All images in churches were to be dismantled . Stained glass , shrines and statues were defaced or destroyed . Roods , and often their lofts and screens , were cut down and bells were taken down . Vestments were prohibited and either burned or sold . Chalices were melted down or sold . The requirement of the clergy to be celibate was lifted . Processions were banned and ashes and palms were prohibited . Chantries ( endowments to provide masses for the dead ) were abolished completely . How well this was received is disputed . Modern historian A.G. Dickens contends that people had " ceased to believe in intercessory masses for souls in purgatory " , while others , such as Eamon Duffy , argue that the demolition of chantry chapels and the removal of images coincided with the activity of royal visitors . The evidence is often ambiguous . In 1549 Cranmer introduced a Book of Common Prayer in English , which while to all appearances kept the structure of the Mass , altered the theology so that the holy gifts of consecrated bread and wine were not offered to God as a sacrifice . In 1550 stone altars were replaced by wooden communion tables , a very public break with the past , as it changed the look and focus of church interiors .
Less visible , but still influential , was the new ordinal — which provided for Protestant ministers rather than Roman Catholic priests , an admittedly conservative adaptation of Bucer 's draft ; its Preface explicitly mentions the historic succession but it has been described as " ... another case of Cranmer 's opportunist adoption of medieval forms for new purposes . " In 1551 , the episcopate was remodelled by the appointment of Protestants to the bench . This removed the refusal of some bishops to enforce the regulations as an obstacle to change .
Henceforth , the Reformation proceeded apace . In 1552 , the prayer book — which the conservative Bishop Stephen Gardiner had approved from his prison cell as being " patient of a Catholic interpretation " — was replaced by a second , much more radical prayer book that altered the service to remove any sense that the Eucharist was a material sacrifice offered to God while keeping the belief that it was a sacrifice of thanksgiving and praise ( in word ) . Edward 's Parliament also repealed his father 's Six Articles .
The enforcement of the new liturgy did not always take place without a struggle . Conformity was the order of the day , but in East Anglia and in Devon there were rebellions , as also in Cornwall , to which many parishes sent their young men ; they were put down only after considerable loss of life . In other places the causes of the rebellions were less easy to pin down but by July throughout southern England , there was " quavering quiet , " which burst out into " stirs " in many places , most significantly in Kett 's Rebellion in Norwich .
Apart from these more spectacular pieces of resistance , in some places chantry priests continued to say prayers and landowners to pay them to do so . Opposition to the removal of images was widespread — so much so that when during the Commonwealth , William Dowsing was commissioned to the task of image breaking in Suffolk , his task , as he records it , was enormous . In Kent and the southeast , compliance was mostly willing and for many , the sale of vestments and plate was an opportunity to make money ( but it was also true that in London and Kent , Reformation ideas had permeated more deeply into popular thinking ) .
The effect of the resistance was to topple Somerset as Lord Protector , so that in 1549 it was feared by some that the Reformation would cease . The prayer book was the tipping point . But Lisle , now made Earl of Warwick , was made Lord President of the Privy Council and , ever the opportunist ( he died a public Roman Catholic ) , he saw the further implementation of the reforming policy as a means of defeating his rivals .
Outwardly , the destruction and removals for sale had changed the church forever . Many churches had concealed their vestments and their silver , and had buried their stone altars . There were many disputes between the government and parishes over church property . Thus , when Edward died in July 1553 and the Duke of Northumberland attempted to have the Protestant Lady Jane Grey made Queen , the unpopularity of the confiscations gave Mary the opportunity to have herself proclaimed Queen , first in Suffolk , and then in London to the acclamation of the crowds .
= = Roman Catholic Restoration under Mary I = =
From 1553 , under the reign of Henry 's Roman Catholic daughter , Mary I , the Reformation legislation was repealed and Mary sought to achieve the reunion with Rome . Her first Act of Parliament was to retroactively validate Henry 's marriage to her mother and so legitimise her claim to the throne .
Achieving her objective was , however , not straightforward . The Pope was only prepared to accept reunion when church property disputes had been settled — which , in practice , meant letting those who had bought former church property keep it . Thus did Cardinal Pole arrive to become Archbishop of Canterbury in Cranmer 's place . Mary could have had Cranmer imprisoned as he was tried and executed for treason — he had supported the claims of Lady Jane Grey — but she resolved to have him tried for heresy . His recantations of his Protestantism would have been a major coup . Unhappily for her , he unexpectedly withdrew his recantations at the last minute as he was to be burned at the stake , thus ruining her government 's propaganda victory .
If Mary was to secure England for Roman Catholicism , she needed an heir . On the advice of the Holy Roman Emperor she married his son , Philip II of Spain ; she needed to prevent her Protestant half @-@ sister Elizabeth from inheriting the Crown and thus returning England to Protestantism . There was opposition , and even a rebellion in Kent ( led by Sir Thomas Wyatt ) ; even though it was provided that Philip would never inherit the kingdom if there was no heir , received no estates and had no coronation . He was there to provide an heir . But she never became pregnant , and likely suffered from cancer . Ironically , another blow fell . Pope Julius died and his successor , Pope Paul IV , declared war on Philip and recalled Pole to Rome to have him tried as a heretic . Mary refused to let him go . The support she might have expected from a grateful Pope was thus denied .
After 1555 , the initial reconciling tone of the regime began to harden . The medieval heresy laws were restored . The Marian Persecutions of Protestants ensued and 283 Protestants were burnt at the stake for heresy . This resulted in the Queen becoming known as Bloody Mary , due to the influence of John Foxe , one of the Protestants who fled Marian England . Foxe 's Book of Martyrs recorded the executions in such detail that it became Mary 's epitaph ; Convocation subsequently ordered that Foxe 's book should be placed in every cathedral in the land . In fact , while those who were executed after the revolts of 1536 , and the St David 's Down rebellion of 1549 , and the unknown number of monks who died for refusing to submit , may not have been tried for heresy , they certainly exceeded that number by some amount . Even so , the heroism of some of the martyrs was an example to those who witnessed them , so that in some places it was the burnings that set people against the regime .
There was a slow consolidation in Roman Catholic strength in Mary 's latter years . The reconciled Roman Catholic Edmund Bonner , Bishop of London , produced a catechism and a collection of homilies . Printing presses produced primers and other devotional materials , and recruitment to the English clergy began to rise after almost a decade . Repairs to long @-@ neglected churches began . In the parishes " ... restoration and repair continued , new bells were bought , and churches ' ales produced their bucolic profits . " Commissioners visited to ensure that altars were restored , roods rebuilt and vestments and plate purchased . Moreover , Pole was determined to do more than remake the past . He insisted on scripture , teaching and education , and on improving the clergy 's moral standards .
It is difficult to determine how far previous reigns had broken Roman Catholic devotion , with its belief in the saints and in purgatory , but certainties — especially those that drew public financial support — had been shaken . Benefactions to the church did not return significantly . Trust in clergy who had changed their minds and were now willing to leave their new wives — as they were required to do — was bound to have weakened .
Few monasteries , chantries , and gilds were reinstated . " Parish religion was marked by religious and cultural sterility , " though some have observed enthusiasm , marred only by poor harvests that produced poverty and want . Full restoration of the Roman Catholic faith in England to its pre @-@ Reformation state would take time . Consequently , Protestants secretly ministering to underground congregations , such as Thomas Bentham , were planning for a long haul , a ministry of survival . Mary 's death in November 1558 , childless and without having made provision for a Roman Catholic to succeed her , would undo her consolidation .
= = Elizabethan Settlement = =
Following Mary 's childless death , her half @-@ sister Elizabeth inherited the throne . One of the most important concerns during Elizabeth 's early reign was religion . Elizabeth could not be Roman Catholic , as that church considered her illegitimate . At the same time , she had observed the turmoil brought about by Edward 's introduction of radical Protestant reforms . Communion with the Roman Catholic Church was again severed by Elizabeth . She relied primarily on her chief advisors , Sir William Cecil , as her Secretary of State , and Sir Nicholas Bacon , as the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal , for direction on the matter . Chiefly she supported her father 's idea of reforming the church but made some minor adjustments . In this way , Elizabeth and her advisors aimed at a church that included most opinions .
Two groups were excluded . Roman Catholics who remained loyal to the Pope would not be tolerated . They were , in fact , regarded as traitors , because the Pope had refused to accept Elizabeth as Queen of England . Roman Catholics were given the hard choice of being loyal either to their church or their country . For some priests it meant life on the run , in some cases death for treason .
The other group not to be tolerated was people who wanted reform to go much further , and who finally gave up on the Church of England . They could no longer see it as a true church . They believed it had refused to obey the Bible , so they formed small groups of convinced believers outside the church . The government responded with imprisonment and exile to try to crush these " ' separatists " ' .
The Church of England itself contained three groups . Those who believed the form of the church was just what it should be included leaders like John Jewel and Richard Hooker . A second group looked for opportunities to reintroduce some Roman Catholic practices . Under the Stuart kings they would have their chance . The third group , who came to be called Puritans , wanted to remove remaining traces of the old ways . The Stuart kings were to give them a rough passage . At the end of Elizabeth 's reign , the Church of England was firmly in place , but held the seeds of future conflict .
Parliament was summoned in 1559 to consider the Reformation Bill and to create a new church . The Reformation Bill defined the Communion as a consubstantial celebration as opposed to a transubstantial celebration , included abuse of the pope in the litany , and ordered that ministers should not wear the surplice or other Roman Catholic vestments . It allowed ministers to marry , banned images from churches , and confirmed Elizabeth as Supreme Governor of the Church of England .
The Bill met heavy resistance in the House of Lords , as Roman Catholic bishops as well as the lay peers voted against it . They reworked much of the Bill , changed the litany to allow for a transubstantial belief in the Communion and refused to grant Elizabeth the title of Supreme Head of the Church . Parliament was prorogued over Easter , and when it resumed , the government entered two new bills into the Houses — the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity .
= = = Act of Supremacy 1558 = = =
This Act made null and void ( with certain specific exceptions ) the Marian act of 1554 that had repealed all of Henry VIII 's legislation from 1529 onwards which had denied the authority of the See of Rome and also confirmed Elizabeth as Supreme Governor of the Church of England . Supreme Governor was a suitably equivocal title that made Elizabeth head of the Church without ever saying she was . This was important for two reasons : ( 1 ) it satisfied those who felt that a woman could not rule the church , and ( 2 ) it acted in a conciliatory way toward English Roman Catholics . For the clergy , Elizabeth 's changes were more wholesale than those of her half @-@ brother , Edward , had been . All but one ( Anthony Kitchin ) of the bishops lost their posts , a hundred fellows of Oxford colleges were deprived ; many dignitaries resigned rather than take the oath . The bishops who were removed from the ecclesiastical bench were replaced by appointees who would agree to the reforms .
On the question of images , Elizabeth 's initial reaction was to allow crucifixes and candlesticks and the restoration of roods , but some of the new bishops whom she had elevated protested . In 1560 Edmund Grindal , one of the Marian exiles now made Bishop of London , was allowed to enforce the demolition of rood lofts in London and in 1561 the Queen herself ordered the demolition of all lofts . Thereafter , the determination to prevent any further restoration was evidenced by the more thoroughgoing destruction of roods , vestments , stone altars , dooms , statues and other ornaments . The queen also appointed a new Privy Council , removing many Roman Catholic counsellors by doing so . Under Elizabeth , factionalism in the Council and conflicts at court greatly diminished . The Act of Supremacy was passed without difficulty .
= = = Act of Uniformity 1558 = = =
The Act of Uniformity 1558 , which forced people to attend Sunday service in an Anglican church with a new version of the Book of Common Prayer , passed by only three votes . The Bill of Uniformity was more cautious than the initial Reformation Bill . It revoked the harsh laws proposed against Roman Catholics , it removed the abuse of the pope from the litany and kept the wording that allowed for both consubstantial and transubstantial beliefs in the presence of Christ in the Eucharist .
After Parliament was dismissed , Elizabeth and Cecil drafted the Royal Injunctions . These were additions to the settlement , and largely stressed continuity with the Catholic past – clergy were ordered to wear the surplice and the use of the cope was allowed in cathedrals and collegiate chapels . The Ornaments Rubric states that the ornaments of the church and ministers thereof shall remain as they were in the second year of the reign of Edward VI , i.e. in 1548 , when Mass was still celebrated ( the Oxford Movement in the 19th century interpreted this as permission to wear chasubles , dalmatics and other vestments ) . Wafers , as opposed to ordinary baker 's bread , were to be used as the bread at Communion . There had been opposition to the settlement in rural England , which for the most part was largely Roman Catholic , so the changes aimed for acceptance of the settlement . What succeeded more than anything else was the sheer length of Elizabeth 's reign ; while Mary had been able to impose her programme for a mere five years , Elizabeth had more than forty . Those who delayed , " looking for a new day " when restoration would again be commanded , were defeated by the passing of years .
= = = Puritans and Roman Catholics = = =
Elizabeth 's reign saw the emergence of Puritanism , which encompassed those Protestants who , whilst they agreed that there should be one national church , felt that the church had been but partially reformed . Puritanism ranged from hostility to the content of the Prayer Book and " popish " ceremony , to a desire for church governance to be radically reformed . Grindal was made Archbishop of Canterbury in 1575 and chose to oppose even the Queen in his desire to forward the Puritan agenda . He ended a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ word reproach to her with , " Bear with me , I beseech you Madam , if I choose rather to offend your earthly majesty than to offend the heavenly majesty of God . " He was placed under house arrest for his trouble and though he was not deprived , his death in 1583 put an end to the hopes of his supporters .
Grindal 's successor , Archbishop Whitgift , more reflected the Queen 's determination to discipline those who were unprepared to accept her settlement . A conformist , he imposed a degree of obedience on the clergy that apparently alarmed even the Queen 's ministers , such as Lord Burghley . The Puritan cause was not helped even by its friends . The pseudonymous " Martin Marprelate " tracts , which attacked conformist clergy with a libellous humorous tone , outraged senior Puritan clergy and set the government on an unsuccessful attempt to run the writer to earth . The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 incidentally made it more difficult for Puritans to resist the conclusion that since God " blew with his wind and they were scattered " he could not be too offended by the religious establishment in the land .
On the other side , there were still huge numbers of Roman Catholics . Some conformed , bending with the times , hoping that there would be a fresh reverse . Vestments were still hidden , golden candlesticks bequeathed , chalices kept . The Mass was still celebrated in some places alongside the new Communion service but was more difficult than before . Both Roman Catholic priests and laity lived a double life , apparently conforming , but avoiding taking the oath of conformity . Only as time passed did recusancy — refusal to attend Protestant services — became more common . Jesuits and seminary priests , trained in Douai and Rome to make good the losses of English priests , encouraged this .
By the 1570s , an underground church was growing fast as the Church of England became more Protestant and less bearable for Roman Catholics who were still a sizeable minority . Only one public attempt to restore the old religion occurred : the Rising of the Northern earls in 1569 . It was a botched attempt ; in spite of tumultuous crowds who greeted the rebels in Durham , the rebellion did not spread . The assistance they sought did not materialise , their communication with allies at Court was poor They came nowhere near to freeing Mary Stuart , whose presence might have rallied support , from her imprisonment in Tutbury .
The Roman Catholic Church 's refusal to countenance occasional attendance at Protestant services , as well as the excommunication of Elizabeth by Pope Pius V in 1570 , presented the choice to Roman Catholics more starkly . The arrival of the seminary priests , while it was a lifeline to many Roman Catholics , brought further trouble . Elizabeth 's ministers took steps to stem the tide : fines for refusal to attend church were raised from 12 d. per service to £ 20 a month , fifty times an artisan 's wage ; it was now treason to be absolved from schism and reconciled to Rome ; the execution of priests began — the first in 1577 , four in 1581 , eleven in 1582 , two in 1583 , six in 1584 , fifty @-@ three by 1590 , and seventy more between 1601 and 1608 . It became treasonable for a Roman Catholic priest ordained abroad to enter the country . Because the papacy had called for the deposing of the Queen , the choice for moderate Roman Catholics lay between treason and damnation . The List of Catholic martyrs of the English Reformation was extensive .
There is some distance between legislation and its enforcement . The governmental attacks on recusancy were mostly upon the gentry . Few recusants were actually fined ; the fines that were imposed were often at reduced rates ; the persecution eased ; priests came to recognise that they should not refuse communion to occasional conformists . The persecutions did not extinguish the faith , but they tested it sorely . The huge number of Roman Catholics in East Anglia and the North in the 1560s disappeared into the general population in part because recusant priests largely served the great Roman Catholic houses , which alone could hide them . Without the Mass and pastoral care , yeomen , artisans and husbandmen fell into conformism . Roman Catholicism , supported by foreign or expatriate priests , came to be seen as treasonous .
= = Legacy = =
By the time of Elizabeth 's death a third party had emerged , " perfectly hostile " to Puritans but not adherent to Rome . It preferred the revised Book of Common Prayer of 1559 , which was without some of the matters offensive to Roman Catholics . The recusants had been removed from the centre of the stage . The new dispute was now between the Puritans ( who wished to see an end of the prayer book and episcopacy ) , and this third party ( the considerable body of people who looked kindly on the Elizabethan Settlement , who rejected prophesyings , whose spirituality had been nourished by the Prayer Book and who preferred the governance of bishops ) .
It was between these two groups that , after Elizabeth 's death in 1603 , a new , more savage episode of the Reformation was in the process of gestation . During the reigns of the Stuart kings , James I and Charles I , the battle lines were to become more defined , leading ultimately to the English Civil War , the first on English soil to engulf parts of the civilian population . The war was only partly about religion , but the abolition of prayer book and episcopacy by a Puritan Parliament was an element in the causes of the conflict . As historian MacCulloch has noted , the legacy of these tumultuous events can be recognised , throughout the Commonwealth ( 1649 – 60 ) and the Restoration that followed it , and beyond . This third party was to become the core of the restored Church of England , but at the price for further division .
= = = Historiography = = =
Haigh , Christopher . " The Recent Historiography of the English Reformation , " Historical Journal Vol . 25 , No. 4 ( Dec. 1982 ) , pp. 995 – 1007 in JSTOR
Marshall , Peter . " ( Re ) defining the English Reformation , " Journal of British Studies , July 2009 , Vol . 48 # 3 pp 564 – 586
Vidmar , John . English Catholic Historians and the English Reformation : 1585 – 1954 ( 2005 )
Walsham , Alexandra . " History , Memory , and the English Reformation . " Historical Journal ( 2012 ) 55 # 4 pp : 899 – 938 @.@ online
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= Hillary Clinton =
Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton ( / ˈhɪləri daɪˈæn ˈrɒdəm ˈklɪntən / ; born October 26 , 1947 ) is an American politician and the nominee of the Democratic Party for President of the United States in the 2016 election . She is the first female candidate to gain that status in a major American political party . She served as the 67th United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 , the junior United States Senator representing New York from 2001 to 2009 , First Lady of the United States during the presidency of Bill Clinton from 1993 to 2001 , and First Lady of Arkansas during the governorship of Bill Clinton from 1979 to 1981 and from 1983 to 1992 .
Clinton grew up in Chicago and the neighboring suburb of Park Ridge , Illinois . She attended Wellesley College , graduating in 1969 , and earned a J.D. from Yale Law School in 1973 . After serving as a congressional legal counsel , she moved to Arkansas , marrying Bill Clinton in 1975 . In 1977 , she co @-@ founded Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families . She was appointed the first female chair of the Legal Services Corporation in 1978 , and , the following year , became the first woman partner at Rose Law Firm . As First Lady of Arkansas ( 1979 – 81 , 1983 – 92 ) , she led a task force whose recommendations helped reform Arkansas 's public schools , and served on the boards of corporations including Walmart .
As First Lady of the United States , Clinton led the unsuccessful effort to enact the Clinton health plan of 1993 . In 1997 and 1999 , she helped create programs for children 's health insurance , adoption , and foster care . The only first lady to have been subpoenaed , she faced a federal grand jury in 1996 regarding the Whitewater controversy ; no charges were ever brought against her related to this or any other controversy . Her marriage endured the Lewinsky scandal of 1998 , and overall her role as first lady drew a polarized response from the public .
Clinton was elected in 2000 as the first female senator from New York , the only first lady ever to have sought elective office . Following the September 11 attacks , she voted to approve the war in Afghanistan . She also voted for the Iraq Resolution ( which she later regretted ) , sought to hasten the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq , and opposed the Iraq War troop surge of 2007 ( which she later commended ) . She voted against the Bush tax cuts , and voted against John Roberts and Samuel Alito for the United States Supreme Court , filibustering the latter . She was re @-@ elected to the Senate in 2006 . Running for president in 2008 , she won far more delegates than any previous female candidate , but lost the Democratic nomination to Barack Obama .
As Secretary of State in the Obama administration from 2009 to 2013 , Clinton responded to the Arab Spring , during which she advocated the U.S. military intervention in Libya . While she accepted responsibility for security lapses relating to the 2012 Benghazi attack , she said she had no direct role in consulate security prior to that attack . Leaving office after Obama 's first term , she wrote her fifth book and undertook speaking engagements before announcing her second presidential run in the 2016 election . Clinton won the Democratic primaries and the 2016 Democratic nomination , becoming the first woman to be nominated for president by a major U.S. political party . She faces Republican Donald Trump in the general election .
= = Early life and education = =
= = = Early life = = =
Hillary Diane Rodham was born on October 26 , 1947 , at Edgewater Hospital in Chicago , Illinois . She was raised in a United Methodist family , first in Chicago and then , from the age of three , in suburban Park Ridge , Illinois . Her father , Hugh Ellsworth Rodham ( 1911 – 1993 ) , was of Welsh and English descent ; he managed a successful small business in the textile industry . Her mother , Dorothy Emma Howell ( 1919 – 2011 ) , was a homemaker of English , Scottish , French @-@ Canadian , and Welsh descent . Hillary has two younger brothers , Hugh and Tony .
As a child , Rodham was a favorite of her teachers at the public schools she attended in Park Ridge . She participated in sports , such as swimming and baseball , and earned numerous badges as a Brownie and as a Girl Scout . She has often told a story of being inspired by U.S. efforts during the Space Race and sending a letter to NASA around 1961 asking what she could do to become an astronaut , only to be told that no women were being accepted into that program .
She attended Maine East High School , where she participated in student council , the school newspaper , and was selected for National Honor Society . She won election as class vice president for her junior year , but then lost an election for class president for her senior year against two boys , one of whom told her that " you are really stupid if you think a girl can be elected president . " For her senior year , she was redistricted to Maine South High School , where she was a National Merit Finalist and graduated in the top five percent of her class of 1965 . Rodham 's mother wanted her to have an independent , professional career , and her father , otherwise a traditionalist , felt that his daughter 's abilities and opportunities should not be limited by gender .
Raised in a politically conservative household , Rodham helped canvass Chicago 's South Side at age thirteen following the very close 1960 U.S. presidential election , where she saw evidence of electoral fraud ( such as voting list entries showing addresses that were empty lots ) against Republican candidate Richard Nixon . She then volunteered to campaign for Republican candidate Barry Goldwater in the U.S. presidential election of 1964 . Rodham 's early political development was shaped most by her high school history teacher ( like her father , a fervent anti @-@ communist ) , who introduced her to Goldwater 's The Conscience of a Conservative , and by her Methodist youth minister ( like her mother , concerned with issues of social justice ) , with whom she saw , and afterwards briefly met , civil rights leader Martin Luther King , Jr. at a 1962 speech in Chicago 's Orchestra Hall .
= = = Wellesley College years = = =
In 1965 , Rodham enrolled at Wellesley College , where she majored in political science . During her freshman year , she served as president of the Wellesley Young Republicans ; with this Rockefeller Republican @-@ oriented group , she supported the elections to mayor of John Lindsay ( New York City ) and to U.S. senator of Edward Brooke ( Massachusetts ) . She later stepped down from this position , as her views changed regarding the American Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War . In a letter to her youth minister at this time , she described herself as " a mind conservative and a heart liberal " . In contrast to the 1960s current that advocated radical actions against the political system , she sought to work for change within it .
In her junior year , Rodham became a supporter of the antiwar presidential nomination campaign of Democrat Eugene McCarthy . In early 1968 , she was elected president of the Wellesley College Government Association and served through early 1969 . Following the assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr . , Rodham organized a two @-@ day student strike and worked with Wellesley 's black students to recruit more black students and faculty . In her student government role , she played a role in keeping Wellesley from being embroiled in the student disruptions common to other colleges . A number of her fellow students thought she might some day become the first female President of the United States .
To help her better understand her changing political views , Professor Alan Schechter assigned Rodham to intern at the House Republican Conference , and she attended the " Wellesley in Washington " summer program . Rodham was invited by moderate New York Republican Representative Charles Goodell to help Governor Nelson Rockefeller 's late @-@ entry campaign for the Republican nomination . Rodham attended the 1968 Republican National Convention in Miami . However , she was upset by the way Richard Nixon 's campaign portrayed Rockefeller and by what she perceived as the convention 's " veiled " racist messages , and left the Republican Party for good . Rodham wrote her senior thesis , a critique of the tactics of radical community organizer Saul Alinsky , under Professor Schechter . ( Years later , while she was first lady , access to her thesis was restricted at the request of the White House and it became the subject of some speculation . )
In 1969 , she graduated with a bachelor of arts , with departmental honors in political science . After some fellow seniors requested that the college administration allow a student speaker at commencement , she became the first student in Wellesley College history to speak at the event , following commencement speaker Senator Brooke . Her speech received a standing ovation lasting seven minutes . She was featured in an article published in Life magazine , due to the response to a part of her speech that criticized Senator Brooke . She also appeared on Irv Kupcinet 's nationally syndicated television talk show as well as in Illinois and New England newspapers . That summer , she worked her way across Alaska , washing dishes in Mount McKinley National Park and sliming salmon in a fish processing cannery in Valdez ( which fired her and shut down overnight when she complained about unhealthful conditions ) .
= = = Yale Law School and postgraduate studies = = =
Rodham then entered Yale Law School . There she served on the editorial board of the Yale Review of Law and Social Action . During her second year , she worked at the Yale Child Study Center , learning about new research on early childhood brain development and working as a research assistant on the seminal work , Beyond the Best Interests of the Child ( 1973 ) . She also took on cases of child abuse at Yale – New Haven Hospital and volunteered at New Haven Legal Services to provide free legal advice for the poor . In the summer of 1970 she was awarded a grant to work at Marian Wright Edelman 's Washington Research Project , where she was assigned to Senator Walter Mondale 's Subcommittee on Migratory Labor . There she researched migrant workers ' problems in housing , sanitation , health and education . Edelman later became a significant mentor . Rodham was recruited by political advisor Anne Wexler to work on the 1970 campaign of Connecticut U.S. Senate candidate Joseph Duffey , with Rodham later crediting Wexler with providing her first job in politics .
In the late spring of 1971 she began dating Bill Clinton , also a law student at Yale . That summer she interned at the Oakland , California , law firm of Treuhaft , Walker and Burnstein . The firm was well known for its support of constitutional rights , civil liberties , and radical causes ( two of its four partners were current or former Communist Party members ) ; Rodham worked on child custody and other cases . Clinton canceled his original summer plans in order to live with her in California ; the couple continued living together in New Haven when they returned to law school . The following summer , Rodham and Clinton campaigned in Texas for unsuccessful 1972 Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern . She received a Juris Doctor degree from Yale in 1973 , having stayed on an extra year to be with Clinton . He first proposed marriage to her following graduation but she declined , uncertain if she wanted to tie her future to his .
Rodham began a year of postgraduate study on children and medicine at the Yale Child Study Center . Her first scholarly article , " Children Under the Law " , was published in the Harvard Educational Review in late 1973 . Discussing the new children 's rights movement , it stated that " child citizens " were " powerless individuals " and argued that children should not be considered equally incompetent from birth to attaining legal age , but that instead courts should presume competence except when there is evidence otherwise , on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . The article became frequently cited in the field .
= = Marriage and family , law career and First Lady of Arkansas = =
= = = From the East Coast to Arkansas = = =
During her postgraduate study , Rodham served as staff attorney for Edelman 's newly founded Children 's Defense Fund in Cambridge , Massachusetts , and as a consultant to the Carnegie Council on Children . In 1974 she was a member of the impeachment inquiry staff in Washington , D.C. , advising the House Committee on the Judiciary during the Watergate scandal . Under the guidance of Chief Counsel John Doar and senior member Bernard W. Nussbaum , Rodham helped research procedures of impeachment and the historical grounds and standards for impeachment . The committee 's work culminated in the resignation of President Richard Nixon in August 1974 .
By then , Rodham was viewed as someone with a bright political future : Democratic political organizer and consultant Betsey Wright had moved from Texas to Washington the previous year to help guide Rodham 's career . Wright thought she had the potential to become a future senator or president . Meanwhile , Clinton had repeatedly asked Rodham to marry him and she continued to demur . After failing the District of Columbia bar exam and passing the Arkansas exam , Rodham came to a key decision . As she later wrote , " I chose to follow my heart instead of my head " . She thus followed Bill Clinton to Arkansas , rather than staying in Washington , where career prospects were brighter . He was then teaching law and running for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in his home state . In August 1974 , Rodham moved to Fayetteville , Arkansas , and became one of only two female faculty members in the School of Law at the University of Arkansas , Fayetteville .
= = = Early Arkansas years = = =
At the university , Rodham gave classes in criminal law , where she was considered a rigorous teacher and tough grader . She became the first director of a new legal aid clinic at the school , securing support from the local bar association and gaining federal funding . Among her cases was one where she was obliged by request of the court to serve as defense counsel to a man accused of raping a twelve @-@ year @-@ old girl ; she put on an effective defense that led to his pleading guilty to a much lesser charge . Decades later , the woman involved said that the defense counsel had put her " through hell " during the legal process ; Clinton has called the trial a " terrible case " . During her time in Fayetteville , Rodham and several other women founded the city 's first rape crisis center . Rodham still harbored doubts about marriage , concerned that her separate identity would be lost and that her accomplishments would be viewed in the light of someone else 's .
Hillary Rodham and Bill Clinton bought a house in Fayetteville in the summer of 1975 , and Hillary finally agreed to marry Bill . Their wedding took place on October 11 , 1975 , in a Methodist ceremony in their living room . A story about the marriage in the Arkansas Gazette indicated that she was retaining the name Hillary Rodham . The motivation was to keep the couple 's professional lives separate and avoid apparent conflicts of interest and because , as she told a friend at the time , " it showed that I was still me . " The decision did upset both their mothers . Bill Clinton had lost the congressional race in 1974 , but in November 1976 was elected Arkansas Attorney General , and so the couple moved to the state capital of Little Rock . There , in February 1977 , Rodham joined the venerable Rose Law Firm , a bastion of Arkansan political and economic influence . She specialized in patent infringement and intellectual property law while also working pro bono in child advocacy ; she rarely performed litigation work in court .
Rodham maintained her interest in children 's law and family policy , publishing the scholarly articles " Children 's Policies : Abandonment and Neglect " in 1977 and " Children 's Rights : A Legal Perspective " in 1979 . The latter continued her argument that children 's legal competence depended upon their age and other circumstances and that in serious medical rights cases , judicial intervention was sometimes warranted . An American Bar Association chair later said , " Her articles were important , not because they were radically new but because they helped formulate something that had been inchoate . " Historian Garry Wills would later describe her as " one of the more important scholar @-@ activists of the last two decades " , while conservatives said her theories would usurp traditional parental authority , would allow children to file frivolous lawsuits against their parents , and exemplified legal " crit " theory run amok .
In 1977 , Rodham cofounded Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families , a state @-@ level alliance with the Children 's Defense Fund . Later that year , President Jimmy Carter ( for whom Rodham had been the 1976 campaign director of field operations in Indiana ) appointed her to the board of directors of the Legal Services Corporation , and she served in that capacity from 1978 until the end of 1981 . From mid @-@ 1978 to mid @-@ 1980 , she was the chair of that board , the first woman to do so . During her time as chair , funding for the Corporation was expanded from $ 90 million to $ 300 million ; subsequently she successfully fought President Ronald Reagan 's attempts to reduce the funding and change the nature of the organization .
Following her husband 's November 1978 election as Governor of Arkansas , Rodham became First Lady of Arkansas in January 1979 , her title for twelve years ( 1979 – 81 , 1983 – 92 ) . Clinton appointed her chair of the Rural Health Advisory Committee the same year , where she secured federal funds to expand medical facilities in Arkansas 's poorest areas without affecting doctors ' fees .
In 1979 , Rodham became the first woman to be made a full partner of Rose Law Firm . From 1978 until they entered the White House , she had a higher salary than that of her husband . During 1978 and 1979 , while looking to supplement their income , Rodham engaged in the trading of cattle futures contracts ; an initial $ 1 @,@ 000 investment generated nearly $ 100 @,@ 000 when she stopped trading after ten months . The couple also began their ill @-@ fated investment in the Whitewater Development Corporation real estate venture with Jim and Susan McDougal at this time . Both of these became subjects of controversy in the 1990s .
On February 27 , 1980 , Rodham gave birth to their daughter Chelsea . In November 1980 , Bill Clinton was defeated in his bid for re @-@ election .
= = = Later Arkansas years = = =
Bill Clinton returned to the governor 's office two years later after winning the election of 1982 . During her husband 's campaign , Rodham began to use the name Hillary Clinton , or sometimes " Mrs. Bill Clinton " , to assuage the concerns of Arkansas voters ; she also took a leave of absence from Rose Law to campaign for him full @-@ time . As First Lady of Arkansas again , she made a note of using Hillary Rodham Clinton as her name . She was named chair of the Arkansas Educational Standards Committee in 1983 , where she sought to reform the state 's court @-@ sanctioned public education system . In one of the Clinton governorship 's most important initiatives , she fought a prolonged but ultimately successful battle against the Arkansas Education Association to establish mandatory teacher testing and state standards for curriculum and classroom size . It became her introduction into the politics of a highly visible public policy effort . In 1985 , she introduced Arkansas 's Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youth , a program that helps parents work with their children in preschool preparedness and literacy . She was named Arkansas Woman of the Year in 1983 and Arkansas Mother of the Year in 1984 .
Clinton continued to practice law with the Rose Law Firm while she was First Lady of Arkansas . She earned less than the other partners , as she billed fewer hours , but still made more than $ 200 @,@ 000 in her final year there . The firm considered her a " rainmaker " because she brought in clients , partly thanks to the prestige she lent it and to her corporate board connections . She was also very influential in the appointment of state judges . Bill Clinton 's Republican opponent in his 1986 gubernatorial re @-@ election campaign accused the Clintons of conflict of interest , because Rose Law did state business ; the Clintons countered the charge by saying that state fees were walled off by the firm before her profits were calculated .
From 1982 to 1988 , Clinton was on the board of directors , sometimes as chair , of the New World Foundation , which funded a variety of New Left interest groups . From 1987 to 1991 , she was the first chair of the American Bar Association 's Commission on Women in the Profession , created to address gender bias in the legal profession and induce the association to adopt measures to combat it . She was twice named by The National Law Journal as one of the 100 most influential lawyers in America : in 1988 and in 1991 . When Bill Clinton thought about not running again for governor in 1990 , Hillary considered running , but private polls were unfavorable and , in the end , he ran and was re @-@ elected for the final time .
Clinton served on the boards of the Arkansas Children 's Hospital Legal Services ( 1988 – 92 ) and the Children 's Defense Fund ( as chair , 1986 – 92 ) . In addition to her positions with nonprofit organizations , she also held positions on the corporate board of directors of TCBY ( 1985 – 92 ) , Wal @-@ Mart Stores ( 1986 – 92 ) and Lafarge ( 1990 – 92 ) . TCBY and Wal @-@ Mart were Arkansas @-@ based companies that were also clients of Rose Law . Clinton was the first female member on Wal @-@ Mart 's board , added following pressure on chairman Sam Walton to name a woman to it . Once there , she pushed successfully for Wal @-@ Mart to adopt more environmentally friendly practices , was largely unsuccessful in a campaign for more women to be added to the company 's management , and was silent about the company 's famously anti @-@ labor union practices .
= = = Bill Clinton presidential campaign of 1992 = = =
Hillary Clinton received sustained national attention for the first time when her husband became a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination of 1992 . Before the New Hampshire primary , tabloid publications printed assertions that Bill Clinton had engaged in an extramarital affair with Arkansas lounge singer Gennifer Flowers . In response , the Clintons appeared together on 60 Minutes , where Bill Clinton denied the affair , but acknowledged " causing pain in my marriage " . This joint appearance was credited with rescuing his campaign . During it , Hillary Clinton made culturally disparaging remarks about Tammy Wynette 's outlook on marriage as described in her classic song " Stand by Your Man " , and later in the campaign about how she could have chosen to be like women staying home and baking cookies and having teas , but wanted to pursue her career instead . The remarks were widely criticized , particularly by those who were , or defended , stay @-@ at @-@ home mothers , and in retrospect , were ill @-@ considered by her own admission . Bill Clinton said that in electing him , the nation would " get two for the price of one " , referring to the prominent role his wife would assume . Beginning with Daniel Wattenberg 's August 1992 The American Spectator article " The Lady Macbeth of Little Rock " , Hillary Clinton 's own past ideological and ethical record came under attack from conservatives . At least twenty other articles in major publications also drew comparisons between her and Lady Macbeth .
= = First Lady of the United States = =
= = = Role as first lady = = =
When Bill Clinton took office as president in January 1993 , Hillary Rodham Clinton became the First Lady of the United States , and her press secretary reiterated that she would be using that form of her name . She was the initial first lady to hold a postgraduate degree and to have her own professional career up to the time of entering the White House . She was also the first to have an office in the West Wing of the White House in addition to the usual first lady offices in the East Wing . She was part of the innermost circle vetting appointments to the new administration and her choices filled at least eleven top @-@ level positions and dozens more lower @-@ level ones . After Eleanor Roosevelt , Clinton is regarded as the most openly empowered presidential wife in American history .
Some critics called it inappropriate for the first lady to play a central role in matters of public policy . Supporters pointed out that Clinton 's role in policy was no different from that of other White House advisors and that voters had been well aware that she would play an active role in her husband 's presidency . Bill Clinton 's campaign promise of " two for the price of one " led opponents to refer derisively to the Clintons as " co @-@ presidents " or sometimes the Arkansas label " Billary " . The pressures of conflicting ideas about the role of a first lady were enough to send Clinton into " imaginary discussions " with the also @-@ politically @-@ active Eleanor Roosevelt . From the time she came to Washington , she also found refuge in a prayer group of The Fellowship that featured many wives of conservative Washington figures . Triggered in part by the death of her father in April 1993 , she publicly sought to find a synthesis of Methodist teachings , liberal religious political philosophy , and Tikkun editor Michael Lerner 's " politics of meaning " to overcome what she saw as America 's " sleeping sickness of the soul " ; that would lead to a willingness " to remold society by redefining what it means to be a human being in the twentieth century , moving into a new millennium . " Other segments of the public focused on her appearance , which had evolved over time from inattention to fashion during her days in Arkansas , to a popular site in the early days of the World Wide Web devoted to showing her many different , and frequently analyzed , hairstyles as first lady , to an appearance on the cover of Vogue magazine in 1998 .
= = = Health care and other policy initiatives = = =
In January 1993 , President Clinton named First Lady Clinton to chair a Task Force on National Health Care Reform , hoping to replicate the success she had in leading the effort for Arkansas education reform . Unconvinced regarding the merits of the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) , she privately urged that passage of health care reform be given higher priority . The recommendation of the task force became known as the Clinton health care plan , a comprehensive proposal that would require employers to provide health coverage to their employees through individual health maintenance organizations . Its opponents quickly derided the plan as " Hillarycare " , and it faced opposition from even some Democrats in Congress . Some protesters against the proposed plan became vitriolic , and during a July 1994 bus tour to rally support for the plan , Clinton wore a bulletproof vest at times .
Failing to gather enough support for a floor vote in either the House or the Senate , although Democrats controlled both chambers , the proposal was abandoned in September 1994 . Clinton later acknowledged in her memoir that her political inexperience partly contributed to the defeat , but cited many other factors . The First Lady 's approval ratings , which had generally been in the high @-@ 50s percent range during her first year , fell to 44 percent in April 1994 and 35 percent by September 1994 .
Republicans made the Clinton health care plan a major campaign issue of the 1994 midterm elections , which saw a net Republican gain of fifty @-@ three seats in the House election and seven in the Senate election , winning control of both ; many analysts and pollsters found the plan to be a major factor in the Democrats ' defeat , especially among independent voters . The White House subsequently sought to downplay Hillary Clinton 's role in shaping policy . Opponents of universal health care would continue to use " Hillarycare " as a pejorative label for similar plans by others .
Along with Senators Ted Kennedy and Orrin Hatch , she was a force behind the passage of the State Children 's Health Insurance Program in 1997 , a federal effort that provided state support for children whose parents could not provide them with health coverage , and conducted outreach efforts on behalf of enrolling children in the program once it became law . She promoted nationwide immunization against childhood illnesses and encouraged older women to seek a mammogram to detect breast cancer , with coverage provided by Medicare . She successfully sought to increase research funding for prostate cancer and childhood asthma at the National Institutes of Health . The First Lady worked to investigate reports of an illness that affected veterans of the Gulf War , which became known as the Gulf War syndrome .
Enactment of welfare reform was a major goal of her husband 's , but when the first two bills on it came from the Republican @-@ controlled Congress lacked protections for people going off welfare , she urged him to veto them , which he did . A third version came up during his 1996 general election campaign that restored some of the protections but cut the scope of benefits in other areas ; critics , including her past mentor Edelman , urged her to get the president to veto it again . But she decided to support the bill , which became the Welfare Reform Act of 1996 , as the best political compromise available . This caused a rift with Edelman that Clinton later called " sad and painful " .
Together with Attorney General Janet Reno , Clinton helped create the Office on Violence Against Women at the Department of Justice . In 1997 , she initiated and shepherded the Adoption and Safe Families Act , which she regarded as her greatest accomplishment as first lady . In 1999 , she was instrumental in the passage of the Foster Care Independence Act , which doubled federal monies for teenagers aging out of foster care . As first lady , Clinton hosted numerous White House conferences , including ones on Child Care ( 1997 ) , on Early Childhood Development and Learning ( 1997 ) , and on Children and Adolescents ( 2000 ) . She also hosted the first @-@ ever White House Conference on Teenagers ( 2000 ) and the first @-@ ever White House Conference on Philanthropy ( 1999 ) .
Clinton traveled to 79 countries during this time , breaking the mark for most @-@ traveled first lady held by Pat Nixon . She did not hold a security clearance or attend National Security Council meetings , but played a role in U.S. diplomacy attaining its objectives . A March 1995 five @-@ nation trip to South Asia , on behest of the U.S. State Department and without her husband , sought to improve relations with India and Pakistan . Clinton was troubled by the plight of women she encountered , but found a warm response from the people of the countries she visited and gained a better relationship with the American press corps . The trip was a transformative experience for her and presaged her eventual career in diplomacy .
In a September 1995 speech before the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing , Clinton argued very forcefully against practices that abused women around the world and in the People 's Republic of China itself , declaring that " it is no longer acceptable to discuss women 's rights as separate from human rights " . Delegates from over 180 countries heard her say : " If there is one message that echoes forth from this conference , let it be that human rights are women 's rights and women 's rights are human rights , once and for all . " In doing so , she resisted both internal administration and Chinese pressure to soften her remarks . The speech became a key moment in the empowerment of women and years later females around the world would recite Clinton 's key phrases . She was one of the most prominent international figures during the late 1990s to speak out against the treatment of Afghan women by the Taliban . She helped create Vital Voices , an international initiative sponsored by the U.S. to promote the participation of women in the political processes of their countries . It and Clinton 's own visits encouraged women to make themselves heard in the Northern Ireland peace process .
= = = Whitewater and other investigations = = =
First Lady Clinton was a subject of several investigations by the United States Office of the Independent Counsel , committees of the U.S. Congress , and the press .
The Whitewater controversy was the focus of media attention from the publication of a New York Times report during the 1992 presidential campaign and throughout her time as first lady . The Clintons had lost their late @-@ 1970s investment in the Whitewater Development Corporation ; at the same time , their partners in that investment , Jim and Susan McDougal , operated Madison Guaranty , a savings and loan institution that retained the legal services of Rose Law Firm and may have been improperly subsidizing Whitewater losses . Madison Guaranty later failed , and Clinton 's work at Rose was scrutinized for a possible conflict of interest in representing the bank before state regulators that her husband had appointed . She said she had done minimal work for the bank . Independent counsels Robert Fiske and Kenneth Starr subpoenaed Clinton 's legal billing records ; she said she did not know where they were . The records were found in the First Lady 's White House book room after a two @-@ year search and delivered to investigators in early 1996 . The delayed appearance of the records sparked intense interest and another investigation concerning how they surfaced and where they had been . Clinton 's staff attributed the problem to continual changes in White House storage areas since the move from the Arkansas Governor 's Mansion . On January 26 , 1996 , Clinton became the first first lady to be subpoenaed to testify before a federal grand jury . After several Independent Counsels had investigated , a final report was issued in 2000 that stated there was insufficient evidence that either Clinton had engaged in criminal wrongdoing .
Scrutiny of the May 1993 firings of the White House Travel Office employees , an affair that became known as " Travelgate " , began with charges that the White House had used audited financial irregularities in the Travel Office operation as an excuse to replace the staff with friends from Arkansas . The 1996 discovery of a two @-@ year @-@ old White House memo caused the investigation to focus on whether Hillary Clinton had orchestrated the firings and whether the statements she made to investigators about her role in the firings were true . The 2000 final Independent Counsel report concluded she was involved in the firings and that she had made " factually false " statements , but that there was insufficient evidence that she knew the statements were false , or knew that her actions would lead to firings , to prosecute her .
Following deputy White House counsel Vince Foster 's July 1993 suicide , allegations were made that Hillary Clinton had ordered the removal of potentially damaging files ( related to Whitewater or other matters ) from Foster 's office on the night of his death . Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr investigated this , and , by 1999 , Starr was reported to be holding the investigation open , despite his staff having told him there was no case to be made . When Starr 's successor Robert Ray issued his final Whitewater reports in 2000 , no claims were made against Hillary Clinton regarding this . An outgrowth of the " Travelgate " investigation was the June 1996 discovery of improper White House access to hundreds of FBI background reports on former Republican White House employees , an affair that some called " Filegate " . Accusations were made that Hillary Clinton had requested these files and that she had recommended hiring an unqualified individual to head the White House Security Office . The 2000 final Independent Counsel report found no substantial or credible evidence that Hillary Clinton had any role or showed any misconduct in the matter .
In March 1994 , newspaper reports revealed her spectacular profits from trading in 1978 – 79 , thus leading to the cattle futures controversy . Allegations were made in the press of conflict of interest and disguised bribery , and several individuals analyzed her trading records , but no formal investigation was made and she was never charged with any wrongdoing .
There was a controversy that arose in early 2001 over gifts made to the White House , rather than to the Clintons personally , that were removed and shipped to the Clintons ' private residence during the last year of Bill Clinton 's time in office . Following public pressure the couple returned $ 134 @,@ 000 worth of such gifts . Hillary Clinton faced additional criticism for having possibly solicited personal gifts shortly before being sworn in as a senator , at which time she would have been barred from accepting them .
= = = Response to Lewinsky scandal = = =
In 1998 , the Clintons ' relationship became the subject of much speculation when investigations revealed that the President had engaged in an extramarital affair with White House intern Monica Lewinsky . Events surrounding the Lewinsky scandal eventually led to the Impeachment of Bill Clinton by the House of Representatives and later acquittal by the Senate . When the allegations against her husband were first made public , Hillary Clinton stated that they were the result of a " vast right @-@ wing conspiracy " , characterizing the Lewinsky charges as the latest in a long , organized , collaborative series of charges by Bill Clinton 's political enemies rather than any wrongdoing by her husband . She later said that she had been misled by her husband 's initial claims that no affair had taken place . After the evidence of President Clinton 's encounters with Lewinsky became incontrovertible , she issued a public statement reaffirming her commitment to their marriage , but privately was reported to be furious at him and was unsure if she wanted to stay in the marriage . The White House residence staff noticed a pronounced level of tension between the couple during this period .
Public reaction varied . Some women admired her strength and poise in private matters made public , some sympathized with her as a victim of her husband 's insensitive behavior , others criticized her as being an enabler to her husband 's indiscretions , while still others accused her of cynically staying in a failed marriage as a way of keeping or even fostering her own political influence . Her public approval ratings in the wake of the revelations shot upward to around 70 percent , the highest they had ever been . In her 2003 memoir , she would attribute her decision to stay married to " a love that has persisted for decades " and add : " No one understands me better and no one can make me laugh the way Bill does . Even after all these years , he is still the most interesting , energizing and fully alive person I have ever met . "
Matters surrounding the Lewinsky scandal left Bill Clinton with substantial legal bills ; in 2014 , Hillary Clinton would state that she and Bill had left the White House " not only dead broke , but in debt . " The statement may have been literally accurate but ignored the potentially enormous earnings potential of presidents upon leaving office as well as the couple 's ability to secure loans from banks .
= = = Traditional duties = = =
Clinton initiated and was founding chair of the Save America 's Treasures program , a national effort that matched federal funds to private donations to preserve and restore historic items and sites , including the flag that inspired " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " and the First Ladies Historic Site in Canton , Ohio . She was head of the White House Millennium Council and hosted Millennium Evenings , a series of lectures that discussed futures studies , one of which became the first live simultaneous webcast from the White House . Clinton also created the first White House Sculpture Garden , located in the Jacqueline Kennedy Garden , which displayed large contemporary American works of art loaned from museums .
In the White House , Clinton placed donated handicrafts of contemporary American artisans , such as pottery and glassware , on rotating display in the state rooms . She oversaw the restoration of the Blue Room to be historically authentic to the period of James Monroe and the Map Room to how it looked during World War II . Working with Arkansas interior decorator Kaki Hockersmith over an eight @-@ year period , she oversaw extensive , privately funded redecoration efforts around the building , often trying to make it look brighter . These included changing the look of the Treaty Room , a presidential study , to along 19th century lines . Overall the redecoration brought mixed notices , with Victorian furnishings for the Lincoln Sitting Room being criticized the most . Clinton hosted many large @-@ scale events at the White House , such as a Saint Patrick 's Day reception , a state dinner for visiting Chinese dignitaries , a contemporary music concert that raised funds for music education in public schools , a New Year 's Eve celebration at the turn of the 21st century , and a state dinner honoring the bicentennial of the White House in November 2000 .
= = 2000 U.S. Senate election = =
When New York 's long @-@ serving U.S. Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan announced his retirement in November 1998 , several prominent Democratic figures , including Representative Charles Rangel of New York , urged Clinton to run for Moynihan 's open seat in the Senate election of 2000 . Once she decided to run , the Clintons purchased a home in Chappaqua , New York , north of New York City , in September 1999 . She became the first first lady of the United States to be a candidate for elected office . Initially , Clinton expected to face Rudy Giuliani , the Mayor of New York City , as her Republican opponent in the election . Giuliani withdrew from the race in May 2000 after he was diagnosed with prostate cancer and matters related to his failing marriage became public , and Clinton instead faced Rick Lazio , a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives representing New York 's 2nd congressional district . Throughout the campaign , opponents accused Clinton of carpetbagging , as she had never resided in New York nor participated in the state 's politics before the 2000 Senate race .
Clinton began her campaign by visiting every county in the state , in a " listening tour " of small @-@ group settings . She devoted considerable time in traditionally Republican Upstate New York regions . Clinton vowed to improve the economic situation in those areas , promising to deliver 200 @,@ 000 jobs to the state over her term . Her plan included tax credits to reward job creation and encourage business investment , especially in the high @-@ tech sector . She called for personal tax cuts for college tuition and long @-@ term care .
The contest drew national attention . Lazio blundered during a September debate by seeming to invade Clinton 's personal space trying to get her to sign a fundraising agreement . The campaigns of Clinton and Lazio , along with Giuliani 's initial effort , spent a record combined $ 90 million . Clinton won the election on November 7 , 2000 , with 55 percent of the vote to Lazio 's 43 percent . She was sworn in as U.S. senator on January 3 , 2001 , making her the first ( and so far only ) woman to have held an elected office either while ( for a brief period ) or after serving as first lady .
= = United States Senate = =
= = = First term = = =
Upon entering the Senate , Clinton maintained a low public profile and built relationships with senators from both parties . She forged alliances with religiously inclined senators by becoming a regular participant in the Senate Prayer Breakfast . She served on five Senate committees : Committee on Budget ( 2001 – 02 ) , Committee on Armed Services ( 2003 – 09 ) , Committee on Environment and Public Works ( 2001 – 09 ) , Committee on Health , Education , Labor and Pensions ( 2001 – 09 ) and Special Committee on Aging . She was also a member of the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe ( 2001 – 09 ) .
Following the September 11 attacks , Clinton sought to obtain funding for the recovery efforts in New York City and security improvements in her state . Working with New York 's senior senator , Charles Schumer , she was instrumental in securing $ 21 billion in funding for the World Trade Center site 's redevelopment . She subsequently took a leading role in investigating the health issues faced by 9 / 11 first responders . Clinton voted for the USA Patriot Act in October 2001 . In 2005 , when the act was up for renewal , she expressed concerns with the USA Patriot Act Reauthorization Conference Report regarding civil liberties , before voting in favor of the USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005 in March 2006 that gained large majority support .
Clinton strongly supported the 2001 U.S. military action in Afghanistan , saying it was a chance to combat terrorism while improving the lives of Afghan women who suffered under the Taliban government . Clinton voted in favor of the October 2002 Iraq War Resolution , which authorized President George W. Bush to use military force against Iraq .
After the Iraq War began , Clinton made trips to Iraq and Afghanistan to visit American troops stationed there . On a visit to Iraq in February 2005 , Clinton noted that the insurgency had failed to disrupt the democratic elections held earlier and that parts of the country were functioning well . Observing that war deployments were draining regular and reserve forces , she co @-@ introduced legislation to increase the size of the regular U.S. Army by 80 @,@ 000 soldiers to ease the strain . In late 2005 , Clinton said that while immediate withdrawal from Iraq would be a mistake , Bush 's pledge to stay " until the job is done " was also misguided , as it gave Iraqis " an open @-@ ended invitation not to take care of themselves " . Her stance caused frustration among those in the Democratic Party who favored quick withdrawal . Clinton supported retaining and improving health benefits for reservists and lobbied against the closure of several military bases , especially those in New York . She used her position on the Armed Services Committee to forge close relationships with a number of high @-@ ranking military officers . ( By 2014 and 2015 Clinton had fully reversed herself on the Iraq War Resolution , saying that she " got it wrong " and the vote in support had been a " mistake " . )
Senator Clinton voted against President Bush 's two major tax cut packages , the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 and the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003 . Clinton voted against the 2005 confirmation of John Roberts as Chief Justice of the United States and the 2006 confirmation of Samuel Alito to the U.S. Supreme Court , filibustering the latter .
In 2005 , Clinton called for the Federal Trade Commission to investigate how hidden sex scenes showed up in the controversial video game Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas . Along with Senators Joe Lieberman and Evan Bayh , she introduced the Family Entertainment Protection Act , intended to protect children from inappropriate content found in video games . In 2004 and 2006 , Clinton voted against the Federal Marriage Amendment that sought to prohibit same @-@ sex marriage . ( Clinton opposed same @-@ sex marriage until 2013 . )
Looking to establish a " progressive infrastructure " to rival that of American conservatism , Clinton played a formative role in conversations that led to the 2003 founding of former Clinton administration Chief of Staff John Podesta 's Center for American Progress , shared aides with Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington , founded in 2003 , and advised the Clintons ' former antagonist David Brock 's Media Matters for America , created in 2004 . Following the 2004 Senate elections , she successfully pushed new Democratic Senate leader Harry Reid to create a Senate war room to handle daily political messaging .
= = = 2006 re @-@ election campaign = = =
In November 2004 , Clinton announced that she would seek a second Senate term . Clinton easily won the Democratic nomination over opposition from antiwar activist Jonathan Tasini . The early frontrunner for the Republican nomination , Westchester County District Attorney Jeanine Pirro , withdrew from the contest after several months of poor campaign performance . Clinton 's eventual opponent in the general election was Republican candidate John Spencer , a former mayor of Yonkers . Clinton won the election on November 7 , 2006 , with 67 percent of the vote to Spencer 's 31 percent , carrying all but four of New York 's sixty @-@ two counties . Her campaign spent $ 36 million for her re @-@ election , more than any other candidate for Senate in the 2006 elections . Some Democrats criticized her for spending too much in a one @-@ sided contest , while some supporters were concerned she did not leave more funds for a potential presidential bid in 2008 . In the following months , she transferred $ 10 million of her Senate funds toward her presidential campaign .
= = = Second term = = =
Clinton opposed the Iraq War troop surge of 2007 , for both military and domestic political reasons ( by the following year , she was privately acknowledging that the surge had been successful ) . In March of that year , she voted in favor of a war @-@ spending bill that required President Bush to begin withdrawing troops from Iraq by a deadline ; it passed almost completely along party lines but was subsequently vetoed by Bush . In May , a compromise war funding bill that removed withdrawal deadlines but tied funding to progress benchmarks for the Iraqi government passed the Senate by a vote of 80 – 14 and would be signed by Bush ; Clinton was one of those who voted against it . Clinton responded to General David Petraeus 's September 2007 Report to Congress on the Situation in Iraq by saying , " I think that the reports that you provide to us really require a willing suspension of disbelief . "
In March 2007 , in response to the dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy , Clinton called on Attorney General Alberto Gonzales to resign . Regarding the high @-@ profile , hotly debated comprehensive immigration reform bill known as the Secure Borders , Economic Opportunity and Immigration Reform Act of 2007 , Clinton cast several votes in support of the bill , which eventually failed to gain cloture .
As the financial crisis of 2007 – 08 reached a peak with the liquidity crisis of September 2008 , Clinton supported the proposed bailout of the U.S. financial system , voting in favor of the $ 700 billion law that created the Troubled Asset Relief Program , saying that it represented the interests of the American people . It passed the Senate 74 – 25 .
In 2007 , Clinton and Virginia Sen. Jim Webb called for an investigation into whether the body armor issued to soldiers in Iraq was adequate .
= = 2008 presidential campaign = =
Clinton had been preparing for a potential candidacy for U.S. President since at least early 2003 . On January 20 , 2007 , she announced via her website the formation of a presidential exploratory committee for the United States presidential election of 2008 , stating " I 'm in , and I 'm in to win . " No woman had ever been nominated by a major party for the presidency . When Bill Clinton became president in 1993 , a blind trust was established ; in April 2007 , the Clintons liquidated the blind trust to avoid the possibility of ethical conflicts or political embarrassments as Hillary Clinton undertook her presidential race . Later disclosure statements revealed that the couple 's worth was now upwards of $ 50 million , and that they had earned over $ 100 million since 2000 , with most of it coming from Bill Clinton 's books , speaking engagements , and other activities .
Throughout the first half of 2007 , Clinton led candidates competing for the Democratic presidential nomination in opinion polls for the election . Senator Barack Obama of Illinois and former Senator John Edwards of North Carolina were her strongest competitors . The biggest threat to her campaign was her past support of the Iraq War , which Obama had opposed from the beginning . Clinton and Obama both set records for early fundraising , swapping the money lead each quarter .
By September 2007 , polling in the first six states holding Democratic contests showed that Clinton was leading in all of them , with the races being closest in Iowa and South Carolina . By the following month , national polls showed Clinton far ahead of Democratic competitors . At the end of October , Clinton suffered a rare poor debate performance against Obama , Edwards , and her other opponents . Obama 's message of change began to resonate with the Democratic electorate better than Clinton 's message of experience . The race tightened considerably , especially in the early states of Iowa , New Hampshire , and South Carolina , with Clinton losing her lead in some polls by December .
In the first vote of 2008 , she placed third in the January 3 Iowa Democratic caucus behind Obama and Edwards . Obama gained ground in national polling in the next few days , with all polls predicting a victory for him in the New Hampshire primary . Clinton gained a surprise win there on January 8 , defeating Obama narrowly . It was the first time a woman had won a major American party 's presidential primary for the purposes of delegate selection . Explanations for Clinton 's New Hampshire comeback varied but often centered on her being seen more sympathetically , especially by women , after her eyes welled with tears and her voice broke while responding to a voter 's question the day before the election .
The nature of the contest fractured in the next few days . Several remarks by Bill Clinton and other surrogates , and a remark by Hillary Clinton concerning Martin Luther King , Jr. and Lyndon B. Johnson , were perceived by many as , accidentally or intentionally , limiting Obama as a racially oriented candidate or otherwise denying the post @-@ racial significance and accomplishments of his campaign . Despite attempts by both Hillary Clinton and Obama to downplay the issue , Democratic voting became more polarized as a result , with Clinton losing much of her support among African Americans . She lost by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin to Obama in the January 26 South Carolina primary , setting up , with Edwards soon dropping out , an intense two @-@ person contest for the twenty @-@ two February 5 Super Tuesday states . Bill Clinton had made more statements attracting criticism for their perceived racial implications late in the South Carolina campaign , and his role was seen as damaging enough to her that a wave of supporters within and outside of the campaign said the former President " needs to stop " . The South Carolina campaign had done lasting damage to Clinton , eroding her support among the Democratic establishment and leading to the prized endorsement of Obama by Ted Kennedy .
On Super Tuesday , Clinton won the largest states , such as California , New York , New Jersey and Massachusetts , while Obama won more states ; they almost evenly split the total popular vote . But Obama was gaining more pledged delegates for his share of the popular vote due to better exploitation of the Democratic proportional allocation rules .
The Clinton campaign had counted on winning the nomination by Super Tuesday and was unprepared financially and logistically for a prolonged effort ; lagging in Internet fundraising , Clinton began loaning money to her campaign . There was continuous turmoil within the campaign staff and she made several top @-@ level personnel changes . Obama won the next eleven February contests across the country , often by large margins , and took a significant pledged delegate lead over Clinton . On March 4 , Clinton broke the string of losses by winning in Ohio among other places , where her criticism of NAFTA , a major legacy of her husband 's presidency , helped in a state where the trade agreement was unpopular . Throughout the campaign , Obama dominated caucuses , for which the Clinton campaign largely ignored preparation . Obama did well in primaries where African Americans or younger , college @-@ educated , or more affluent voters were heavily represented ; Clinton did well in primaries where Hispanics or older , non @-@ college @-@ educated , or working @-@ class white voters predominated . Behind in delegates , Clinton 's best hope of winning the nomination came in persuading uncommitted , party @-@ appointed superdelegates .
Clinton 's admission in late March , that her repeated campaign statements about having been under hostile fire from snipers during a March 1996 visit to U.S. troops at Tuzla Air Base in Bosnia and Herzegovina were not true , attracted considerable media attention . On April 22 , she won the Pennsylvania primary and kept her campaign alive . On May 6 , a narrower @-@ than @-@ expected win in the Indiana primary , coupled with a large loss in the North Carolina primary , ended any realistic chance she had of winning the nomination . She vowed to stay on through the remaining primaries , but stopped attacks against Obama ; as one advisor stated , " She could accept losing . She could not accept quitting . " She won some of the remaining contests , and indeed over the last three months of the campaign won more delegates , states , and votes than Obama , but she failed to overcome Obama 's lead .
Following the final primaries on June 3 , 2008 , Obama had gained enough delegates to become the presumptive nominee . In a speech before her supporters on June 7 , Clinton ended her campaign and endorsed Obama . By campaign 's end , Clinton had won 1 @,@ 640 pledged delegates to Obama 's 1 @,@ 763 ; at the time of the clinching , Clinton had 286 superdelegates to Obama 's 395 , with those numbers widening to 256 versus 438 once Obama was acknowledged the winner . Clinton and Obama each received over 17 million votes during the nomination process with both breaking the previous record . Clinton was the first woman to run in the primary or caucus of every state , and she eclipsed , by a very wide margin , Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm 's 1972 marks for most votes garnered and delegates won by a woman . Clinton gave a passionate speech supporting Obama at the 2008 Democratic National Convention and campaigned frequently for him in Fall 2008 , which concluded with his victory over McCain in the general election on November 4 . Clinton 's campaign ended up severely in debt ; she owed millions of dollars to outside vendors and wrote off the $ 13 million that she lent it herself . The debt was eventually paid off by the beginning of 2013 .
= = U.S. Secretary of State = =
= = = Nomination and confirmation = = =
In mid @-@ November 2008 , President @-@ elect Obama and Clinton discussed the possibility of her serving as U.S. Secretary of State in his administration . She was initially quite reluctant , but on November 20 , she told Obama she would accept the position . On December 1 , President @-@ elect Obama formally announced that Clinton would be his nominee for Secretary of State . Clinton said she did not want to leave the Senate , but that the new position represented a " difficult and exciting adventure " . As part of the nomination and in order to relieve concerns of conflict of interest , Bill Clinton agreed to accept several conditions and restrictions regarding his ongoing activities and fundraising efforts for the William J. Clinton Foundation and Clinton Global Initiative .
The appointment required a Saxbe fix , passed and signed into law in December 2008 . Confirmation hearings before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee began on January 13 , 2009 , a week before the Obama inauguration ; two days later , the Committee voted 16 – 1 to approve Clinton . By this time , her public approval rating had reached 65 percent , the highest point since the Lewinsky scandal . On January 21 , 2009 , Clinton was confirmed in the full Senate by a vote of 94 – 2 . Clinton took the oath of office of Secretary of State and resigned from the Senate that same day . She became the first former first lady to serve in the United States Cabinet .
= = = First half of tenure = = =
Clinton spent her initial days as Secretary of State telephoning dozens of world leaders and indicating that U.S. foreign policy would change direction : " We have a lot of damage to repair . " She advocated an expanded role in global economic issues for the State Department and cited the need for an increased U.S. diplomatic presence , especially in Iraq where the Defense Department had conducted diplomatic missions . Clinton announced the most ambitious of her departmental reforms , the Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review , which establishes specific objectives for the State Department 's diplomatic missions abroad ; it was modeled after a similar process in the Defense Department that she was familiar with from her time on the Senate Armed Services Committee . The first such review was issued in late 2010 and called for the U.S. leading through " civilian power " as a cost @-@ effective way of responding to international challenges and defusing crises . It also sought to institutionalize goals of empowering women throughout the world . A cause Clinton advocated throughout her tenure was the adoption of cookstoves in the developing world , to foster cleaner and more environmentally sound food preparation and reduce smoke dangers to women .
In an internal debate regarding the war in Afghanistan during 2009 , Clinton sided with the military 's recommendations for a maximal " Afghanistan surge " , recommending 40 @,@ 000 troops and no public deadline for withdrawal ; she prevailed over Vice President Joe Biden 's opposition , but eventually supported Obama 's compromise plan to send an additional 30 @,@ 000 troops and tie the surge to a timetable for eventual withdrawal . In March 2009 , Clinton presented Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov with a " reset button " symbolizing U.S. attempts to rebuild ties with that country under its new president , Dmitry Medvedev . The photo op was remembered for a mistranslation into Russian . The policy , which became known as the Russian reset , led to improved cooperation in several areas during Medvedev 's time in office , but relations would worsen considerably following Vladimir Putin 's return to the position in 2012 . In October 2009 , on a trip to Switzerland , Clinton 's intervention overcame last @-@ minute snags and saved the signing of an historic Turkish – Armenian accord that established diplomatic relations and opened the border between the two long @-@ hostile nations . In Pakistan , she engaged in several unusually blunt discussions with students , talk show hosts , and tribal elders , in an attempt to repair the Pakistani image of the U.S. Beginning in 2010 , she helped organize a diplomatic isolation and international sanctions regime against Iran , in an effort to force curtailment of that country 's nuclear program ; this would eventually lead to the multinational Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action being agreed to in 2015 .
Clinton and Obama forged a good working relationship without power struggles ; she was a team player within the administration and a defender of it to the outside , and was careful that neither she nor her husband would upstage the president . Clinton formed an alliance with Secretary of Defense Gates as they shared similar strategic outlooks . Obama and Clinton both approached foreign policy as a largely non @-@ ideological , pragmatic exercise . She met with him weekly but did not have the close , daily relationship that some of her predecessors had had with their presidents ; moreover , certain key areas of policymaking were kept inside the White House or Pentagon . Nevertheless , the president had trust in her actions .
In a prepared speech in January 2010 , Clinton drew analogies between the Iron Curtain and the free and unfree Internet . Chinese officials reacted negatively towards it and the speech garnered attention as the first time a senior American official had clearly defined the Internet as a key element of American foreign policy . In July 2010 , she visited Korea , Vietnam , Pakistan , and Afghanistan , all the while preparing for the July 31 wedding of daughter Chelsea amid much media attention .
In late November 2010 , she led the U.S. damage control effort after WikiLeaks released confidential State Department cables containing blunt statements and assessments by U.S. and foreign diplomats , by contacting foreign leaders in Europe and the Middle East ahead of the release .
= = = Second half of tenure = = =
The 2011 Egyptian protests posed the most challenging foreign policy crisis for the administration yet . Clinton 's public response quickly evolved from an early assessment that the government of Hosni Mubarak was " stable " , to a stance that there needed to be an " orderly transition [ to ] a democratic participatory government " , to a condemnation of violence against the protesters . Obama came to rely upon Clinton 's advice , organization , and personal connections in the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes response to developments . As Arab Spring protests spread throughout the region , Clinton was at the forefront of a U.S. response that she recognized was sometimes contradictory , backing some regimes while supporting protesters against others .
As the Libyan Civil War took place , Clinton 's shift in favor of military intervention aligned her with Ambassador to the UN Susan Rice and National Security Council figure Samantha Power and was a key turning point in overcoming internal administration opposition from Defense Secretary Gates , security advisor Thomas E. Donilon , and counterterrorism advisor John Brennan in gaining the backing for , and Arab and U.N. approval of , the 2011 military intervention in Libya . Secretary Clinton testified to Congress that the administration did not need congressional authorization for its military intervention in Libya , despite objections from some members of both parties that the administration was violating the War Powers Resolution , and the State Department 's legal advisor argued the same when the Resolution 's 60 @-@ day limit for unauthorized wars was passed ( a view that prevailed in a legal debate within the Obama administration ) . Clinton later used U.S. allies and what she called " convening power " to promote unity among the Libyan rebels as they eventually overthrew the Gaddafi regime . The aftermath of the Libyan Civil War saw the country becoming a failed state , and the wisdom of the intervention and interpretation of what happened afterward would become the subject of considerable debate .
During April 2011 internal deliberations of the president 's innermost circle of advisors over whether to order U.S. special forces to conduct a raid into Pakistan against Osama bin Laden , Clinton was among those who argued in favor , saying the importance of getting bin Laden outweighed the risks to the U.S. relationship with Pakistan . Following completion of the mission on May 2 , which resulted in bin Laden 's death , Clinton played a key role in the administration 's decision not to release photographs of the dead al @-@ Qaeda leader . During internal discussions regarding Iraq in 2011 , Clinton argued for keeping a residual force of up to 10 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 U.S. troops there ( all ended up being withdrawn after negotiations for a revised U.S. – Iraq Status of Forces Agreement failed ) .
In a speech before the United Nations Human Rights Council in December 2011 , Clinton said that " Gay rights are human rights " , and that the U.S. would advocate for gay rights and legal protections of gays abroad . The same period saw her overcome internal administration opposition with a direct appeal to Obama and stage the first visit to Burma by a U.S. secretary of state since 1955 , as she met with Burmese leaders as well as opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi and sought to support the 2011 Burmese democratic reforms . She also said that the 21st century would be " America 's Pacific century " , a declaration that was part of the Obama administration 's " pivot to Asia " .
During the Syrian Civil War , Clinton and the Obama administration initially sought to persuade Syrian President Bashar al @-@ Assad to engage popular demonstrations with reform , then as government violence rose in August 2011 , called for him to relinquish power . The administration joined a number of allied countries in delivering non @-@ lethal assistance to rebels opposed to the Assad government , as well as to humanitarian groups working in Syria . During mid @-@ 2012 , Clinton formed a plan with CIA Director David Petraeus to further strengthen the opposition by arming and training vetted groups of Syrian rebels , but the proposal was rejected by the White House , who were reluctant to become entangled in the conflict and who feared that extremists hidden among the rebels might turn the weapons against other targets .
In December 2012 , Clinton was hospitalized for a few days for treatment of a blood clot in her right transverse venous sinus . Her doctors had discovered the clot during a follow @-@ up examination for a concussion she had sustained when she had fainted and fallen nearly three weeks earlier , after developing severe dehydration from a viral intestinal ailment acquired during a trip to Europe . The clot , which caused no immediate neurological injury , was treated with anticoagulant medication , and her doctors subsequently said she made a full recovery .
= = = Overall themes = = =
Throughout her time in office , and in her final speech concluding it , Clinton viewed " smart power " as the strategy for asserting U.S. leadership and values — in a world of varied threats , weakened central governments , and increasingly important nongovernmental entities — by combining military hard power with diplomacy and U.S. soft power capacities in global economics , development aid , technology , creativity , and human rights advocacy . As such , she became the first secretary of state to methodically implement the smart power approach . In debates over use of military force , she was generally one of the more hawkish voices in the administration . In August 2011 she hailed the ongoing multinational military intervention in Libya and the initial U.S. response towards the Syrian Civil War as examples of smart power in action .
Clinton greatly expanded the State Department 's use of social media , including Facebook and Twitter , both to get its message out and to help empower citizens of foreign countries vis @-@ à @-@ vis their governments . And in the Mideast turmoil , Clinton particularly saw an opportunity to advance one of the central themes of her tenure , the empowerment and welfare of women and girls worldwide . Moreover , in a formulation that became known as " the Hillary Doctrine " , she viewed women 's rights as critical for U.S. security interests , due to a link between the level of violence against women and gender inequality within a state and the instability and challenge to international security of that state . In turn , there was a trend of women around the world finding more opportunities , and in some cases feeling safer , as the result of her actions and visibility .
Clinton visited 112 countries during her tenure , making her the most widely traveled secretary of state ( Time magazine wrote that " Clinton 's endurance is legendary " ) . The first secretary of state to visit countries such as Togo and Timor @-@ Leste , she believed that in @-@ person visits were more important than ever in the virtual age . As early as March 2011 , she indicated she was not interested in serving a second term as Secretary of State should Obama be re @-@ elected in 2012 ; in December 2012 , following that re @-@ election , Obama nominated Senator John Kerry to be Clinton 's successor . Her last day as Secretary of State was February 1 , 2013 . Upon her departure , analysts commented that Clinton 's tenure did not bring any signature diplomatic breakthroughs as some other Secretaries of State had , and highlighted her focus on goals that she thought were less tangible but would have more lasting effect .
= = = Benghazi attack and subsequent hearings = = =
On September 11 , 2012 , the U.S. diplomatic mission in Benghazi , Libya , was attacked , resulting in the deaths of the U.S. Ambassador , J. Christopher Stevens , and three other Americans . The attack , questions surrounding the security of the U.S. consulate , and the varying explanations given afterward by administration officials for what had happened , became politically controversial in the U.S. On October 15 , Clinton took responsibility for the question of security lapses and said the differing explanations were due to the inevitable fog of war confusion after such events .
On December 19 , a panel led by Thomas R. Pickering and Michael Mullen issued its report on the matter . It was sharply critical of State Department officials in Washington for ignoring requests for more guards and safety upgrades and for failing to adapt security procedures to a deteriorating security environment . It focused its criticism on the department 's Bureau of Diplomatic Security and Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs ; four State Department officials at the assistant secretary level and below were removed from their posts as a consequence . Clinton said she accepted the conclusions of the report and that changes were underway to implement its suggested recommendations .
Clinton gave testimony to two congressional foreign affairs committees on January 23 , 2013 , regarding the Benghazi attack . She defended her actions in response to the incident and , while still accepting formal responsibility , said she had had no direct role in specific discussions beforehand regarding consulate security . Congressional Republicans challenged her on several points , to which she responded . In particular , after persistent questioning about whether the administration had issued inaccurate " talking points " after the attack , Clinton responded with the much @-@ quoted rejoinder , " With all due respect , the fact is we had four dead Americans . Was it because of a protest or was it because of guys out for a walk one night who decided that they 'd they go kill some Americans ? What difference at this point does it make ? It is our job to figure out what happened and do everything we can to prevent it from ever happening again , Senator . " In November 2014 , the House Intelligence Committee issued a report that concluded there had been no wrongdoing in the administration 's response to the attack .
The House Select Committee on Benghazi was created in May 2014 and conducted a two @-@ year investigation related to the 2012 attack . Its actions were often seen through the prism of domestic politics . This was especially the case in September 2015 , when House Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy credited the Benghazi hearings with lowering Clinton 's poll numbers , thereby contradicting the Republicans ' previous talking points on the investigation . On October 22 , 2015 , Clinton testified at an all @-@ day and nighttime session before the committee . The hearing included many heated exchanges between committee members and Clinton , and between the committee members themselves . Clinton was widely seen as emerging largely unscathed from the hearing , because of what the media perceived as a calm and unfazed demeanor , and a lengthy , meandering , repetitive line of questioning from the committee . The committee issued competing final reports in June 2016 that broke along partisan lines , with the Republican report offering some new details about the attack but no new evidence of culpability by Clinton .
= = = Email controversy = = =
A controversy arose in March 2015 , when it was revealed by the State Department 's inspector general that Clinton had exclusively used personal email accounts on a non @-@ government , privately maintained server — in lieu of email accounts maintained on federal government servers — when conducting official business during her tenure as Secretary of State . Some experts , officials , members of Congress , and political opponents , contended that her use of private messaging system software and a private server violated State Department protocols and procedures , and federal laws and regulations governing recordkeeping requirements .
The controversy occurred against the backdrop of Clinton 's 2016 presidential election campaign and hearings held by the House Select Committee on Benghazi .
The New York Times reported in February of 2016 that nearly 2 @,@ 100 emails contained in Clinton 's server were retroactively marked classified by the State Department . A later FBI investigation found that Clinton both sent and received 110 emails that contained classified information , including a " small number " that contained markings indicating classified status .
Additionally , the intelligence community 's inspector general wrote Congress to say that some of the emails " contained classified State Department information when originated . " In a joint statement released on July 15 , 2015 , the inspector general of the State Department and the inspector general of the intelligence community said that through their review of the emails , they found information that was classified when sent , remained so as of their inspection , and " never should have been transmitted via an unclassified personal system . " They also stated unequivocally that those secrets never should have been stored outside of secure government computer systems . Clinton had said over a period of months that she kept no classified information on the private server that she set up in her house .
Government policy , reiterated in the nondisclosure agreement signed by Clinton as part of gaining her security clearance , is that sensitive information can be considered as classified even if not marked as such . After allegations were raised that some of the emails in question fell into the so @-@ called " born classified " category , an FBI probe was initiated regarding how classified information was handled on the Clinton server . In May 2016 , the inspector general of the State Department criticized her use of a private email server while she was Secretary of State stating that she had not requested permission to use it and even if she had , she would not have been given permission .
Clinton maintained that she did not send or receive any confidential emails from her personal server . In a Democratic debate with Bernie Sanders on February 4 , 2016 , Clinton said , " I never sent or received any classified material – they are retroactively classifying it . " In a Meet the Press interview , Clinton said , " Let me repeat what I have repeated for many months now , I never received nor sent any material that was marked classified . " On July 2 , 2016 , Clinton stated : " Let me repeat what I have repeated for many months now , I never received nor sent any material that was marked classified . "
On July 5 , 2016 , the FBI concluded its investigation . In a statement , FBI director James Comey said :
110 e @-@ mails in 52 e @-@ mail chains have been determined by the owning agency to contain classified information at the time they were sent or received . Eight of those chains contained information that was Top Secret at the time they were sent ; 36 chains contained Secret information at the time ; and eight contained Confidential information , which is the lowest level of classification . Separate from those , about 2 @,@ 000 additional e @-@ mails were “ up @-@ classified ” to make them Confidential ; the information in those had not been classified at the time the e @-@ mails were sent .
Only three emails were found to be marked as classified , although they lacked classified headers and were only marked with a small " c " in parentheses , described as " portion markings " by Comey . They found that Clinton used her personal email extensively while outside the United States , both sending and receiving work @-@ related emails in the territory of sophisticated adversaries . The FBI assessed that it " is possible that hostile actors gained access to Secretary Clinton 's personal email account . " Comey stated that although Clinton was " extremely careless in their handling of very sensitive , highly classified information " , the FBI was expressing to the Justice Department that " no charges are appropriate in this case . " On July 6 , 2016 , U.S. Attorney General Loretta Lynch confirmed that the investigation into Hillary Clinton 's use of private email servers while secretary of state will be closed without criminal charges .
= = Clinton Foundation and speeches = =
When Clinton left the State Department she became a private citizen for the first time in thirty years . She and her daughter joined her husband as named members of the Bill , Hillary & Chelsea Clinton Foundation in 2013 . There she focused on early childhood development efforts , including an initiative called Too Small to Fail and a $ 600 million initiative to encourage the enrollment of girls in secondary schools worldwide , led by former Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard .
Clinton also led the No Ceilings : The Full Participation Project , a partnership with the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to gather and study data on the progress of women and girls around the world since the Beijing conference in 1995 ; its March 2015 report said that while " There has never been a better time in history to be born a woman ... this data shows just how far we still have to go . " The foundation began accepting new donations from foreign governments , which it had stopped doing while she was secretary .
She began work on another volume of memoirs , and made appearances on the paid speaking circuit . There she received $ 200 @,@ 000 – 225 @,@ 000 per engagement , often appearing before Wall Street firms or at business conventions . She also made some unpaid speeches on behalf of the foundation . For the fifteen months ending in March 2015 , Clinton earned over $ 11 million from her speeches . For the overall period 2007 – 14 , the Clintons earned almost $ 141 million , paid some $ 56 million in federal and state taxes , and donated about $ 15 million to charity . As of 2015 , she was estimated to be worth over $ 30 million on her own , or $ 45 – 53 million with her husband .
Clinton resigned from the foundation 's board in April 2015 , when she began her presidential campaign , and the foundation said it would accept new foreign governmental donations from six Western nations only .
= = 2016 presidential campaign = =
On April 12 , 2015 , Clinton formally announced her candidacy for the presidency in the 2016 election . She had a campaign @-@ in @-@ waiting already in place , including a large donor network , experienced operatives , and the Ready for Hillary and Priorities USA Action political action committees , and other infrastructure . The campaign 's headquarters were established in the New York City borough of Brooklyn . Focuses of her campaign have included raising middle class incomes , establishing universal preschool and making college more affordable , and improving the Affordable Care Act . Initially considered a prohibitive favorite to win the Democratic nomination , Clinton has faced an unexpectedly strong challenge from self @-@ professed democratic socialist Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont , whose longtime stance against the influence of corporations and the wealthy in American politics has resonated with a dissatisfied citizenry troubled by the effects of income inequality in the U.S. and has contrasted with Clinton 's Wall Street ties .
In the initial contest of the primaries season , Clinton only very narrowly won the Iowa Democratic caucuses , held February 1 , over an increasingly popular Sanders , making her the first woman to win the Iowa caucuses . In the first primary , held in New Hampshire on February 9 , she lost to Sanders by a wide margin . Sanders was an increasing threat in the next contest , the Nevada caucuses on February 20 , but Clinton managed a five @-@ percentage @-@ point win , aided by final @-@ days campaigning among casino workers . She followed that with a lopsided victory in the South Carolina primary on February 27 . These two victories stabilized her campaign and showed an avoidance of the management turmoil that harmed her 2008 effort .
On March 1 ( " Super Tuesday " ) , Clinton won seven of eleven contests , including a string of dominating victories across the South buoyed , as in South Carolina , by African @-@ American voters , and opened up a significant lead in pledged delegates over Sanders . She maintained this delegate lead across subsequent contests during the primary season , with a consistent pattern throughout being that Sanders did better among younger , whiter , more rural , and more liberal voters and in states that held caucuses or where eligibility was open to independents , while Clinton did better among older and more diverse voter populations and in states that held primaries or where eligibility was restricted to registered Democrats .
By June 6 , 2016 , she had earned enough pledged delegates and supportive superdelegates for the media to consider her the presumptive nominee . The next day , after winning most of the states in the final major round of primaries , Clinton held a victory rally in Brooklyn in which she became the first woman to claim the status of presumptive nominee for a major American political party . By campaign 's end , Clinton had won 2 @,@ 219 pledged delegates to Sanders ' 1 @,@ 832 ; with an estimated 594 superdelegates compared to Sanders ' 47 . She received almost 17 million votes during the nominating process , as opposed to Sanders ' 13 million .
Clinton was formally nominated at the 2016 Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia on July 26 , 2016 , becoming the first woman to be nominated for president by a major U.S. political party .
= = Political positions = =
Several organizations have attempted to measure Clinton 's place on the political spectrum scientifically using her Senate votes . National Journal 's 2004 study of roll @-@ call votes assigned Clinton a rating of 30 in the political spectrum , relative to the Senate at the time , with a rating of 1 being most liberal and 100 being most conservative . National Journal 's subsequent rankings placed her as the 32nd @-@ most liberal senator in 2006 and 16th @-@ most liberal senator in 2007 . A 2004 analysis by political scientists Joshua D. Clinton of Princeton University and Simon Jackman and Doug Rivers of Stanford University found her to be likely the sixth @-@ to @-@ eighth @-@ most liberal senator . The Almanac of American Politics , edited by Michael Barone and Richard E. Cohen , rated her votes from 2003 through 2006 as liberal or conservative , with 100 as the highest rating , in three areas : Economic , Social , and Foreign . Averaged for the four years , the ratings are : Economic |
= 75 liberal , 23 conservative ; Social =
83 liberal , 6 conservative ; Foreign |
= 66 liberal , 30 conservative . Total average =
75 liberal , 20 conservative .
Organizations have also attempted to give newer assessments of Clinton once she reentered elective politics in 2015 . Based on her stated positions from the 1990s to the present , On the Issues places her in their " Left Liberal " region on their two @-@ dimensional grid of social and economic ideologies , with a social score of 80 on a scale of 0 more @-@ restrictive to 100 less @-@ government stances and an economic score of 10 on a scale of 0 more @-@ restrictive to 100 less @-@ government stances . Crowdpac , which does a data aggregation of campaign contributions , votes , and speeches , gives her a 6.5L rating on a one @-@ dimensional left @-@ right scale from 10L ( most liberal ) to 10C ( most conservative ) . Through 2008 , she had an average lifetime 90 percent " Liberal Quotient " from Americans for Democratic Action , and a lifetime 8 percent rating from the American Conservative Union .
In a Gallup poll conducted during May 2005 , 54 percent of respondents considered Clinton a liberal , 30 percent considered her a moderate , and 9 percent considered her a conservative .
= = Religious views = =
Clinton has been a lifelong Methodist , attending various churches throughout her lifetime ; all belonging to the United Methodist Church :
First United Methodist Church of Park Ridge , Illinois – in her early life ,
First United Methodist Church of Little Rock , Arkansas – while in Arkansas ,
Foundry United Methodist Church in Washington , D.C. – as First Lady of the United States ,
Metropolitan Community United Methodist Church in New York City , New York – currently a congregant .
She discussed her faith at 2014 United Methodist Women church rally at the Kentucky International Convention Center in Louisville , Kentucky . However , she has infrequently discussed her faith while campaigning . James Macintyre for Christianity Today has written that her Christian faith is " undeniably strong " and compared her lightly worn but " very real " faith to that of British prime minister Theresa May . Clinton 's friend Lissa Muscatine has suggested that perhaps because Clinton 's faith has motivated her so deeply , she has rarely talked about it .
In early 2016 , a Pew poll was released finding that over 4 in 10 Americans believed Clinton was not very religious . As of 2016 , Clinton has openly discussed her Christianity on several occasions , discussing for example the importance of loving one 's neighbor as oneself , of helping the poor and " creating opportunities for others to be lifted up " . Clinton has also expressed disappointment that " Christianity , which has such great love at its core , is sometimes used to condemn so quickly and judge so harshly . "
Professor Paul Kengor , author of God and Hillary Clinton : A Spiritual Life , has suggested that Clinton 's political positions are rooted in her faith . Clinton reportedly often repeats John Wesley 's maxim " Do all the good you can , by all the means you can , in all the ways you can . "
= = Writings and recordings = =
As First Lady of the United States , Clinton published a weekly syndicated newspaper column titled " Talking It Over " from 1995 to 2000 . It focused on her experiences and those of women , children , and families she met during her travels around the world .
In 1996 , Clinton presented a vision for the children of America in the book It Takes a Village : And Other Lessons Children Teach Us . The book made the Best Seller list of The New York Times and Clinton received the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album in 1997 for the book 's audio recording .
Other books published by Clinton when she was first lady include Dear Socks , Dear Buddy : Kids ' Letters to the First Pets ( 1998 ) and An Invitation to the White House : At Home with History ( 2000 ) . In 2001 , she wrote an afterword to the children 's book Beatrice 's Goat .
In 2003 , Clinton released a 562 @-@ page autobiography , Living History , for which publisher Simon & Schuster paid Clinton a near @-@ record advance of $ 8 million . The book set a first @-@ week sales record for a nonfiction work , went on to sell more than one million copies in the first month following publication , and was translated into twelve foreign languages . Clinton 's audio recording of the book earned her a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album .
In 2014 , Clinton published a second memoir , Hard Choices , which focused on her time as Secretary of State . It has sold about 250 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Cultural and political image = =
Over a hundred books and scholarly works have been written about Hillary Rodham Clinton , from many perspectives . A 2006 survey by the New York Observer found " a virtual cottage industry " of " anti @-@ Clinton literature " , put out by Regnery Publishing and other conservative imprints , with titles such as Madame Hillary : The Dark Road to the White House , Hillary 's Scheme : Inside the Next Clinton 's Ruthless Agenda to Take the White House , and Can She Be Stopped ? : Hillary Clinton Will Be the Next President of the United States Unless ... Books praising Clinton did not sell nearly as well ( other than the memoirs written by her and her husband ) . When she ran for Senate in 2000 , a number of fundraising groups such as Save Our Senate and the Emergency Committee to Stop Hillary Rodham Clinton sprang up to oppose her . Van Natta found that Republican and conservative groups viewed her as a reliable " bogeyman " to mention in fundraising letters , on a par with Ted Kennedy , and the equivalent of Democratic and liberal appeals mentioning Newt Gingrich .
Hillary Clinton has also been featured in the media and popular culture from a wide spectrum of varying perspectives . In 1995 , writer Todd S. Purdum of The New York Times characterized Clinton as a Rorschach test , an assessment echoed at the time by feminist writer and activist Betty Friedan , who said , " Coverage of Hillary Clinton is a massive Rorschach test of the evolution of women in our society . " She has been the subject of many satirical impressions on Saturday Night Live , beginning with her time as first lady , and has made guest appearances on the show herself , in 2008 and in 2015 , to face @-@ off with her doppelgängers .
Clinton has often been described in the popular media as a polarizing figure , with some arguing otherwise . James Madison University political science professor Valerie Sulfaro 's 2007 study used the American National Election Studies ' " feeling thermometer " polls , which measure the degree of opinion about a political figure , to find that such polls during Clinton 's first lady years confirm the " conventional wisdom that Hillary Clinton is a polarizing figure " , with the added insight that " affect towards Mrs. Clinton as first lady tended to be very positive or very negative , with a fairly constant one fourth of respondents feeling ambivalent or neutral " . University of California , San Diego political science professor Gary Jacobson 's 2006 study of partisan polarization found that in a state @-@ by @-@ state survey of job approval ratings of the state 's senators , Clinton had the fourth @-@ largest partisan difference of any senator , with a 50 @-@ percentage @-@ point difference in approval between New York 's Democrats and Republicans .
Northern Illinois University political science professor Barbara Burrell 's 2000 study found that Clinton 's Gallup poll favorability numbers broke sharply along partisan lines throughout her time as first lady , with 70 to 90 percent of Democrats typically viewing her favorably while only 20 to 40 percent of Republicans did . University of Wisconsin – Madison political science professor Charles Franklin analyzed her record of favorable versus unfavorable ratings in public opinion polls , and found that there was more variation in them during her first lady years than her Senate years . The Senate years showed favorable ratings around 50 percent and unfavorable ratings in the mid @-@ 40 percent range ; Franklin noted that , " This sharp split is , of course , one of the more widely remarked aspects of Sen. Clinton 's public image . " McGill University professor of history Gil Troy titled his 2006 biography of her Hillary Rodham Clinton : Polarizing First Lady , and wrote that after the 1992 campaign , Clinton " was a polarizing figure , with 42 percent [ of the public ] saying she came closer to their values and lifestyle than previous first ladies and 41 percent disagreeing . " Troy further wrote that Hillary Clinton " has been uniquely controversial and contradictory since she first appeared on the national radar screen in 1992 " and that she " has alternately fascinated , bedeviled , bewitched , and appalled Americans . "
Burrell 's study found women consistently rating Clinton more favorably than men by about ten percentage points during her first lady years . Jacobson 's study found a positive correlation across all senators between being women and receiving a partisan @-@ polarized response . Colorado State University communication studies professor Karrin Vasby Anderson describes the first lady position as a " site " for American womanhood , one ready made for the symbolic negotiation of female identity . In particular , Anderson states there has been a cultural bias towards traditional first ladies and a cultural prohibition against modern first ladies ; by the time of Clinton , the first lady position had become a site of heterogeneity and paradox . Burrell , as well as biographers Jeff Gerth and Don Van Natta Jr . , note that Clinton achieved her highest approval ratings as first lady late in 1998 , not for professional or political achievements of her own , but for being seen as the victim of her husband 's very public infidelity . University of Pennsylvania communications professor Kathleen Hall Jamieson saw Hillary Clinton as an exemplar of the double bind , who though able to live in a " both @-@ and " world of both career and family , nevertheless " became a surrogate on whom we projected our attitudes about attributes once thought incompatible " , leading to her being placed in a variety of no @-@ win situations . Quinnipiac University media studies professor Lisa Burns found press accounts frequently framing Clinton both as an exemplar of the modern professional working mother and as a political interloper interested in usurping power for herself . University of Indianapolis English professor Charlotte Templin found political cartoonists using a variety of stereotypes — such as gender reversal , radical feminist as emasculator , and the wife the husband wants to get rid of — to portray Hillary Clinton as violating gender norms .
Going into the early stages of her presidential campaign for 2008 , a Time magazine cover showed a large picture of her , with two checkboxes labeled " Love Her " , " Hate Her " , while Mother Jones titled its profile of her " Harpy , Hero , Heretic : Hillary " . Democratic netroots activists consistently rated Clinton very low in polls of their desired candidates , while some conservative figures such as Bruce Bartlett and Christopher Ruddy were declaring a Hillary Clinton presidency not so bad after all . An October 2007 cover of The American Conservative magazine was titled " The Waning Power of Hillary Hate " . By December 2007 , communications professor Jamieson observed that there was a large amount of misogyny present about Clinton on the Internet , up to and including Facebook and other sites devoted to depictions reducing Clinton to sexual humiliation . She noted , in response to widespread comments on Clinton 's laugh , that " We know that there 's language to condemn female speech that doesn 't exist for male speech . We call women 's speech shrill and strident . And Hillary Clinton 's laugh was being described as a cackle . " The " bitch " epithet , which had been applied to Clinton going back to her first lady days and had been seen by Karrin Vasby Anderson as a tool of containment against women in American politics , flourished during the campaign , especially on the Internet but via conventional media as well . Following Clinton 's " choked up moment " and related incidents in the run @-@ up to the January 2008 New Hampshire primary , both The New York Times and Newsweek found that discussion of gender 's role in the campaign had moved into the national political discourse . Newsweek editor Jon Meacham summed the relationship between Clinton and the American public by saying that the New Hampshire events " brought an odd truth to light : though Hillary Rodham Clinton has been on the periphery or in the middle of national life for decades ... she is one of the most recognizable but least understood figures in American politics . "
Once she became Secretary of State , Clinton 's image seemed to improve dramatically among the American public and become one of a respected world figure . She gained consistently high approval ratings ( by 2011 , the highest of her career except during the Lewinsky scandal ) , and her favorable @-@ unfavorable ratings during 2010 and 2011 were the highest of any active , nationally prominent American political figure . A 2012 Internet meme , " Texts from Hillary " , was based around a photograph of Clinton sitting on a military plane wearing sunglasses and using a mobile phone and imagined the recipients and contents of her text messages . It achieved viral popularity among younger , technically adept followers of politics . Clinton sought to explain her popularity by saying in early 2012 , " There 's a certain consistency to who I am and what I do , and I think people have finally said , ' Well , you know , I kinda get her now . ' " She continued to do well in Gallup 's most admired man and woman poll and in 2015 she was named the most admired woman by Americans for a record fourteenth straight time and twentieth time overall .
Her favorability ratings dropped , however , after she left office and began to be viewed in the context of partisan politics again . By September 2015 , with her 2016 presidential campaign underway and beset by continued reports regarding her private email usage at the State Department , her ratings had slumped to the some of her lowest levels ever . During 2016 she acknowledged that : " I 'm not a natural politician , in case you haven 't noticed . " Journalist Indira A. R. Lakshmanan , who has covered Clinton extensively both as a presidential candidate and as secretary of state , believes that Clinton 's persona is almost completely different in the two roles and that while Clinton definitely has the political skills that an officeholder needs , " Clearly , however , something seems to happen to Clinton when the task is asking people to vote for her . "
= = Electoral history = =
= = = Cited bibliography = = =
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= Replaceable You =
" Replaceable You " is the fourth episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 6 , 2011 . In the episode , Homer gets a new assistant named Roz who is secretly out to steal his job . Meanwhile , Bart teams up with Martin Prince for the upcoming Springfield Elementary science fair , constructing robot baby seals that become popular with the senior citizens at the Springfield Retirement Castle . The role of Roz was played by American actress Jane Lynch . " Replaceable You " was seen by approximately eight million viewers during its original broadcast , and it has received mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Homer is initially happy to get an organized , cheerful new assistant at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , a very tall woman named Roz Davis . However , when he and Barney head out to see a film during their work shift , Roz reveals this to Mr. Burns , who demotes Homer to Roz 's job and gives Roz Homer 's position . Roz proceeds to charm the regulars at Moe 's Tavern while finding dozens of ways to make Homer 's job miserable . After Ned Flanders sees Homer is depressed , Homer tells him about Roz , and is shocked to learn that Ned knew Roz back in Ohio ; they were part of the same Christian group , and when Ned gave her a congratulatory hug for winning a " no @-@ fun run " he learned that Roz cannot stand any physical contact . When Roz wins a " Worker of Millennium " award at the plant , Homer manipulates Burns into giving Roz a hug . She proceeds to beat Burns up , and is fired . Roz then compliments Homer for being much smarter than she expected , in terms Homer does not quite understand .
Elsewhere , Bart is not ready for the upcoming Springfield Elementary science fair . He ends up working with Martin Prince and after Bart comes up with a general idea — cool robotics — Martin does all the work and constructs an adorable robotic baby seal . However , it is revealed that when the wiring is tampered with , they become violent attackers . The seal wins first prize at the Fair , to Lisa 's disdain . When she goes to the Springfield Retirement Castle to whine about the injustice to Grampa , the seniors citizen see the seal visibly cheer up Jasper and the value of the invention becomes clear . All of the senior citizens then get their own seals , and they become happier and healthier , which angers a consortium of local businesses ( led by the local funeral home ) who want the oldsters to go back to being miserable and more rapidly dying . The group figures out the wiring secret and reworks the seals so their fury returns , even causing the death of Mrs. Glick . Chief Wiggum has all the robots impounded . Bart and Martin enlist the aid of Professor Frink who then gets a larger group of nerds to remotely hack into the robot software and make them nice again . They succeed and as a result , Chief Wiggum releases all the seals , who return to the nursing home .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Stephanie Gillis and directed by Mark Kirkland . American actress Jane Lynch guest starred in the episode as Roz . Showrunner Al Jean noted in an interview with Entertainment Weekly that it was easy to cast Lynch , since " she can do edge , sweetness , and a mix of both " . He further noted that the crew was happy when she agreed to take the role , and that he was " embarrassed [ the show ] didn ’ t ask her before she was so successful because she ’ s funny in everything she does . " Lynch recorded her scenes together with cast member Dan Castellaneta , who voices Homer . In an interview with the website Hollywood Outbreak , she commented that " It was pretty amazing to every once in a while look up at his face and go ' Oh my God , it 's that guy that does that voice . ' " Lynch added that she " had the best time . I would do it again and again . This is kind of very much a milestone in my career . I will point to this as a big deal . " In an interview with Fox All Access , Lynch revealed that she is a longtime fan : " Indeed I am a fan of The Simpsons . I started watching twenty years ago . I remember the first season . I remember clearly moments from the episodes and I thought it was revolutionary , the comedy of it . I really loved it . "
As with most episodes of The Simpsons , the music was composed by Alf Clausen and edited by Chris Ledesma . In a blog written by Ledesma , it was revealed prior to the airing of the episode that it would contain the use of the waltz " Tales from the Vienna Woods " by Johann Strauss II as well as a musical cue similar to the style of the main theme from the film Catch Me If You Can . The episode features several other references to popular culture as well . For example , Homer skips work to go see a film called Paul Flart : Water Park Cop , a parody of the 2009 film Paul Blart : Mall Cop . In addition , there is a brief shot of the character Bender from the animated television series Futurama .
= = Release = =
" Replaceable You " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 6 , 2011 . It was watched by approximately eight million people during this broadcast . In the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , the episode received a 3 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating ( down eight percent from the previous episode ) and ten percent share . The Simpsons became the highest @-@ rated program in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night in terms of total viewers and in the 18 – 49 demographic , finishing before new episodes of Family Guy , American Dad ! , and Allen Gregory . For the week of October 31 – November 6 , " Replaceable You " finished fifteenth in the ratings among all network prime @-@ time broadcasts in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Replaceable You " has received mixed reviews from television critics . Josh Harrison of Ology wrote positively about the episode , giving it an eight out of ten rating . He commented : " This episode of The Simpsons swerved toward the wacky in the best possible . I approve of this bounce @-@ back from the decidedly meh Treehouse of Horrors [ the previous episode of the series — ' Treehouse of Horror XXII ' ] and I 'm looking forward to what 's next . " Stephanie Krikorian of The Wall Street Journal 's Speakeasy publication named Lynch 's appearance one of the television highlights of the week November 6 – 13 . She wrote that " Simply put , Jane Lynch is good TV . Even the cartoon version , non @-@ track @-@ suit @-@ wearing Jane Lynch was worth watching . Her role as a schemer on this week ’ s Simpsons was no exception , making her performance voicing Roz one of the top moments in this week ’ s Rewind . "
The A.V. Club critic Hayden Childs was more negative , giving the episode a C − rating and criticizing the two plots and the lack of good jokes . He wrote that while there was " some comic potential " in the premise , the writers failed to deliver funny material . Commenting on the plot with Homer and Roz , Childs explained that " there ’ s some comic possibility and resonance in having Homer stabbed in the back at work . Many people have been stabbed in the back by an ambitious colleague . Unfortunately , Homer may not be the best character to give this sort of storyline a heart . Homer is a bad employee who deserves to be ratted out by his subordinate . The fact that she is selfish and mean doesn ’ t add to this story . Yes , that is the sort of person who would stab someone in the back for their own gain , but yes , Homer also had it coming . Where is the joke ? "
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= Nyon Conference =
The Nyon Conference was a diplomatic conference held in Nyon , Switzerland in September 1937 to address attacks on international shipping in the Mediterranean Sea during the Spanish Civil War . The conference was convened in part because Italy had been carrying out unrestricted submarine warfare , although the final conference agreement did not accuse Italy directly ; instead , the attacks were referred to as " piracy " by an unidentified body . Italy was not officially at war , nor did any submarine identify itself . The conference was designed to strengthen non @-@ intervention in the Spanish Civil War . The United Kingdom and France led the conference , which was also attended by Bulgaria , Egypt , Greece , Romania , Turkey , the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia .
The first agreement , signed on 14 September 1937 , included plans to counterattack aggressive submarines . Naval patrols were established ; the United Kingdom and France were to patrol most of the western Mediterranean and parts of the east , and the other signatories were to patrol their own waters . Italy was to be allowed to join the agreement and patrol the Tyrrhenian Sea if it wished . A second agreement followed three days later , applying similar provisions to surface ships . Italy and Germany did not attend , although the former took up naval patrols in November . In marked contrast to the actions of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee and the League of Nations , this conference succeeded in preventing attacks by submarines .
= = Context and organisation = =
The Non @-@ Intervention Committee , a group of twenty @-@ four nations set up in 1936 and based in London , had attempted to restrict the flow of weapons to the parties of the Spanish Civil War . For the United Kingdom , it formed part of the policy of appeasement towards Germany and Italy and aimed at preventing a proxy war – with Italy and Germany supporting Franco 's Nationalist Coalition on one side and the Soviet Union supporting the Republican faction on the other – from escalating into a major pan @-@ European conflict . An Anglo @-@ Italian " Gentleman 's Agreement " had been signed on 2 January 1937 , with each party respecting the rights of the other in the Mediterranean and aimed at improving Anglo @-@ Italian relations . In May 1937 , Neville Chamberlain succeeded Stanley Baldwin as British Prime Minister , and adopted a new policy of dealing directly with Germany and Italy . The British believed they could convince Italy to abandon Germany through appeasement .
Under a Non @-@ Intervention Committee plan , neutral observers were posted to Spanish ports and borders . The plan also assigned zones of patrol to the United Kingdom , France , Germany and Italy , and patrols began in April . Following attacks on the German cruiser Leipzig on 15 and 18 June , Germany and Italy withdrew from the patrols . The United Kingdom and France offered to replace Germany and Italy in patrols of their sections , but the latter powers believed these patrols would be too partial . The British Admiralty proposed four plans in response to attacks on British shipping , favouring sending significant naval resources to the Mediterranean as the best solution ; previous control measures had been widely evaded . As suspected by the other powers , Italy was behind some of these attacks . Whilst officially being at peace , the Italian leadership had ordered the commencement of unrestricted submarine warfare , referred to in discussion as a campaign of piracy without mention of Italy . These plans would be the basis for a Mediterranean meeting , suggested by French Foreign Minister Yvon Delbos . Meanwhile , on the night of 31 August to 1 September , the Italian submarine Iride unsuccessfully attacked the British destroyer Havock with torpedoes , between the Gulf of Valencia and the Balearic Islands , strengthening British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden 's sceptical stance towards Italy . The attack led the British representative in Rome to protest to the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs , but without response .
Up to 60 @,@ 000 Italian volunteers were now operating in Spain , and the removal of foreign nationals was discussed by the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . Italy had made a declaration that it would stop Italian volunteers from fighting in Spain on 7 January 1937 , and put a moratorium on volunteers on 20 January , also agreeing to support limitations on the number of volunteers on the 25th . Italy continued to request that belligerent rights be given to the Nationalists and Republicans , so both would gain the right to search vessels for contraband , thus removing the need for naval patrols . This request was opposed by the United Kingdom , France and the Soviet Union . British recognition of Italian sovereignty over Abyssinia following the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War was an important issue during Anglo @-@ Italian discussions in August 1937 . Following Eden 's disagreement with Chamberlain and Lord Halifax , Leader of the House of Lords and influential politician , over the issue , any agreement recognising Italian sovereignty was postponed until after the planned shipping conference had taken place .
On 5 or 6 September , the British arranged a conference for all parties with a Mediterranean coastline , along with Germany . The conference was to be held at Nyon , Switzerland – Geneva was avoided because Italians associated it with the actions of the League of Nations over the Abyssinian Crisis . The United Kingdom agreed to France 's request to extend an invitation to the Soviet Union , but blocked France 's attempt to invite a representative from Republican Spain . Portugal expressed surprise at not being invited . Camille Chautemps , the new French Prime Minister , opposed direct intervention on the Spanish question . The Soviet Union accepted the invitation , indicating that it would use the opportunity to blame Italy for the attacks on shipping . The Soviet government formally accused the Italians of sinking two Soviet merchant vessels , the Tuniyaev and the Blageav , an accusation the Italians described as " aggressive and offensive " . This was perhaps an attempt by the Soviet Union to push Italy and Germany away from the conference . Germany rejected the invitation , stating that piracy and other issues the conference was to discuss should be handled only by normal meetings of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee , not a conference like Nyon . The United Kingdom and France rejected this suggestion , and continued to prepare for the conference . Soon after , the Italians similarly declined . The Non @-@ Intervention Committee , it said , also had the advantage of including other European powers , notably Poland and Portugal .
= = Provisions = =
British and French naval staffs rejected the idea of a convoy system in draft proposals . The British wanted to curb submarine activity , on the theory that focusing on covert submarine attacks would help avoid confrontation , whereas the French considered surface vessels and aircraft just as important . The French protested at a plan to create multi @-@ nation squadrons , unhappy at the prospect of French ships coming under foreign command . On 8 September , plans were discussed in the British Cabinet , including the setting up of eight groups of three destroyers for the western Mediterranean . Preliminary talks with the French were held on 9 September , and the conference began on the 10th . Proceedings took two forms : discussions between the British and French , and formal meetings of all attending parties . Many of the other nations opposed the participation of the Soviet Navy in the Mediterranean , so the United Kingdom and France agreed to handle Aegean patrols . This was , perhaps surprisingly , accepted by the Soviet Union .
The conference ended on 14 September with the signing of the " Mediterranean Agreement " . Signatories were the countries of Bulgaria , Egypt , France , Greece , Romania , Turkey , the United Kingdom , the USSR and Yugoslavia . The agreement noted attacks on neutral shipping by submarines , in contravention of the London Naval Treaty ( signed in 1930 ) and the Submarine Protocol , part of the Second London Naval Treaty ( signed in 1936 ) .
The agreement provided that any submarine that attacked neutral shipping was to be sunk if possible , including submarines in the vicinity of a recent attack that were determined to be responsible for the attack . French and British fleets would patrol the seas west of Malta and attack any suspicious submarines , with the division of patrols between the United Kingdom and France to be decided by their governments . Both countries would patrol the high seas and territorial waters of signatory countries in the Mediterranean . The British would provide slightly more than half the 60 destroyers needed , with the French providing the remainder and most of the accompanying aircraft . It was agreed that Italy could participate in patrols of the Tyrrhenian Sea if it wished to do so . In the Eastern Mediterranean , British and French ships would patrol up to the Dardanelles , but not in the Adriatic Sea . In this area , signatory countries would patrol their own territorial waters , and would provide any reasonable assistance to the French and British patrols . The future revision of these provisions , including the way the area had been divided into zones , was specifically allowed . Submarine activity would be banned , subject to two exemptions : travel on the surface accompanied by a surface ship , and activity in certain areas for training purposes . Governments would only allow foreign submarines into each of their territorial waters in extreme situations , such as immediate distress . Merchant shipping would also be advised to stick to particular shipping routes . The agreement repeated the suggestion that Italy join in the proposal . Delbos announced that similar proposals about surface craft would be prepared . The provisions of the agreement would come into force on 20 September . The British and French knew that the secret Italian submarine operations had already been paused , but actions to enforce the conference agreement started at midnight on 19 / 20 September . The delegates to the agreement were happy ; The Times likened them to cricketers , " reviewing their innings , over by over " .
The French and British naval staffs moved to Geneva , where a second agreement was signed on 17 September 1937 . It extended the rules governing submarine warfare to surface vessels , and had the same signatories . Official versions of both agreements were published in French and English . Several proposals were not implemented : for instance , the British Admiral Ernle Chatfield wanted the Spanish parties to be able to verify that the flag a ship was displaying was correct , thereby preventing attacks on British shipping if Republican ships continued to use the British flag as a means of escape . This would have benefited the Nationalists , and the French insisted that this provision be dropped . Greece and Turkey wanted ships with a clear identifying mark to be excluded , so as to avoid being forced to fire on a German or Italian warship . This was rejected , but an amendment was made allowing nations to issue their preferred orders in their own territorial waters . A suggestion to fire at any attacking aircraft was easily passed . Another suggestion on surface ships ( which incorrectly stated no attack had yet been proven ) was eventually toughened with the addition of a clause stating aggressors would be attacked , at the request of the French . A Soviet proposal strengthening the effect of the agreement was made .
= = Aftermath = =
Meanwhile , on 13 September , Italy was invited to join in the agreement . Italy unequivocally rejected it , refusing to patrol the Tyrrhenian Sea . It demanded " absolute parity " with the United Kingdom and France , meaning the same right of patrol in the Mediterranean . Italy subsequently indicated that its refusal would be reversed if such parity was granted . Meanwhile , on the 15th , Benito Mussolini 's government sent two submarines to Francisco Franco 's National Faction . The Soviet Union refused to use routes patrolled by the Italians ; the Turks , Greeks and Yugoslavs refused to let the Italians use their ports . A compromise was signed on 30 September , and Italian patrols started on 10 November . The British government , and in particular Neville Chamberlain , desired better relations with Italy and these were achieved with the signing of the Anglo @-@ Italian Agreements of 1938 .
The patrols were a strain on the Royal Navy and the provisions were relaxed with French agreement , effective from January . Submarine activity soon returned and full patrols were resumed in early February . On the whole , submarine activity during this period did not amount to much ; patrols were again relaxed in May , and the agreement suspended in August . The success of the conference was in marked contrast to the failure of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . The Nationalists and Italians switched to using air power against shipping ; at least one ship was sunk off the Spanish coast by aircraft in the final months of 1937 .
In the United Kingdom , Eden described the submarine attacks as savage . He also noted that attacks on submarines would be restricted to suitably extreme circumstances and that the two parties in the war would still not be able to engage neutral vessels . He was keen to avoid an " Anglo @-@ Franco @-@ Soviet bloc " . The British press was in favour of the agreement , although The Times and The Guardian expressed some concerns . British historians have tended to see the Nyon Conference as an important stand against aggression , with some reservations . Christopher Seton @-@ Watson describes it as a " diplomatic victory " , but Jill Edwards points out that it failed to achieve a change in Italian policy . The agreement created further divisions between Eden as foreign minister and Neville Chamberlain as prime minister .
Maxim Litvinov , the Soviet representative , was pleased with the outcome . The agreement also allowed for greater military resources to be deployed to the Mediterranean as needed . Litvinov , in particular , stressed the Soviet Union 's " indisputable right " to commit naval forces to the Mediterranean ( something Germany and Italy had opposed in meetings of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee ) . He also said he regretted that Spanish merchant shipping had been left out – the other nations believed this would have amounted to formal intervention into the civil war . Aretas Akers @-@ Bouglas , Viscount Chilston and British Ambassador to the Soviet Union , reported that the Soviets considered the conference with " tempered satisfaction " , and that they claimed credit for their delegation 's role .
Elsewhere , French public opinion was strongly in favour of the outcome of the conference , the only criticism coming from the far left that Republican ships would not receive direct protection . The German mood was restrained , where the press were satisfied by the Soviet exclusion from patrols . In Spain , the Republicans – on the verge of disaster – were largely in favour , and the Nationalists strongly against . The Republicans praised the improved safety of the shipping routes , but were somewhat unhappy that belligerent rights had not been granted to both sides . The Nationalists made several complaints , including one over the route recommended to shipping , but none of these resulted in changes to the agreement . The agreement was welcomed by other members of the League of Nations . Italian historians tend to downplay the importance of the Nyon Conference , often seeing it as a mere extension of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee .
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= Music of Kingdom Hearts =
The music of the Kingdom Hearts video game series was composed by Yoko Shimomura with orchestral music arranged by Kaoru Wada . The original soundtracks of the games have been released on three albums and a fourth compilation album . The soundtracks to the Kingdom Hearts games feature several musical pieces from both Disney films and Final Fantasy games , including such pieces as " Mickey Mouse Club March " by Jimmie Dodd , " This Is Halloween " by Danny Elfman , and " One @-@ Winged Angel " by Nobuo Uematsu . They also feature several vocal songs , the most notable being the two main theme songs , " Hikari " and " Passion " . The two themes were written and performed by Japanese American pop star Hikaru Utada . " Hikari " and " Passion " were originally in Japanese , but English versions were also produced , titled " Simple and Clean " and " Sanctuary " , respectively .
Although the majority of the music has been released only in Japan , the first soundtrack was released worldwide and tracks from the Kingdom Hearts series have been featured in Video Games Live at multiple venues . The music has overall been well received and several tracks have received particular praise . The two main themes were well received by both video game and music critics , and did well on Japan 's Oricon Weekly Singles chart .
= = Musical pieces = =
The Kingdom Hearts games feature music that ranges from dark to cheerful to sorrowful . Several musical pieces are included that have either met with a positive reception or were already well known – mostly from Disney films . Such pieces include " Mickey Mouse Club March " by Jimmie Dodd ; " Winnie The Pooh " by Robert B. Sherman and Richard M. Sherman ; " This Is Halloween " by Danny Elfman ; " He 's a Pirate " by Geoff Zanelli , Klaus Badelt , and Hans Zimmer ; and " Beauty and the Beast " by Howard Ashman and Alan Menken . Other well @-@ known tracks include " Night on Bald Mountain " ( rendered " A Night on the Bare Mountain " ) by Modest Mussorgsky , and a remixed version of " One @-@ Winged Angel " by Final Fantasy series composer Nobuo Uematsu . Some Disney worlds in Kingdom Hearts feature corresponding music from their related Disney film . Original tracks include the title screen track , " Dearly Beloved " , and the two theme songs , " Simple and Clean " and " Sanctuary " . The soundtracks feature a mix of piano and orchestral pieces . The main themes differ from the other music in that they are pop songs . The series also features several vocal songs — the most notable being the two theme songs . Kingdom Hearts II includes more vocal songs found specifically in the Atlantica world , which features rhythm @-@ based minigames set in the world of The Little Mermaid . Such vocal songs include " Part of Your World " and " Under the Sea " , both by Alan Menken and Howard Ashman .
= = = " Hikari " and " Simple and Clean " = = =
" Hikari " ( 光 , lit . " light " ) is the theme song to the Japanese release of Kingdom Hearts , the first game in the series as well as the Game Boy Advance sequel Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories and its remake Re : Chain of Memories , the PlayStation Portable prequel Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , as well as the theme to Kingdom Hearts coded and its DS remake Re : Coded . Its English counterpart , " Simple and Clean " , is the theme song to the English release of the games as well as the Japanese re @-@ release of the first game , Kingdom Hearts Final Mix . Both songs were written and performed by Hikaru Utada . This marked the first time she had produced a song for a video game . Although the two songs share a similar melody and background music , the meaning of the songs ' lyrics differ as " Simple and Clean " is not a literal translation of " Hikari " . The single , " Hikari " , was released in Japan on March 20 , 2002 and proved to be very popular ; it sold over 270 @,@ 000 copies in a week . " Simple And Clean " ( full version and PLANITb Remix ) is included on Utada 's single release of " COLORS " , which debuted on Japan 's Oricon charts at number one and stayed on the charts for 19 weeks . It was later included as a bonus track on Utada 's 2009 English @-@ language album This Is the One . Both songs have a " PLANITb remix " , which are house versions , and " Hikari " has a " Godson Mix " . The different versions are used at various points in the game ; the " Short Edit " version of the PLANITb remix is used for the opening sequence and the full version of the original song is used for the ending sequence .
= = = " Passion " and " Sanctuary " = = =
" Passion " is the theme song for the Japanese release of Kingdom Hearts II , and the Nintendo DS title , Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days . Its English counterpart , " Sanctuary " , is the theme song for the English versions and Kingdom Hearts II – FINAL MIX . Like the first theme , Hikaru Utada wrote and performed both the Japanese and English versions , and there are two mixes . The " ~ opening version ~ " mix is played during the opening movies , and the " ~ after the battle ~ " version is played after defeating the final boss of the games . " Sanctuary " and " ~ after the battle ~ " were both used in Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days for DS . " Passion " was included in the Kingdom Hearts II Original Soundtrack and a CD single was released on December 14 , 2005 . " Sanctuary " was first previewed on MTV.com in early 2006 . Both the " Opening " and " After the Battle " versions of " Sanctuary " were later released in May 2009 as bonus tracks on Utada 's second American album , This Is the One . The " After the Battle " versions of " Passion " and " Sanctuary " also serve as the ending theme songs for the 3DS game , Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance .
= = Creation and influence = =
Yoko Shimomura composed the music for the three main Kingdom Hearts games and their remakes . She began composing video game music in 1988 , and joined Square in 1993 , but left in 2002 to work freelance . In creating music , Shimomura gathers inspiration from different things outside of her daily routine , like traveling or when she is emotionally moved . She has a respect for solo and orchestral pieces , such as Piano Sonata No. 7 by Ludwig van Beethoven , Ballade No. 1 by Frédéric Chopin , and La Valse by Maurice Ravel . Shimomura was initially hesitant to handle the music for the first Kingdom Hearts ; the mix of a Square @-@ style story and Disney characters made it hard to imagine what the game would be like , which made it difficult to compose the music . Many of the musical pieces are arrangements of Disney themes , which Shimomura stated she enjoyed arranging . Shimomura felt a great deal of pressure working on such recognizable tunes , and made an effort to maintain the original mood and atmosphere of them while complying with the technical specifications of the PlayStation 2 . For example , the original orchestrated arrangement of the song " This is Halloween " from The Nightmare Before Christmas was impossible to reproduce on the PlayStation 2 's sound system . To keep aspects of it intact , Shimomura used a trial and error method to arrange the piece .
In creating original music , Shimomura wanted to create compositions that would make players feel good while playing to accompany the action aspect of Kingdom Hearts . She played the game and looked over scripts and illustrations for inspiration . After coming up with ideas , she discussed them with director Tetsuya Nomura and the game planners . For the PlayStation 2 re @-@ release of Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , she and her team spent much of their time working on the fight music ; Shimomura wanted the different fight music to reflect different emotions such as happiness and sadness . To handle the large workload for Kingdom Hearts coded , Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days and Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , Shimomura composed the most prominent themes , while the rest was created by other composers . In retrospect , Shimomura has stated that the Kingdom Hearts series combined the scenes and music well , and she felt very honored her music has entered into people 's hearts . She has also commented that she enjoyed working on the project , despite its hardships , and is proud of the work .
The two main theme songs were written and performed by Japanese American artist Hikaru Utada . She wrote two versions for each , one in Japanese and one in English ; the latter is used for international releases of the games . " Hikari " and " Passion " are the Japanese version theme songs for Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II respectively , while their English counterparts are called " Simple and Clean " and " Sanctuary " . Utada was the only singer Nomura had in mind for the first Kingdom Hearts theme song . He considered Utada an iconic young singer whose music could break language and international barriers . Her involvement , along with the first song 's Japanese title , was announced in January 2002 . Utada 's involvement with the sequel was announced in July 2005 . Nomura chose not to have a different singer perform the second theme song because he believed fans associated Utada with Kingdom Hearts . Utada derived her inspiration from the worlds and characters in Kingdom Hearts ; she also received written explanations of the stories from Nomura . Nomura stated that the vocals of the second theme tie in more closely with the game 's story than " Hikari " / " Simple and Clean " did with Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories . Conversely , Nomura commented that Utada 's theme songs influenced several factors in creating the games .
= = Releases = =
Aside from being featured in the Kingdom Hearts video games , the music has been released via a variety of methods . Soundtracks for the first and third game were released shortly after the games ' release . These were followed by a compilation set which featured unreleased tracks from the series , as well as new and rearranged versions of tracks from the re @-@ released versions of the games . The first soundtrack was released in Japan , United States and Europe . All other albums were released only in Japan . Though the two main themes were released as part of the game soundtracks , they were officially released as singles a week prior to the games ' releases . Utada 's 2009 album This Is the One features the theme songs " Simple And Clean " and " Sanctuary " . Tracks from Kingdom Hearts series have also been played by Play ! A Video Game Symphony at various venues in the United States and around the world . Arnie Roth arranged Kingdom Hearts pieces for the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in September 2009 . Music from Kingdom Hearts is included in Yoko Shimomura 's best works compilation album Drammatica .
= = = Kingdom Hearts Original Soundtrack = = =
Kingdom Hearts Original Soundtrack is the official soundtrack for the video game Kingdom Hearts . It was first released in Japan on March 27 , 2002 by Toshiba @-@ EMI , and later released in Europe on November 25 , 2002 by Virgin Records and the United States on March 23 , 2003 by Walt Disney Records . The soundtrack is a 2 @-@ CD set which contains most of music in the original version of the game along with two bonus tracks . The music was composed by Yoko Shimomura , with vocals done by Hikaru Utada for " Simple And Clean " and " Hikari " . The orchestral music was arranged by Kaoru Wada and performed by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra . Because Kingdom Hearts Final Mix was released after the soundtrack , additional tracks from it were not included .
The soundtrack has met with an overall positive reception . IGN listed the opening track for Kingdom Hearts , " Dearly Beloved " , as number four on their top ten list of RPG title tracks . In their " Best of 2002 " awards , Kingdom Hearts was nominated for the " Best Sound in a PlayStation 2 Game Editor 's Choice Award " and was a runner up for " Best Sound in Game 2002 Reader 's Choice Award " . Allmusic rated the first soundtrack a 3 out of 5 . GameSpy described the soundtrack as " pleasant , melodious , and most of all fitting for the various situations in which it plays " and complimented the English translation of " Simple And Clean " .
Track listing
= = = Kingdom Hearts -Final Mix- Additional Tracks = = =
Kingdom Hearts -Final Mix- Additional Tracks is a separate CD that features new tracks from the re @-@ release of the first game , Kingdom Hearts Final Mix . It was released in Japan on December 26 , 2002 , by Walt Disney Records .
= = = Kingdom Hearts II Original Soundtrack = = =
Kingdom Hearts II Original Soundtrack is the official soundtrack for Kingdom Hearts II video game . The album contains musical tracks from the game , composed and produced by Yoko Shimomura , with the main orchestral tracks arranged by Kaoru Wada and performed by the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra . Vocals were performed by Hikaru Utada for the theme song , " Passion " . The soundtrack was released in Japan on January 25 , 2006 .
The soundtrack received positive remarks from critics . G4TV awarded Kingdom Hearts II " Best Soundtrack " at their 2006 G @-@ Phoria awards show . GameSpy complimented the soundtrack but stated it was not as good as the first game 's soundtrack . GameInformer called the musical score " unforgettable " . GameSpot stated the " superb soundtrack " further enhanced the gaming experience and rated the sound a 9 out of 10 .
Track listing
= = = Kingdom Hearts Original Soundtrack Complete = = =
Kingdom Hearts Original Soundtrack Complete is a compilation album of the video game music from the three main games in the series , Kingdom Hearts , Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , and Kingdom Hearts II . The boxset contains music composed and produced by Yoko Shimomura , with the main orchestral tracks arranged by Kaoru Wada . The album also features various unreleased tracks from the series , as well as new and rearranged versions of tracks from the two Final Mix releases and Re : Chain of Memories . The compilation boxset was released in Japan on March 28 , 2007 .
The collection has printed images on each disc and includes a deluxe booklet containing new illustrations designed by director and character designer Tetsuya Nomura and comments from Yoko Shimomura . A special CD carrying case featuring artwork of Sora and Roxas was also released as a bonus . The soundtrack comprises nine discs with 229 tracks in total . Discs one and two contain unaltered tracks from the Kingdom Hearts Original Soundtrack while discs three to six contain lengthier and looped tracks from the Kingdom Hearts II Original Soundtrack . Discs seven and eight contain tracks from Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories while disc nine contains bonus tracks from Kingdom Hearts Final Mix and Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix .
Track listing
= = = Piano Collections Kingdom Hearts = = =
On May 27 , 2009 , Square Enix released a collection of Kingdom Hearts music arranged for the piano . The tracks are popular pieces chosen by members of Square Enix 's music website . A mini concert was held on April 2 , 2009 in Tokyo to preview the album , attendees of which were drawn from a lottery held on the Square Enix Members website . There , composer Yoko Shimomura described the album as consisting of easy listening piano solo arrangements . Tracks 5 through 8 are a sonata on the various themes of the series .
" The Other Promise " is used for a cutscene of Kingdom Hearts Re : coded in Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix .
= = = Piano Collections Kingdom Hearts Field & Battle = = =
Piano Collections Kingdom Hearts Field & Battle is the second compilation album of compositions from the Kingdom Hearts series arranged for solo piano by Sachiko Miyano and Natsumi Kameoka . Unlike the first album , which features mostly character themes and background music , this compilation features themes from battles and worlds . Square Enix announced it at the 2009 Tokyo Game Show , and released it in Japan on January 13 , 2010 .
= = = Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep & 358 / 2 Days Original Soundtrack = = =
Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep & 358 / 2 Days Original Soundtrack is a three @-@ disc album containing music from the games Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep and Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , as well as Kingdom Hearts Re : coded , composed by Yoko Shimomura . It was released on February 2 , 2011 . Discs one and two contain music from Birth by Sleep , and disc three contains music from 358 / 2 Days ( tracks 1 through 13 ) , Re : coded ( tracks 14 through 20 ) , and Birth by Sleep : Final Mix ( tracks 21 through 27 ) . Tracks from 358 / 2 Days and Re : coded are in pure orchestrated form , and are not digitized as they are in the original game releases .
Track listing
= = = Kingdom Hearts Dream Drop Distance Original Soundtrack = = =
Kingdom Hearts Dream Drop Distance Original Soundtrack is a three @-@ disc album containing music from Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance , released on April 18 , 2012 . Unlike previous soundtracks , this set features a collaboration between composers Yoko Shimomura , Takeharu Ishimoto , and Tsuyoshi Sekito , containing musical compositions from all three . Among the songs included are tracks from The World Ends with You , originally composed by Ishimoto , who remixed them for Dream Drop Distance . Orchestral arrangements were provided by Kaoru Wada .
Track listing
= = = Kingdom Hearts 10th Anniversary Fan Selection -Melodies & Memories- = = =
Kingdom Hearts 10th Anniversary Fan Selection -Melodies & Memories- is a 2 @-@ CD album made in conmemoration of the series ' 10th anniversary . The tracks included in the album were chosen by fans in the series ' official website . It was released in Japan on September 19 , 2012 .
Track listing
= = Reception = =
The music of Kingdom Hearts was overall well received . Greg Kasavin of GameSpot felt the background music was appropriate for each setting . However , he complained that the music loops were too short and repetitive . IGN reviewer David Smith was impressed by the production values that went into the music of Kingdom Hearts , namely the use of the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra and excellent arrangements of pieces such as " Night on Bald Mountain " and " Under the Sea " . He also praised composer Yoko Shimomura 's ability to maintain the atmosphere while keeping a " common thread of character running through the soundtrack " . Daniel Kalabakov of SoundtrackCentral.com called Shimomura 's orchestral composition sophisticated and stated that the score possesses unique qualities . He also stated that though the album is excellent , he considered it one of Shimomura 's weaker albums overall . In reviewing Shimomura 's compilation album Drammatica , SoundtrackCentral.com reviewer Adam Corn considered the Kingdom Hearts tracks one of the highlights of the album . Jim Cordeira of Gaming Age stated the music was one of the best aspects of the first game and the orchestrated soundtrack is better quality than the " midi @-@ sounding " tunes of previous Final Fantasy games . GameSpy 's Benjamin Turner had positive comments about the main theme , but found some worlds ' background music weak . A second GameSpy reviewer , Gerald Villoria , complimented both PlayStation 2 game soundtracks , but stated Kingdom Hearts II 's soundtrack was not as good as the first game 's .
Several tracks garnered extra attention and their own positive reception . " Hikari " debuted at number one on the Oricon Weekly Singles chart in Japan . It stayed at number one for three weeks and stayed on the chart for thirteen weeks . " Hikari " sold more than 270 @,@ 000 copies during its first week on sale , and by August 2002 , it sold over 860 @,@ 000 copies in Japan . In 2008 , Guinness World Records listed it as the best @-@ selling video game theme song in Japan . Kalabakov complimented Utada 's singing and the instrumentation of " Hikari " , but commented that he was not a fan of pop songs . Turner was impressed by the translation of " Hikari " into English , and felt Utada 's vocals were a good addition to the opening and ending segments of the game . " Passion " debuted at number four on the Oricon Weekly Singles chart in Japan where it stayed on the chart for nine weeks . G4TV 's Miguel Concepcion was particularly pleased by " Dearly Beloved " , the track that plays during the title screen . IGN echoed the sentiment and listed it as number four in their top ten list of RPG title tracks . They commented that the track lifted the doubts they had about the game 's potential . Kalabakov referred to it as a fitting " fairy tale @-@ style " piece to the game 's setting . He further stated that it was a simple piece that was " not short on emotion " .
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= Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III in Australian service =
The Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) operates eight Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III large transport aircraft . Four C @-@ 17s were ordered in mid @-@ 2006 to improve the Australian Defence Force 's ( ADF 's ) ability to operate outside Australia and its region . The aircraft entered service between November 2006 and January 2008 , the second pair being delivered ahead of schedule . Two more Globemasters were ordered in 2011 , the sixth being delivered to the RAAF in November 2012 . Another two C @-@ 17s were ordered in October 2014 , with the final aircraft being delivered in November 2015 . The Globemasters are built to the same specifications as those operated by the United States Air Force ( USAF ) , and the Australian aircraft are maintained through an international contract with Boeing .
All of the RAAF 's Globemasters are assigned to No. 36 Squadron and are based at RAAF Base Amberley in Queensland . The aircraft have supported ADF operations in Afghanistan , Iraq and other locations in the Middle East , as well as training exercises in Australia and the United States . They have also transported supplies and personnel as part of relief efforts following natural disasters in Australia , Japan , New Zealand and several other countries . The C @-@ 17s are highly regarded throughout the Australian military for their ability to carry large amounts of cargo across long distances , and the process through which they were acquired has been identified as an example of good practice in defence procurement .
= = Acquisition = =
= = = Selection = = =
The RAAF began considering options for heavy transport aircraft to provide a strategic airlift capability during the early 2000s . This investigation was initiated after the ADF deployment to East Timor in 1999 and operations in the Middle East from 2001 revealed shortcomings in the RAAF 's ability to transport the increasingly large and heavy vehicles and other items of equipment used by the Australian Army . To support these operations , the ADF found that it needed long @-@ ranged aircraft capable of carrying larger loads than could be accommodated in the RAAF 's force of Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules transports . As a result of this capability gap , the ADF needed to use USAF transports and chartered Russian @-@ built commercial heavy lift aircraft to move supplies and equipment from Australia to its forces in Afghanistan and the Middle East . This experience proved frustrating , as both categories of aircraft were often not available and the commercial transports were expensive to lease . In addition , the crash of a civil @-@ chartered Ilyushin Il @-@ 76 in East Timor in 2003 raised concerns within the ADF about the safety of the Russian transport aircraft . Following advocacy from the military , the Australian Government announced as part of an update to its national security strategy in December 2005 that it would consider acquiring heavy lift aircraft to supplement the RAAF 's Lockheed Martin C @-@ 130J Super Hercules transports . This initiative was one of several measures announced in the government 's Defence Update 2005 paper , which sought to better prepare the ADF to operate in locations distant from Australia .
In early 2006 a project office was established within the Defence Materiel Organisation ( DMO ) to evaluate the options for acquiring heavy lift aircraft . The office considered the Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III , which was in service with the USAF at the time , as well as the Airbus A400M Atlas , which was yet to make its first flight . Boeing aggressively marketed the C @-@ 17 to the Australian Government during this period . Though unstated , commonality with the USAF and the United Kingdom 's RAF was also considered advantageous . In March 2006 , Minister for Defence Brendan Nelson announced that the government had decided to purchase three C @-@ 17s and take out an option for a fourth . Nelson also announced that the C @-@ 17s would be operated by No. 36 Squadron RAAF , which was to transfer its C @-@ 130H Hercules to No. 37 Squadron and relocate from RAAF Base Richmond in New South Wales to RAAF Base Amberley in Queensland . Amberley was selected over Richmond as the base for the Globemasters as its runways and engineering facilities were better able to support large aircraft .
The government exercised the option to purchase a fourth C @-@ 17 between the time this announcement was made and the signing of the final contract on 31 July 2006 . The total cost of the four aircraft was $ A821 million , and Boeing also received an A $ 85 million contract to allow Australia to join the " virtual fleet " global C @-@ 17 sustainment program . Additional funding was allocated to build headquarters and maintenance facilities at Amberley as well as to upgrade the air movements facilities at RAAF Bases Darwin , Edinburgh , Townsville , and Pearce . The package of funding needed to purchase and introduce the Globemasters into service was provided as a supplement to the government 's long @-@ term defence funding program , so the ADF did not have to forego any other planned capabilities . The C @-@ 17s were acquired through the United States Government 's Foreign Military Sales program , meaning that they were first delivered to the USAF and then transferred to the RAAF . The USAF provided some of the C @-@ 17 delivery " slots " it had purchased to the RAAF to enable the type to rapidly enter Australian service , making them identical to American C @-@ 17 even in paint scheme , the only difference being the national markings . This allowed delivery to commence within nine months of commitment to the program .
= = = Delivery and sustainment = = =
The RAAF received its first four C @-@ 17s between late 2006 and early 2008 . The initial aircraft , which was allocated the serial number A41 @-@ 206 , was completed in October 2006 and arrived in Australia on 4 December that year . A welcome ceremony attended by Prime Minister John Howard , Nelson and other dignitaries was held at Defence Establishment Fairbairn in Canberra . The second aircraft , A41 @-@ 207 , was delivered on 11 May 2007 . A41 @-@ 208 was handed over to the RAAF on 18 December 2007 , and A41 @-@ 209 was accepted on 18 January 2008 . The first two aircraft were delivered in accordance with the expected schedule , and the third and fourth were each delivered two months early . The RAAF also acquired a C @-@ 17 flight simulator , which entered service in January 2010 . In the 2012 – 13 edition of its annual Major Projects Report , the Australian National Audit Office judged that a lesson for the Australian Government from the successful procurement of the first four Globemasters was that purchasing major equipment on an " off @-@ the @-@ shelf " basis allows " considerable acceleration of the standard acquisition cycle " . Similarly , Australian Strategic Policy Institute analyst Mark Thomson wrote in 2008 that " the breakneck speed with which the C @-@ 17 acquisition was executed ( and the good outcomes of the acquisition ) provides an example of what can be achieved " through off @-@ the @-@ shelf purchasing , and that such projects generally deliver better outcomes for the ADF than attempts to develop equipment tailored to Australia 's needs .
The Australian Government ordered a further two C @-@ 17s during 2011 and 2012 . In February 2011 Minister for Defence Stephen Smith announced that an additional C @-@ 17 would be purchased for a cost of $ A130 million . This aircraft was ordered to prevent a shortfall of airlift capacity while the original four C @-@ 17s underwent scheduled heavy maintenance . The decision to purchase this aircraft also supplanted an earlier plan to acquire an additional two C @-@ 130Js . As the deadline for A41 @-@ 206 to be temporarily taken out of service for maintenance was rapidly approaching , the USAF agreed to transfer a C @-@ 17 airframe that was nearing completion to the RAAF . This aircraft was delivered on 14 September 2011 , and arrived in Australia nine days later . At the ceremony held to welcome A41 @-@ 210 , Smith announced that the government intended to order another C @-@ 17 . The $ A160 million contract for this aircraft was signed in March 2012 , and it was delivered to the RAAF on 1 November that year . Funding for these two aircraft was obtained through a combination of supplements to the Defence budget and reallocating unspent funds from ADF projects running behind schedule .
Owing to budget constraints and the scheduled closure of Boeing 's Globemaster production line in 2015 , it was considered unlikely in 2012 that the RAAF would acquire additional Globemasters . However , in August 2014 Minister for Defence David Johnston stated that the Government was likely to purchase a further one or two C @-@ 17s . The Government announced that it would purchase two additional Globemasters in October 2014 , and requested information on the pricing and availability for a further pair of aircraft . In November 2014 Australia lodged a formal request with the United States Defense Security Cooperation Agency for four C @-@ 17s and associated equipment , for a total cost of $ A1.85 billion . An order for the RAAF 's seventh and eighth Globemasters was formally announced by Prime Minister Tony Abbott on 10 April 2015 . The first of the new C @-@ 17s arrived in Australia on 29 July 2015 , and the second on 4 November that year . These two aircraft were among the last C @-@ 17s to have been built before the production line was closed , and it is not expected that the RAAF will acquire additional Globemasters . It was reported in December 2014 that the New Zealand Government was considering purchasing between two and four Globemasters , and Australian Aviation journalist Andrew McLaughlin suggested that any such acquisition would build on Australia 's C @-@ 17 support infrastructure . However , the New Zealand Government ultimately decided to not purchase any Globemasters .
Maintenance of the Australian Globemasters is undertaken by both the RAAF and Boeing . As part of Australia 's membership of the Globemaster III Sustainment Partnership , Air Force technicians are responsible for routine servicing and Boeing handles major maintenance tasks . Boeing also provides technical support for RAAF Globemasters during deployments outside of Australia , and the company is paid in return for achieving contractually mandated aircraft availability targets . Due to the economies of scale arising from a large international maintenance program , the contract with Boeing is considered to be cheaper than attempting to support the aircraft through unique Australian contracts . It is expected that the RAAF 's Globemasters will remain in service for 30 years .
The ADF and defence commentators have judged that the Globemaster acquisition has significantly increased the RAAF 's airlift capabilities . The aircraft have a maximum range of 10 @,@ 389 kilometres ( 6 @,@ 455 mi ) and are capable of operating from short and unsealed airstrips . Each Globemaster can carry up to 77 @,@ 519 kilograms ( 170 @,@ 900 lb ) of cargo , and the large size of the aircraft means that it can accommodate outsize items . Maximum loads include 102 passengers , 36 personnel on stretchers , an M1 Abrams tank , three Eurocopter Tiger helicopters or five Bushmaster Protected Mobility Vehicles . These are much larger loads than can be transported by the Air Force 's C @-@ 130 Hercules transports , and the RAAF website states that each C @-@ 17 can carry three times as much cargo as a C @-@ 130 . Flown with a joystick and fly @-@ by @-@ wire controls , the C @-@ 17 is also highly manoeuvrable and responsive considering its size . Ian McPhedran , the defence correspondent for News Corp Australia , judged that the C @-@ 17s have " changed the game " for the RAAF by allowing the force to rapidly transport large amounts of cargo into combat zones . According to aviation journalist Nigel Pittaway , the Globemaster 's capabilities have made it a highly regarded asset throughout the Australian Defence Organisation .
= = Operational service = =
= = = Training and combat operations = = =
Ahead of the delivery of Australia 's first C @-@ 17s , RAAF personnel received training on the aircraft in the United States . From May 2006 a group of pilots and loadmasters led by Wing Commander Linda Corbould , the commanding officer designate of No. 36 Squadron , undertook conversion training with the USAF 's C @-@ 17 units at Altus Air Force Base and Charleston Air Force Base . A group of 48 technical personnel also received training at Charleston and McChord Air Force Base from September that year . No. 36 Squadron began a period of intensive training once Corbould delivered A41 @-@ 206 to Amberley on 7 December 2006 , and the unit achieved initial operating capability status in September 2007 . Also in 2007 , the RAAF 's No. 1 Air Operations Support Squadron was expanded by 80 personnel to provide air load teams to support the Globemasters . A project to acquire the equipment needed to allow the RAAF 's C @-@ 17s to be used in the aeromedical evacuation role and develop associated crew procedures began in late 2007 . The first Globemaster aeromedical evacuation sortie was flown on 5 September 2008 , the day after the type was certified to operate in this role . On 8 December 2008 , Corbould led the RAAF 's first all @-@ female aircrew during a training flight over South East Queensland to mark the second anniversary of the entry of the Globemaster into service . A team of USAF trainers was posted to Amberley until the RAAF had sufficient C @-@ 17 pilots who were qualified to instruct others . The RAAF began training new C @-@ 17 pilots in early 2010 after the flight simulator was delivered , and the first Australian @-@ trained pilots graduated in early May that year . No. 36 Squadron achieved final operating capability status in December 2011 . The components for a simulated C @-@ 17 cargo compartment were delivered to Amberley in early 2013 , and this facility was commissioned in November that year . The simulator is used to train air movements and medical staff as well as to develop and trial new cargo carrying techniques for the C @-@ 17s . The first Australian trained Globemaster loadmasters graduated in mid @-@ 2014 .
The RAAF 's Globemasters have supported Australian military deployments worldwide . The Air Mobility Control Centre manages the tasking of the Globemasters , and tries to allocate them to missions for which they are the most cost @-@ effective option . As of September 2008 , No. 36 Squadron was conducting fortnightly flights to transport supplies from Australia to bases in the Middle East ; at this time the supplies were moved into the combat zones in Iraq and Afghanistan using C @-@ 130 transports . Direct C @-@ 17 flights into the major Australian base at Tarin Kot in Afghanistan began in July 2009 . As No. 36 Squadron 's structure does not enable it to permanently station Globemasters in the Middle East , the usual practice has been for one of the type to carry a load of cargo from Australia and then conduct missions in the region for several days before returning to Amberley . In a speech delivered in early 2013 , Smith stated that during the previous year the Globemasters had supported operations in the Middle East by flying " 60 missions , about 330 hours of flight time , during which the C @-@ 17As moved 190 vehicles , 1 @,@ 800 passengers and over 3 @,@ 600 tonnes of cargo and conducted 20 aeromedical evacuations " . In late 2013 a detachment of two Globemasters , three air crews and a large number of other personnel from No. 36 Squadron was established at Al Minhad Air Base in the United Arab Emirates . This detachment was the first time that Australian C @-@ 17s had been deployed away from Amberley for more than two weeks , and was established to transport ADF equipment out of Afghanistan as part of the reduction of the Australian force in the country . Overall , around 100 Globemaster sorties were conducted to fly equipment out of Tarin Kot between November 2012 and the end of 2013 . All Australian C @-@ 17s that fly into Afghanistan are fitted with a Large Aircraft Infrared Countermeasures system for protection against missiles .
In December 2013 one of the Globemasters which was deployed to the Middle East was , along with a RAAF Hercules , tasked with flying peacekeepers into South Sudan to reinforce the United Nations force there following an outbreak of fighting . This airlift was completed in mid @-@ January , by which time the Australian C @-@ 17 had made eight flights into South Sudan from Brindisi in Italy and Djibouti . During September and December 2014 RAAF Globemasters flew five sorties into Iraq to deliver weapons and ammunition destined for Iraqi forces fighting the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant .
C @-@ 17s have also supported ADF training . In this role they have moved helicopters and other equipment between Australian bases , and supported training deployments to the United States . In April 2010 , members of the Australian Army 's No. 176 ( Air Dispatch ) Squadron became the first paratroopers to jump from a non @-@ American Globemaster ; the type was first used to support training by the Army 's Parachute Training School in June that year . A C @-@ 17 transported an Army M1 Abrams tank for the first time during a training exercise conducted on 11 May 2012 . To mark the arrival of the RAAF 's final Globemaster , four of the aircraft flew over Brisbane together on 22 November 2012 . Each of the C @-@ 17s involved in the flight carried a different type of cargo to showcase the type 's capabilities ; A41 @-@ 211 was configured for aeromedical evacuation tasks , another C @-@ 17 embarked an Abrams tank , one carried two Tiger helicopters and the fourth was loaded with several Bushmasters .
Despite the wide range of tasks which have been assigned to the aircraft , the RAAF is currently not operating its Globemasters in all the roles the type is capable of . In February 2013 the Air Force was reported to be investigating using C @-@ 17s to drop special forces boats as well as supplies to warships . The Australian C @-@ 17s have also not yet been refuelled while in flight , though it is planned to develop this capability once the flying boom refuelling systems fitted to the RAAF 's new KC @-@ 30A tanker aircraft become operational .
= = = Humanitarian tasks = = =
In addition to their military tasks , the C @-@ 17s have formed part of the Australian Government 's response to natural disasters . In November 2007 a C @-@ 17 delivered 27 tonnes of supplies to Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea following heavy flooding caused by Cyclone Guba . At the conclusion of the ADF response to this disaster , another C @-@ 17 mission was conducted to return Army Sikorsky S @-@ 70A @-@ 9 Black Hawks to their base at Townsville . During May 2008 a C @-@ 17 flew 31 tonnes of emergency equipment from Australia to Yangon in Burma following Cyclone Nargis . Later in the month a RAAF Globemaster transported two Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma helicopters from South Africa to Thailand , from where the helicopters flew into Burma . On 1 October 2009 , C @-@ 17s transported supplies and ADF evacuation teams from RAAF Base Richmond to Samoa following the earthquake there . Two days later another C @-@ 17 sortie delivered medical personnel and other specialists to Padang in Indonesia after the Sumatra earthquakes . In August 2010 , two C @-@ 17s were dispatched to deliver emergency supplies to Pakistan following widespread flooding there .
No. 36 Squadron was particularly active during 2011 . In January that year the squadron had to evacuate two C @-@ 17s from Amberley to Richmond when the base was threatened by rising floodwaters during the Queensland floods ; of the other two Globemasters , one was in the Middle East and the other was undergoing maintenance and could not be flown . The aircraft stranded at Amberley was moved onto high ground during the crisis at the base and escaped without damage . The two Richmond @-@ based C @-@ 17s subsequently flew over 227 tones of supplies to flood @-@ affected regions of Queensland . When flooding also took place in Victoria during January , No. 36 Squadron transported 100 @,@ 000 sandbags to Melbourne and flew Royal Australian Navy personnel and vehicles into the state from HMAS Albatross in New South Wales . No. 36 Squadron returned to Amberley after the flood waters dropped in mid @-@ February . In early February the north Queensland city of Cairns was threatened by Cyclone Yasi , and the RAAF conducted two C @-@ 17 sorties and two C @-@ 130 sorties to evacuate patients from Cairns Base Hospital on the night of 1 / 2 February . After the cyclone passed over the Queensland coast , C @-@ 17s flew 200 tonnes of groceries into Cairns over a two @-@ day period as part of Operation Yasi Assist . No. 36 Squadron also contributed aircraft to the Australian response to the 2011 Christchurch earthquake in late February , the C @-@ 17s flying urban search and rescue teams into the city from the 23rd of the month and evacuating Australian citizens on their return flights .
Three of the Australian C @-@ 17s were deployed to Japan following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on 11 March . The first aircraft departed Australia two days after the disaster carrying 75 emergency response personnel , most of whom were members of Fire and Rescue NSW . After delivering these personnel to Yokota Air Base , the C @-@ 17 remained in Japan to provide additional airlift to the Japan Self @-@ Defense Forces ( JSDF ) . In this role , the C @-@ 17 moved elements of the Japanese 15th Brigade from Okinawa to Honshu , and also transported supplies from a JSDF base in Hokkaido . On 21 / 22 March , two other C @-@ 17s ( including one temporarily brought back from the Middle East ) flew a large water cannon system from RAAF Base Pearce in Western Australia to Yokota ; owned by the Bechtel corporation , the water cannon formed part of the efforts to bring the badly damaged Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant under control . With the arrival of these aircraft , all three of the available Australian C @-@ 17s were in Japan ( the fourth was still undergoing maintenance at Amberley ) . The RAAF maintained a C @-@ 17 , two flight crews and support personnel in Japan until 25 March . By the end of this deployment the Australian aircraft had conducted 31 sorties and delivered 450 tonnes of cargo . No. 36 Squadron maintained a C @-@ 17 in the Middle East over most of this period . Also in March 2011 , Smith stated that the Australian Government would probably provide C @-@ 17s to transport humanitarian supplies to Libya if the United Nations requested assistance .
The RAAF 's C @-@ 17s responded to several other natural disasters between late 2011 and 2013 . In October 2011 a Globemaster flew a water purification plant to Samoa , from where it was transported by Royal New Zealand Air Force aircraft to Tuvalu . C @-@ 17s also transported supplies to Fiji and Samoa in December 2012 following Cyclone Evan . In January 2013 two Globemasters flew power generators and transformers from Amberley to Hobart following the Tasmanian bushfires . Later that month C @-@ 17s were used to transport aviation fuel and other supplies into the Queensland town of Bundaberg after it was affected by heavy flooding . In November 2013 a Globemaster flew a civilian medical team and its equipment from Australia to Cebu in the Philippines as part of the relief effort following Typhoon Haiyan ; an RAAF C @-@ 130 subsequently transported the medical team from Cebu to Tacloban in the disaster zone .
In July 2014 , an Australian C @-@ 17 was sent to aid the transportation of the victims ' bodies of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 . The aircraft flew the first 24 bodies from Kharkiv , Ukraine to Eindhoven Airport in the Netherlands , on 23 July . The remaining victims ' bodies will be flown into the Netherlands in cooperation with an RNLAF Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules . The plan is that , once all bodies have been retrieved from the crash site , the Globemaster will repatriate those bodies identified as Australian .
In November 2015 the first flight by an RAAF C @-@ 17 to Antarctica was conducted . The aircraft transported supplies for the Australian Antarctic Division from Hobart to Wilkins Runway , and its crew practised evacuating casualties from Wilkins after the cargo was unloaded . This flight was reported to have been first time the RAAF had flown missions to the Australian Antarctic Territory since the Antarctic Flight was withdrawn in 1963 . Further flights occurred in early 2016 .
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= Laozi =
Laozi ( also Lao @-@ Tzu / ˈlaʊˈdzʌ / or Lao @-@ Tze , Chinese : 老子 ; pinyin : Lǎozǐ , lit . " Old Master " ) was an ancient Chinese philosopher and writer . He is known as the reputed author of the Tao Te Ching and the founder of philosophical Taoism , and as a deity in religious Taoism and traditional Chinese religions . Although a legendary figure , he is usually dated to around the 6th century BC and reckoned a contemporary of Confucius , but some historians contend that he actually lived during the Warring States period of the 5th or 4th century BC . A central figure in Chinese culture , Laozi is claimed by both the emperors of the Tang dynasty and modern people of the Li surname as a founder of their lineage . Laozi 's work has been embraced by various anti @-@ authoritarian movements as well as Chinese Legalism .
= = Names = =
In traditional accounts , Laozi 's personal name is usually given as Li Er ( 李耳 , Old * Rəʔ Nəʔ , Mod . Lǐ Ěr ) and his courtesy name as Boyang ( trad . 伯陽 , simp . 伯阳 , Old * Pˤrak @-@ lang , Mod . Bóyáng ) . A prominent posthumous name was Li Dan ( 李聃 , Lǐ Dān ) .
Laozi itself is an honorific title : 老 ( Old * rˤuʔ , " old , venerable " ) and 子 ( Old * tsə ′ , " master " ) . It is usually pronounced / ˌlaʊˈdzʌ / in English . It has been romanized numerous ways , sometimes leading to confusion . The most common present form is Laozi or Lǎozǐ , based on the Hanyu Pinyin system adopted by Mainland China in 1958 and Taiwan in 2009 . During the 20th century , Lao @-@ tzu was more common , based on the formerly prevalent Wade – Giles system . In the 19th century , the title was usually romanized as Lao @-@ tse . Other forms include the variants Lao @-@ tze and Lao @-@ tsu .
As a religious figure , he is worshipped under the name " Supreme Old Lord " ( 太上老君 , Tàishàng Lǎojūn ) and as one of the " Three Pure Ones " . During the Tang , he was granted the title " Supremely Mysterious and Primordial Emperor " ( 太上玄元皇帝 , Táishāng Xuānyuán Huángdì ) .
= = Historical views = =
In the mid @-@ twentieth century , a consensus emerged among scholars that the historicity of the person known as Laozi is doubtful and that the Tao Te Ching was " a compilation of Taoist sayings by many hands . " Alan Watts urged more caution , holding that this view was part of an academic fashion for skepticism about historical spiritual and religious figures and stating that not enough would be known for years – or possibly ever – to make a firm judgment .
The earliest certain reference to the present figure of Laozi is found in the 1st @-@ century BCE Records of the Grand Historian collected by the historian Sima Qian from earlier accounts . In one account , Laozi was said to be a contemporary of Confucius during the 6th or 5th century BCE . His surname was Li and his personal name was Er or Dan . He was an official in the imperial archives and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the west . In another , Laozi was a different contemporary of Confucius titled Lao Laizi ( 老莱子 ) and wrote a book in 15 parts . In a third , he was the court astrologer Lao Dan who lived during the 4th @-@ century BCE reign of Duke Xian of Qin . The oldest text of the Tao Te Ching so far recovered was written on bamboo slips and dates to the late 4th century BCE .
According to traditional accounts , Laozi was a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of Zhou . This reportedly allowed him broad access to the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics of the time . The stories assert that Laozi never opened a formal school but nonetheless attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples . There are many variations of a story retelling his encounter with Confucius , most famously in the Zhuangzi .
He was sometimes held to have come from the village of Chu Jen in Chu . In accounts where Laozi married , he was said to have had a son named Zong who became a celebrated soldier . Many clans of the Li family trace their descent to Laozi , including the emperors of the Tang dynasty . This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage ( 隴西李氏 ) . According to the Simpkinses , while many ( if not all ) of these lineages are questionable , they provide a testament to Laozi 's impact on Chinese culture .
The third story in Sima Qian states that Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of life in Chengzhou and noted the kingdom 's decline . He ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at the age of 80 . At the western gate of the city ( or kingdom ) , he was recognized by the guard Yinxi . The sentry asked the old master to record his wisdom for the good of the country before he would be permitted to pass . The text Laozi wrote was said to be the Tao Te Ching , although the present version of the text includes additions from later periods . In some versions of the tale , the sentry was so touched by the work that he became a disciple and left with Laozi , never to be seen again . In others , the " Old Master " journeyed all the way to India and was the teacher of Siddartha Gautama , the Buddha . Others claim he was the Buddha himself .
A seventh @-@ century work , the Sandong Zhunang ( " Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns " ) , embellished the relationship between Laozi and Yinxi . Laozi pretended to be a farmer when reaching the western gate , but was recognized by Yinxi , who asked to be taught by the great master . Laozi was not satisfied by simply being noticed by the guard and demanded an explanation . Yinxi expressed his deep desire to find the Tao and explained that his long study of astrology allowed him to recognize Laozi 's approach . Yinxi was accepted by Laozi as a disciple . This is considered an exemplary interaction between Daoist master and disciple , reflecting the testing a seeker must undergo before being accepted . A would @-@ be adherent is expected to prove his determination and talent , clearly expressing his wishes and showing that he had made progress on his own towards realizing the Tao .
The Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns continues the parallel of an adherent 's quest . Yinxi received his ordination when Laozi transmitted the Daodejing , along with other texts and precepts , just as Taoist adherents receive a number of methods , teachings and scriptures at ordination . This is only an initial ordination and Yinxi still needed an additional period to perfect his virtue , thus Laozi gave him three years to perfect his Dao . Yinxi gave himself over to a full @-@ time devotional life . After the appointed time , Yinxi again demonstrates determination and perfect trust , sending out a black sheep to market as the agreed sign . He eventually meets again with Laozi , who announces that Yinxi 's immortal name is listed in the heavens and calls down a heavenly procession to clothe Yinxi in the garb of immortals . The story continues that Laozi bestowed a number of titles upon Yinxi and took him on a journey throughout the universe , even into the nine heavens . After this fantastic journey , the two sages set out to western lands of the barbarians . The training period , reuniting and travels represent the attainment of the highest religious rank in medieval Taoism called " Preceptor of the Three Caverns " . In this legend , Laozi is the perfect Daoist master and Yinxi is the ideal Taoist student . Laozi is presented as the Tao personified , giving his teaching to humanity for their salvation . Yinxi follows the formal sequence of preparation , testing , training and attainment .
The story of Laozi has taken on strong religious overtones since the Han dynasty . As Taoism took root , Laozi was worshipped as a god . Belief in the revelation of the Tao from the divine Laozi resulted in the formation of the Way of the Celestial Master , the first organized religious Taoist sect . In later mature Taoist tradition , Laozi came to be seen as a personification of the Tao . He is said to have undergone numerous " transformations " and taken on various guises in various incarnations throughout history to initiate the faithful in the Way . Religious Taoism often holds that the " Old Master " did not disappear after writing the Tao Te Ching but rather spent his life traveling and revealing the Tao .
Taoist myths state that Laozi was conceived when his mother gazed upon a falling star . He supposedly remained in her womb for 62 years before being born while his mother was leaning against a plum tree . ( The Chinese surname Li shares its character with " plum " . ) Laozi was said to have emerged as a grown man with a full grey beard and long earlobes , both symbols of wisdom and long life . Other myths claim that he was reborn 13 times after his first life during the days of Fuxi . In his last incarnation as Laozi , he lived nine hundred and ninety years and spent his life traveling to reveal the Tao .
= = Tao Te Ching = =
Laozi is traditionally regarded as the author of the Daodejing ( Tao Te Ching ) , though the identity of its author ( s ) and / or compiler ( s ) has been debated throughout history . It is one of the most significant treatises in Chinese cosmogony . As with most other ancient Chinese philosophers , Laozi often explains his ideas by way of paradox , analogy , appropriation of ancient sayings , repetition , symmetry , rhyme , and rhythm . In fact , the whole book can be read as an analogy – the ruler is the awareness , or self , in meditation and the myriad creatures or empire is the experience of the body , senses and desires .
The Tao Te Ching , often called simply Laozi after its reputed author , describes the Dao ( or Tao ) as the source and ideal of all existence : it is unseen , but not transcendent , immensely powerful yet supremely humble , being the root of all things . People have desires and free will ( and thus are able to alter their own nature ) . Many act " unnaturally " , upsetting the natural balance of the Dao . The Daodejing intends to lead students to a " return " to their natural state , in harmony with Dao . Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed . Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial , widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point .
Livia Kohn provides an example of how Laozi encouraged a change in approach , or return to " nature " , rather than action . Technology may bring about a false sense of progress . The answer provided by Laozi is not the rejection of technology , but instead seeking the calm state of wu wei , free from desires . This relates to many statements by Laozi encouraging rulers to keep their people in " ignorance " , or " simple @-@ minded " . Some scholars insist this explanation ignores the religious context , and others question it as an apologetic of the philosophical coherence of the text . It would not be unusual political advice if Laozi literally intended to tell rulers to keep their people ignorant . However , some terms in the text , such as " valley spirit " ( gushen ) and " soul " ( po ) , bear a metaphysical context and cannot be easily reconciled with a purely ethical reading of the work .
Wu wei ( 無爲 ) , literally " non @-@ action " or " not acting " , is a central concept of the Daodejing . The concept of wu wei is multifaceted , and reflected in the words ' multiple meanings , even in English translation ; it can mean " not doing anything " , " not forcing " , " not acting " in the theatrical sense , " creating nothingness " , " acting spontaneously " , and " flowing with the moment . "
It is a concept used to explain ziran ( 自然 ) , or harmony with the Dao . It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source . Laozi used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues , often in contrast to selfish action . On a political level , it means avoiding such circumstances as war , harsh laws and heavy taxes . Some Taoists see a connection between wu wei and esoteric practices , such as zuowang " sitting in oblivion " ( emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought ) found in the Zhuangzi .
Some of Laozi 's famous sayings include :
" When goodness is lost , it is replaced by morality . "
" Without Darkness , there can be no Light . "
" The usefulness of a pot comes from its emptiness . "
" The best people are like water , which benefits all things and does not compete with them . It stays in lowly places that others reject . This is why it is so similar to the Way . "
" When people see some things as beautiful , other things become ugly . When people see some things as good , other things become bad . "
" Try to change it and you will ruin it . Try to hold it and you will lose it . "
" Those who know do not say . Those who say do not know . "
" When you realize there is nothing lacking , the whole world belongs to you . "
" Nature does not hurry , yet everything is accomplished . "
" A good traveler has no fixed plans , and is not intent on arriving . "
" Music in the soul can be heard by the universe . "
" A journey of a thousand miles starts under one 's feet . "
" The more that laws and regulations are given prominence , the more thieves and robbers there will be . "
= = = Taoism = = =
Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism , intimately connected with the Daodejing and " primordial " ( or " original " ) Taoism . Popular ( " religious " ) Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity . Intellectual ( " elite " ) Taoists , such as the Celestial Masters sect , usually present Laozi ( Laojun , " Lord Lao " ) and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities .
= = Influence = =
Potential officials throughout Chinese history drew on the authority of non @-@ Confucian sages , especially Laozi and Zhuangzi , to deny serving any ruler at any time . Zhuangzi , Laozi 's most famous follower in traditional accounts , had a great deal of influence on Chinese literati and culture .
Political theorists influenced by Laozi have advocated humility in leadership and a restrained approach to statecraft , either for ethical and pacifist reasons , or for tactical ends . In a different context , various anti @-@ authoritarian movements have embraced the Laozi teachings on the power of the weak .
Left @-@ libertarians have been highly influenced by Laozi . In his 1937 book Nationalism and Culture , the anarcho @-@ syndicalist writer and activist Rudolf Rocker praised Laozi 's " gentle wisdom " and understanding of the opposition between political power and the cultural activities of the people and community . In his 1910 article for the Encyclopedia Britannica , Peter Kropotkin also noted that Laozi was among the earliest exponents of essentially anarchist concepts . More recently , anarchists such as John P. Clark and Ursula K. Le Guin have written about the conjunction between anarchism and Taoism in various ways , highlighting the teachings of Laozi in particular . In her rendition of the Tao Te Ching , Le Guin writes that Laozi " does not see political power as magic . He sees rightful power as earned and wrongful power as usurped ... He sees sacrifice of self or others as a corruption of power , and power as available to anyone who follows the Way . No wonder anarchists and Taoists make good friends . "
The right @-@ libertarian economist Murray Rothbard suggested that Laozi was the first libertarian , likening Laozi 's ideas on government to F.A. Hayek 's theory of spontaneous order . James A. Dorn agreed , writing that Laozi , like many 18th century liberals , " argued that minimizing the role of government and letting individuals develop spontaneously would best achieve social and economic harmony . " Similarly , the Cato Institute 's David Boaz includes passages from the Daodejing in his 1997 book The Libertarian Reader . Philosopher Roderick Long , however , argues that libertarian themes in Taoist thought are actually borrowed from earlier Confucian writers .
= = Additional sources = =
Kaltenmark , Max ( 1969 ) , Lao Tzu and Taoism , Translated by Greaves , Roger , Stanford , Calif : Stanford University Press , p . 176 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8047 @-@ 0689 @-@ 1
Kohn , Livia ; Lafargue , Michael , eds . ( 1998 ) , Lao @-@ Tzu and the Tao @-@ Te @-@ Ching , Albany : State University of New York Press , p . 320 , ISBN 0 @-@ 7914 @-@ 3599 @-@ 7
Lao , Tzu ( 2009 ) , Lao @-@ Tzu 's Taoteching , Porter , Bill ( Red Pine ) ( 3rd Revised ed . ) , Port Townsend , WA : Copper Canyon Press , p . 200 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55659 @-@ 290 @-@ 4
= = Translations into English = =
Henricks , Robert G. ( 1992 ) , Lao Tzu : Te @-@ Tao Ching – A New Translation Based on the Recently Discovered Ma @-@ wang @-@ tui Texts ( Classics of Ancient China ) , New York : Ballantine Books , p . 320 , ISBN 0 @-@ 345 @-@ 37099 @-@ 6
Klaus , Hilmar ( 2009 ) , The Tao of Wisdom . Laozi – Daodejing . Chinese – English – German . Aachen : Hochschulverlag , Aachen , Germany : Hochschulverlag , p . 600 , ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 8107 @-@ 0055 @-@ 1
Legge , James , The Tao Teh King , or The Tao and its characteristics
Le Guin , Ursula K. ( 2009 ) , Lao Tzu : Tao Te Ching : A Book about the Way and the Power of the Way ( 2nd ed . ) , Washington , D.C : Shambhala Publications Inc . , p . 192 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59030 @-@ 744 @-@ 1
Roberts , Moss ( 2004 ) , Dao De Jing : The Book of the Way , Berkeley : University of California Press , p . 235 , ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 24221 @-@ 1
Waley , Arthur ( 1994 ) , The Way and Its Power : Lao Tzu 's Tao Te Ching and Its Place in Chinese Thought , UNESCO Collection of Representative Works , New York : Grove Press , p . 262 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8021 @-@ 5085 @-@ 3
Side @-@ by @-@ side translations of the Tao Te Ching
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= Edinburgh Trams =
Edinburgh Trams is a tramway in Edinburgh , Scotland , operated by Transport for Edinburgh . It is a 14 @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) line between York Place in New Town and Edinburgh Airport , with 15 stops .
Construction began in June 2008 , and after encountering delays it opened on 31 May 2014 . The scheme had an initial estimated cost of £ 375 million in 2003 , but by May 2008 , when contracts were signed , the cost had risen to £ 521 million . The final cost after delays was £ 776 million .
= = History = =
Edinburgh Corporation Tramways ran from 1871 until 16 November 1956 . After that date , public transport consisted of buses and a limited network of commuter rail lines . Towards the end of the 20th century , there was revived interest in trams and networks were introduced in Birmingham , Croydon , Manchester , Nottingham and Sheffield .
Proposals for a tram network were made in the 1990s , and a plan to build a line along Princes Street and Leith Walk to Newhaven was proposed in 1999 by the City of Edinburgh Council , Lothian and Edinburgh Enterprise and the New Edinburgh Tramways Company .
= = = Proposals for the Edinburgh tram network = = =
A 2001 proposal envisaged three routes , lines 1 , 2 and 3 . The first was a circular route around the northern suburbs , and the others were radial routes to Newbridge in the west and Newcraighall in the south . All lines would have passed through the city centre . In May 2004 , a 15 @-@ year operating contract was awarded to Transdev , to operate and maintain the tram network . This contract was cancelled in 2009 .
Two bills to reintroduce a tram network were passed by the Scottish Parliament in March 2006 . Lines 1 and 2 received parliamentary permission , but funding the entire network was deemed impossible . Line 3 , to be paid for by a proposed Edinburgh congestion charge , was scrapped when the charge was heavily defeated in a referendum and construction of the remaining two lines was split into four phases :
Phase 1a 18 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 11 @.@ 5 mi ) from Newhaven to Edinburgh Airport via Princes Street , combining parts of lines 1 and 2
Phase 1b 5 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) from Haymarket to Granton Square via Crewe Toll , comprising most of the remainder of line 1
Phase 2 linking Granton Square and Newhaven , completing the line 1 loop
Phase 3 extending the airport line to Newbridge , completing line 2
The future of the scheme came under threat in 2007 , when the Scottish National Party ( SNP ) published its manifesto for the Scottish Parliamentary election . The party made clear its intention to cancel the scheme , along with the Edinburgh Airport Rail Link , to save £ 1.1bn.
Following a lost vote in the Scottish Parliament , the SNP @-@ led minority Scottish Government agreed to continue the line from the airport to Leith on condition that no more public money would be supplied . A report by Audit Scotland , commissioned by the Scottish Government , confirmed that the cost projections were sound . The cost of the scheme in 2003 was estimated at £ 498 million , £ 375 million in funding from the Scottish Government and £ 45 million from Edinburgh Council .
On 25 October 2007 , the council approved the final business case . Approval was given on 22 December 2007 for TIE to sign contracts with CAF to supply vehicles and BBS ( a consortium of Bilfinger Berger and Siemens ) to design and construct the network . Contract negotiations finished in April 2008 , and construction started in June 2008 . By this stage the cost of the project was estimated at £ 521 million . Funding problems and political disputes led to the scaling back of the original plans . In April 2009 , the council cancelled phase 1b , citing revenue shortfall created by the economic slowdown to save an estimated £ 75 million . The Granton extension was also cancelled .
= = = Construction : 2007 – 2012 = = =
Until August 2011 , the project was overseen by Transport Initiatives Edinburgh ( TIE ) , a company wholly owned by the City of Edinburgh Council , who were responsible for project @-@ managing the construction of the tramway .
After the draft business case was accepted by the Scottish Government in March 2007 , initial construction work commenced in July 2007 , with the diversion of underground utilities in preparation for track @-@ laying in Leith . These works followed a plan by System Design Services ( SDS ) , a joint design team led by Parsons Brinckerhoff and Halcrow Group .
In May 2008 , final contracts to build the tram system were awarded to BSC , a consortium of Bilfinger Berger , Siemens and Spanish tram builder Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles ( CAF ) .
The tramway uses a mix of street running and segregated off @-@ road track , with conventional tram stop platforms . Stops are fitted with shelters , ticket machines , lighting and CCTV . The network is operated from a depot in Gogar , close to the A8 roundabout , north of Gyle Centre tram stop .
The route of the line required the construction of bridges to cross railway lines at Edinburgh Park and Stenhouse , and a tunnel under the A8 near the Gogar roundabout . A bridge at Balgreen was widened . Works to build a tram interchange at Haymarket station involved the demolition of a Category C ( S ) listed building , the former Caledonian Alehouse on Haymarket Terrace .
Some on @-@ street track was laid in a special foundation with cobbled road surfacing designed to be sympathetic with the style of Edinburgh streets but was removed in many places due to objections from cyclists . The trams are powered by overhead cables attached to purpose @-@ built poles or mounted on the sides of buildings . Nine electrical sub @-@ stations were planned for the line to Newhaven , both underground and above @-@ ground but only five were built after the line was truncated at York Place .
= = = = Project revisions and delays = = = =
In 2008 and 2009 , the project met with delays to work on tramway infrastructure . Phase 1b of the project was cancelled because of a funding shortfall in April 2009 . Contractual disputes delayed track @-@ laying in the city centre . In December 2009 , media reported that the project budget was running over £ 545 million , and the system was unlikely to come into operation until February 2012 or later . The operating contract with Transdev was cancelled in December 2009 to reduce costs and it was announced that the trams would be operated by Edinburgh Trams Limited , a subsidiary of Transport for Edinburgh . In March 2010 , Bilfinger Berger announced that the estimated completion date would be in 2014 .
= = = = Contractual disputes = = = =
In February 2009 , work on the Princes Street section stopped due to contractual disagreements between TIE and BSC after the latter submitted a request for an additional £ 80 million of funding . Edinburgh Council believed the contractors ' claims were unjustified as they had agreed to fixed @-@ price contracts . After negotiations , BSC agreed to commence construction in March 2009 within the original budget , although disagreements remained . Work restarted and line construction went ahead .
In August 2009 , TIE began legal proceedings against the BSC consortium over delays to the project , and track @-@ laying on Leith Walk , Shandwick Place and Haymarket was suspended . At issue were alleged changes to BSC 's work specification , including track works on Princes Street and £ 5 million additional costs for foundation work near Murrayfield Stadium . The BSC consortium alleged that TIE had not diverted the underground utilities in time for track @-@ laying to begin , breaching contractual agreements and costing the consortium additional staffing expenditure .
In January 2010 the independent arbiter found in favour of TIE on some points , but on most of the disputed issues ruled in favour of BSC and awarded the consortium 90 % of its additional costs , estimated to be up to £ 80m .
Delays in track laying and depot construction affected vehicle testing . By September 2009 , construction was reported to be nine months behind schedule , and CAF was due to deliver the first trams from its factory in Spain . With key project dependency out of synchronisation , TIE held discussions with Transport for London about delivering the trams to Croydon to conduct operational tests on the Tramlink network . Tram vehicle testing commenced in March 2010 on the Siemens test track in Wildenrath , Germany . The tests included recreating the steep gradients of Leith Walk , and using weights to simulate the heavy passenger load expected during a Murrayfield match day .
= = = = Funding crisis = = = =
Following further disputes and delays , it was reported in March 2010 that Edinburgh Council was considering cancelling the contract with Bilfinger Berger . By June 2010 , the project 's cost had risen to £ 600 million . Council project managers were reported to be in crisis talks , considering options including : borrowing £ 55 million to fund the increased costs ; phasing the introduction of the tram line , so that trams would initially run between the airport and Haymarket ; and terminating the contract with Bilfinger Berger . The council asked TIE to draw up costs for truncating the line at four places : Haymarket station , York Place , the foot of Leith Walk or Ocean Terminal .
Work resumed in May 2011 at priority locations , Haymarket Yards and Gogar , while the project 's future was decided by the council . In August 2011 it was announced TIE would be disbanded and consultants Turner & Townsend would manage the project .
On 30 June 2011 , Edinburgh Council voted to continue the line between Edinburgh Airport and St Andrew Square . Costs rose to an estimated £ 770m , leaving the council with a shortfall of more than £ 200m . The option to scrap the project was considered , but rejected . On 25 August 2011 , the council voted to cut the line to run between the airport and Haymarket , reducing the expected cost to £ 715m . A week later , after the Scottish Government threatened to withhold £ 72 million of funding , the council reversed its decision , restoring the terminus at St Andrew Square . On 29 November 2011 it was announced that the eastern terminus would be at York Place instead of St Andrew Square ; the intention had been to build the tracks to a reversing point at York Place ( without a stop for passengers ) . Extending passenger services from St Andrew Square to York Place would enable Broughton Street , Picardy Place and the surrounding area to be better served at comparatively little additional cost .
The first electric wires were energised in October 2011 within the depot at Gogar . Testing trams began in December 2011 near the depot at Gogar , on a 500 metres ( 550 yd ) length of track . On 15 December 2011 , the contractors handed the depot to the City of Edinburgh Council .
The first completed section of line , between the depot and Edinburgh Airport , was used to test a tram at full speed on 19 December 2012 .
With extra interest payments factored in , the cost of the line is expected to exceed £ 1 billion .
= = = = Criticism = = = =
Delays in construction were criticised by businesses , who claimed their income was damaged by long @-@ term road closures in the centre of the city , and also by some residents .
Cycling groups voiced safety concerns after cyclists suffered accidents when bicycle wheels became caught in the track . They reported the road surface around the tracks was crumbling , raising further safety problems . In response , TiE promised to carry out repairs and Edinburgh Trams agreed to fund special training for cyclists . Further safety concerns were raised by residents along the routes about the suspension of overhead electric cables from residential buildings , and some property owners refused permission for cables to be attached .
To remedy crumbling tarmac along the tracks on Princes Street , the road was closed in September 2011 and remained closed for ten months . A road closure between Haymarket and Shandwick Place in March 2012 led to complaints from businesses and residents . It remained closed until October 2013 .
= = = Completion : 2013 – 2014 = = =
From late 2012 , work continued mostly on schedule . More than 150 metres ( 160 yd ) of flawed concrete trackbed had to be replaced between Shandwick Place and Haymarket . In June 2013 , overhead electric wires were installed on the city centre portion of the route . This was considered the last major step in the construction process .
Controversy erupted over concessionary travel for the elderly and disabled . Originally , it was planned that concessionary travel , that is the ability of those with a Scottish National Entitlement Card to travel on public transport free @-@ of @-@ charge , was not going to be offered on the tramway . This was despite the fact that Edinburgh Trams is to be run by Lothian Buses , who are mandated to offer free travel to those with concession cards on all their bus routes . This revelation quickly caused city leaders to support an Edinburgh Evening News campaign to ensure that concessionary travel would be offered on the new tramway . City transport convener Lesley Hinds stated " People in Edinburgh have paid through their council tax and their taxes for the trams to get up and running and it would be wrong for a large proportion of the population not to be allowed to use their concessionary bus pass " .
Despite this , the Scottish Government refused to pay for concessionary travel for the tram scheme , as it does for all bus routes in Scotland . Talks between the Scottish Government and Edinburgh Council eventually decided that concession cards should be valid for tram travel , but that they should be paid for by the Council instead of the Government . It was revealed on 15 August 2013 that the cards would be valid , and that travel would be paid for by Edinburgh Council . However , only people with cards issued in Edinburgh would be able to use them . This compromise upset many people in the Lothians , who often commute or travel into Edinburgh .
Works on the tram scheme were running two months ahead of schedule by September 2013 , when Edinburgh Council announced the tramway would open by May 2014 . All tram and road works were completed by 19 October with testing of the trams between the depot and Edinburgh Park commencing on 8 October 2013 . This was followed by the energising of tram wires from Bankhead tram stop to York Place on 19 November , marking the first time that the route was completely energised . Testing along the full length of the route began on 5 December .
The tramway opened to passengers on 31 May 2014 .
= = = Post @-@ completion = = =
A non @-@ statutory public inquiry to scrutinise the delivery of the project was announced on 5 June 2014 . This was subsequently upgraded by the Scottish Government on 7 November 2014 to a statutory inquiry to ensure that key personnel would provide evidence . Edinburgh Council stated on 17 March 2014 that works would be conducted along Leith Walk to prepare it for a possible future extension of tram service . In December 2014 , Edinburgh Council ordered a detailed business case for extending the line to Leith . The council said in July 2015 that three options for an extension to Leith had been costed . These were a £ 144 @.@ 7 million extension to Newhaven , a £ 126 @.@ 6 million extension to Ocean Terminal , or a £ 78 @.@ 7 million extension to the Foot of the Leith Walk . On 19 November 2015 , the Council received the backing of the City Chambers to extend the line to Newhaven , as originally intended .
= = Rolling stock = =
A £ 40 million contract to build 27 Urbos 3 trams , sufficient for phase 1a and ( unbuilt ) 1b lines , was awarded to CAF . When the line was cut back to York Place , only 17 trams would be needed . An unsuccessful attempt was made in 2011 to lease ten trams to Transport for London for use on Tramlink .
The trams are bi @-@ directional , 42 @.@ 8 metres ( 140 ft 5 in ) long and with low @-@ floor access to meet UK Rail Vehicle Access Regulations for disabled people . Each tram has a capacity of 250 , allowing for 78 seated and 170 standing passengers and 2 wheelchairs .
A full @-@ size mockup of the front of the tram was constructed in 2009 and displayed on Princes Street for public viewing , moving to Constitution Street at the foot of Leith Walk in April 2009 .
In April 2010 , the first tram was delivered and displayed at the Princes Street stop at the bottom of The Mound . It was moved to open storage in Broxburn . The 27th tram was delivered in December 2012 .
All of the trams are painted white with rose madder and platinum stripes , a livery mandated by Transport for Edinburgh shared with minor variation by Lothian Buses .
= = Operations , fares and ticketing = =
= = = Route = = =
The 14 @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) route begins running on @-@ street at York Place , in the city centre . It turns into North St Andrew Street , crosses St Andrew Square . From the square , it heads southeast into Princes Street , and west along the street toward Haymarket , via Shandwick Place , Atholl Place , and West Maitland Street . At Haymarket , the route heads onto a segregated track parallel to the Glasgow to Edinburgh mainline . It follows the railway line west for about 6 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 2 mi ) , to Edinburgh Park railway station . There , it leaves the railway line on a segregated track and heads north to Gogar Roundabout from where it heads northwest via Ingliston Park and Ride to Edinburgh Airport , where it terminates .
An additional tram stop is planned to open in December 2016 in the Gogar area , between the Gyle Centre and Gogarburn tram stops . This stop , to be called Edinburgh Gateway , will be built alongside a new railway station on the Fife Circle Line to form a transport interchange between Edinburgh Trams and the Fife Circle and Edinburgh to Aberdeen Lines .
= = = Fare structure = = =
Ticketing and fares are integrated with Lothian Buses . The single fare is the same as on Lothian Buses , and day tickets and Ridacards are valid on trams and buses . A single journey between any two stops with the exception of Edinburgh Airport costs £ 1 @.@ 60 for adults and 80p for children . For travel including the Edinburgh Airport tram stop , a single fare is £ 5 , and an open return ticket is available for £ 8 .
The " Ridacard " is a smartcard season ticket issued by Transport for Edinburgh ; it is valid on both Edinburgh Trams and Lothian Buses ( available for 1 week , 4 weeks or annually ) . On 1 September 2014 , a rechargeable pre @-@ paid smartcard for single journeys on both buses and trams , called " Citysmart " , was introduced .
Free travel is available to holders of City of Edinburgh Council @-@ issued Scottish National Entitlement Cards which are eligible for concessionary travel , and for a companion travelling with the cardholder of National Entitlement Cards with a companion entitlement . Passengers with National Entitlement Cards eligible for concessionary travel but issued by other local authorities are not offered any fare concession , with the exception of blind or visually impaired cardholders .
An onboard fare of £ 10 is charged to passengers who have not pre @-@ purchased a ticket or validated either a Ridacard , a National Entitlement Card or an m @-@ ticket before boarding .
= = = Ticket machines = = =
At the request of Lothian Buses , installation of 30 ticket machines at key bus stops began in 2007 . Passengers had to purchase tickets before boarding the bus , reducing dwell times but were not popular with users and were scrapped in 2011 . Consideration was given to installing similar on @-@ street ticket machines and new , advanced machines ( capable of reading smartcards and accepting credit / debit cards ) were installed in early 2014 at each tram stop . The new ticket machines are the Galexio @-@ Plus type supplied by the French @-@ based company Parkeon .
= = = Bikes on board = = =
In May and June 2015 cyclists were allowed to board the trams with their bikes , during a trial period which was supported by cycle campaign groups Spokes and Pedal on Parliament . Following this , Edinburgh trams became the first light rail network in the UK to permit the carriage of bikes on a permanent basis , with up to two bicycles being allowed per tram outwith peak hours ( 7.30am to 9.30am , and 4pm to 6.30pm ) and excluding the festival period ( 7 − 31 August ) and other large events .
= = = Staffing = = =
Fifty @-@ two ticket inspectors have been recruited to prevent fare dodging . Edinburgh Council is aiming for a 3 % fare evasion rate , lower than any other tramway in Britain . Thirty @-@ two drivers were employed , after passing psychological tests designed to eliminate risk @-@ takers .
= = = Journey times and frequency = = =
Services operate between 05 : 00 and midnight , at 8- to 10 @-@ minute intervals from Monday to Saturday and at 12 @-@ 15 @-@ minute intervals on Sundays . Journey times are approximately 40 minutes from the city centre to the airport . The first morning and last evening services commence and terminate at the Gyle Centre .
= = = Financial performance = = =
During 2014 Edinburgh Trams lost almost £ 450 @,@ 000 , though this was less than expected due to higher than predicted passenger numbers .
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= George O 'Malley =
George O 'Malley is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy , which airs on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States . The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes , and was portrayed by actor T. R. Knight from 2005 to 2009 . Introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital , O 'Malley worked his way up to resident level , while his relationships with his colleagues Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) , Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) and Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) formed a focal point of the series . O 'Malley married and divorced Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) , and also entertained romantic correlations with Meredith , Izzie Stevens , and Olivia Harper ( Sarah Utterback ) .
Knight auditioned for the show , expecting a one @-@ season run . In 2007 , Knight 's co @-@ star Isaiah Washington ( Preston Burke ) insulted him with a homophobic slur , which resulted in the termination of Washington 's Grey 's Anatomy contract . In 2009 , after the conclusion of the fifth season , it was confirmed that Knight would not be returning for the show 's sixth season . The actor stated the reason for his departure was due to a " breakdown in communication " with Rhimes , his character 's lack of screen time , as well as his decision to come out as openly gay . Knight received generally positive reviews for his performance as O 'Malley , and garnered a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards . Despite this , his death received mixed feedback .
= = Storylines = =
George O 'Malley is introduced as a fellow surgical intern to Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) , Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) and Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) ; the five of them working under Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) . O 'Malley and Stevens move in with Meredith , for whom he has romantic feelings . On the first day of internship , O 'Malley is selected by chief of cardiothoracic surgery Preston Burke ( Isaiah Washington ) as the first intern to perform surgery . He freezes in the operating room , and is mocked by his peers , and earns the nickname " 007 " because of almost killing a patient in such a simple operation ( referring to James Bond 's " licence to kill " ) . O 'Malley dates nurse Olivia Harper ( Sarah Utterback ) , breaking up with her when he contracts syphilis from her , which she in turn contracted from Karev . His friendship with Karev is further strained when the two become trapped in an elevator with a patient who begins to bleed out . Karev freezes , and O 'Malley is able to save the patient single @-@ handedly . He goes on to admit his feelings to Meredith , and the two have a one @-@ night stand . When Meredith tells him that sleeping together was a mistake , O 'Malley begins avoiding her and starts dating orthopedic surgeon Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) .
During a camping trip , O 'Malley learns that Torres has slept with chief of plastic surgery Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) , and also discovers that Burke is experiencing tremors in his hand . When O 'Malley 's father is diagnosed with esophageal cancer and a leaking aortic valve , he refuses to allow Burke to operate on him , instead contacting Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ) , Burke 's medical school rival . His relationship with Torres is strained when he confronts her about sleeping with Sloan , but he allows her to support him through his father 's deteriorating health . Complications from his father 's surgery leave him in multi @-@ system organ failure , and his life support is turned off . In an attempt to overcome his grief , O 'Malley elopes with Callie to Las Vegas . He later begins to feel that he was mistaken to marry her , and sleeps with Stevens while intoxicated . Stevens confesses that she is in love with him , so O 'Malley considers transferring to a different hospital so he can be faithful to his wife . However , he is ineligible to transfer after failing the intern exams . O 'Malley decides to repeat his intern year , and confesses to Torres that he slept with Stevens , leading the two to divorce . O 'Malley and Stevens embark on a short @-@ lived relationship , only to discover there is no real chemistry between them .
O 'Malley moves in with new intern Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) , Meredith 's half @-@ sister . Lexie and O 'Malley discover that he only failed his exam by a single point , leading him to confront Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) , the chief of surgery , to ask for a chance to retake the exam . He passes the second attempt , and begins to distance himself from Lexie , who has fallen in love with him . O 'Malley supports Stevens when she discovers she has melanoma , and walks her down the aisle as she marries Karev . O 'Malley begins to display a talent for trauma surgery , and is told by the chief of trauma surgery Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) that it is definitely his specialty . He then abruptly and inexplicably decides to join the United States army . While his friends at the hospital prepare an intervention to convince O 'Malley to stay , they all work on a severely disfigured John Doe , brought in after a horrible bus accident , in which he pushed a woman out of the way and saved her life . When Meredith goes to check on John Doe , he seems to recognize her and will not let go of her hand . After several attempts at trying , he succeeds in tracing " 007 " on Meredith 's hand . Shocked , she realizes " John Doe " is in fact O 'Malley . She informs the other surgeons and they rush him to surgery . However , he flatlines and is ultimately declared braindead . His organs are donated after Stevens confirms that is what O 'Malley would have wanted , and he is buried a week later .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
T. R. Knight signed on for the pilot as O 'Malley , expecting that the role might be short @-@ lived , because he liked that the character was multi @-@ faceted . In October 2006 , news reports surfaced that Washington had insulted Knight with a homophobic slur , during an argument with Patrick Dempsey ( Derek Shepherd ) . Shortly after , the details of the argument became public , and Knight later disclosed that the slur made him come out as gay . " I was under no delusions , " Knight said at the time . " My friends on the set knew . We talked about it . Publicly it 's not my thing to call up People magazine and be like , ' Hey , you want to know something about me ? ' ... I could 've just let it slide and not said anything , but it became important . It became important to make the statement . " The situation seemed somewhat resolved when Washington issued a statement , apologizing for his " unfortunate use of words during the recent incident on @-@ set " .
At the 64th Golden Globe Awards , while being interviewed on the red carpet , Washington joked , " I love gay . I wanted to be gay . Please let me be gay . " Later , Washington claimed he never used the slur , labeling it " vile " . In June 2007 , it was reported that the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) and Shonda Rhimes had chosen not to renew Washington 's contract with the show , not immediately specifying a reason . In a subsequent interview , Washington claimed that " they fired the wrong guy " ( referring to Knight ) , and said he was considering filing a lawsuit as a result . He accused Knight of using the controversy to bolster his own career and increase his salary on Grey 's Anatomy .
On July 2 , 2007 , Washington appeared on Larry King Live , to present his side of the controversy . According to Washington , he never used the " F Word " in reference to Knight , but rather blurted it out in an unrelated context in the course of an argument " provoked " by Dempsey , who he felt was treating him like a " B @-@ word " , a " P @-@ word " , and the " F @-@ word " , which Washington said conveyed " somebody who is being weak and afraid to fight back " . In 2009 , Rhimes told Entertainment Weekly that she may not have handled the incident correctly , stating : " I wasn 't interested in what anybody thought publicly . I was interested in what was going on right here on the ground ... with the people I work with every day . Did I do it perfectly ? Of course not . This is my first television show . It was a learning experience . " Knight said that Rhimes was among those for discouraging him to come out , however Rhimes said : " I remember saying [ to fellow executive producer ] , ' This is our proudest day here . T.R. got to come out and I got to say to him that it wouldn 't affect his character ' because he was concerned he was going to come out and George would suddenly be gay . [ ... ] The idea that a gay actor can 't play a straight man is insulting . "
In December 2008 , reports speculated that Knight requested to be released from his contract and that " they were working out the details " at that time . In June 2009 , after the conclusion of the fifth season of Grey 's Anatomy , it was confirmed that Knight would not be returning for the show 's sixth season . The actor stated the reason for his departure was due to a " breakdown in communication " with Rhimes , O 'Malley 's lack of screen time , as well as his decision to be openly gay . Prior to the official announcement of his departure , there was speculation that the role of O 'Malley would be recast , but Rhimes labeled it as a " hilarious , ridiculous rumor " . After the confirmation of his exit , Knight told TV Guide : " Leaving Grey 's Anatomy was not an easy decision for me to make . I am extremely grateful to have had the opportunity to play this character and will miss my fellow cast and crew very much . I continue to wish them the very best , and wholeheartedly thank all of the fans who have supported me and the show with such passion and enthusiasm . " In a statement confirming Knight 's departure , Rhimes said : " I think I speak for the entire Grey 's Anatomy family when I say we wish T.R. Knight the best in his future endeavors . He is an incredibly talented actor and a person whose strength of character is admired by all of us . "
In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Rhimes said she tried to talk him out of quitting , explaining : " I looked in his face and he was really sure . It felt like the right thing for him . " However , in another interview , Knight said of his exit : " My five @-@ year experience proved to me that I could not trust any answer that was given [ about O 'Malley ] . " Knight was " at peace " with his departure , saying : " There just comes a time when it 's so clear that moving on is the best decision . " However , Heigl tried to talk Knight out of leaving , saying : " I didn 't think it was the right decision . I felt like some of the problems could be worked through . But by the time it came to fruition , I was [ glad ] for him because he was ready to go . " On the topic of losing a US $ 14 million contract , Knight commented : " From an outsider 's perspective , I get the [ impression that ] ' He 's just a spoiled actor , he doesn ’ t know how good he has it . ' There are a lot of people who would like to be in my position . But in the end , I need to be fulfilled in my work . "
= = = Characterization = = =
O 'Malley was characterized a " hapless naif " . On the topic of O 'Malley 's longtime crush on Meredith in the second season , Knight said : " What 's going to be very interesting to see is what he 's going to do with Meredith . It 's getting close to time . Whatever he chooses to do will inform who he is the rest of his life . " After their sexual encounter occurred onscreen , Knight said in an interview with Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune : " George wasn 't really paying full attention . He was letting his own feelings override his respect for Meredith . A person really clued in would get that there wasn 't anything coming back , but he was so in his head about it and caught up in his own feelings that he wasn 't listening . It 's not just that he loves her ... it 's a kind of selfish love he had for her . " He also added that , " I think George has a lot of growing up to do . Part of that is making horrible , stupid mistakes . He 's been pretty sheltered . "
Series writer Stacy McKee said of the sexual encounter : " There 's no turning back . There 's nothing George and Meredith can do . The damage is done – things will never be the same . They 've just changed something important in their lives forever . " When asked if O 'Malley was becoming more assertive , Knight said :
Knight also commented that the character does not appreciate himself and his positive traits . On the topic of O 'Malley performing open heart surgery in an elevator , Knight said : " It 's a slow change but he 's starting to realize , ' The way I have been doing things is not working . ' The big thing about the open @-@ heart surgery in the elevator was he was forced into it . He needs to be kind of kicked in the ( butt ) to do these things . "
Knight felt a parallel to George in that his " confidence isn 't always at its absolute highest " , but overall he sees more differences than similarities . However , when the actor starts to think he is so different from O 'Malley , an awkward move can suggest otherwise . " I was walking , doing a scene with Katherine Heigl . I finished my line with her , and then I walked straight into the light stand . " Critical of her affair with O 'Malley , Knight 's co @-@ star Heigl explained : " They really hurt somebody , and they didn 't seem to be taking a lot of responsibility for it . I have a really hard time with that kind of thing . I 'm maybe a little too black and white about it . " Speaking of O 'Malley 's relationship with Lexie , Rhimes offered her insight : " I love them as friends . They make good friends . We all have that friend we met in school or the gym or somewhere – we just hit it off right away . And right away there was no pretense or airs . Just pure honesty . That 's Lexie and George . They 're really good friends and I can see the friendship evolving into something even greater . " When asked what his " favorite George moment " was , Knight said his relationships with Stevens and Bailey .
= = Reception = =
Fans were " widely against " O 'Malley 's affair with Meredith in the second season , however certain fans who supported their relationship were critical when Torres was introduced as a love interest for him . Fans and critics were also against O 'Malley 's relationship with Stevens in the fourth season ; Maclean 's said : " George must die . He 's slept with virtually everyone except the male cast and has been in love with virtually everyone except the male cast . And he 's not that great of a doctor . Evolve or die . " Christopher Monfette of IGN said O 'Malley and Stevens were a " mismatch " , adding : " Unfortunately , while it 's refreshing to see a plotline driven by activity versus apathy , the idea of these two ever @-@ affable , best @-@ friend characters suddenly discovering their potential , out @-@ of @-@ nowhere love for each other quickly feels both force @-@ fed and emotionally @-@ incorrect . " Similarly , DVD Verdict stated that George and Izzie were " one of the strongest ' best friend ' vibes on television " for the first three seasons , explaining " they were perfect as friends [ while ] George and Callie made a good couple . " UGO.com put the two on their list of " Character Couples Who Should Have Never Happened " .
Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly said that when O 'Malley told Torres about his affair with Stevens , the scene was too " melodramatic " . Laura Burrows , also of IGN , said that the fourth season premiere " introduced a new side of George " . Armstrong said of O 'Malley and Stevens ' reconciliation : " George and Izzie are finally on the old Grey 's Anatomy road to ruin . And I admit this is a good lesson in Grey 's viewing as well as life : Sit tight if you hate something , as nothing is permanent . " Armstrong also commented that the " sparkling " friendship development between Lexie and O 'Malley " won her over " . The following year , Monfette observed of O 'Malley 's lack of screen time : " His growing interest in trauma surgery at the side of Owen leads to an interesting development in the finale , but the character is virtually side @-@ lined this season . " Carina MacKenzie of the Los Angeles Times said of the character 's death : " The time @-@ lapse episode was an interesting choice , and though we sped through six weeks of mourning in two hours , it didn 't feel rushed to me . I 'm not sure the show could have held my attention for another season of crippling sadness . "
The Huffington Post 's Michael Pascua commented that O 'Malley 's funeral did not live up to his expectations , writing that it " wasn 't as sad as [ he ] thought it would be " . In 2006 , Knight and the other cast of Grey 's Anatomy were nominated for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series , at the 12th Screen Actors Guild Awards . Also in 2006 , the cast won the award for Best Cast – Television Series at the 11th Satellite Awards . The cast won the award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series at the 13th Screen Actors Guild Awards , and were nominated again the following year . Knight 's performance in season three earned him a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards .
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= Supply of Goods ( Implied Terms ) Act 1973 =
The Supply of Goods ( Implied Terms ) Act 1973 ( c 13 ) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that provided implied terms in contracts for the supply of goods and for hire @-@ purchase agreements , and limited the use of exclusion clauses . The result of a joint report by the England and Wales Law Commission and the Scottish Law Commission , First Report on Exemption Clauses , the Act was granted the Royal Assent on 18 April 1973 and came into force a month later . It met with a mixed reaction from academics , who praised the additional protection it offered while at the same time questioning whether it was enough ; several aspects of the Act 's draftsmanship and implementation were also called into question . Much of the Act was repealed by the Sale of Goods Act 1979 , which included many of the 1973 Act 's provisions .
= = Background = =
Under earlier contractual theory a contract was an " empty form " that the two parties , as equal partners , could use to create such obligations and rights as they saw fit . Once a contract was signed , ways to get out of it were limited to whether it had been signed under duress , misrepresentation , or fraud . The general theory was freedom of contract ; a contract can include almost any terms , as long as both parties agree to them . But in reality this doctrine was problematic . Firstly , while the idea that a person should be held to those terms he agrees to and signs works well with individually negotiated contracts , it does not with " standard form " contracts – printed , non @-@ specific contracts drawn up in advance by one party , such as those used by banks . Such contracts can include clauses that severely restrict the rights of one party ( exclusion clauses ) . Secondly , while the idea that signing a contract indicates consent worked well when there was little disparity between the parties , when the parties are a small business or individual and a major corporation , the smaller party may have to " take or leave " the contract , which can be a problem if all other corporations in the industry use similar terms . Although it had long been argued that " unfair " clauses should be struck down , the courts were obliged by the doctrine of freedom of contract to uphold them .
In Karsales ( Harrow ) Ltd v Wallis [ 1956 ] 1 W.L.R. 936 the courts developed the doctrine of fundamental breach ; if one party had breached the contract in such a way that , if there was no exclusion clause , it would void the contract , such a contract could be set aside . Although a step forward , this doctrine was problematic , as pointed out by Lord Reid in Suisse Atlantique Societe d 'Armament SA v NV Rotterdamsche Kolen Centrale [ 1967 ] 1 AC 361 ; it failed to discriminate between exclusion clauses that were the result of unequal bargaining and those that were not . In 1970 the England and Wales Law Commission and the Scottish Law Commission produced their First Report on Exemption Clauses , designed to reform this area of law . The Supply of Goods ( Implied Terms ) Act 1973 was partially based on that report , but it went further in some respects . It was given the Royal Assent on 18 April 1973 , and came into force a month later .
= = Act = =
The Act extends the reach of implied conditions first laid out in the Sale of Goods Act 1893 . Section 1 replaced Section 12 of the 1893 Act , containing 3 types of implied undertakings to title ; a condition that the seller has the right to sell , or will when the property has passed to him , a warranty that the goods have no additional costs that the buyer has not been informed of , and a warranty of quiet possession . These provisions cannot be excluded , although if there is , in the original contract , a provision that the seller can only transfer what title he has , there is no condition that the seller has the right to sell . The Act also regulated sale by description , where products are sold based on a description given of them . Section 2 provides that " a sale of goods shall not be prevented from being a sale by description by reason only that , being exposed for sale or hire , they are selected by the buyer " . This is to ensure that a sale in a self @-@ service store is considered sale by description , and that the sale is therefore covered by other provisions .
Section 3 covers the " merchantable quality " of goods . With the exception of defects that are pointed out to the consumer , or which the consumer should easily have been able to see , sellers are expected to provide goods of " merchantable quality " . This is defined as goods " fit for the purpose or purposes for which goods of that kind are commonly bought as it is reasonable to expect having regard to any description applied to them , the price ( if relevant ) and all the other circumstances " . Unlike the 1893 Act , the goods must be fit for purpose only if sold " in the course of a business " . Previously , those provisions did not extend to goods sold by an agent ; under the new Act all implied terms were extended to sales by agents , unless it was clear that the goods were not being sold in the course of a business .
The Act is designed to prevent the avoidance of implied terms through exclusion clauses . It provides ( in Section 4 ) that any attempt to exclude a seller in consumer sales from Sections 2 and 3 is void . In non @-@ consumer sales an exclusion clause is void " to the extent that it is shown that it would not be fair or reasonable to allow reliance on the term " . The burden of proof in such situations is on the party seeking to avoid liability through the exclusion clause . For determining whether it is " fair or reasonable " to allow the exclusion clause , five tests are used ; 1 ) whether the parties were of equal bargaining strength , 2 ) whether the buyer was induced to agree to the clause , 3 ) whether the buyer knew , or ought to have known of the exclusion clause , 4 ) where the liability is conditional , if the condition is reasonable and 5 ) whether the goods were supplied as part of a special order . These basic tests were later extended into the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 .
Hire @-@ purchase agreements are also regulated by this Act . The provisions are very similar to those for sale of goods agreements , with the section on exclusion clauses identical . Under the 1893 Act , conditional sale agreements ( where the buyer takes possession of the goods , but the seller retains the right to repossess them ) were treated as hire @-@ purchase agreements , despite being fundamentally sales . With the unification of provisions for hire @-@ purchase and sale of goods agreements , conditional sale agreements are now treated as sales .
= = Impact = =
Christopher Carr , an academic and practising lawyer , called the implementation of Section 1 " slightly awkward " , suggesting that in some ways it was more limited than the provisions contained in the Sale of Goods Act 1893 from the seller 's point of view . Unlike with the 1893 Act , a seller cannot exclude the provisions , and while the right to sell can be excluded it is not clear how this might be done . Turpin complimented the section on hire @-@ purchase agreements , although noting some flaws in draftsmanship ; he also questioned whether or not the protection given to consumers would be sufficient . Prior to the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 , the Supply of Goods ( Implied Terms ) Act 1973 was one of the few limitations on clauses in consumer contracts . Most of it was eventually superseded by the Sale of Goods Act 1979 , which included many of the Act 's provisions .
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= Death Valley National Park =
Death Valley National Park is a national park in the United States . Straddling the border of California and Nevada , located east of the Sierra Nevada , it occupies an interface zone between the arid Great Basin and Mojave deserts in the United States . The park protects the northwest corner of the Mojave Desert and contains a diverse desert environment of salt @-@ flats , sand dunes , badlands , valleys , canyons , and mountains . It is the largest national park in the lower 48 states and has been declared an International Biosphere Reserve . Approximately 95 % of the park is a designated wilderness area . It is the hottest and driest of the national parks in the United States . The second @-@ lowest point in the Western Hemisphere is in Badwater Basin , which is 282 feet ( 86 m ) below sea level . The park is home to many species of plants and animals that have adapted to this harsh desert environment . Some examples include creosote bush , bighorn sheep , coyote , and the Death Valley pupfish , a survivor of much wetter times .
A series of Native American groups inhabited the area from as early as 7000 BC , most recently the Timbisha around 1000 AD who migrated between winter camps in the valleys and summer grounds in the mountains . A group of European @-@ Americans that became stuck in the valley in 1849 while looking for a shortcut to the gold fields of California gave the valley its name , even though only one of their group died there . Several short @-@ lived boom towns sprang up during the late 19th and early 20th centuries to mine gold and silver . The only long @-@ term profitable ore to be mined was borax , which was transported out of the valley with twenty @-@ mule teams . The valley later became the subject of books , radio programs , television series , and movies . Tourism blossomed in the 1920s , when resorts were built around Stovepipe Wells and Furnace Creek . Death Valley National Monument was declared in 1933 and the park was substantially expanded and became a national park in 1994 .
The natural environment of the area has been shaped largely by its geology . The valley itself is actually a graben . The oldest rocks are extensively metamorphosed and at least 1 @.@ 7 billion years old . Ancient , warm , shallow seas deposited marine sediments until rifting opened the Pacific Ocean . Additional sedimentation occurred until a subduction zone formed off the coast . This uplifted the region out of the sea and created a line of volcanoes . Later the crust started to pull apart , creating the current Basin and Range landform . Valleys filled with sediment and , during the wet times of glacial periods , with lakes , such as Lake Manly .
In 2013 , Death Valley National Park was designated as a dark sky park by the International Dark @-@ Sky Association .
= = Geographic setting = =
There are two major valleys in the park , Death Valley and Panamint Valley . Both of these valleys were formed within the last few million years and both are bounded by north – south @-@ trending mountain ranges . These and adjacent valleys follow the general trend of Basin and Range topography with one modification : there are parallel strike @-@ slip faults that perpendicularly bound the central extent of Death Valley . The result of this shearing action is additional extension in the central part of Death Valley which causes a slight widening and more subsidence there .
Uplift of surrounding mountain ranges and subsidence of the valley floor are both occurring . The uplift on the Black Mountains is so fast that the alluvial fans ( fan @-@ shaped deposits at the mouth of canyons ) there are small and steep compared to the huge alluvial fans coming off the Panamint Range . Fast uplift of a mountain range in an arid environment often does not allow its canyons enough time to cut a classic V @-@ shape all the way down to the stream bed . Instead , a V @-@ shape ends at a slot canyon halfway down , forming a ' wine glass canyon . ' Sediment is deposited on a small and steep alluvial fan .
At 279 feet ( 85 m ) below sea level , Badwater Basin on Death Valley 's floor is the second @-@ lowest depression in the Western Hemisphere ( behind Laguna del Carbón in Argentina ) , while Mount Whitney , only 85 miles ( 137 km ) to the west , rises to 14 @,@ 505 feet ( 4 @,@ 421 m ) . This topographic relief is the greatest elevation gradient in the contiguous United States and is the terminus point of the Great Basin 's southwestern drainage . Although the extreme lack of water in the Great Basin makes this distinction of little current practical use , it does mean that in wetter times the lake that once filled Death Valley ( Lake Manly ) was the last stop for water flowing in the region , meaning the water there was saturated in dissolved materials . Thus the salt pans in Death Valley are among the largest in the world and are rich in minerals , such as borax and various salts and hydrates . The largest salt pan in the park extends 40 miles ( 64 km ) from the Ashford Mill Site to the Salt Creek Hills , covering some 200 square miles ( 520 km2 ) of the valley floor . The best known playa in the park is the Racetrack , known for its moving rocks .
= = Climate = =
Death Valley is the hottest and driest place in North America because of its lack of surface water and its low relief . It is so frequently the hottest spot in the United States that many tabulations of the highest daily temperatures in the country omit Death Valley as a matter of course .
On the afternoon of July 10 , 1913 , the United States Weather Bureau recorded a high temperature of 134 ° F ( 56 @.@ 7 ° C ) at Greenland Ranch ( now Furnace Creek ) in Death Valley . This temperature stands as the highest ambient air temperature ever recorded at the surface of the Earth . ( A report of a temperature of 58 ° C ( 136 @.@ 4 ° F ) recorded in Libya in 1922 was later determined to be inaccurate . ) Daily summer temperatures of 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) or greater are common , as well as below freezing nightly temperatures in the winter . July is the hottest month , with an average high of 115 ° F ( 46 ° C ) and an average low of 88 ° F ( 31 ° C ) . December is the coldest month , with an average high of 65 ° F ( 18 ° C ) and an average low of 39 ° F ( 4 ° C ) . The record low is 15 ° F ( − 9 @.@ 4 ° C ) .
Several of the larger Death Valley springs derive their water from a regional aquifer , which extends as far east as southern Nevada and Utah . Much of the water in this aquifer has been there for many thousands of years , since the Pleistocene ice ages , when the climate was cooler and wetter . Today 's drier climate does not provide enough precipitation to recharge the aquifer at the rate at which water is being withdrawn .
The highest range within the park is the Panamint Range with Telescope Peak being its highest point at 11 @,@ 049 feet ( 3 @,@ 368 m ) . The Death Valley region is a transitional zone in the northernmost part of the Mojave Desert and consists of five mountain ranges removed from the Pacific Ocean . Three of these are significant barriers : the Sierra Nevada , the Argus Range , and the Panamint Range . Air masses tend to lose moisture as they are forced up over mountain ranges , in what climatologists call a rainshadow effect .
The exaggerated rainshadow effect for the Death Valley area makes it North America 's driest spot , receiving about 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) of rainfall annually at Badwater ( some years fail to register any measurable rainfall ) . Annual average precipitation varies from 1 @.@ 92 inches ( 49 mm ) overall below sea level to over 15 inches ( 380 mm ) in the higher mountains that surround the valley . When rain does arrive it often does so in intense storms that cause flash floods which remodel the landscape and sometimes create very shallow ephemeral lakes .
The hot , dry climate makes it difficult for soil to form . Mass wasting , the down @-@ slope movement of loose rock , is therefore the dominant erosive force in mountainous area , resulting in " skeletonized " ranges ( mountains with very little soil on them ) . Sand dunes in the park , while famous , are not nearly as widespread as their fame or the dryness of the area may suggest . The Mesquite Flat dune field is the most easily accessible from the paved road just east of Stovepipe Wells in the north @-@ central part of the valley and is primarily made of quartz sand . Another dune field is just 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the north but is instead mostly composed of travertine sand . The highest dunes in the park , and some of the highest in North America , are located in the Eureka Valley about 50 miles ( 80 km ) to the north of Stovepipe Wells , while the Panamint Valley dunes and the Saline Valley dunes are located west and northwest of the town , respectively . The Ibex dune field is near the seldom @-@ visited Ibex Hill in the southernmost part of the park , just south of the Saratoga Springs marshland . All of the latter four dune fields are accessible only via unpaved roads . Prevailing winds in the winter come from the north , and prevailing winds in the summer come from the south . Thus the overall position of the dune fields remains more or less fixed .
There are rare exceptions to the dry nature of the area . In 2005 , an unusually wet winter created a ' lake ' in the Badwater Basin and led to the greatest wildflower season in the park 's history . In October 2015 , a " 1000 year flood event " with over three inches of rain caused major damage in Death Valley National Park .
= = Human history = =
= = = Early inhabitants and transient populations = = =
Four Native American cultures are known to have lived in the area during the last 10 @,@ 000 years . The first known group , the Nevares Spring People , were hunters and gatherers who arrived in the area perhaps 9 @,@ 000 years ago ( 7000 BC ) when there were still small lakes in Death Valley and neighboring Panamint Valley . A much milder climate persisted at that time , and large game animals were still plentiful . By 5 @,@ 000 years ago ( 3000 BC ) the Mesquite Flat People displaced the Nevares Spring People . Around 2 @,@ 000 years ago the Saratoga Spring People moved into the area , which by then was probably already a hot , dry desert . This culture was more advanced at hunting and gathering and was skillful at handcrafts . They also left mysterious stone patterns in the valley .
One @-@ thousand years ago , the nomadic Timbisha ( formerly called Shoshone and also known as Panamint or Koso ) moved into the area and hunted game and gathered mesquite beans along with pinyon pine nuts . Because of the wide altitude differential between the valley bottom and the mountain ridges , especially on the west , the Timbisha practiced a vertical migration pattern . Their winter camps were located near water sources in the valley bottoms . As the spring and summer progressed and the weather warmed , grasses and other plant food sources ripened at progressively higher altitudes . November found them at the very top of the mountain ridges where they harvested pine nuts before moving back to the valley bottom for winter .
The California Gold Rush brought the first people of European descent known to visit the immediate area . In December 1849 two groups of California Gold Country @-@ bound white travelers with perhaps 100 wagons total stumbled into Death Valley after getting lost on what they thought was a shortcut off the Old Spanish Trail . Called the Bennett @-@ Arcane Party , they were unable to find a pass out of the valley for weeks ; they were able to find fresh water at various springs in the area , but were forced to eat several of their oxen to survive . They used the wood of their wagons to cook the meat and make jerky . The place where they did this is today referred to as " Burned Wagons Camp " and is located near the sand dunes .
After abandoning their wagons , they eventually were able to hike out of the valley . Just after leaving the valley , one of the women in the group turned and said , " Goodbye Death Valley , " giving the valley they endured its name . Included in the party was William Lewis Manly whose autobiographical book Death Valley in ' 49 detailed this trek and popularized the area ( geologists later named the prehistoric lake that once filled the valley after him ) .
= = = Boom and bust = = =
The ores that are most famously associated with the area were also the easiest to collect and the most profitable : evaporite deposits such as salts , borate , and talc . Borax was found by Rosie and Aaron Winters near Furnace Creek Ranch ( then called Greenland ) in 1881 . Later that same year , the Eagle Borax Works became Death Valley 's first commercial borax operation . William Tell Coleman built the Harmony Borax Works plant and began to process ore in late 1883 or early 1884 , continuing until 1888 . This mining and smelting company produced borax to make soap and for industrial uses . The end product was shipped out of the valley 165 miles ( 266 km ) to the Mojave railhead in 10 @-@ ton @-@ capacity wagons pulled by " twenty @-@ mule teams " that were actually teams of 18 mules and two horses each .
The teams averaged two miles ( 3 km ) an hour and required about 30 days to complete a round trip . The trade name 20 @-@ Mule Team Borax was established by Francis Marion Smith 's Pacific Coast Borax Company after Smith acquired Coleman 's borax holdings in 1890 . A memorable advertising campaign used the wagon 's image to promote the Boraxo brand of granular hand soap and the Death Valley Days radio and television programs . In 1914 , the Death Valley Railroad was built to serve mining operations on the east side of the valley . Mining continued after the collapse of Coleman 's empire , and by the late 1920s the area was the world 's number one source of borax . Some four to six million years old , the Furnace Creek Formation is the primary source of borate minerals gathered from Death Valley 's playas .
Other visitors stayed to prospect for and mine deposits of copper , gold , lead , and silver . These sporadic mining ventures were hampered by their remote location and the harsh desert environment . In December 1903 , two men from Ballarat were prospecting for silver . One was an out @-@ of @-@ work Irish miner named Jack Keane and the other was a one @-@ eyed Basque butcher named Domingo Etcharren . Quite by accident , Keane discovered an immense ledge of free @-@ milling gold by the duo 's work site and named the claim the Keane Wonder Mine . This started a minor and short @-@ lived gold rush into the area . The Keane Wonder Mine , along with mines at Rhyolite , Skidoo and Harrisburg , were the only ones to extract enough metal ore to make them worthwhile . Outright shams such as Leadfield also occurred , but most ventures quickly ended after a short series of prospecting mines failed to yield evidence of significant ore ( these mines now dot the entire area and are a significant hazard to anyone who enters them ) . The boom towns which sprang up around these mines flourished during the 1900s ( decade ) but soon declined after the Panic of 1907 .
= = = Early tourism = = =
The first documented tourist facilities in Death Valley were a set of tent houses built in the 1920s where Stovepipe Wells is now located . People flocked to resorts built around natural springs thought to have curative and restorative properties . In 1927 , Pacific Coast Borax turned the crew quarters of its Furnace Creek Ranch into a resort , creating the Furnace Creek Inn and resort . The spring at Furnace Creek was harnessed to develop the resort , and as the water was diverted , the surrounding marshes and wetlands started to shrink .
Soon the valley was a popular winter destination . Other facilities started off as private getaways but were later opened to the public . Most notable among these was Death Valley Ranch , better known as Scotty 's Castle . This large ranch home built in the Spanish Revival style became a hotel in the late 1930s and , largely because of the fame of Death Valley Scotty , a tourist attraction . Death Valley Scotty , whose real name was Walter Scott , was a gold miner who pretended to be owner of " his castle " , which he claimed to have built with profits from his gold mine . Neither claim was true , but the real owner , Chicago millionaire Albert Mussey Johnson , encouraged the myth . When asked by reporters what his connection was to Walter Scott 's castle , Johnson replied that he was Mr. Scott 's banker .
= = = Protection and later history = = =
President Herbert Hoover proclaimed a national monument in and around Death Valley on February 11 , 1933 , setting aside almost two million acres ( 8 @,@ 000 km2 ) of southeastern California and small parts of southwesternmost Nevada . Twelve companies worked in Death Valley using Civilian Conservation Corps workers during the Great Depression and on into the early 1940s . They built barracks , graded 500 miles ( 800 km ) of roads , installed water and telephone lines , and erected a total of 76 buildings . Trails in the Panamint Range were built to points of scenic interest , and an adobe village , laundry and trading post were constructed for Shoshone Indians . Five campgrounds , restrooms , an airplane landing field and picnic facilities were also built .
Creation of the monument resulted in a temporary closing of the lands to prospecting and mining . However , Death Valley was quickly reopened to mining by Congressional action in June of the same year . As improvements in mining technology allowed lower grades of ore to be processed , and new heavy equipment allowed greater amounts of rock to be moved , mining in Death Valley changed . Gone were the days of the " single @-@ blanket , jackass prospector " long associated with the romantic west . Open pit and strip mines scarred the landscape as international mining corporations bought claims in highly visible areas of the national monument . The public outcry that ensued led to greater protection for all national park and monument areas in the United States .
In 1976 , Congress passed the Mining in the Parks Act , which closed Death Valley National Monument to the filing of new mining claims , banned open @-@ pit mining and required the National Park Service to examine the validity of tens of thousands of pre @-@ 1976 mining claims . Mining was allowed to resume on a limited basis in 1980 with stricter environmental standards .
The park 's Resources Management Division monitors mining within park boundaries and continues to review the status of 125 unpatented mining claims and 19 patented claim groups , while ensuring that federal guidelines are followed and the park 's resources are protected . In 2005 , the Billie Mine , an underground borax mine located along the road to Dante 's View , closed , ending mining in the park .
Death Valley National Monument was designated a biosphere reserve in 1984 . On October 31 , 1994 , the monument was expanded by 1 @.@ 3 million acres ( 5 @,@ 300 km2 ) and re @-@ designated as a national park , via congressional passage of the California Desert Protection Act ( Public Law 103 @-@ 433 ) . Consequently , the elevated status for Death Valley made it the largest national park in the contiguous United States . Many of the larger cities and towns within the boundary of the regional ground water flow system that the park and its plants and animals rely upon are experiencing some of the fastest growth rates of any place in the United States . Notable examples within a 100 @-@ mile ( 160 km ) radius of Death Valley National Park include Las Vegas and Pahrump , Nevada . In the case of Las Vegas , the local Chamber of Commerce estimates that 6 @,@ 000 people are moving to the city every month . Between 1985 and 1995 , the population of the Las Vegas Valley increased from 550 @,@ 700 to 1 @,@ 138 @,@ 800 .
In 1977 , parts of Death Valley were used by director George Lucas as a filming location for Star Wars , providing the setting for the fictional planet Tatooine .
= = Geologic history = =
The park has a diverse and complex geologic history . Since its formation , the area that comprises the park has experienced at least four major periods of extensive volcanism , three or four periods of major sedimentation , and several intervals of major tectonic deformation where the crust has been reshaped . Two periods of glaciation ( a series of ice ages ) have also had effects on the area , although no glaciers ever existed in the ranges now in the park .
= = = Basement and Pahrump Group = = =
Little is known about the history of the oldest exposed rocks in the area due to extensive metamorphism ( alteration of rock by heat and pressure ) . Radiometric dating gives an age of 1 @,@ 700 million years for the metamorphism during the Proterozoic . About 1 @,@ 400 million years ago a mass of granite now in the Panamint Range intruded this complex . Uplift later exposed these rocks to nearly 500 million years of erosion .
The Proterozoic sedimentary formations of the Pahrump Group were deposited on these basement rocks . This occurred following uplift and erosion of any earlier sediments from the Proterozoic basement rocks . The Pahrump is composed of arkose conglomerate ( quartz clasts in a concrete @-@ like matrix ) and mudstone in its lower part , followed by dolomite from carbonate banks topped by algal mats as stromatolites , and finished with basin @-@ filling sediment derived from the above , including possible glacial till from the hypothesized Snowball Earth glaciation . The very youngest rocks in the Pahrump Group are basaltic lava flows .
= = = Rifting and deposition = = =
A rift opened and subsequently flooded the region as part of the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic ( by about 755 million years ago ) and the creation of the Pacific Ocean . A shoreline similar to the present Atlantic Ocean margin of the United States lay to the east . An algal mat @-@ covered carbonate bank was deposited , forming the Noonday Dolomite . Subsidence of the region occurred as the continental crust thinned and the newly formed Pacific widened , forming the Ibex Formation . An angular unconformity ( an uneven gap in the geologic record ) followed .
A true ocean basin developed to the west , breaking all the earlier formations along a steep front . A wedge of clastic sediment then began to accumulate at the base of the two underwater precipices , starting the formation of opposing continental shelfs . Three formations developed from sediment that accumulated on the wedge . The region 's first known fossils of complex life are found in the resulting formations . Notable among these are the Ediacara fauna and trilobites , the evolution of the latter being part of the Cambrian Explosion of life .
The sandy mudflats gave way about 550 million years ago to a carbonate platform ( similar to the one around the present @-@ day Bahamas ) , which lasted for the next 300 million years of Paleozoic time ( refer to the middle of the timescale image ) . Death Valley 's position was then within ten or twenty degrees of the Paleozoic equator . Thick beds of carbonate @-@ rich sediments were periodically interrupted by periods of emergence . Although details of geography varied during this immense interval of time , a north @-@ northeasterly trending coastline generally ran from Arizona up through Utah . The resulting eight formations and one group are 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 km ) thick and underlay much of the Cottonwood , Funeral , Grapevine , and Panamint ranges .
= = = Compression and uplift = = =
In the early @-@ to @-@ mid- Mesozoic the western edge of the North American continent was pushed against the oceanic plate under the Pacific Ocean , creating a subduction zone . A subduction zone is a type of contact between different crustal plates where heavier crust slides below lighter crust . Erupting volcanoes and uplifting mountains were created as a result , and the coastline was pushed to the west . The Sierran Arc started to form to the northwest from heat and pressure generated from subduction , and compressive forces caused thrust faults to develop .
A long period of uplift and erosion was concurrent with and followed the above events , creating a major unconformity , which is a large gap in the geologic record . Sediments worn off the Death Valley region were carried both east and west by wind and water . No Jurassic- to Eocene @-@ aged sedimentary formations exist in the area , except for some possibly Jurassic @-@ age volcanic rocks ( see the top of the timescale image ) .
Erosion over many millions of years created a relatively featureless plain . Thirty @-@ five million years ago , sluggish streams migrated laterally over its surface . Several other similar formations were also laid down .
= = = Stretching and lakes = = =
Basin and Range @-@ associated stretching of large parts of crust below southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico started around 16 million years ago and the region is still spreading . This stretching began to affect the Death and Panamint valleys area by 3 million years ago . Before this , rocks now in the Panamint Range were on top of rocks that would become the Black Mountains and the Cottonwood Mountains . Lateral and vertical transport of these blocks was accomplished by movement on normal faults . Right @-@ lateral movement along strike @-@ slip faults that run parallel to and at the base of the ranges also helped to develop the area . Torsional forces , probably associated with northwesterly movement of the Pacific Plate along the San Andreas Fault ( west of the region ) , is responsible for the lateral movement .
Igneous activity associated with this stretching occurred from 12 million to 4 million years ago . Sedimentation is concentrated in valleys ( basins ) from material eroded from adjacent ranges . The amount of sediment deposited has roughly kept up with this subsidence , resulting in retention of more or less the same valley floor elevation over time .
Pleistocene ice ages started 2 million years ago , and melt from alpine glaciers on the nearby Sierra Nevada Mountains fed a series of lakes that filled Death and Panamint valleys and surrounding basins ( see the top of the timescale image ) . The lake that filled Death Valley was the last of a chain of lakes fed by the Amargosa and Mojave Rivers , and possibly also the Owens River . The large lake that covered much of Death Valley 's floor , which geologists call Lake Manly , started to dry up 10 @,@ 500 years ago . Saltpans and playas were created as ice age glaciers retreated , thus drastically reducing the lakes ' water source . Only faint shorelines are left .
= = Biology = =
Habitat varies from saltpan at 282 feet ( 86 m ) below sea level to the sub @-@ alpine conditions found on the summit of Telescope Peak , which rises to 11 @,@ 049 feet ( 3 @,@ 368 m ) . Vegetation zones include Creosote Bush , Desert Holly , and mesquite at the lower elevations and sage up through shadscale , blackbrush , Joshua Tree , pinyon @-@ juniper , to Limber Pine and Bristlecone Pine woodlands . The saltpan is devoid of vegetation , and the rest of the valley floor and lower slopes have sparse cover , although where water is available , an abundance of vegetation is usually present . These zones and the adjacent desert support a variety of wildlife species , including 51 species of native mammals , 307 species of birds , 36 species of reptiles , 3 species of amphibians , and 2 species of native fish .
Small mammals are more numerous than large mammals , such as bighorn sheep , coyotes ( image ) , bobcats , kit foxes , cougars , and mule deer . Mule deer are present in the pinyon / juniper associations of the Grapevine , Cottonwood , and Panamint ranges . Bighorn sheep are a rare species of mountain sheep that exist in isolated bands in the Sierra and in Death Valley . These are highly adaptable animals and can eat almost any plant . They have no known predators , but humans and burros compete for habitat .
The ancestors of the Death Valley Pupfish swam to the area from the Colorado River via a long @-@ since dried @-@ up system of rivers and lakes ( see Lake Manly ) . They now live in two separate populations : one in Salt Creek and another in Cottonball Marsh . Death Valley is one of the hottest and driest places in North America , yet it is home to over 1 @,@ 000 species of plants ; 23 of which , including the very rare Rock Lady ( Holmgrenanthe petrophila ) , are not found anywhere else .
Adaptation to the dry environment is key . For example , creosote bush and mesquite have tap @-@ root systems that can extend 50 feet ( 15 m ) down in order to take advantage of a year @-@ round supply of ground water . The diversity of Death Valley 's plant communities results partly from the region 's location in a transition zone between the Mojave Desert , the Great Basin Desert and the Sonoran Desert . This location , combined with the great relief found within the Park , supports vegetation typical of three biotic life zones : the lower Sonoran , the Canadian , and the Arctic / Alpine in portions of the Panamint Range . Based on the Munz and Keck ( 1968 ) classifications , seven plant communities can be categorized within these life zones , each characterized by dominant vegetation and representative of three vegetation types : scrub , desert woodland , and coniferous forest . Microhabitats further subdivide some communities into zones , especially on the valley floor .
Unlike more typical locations across the Mojave Desert , many of the water @-@ dependent Death Valley habitats possess a diversity of plant and animal species that are not found anywhere else in the world . The existence of these species is due largely to a unique geologic history and the process of evolution that has progressed in habitats that have been isolated from one another since the Pleistocene epoch .
= = Activities = =
Sightseeing is available by personal automobile , four @-@ wheel drive , bicycle , mountain bike ( on established roadways only ) , and hiking . Riding through the park on motorcycle is also a popular pastime . State Route 190 , the Badwater Road , the Scotty 's Castle Road , and paved roads to Dante 's View and Wildrose provide access to the major scenic viewpoints and historic points of interest . More than 350 miles ( 560 km ) of unpaved and four @-@ wheel @-@ drive roads provide access to wilderness hiking , camping , and historical sites . All vehicles must be licensed and street legal . There are hiking trails of varying lengths and difficulties , but most backcountry areas are accessible only by cross @-@ country hiking . There are literally thousands of hiking possibilities . The normal season for visiting the park is from October 15 to May 15 , because of summer extremes in temperature . Costumed living history tours of the historic Death Valley Scotty 's Castle are conducted for a fee , but as of October 2015 , are suspended due to flood damage to the Scotty 's Castle buildings and grounds .
There are nine designated campgrounds within the park , and overnight backcountry camping permits are available at the Visitor Center . Xanterra Parks & Resorts owns and operates a private resort , the Furnace Creek Inn and Ranch Resort , which comprises two separate and distinct hotels : the Furnace Creek Inn is a four @-@ star historic hotel , and the Furnace Creek Ranch is a three @-@ star ranch @-@ style property reminiscent of the mining and prospecting days . Death Valley Lodging Company operates the Stovepipe Wells Village motel . Stovepipe Wells Village is the only authorized concession operations located in Death Valley National Park . There are a few motels near various entrances to the park , in Shoshone , Death Valley Junction , Beatty , Nevada , and Panamint Springs .
The visitor center is located in the Furnace Creek resort area on State Route 190 . A 12 @-@ minute introductory slide program is shown every 30 minutes . During the winter season — November through April — rangers offer interpretive tours and a wide variety of walks , talks , and slide presentations about Death Valley cultural and natural history . The visitor center has displays dealing with the park 's geology , climate , wildlife and natural history . There are also specific sections dealing with the human history and pioneer experience . The Death Valley Natural History Association maintains a bookstore specifically geared to the natural and cultural history of the park .
Death Valley National Park is a popular location for stargazing as it has one of the darkest night skies in the United States . Despite Death Valley 's remote location , its air quality and night visibility are threatened by civilization . In particular , light pollution is introduced by nearby Las Vegas . The darkest skies are , in general , located in the northwest of the park .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
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= Suillus brevipes =
Suillus brevipes is a species of fungus in the family Suillaceae . First described by American mycologists in the late 19th century , it is commonly known as the stubby @-@ stalk or the short @-@ stemmed slippery Jack . The fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) produced by the fungus are characterized by a chocolate to reddish @-@ brown cap covered with a sticky layer of slime , and a short whitish stipe that does not have either a partial veil or prominent dark or colored glandular dots . The cap can reach a diameter of about 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) , while the stipe is up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long and 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . Like other bolete mushrooms , S. brevipes produces spores in a vertically arranged layer of spongy tubes with openings that form a layer of small yellowish pores on the underside of the cap .
Suillus brevipes grows in a mycorrhizal association with various species of two- and three @-@ needled pines , especially lodgepole and ponderosa pine . The fungus is found throughout North America , and has been introduced to several other countries via transplanted pines . In the succession of mycorrhizal fungi associated with the regrowth of jack pine after clearcutting or wildfires , S. brevipes is a multi @-@ stage fungus , found during all stages of tree development . The mushrooms are edible , and are high in the essential fatty acid linoleic acid .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described scientifically as Boletus viscosus by American mycologist Charles Frost in 1874 . In 1885 , Charles Horton Peck , who had found specimens in pine woods of Albany County , New York , explained that the species name was a taxonomic homonym ( Boletus viscosus was already in use for another species named by Ventenat in 1863 ) , and so renamed it to Boletus brevipes . Its current name was assigned by German Otto Kuntze in 1898 . William Alphonso Murrill renamed it as Rostkovites brevipes in 1948 ; the genus Rostkovites is now considered to be synonymous with Suillus .
Agaricales specialist Rolf Singer included Suillus brevipes in the subsection Suillus of genus Suillus , an infrageneric ( a taxonomic level below genus ) grouping of species characterized by a cinnamon @-@ brown spore print , and pores less than 1 mm wide . Molecular phylogenetic analyses of ribosomal DNA sequences shows that the most closely related species to Suillus brevipes include S. luteus , S. pseudobrevipes , and S. weaverae ( formerly Fuscoboletinus weaverae ) .
The specific epithet is derived from the Latin brevipes , meaning " short @-@ footed " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " stubby @-@ stalk " or the " short @-@ stemmed slippery Jack " .
= = Description = =
The cap is deep brown to reddish @-@ brown , later fading to tan with age , and it does not bruise with handling . The cap surface is smooth , and , depending on the moisture in the environment , may range from sticky to the touch to slimy . Depending on its maturity , the cap shape may range from spherical to broadly convex . The cap diameter measures 5 – 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) , and the cap cuticle can be peeled from the surface . The tubes are yellow , becoming olive @-@ green with age , and they have an attachment to the stipe that ranges from adnate ( with most of the tube fused to the stipe ) to decurrent ( with the tubes broadly attached , but running somewhat down the length of the stipe ) . They are typically up to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) deep , and there are about 1 – 2 tube mouths ( pores ) per millimeter . The pores are pale yellow , round , 1 – 2 mm wide , and do not change color when bruised .
The stipe is white to pale yellow , dry , solid , not bruising , and pruinose ( having a very fine whitish powder on the surface ) . A characteristic feature of many Suillus species are the glandular dots found on the stipe — clumps of hyphal cell ends through which the fungus secretes various metabolic wastes , leaving a sticky or resinous " dot " . In S. brevipes , the form of the glandular dots is variable : they may be absent , slightly underdeveloped or obscurely formed with age . The stipe is usually short in comparison to the diameter of the cap , typically 2 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) long and 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . It is either of equal width throughout , or may taper downwards ; its surface bears minute puncture holes at maturity , and is it slightly fibrous at the base . Collections made in New Zealand tend to have a reddish coloration at the very base of the stipe . The flesh of the mushroom is initially white , but turns pale yellow in age . The odor and taste are mild . The spore print is cinnamon @-@ brown .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are elliptical to oblong , smooth , and have dimensions of 7 – 10 by 3 – 4 µm . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are thin @-@ walled , club @-@ shaped to roughly cylindrical , and measure 2 – 25 by 5 – 7 µm . They bear either two or four spores . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia that are found on the face of a gill ) are roughly cylindrical with rounded ends , thin @-@ walled , and 40 – 55 by 5 – 8 µm . The cells often have brown contents , and in the presence of 2 % potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) will appear hyaline ( translucent ) or vinaceous ( red wine @-@ colored ) ; in Melzer 's reagent they become pale yellow or brown . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia found on the edge of a gill ) are 30 – 60 by 7 – 10 µm , club @-@ shaped to almost cylindrical , thin @-@ walled , with brown incrusting material at the base , and arranged like a bundle of fibers . In KOH they appear hyaline , and are pale yellow in Melzer 's reagent . Caulocystidia ( found on the stipe ) are 60 – 90 by 7 – 9 µm , mostly cylindrical with rounded ends , and arranged in bundles with brown pigment particles at the base . The caulocystidia stain vinaceous in KOH . The cuticle of the cap is made of a layer of interwoven gelatinous hyphae that are individually 2 – 5 µm thick ; the gelatinous hyphae are responsible for the sliminess of the cuticle . There are no clamp connections in the hyphae .
= = = Edibility = = =
Like many species of the genus Suillus , S. brevipes is edible , and the mushroom is considered choice by some . The odor is mild , and the taste mild or slightly acidic . Field guides typically recommended to remove the slimy cap cuticle , and , in older specimens , the tube layer before consumption . The mushrooms are common in the diet of grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park .
The fatty acid composition of S. brevipes fruit bodies has been analyzed . The cap contained a higher lipid content than the stipe — 18 @.@ 4 % of the dry weight , compared to 12 @.@ 4 % . In the cap , linoleic acid made up 50 @.@ 7 % of the total lipids ( 65 @.@ 7 % in the stipe ) , oleic acid was 29 @.@ 9 % ( 12 @.@ 4 % in the stipe ) , followed by palmitic acid at 10 @.@ 5 % ( 12 @.@ 6 % in the stipe ) . Linoleic acid — a member of the group of essential fatty acids called omega @-@ 6 fatty acids — is an essential dietary requirement for humans .
= = = Similar species = = =
Several Suillus species which grow under pines could be confused with S. brevipes . S. granulatus has a longer stipe , and distinct raised granules on the stipe . S. brevipes is differentiated from S. albidipes by not having a cottony roll of velar tissue ( derived from a partial veil ) at the margin when young . S. pallidiceps is by distinguished its pale yellow cap color ; and S. albivelatus has a veil . S. pungens has a characteristic pungent odor , compared to the mild smell of S. brevipes , and like S. granulatus , has glandular dots on the stipe .
= = Ecology = =
Suillus brevipes is a mycorrhizal fungus , and it develops a close symbiotic association with the roots of various tree species , especially pine . The underground mycelia form a sheath around the tree rootlets , and the fungal hyphae penetrate between the cortical cells of the root , forming ectomycorrhizae . In this way , the fungus can supply the tree with minerals , while the tree reciprocates by supplying carbohydrates created by photosynthesis . In nature , it associates with two- and three @-@ needle pines , especially lodgepole and ponderosa pine . Under controlled laboratory conditions , the fungus has been shown to form ectomycorrhizae with ponderosa , lodgepole , loblolly , eastern white , patula , pond , radiata , and red pines . In vitro mycorrhizal associations formed with non @-@ pine species include Pacific madrone , bearberry , western larch , Sitka spruce , and coast Douglas @-@ fir . Fungal growth is inhibited by the presence of high levels of the heavy metals cadmium ( 350 ppm ) , lead ( 200 ppm ) , and nickel ( 20 ppm ) .
During the regrowth of pine trees after disturbance like clearcutting or wildfire , there appears an orderly sequence of mycorrhizal fungi as one species is replaced by another . A study on the ecological succession of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Canadian jack pine forests following wildfire concluded that S. brevipes is a multi @-@ stage fungus . It appears relatively early during tree development ; fruit bodies were common in 6 @-@ year @-@ old tree stands , and the fungus colonized the highest proportion of root tips . The fungus persists throughout the life of the tree , having been found in tree stands that were 41 , 65 , and 122 years old . There is , however , a relative reduction in the prevalence of the fungus with increasing stand age , which may be attributed to increased competition from other fungi , and a change in habitat brought about by closure of the forest canopy . Generally , S. brevipes responds favorably to silvicultural practices such as thinning and clearcutting . A 1996 study demonstrated that fruit bodies increased in abundance as the severity of disturbance increased . It has been suggested that the thick @-@ walled , wiry rhizomorphs produced by the fungus may serve as an adaptation that helps it to survive and remain viable for a period of time following disturbance .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Suillus brevipes grows singly , scattered , or in groups on the ground in late summer and autumn . A common — and sometimes abundant — mushroom , it occurs over most of North America ( including Hawaii ) , south to Mexico , and north to Canada . This species has been found in Puerto Rico growing under planted Pinus caribaea , where it is thought to have been introduced inadvertently from North Carolina by the USDA Forest Service in 1955 . Other introductions have also occurred in exotic pine plantations in Argentina , India , New Zealand , Japan , and Taiwan .
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= Histoire Naturelle =
The Histoire Naturelle , générale et particulière , avec la description du Cabinet du Roi ( 1749 – 1804 ) is an encyclopaedic collection of 36 large ( quarto ) volumes written over much of his working life by the Comte de Buffon , and continued in eight more volumes after his death by his colleagues , led by Bernard Germain de Lacépède . The books cover what was known of the " natural sciences " at the time , including what would now be called material science , physics , chemistry and technology as well as the natural history of animals .
= = Histoire Naturelle , an encyclopaedic work = =
The Histoire Naturelle , générale et particulière , avec la description du Cabinet du Roi is the work that the Comte de Buffon ( 1707 – 1788 ) is remembered for . He worked on it for some 50 years , initially at Montbard in his office in the Tour Saint @-@ Louis , then in his library at Petit Fontenet . 36 volumes came out between 1749 and 1789 , followed by 8 more after his death , thanks to Bernard Germain de Lacépède . It includes all the knowledge available in his time on the " natural sciences " , a broad term that includes disciplines which today would be called material science , physics , chemistry and technology . Buffon notes the morphological similarities between men and apes , although he considered apes completely devoid of the ability to think , differentiating them sharply from human beings . Buffon 's attention to internal anatomy made him an early comparative anatomist . " L ’ intérieur , dans les êtres vivants , est le fond du dessin de la nature " , he wrote in his Quadrupèdes , " the interior , in living things , is the foundation of nature 's design . "
The Histoire Naturelle , which was meant to address the whole of natural history , actually covers only minerals , birds , and the quadrupeds among animals . It is accompanied by some discourses and a theory of the earth by way of introduction , and by supplements including an elegantly written account of the epochs of nature .
The Suppléments cover a wide range of topics ; for example , in ( Suppléments IV ) , there is a Discours sur le style ( Discourse on Style ) and an Essai d 'arithmétique morale ( essay on Moral Arithmetic ) .
Louis Jean @-@ Marie Daubenton assisted Buffon on the quadrupeds ; Philippe Guéneau de Montbeillard worked on the birds . They were joined , from 1767 , by Barthélemy Faujas de Saint @-@ Fond , the abbot Gabriel Bexon and Charles @-@ Nicolas @-@ Sigisbert Sonnini de Manoncourt . The whole descriptive and anatomical part of l ’ Histoire des Quadrupèdes was the work of Daubenton and Jean @-@ Claude Mertrud .
Buffon attached much importance to the illustrations ; Jacques de Sève illustrated the quadrupeds and François @-@ Nicolas Martinet illustrated the birds . Nearly 2000 plates adorn the work , representing animals with care given both to aesthetics and anatomical accuracy , with dreamlike and mythological settings .
On minerals , Buffon collaborated with André Thouin . Barthélemy Faujas de Saint @-@ Fond and Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau provided sources for the mineral volumes .
L ’ Histoire Naturelle met immense success , almost as great as Encyclopédie by Diderot , which came out in the same period . The first three volumes of L ’ Histoire Naturelle , générale et particulière , avec la description du cabinet du Roi were reprinted three times in six weeks .
The encyclopaedia appeared in 36 volumes :
3 volumes in 1749 : De la manière d ’ étudier l ’ histoire naturelle followed by Théorie de la Terre , Histoire Générale des animaux and Histoire Naturelle de l ’ homme
12 volumes on quadrupeds ( 1753 to 1767 )
9 volumes on birds ( 1770 to 1783 ] )
5 volumes on minerals ( 1783 to 1788 ) , the last including Traité de l ’ aimant , the last work published by Buffon in his lifetime
7 volumes of supplements ( 1774 to 1789 ) , including Époques de la nature ( from 1778 ) .
L ’ Histoire Naturelle was initially printed at the Imprimerie royale in 36 volumes ( 1749 – 1789 ) . In 1764 Buffon bought back the rights to his work . It was continued by Bernard Germain de Lacépède , who described the egg @-@ laying quadrupeds , snakes , fishes and cetaceans in 8 volumes ( 1788 – 1804 ) .
Buffon was assisted in the work by Jacques @-@ François Artur ( 1708 – 1779 ) , Gabriel Léopold Charles Amé Bexon ( 1748 – 1785 ) , Louis Jean @-@ Marie Daubenton ( 1716 – 1799 ) , Edme @-@ Louis Daubenton ( 1732 – 1786 ) , Jacques de Sève ( actif 1742 – 1788 ) , Barthélemy Faujas de Saint @-@ Fond ( 1741 – 1819 ) , Philippe Guéneau de Montbeillard ( 1720 – 1785 ) , Louis @-@ Bernard Guyton @-@ Morveau ( 1737 – 1816 ) , Bernard Germain de Lacépède ( 1756 – 1825 ) , François @-@ Nicolas Martinet ( 1731 – 1800 ) , the anatomist Jean @-@ Claude Mertrud ( 1728 – 1802 ) , Charles @-@ Nicolas @-@ Sigisbert Sonnini de Manoncourt ( 1751 – 1812 ) , and André Thouin ( 1747 – 1823 ) .
= = Approach = =
Each group is introduced with a general essay . This is followed by an article , sometimes of many pages , on each animal ( or other item ) . The article on the wolf begins with the claim that it is one of the animals with a specially strong appetite for flesh ; it asserts that the animal is naturally coarse and cowardly ( grossier et poltron ) , but becoming crafty at need , and hardy by necessity , driven by hunger . The language , as in this instance , is elegant and elaborate , even " flowery and ornate " . Buffon was roundly criticised by his fellow academics for writing a " purely popularizing work , empty and puffed up , with little real scientific value " .
The species is named in Greek , Latin , Italian , Spanish , German , English , Swedish , and Polish . The zoological descriptions of the species by Gessner , Ray , Linnaeus , Klein and Buffon himself ( " Canis ex griseo flavescens . Lupus vulgaris . Buffon . Reg. animal. pag . 235 " ) are cited .
The text is written as a continuous essay , without the sections on identification , distribution and behaviour that might have been expected from other natural histories . Parts concern human responses rather than the animal itself , as for example that the wolf likes human flesh , and the strongest wolves sometimes eat nothing else . Measurements may be included ; in the case of the wolf , 41 separate measurements are tabulated , in pre @-@ revolutionary French feet and inches starting with the " Length of the whole body measured in a straight line from the end of the muzzle to the anus ........ 3 feet . 7 inches . " ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) ; the " Length of the largest claws " is given as " 10 lines " ( 2 @.@ 2 cm ) .
The wolf is illustrated standing in farmland , and as a complete skeleton standing on a stone plinth in a landscape . The account of the species occupies 32 pages including illustrations .
= = Editions = =
= = = Buffon 's original edition continued by Lacépède = = =
The original edition of the Histoire Naturelle by Buffon comprised 36 volumes in quarto , divided into the following series : Histoire de la Terre et de l 'Homme , Quadrupèdes , Oiseaux , Minéraux , Suppléments . Buffon edited 35 volumes in his lifetime . Soon after his death , the fifth and final volume of l ’ Histoire des minéraux appeared in 1788 at the Imprimerie des Bâtiments du Roi . The seventh and final volume of Suppléments by Buffon was published posthumously in 1789 through Lacépède 's hands . Lacépède continued the part of the Histoire Naturelle which dealt with animals . A few months before Buffon 's death , en 1788 , Lacépède published , as a continuation , the first volume of his Histoire des Reptiles , on egg @-@ laying quadrupeds . The next year , he wrote a second volume on snakes , published during the French Revolution . Between 1798 and 1803 , he brought out the volume Histoire des Poissons . Lacépède made use of the notes and collections left by Philibert Commerson ( 1727 – 1773 ) . He wrote Histoire des Cétacés which was printed in 1804 . At that point , the Histoire Naturelle , by Buffon and Lacépède , thus contained 44 quarto volumes forming the definitive edition .
= = = Variations in the editions by Buffon and Lacépède = = =
Another edition in quarto format was printed by the Imprimerie royale in 36 volumes ( 1774 – 1804 ) . It consisted of 28 volumes par Buffon , and 8 volumes by Lacépède . The part containing anatomical articles by Louis Jean @-@ Marie Daubenton was dropped . The supplements were merged into the relevant articles in the main volumes .
The Imprimerie royale also published two editions of the Histoire Naturelle in duodecimo format ( 1752 – 1805 ) , occupying 90 or 71 volumes , depending on whether or not they included the part on anatomy . In this print format , the original work by Buffon occupied 73 volumes with the part on anatomy , or 54 volumes without the part on anatomy . The continuation by Lacépède took up 17 duodecimo volumes .
A de luxe edition of Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux ( Birds ) ( 1771 – 1786 ) was produced by the Imprimerie royale in 10 folio and quarto volumes , with 1008 engraved and hand @-@ coloured plates , executed under Buffon 's personal supervision by Edme @-@ Louis Daubenton , cousin and brother @-@ in @-@ law of Buffon 's principal collaborator .
= = = Translations = = =
The Histoire Naturelle was translated into languages including English , German , Swedish , Russian and Italian . Many translations , often partial ( single volumes , or all volumes to a certain date ) , abridged , reprinted in the same translation by different printers , or with additional text ( for example on insects ) and new illustrations , were made at the end of the eighteenth century and the start of the nineteenth century , presenting a complicated publication history . Early translations were necessarily only of the earlier volumes . Given the complexity , all catalogue dates other than of single volumes should be taken as approximate .
R. Griffith published an early translation of the volume on The Horse in London in 1762 . T. Bell published a translation of the first six volumes in London between 1775 and 1776 . William Creech published an edition in Edinburgh between 1780 and 1785 . T. Cadell and W. Davies published another edition in London in 1812 . An abridged edition was published by Wogan , Byrne et al. in Dublin in 1791 ; that same year R. Morison and Son of Perth , J. and J. Fairbairn of Edinburgh and T. Kay and C. Forster of London published their edition . W. Strahan and T. Cadell published a translation with notes by the encyclopaedist William Smellie in London around 1785 . Barr 's Buffon in ten volumes was published in London between 1797 and 1807 . W. Davidson published an abridged version including the natural history of insects taken from Swammerdam , Brookes , Goldsmith et al . , with " elegant engravings on wood " ; its four volumes appeared in Alnwick in 1814 .
German translations include those published by Joseph Georg Trassler 1784 – 1785 ; by Pauli , 1772 – 1829 ; Grund and Holle , 1750 – 1775 ; and Johann Samuel Heinsius , 1756 – 1782 .
Italian translations include those published by Fratelle Bassaglia around 1788 and Boringherieri in 1959 .
Per Olof Gravander translated an 1802 – 1803 French abridgement into Swedish , publishing it in Örebro in 1806 – 1807 .
A Russian version ( The General and Particulary Natural History by Count Buffon ; " Всеобщая и частная естественная история графа Бюффона " ) was brought out by The Imperial Academy of Sciences ( Императорской Академией Наук ) in St. Petersburg between 1789 and 1808 .
= = = Children 's = = =
An abridged edition for children was published by Frederick Warne in London and Scribner , Welford and Co. c . 1870 .
= = Contents by volume = =
The original edition was arranged as follows :
Natural history , and description of the king 's cabinet of curiosities
Volume I : Premier Discours - De la manière d ’ étudier et de traiter l ’ histoire naturelle , Second Discours - Histoire et théorie de la Terre , Preuves de la théorie de la Terre , 1749
Volume II : Histoire générale des Animaux , Histoire Naturelle de l 'Homme , 1749
Volume III : Description du cabinet du Roi , Histoire Naturelle de l 'Homme , 1749
Quadrupèdes ( Quadrupeds )
Volume IV ( Quadrupèdes I ) : Discours sur la nature des Animaux , Les Animaux domestiques , 1753
Volume V ( Quadrupèdes II ) : 1755
Volume VI ( Quadrupèdes III ) : Les Animaux sauvages , 1756
Volume VII ( Quadrupèdes IV ) : Les Animaux carnassiers , 1758
Volume VIII ( Quadrupèdes V ) : 1760
Volume IX ( Quadrupèdes VI ) : 1761
Volume X ( Quadrupèdes VII ) : 1763
Volume XI ( Quadrupèdes VIII ) : 1764
Volume XII ( Quadrupèdes IX ) : 1764
Volume XIII ( Quadrupèdes X ) : 1765
Volume XIV ( Quadrupèdes XI ) : Nomenclature des Singes , De la dégénération des Animaux , 1766
Volume XV ( Quadrupèdes XII ) : 1767
Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux ( Birds ) ( 1770 – 1783 )
Volume XVI ( Oiseaux I ) : 1770
Volume XVII ( Oiseaux II ) : 1771
Volume XVIII ( Oiseaux III ) : 1774
Volume XIX ( Oiseaux IV ) : 1778
Volume XX ( Oiseaux V ) : 1778
Volume XXI ( Oiseaux VI ) : 1779
Volume XXII ( Oiseaux VII ) : 1780
Volume XXIII ( Oiseaux VIII ) : 1781
Volume XXIV ( Oiseaux IX ) : 1783
Histoire Naturelle des Minéraux ( Minerals ) ( 1783 – 1788 )
Volume XXV ( Minéraux I ) : 1783
Volume XXVI ( Minéraux II ) : 1783
Volume XXVII ( Minéraux III ) : 1785
Volume XXVIII ( Minéraux IV ) : 1786
Volume XXIX ( Minéraux V ) : Traité de l 'Aimant et de ses usages , 1788
Suppléments à l ’ Histoire Naturelle , générale et particulière ( Supplements ) ( 1774 – 1789 )
Volume XXX ( Suppléments I ) : Servant de suite à la Théorie de la Terre , et d ’ introduction à l ’ Histoire des Minéraux , 1774
Volume XXXI ( Suppléments II ) : Servant de suite à la Théorie de la Terre , et de préliminaire à l ’ Histoire des Végétaux - Parties Expérimentale & Hypothétique , 1775
Volume XXXII ( Suppléments III ) : Servant de suite à l 'Histoire des Animaux quadrupèdes , 1776
Volume XXXIII ( Suppléments IV ) : Servant de suite à l 'Histoire Naturelle de l 'Homme , 1777
Volume XXXIV ( Suppléments V ) : Des Époques de la nature , 1779
Volume XXXV ( Suppléments VI ) : Servant de suite à l 'Histoire des Animaux quadrupèdes , 1782
Volume XXXVI ( Suppléments VII ) : Servant de suite à l 'Histoire des Animaux quadrupèdes , 1789
Histoire Naturelle des Quadrupèdes ovipares et des Serpents ( Egg @-@ laying Quadrupeds and Snakes ) ( 1788 – 1789 )
Volume XXXVII ( Reptiles I ) : Histoire générale et particulière des Quadrupèdes ovipares , 1788
Volume XXXVIII ( Reptiles II ) : Histoire des Serpents , 1789
Histoire Naturelle des Poissons ( Fish ) ( 1798 – 1803 )
Volume XXXIX ( Poissons I ) : 1798
Volume XXXX ( Poissons II ) : 1800
Volume XXXXI ( Poissons III ) : 1802
Volume XXXXII ( Poissons IV ) : 1802
Volume XXXXIII ( Poissons V ) : 1803
Histoire Naturelle des Cétacés ( Cetaceans ) ( 1804 )
Volume XXXXIV ( Cétacés ) : 1804
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary = = =
The Histoire Naturelle had a distinctly mixed reception in the eighteenth century . Wealthy homes in both England and France purchased copies , and the first edition was sold out within six weeks . But Buffon was criticised by priests for suggesting ( in the essay Les Epoques de Nature , Volume XXXIV ) that the earth was more than 6 @,@ 000 years old and that mountains had arisen in geological time . Buffon cites as evidence that fossil sea @-@ shells had been found at the tops of mountains ; but the claim was seen as contradicting the biblical account in the Book of Genesis . Buffon also disagreed with Linnaeus 's system of classifying plants as described in Systema Naturae ( 1735 ) . In Buffon 's view , expounded in the " Premier Discours " of the Histoire Naturelle ( 1749 ) , the concept of species was entirely artificial , the only real entity in nature being the individual ; as for a taxonomy based on the number of stamens or pistils in a flower , mere counting ( despite Buffon 's own training in mathematics ) had no bearing on nature .
The Paris faculty of theology , acting as the official censor , wrote to Buffon with a list of statements in the Histoire Naturelle that were contradictory to Roman Catholic Church teaching . Hypocritically , Buffon replied that he believed firmly in the biblical account of creation , and was able to continue printing his book , and remain in position as the leader of the ' old school ' , complete with his job as director of the royal botanical garden . On Buffon 's death , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Georges Cuvier celebrated with the words " This time , the Comte de Buffon is dead and buried " . Soon afterwards , the French revolution went much further in sweeping away old attitudes to natural history , along with much else .
= = = Modern = = =
= = = = Philosophy = = = =
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy calls the Histoire Naturelle " Buffon 's major work " , observing that " In addressing the history of the earth , Buffon also broke with the ' counter @-@ factual ' tradition of Descartes , and presented a secular and realist account of the origins of the earth and its life forms . " In its view , the work created an " age of Buffon " , defining what natural history itself was , while Buffon 's " Discourse on Method " ( unlike that of Descartes ) at the start of the work argued that repeated observation could lead to a greater certainty of knowledge even than " mathematical analysis of nature " . Buffon also led natural history away from the natural theology of British parson @-@ naturalists such as John Ray . He thus offered both a new methodology and an empirical style of enquiry . Buffon 's position on evolution is complex ; he noted in Volume 4 from Daubenton 's comparative anatomy of the horse and the donkey that species might " transform " , but initially ( 1753 ) rejected the possibility . However , in doing so he changed the definition of a species from a fixed or universal class ( which could not change , by definition ) to " the historical succession of ancestor and descendant linked by material connection through generation " , identified by the ability to mate and produce fertile offspring . Thus the horse and donkey , which produce only sterile hybrids , are seen empirically not to be the same species , even though they have similar anatomy . That empirical fact leaves open the possibility of evolution .
= = = = Style = = = =
The botanist Sandra Knapp writes that " Buffon 's prose was so purple that the ideas themselves are almost hidden " , observing that this was also the contemporary academic opinion . She notes that some quite radical ideas are to be found in his work , but they are almost invisible , given the language they are cloaked in . She quotes Buffon 's dramatic description of the lion , which along with the engraving in her view " emphasized both the lion 's regal bearing and personality not only in his text but also in the illustration ... A reader was left in no doubt as to the importance and character of the animal . " She concludes " No wonder the cultured aristocratic public lapped it up – the text reads more like a romantic novel than a dry scientific treatise " .
= = = = Evolutionary thought = = = =
The evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr comments that " In this monumental and fascinating Histoire naturelle , Buffon dealt in a stimulating manner with almost all the problems that would subsequently be raised by evolutionists . Written in a brilliant style , this work was read in French or in one of the numerous translations by every educated person in Europe " . Mayr argued that " virtually all the well @-@ known writers of the Enlightenment " were " Buffonians " , and calls Buffon " the father of all thought in natural history in the second half of the eighteenth century " .
Mayr notes that Buffon was not an " evolutionist " , but was certainly responsible for creating the great amount of interest in natural history in France . He agrees that Buffon 's thought is hard to classify and even self @-@ contradictory , and that the theologians forced him to avoid writing some of his opinions openly . Mayr argues however that Buffon was " fully aware of the possibility of ' common descent ' , and was perhaps the first author ever to articulate it clearly " , quoting Buffon at length , starting with " Not only the ass and the horse , but also man , the apes , the quadrupeds , and all the animals might be regarded as constituting but a single family " , and later " that man and ape have a common origin " , and that " the power of nature ... with sufficient time , she has been able from a single being to derive all the other organized beings " . Mayr notes , however , that Buffon immediately rejects the suggestion and offers three arguments against it , namely that no new species have arisen in historical times ; that hybrid infertility firmly separates species ; and that animals intermediate between , say , the horse and the donkey are not seen ( in the fossil record ) .
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= The Boat Race 1996 =
The 142nd Boat Race took place on 6 April 1996 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Umpired by a former Blue , Mike Sweeney , Cambridge won by two @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths in the second @-@ fastest time in the history of the race .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie defeated Oxford 's Isis in a record time , while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1995 race by four lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 72 victories to Oxford 's 68 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
The previous year 's race was watched by seven million viewers in the United Kingdom alone . Oxford coach Dan Topolski suggested that part of the appeal was that the contest was " absolutely amateur " but still " represents quality " . Former Oxford Blue and Olympic gold medallist Jonny Searle agreed , calling the Boat Race " a unique experience " . Both Topolski and Searle predicted a close race ; Cambridge coach Robin Williams agreed : " We 've got to accord Oxford some respect . I think we 're again the better crew ... but the only way to find out is on the water . " Penny Chuter , one of the other Oxford coaches , noted " Cambridge have a continuity ... but we have more power this year . " Cambridge 's boat club president John Carver had earlier withdrawn from the race with injury . Oxford 's director of rowing , Steve Royle , said of his crew : " these guys love a scrap . "
The 250 officers from Wandsworth Police lining the embankments were able to replace their traditional helmets for peaked caps for the first time , in order to discourage members of the crowd from removing them and throwing them into the river . The race was sponsored for the tenth consecutive year by Beefeater Gin , and umpired by former Cambridge Blue Mike Sweeney .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 1 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 57 kg ) more per rower than their opponents . Each crew saw just one former Blue return , Clegg for Oxford and Barnett for Cambridge , in addition to Barnett , Cambridge 's crew contained five former Goldie rowers . Oxford 's crew more international rowers with four Americans and a Canadian .
= = Race = =
Cambridge started as pre @-@ race favourites . They won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . After a close start , where neither boat took a significant lead , Cambridge were a half a length up at the Mile Post . They pushed on at Harrods Furniture Depository to take two thirds of a length lead over Oxford by Hammersmith Bridge . Under pressure from the Dark Blues , Whyman steered his crew to record times between the Mile Post and Barnes Bridge , Hammersmith Bridge to Barnes Bridge , Chiswick Steps to Barnes Bridge and Chiswick Steps to the finishing post . Cambridge won by two @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 16 minutes 58 seconds , the second @-@ fastest time on record ( thirteen seconds slower than the winning time in the 1984 race ) .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie won by eleven lengths , in a record time , over Isis . It was Cambridge 's ninth victory in ten years . Cambridge won the 51st Women 's Boat Race by four lengths in a time of 6 minutes and 12 seconds , their seventh victory in eight years .
= = Reaction = =
During the race , David Miller of the The Times claimed that Cambridge 's stroke James Ball " conducted a continual tactical conversation with Kevin Whyman , the Cambridge cox " . Miller suggested that while Oxford were the more powerful crew , Cambridge were technically superior .
Oxford coach Chuter concluded : " we did not find the cohesive and relaxed rhythm which we have had . " Her counterpart , Williams , exclaimed " you have got to be happy with that " .
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= X @-@ Men Legends =
X @-@ Men Legends is an action role @-@ playing video game developed by Raven Software and published by Activision . It was released on the GameCube , PlayStation 2 and Xbox consoles in the fall of 2004 . Barking Lizards Technologies developed the N @-@ Gage port of the game , which was released in early 2005 . Players can play as one of fifteen X @-@ Men characters , with the ability to switch between four computer- or human @-@ controlled characters at any time .
X @-@ Men Legends follows Alison Crestmere , a young mutant who has the ability to summon and control volcanic activity . As Alison is taught to control her powers at the X @-@ Mansion , the X @-@ Men are sent on several missions . Eventually the X @-@ Men learn of Magneto 's plan to cover the Earth in darkness from his base on Asteroid M.
X @-@ Men Legends received generally positive reviews from critics . The Xbox version was the best received , garnering aggregate scores of 83 % and 82 / 100 on the review aggregating websites GameRankings and Metacritic respectively . Reviewers praised Raven 's variation on cel @-@ shaded graphics . Due to the success of the game a sequel was made , X @-@ Men Legends II : Rise of Apocalypse .
= = Gameplay = =
X @-@ Men Legends is played as an action role @-@ playing game . Players choose a team of up to four characters from a larger group of X @-@ Men . As players proceed through the game additional X @-@ Men are unlocked . On the console versions up to four players can play in the cooperative campaign , with the ability to add or remove players at any time . Cooperative play features a refined combat system and the ability to interact with non @-@ player characters . The game also features a skirmish mode , which allows players to fight against each other or against waves of computer @-@ controlled enemies .
As characters gain experience points players can upgrade their four main powers and other abilities unique to that character . Items found during gameplay can also be equipped to further enhance a character 's abilities . Characters can combine attacks to create a combo , in which two or more players use their mutant powers on a single enemy at the same time . The characters ' special abilities can be used to create a " Super Combo " when combined with an " Xtreme Power " which become available at level 15 .
The X @-@ Mansion serves as a hub that the team returns to after each mission . While at the mansion , one player controls Alison Crestmere as she explores , and learns about herself and the other X @-@ Men . Here players can also view loading screen art , cinematics , and comic book covers acquired during gameplay . Biographies of the X @-@ Men and their enemies can be accessed on computers located in the mansion . Players can participate in an X @-@ Men trivia game , which rewards experience points for correct answers . Additionally , players can access the Danger Room 's computer to play challenge missions unlocked during gameplay .
The players have two vendors available to them : Forge , who sells equipment and the Morlock Healer , who provides health and energy packs as well as training disks for use in the Danger Room . Forge becomes available after Alison contacts him accidentally from the X @-@ Mansion , and Healer can be accessed following the third mission .
The N @-@ Gage version of X @-@ Men Legends contains most of the features found on the console versions . However , the game is played from an isometric point of view . Characters are two @-@ dimensional sprites based on their three @-@ dimensional console counterparts , and levels are redesigned to meet the limitations of the isometric point of view . Cutscenes were reused from the console versions , but are rendered at a much lower frame rate . Players can link with other N @-@ Gage systems for four @-@ player cooperative gameplay using GSM cellular technology .
= = Plot = =
X @-@ Men Legends is not set in any particular Marvel Comics universe . It is played from the perspective of a teenage girl named Alison Crestmere , a mutant with the ability to control volcanic activity . At the start of the game Alison is abducted by the Genetic Research and Security Organization ( GRSO ) . As GRSO soldiers take her away , Mystique arrives with Blob and takes Alison from the soldiers . She is in turn rescued from Mystique and Blob by the X @-@ Men Wolverine and Cyclops , who take her to the Xavier Institute to explore her powers . As Alison trains , the X @-@ Men investigate an Alaskan research facility controlled by the Brotherhood of Mutants , then rescue Gambit from the Morlocks . They then try to stop the Brotherhood from rescuing Magneto from captivity aboard the U.S.S. Arbiter . Mystique is able to penetrate the defenses and free Magneto , and the ensuing damage caused by the Brotherhood leaves the X @-@ Men to rescue several Arbiter crew members .
With Alison ’ s training complete , she takes the codename Magma and the X @-@ Men travel to Russia to help Colossus prevent the Brotherhood from obtaining weapons @-@ grade plutonium . After accomplishing this mission , they discover that Colossus ’ s sister , Illyana , is in a coma from a psychic hold placed on her by the Shadow King . Professor Xavier , Emma Frost , and Jean Grey enter the astral plane to save her . They succeed , but in the process Xavier is captured by the Shadow King . After Xavier ’ s capture the X @-@ Men learn that General William Kincaid , a leader in the anti @-@ mutant movement , is building mutant @-@ hunting Sentinels . Magneto travels to his base on Asteroid M , where he reveals his plan to cover the Earth in darkness . Meanwhile , the X @-@ Men free Xavier who defeats the Shadow King in a psychic battle . The X @-@ Men travel to Asteroid M , where they discover that the asteroid is on a collision course with Earth . After defeating Magneto they search for the Gravitron , a device used to pilot the asteroid . They encounter General Kincaid , who pilots Master Mold , a prototype sentinel larger and more powerful than other sentinels . After defeating General Kincaid , the X @-@ Men locate the Gravitron and Magma uses her powers to steer the asteroid back into space . The X @-@ Men 's victory on Asteroid M is watched by Apocalypse who makes his upcoming plot from his base .
In the game 's epilogue , a television news anchor reports that Magneto is still at large and General Kincaid has been arrested for crimes against humanity . The game ends with the President of the United States thanking the X @-@ Men for their service .
= = = Characters = = =
^ a Only playable during sections of the Astral Plane missions .
= = Development = =
X @-@ Men Legends was announced in a press release by Activision on April 23 , 2003 . The game is Raven Software 's first console title ; after a number of successful titles for personal computers , it wanted to expand into the console market . The company developed the three console versions simultaneously , and used Vicarious Visions ' Alchemy engine as a base for the game . After deciding to make an " X @-@ Men RPG " , staff began brainstorming story , gameplay and design ideas . Raven wanted to feature a team @-@ based dynamic , something it felt was absent in previous X @-@ Men games . The original concept featured turned @-@ based gameplay , similar to a Final Fantasy game . However , the team concluded that players would prefer more action that allowed control of the character 's super powers . The genre switch proved problematic to maintaining the team aspect of gameplay .
The group experimented with several gameplay models , and opted for one that allowed players to freely switch characters . The final product mimics isometric dungeon crawling video games . Raven designed gameplay with strategy in mind ; each character 's abilities allow different interactions with the environment and other characters . For example , a physically strong character like Colossus can break walls but is unable to reach certain areas that require the ability to fly , and Iceman is able to freeze enemies so that other characters can easily defeat them . Staff hoped that the differences would force players to switch characters regularly during missions . Extraction points , specific locations that players can switch characters , were added to allow players to continue without a game over in the event one or more team member was defeated . Raven included flash back missions as an homage to the franchise and based some on specific comic book issues . Originally a single @-@ player game , Raven eventually incorporated simultaneous co @-@ orperative gameplay . The developers chose to not create an online multi @-@ player mode , stating that the gameplay was " designed around localized encounters . "
The game 's story was penned by a group of former Marvel writers known as Man of Action , consisting of Duncan Rouleau , Joe Casey , Joe Kelly , and Steven T. Seagle , with Stan Lee consulting . Man of Action chose the character Magma as their lead because she was an " appropriately blank slate as a character . " Man of Action also stated that the script for X @-@ Men Legends was in excess of five hundred pages . The writers created a story that would allow for players to change their active team throughout the game and not affect the overall flow of the story .
The game 's voice cast consists largely of television and film stars as well as veteran voice actors . Patrick Stewart reprised his role as Professor Xavier from the X @-@ Men films , while Tony Jay voiced Magneto . Ed Asner lent his voice as Healer , a Morlock shaman . Lou Diamond Phillips voiced Forge , a Native American mutant whose power grants him intuitive talent for inventing mechanical devices . Danica McKellar voiced Jubilee , a young mutant who generates plasmoids from her fingertips . Veteran voice actors Steven Blum , Grey DeLisle , Dee Bradley Baker , Robin Atkin Downes and Dorian Harewood also lent voices as Wolverine , Mystique , Nightcrawler , Cyclops and Shadow King , respectively . Music for the game was composed by Rik Schaffer of the Los Angeles @-@ based Womb Music .
Characters were selected from different time lines in the X @-@ Men universe . Art lead Brian Pelletier stated that they took the most memorable characters from the last 40 years and grouped them together . X @-@ Men Legends uses cel shading to give the characters a comic @-@ like appearance . However , Raven cited that they opted for then @-@ high resolution textures to stay away from " cartoony looking " characters . Character costumes were inspired by Marvel Comics ' Ultimate X @-@ Men . However , some of the X @-@ Men playable in X @-@ Men Legends had not appeared in the comics at the time of its release so , with permission from Marvel , Raven created unique looks for those characters . During development Raven tried visual formats for the X @-@ Men , including using their New X @-@ Men uniforms as well as removing the cel @-@ shaded look from the characters . In contrast , the back stories , relationships and personalities of the X @-@ Men were taken from Marvel 's mainstream universe . Angel was also to be included in the game , and was to be voiced by André Sogliuzzo , but was cut from the final build .
= = Reception = =
X @-@ Men Legends received mostly positive reviews , with the Xbox version receiving the highest aggregate scores of 83 @.@ 36 % at GameRankings and 82 / 100 at Metacritic . The GameCube version was rated next highest , scoring 81 @.@ 98 % at GameRankings and 81 / 100 at Metacritic . Though the PlayStation 2 version received the lowest scores of the console versions , it still fared well , scoring 80 @.@ 50 % at GameRankings and 79 / 100 at Metacritic . The N @-@ Gage version garnered scores similar to its console counterparts , receiving 76 @.@ 13 % and 79 / 100 at GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively . In 2011 , GamePro retrospectively listed " the melee combat , ability to customize your stats , and multiplayer " among the strong points of X @-@ Men Legends , adding that the game " was so successful that it created a well @-@ received sequel and paved the way for the Marvel Ultimate Alliance series . "
Critics generally praised the game 's use of cel @-@ shading . IGN 's Hilary Goldstein stated , " To capture the ' comic book feel , ' Raven Soft chose to go for a cel @-@ shaded look with Legends . It 's not that the characters look two @-@ dimensional , but they have very basic textures and a cut @-@ out look " . GameSpot reviewer Jeff Gerstmann pointed out that though the characters are cel @-@ shaded , the environments are not , making them easy to distinguish . The gameplay was lauded for its role @-@ playing elements , character powers and melee combat . Eurogamer praised the Xbox version 's control system for character powers and melee attacks , as well as the " fluid " combat .
Reviewers found that the artificial intelligence ( AI ) was lacking , and recommended the game 's multiplayer . Opinions were generally mixed on the subject of voice acting . X @-@ Play reviewer Russ Fischer called it " purely average " , though he made an exception for Patrick Stewart 's portrayal of Professor Xavier . IGN noted that while some voice acting fit the characters well , others seemed out of place .
The N @-@ Gage version was praised for the ability to play cooperatively using the N @-@ Gage 's bluetooth technology . Reviewers also found that the game 's graphics were " very strong " and that " everything looks amazing " . The presence of voice acting in the N @-@ Gage port was also praised , with GameSpy reviewer Justin Leeper stating the audio clips seemed to be " lifted right out of other versions " . He criticized the AI , however , for being " [ a ] bit stupid at inopportune times " and for failing to use the game 's healing abilities at important moments .
= = Legacy = =
X @-@ Men Legends sold enough copies to be inducted into the budget lines for all three consoles on which it was released : PlayStation 2 's Greatest Hits , GameCube 's Player 's Choice , and Xbox 's Platinum Hits . A sequel , X @-@ Men Legends II : Rise of Apocalypse was released for all major platforms in the fall of 2005 , and the N @-@ Gage later that year . Barking Lizards again helped port the game , this time to mobile phone devices . Vicarious Visions ported the game to the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) , and Beenox developed the PC port .
The success of the X @-@ Men Legends series led Raven Software , Marvel , and Activision to create the video game Marvel : Ultimate Alliance , which was released on several consoles , handheld devices and the PC in 2007 . Barking Lizards , Vicarious Visions and Beenox handled the ports for different platforms . Marvel : Ultimate Alliance was followed by Marvel : Ultimate Alliance 2 , jointly developed by Vicarious Visions , n @-@ Space and Savage Entertainment . Marvel Ultimate Alliance 2 was released on several consoles and handhelds in the fall of 2009 . Vicarious Visions developed the PS3 and Xbox 360 versions , while n @-@ Space developed the Nintendo DS , PSP and Wii versions . Savage Entertainment ported the version developed by n @-@ Space to the PSP .
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= Toyota Center =
Toyota Center is an indoor arena located in downtown Houston , Texas . It is named after the Japanese automobile manufacturer Toyota . The arena is home to the Houston Rockets of the National Basketball Association , the principal users of the building , and the former home of the Houston Aeros of the American Hockey League .
Rockets owner Leslie Alexander first began to request a new arena in 1995 , and attempted to release the Rockets from their lease at The Summit , which ran until 2003 . However , he was denied by arena owner Chuck Watson , then @-@ owner of the Aeros , who also wanted control of a new arena . The two sides agreed to equal control over an arena in a deal signed in 1997 , but the proposal was rejected by city voters in a 1999 referendum . It was not until the city and the Rockets signed an amended agreement in 2001 , excluding the Aeros , that the proposal was accepted .
Construction began in July 2001 , and the new arena was officially opened in October 2003 . The total costs were $ 235 million , with the city of Houston paying the majority , and the Rockets paying for enhancements . Toyota paid US $ 100 million for the naming rights .
= = History = =
In May 1995 , several Texas sports teams , including the Houston Rockets , proposed legislation that would dedicate state tax revenue to build new arenas . Although the bill was failed in the Texas House of Representatives , Rockets owner Leslie Alexander announced he would continue to study the possibility of constructing a new arena in downtown Houston , saying the 20 @-@ year @-@ old Summit arena was too outdated to be profitable . Although the Summit 's management said they could renovate the building for a small part of the cost of a new arena , the Rockets began talks with the city of Houston on a possible location for an arena , They also negotiated with Houston Aeros and Summit owner , Chuck Watson , to release them from their contract with the Summit , which ran until 2003 .
As the negotiations continued into 1996 , a panel appointed by Houston mayor Bob Lanier reported that building a new arena was " essential to keep pro sports in Houston " . After Watson rejected a contract buyout proposal of $ 30 million , the Rockets filed a legal challenge against their lease , stating the " need to be able to buy out " of the lease . However , the city of Houston filed a counterclaim to force the Rockets to stay at the Summit , saying that if the Rockets did not honor their contract , then they might " have no incentive to honor any new agreement with the city of Houston to play in a new downtown sports arena " . The validity of the lease was eventually upheld , and in April 1997 , Lanier announced that the Rockets and Watson would have to agree to share control of the new arena equally , or lose access to it altogether . After both parties agreed to the terms , a bill that authorized increased taxes to pay for a new arena was signed into law in July , by then @-@ Governor George W. Bush .
However , after the National Hockey League decided not to consider Houston as a location for an expansion team because of the indecision over the new arena , Lanier said that he would not have a referendum in November . The Rockets began an appeal in January 1998 against the court order to stay at the Summit , but then dropped it in May , because they felt that a new arena would be ready by the time they finished their lease . In January 1999 , recently elected mayor Lee Brown guaranteed a referendum on the issue before the end of the year . After several months negotiating with the Harris County @-@ Houston Sports Authority , the Rockets finalized a deal to pay half of the constructions costs , and a referendum was set for November 2 . The deal was approved by Brown and the Houston City Council , but Watson started an opposition group against the referendum , saying the arena was " not in Houston 's interest " . On November 3 , the results of the referendum were announced , and the arena proposal was rejected by 54 % of voters . Alexander said " we never thought we would lose " and that they were " devastated by the loss " .
After the vote , NBA commissioner David Stern said " if there 's not a new building ... I think it 's certain that the team will be relocated . " The Houston Sports Authority had not planned to meet with the Rockets until after the 1999 – 2000 NBA season ended , but after the Rockets began to talk to other cities about relocation , they resumed talks in February 2000 . Although the Rockets continued to negotiate with Louisville , Kentucky , a funding plan for the arena in Houston was released in June . A final agreement was proposed on July 6 , and both the Rockets and mayor Brown agreed to the terms . After the city council approved the deal , the proposal was placed on the November referendum ballot . Leading up to the vote , the Rockets stressed that there would be " no new taxes of any kind " , although opponents said the new arena would raise energy consumption , and also contended that the public would pay for too much of the costs of the arena . Contributions for the campaign for the arena included donations of US $ 400 @,@ 000 from Reliant Energy , and a total of $ 590 @,@ 000 in loans and contributions from Enron and Ken Lay , who the Rockets said was a " tireless " force in the campaign . On November 8 , the arena was approved by 66 % of voters .
= = = Construction = = =
According to the agreement signed , the city of Houston bought the land for the arena and an adjoining parking garage , which was near the George R. Brown Convention Center , and paid for it by selling bonds and borrowing $ 30 million . Morris Architects , designed the 750 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 70 @,@ 000 m2 ) building , and Hunt Construction was contracted to build the arena . A building formerly owned by Houston Lighting and Power Company was demolished to make way for the arena , and two streets were closed for the duration of the construction . A groundbreaking ceremony was held on July 31 , 2001 , and construction continued for 26 months .
At the request of Alexander , the arena was built 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) below street level , so fans would not have to walk up stairs to reach their seats . To sink the arena , $ 12 million was spent to excavate 31 @,@ 500 cubic yards of dirt over four months , which was the largest excavation in Houston history . Concrete was poured for the foundation throughout the summer of 2002 , and structural work began in October . The roof was set on in December , as work continued inside , with a peak workforce of 650 . In September 2003 , a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony was held to mark the official opening of the arena . The total cost of construction was $ 235 million , with the city paying $ 182 million , and the Rockets adding $ 43 million for additions and enhancements .
= = Arena Interior = =
The arena can seat 18 @,@ 055 for basketball , 17 @,@ 800 for ice hockey , and 19 @,@ 300 for concerts . The price for courtside seats to a Rockets game in the new arena were raised by as much as 50 % compared to prices in the team 's old home , while upper @-@ deck seat prices were lowered .
It has 103 luxury suites and 2 @,@ 900 club seats ( Sections 105 @-@ 109 , Rockets Club West ; Sections 118 @-@ 122 , Rockets Club East ) . The Rockets East & West Clubs feature upscale concessions , extra wide seats , full private bar featuring premium wine and beverage selections and concierge service . The adjacent 2 @,@ 500 @-@ space Toyota Tundra garage is connected to the arena by a private skybridge that can be accessed by Suite , Court @-@ side and Club Seat holders .
Additionally , the floor level features three separate private club lounges for access from court @-@ side seat holders and floor seat concert goers . Lexus Lounge and Woodforest Club are on the west side of the floor level and the Platinum Lounge is located on the east side of the floor level . All feature upscale amenities including multiple flat screen televisions , private bar , restrooms , and plush seating . The Lexus Lounge has its own pool tables and all three court @-@ side lounges feature numerous private court @-@ side suites .
Toyota Center also features the Red & White Wine Bistro , located on the lower suites level on the south side of the arena . The restaurant features a huge dining room , private bar , two twin 1 @,@ 500 bottle wine towers and views of the arena floor .
Levy Restaurants manages concession services at the arena , and offers fast food on the main concourses , while also catering a VIP restaurant for Suite and Club Seat holders . Alexander personally chose colors for the restaurant to help customers feel " warm and comfortable " , and Rockets president George Postolos said that the Rockets looked " for a relationship with the people that attend events in our venue " . Originally , a 40 feet ( 12 m ) by 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) centerhung video system from Daktronics , which has four main replay screens and eight other full @-@ color displays , hung from the ceiling of the arena , and had the highest @-@ resolution display of any North American sports facility . In 2012 , the Toyota Center installed a larger , 4 panel scoreboard , similar to the one installed at AT & T Stadium , measuring 58 feet ( 18 m ) by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) on the sidelines , and 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) on the ends , making it the largest such video board in an indoor arena . This larger scoreboard was installed by Panasonic and made its debut during the Houston Rockets 2012 @-@ 13 season opener . The arena has two additional displays located at each end of the court , and a " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art " audio system .
Another amenity new to the Toyota Center in the 2012 – 2013 season is Wi @-@ Fi . Designed by SignalShare and implemented by OfficeConnect.net , the Wi @-@ Fi network is deployed throughout the arena and allows high @-@ speed internet access during events . Its implementation was timed to be ready for the NBA All Stars Game .
= = = Sponsorship = = =
In July 2003 , the arena was named the Toyota Center , after Toyota agreed to pay $ 100 million for naming rights , the fourth @-@ largest deal for a sports arena in the United States at the time . The logo of the company was placed on the roof of the building , as well in other prominent places inside the arena , and the company was given " a dominant presence " in commercials shown during broadcasts of games played in the arena .
= = = Seating Capacity = = =
The seating capacity for basketball games has been as follows :
17 @,@ 982 ( 2003 – 2007 )
18 @,@ 043 ( 2007 – 2012 )
18 @,@ 023 ( 2012 – 2014 )
18 @,@ 055 ( 2014 – present )
= = Events = =
The arena 's first event was a Fleetwood Mac concert on October 6 , 2003 , and the first Rockets game at the Toyota Center was against the Denver Nuggets on October 30 .
In its first year , the total attendance for events at the arena exceeded 1 @.@ 5 million . The arena was also the winner of the Allen Award for Civic Enhancement by Central Houston , the " Rookie of the Year " award by the Harlem Globetrotters , and a finalist for Pollstar Magazine 's " Best New Concert Venue " award . The current attendance for a concert held at the arena was set on November 20 , 2008 , when Metallica played to a sold out crowd during the Death Magnetic tour . The record for a basketball game is 18 @,@ 583 , set on March 26 , 2010 , when the Los Angeles Lakers defeated the Rockets 109 – 101 .
The R & B girl group Destiny 's Child performed at the Toyota Center on August 20 , 2005 , with the Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It Tour . Beyoncé , as a solo artist , performed at the arena many times : on July 14 , 2007 , with The Beyoncé Experience Tour ; on July 4 , 2009 , with the I Am ... World Tour ; on July 15 , 2013 , and once more on December 10 , 2013 , with The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour . Beyoncé was born in Houston , on September 4 , 1981 .
American singer / songwriter , P ! nk performed at the arena for the first time on the 24th of September , 2009 on her Funhouse Tour . She performed at the arena again on the 21st of February on her The Truth About Love Tour .
Lady Gaga also performed at the arena for the first time on her The Monster Ball Tour . She also performed at the Toyota Center for The Born This Way Ball Tour and performed for her world tour , ArtRave : The Artpop Ball on July 16 , 2014 .
Miley Cyrus performed in the arena during her 2014 Bangerz Tour after previously performing in the arena during her 2007 – 2008 Best of Both Worlds Tour on November 11 , 2007 . Cyrus has performed 2 total sold @-@ out nights in the arena since 2007 .
In 2007 , 2011 , 2013 , and 2015 , it played host to a UFC event .
The arena hosted the 9th Annual Latin Grammy Awards on November 13 , 2008 . It also held the 2009 WWE Hall of Fame induction ceremony , the night before WrestleMania XXV took place at NRG Stadium and , also held WWE No Mercy 2005 , WWE Vengeance 2007 and WWE TLC : Tables , Ladders & Chairs two times , in 2010 and 2013 . On September 20 , 2015 , the arena hosted WWE Night of Champions .
On August 21 , 2010 , it played host to Strikeforce : Houston .
Many concerts have also taken place in the Toyota Center , like Prince , Duran Duran on their Astronaut tour , Janet Jackson , Madonna on her MDNA Tour , Red Hot Chili Peppers , Gloria Estefan , Muse , Rihanna , Miley Cyrus , Bruno Mars , Christina Aguilera , P ! nk , Andrea Bocelli , Roger Waters , High School Musical The Concert , Aerosmith , Guns N ' Roses , Coldplay , RBD , Laura Pausini , Alanis Morissette , Matchbox Twenty , Fiona Apple , Nickelback , Depeche Mode , Bon Jovi , Enrique Iglesias , Katy Perry , Drake , Shakira , Britney Spears , Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z with their successful Watch The Throne Tour , Justin Bieber , Taylor Swift , The Rolling Stones , One Direction , Carrie Underwood on her Storyteller Tour , and Rammstein .
On February 19 , 2016 , it played host to Bellator MMA event Bellator 149 : Shamrock vs. Gracie III . The event featured a double main event featuring heavyweights Kimbo Slice vs. Dada 5000 , and light heavyweights Ken Shamrock vs. Royce Gracie . Bellator 149 had a live attendance record of 13 @,@ 209 ; and a near $ 1.2M gate at the Toyota Center . Thus making Bellator 149 the largest attended show in Bellator MMA history .
Passion Conferences has been held in the Toyota Center in 2014 , 2015 , and will be held there in 2016 as well . The conference draws around 20 @,@ 000 people with multiple other gatherings held in Atlanta .
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= Mac Speedie =
Mac Curtis Speedie ( January 12 , 1920 – March 5 , 1993 ) was an American football end who played for the Cleveland Browns in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and National Football League ( NFL ) for seven years , and later served for two years as head coach of the American Football League 's Denver Broncos . A tall and quick runner whose awkward gait helped him deceive defenders and get open , Speedie led his league in receptions four times during his career and was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro six times . His career average of 800 yards per season was not surpassed until two decades after his retirement , and his per @-@ game average of 50 yards went unequalled for 20 years after he left the game .
Speedie grew up in Utah , where he overcame Perthes Disease to become a standout as a hurdler on his high school track team and a halfback on the football team . He attended the University of Utah , where he continued to excel at track and football before entering the military in 1942 during World War II . He spent four years in the service before joining the Browns in 1946 , where he played as an end opposite quarterback Otto Graham , fullback Marion Motley and fellow receiver Dante Lavelli . The Browns , a new team in the AAFC , won the league championship every year between 1946 and 1949 . The Browns merged into the NFL in 1950 after the AAFC disbanded , and Speedie continued to succeed as the team won another league championship . After two more years with the Browns , however , Speedie left the team for the Western Interprovincial Football Union ( WIFU ) amid a conflict with Paul Brown , Cleveland 's head coach . He played two full seasons in the WIFU and one game in a third season before leaving professional football .
Speedie was hired in 1960 as an end coach for the Houston Oilers in the American Football League ( AFL ) . The Oilers won the AFL championship that year , but Speedie left in 1961 after the head coach , former teammate Lou Rymkus , was fired . He then took a job as an assistant for the AFL 's Denver Broncos and was promoted to head coach in 1964 . His two @-@ year run with the team was unsuccessful , however . After his resignation in 1966 , Speedie became a scout for the Broncos , a job he kept until his retirement in 1982 . Despite lobbying by friends and former teammates , Speedie was not selected for induction into the Pro Football Hall of Fame .
= = Early life = =
Speedie was born in Odell , Illinois , but attended high school in Utah . As a child he had Perthes Disease , a condition where growth or loss of bone mass in the hip joint affects blood supply to the area . He had to wear a brace for four years to correct the condition ; one of his legs came out shorter than the other . Despite his struggle with the disease , Speedie became a star athlete at South High School in Salt Lake City , playing football , basketball and track . He was the center on the school 's basketball team and was named to a list of Salt Lake 's best athletes as a halfback on the football team . Getting out of the braces " was like turning a frisky colt out to pasture after a year in a box stall , " Speedie once said . " I had such a backlog of athletic ambition that I wanted to play football , basketball , and track all at one time . "
= = College and military career = =
After graduating from high school , Speedie attended the University of Utah , where he majored in geology and continued to excel as an athlete . He played football and basketball and was a top college hurdler in track . As an end on the Utah Redskins football team He won all @-@ conference honors in 1939 , 1940 and 1941 . In track , he finished second in a high hurdles event where the winner , Rice University 's Fred Wolcott , set a NCAA record .
Like many college athletes , Speedie joined the military as America 's involvement in World War II intensified following the attack on Pearl Harbor at the end of 1941 . He entered the U.S. Army after graduating in 1942 . Speedie was stationed at Fort Warren in Wyoming and played for the base 's Broncos military team .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Cleveland Browns = = =
Speedie was drafted by the National Football League 's Detroit Lions in the late rounds of the 1942 draft . Fred Mandel , the owner of the Lions , visited him at Fort Warren and offered a contract worth $ 2 @,@ 800 a year . Speedie wanted to sign immediately , but Mandel preferred to wait until after the war . By the time the war drew to a close in 1945 , however , Speedie was considering signing with the Chicago Rockets , a team in the new All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . He was pursued by the Rockets after playing well against a team at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro from which many of the Rockets ' players were drawn . Speedie was also spotted by Paul Brown , who had been the head coach of a military team at Great Lakes Naval Station that played against the Broncos . Brown , who was starting a new AAFC team called the Cleveland Browns , sent a friend named Jackie Ranen to sign Speedie for $ 7 @,@ 000 in 1946 .
With the Browns , Speedie quickly became an important part of an offensive attack that featured quarterback Otto Graham , fullback Marion Motley and fellow receiver Dante Lavelli . He was enthusiastic , energetic and fast , posing a challenge for defenders assigned to cover him . He had an unusual running style because of his bout with Perthes Disease , which Lavelli said " gave him an odd gait in which he could fake plays without even trying " . Speedie caught the first touchdown in the AAFC 's existence in the Browns ' opening game against the Miami Seahawks , a 44 – 0 win . The Browns ended the regular season with a 12 – 2 record , winning the AAFC West division and earning a spot in the league championship . During the week before the championship game against the New York Yankees , Speedie and two teammates , Lou Rymkus and team captain Jim Daniell were arrested after an argument with Cleveland police . Daniell was driving a car with Rymkus and Speedie as passengers as they waited for Speedie 's wife to return on a flight from Utah . A police car was blocking Daniell 's way , and he honked the horn , leading to the confrontation and arrests . Brown kicked Daniell off of the team , but Speedie and Rymkus were not punished by the team ; they were , however , held in custody for several hours and charged with creating a disturbance .
The Browns went on to win the championship game in 1946 , helped by Speedie 's six catches for 71 yards . Speedie led the league in yards per catch , with 23 @.@ 5 , and scored seven touchdowns . After the season , he was named along with several teammates to the AAFC 's all @-@ league team .
The 1947 season was another strong one for Speedie . In a game against the Buffalo Bills , he tied a professional football record by catching a throw from Graham and running 99 yards for a touchdown . He finished the season as the league leader in receptions and receiving yards as the Browns won another championship . His 67 catches and 1 @,@ 146 receiving yards , in fact , were the second @-@ best in pro football history after Don Hutson of the Green Bay Packers , who caught for 1 @,@ 211 yards in 1940 . Speedie was named by news outlets as a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro . Speedie 's success in 1947 came as he , Graham and Lavelli gelled as a passing and receiving unit , having studied hours of tape and worked on their technique and coordination . Speedie studied how defensive backs moved their feet and tried to break into the open by exploiting mis @-@ steps . They experimented with screen passes and made modifications to common receiving routes to exploit the weaknesses of defenses .
The Browns had a perfect season the following year , winning the championship for a third straight time . Speedie led the league in receiving and was named an All @-@ Pro again . The 1949 season brought another championship and another All @-@ Pro season for Speedie , who led the league in receptions for the third year in a row . He had 228 receiving yards in a game against the Yankees , which remains a Browns record . Tom Landry , a Yankees cornerback who went on to coach the Dallas Cowboys , was assigned to cover Speedie and called it " the most embarrassing athletic performance of my entire life " . The AAFC dissolved after the 1949 season and the Browns , along with two other teams , were absorbed by the more established NFL . Speedie was the AAFC 's all @-@ time leader in receptions and receiving yards , with 3 @,@ 554 .
Cleveland 's success continued in the NFL in 1950 , silencing skeptics who thought the team stood out only because of the poor quality of competition in the AAFC . After beating the defending NFL champion Philadelphia Eagles in the first game of the season , the Browns advanced to the championship game , where they beat the Los Angeles Rams 30 – 28 on a last @-@ second Lou Groza field goal . Speedie had 548 receiving yards during the season and was selected for the NFL 's first @-@ ever Pro Bowl .
The Browns reached the NFL championship game in 1951 and 1952 , but lost both times . Speedie led the NFL in receiving in 1951 and was named a first @-@ team All Pro , but he did not play in the championship game due to an injury . He was selected for the Pro Bowl for a second time in 1952 . After that season , however , he left the Browns to join the Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Western Interprovincial Football Union under acrimonious circumstances . Speedie had an independent streak that did not sit well with Brown , whose domineering coaching style grated against many of the men who played for him . " He was one of the ones that Paul Brown picked on quite a bit , " recalled former teammate Ken Carpenter . " He 'd get on Speedie 's case for no particular reason . " Speedie showed his displeasure by bringing a skunk to training camp in 1952 and calling it " Paul " . Brown told Speedie he did not think it was very funny , to which Speedie responded that it was a nocturnal animal and was named after Paul Revere .
The Roughriders offered Speedie double his Browns salary as the Canadian leagues tried to make names for themselves by signing top @-@ level NFL players . Paul Brown refused to match the offer , and Speedie , who was making $ 11 @,@ 000 per year with the Browns , joined the Canadian team for the 1953 season . Brown then threatened to sue Speedie for violating his existing contract with the team , saying the Browns had exercised an option to extend the deal after it expired in the summer of 1953 . " This was a case of jumping a contract , pure and simple , as this young man morally and ethically had a contract with us , " Brown said at the time . Speedie later said that Brown " told me when I jumped leagues that he was going to get even with me " .
= = = Western Interprovincial Football Union = = =
Speedie , by then 33 years old , joined the Roughriders despite the threat of legal action . Speedie had a league @-@ leading seven touchdowns in 1953 , and 576 receiving yards the following season . He was sent to the WIFU 's BC Lions in 1955 , but played only one game for the club . Speedie hurt his left knee and was declared out for the season . He had suffered a hairline leg fracture and underwent surgery on torn ligaments in his knee and ankle . He was expected to scout for the Lions as he recovered . After the injury , Speedie was cut from the Lions ' roster and did not play professional football again .
At the end of his career , Speedie was one of the most prolific receivers of his era . He averaged more than 800 receiving yards a season during his seven years in the AAFC and NFL , a mark that was not surpassed for 20 years after he left the game . His career receiving yards average of 49 @.@ 9 per game stood for 25 years . He was named to the National Football League 1940s All @-@ Decade Team and was selected by news outlets as a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro six times . The authors of the official NFL encyclopedia named him one of the league 's 300 greatest @-@ ever players .
= = Coaching career = =
Speedie resurfaced in 1960 , when he was named the end coach for the new American Football League 's Houston Oilers under former teammate and Oilers head coach Lou Rymkus . The Oilers won the AFL championship in 1960 , but Rymkus was fired after the team got off to a slow start the following year . Team owner Bud Adams urged Speedie to stay on the staff , but Speedie resigned out of loyalty to Rymkus .
The AFL 's Denver Broncos hired Speedie the following year as an end coach . He served under head coach Jack Faulkner , who replaced Frank Filchock that season and was voted AFL Coach of the Year for turning the team around and posting a 7 – 7 record . Faulkner led the team to a 2 – 11 – 1 season in 1963 , however , and Speedie replaced him the following year as the Broncos went on a 14 @-@ game losing streak .
In Speedie 's first game leading the team , the Broncos ended the losing streak with a 33 – 27 upset victory over the Kansas City Chiefs . Two weeks later , Speedie suspended placekicker Gene Mingo and defensive back Willie West for " conduct detrimental to the club " , reportedly as a result of a late @-@ night party at a hotel . The team posted a 2 – 7 – 1 record under Speedie , and he was signed to a two @-@ year contract after the season .
In his first full season as the Broncos ' coach in 1965 , Speedie 's team posted a 4 – 10 record . After two losses to begin the 1966 season , Speedie resigned and assistant Ray Malavasi took over . He said the move was in the best interest of the club . Speedie had a 6 @-@ 19 @-@ 1 record as the Broncos ' coach . He then accepted a scouting position with the organization and was based out of his home in Laguna Hills , California . He held the post until his retirement in 1982 .
= = Later life and death = =
Speedie had a brief and cold reunion with Brown in 1977 , when the two met at the annual East – West Shrine Game , a college all @-@ star game . Speedie introduced himself to Brown , only to be told , " Yes , I know . You 're the one who went to Canada . " Speedie 's friends and former teammates lobbied repeatedly for his inclusion in the Pro Football Hall of Fame , but Speedie believed that his conflict with Brown was keeping him out even as numerous former teammates , including Otto Graham , Dante Lavelli and Marion Motley were inducted . He was placed on an old @-@ timers ' list of nominees for induction into the hall in the mid @-@ 1980s , but ultimately was passed over . " Quite honestly , I think Paul Brown is the reason " for Speedie 's exclusion , Graham said in 1991 . " Paul wasn 't the type of guy you crossed . He would never forget it . "
While was passed over for professional football 's hall of fame , Speedie was inducted into the Utah Sports Hall of Fame in 1972 and the University of Utah 's Crimson Club hall of fame in 1986 . He died in California in 1993 . In 2003 , he was named to the Professional Football Researchers Association Hall of Very Good in the association 's inaugural HOVG class .
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= Final Fantasy XIV =
Final Fantasy XIV ( ファイナルファンタジーXIV , Fainaru Fantajī Fōtīn ) , also known as Final Fantasy XIV Online , is a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game for Microsoft Windows personal computers , developed and published by Square Enix in 2010 . It is the fourteenth entry in the main Final Fantasy series and the second MMORPG in the series after Final Fantasy XI . Set in the fantasy realm of Eorzea , players take control of a customized avatar as they explore the land and are caught up in both an invasion by the hostile Garlean Empire and the threat of the Primals , the deities of the land 's Beastmen tribes . Eventually , they are embroiled in a plot by a Garlean Legatus to destroy the Primals by bringing one of the planet 's moons down on Eorzea .
The game had been in development since 2005 under the codename " Rapture " , and was announced in 2009 for Windows and PlayStation 3 video game consoles . It ran on Square Enix 's Crystal Tools middleware engine , which was adjusted to suit the game 's specifications . During development , the team carried over multiple aesthetic elements from XI while creating something that stood on its own . Due to several factors , the development was beset by problems that would later have drastic effects on the game . Attempts to bring the game to Xbox 360 consoles fell through due to disagreements with Microsoft about the use of Xbox Live .
After its alpha test and a delayed beta test , the game went live on September 30 , 2010 ( September 30 , 2010 ) , remaining active until its servers were closed on November 11 , 2012 ( November 11 , 2012 ) . At launch , the game received a mixed to negative reaction : while the graphics and music met with general praise , other aspects were unanimously panned , including the gameplay , interface , and the general impression of the game being unfinished at launch . Critic and fan backlash caused Square Enix to pull subscription fees , indefinitely postpone the PlayStation 3 version , and eventually develop an entirely new version of the game called Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn .
= = Gameplay = =
Final Fantasy XIV is a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game ( MMORPG ) in which the player controls a customized Adventurer avatar from one of the five playable races . Each race has two tribes , and all but two allow for the selection of male or female characters . The avatar can have their eye and hair color , facial features , and skin tone customized , and features such as birthmarks and scars can be added . Their chosen tribe , along with their chosen patron deity , affect their stats and elemental attributes . The game 's opening varies depending on which starting location is chosen . Two different types of quests are available for players : story quests , which are unlocked as characters accumulate experience points ( EXP ) and raise their experience level while unlocking new abilities ; and Levequests ( leves ) , side quests accessed through the Adventurers ' Guilds . Leves are broken down into multiple types , focusing on gathering or combat . Levequests are associated with particular non @-@ playable characters ( NPCs ) . As the player completes leves , they gain favor with three different factions and unlock new abilities , with rewards only coming from the NPCs within the factions who issued the quest . Gaining favor also unlocks a new type of level called Faction leves , which deplete a character 's favor when completed .
Compared to Final Fantasy XI , where party @-@ based gameplay is forefront at all times , the gameplay in XIV is adjusted so that players can go for longer periods without joining a party . There is no auto @-@ attack option , with each action needing a manual input while an enemy is targeted . Each action uses up a stamina bar . Through defeating monsters , crafting items , and completing quests , players accumulate EXP which , when a certain threshold is reached , automatically increments the player 's level . The player 's level affects attributes such as HP ( health / hit points ) , MP ( magic / mana points ) , and the number of abilities available to them .
Under the Armory System , a character 's equipped weapon or crafting tool , determines the player 's character class , allowing them to switch roles at will . Some classes are associated with a particular starting point . Classes are divided into four disciplines : Disciples of War , masters of physical combat ; Disciples of Magic , practitioners of the magical arts ; Disciples of the Hand , crafters and handymen who synthesize and repair items ; and Disciples of the Land , gatherers who collect resources from the environment . Certain abilities learned under one class may be equipped and used by other classes . The Job System ( a post @-@ launch addition ) builds upon the Armoury System for Disciples of War and Magic . In exchange for restricting the range of equippable abilities from other classes , players gain access to powerful skills , magic , weapons , and armor exclusive to the Job corresponding to that class . These Jobs , based on classic Final Fantasy character jobs , are more suited to party @-@ based combat .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Final Fantasy XIV takes place in a high fantasy setting . The main location is Eorzea , a continent on the larger planet Hydaelyn : this contrasts Final Fantasy XI which uses one name to refer to the entire world and its regions . Eorzea is broken up between three main powers : the forest nation of Gridania ; the desert @-@ based Ul 'dah sultanate ; and the thalassocracy of Limsa Lominsa , Eorzea 's dominant maritime power . Other important locations include the scholarly city @-@ state of Sharlayan and the Garlean Empire , a hostile northern power with highly developed technology . Five years prior to the start of the game , the Garlean Empire invaded the land of Ala Migho , but were prevented from conquering Eorzea by the attacks of the ancient dragon Midgardsomr and his dragon hordes . In response to the Empire 's threat , the three nations of Eorzea reform the Grand Companies , comprehensive centers of command which combine the cities ' military and economic assets . The Grand Companies attracted people from all walks of life , who take up the mantle of Adventurers .
The player character is a customizable Adventurer avatar taken from the five main races of Eorzea . The playable races are the human @-@ like Hyur ( ヒューラン , Hyūran ) , the elf @-@ like Elezen ( エレゼン , Erezen ) , the physically @-@ imposing Roegadyn ( ルガディン , Rugadin ) , the diminutive Lalafell ( ララフェル , Raraferu ) , and the feline Miqo 'te ( ミコッテ , Mikotte ) . Playable Roegadyn and Miqo 'te are gender @-@ locked to male and female respectively . Aside from these races are the Beastmen , tribes who worship ancient gods called the Primals , which require aether @-@ rich crystals and whose presence damages the planet .
= = = Plot = = =
Beginning in one of Eorzea 's three main states , the player character awakes to the Echo , a power granting them the ability to see the past . The Adventurers are initially involved in both conflicts within the nations provoked by the Garlean pretense , led by the Garlean Legatus Gaius Van Baelsar , and the Beastmen 's attempts to summon their Primals and their consequent hoarding of crystal supplies . Eventually , a greater threat is brought to the attention of the nations by the Sharlayan scholar Louisoix Leveilleur : another Garlean Legatus named Nael Van Darnus is using arcane magic and technology to summon Dalamud , the planet 's second moon , down on Eorzea to purge the Beastmen and Primals . With the aid of Garlean defector Cid nan Garlond , the Adventurers discover that Nael has set up a beacon for summoning Dalamud in the new fortress of Castrum Novum . While each nation makes individual attempts to storm the fortress , they are repelled . Faced with this , their leaders form a pact and unite the nations under the banner of the Eorzean Alliance .
Now united , the nations , aided by Adventurers , successfully storm Castrum Novum and destroy the beacon . Nael , insanely committed to his plan , makes himself into a second beacon . Though he is defeated by the Adventurers , Dalamud has descended too far for it to return into orbit , so Louisoix proposes a final desperate plan : to summon the Twelve , Eorzea 's deities , and return Dalamud into orbit . The Adventurers pray to altars dedicated to the Twelve across the land , then rally with the armies of the Eorzean Alliance to fight Nael 's legion on the Carteneau Flats , the predicted impact site of Dalamud . In the midst of the battle , Dalamud disintegrates and reveals itself to have been a prison for the Elder Primal Bahamut . Enraged after its imprisonment , Bahamut begins laying waste to Eorzea . After the attempt to summon the Twelve fails , Louisoix uses the last of his power to send the Adventurers into a time rift , separating them from the flow of time so they can return when Eorzea has recovered . Louisoix then proceeds to sacrifice himself to destroy Bahamut in a final cataclysmic battle , leaving behind a barren , scarred landscape .
= = Development = =
Planning for Final Fantasy XIV began in 2005 , four years prior to its official announcement . At the time , it was codenamed " Rapture " ( ラプチャー , Rapuchā ) . While it had been decided within the company that MMORPGs would be mainline entries rather than spin @-@ offs , the team was worried that the final product would be too radical for the main numbered series . The main staff included multiple developers who had worked on previous entries in the Final Fantasy series : producer Hiromichi Tanaka had acted as the original producer for Final Fantasy XI and been involved in multiple early Final Fantasy games , director Nobuaki Komoto was a director for XI and had been among the staff of Final Fantasy IX , writer Yeako Sato had been the main scenario writer for XI , and Akihiko Yoshida had previously also been art director for Vagrant Story and Final Fantasy XII . The game 's logo and some other artwork was designed by Yoshitaka Amano .
The game 's story , primarily written by Sato , was based around a central narrative complemented by side @-@ stories . The setting and gameplay were decided upon before Sato was brought on board , with the result that she needed to consult the rest of the team when she wished to use one of Eorzea 's main locations in a certain way . The story 's main conflict was to be between the five main races of Eorzea and the Beastmen , with the Garlean Empire acting as a third force . The placement of the Garlean Empire to the northeast of Eorzea was not meant to simulate a real @-@ world location , but naturally ended up there as the map of Hydaelyn was being created . The game 's logo , designed by Amano , was designed around the importance of weapons and the concept of a wheel : the " wheel " in question was a wheel of adventurers , arranged so their backs were exposed and they needed to rely on their comrades and friends for support .
For his work as art director , Yoshida needed to adjust from working on a single static project to creating artwork assets for a game which would be updated and expanded . While the game world was created around a high fantasy aesthetic , it was meant to be realistic and encourage exploration . At the beginning of development , the team created a detailed profile of Hydaelyn , including its relation with other planets , ecosystems , climate , and geography . This was done to promote a sense of realism . Alongside creating a seamless travel experience for players , careful work was put into the topography and varied lighting of environments so they would not seem repetitive . After the environment was created , the architectural , cultural and religious elements of the world were incorporated into the environment . City and machine designs mixed metallic and natural materials to create a combined sense of wonder and familiarity for players . The game 's five playable races were directly based on the five initial races from Final Fantasy XI , with design adjustments to reflect the new setting . The developers also created two different tribes , as opposed to the single tribe set @-@ up present in XI . Characters ' movements were primarily developed using motion capture , though the recorded movements were then adjusted so they would be sharp and distinctive . Much work was invested in creating emotes , character movements chosen by the player to represent a specific mood or emotion previously used in XI . To create realistic expressions , a character artist manually adjusted the faces for each expression . For the monsters , advances in hardware enabled the team to create more realistic and detailed character models , including detailed skin textures and carefully placed hair follicles .
The game 's cutscenes were first drafted using a storyboard , then when the sequence of events had been finalized , motion capture was used to create the scene in a digitized format . Lighting and environmental effects were then put in place . One of the most challenging sequences to create was the opening real @-@ time cutscene for the Limsa Lominsa story route : the giant sea serpent 's fins were each individually animated . The game 's opening cinematic was produced by Visual Works , Square Enix 's in @-@ house CGI development company . All the in @-@ game models were first created in high @-@ resolution form using a 3D sculpturing program , then readjusted so they could appear in the game with a lower polygon count but equivalent graphical quality . Another large part of creating the characters was their accessories : to help with this , the team developed a multi @-@ layered development system . A technique dubbed " polygon shaving " was used so two sets of equipment could be designed to look different while using the same model data . Another function dubbed " reshaping " was used to adjust the shapes of equipment and accessories . The third element , dubbed " SSD @-@ file " , enabled the adjustment of the " materials " equipment was made off , so its color and texture could be changed . Rather than relying on a single design image , which would have been impractical for the hardware , the team took basic art and used Photoshop to add subtle changes to each . It was then passed down to the modeling team , who used the same sculpting process as was used for the game 's monsters to create high @-@ detail models while keeping the polygon count low .
The game 's engine was Crystal Tools , a specially @-@ created middleware engine that was also used in Final Fantasy XIII . So that it would be compatible with the game 's specifications , the team customized the engine to suit their needs . In the end , the game 's chosen engine proved unsuitable to the needs of the game , rendering its internal structure " broken " . The game 's development ended up being beset with multiple problems . According to a later postmortem , the team developing the game had an unhealthy obsession of graphical quality over gameplay content that led to other parts of the game being neglected , reinforced by the company 's then @-@ outdated development methods . A cited example of the focus on graphics was a flowerpot , which had as many polygons and lines of shader code as a player character . This high graphical quality meant that compromises needed to be made ; for example , the number of players present on @-@ screen at any one time needed to be limited to twenty , undermining the large @-@ scale communal appeal of MMORPGs . This issue also impacted the game 's environments ; to save on memory space while preserving seamless travel , the team needed to reuse environmental features and textures on a regular basis . Another problem was that the team lacked experience in developing MMORPGs , a problem that had also beset Final Fantasy XI , but had been successfully overcome . With this in mind , the team were still using the development mindset used during the sixth console generation , which could not hold up under the increased staff and resource needs for seventh generation development . A third major reason was the company 's belief that the game 's problems could be patched after the initial launch , compounded by the lack of an overall plan for how to deal with them .
= = = Music = = =
The music for Final Fantasy XIV was composed by Nobuo Uematsu , a regular contributor to the music of the Final Fantasy series . Originally contracted to create the ending theme for XIII , Uematsu accepted the request by the XIV team to work on the game , leaving XIII 's theme song to be composed by Masashi Hamauzu . Having only contributed a few tunes to Final Fantasy XI , XIV was Uematsu 's first full @-@ time work on an MMORPG . Despite this , he treated as any other project , and had considerable creative freedom as the team 's vision for the game had not been finalized . For the battle themes , he used a mix of orchestral and rock pieces . He worked on XIV at the same time as working on The Last Story , a video game from original Final Fantasy creator Hironobu Sakaguchi . During the time XIV was active after the initial release , other composers including Masayoshi Soken , Naoshi Mizuta , Tsuyoshi Sekito and Ryo Yamazaki contributed to the score . Soken acted as the game 's sound director , and would take over as the main composer for its relaunch . The game 's theme song , " Answers " , was composed by Uematsu and sung by Susan Calloway , who was specially chosen by Uematsu after hearing her rendition of previous Final Fantasy theme songs .
Multiple albums featuring music from XIV have been released . Two mini @-@ albums , Final Fantasy XIV : Battle Tracks and Final Fantasy XIV : Field Tracks , were released on September 29 , 2010 . A full album , Final Fantasy XIV - Eorzean Frontiers , was released on September 1 , 2012 as both a single album and three mini @-@ albums . A Blu @-@ ray album featuring all music from the original version of XIV , Before Meteor : Final Fantasy XIV Original Soundtrack , was released on August 14 , 2013 , two weeks prior to its relaunch .
= = Release = =
XIV was first hinted at the 2005 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) when Square Enix announced that they were developing a new MMORPG , showing it off using a tech demo . The demo included aesthetic elements similar to XI , such as races from Vana 'diel . In 2006 , rumors emerged that Square Enix was developing a direct sequel to Final Fantasy XI , but further details remained unknown . During the next few years , contradictory reports were issued as to what platforms the game was being developed for : the platforms listed varied from the game being an Xbox 360 exclusive , to being for PlayStation platforms , to being for Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) and Windows platforms . XIV was officially announced at E3 2009 for PS3 , then for Windows . After its official announcement for those platforms , it was stated that a port to Microsoft hardware was under consideration . Despite negotiation with Microsoft concerning an Xbox 360 version of the game , the two companies were unable to agree upon the use of Xbox Live , as Square Enix wanted a shared server across all platforms and Microsoft would not give them the full access necessary to implement this . Because of this disagreement and the consequent extra manpower needed to develop a version separate from the other two platforms , development on the Xbox 360 version was stopped .
According to Yoichi Wada , then @-@ CEO of Square Enix , XIV was being planned as a serious rival to successful western MMORPG World of Warcraft . The game was developed primarily for Windows , and was then ported across to PS3 . XIV was originally scheduled for simultaneous release on Windows and PS3 in 2010 , but the PS3 version was delayed into 2011 . This was explained as due to it taking longer than expected to make the adjustments needed so the game could fit within the console 's limited memory . The game did not use the PlayOnline service used for XI . This was explained as being due to the marked decrease of content on the service . Instead , they would migrate to a new service that still allowed cross @-@ platform gameplay , including the use of a universal Square Enix ID that would allow players to play from wherever they left off . In October 2009 , the game 's Beta release was announced as being only for Windows . First print runs of the PS3 version of Final Fantasy XIII contained a bonus code for the PS3 version of XIV for a special in @-@ game item .
Due to earlier recurring issues with mistranslations related to news updates , the team decided not to implement forums in the original release , instead hearing player feedback through fan sites and unofficial forums . Also because of mistranslation fears , dedicated teams in each of the game 's release regions would gather feedback and transmit it to the development team . The game 's first closed Alpha test began on March 11 , 2010 . It was available only to veteran players from XI . During alpha testing , the team used player feedback to find out key problems with the game , such as limitations on graphical adjustments making the game run at a slow frame rate . The open Beta test was originally scheduled to begin on August 31 , but was indefinitely postponed due to the discovery of critical bugs in the game . The Beta test eventually went live on September 2 , running until the game 's release later that month . It was later stated that more time should have been given to fixing bugs during the Beta period . The game released on September 30 , 2010 , six months prior to the PS3 version 's projected release date of March 2011 . A Collector 's Edition was released on September 22 , allowing owners to log in to the game from that date . The Collector 's Edition , which was decorated by artwork from Amano and Yoshida , came with bonus items including a DVD featuring a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary , a security token , a case for the game 's box , and a decorated tumbler . The game was released with text in Japanese , English , French and German , while the spoken dialogue in cutscenes was English in all versions .
= = Reception = =
During its debut week in Japan , the Collector 's Edition reached # 2 in the PC games charts behind Civilization 5 and ahead of StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty . In the UK charts , the game debuted at # 10 behind multiple other games including F1 2010 ( # 1 ) , Halo : Reach ( # 2 ) , Civilization 5 ( # 4 ) and Prince of Persia : The Forgotten Sands ( # 7 ) . By November 2010 , the game had sold 603 @,@ 000 copies worldwide .
The game received generally negative reviews at release , garnering scores of 50 % and 49 / 100 by aggregate sites GameRankings and Metacritic respectively . Computer and Video Games said " Eorzea is a beautiful world with huge potential for vast adventures , but it 's just a shame that this first voyage into it is such a mis @-@ step " . 1UP.com said that " playing [ Final Fantasy XIV ] is like playing with a toy stuck in a plastic bag : it can be fun for a while and you can get the general idea , but you can 't appreciate the full experience " , stating that future updates would likely rectify this issue . IGN said that " Much of the promise of the combat system and depth of the crafting mechanics are drowned , unfortunately , under a sea of interface and performance issues that hinder the experience at nearly every step " , further stating that while patches might improve the experience , its state at the time of the review made it " not a world worth visiting " . GameSpot , in addition to warning players away from the game , said that " Final Fantasy XIV is a notable entry to the genre but only for what it lacks " .
GameTrailers was particularly critical , saying that it had been " released before it was finished " , calling it " [ a ] broken , incomplete mess " . PC Gamer called the game " a shallow , slow , grind @-@ heavy MMO crippled by a horrible interface and nonsensical player limitations " . GameSpy was again highly critical , saying that " barring a complete overhaul of the user interface , the combat , the player interaction mechanics , the progress system , and of the layout of the world itself , [ Final Fantasy XIV ] is unlikely to ever be fun . " Eurogamer said that while the game would appeal to some players , they advised them to " wait another six months before even thinking about Final Fantasy XIV , because Square Enix hasn 't yet got its head around its own players " .
Critics agreed that the game 's graphics were good , enjoyed Uematsu 's score , and several praised the concepts behind the Job and leveling systems . Alongside this , unanimous criticism was laid against the gameplay pace , its convoluted interface , bugs and glitches , and the slow pace of the story . It was generally seen as a great disappointment both as an MMORPG and a mainline entry in the Final Fantasy series . Later , as part of an interview concerning the game 's later development , 1UP.com commented that subsequent patches and overhauls had turned the game into something more playable .
= = Post @-@ release = =
The release of the game sparked immediate player backlash in addition to its negative critical reception . Some of the controversy was produced by the use of gameplay features unusual for the genre . The main complaint by players was the user interface , followed by problems with the performance and aspects of gameplay . The initial 30 @-@ day free trial was extended twice in order to allow players to experience the new development team 's updates before committing to the game . In December 2010 , it was announced that Tanaka and Komoto had been removed from their posts as producer and director , with Tanaka taking full responsibility for the game 's problems . The PS3 version was indefinitely delayed from its original March 2011 release date , with Square Enix saying that it would not release the game for that platform until it fully met the quality standards suitable for the Final Fantasy series . Subscriptions for the Windows version were also suspended indefinitely .
The position of producer and director was taken over by Naoki Yoshida , a staff member at Square Enix who had previously worked on the Dragon Quest series . Amongst these were other staff changes : Komoto was reassigned to become lead game designer , Akihiko Yoshida became lead scenario concept artist , Hiroshi Takai was appointed as lead artist , and Akihiko Matsui became lead combat system designer . Yoshida 's main priority was to make the game a playable experience after the poor launch and subsequent reaction . Through subsequent patches to the game , multiple graphical and gameplay improvements were made : among the most notable were the addition of a job system , personal chocobos , a revamped battle system , greater customization options for gear , and multiple new dungeons and bosses . Yoshida also introduced the official Final Fantasy XIV forums in order to obtain player feedback and suggestions , and stated that interacting with and growing closer to the community would be a high priority . During this period , XIV and XI were taken offline to help with energy conservation in the aftermath of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . They went back online one week later as other means were found to reduce their energy usage that did not involve their online services . Due to the earthquake , a planned and partially @-@ developed boss battle with the Primal Titan was cut and replaced by another Primal : the team felt that players might be offended by the Primal and associate beastribe 's links with the power of earth in this context .
The team could not fully mend the game in its existing form as its engine and server structure were already critically flawed . This meant that , in order to save XIV , the entire game needed to be rebuilt from the ground up . The decision to launch a new version as a reboot instead of a whole new title was driven by the need to regain player trust , which was felt would not be done by just scrapping XIV . The original story planned for XIV was changed to build up towards the end of the original game 's life , with new boss battles being introduced leading up to the final storyline . The " Seventh Umbral Era " storyline was used as a story @-@ based reason for the radical changes coming to the game and its landscape . In the run @-@ up to this , reduced subscription fees were reintroduced with special bonuses included for the eventual reboot of the game , and major server merges were carried out to ease the transition between versions of the game , a move which initially provoked a negative reaction for players . The final revision of the game was put out on November 1 , 2012 . After a final in @-@ game battle where all XIV players were invited , the servers were closed down on November 11 .
= = Legacy = =
The flawed release and poor reception of the game had a heavy impact on Square Enix : citing XIV among other reasons , the company reduced its projected income for the year by 90 % . At the 2011 Tokyo Game Show , Wada issued an official apology for the quality of the game , saying that " the Final Fantasy brand [ had ] been greatly damaged " . The company and development team eventually decided to scrap the current version of XIV , rebuilding it from the ground up . This rebooted version , initially titled Final Fantasy XIV 2 @.@ 0 , began development in April 2011 . The rebooted version was released in 2013 as Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn , and has been positively received by critics and players . Yoshida , commenting in a later interview , stated that A Realm Reborn was just the first part of regaining player trust after the release of XIV , predicting that the process would take a long time .
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= Simpsons Bible Stories =
" Simpsons Bible Stories " is the eighteenth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on Easter Sunday , April 4 , 1999 . It is the first of The Simpsons ' now annual trilogy episodes , and consists of four self @-@ contained segments . In the episode , the Simpson family fall asleep during a sermon in church . Marge dreams that she and Homer are Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden , Lisa dreams that she and her fellow Springfield Elementary School students are Hebrew slaves in Ancient Egypt and guides Moses to lead them to freedom , Homer dreams that he is King Solomon called to resolve a dispute between Lenny and Carl over the ownership of a pie , and Bart dreams he is King David , who has to fight Goliath 's son , Goliath II .
" Simpsons Bible Stories " was written by Matt Selman , Larry Doyle and Tim Long , and was the first episode Nancy Kruse directed for The Simpsons . While executive producer and former showrunner Mike Scully stated that the idea for the episode came after Fox requested an Easter @-@ themed episode , co @-@ writer Selman argued that it was conceived by former staff writers Dan Greaney and Donick Cary while they were pitching ideas for the tenth season . Because the episode mostly takes place outside Springfield , the animators had to design completely new sets . While the episode mostly features references to the Old Testament and Christianity , it also parodies children 's television programs , American politicians and action films by Jerry Bruckheimer .
In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 12 @.@ 2 million viewers , a drop from the previous episode which garnered 15 @.@ 5 million viewers . Following its broadcast , the episode received mixed reviews from critics , but won an Annie award in the category of Best Animated Television Production . In 2007 , the episode was released as part of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set , and a promotional poster for the episode was included in an exhibition in Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art in Tulsa , Oklahoma . The episode 's ending scene is one of series creator Matt Groening 's favorite moments on The Simpsons . The episode has been credited with fostering a critical literacy towards religion and the Bible among its viewers .
= = Plot = =
It is an unseasonably hot Easter at church , and no one is interested in Reverend Lovejoy 's sermons . When the collection plate is passed round , Homer puts in a chocolate Easter bunny that he found in the dumpster , enraging Reverend Lovejoy , calling it a wicked idol , and provoking him to read the Bible from the beginning . The Simpsons all fall asleep .
= = = Marge 's Dream = = =
Marge dreams that she and Homer are Adam and Eve . They peacefully live in the Garden of Eden until a snake ( Snake Jailbird ) tempts Adam into eating dozens of apples from the forbidden tree . He persuades Eve to try one when God ( Ned Flanders ) witnesses his sin . Even though Adam ate many apples , God only caught Eve eating an apple , and she is therefore banished from the Garden of Eden . Adam is unwilling to come clean , but misses Eve and thinks of a way of getting her back in by digging a tunnel with the help of some of the animals . God 's unicorn , named Gary , becomes exhausted from the digging and dies just before God catches Adam trying to smuggle Eve back into the Garden . The death of the unicorn enrages him further , and he expels them both from the Garden of Eden .
= = = Lisa 's Dream = = =
Lisa imagines she and all the other Springfield Elementary students are Hebrews in ancient Egypt , with the Pharaoh ( Principal Skinner ) making them build a pyramid . Only Moses ( Milhouse ) can liberate the Hebrews . When Bart defaces the Pharaoh 's sarcophagus , supposedly incited by the burning bush , he gets the other students punished . Lisa helps Milhouse produce plagues to scare the Pharaoh into freeing the Israelites ; they fail . This in turn gets Lisa and Milhouse thrown in a Pyramid prison . When they escape , Milhouse gathers all the students and they attempt to leave . When they reach the sea , Lisa has an idea to get across : They simultaneously flush all the Egyptians ' toilets to drain the sea . As they cross , the Pharaoh and his guards follow , but the water fills the sea back up and swallows them . They enjoy splashing each other , and then return to the shore . Pleased that they have escaped , Milhouse asks Lisa what the future holds for the Israelites , but Lisa disappoints Milhouse when she says that they have to wander the desert for forty years . Milhouse then asks if it is going to be smooth sailing for the Jews after that . Rather than disappoint Milhouse again with news of the ongoing anti @-@ Semitism that will plague the Jews for many centuries , she distracts the crowd by sending them to search for manna .
= = = Homer 's Dream = = =
Homer pictures himself as King Solomon . Lenny and Carl fight over ownership of a pie . King Solomon cuts it in half , sentences Lenny and Carl to death , and then eats the pie . King Solomon then presides over a civil case between Jesus and Checker Chariot .
= = = Bart 's Dream = = =
Bart sees himself as King David , who kills Goliath , but has not won the war yet : Nelson is Goliath II , Goliath 's son . Goliath II has killed Methuselah ( Grampa ) , David 's oldest friend . In retaliation , David challenges Goliath II , but having no stones to sling at him , David loses and is catapulted from the city . David then meets Ralph , a shepherd , who claims he can kill Goliath II . Ralph dies , which enrages David even more . He then trains to try to slay Goliath . Having to climb up the enormous Tower of Babel beforehand , David manages to kill Goliath by throwing a lit lantern down his throat . Goliath is surprisingly still alive , but is quickly killed by Ralph 's gravestone , hurled by Ralph himself , who also had not died . Much to his shock , David is sent to jail as the townspeople claim that Goliath was the best King they ever had , building roads , libraries and hospitals . The dream ends with a title card that reads " A Bart Simpson Dream " .
= = = Ending sequence = = =
As the family wakes up , they find themselves alone in the church . Upon exiting they realize that the Apocalypse has come ; fire rains from a red sky , and the Four Horsemen ride past . The Flanders ascend into Heaven , but The Simpsons do not ; Lisa begins to ascend , but Homer grabs her ankle and pulls her back down . Instead , the Simpsons descend via a staircase into Hell , where Homer follows the delicious scent of barbecue . The episode ends with Homer screaming in agony ( because there are no hot dogs , there is pineapple in the coleslaw , and German potato salad ) as " Highway to Hell " by AC / DC plays over the credits .
= = Production = =
" Simpsons Bible Stories " was co @-@ written by Matt Selman , Larry Doyle and Tim Long , and was the first episode Nancy Kruse directed for The Simpsons . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on April 4 , 1999 , the day Easter took place that year . According to executive producer and former showrunner Mike Scully , the idea for the episode was conceived when Fox requested an Easter @-@ themed Simpsons episode that would air on the holiday . Normally , Fox would not broadcast any new Simpsons episodes on Easter , as it is considered a " low @-@ ratings night " , but " Simpsons Bible Stories " was an exception . However , according to co @-@ writer Selman , the idea for the episode came about when he and former staff writer Dan Greaney were pitching episode ideas for the tenth season with former staff writer Donick Cary . Cary and Greaney suggested a " bible @-@ trilogy " story , which then became " Simpsons Bible Stories " . " Simpsons Bible Stories " is the first of the trilogy episodes which , since the season 12 episode " Simpsons Tall Tales " , The Simpsons produces once every season .
The first segment was written by Long . According to former staff writer Tom Martin , Long wanted the pig in the garden of Eden to have a " Tony British " accent . The pig was voiced by regular cast member Hank Azaria , who portrays Moe Szyslak among other characters in the series . The unicorn that digs a hole from the garden of Eden was portrayed by Tress MacNeille . The second segment was written by Doyle . The episode 's third segment was written by Selman . When writing segments for trilogy episodes , the writing staff usually follow the stories they are based on , while putting The Simpsons characters in the original characters ' place . With " Simpsons Bible Stories " ' third segment , Selman stated that he wanted to go a " fresh new way " by instead writing a sequel to the story of David and Goliath . According to Scully , Selman had a very clear vision of how he wanted the segment to be , and Selman said that he wanted to make a " dog 's breakfast " of movie clichés at the time .
The song that plays during Bart 's training montage is " Winner Takes It All " by American rock singer Sammy Hagar . Selman decided to include the song after hearing it in the 1987 action drama film Over the Top . According to Doyle , the scene was originally much longer , almost seven minutes in length . The song that plays during the episode 's end credits is " Highway to Hell " by Australian hard rock band AC / DC . According to Scully , the staff could not use the song on The Simpsons at first , since AC / DC 's record company refused to sell it . However , when Scully called the band 's manager directly , it turned out he had not been told about the request . Scully said that when they asked if they could use " Highway to Hell " , the band 's manager " signed on right away " and gave the Simpsons staff a " huge discount . "
Because most of the episode takes place in ancient history , the animators had to create completely new sets and designs for the episode . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Kruse stated that she and staff animator Alex Ruiz had to re @-@ draw a majority of the episode , as the faulty scenes were drawn by six trainees . In order to receive an animator credit on The Simpsons , an animator has to draw ten scenes in an episode . Because the trainees did not draw ten scenes each , none of them were credited for their work on the episode . All the trainees were later hired to The Simpsons animation staff . Kruse stated that , while animating the episode , she was worried that the animation department would be offended by the episode 's content , as many of the crew members were " very religious " . However , as animation ensued , she found that most of the animators were not uncomfortable with the episode , as it mostly parodies the Old Testament . The only complaint she received was from an animator who refused to animate Jesus in the court room scene in Homer 's dream .
In the DVD commentary for the episode , Scully stated that he regretted not submitting " Simpsons Bible Stories " for the Primetime Emmy Award in the category of animated programming less than one hour in 1999 . At the time , Scully reasoned that , because the original stories were not conceived by the writing staff , the episode would not hold up . However , he noted that the episode 's animation was " outstanding " , and that he later found out that the Emmy awards " put a lot of importance on " the animation in submitted episodes . Instead of submitting " Simpsons Bible Stories " for the Emmy awards in 1999 , Scully submitted " Viva Ned Flanders " , which ultimately lost to the King of the Hill episode " And They Call It Bobby Love " .
= = Cultural references = =
" Simpsons Bible Stories " contains several references to the Christian prophets , holy book and the religion as a whole , as well as films based on the Bible . Each segment is based on a biblical story , mostly from the Old Testament . The first segment is based on the story of Adam and Eve , who , according to the Book of Genesis were the first man and woman created by God . Ned Flanders has the role of God , while the serpent that lures Marge into eating an apple from the forbidden tree resembles Snake Jailbird . The Garden of Eden was the place where Adam and Eve lived after they were created by God , according to the Book of Genesis .
The second segment parodies Moses who , according to the Book of Exodus , freed the Israelites from the Egyptian Pharaoh . Milhouse has the role of Moses while Skinner has the role of the Pharaoh . When the Pharaoh asked who vandalized his sarcophagus , the burning bush tells him that Bart did it . When Bart is seized by the Pharaoh 's guards , he exclaims " No , the bush set me up ! " Bart 's line refers to the 1990 arrest of Marion Barry who , while being arrested by the FBI for smoking crack cocaine , exclaimed " No , the bitch set me up ! " In a scene in the segment , Milhouse and Lisa can be seen pouring frogs into Skinner 's tent . The scene refers to the second of ten Biblical plagues that were imposed on Egypt by Yahweh , in chapters 7 @-@ 12 of the Book of Exodus . While they are inside the torture chamber , Milhouse and Lisa walk past an orb . The orb is called " Orb of Isis " and played a big part in the season 9 episode " Lost Our Lisa " . In another scene , Milhouse parts the Red Sea so that his fellow slaves can escape . The execution of the scene is based on the one seen in the 1956 American epic film The Ten Commandments , in which Moses parts the Red Sea . The shot in which Pharaoh and his guards are drowning is also taken from the movie .
In Homer 's dream , Homer has the role of King Solomon who , according to the Books of Kings and Book of Chronicles was a King of Israel , as well as one of the 48 prophets according to the Talmud . Bart 's dream shows Bart as King David and , rather than telling the story of David and Goliath , Bart 's dream is a " sequel " to the story . The segment is inspired by and contains references to several films by Jerry Bruckheimer , including Die Hard and Lethal Weapon , and borrows elements from other action films . At one point in the segment , Bart 's dog Santa 's Little Helper starts talking to him . The dog 's voice is similar to that of Goliath in the Christian stop @-@ motion animated television series Davey and Goliath . Inside the whale skeleton in the episode , Bart finds the remains of Jonah . Jonah was a prophet of the northern kingdom of Israel , according to the Hebrew Bible . Nelson lives in the Tower of Babel which , according to the Book of Genesis , was an enormous tower that the humans built in order to reach heaven . After being defeated by Bart , Nelson reappears while a variation of Modest Mussorgsky 's composition St. John 's Night on the Bare Mountain plays in the background . At the end of the segment , Bart is arrested and Chief Wiggum says " Where 's your messiah now ? " Wiggum 's line was also taken from The Ten Commandments , from a character played by Edward G. Robinson , on whom Wiggum 's voice is based . King David 's ( Bart ) training montage of arm @-@ wrestling with his sheep is a reference to the film Over the Top , complete with Sammy Hagar 's " Winner Takes It All " from the film .
= = Release and reception = =
In its original American broadcast on April 4 , 1999 , " Simpsons Bible Stories " received a 7 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating , translating to approximately 7 @.@ 4 million viewers . The rating is based on the number of household televisions that were tuned into the show , but Nielsen Media Research estimated that 12 @.@ 2 million viewers watched the episode , a considerable drop from the previous episode , which was seen by an estimated 15 @.@ 5 million viewers . David Bianculli of New York Daily News attributed the loss in viewership to the fact that the episode aired on a religious holiday . Nevertheless , it was the week 's second most watched program on the network . Later that year , the episode received an Annie award in the category of Best Animated Television Production , the second year in a row that The Simpsons won the award . On August 7 , 2007 , " Simpsons Bible Stories " was released as part of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Matt Groening , Mike Scully , George Meyer , Tom Martin , Larry Doyle , Matt Selman and Nancy Kruse participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
Following its broadcast , " Simpsons Bible Stories " received mixed reviews from critics . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide wrote that the episode is " A fantastic twist of the Treehouse of Horror style of storytelling , " and added that each segment is a " classic on its own " . They wrote that Wiggum telling Moses and Lisa to give his regards to the British Museum as he seals them inside a tomb and Marge asking Bart if he is wearing clean underwear as they face the apocalypse were some of the episode 's " best moments " , and concluded by writing that the episode is " The Simpsons at its very best : inventive , irreverent and very , very funny . " While DVD Town 's James Plath wrote that the episode 's premise was " risky " , he still enjoyed the episode . Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz of The Star @-@ Ledger described the episode as " hilarious " , however they noted that the episode 's " suggestion that Moses parted the Red Sea by having all the Israelites flush their toilets at once " could result in a backlash from the " religious right " .
On the other hand , giving the episode a negative review , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote that " Simpsons Bible Stories " " proves less successful [ than most Treehouse of Horror episodes ] " . He added that he " just think the brevity required by the inclusion of three separate tales better suits the world of horror spoofs than it does these Bible pieces , " as they " try to pack an awful lot into very little time . " He concluded by writing that , while the episode has " some good moments " , he did not find a lot of entertainment in it . Jake MacNeill of Digital Entertainment News was also critical , and wrote that the episode " fails to be funny " because it " strays too far from the source material " . He added " have you read the bible ? That stuff ’ s funny enough in and of itself . " Aaron Roxby of Collider described " Simpsons Bible Stories " as his least @-@ favorite trilogy episode , and wrote " Considering that , in earlier seasons , the show had some of the most thoughtfully edgy religious humor on television , this one feels surprisingly toothless . " However , he gave praise to the talking pig in the Garden of Eden .
At the end of the episode , the Simpsons walk out of the church and notice that the Apocalypse has begun . While the other family members are left on earth , Lisa at first starts ascending into Heaven , but Homer stops her by grabbing her leg and says " Where do you think you 're going , missy ? " The gag was written by staff writer George Meyer , and is series creator Matt Groening 's favorite joke of the series . While the episode 's ending is one of Groening 's favorites , fans were uneasy with it . Selman stated that the ending " drives them [ the fans ] crazy " , since they do not know whether or not the episode is canonical . In 2007 , Homer 's line " Oh , I smell barbeque ! " was included in Bobby Bryant of The State 's list " 20 Essential Things I 've Learned From Homer Simpson " . The same year , the Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art in Tulsa , Oklahoma , unveiled a new exhibit which galleried Biblical images in art and pop culture , including a promotional poster for " Simpsons Bible Stories " .
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= Crocodiles ( album ) =
Crocodiles is the debut album by the English post @-@ punk band Echo & the Bunnymen . It was released on 18 July 1980 in the United Kingdom and on 17 December 1980 in the United States . The album reached number 17 on the UK Albums Chart . " Pictures on My Wall " and " Rescue " had previously been released as singles .
Recorded at Eden Studios in London and at Rockfield Studios near Monmouth , Crocodiles was produced by Bill Drummond and David Balfe , while Ian Broudie had already produced the single " Rescue " . The music and the cover of the album both reflect imagery of darkness and sorrowfulness . The album received favourable reviews from the music press , receiving four out of five stars by both Rolling Stone and Blender magazines .
= = Background and recording = =
Echo & the Bunnymen formed in 1978 and originally consisted of Ian McCulloch ( lead vocals ) , Will Sergeant ( lead guitar ) , Les Pattinson ( bass ) and a drum machine . They released their debut single , " The Pictures on My Wall " in May 1979 on the independent label Zoo Records . The band then signed with WEA subsidiary label Korova and were persuaded to employ a drummer . Pete de Freitas subsequently joined the band and in early 1980 they recorded their second single " Rescue " . The single was recorded at Eden Studios in London and produced by fellow Liverpudlian and ex @-@ member of Big in Japan Ian Broudie .
A British tour followed in June 1980 before the band went to Rockfield Studios to record their debut album . Despite talk of the American singer Del Shannon being asked to produce the album , it was produced by the band 's manager Bill Drummond and his business partner and The Teardrop Explodes keyboard player David Balfe . The recording of the album only took three weeks , but Pattinson was still surprised by how boring the recording process was : " There was a lot of hanging about . I didn 't get all the ' drop @-@ ins ' and ' edits ' bit . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
The music on Crocodiles is generally dark and moody : In 1980 , the British music magazine NME described McCulloch 's lyrics as a being " scattered with themes of sorrow , horror , and despair , themes that are reinforced by stormy animal / sexual imagery " and American music magazine Creem described Crocodiles as " a moody , mysterious , fascinating record " . In 1981 music journalist David Fricke , writing for Rolling Stone magazine , said , " Instead of dope , McCulloch trips out on his worst fears : isolation , death and emotional bankruptcy . "
In his 2005 book Rip It Up and Start Again : Post Punk 1978 – 1984 , British music journalist Simon Reynolds describes the sound of the album as " pared and sparse " . He goes on to describe Pattinson 's " granite basslines " carrying the melody ; Sergeant 's guitar playing as " jagged @-@ quartz " and avoiding " anything resembling a solo , apart from the odd flinty peal of lead playing " ; de Freitas ' drumming as minimal and " surging urgency " ; and McCulloch 's vocals as having " precocious authority " . Reynolds then describes the songs as being rooted in " doubt , anguish , despair " while the " tightness and brightness of their sound transmits contradictory sensations of confidence , vigour and euphoria . " He also describes how the line " Stars are stars and they shine so hard " – from the track " Stars Are Stars " – showed how the band felt no embarrassment in their wish to be famous . In 1989 McCulloch told Reynolds how , as a teenager , he felt there was " a big movie camera in the sky " . McCulloch described the opening line of the track " Going Up " – " Ain 't thou watching my film " – as a terrible line and he went on to say , " It was meant to be tongue in cheek , but that was what spurred me on . "
= = Cover = =
The photographs used on the cover of the Crocodiles were taken by photographer Brian Griffin . Griffin took a series of pictures of the band in woods near Rickmansworth in Hertfordshire at night and which show themes of introspection , despair and confusion . Describing the picture used on the front cover of the album , music journalist Chris Salewicz said , " [ ... ] the Bunnymen are placed in poses of histrionic despair in a near @-@ neurotically gothic woodland that evokes memories of elfin glades and fabled Arthurian legends . " Creem magazine said , " The cover art suggests four boys dazed and confused in a drugged dream , a surreal where @-@ are @-@ we landscape . The Bunnymen 's images are of loneliness , disconnection , a world gone awry . "
Originally the band wanted the pictures to include burning stakes , however , given the possible KKK connotations , they settled for moody lighting instead . Despite this , McCulloch was pleased with the cover saying " the cover [ ... ] is better to look at than the Mona Lisa " . Sergeant was less happy and said he " was pissed off that there was a solo picture of [ McCulloch ] on the back cover " .
= = Releases = =
The album was originally released as an LP in the United Kingdom on 18 July 1980 by Warner Bros. subsidiary label Korova . Two tracks , " Do It Clean " and " Read It in Books " , were included on the cassette but initially omitted from the LP version of the album because the managing director of Warner Bros. , Rob Dickins , thought that they contained obscenities . Dickins realised his error and the tracks were included on the American version of the album , which was released by Sire Records on 17 December 1980 . The two tracks were included with the UK release as a limited edition single . The album was first released on CD in May 1989 by WEA in the UK . It was released on CD in the US by Sire Records the following year . The track @-@ listings of these versions were the same as the original LP releases for each country .
Crocodiles and Joy Division 's Closer were released on the same date , July 18 , 1980 . Seemingly forever entwined with Joy Division , the Bunnymen were perhaps more contemporaries of Joy Division in likeminded explorations , versus mere followers of a blueprint for melancholic vocals , sparse guitar , and ominous bass lines .
Along with their first five albums , Crocodiles was remastered and reissued on CD in 2003 containing ten bonus tracks on the UK version and eight on the US — these releases were marketed as 25th anniversary editions . The UK version contained the missing tracks " Do It Clean " and " Read It in Books " . The other bonus tracks included " Simple Stuff " which was the B @-@ side to the single " Rescue " ; early versions of " Villiers Terrace " , " Pride " and " Simple Stuff " from the album 's recording sessions ; and the four tracks from the Shine So Hard EP , " Crocodiles " , " Zimbo " , " All That Jazz " and " Over the Wall " . The reissued album was produced by music historian Andy Zax and producer Bill Inglot .
Prior to the album 's release , the tracks " Pictures on My Wall " — as " The Pictures on My Wall " — and " Rescue " had already been released as singles . " The Pictures on My Wall " was released on 5 May 1979 and was the band 's first single . Originally recorded and released prior to de Freitas joining the band , the song was re @-@ recorded for the album with him playing drums . The band 's second single , " Rescue " , was released a year later on 5 May 1980 and became the band 's first song to chart when it reached number 62 on the UK Singles Chart .
Scottish band Idlewild covered the track " Rescue " on their single " These Wooden Ideas " in June 2000 . In late 2001 American singer @-@ songwriter Kelley Stoltz released the album Crockodials , which is a track by track cover version of the original Crocodiles album .
= = Reception = =
Writing for NME in 1980 Chis Salewicz described the album as " being probably the best album this year by a British band " . In his review of the album for Smash Hits , Ian Cranna said that the album was " proof positive that there 's just no substitute for a good song delivered with power and emotion " . Cranna added , " [ The Band ] deliver attractive melodies with dark and moody ( but not obscure ) personal lyrics , all turned into compulsive listening by a driving beat , ringing guitars and a hauntingly emotional voice . " Reviewing the album in 1981 for Rolling Stone magazine , David Fricke awarded it four out of five stars and said when describing McCulloch 's vocals , " [ He ] specializes in a sort of apocalyptic brooding , combining Jim Morrison @-@ style psychosexual yells , a flair for David Bowie @-@ like vocal inflections and the nihilistic bark of his punk peers into a disturbing portrait of the singer as a young neurotic " . He went on to say , " Behind him , gripping music swells into Doors @-@ style dirges ( ' Pictures on My Wall ' ) , PiL @-@ like guitar dynamics ( ' Monkeys ' ) , spookily evocative pop ( ' Rescue ' ) and Yardbirds @-@ cum @-@ Elevators ravers jacked up in the New Wave manner ( ' Do It Clean , ' ' Crocodiles ' ) " . Reviewing the 2003 remastered version for American music magazine Blender 's website , reviewer Andrew Harrison also gave the album four out of five stars and said , " [ ... ] the Bunnymen were a pure nihilistic thrill , with Will Sergeant 's desperate , mantra @-@ like guitar summoning up a primal night of blinking hallucinations . "
Following its release , Crocodiles reached a peak of number 17 on the UK Albums Chart in July 1980 . The album has since sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies and the band was awarded with a gold disc for the album on 5 December 1984 by the British Phonographic Industry . In 1993 , the NME listed Crocodiles at number 28 in its list of the 50 greatest albums of the 1980s . In 2006 , Uncut magazine also listed the album at number 69 on its list of the 100 greatest debut albums .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Will Sergeant , Ian McCulloch , Les Pattinson and Pete de Freitas except where noted .
= = = 2003 bonus tracks = = =
" Do It Clean " [ A ] – 2 : 44
" Read It in Books " [ A ] ( McCulloch , Cope ) – 2 : 31
" Simple Stuff " – 2 : 38
" Villiers Terrace " ( early version ) – 3 : 08
" Pride " ( early version ) – 2 : 54
" Simple Stuff " ( early version ) – 2 : 37
" Crocodiles " [ B ] ( live ) – 5 : 09
" Zimbo " [ B ] ( live ) – 3 : 36
" All That Jazz " [ B ] ( live ) – 2 : 53
" Over the Wall " [ B ] ( live ) – 5 : 28
= = Personnel = =
Ian McCulloch – vocals , guitar , piano
Will Sergeant – lead guitar
Les Pattinson – bass
Pete de Freitas – drums
Bill Drummond [ C ] – producer ( original album and Shine So Hard tracks )
David Balfe [ C ] – producer ( original album ) , keyboards
Ian Broudie – producer ( " Pride " and " Rescue " )
The Bunnymen – producer ( " Simple Stuff " )
Pat Moran – producer ( early versions )
Hugh Jones – producer ( Shine So Hard tracks ) , engineer ( original album )
Andy Zax – reissue producer
Bill Inglot – reissue producer , remastering
Rod Houison – engineer ( " Pride " and " Rescue " )
Gary Edwards – engineer ( early versions )
Dan Hersch – remastering
Brian Griffin – cover photography
Bill Butt – insert photography
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= 1906 Mississippi hurricane =
The 1906 Mississippi hurricane was a deadly and destructive hurricane during the 1906 Atlantic hurricane season . The fourth hurricane of the season , the system was originally observed in the western Caribbean on September 22 ; however , modern research revealed that the system became a tropical depression on September 19 . The system slowly intensified , eventually becoming a major hurricane by September 24 . The system made landfall near Pascagoula , Mississippi , during the evening of September 27 , devastating the cities of Pensacola and Mobile and the state of Mississippi . Damage totaled to at least $ 19 @,@ 221 @,@ 000 , and more than 134 people were killed .
= = Meteorological history = =
The first documented information on the storm places it in the western Caribbean Sea on September 22 , although modern reanalysis of this storm as a tropical depression on September 19 . The storm drifted north from the Yucatán Channel on September 24 , while it was a weak hurricane with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The hurricane was south @-@ southwest of Havana by morning , and as it drifted north @-@ northwestward during the evening hours of September 24 , the system intensified into a Category 2 hurricane .
The hurricane was documented to have been about 300 miles ( 480 km ) west @-@ northwest of Cuba on September 25 . Near this area , the hurricane had intensified further into a Category 3 hurricane , with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . The system finished its passage into the Gulf of Mexico by September 27 . During the afternoon , the hurricane made landfall near Pascagoula , Mississippi , as a Category 2 hurricane . The hurricane moved inland , weakening to a Category 1 hurricane and eventually to a tropical storm . The storm weakened to a tropical depression , and dissipated on September 29 as it transitioned into an extratropical storm .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Florida = = =
The city of Pensacola suffered the most severe damage caused by the storm . Several tugboats , vessels , fishing boats , and other watercraft were tossed along the shore of the city . Large numbers of trees were uprooted and the roofs of houses were torn off . At its highest , the storm surge of the hurricane was 8 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) above the normal tide , the highest recorded in the city at the time . The city 's waterfront was completely flooded , along with some houses near the waterfront . Muscogee wharf was partially destroyed , broken into two pieces . On either side of the wharf , railroad tracks had been washed away . A total of 39 freight cars carrying coal were also washed away . In addition , the grain elevator of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad was destroyed during the hurricane . A timber boom was demolished during the hurricane , leaving wood and debris on the beach .
Along Intendencia Street , several cottages were flooded ; in some areas , the floodwaters were 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) deep . The southern end of West Main Street was completely inundated and was swept away . There was devastation between Barcelona and Perdido streets , with several boats wrecked . Between Palafox Street and Wright Street , many houses ' roofs were torn away . Rail service in and out of Pensacola was severely affected ; one train arrived several hours later than scheduled , and it was said that it had to stop " every few yards " in order to remove trees and debris covering the track . Between Magnolia Bluff and Milton , the track was destroyed and the Escambia Bridge was partially demolished . The fishing industry of Pensacola was estimated to have suffered at least $ 500 @,@ 000 in damage . Many wharfs had been completely destroyed during the hurricane . Electricity was shut off during the hurricane .
Fort Barrancas , Fort Pickens , and Fort McRee suffered severe damage . At Forts Pickens and Barrancas , damage was estimated to be around $ 10 @,@ 000 . In the Bayou Grande area of Pensacola , the tide was estimated to be about 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) above normal . At the intersection of Cedar and Baylen streets , oyster boats , steam tugs , wood , and other debris were scattered . A boat identified as the Wolverine was tossed into a lot near the corner . Trees and chimneys were blown down , and a tin roof was peeled off a house as a result of strong winds . On the 26th port , one bark was completely destroyed , while another eleven were tossed around . A schooner that sank during the hurricane was tipped over . At the 38th port , 29 schooners were thrown ashore , and another sixteen were completely destroyed . Only eight of the 36 lumber barges floated , while three of eight tugs were floating , and of those three of them were wrecked . Other debris was scattered around the city , including pieces of shattered glass . A fire occurred at a hotel in Pensacola .
At the navy yard of Pensacola , all but three boats — the Isle de Luzon and two " water boats " — were either sunk or thrown ashore . A steel dock owned by Spain was untouched , but areas surrounding it were littered with debris . In the towns of Wosley and Warrington , waterfronts were severely damaged and some houses washed away . At Pensacola Bay , the tide was 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high ; at East Bay , the tide was measured at 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) ; at St. Andrews Bay , the tide was 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) high ; and at Apalachicola Bay , the tide was 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) high . The damage caused in the city totaled to at least $ 2 @,@ 620 @,@ 000 , while the damage within the vicinity of the city amounted to more than $ 1 @,@ 230 @,@ 000 . The total damage caused within Pensacola and the surrounding areas totaled to greater than $ 3 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 . The hurricane was considered the worst in the city in 170 years . However , there was widespread praise by residents and newspapers for the Weather Bureau for tracking the hurricane and issuing storm warnings three days before the storm made landfall . A total of 35 people were killed in Pensacola .
= = = Louisiana = = =
In New Orleans , observations at the backwater of the Mississippi River indicated a storm surge of about 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in height on the morning of September 27 . The highest sustained winds recorded during the storm in New Orleans were measured at 49 mph ( 79 km / h ) , while the minimum pressure recorded was 987 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 15 inHg ) . In the town of Burrwood , a wharf was impacted by the hurricane 's storm surge . In addition , local crops and railroads suffered severe damage . Lake Pontchartrain overflowed during the hurricane , with its waters 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above normal levels , flooding New Orleans . Telegraph wires were down in New Orleans after the hurricane , resulting in the loss of contact with the city . Chimneys were blown down in the city ; and a resort along Lake Pontchartrain was underwater , and many houses were swept away near the hotel . Telephone service in New Orleans went down during the hurricane . It was reported that Fort St. Philip was flooded by boaters along the Mississippi River . The hurricane set a new 24 @-@ hour @-@ record for rainfall at Colliston , where rainfall amounted to 4 @.@ 55 inches ( 11 @.@ 6 cm ) accumulated during the hurricane .
= = = Alabama = = =
The lowest air pressure recorded in Mobile was 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 84 inHg ) . At the highest point , the tide was measured at 9 @.@ 87 feet ( 3 @.@ 01 m ) , while the maximum sustained wind during the hurricane reached 94 mph ( 151 km / h ) . About twenty small buildings and houses were destroyed by the hurricane 's winds . Most of the buildings in the city were either slightly or moderately damaged . Some shingles and roofs were blown off , while telegraph wires were down , along with other services that required electricity . In the Mobile River and Bay , a total of eleven steamships , seventeen barks and schooners , and 12 tugboats , had either been sunk or blown ashore . About 6 @.@ 4 inches ( 16 cm ) of rain was measured during the hurricane . In the areas surrounding Mobile , approximately half of all timber to be converted into turpentine was destroyed , and between 5 and 35 percent of other wood had been destroyed . The hurricane caused at least $ 1 @,@ 650 @,@ 000 in damage throughout Mobile . Telegraph wires were cut off from Mobile after the hurricane , resulting in the loss of communication with the city . It was estimated that five thousand houses were damaged in Mobile during the hurricane . The steamer Camp Carney was thrown onto St. Francis Street . Between Franscati Street and Three Mile Creek , all wharves were destroyed .
At the Christ Church Cathedral in Mobile , about $ 40 @,@ 000 in damage was suffered , while at the St. Francis Baptist Church , damage totaled to about $ 10 @,@ 000 . Several steamers sank during the storm , including the J. P. Sehuh , Mary E. Staples , Mary S. Blees , Cama , Overton , Hattie B. Moore , City of Camden , and numerous others . One child was killed in Mobile . At Fort Morgan , many trees fell , roofs caved in , and windows were " smashed as though of tissue paper " . Telegraph buildings in the city were flooded and moderately damaged . Five hotels suffered damage totaling to $ 21 @,@ 000 , while the Southern Supply Company , which was headquartered in the city , suffered $ 100 @,@ 000 in damage . The fort 's port suffered about $ 100 @,@ 000 in damages . Six civilians were killed at the fort . Between Flomaton and Pensacola , railroad tracks of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad were torn up and blocked by trees . The section of railroad tracks between Georgian and Graceville was affected by similar damage . The railroad cancelled all services following the hurricane .
= = = Mississippi = = =
In Scranton , the steamer Winona reported a minimum air pressure of 965 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 50 inHg ) . Lieutenant B.L. Brockway speculated that Scranton was near the center of the hurricane at the time , due to the low pressure readings . At Biloxi , Moss Point , and Mississippi City , communications were not received . However , Moss Point reported that floodwaters were 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep before communications were lost . In Macon , a hotel had been demolished during the hurricane , resulting in the deaths of two people . Jackson and Brookhaven suffered a loss of at least 300 @,@ 000 cotton bales , amounting to $ 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in damage . In Vicksburg and McComb , many buildings were damaged , along with damage to shipping in Vicksburg , with a broken dock . The railroads and trees of Monticello suffered moderate damage : the railroad tracks were covered in trees , and service was suspended east of the town . In Hattiesburg , many cabins were blown down during the storm . Damage in Hattiesburg amounted to $ 300 @,@ 000 . In McNeil , one person was killed by a tree that was blown down .
At the Horn Island lighthouse , the lighthouse keeper was killed along with his wife and daughter due to the hurricane . In addition to the death of the three at the lighthouse , it was noted that the schooner Daisy had been dismantled there , with one person killed . A person who was climbing a small tree was thrown away by the wind and drowned . Several people were trapped in their homes after a creek topped its banks . A warehouse and four other buildings were destroyed , while a bank 's roof was blown off . A train near Brookhaven was washed away along the tracks of the Mississippi Central Railroad , resulting in the injury of five people . 25 schooners along the Mississippi coastline were completely destroyed . Two barks , the Nurnberg and Hercules were destroyed during the hurricane . Mandeline , owned by Norway , was filled with water , while Sigrav suffered severe damage , completely torn apart . A boat known as the Florine was washed ashore . A total of 78 fatalities occurred .
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= Mona Simpson ( The Simpsons ) =
Mona J. Simpson is a recurring fictional character in the animated television series The Simpsons . She has been voiced by several actresses , including Maggie Roswell , Tress MacNeille , Pamela Hayden , and most prominently , Glenn Close . Glenn Close 's performances as Mona have been well received by critics and she was named one of the top 25 guest stars on the show by IGN .
Mona was the estranged wife of Abe Simpson and the mother of Homer Simpson . In the episode " Mother Simpson " where she was introduced , it was established that Homer believed that his mother was dead , a lie his father Abe told him when in reality she was on the run from the law after she sabotaged Mr Burns ' germ warfare laboratory . Mona first appeared in the second season in a flashback in " Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? " . She returned in the seventh season for her first main appearance in " Mother Simpson " and also had a large role in " My Mother the Carjacker " . The character appeared again in Season 19 's " Mona Leaves @-@ a " , but died during the episode . An Inception @-@ inspired dream version of her appears in Season 23 's " How I Wet Your Mother " . In the episode " Let 's Go Fly a Coot " , she is revealed to have met Abe when she was a waitress in a cantina bar and he broke the sound barrier to impress her .
The character is named after writer Richard Appel 's ex @-@ wife , the American author Mona Simpson . The inspiration for the character is Bernardine Dohrn of the Weather Underground .
= = Biography = =
Many of the details of Mona 's life are unknown , but various pieces of her story have been revealed . Mona was first mentioned in season one and made two brief flashback appearances , but her first major appearance was in " Mother Simpson " . In the episode , it is revealed that in the 1960s , Mona was a homemaker who lived with her husband Abraham Simpson and Homer , who at the time was a child . She became caught up in the hippie movement after her beliefs were ignited by seeing Joe Namath 's long hair during Super Bowl III .
Mona soon after became a political activist and , at one event , Mona and a group of other activists protesting germ research entered Montgomery Burns 's laboratory and destroyed all the biological warfare experiments . As the gang escaped , she stayed behind to help a fallen Burns , who in turn , swore to have her thrown in jail for the rest of her life . Since that night , Mona was forced to leave her family . Abe lied and said Mona had died while Homer was at the movies , in order to spare him of the trauma that his mother was a wanted criminal . For 27 years , Homer presumed that his mother was dead . He was accidentally reunited with Mona in " Mother Simpson " after he faked his own death to get a day off from work and Mona visited his supposed grave site . Overjoyed at their reunion , he brings Mona home to meet his family . At first , Mona does not reveal her whereabouts and spends time catching up with her family , but is forced to reveal her past . She later travels to the post office with Homer , where Mr. Burns recognizes her face and tracks her down with FBI assistance . However , a tip @-@ off to Homer from Chief Wiggum allows Mona to escape . Wiggum is grateful to Mona because his asthma was cured by the " antibiotic bomb " her group detonated during their lab infiltration , thereby allowing him to join the police force . Forced to go on the run again , Mona tells Homer she loves him and escapes to the underground .
In " D 'oh @-@ in in the Wind " , it is revealed that at some point , Mona spent time at a commune with two hippies , Seth and Munchie , after life with Abraham became unbearable . It is also strongly implied that she was unfaithful to Abraham . In the episode " Homer 's Paternity Coot " , a long lost letter reveals that Mona had an affair with life guard Mason Fairbanks , leading Homer to falsely believe that he might in fact be his real father .
In " My Mother the Carjacker " , Homer discovers a secret message left for him in a newspaper that tells him to go to a location . There Homer finds Mona , who explains she had to return after she saw a macaroni pencil holder Homer made for her when he was five . She is captured by police and put on trial for the crime she committed . Due to Homer 's heartfelt testimony she is acquitted . Mr. Burns is angered by this and has her imprisoned for the minor charge of signing into a national park under a false name . As she is being transported to jail , Homer attempts to break her free from the prison bus , but the chase ends in what appears to be her death when the bus drives off a cliff and lands in the water , where it explodes and sets off a rock avalanche which buries it . In truth , she narrowly escaped before the bus went off the cliff , and is still on the run .
Mona returns in " Mona Leaves @-@ a " to try to make up for lost time with Homer , but he angrily refuses , saying that she will just abandon him again . Homer feels guilty about being angry with her and tries to make up only to learn she has died . She is cremated and , according to her will , Homer is supposed to throw her ashes on a mountain , where they disrupt a missile guidance system which would have devastated the Amazon Rainforest , once again plotted by Burns . Although disappointed that the last thing his mother asked him to do was " another hippie protest " , Homer successfully stops the launch .
Mona briefly returned in " How I Wet Your Mother " , where she rescues the family in a dream of Homer 's , saying that she lives on in his dreams . It is revealed in this episode that a couple of weeks before she left Homer as a child , Homer and Grampa went on a fishing trip that was unsuccessful as the boat capsized . Homer would later feel guilt , believing that the incident prompted Mona to leave him and his father . Mona solves Homer 's problem by telling him that the fishing trip never played a role in her leaving .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
Mona Simpson is first mentioned in season one 's " There 's No Disgrace Like Home " , where Homer recalls his mother telling him that he 's a " big disappointment " . She later made two brief flashback appearances , the first being season two 's " Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? " and the second being season six 's " Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy " , and in both cases she was voiced by Maggie Roswell .
Mona 's first major appearance was in the seventh season episode " Mother Simpson " . The episode was pitched by Richard Appel , who had been desperately trying to think of a story idea and decided to do something about Homer 's mother .
Many of the writers were surprised that an episode about Homer 's mother had not previously been produced . The writers used the episode as an opportunity to solve several puzzles about the show , such as where Lisa 's intelligence came from .
The character is named after Richard Appel 's wife , who is the novelist Mona Simpson . The inspiration for the character comes from Bernardine Dohrn of the Weather Underground , although the writers acknowledge that several people fit her description . Her crime was intentionally the least violent crime the writers could think of , as she did not harm anyone and was only caught because she came back to help Mr. Burns .
Mona Simpson was drawn in a way so that she has a little bit of Homer in her face , such as the shape of her upper lip and her nose . There were several design changes because the directors were trying to make her an attractive older and younger woman , but still be " Simpson @-@ esque " .
= = = Voice = = =
Glenn Close was convinced to voice the character in " Mother Simpson " partially because of James L. Brooks . She was directed in her first performance by Josh Weinstein . When Mona gets in the van , her voice is done by Pamela Hayden because Glenn Close could not say " d 'oh ! " properly and thus they used the original temp track recorded by Hayden .
Glenn Close recorded original material for two other episodes : season 15 's " My Mother the Carjacker " and season 19 's " Mona Leaves @-@ a " . A deleted scene featuring Mona from " Mother Simpson " appears in season seven 's " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " . The character also has a speaking appearance in season ten 's " D 'oh @-@ in in the Wind " , this time voiced by Tress MacNeille .
= = Reception = =
Glenn Close has been well @-@ received as the voice of Mona . IGN.com ranked Close as the 25th best guest star in the show 's history for her first two performances as Mona . In 2007 , Entertainment Weekly called Close one of " fourteen guest stars whose standout performances on TV make us wish they 'd turn up in a Simpsons Movie 2 " . In 2008 , Entertainment Weekly also named Close one of the 16 best Simpsons guest stars . The Phoenix.com placed Close in the second position on their list of the best 20 Simpsons guest stars . Star News Online listed Close as one of the four hundred reasons why they love The Simpsons . Close appeared on AOL 's list of their favorite 25 Simpsons guest stars . Robert Canning of IGN wrote that Close " gave us the sweet voice of Mona Simpson . She 's a perfect fit , able to convey a loving , motherly tone , while still convincing the audience she 's a headstrong hippie activist . "
" Mother Simpson " is one of Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein 's favorite episodes as they feel it is a perfect combination of real emotion , good jokes and an interesting story and they have expressed regret about not submitting it for the Emmy Award in the Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming less than One Hour ) category . " My Mother the Carjacker " received a Writers Guild of America Award nomination in 2004 in the animation category . " Mona Leaves @-@ a " received mixed reviews from critics . Robert Canning described it as " clunky and forced and wasn 't all that funny " but still gave it a 7 / 10 . Richard Keller called it a decent episode , but despised Mona 's brief appearance .
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= Ontario Highway 55 =
King 's Highway 55 , commonly referred to as Highway 55 and historically as the Niagara Stone Road and Black Swamp Road , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario , which connected the Queen Elizabeth Way ( QEW ) with Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake , following Niagara Stone Road . The route divided a swath of wineries at the foot of the Niagara Escarpment , passing at an oblique angle to the concession road grid .
A former Highway 55 designation connected Highway 6 with Highway 53 , passing through the Mountain district of Hamilton . The more recent designation was applied in 1970 , following the establishment of the Regional Municipality of Niagara . On April 1 , 1997 , Highway 55 was transferred to Niagara and designated as Niagara Regional Road 55 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 55 began at an intersection with the old Iroquois Trail , now known as Queenston Street to the west and York Road to the east . This road was part of Highway 8 until 1970 , when it was transferred to Niagara Region and redesignated Niagara Regional Road 81 . The roadway that carried Highway 55 continued south of this intersection as Taylor Road ( Niagara Regional Road 70 ) . Continuing north , the highway passed beneath the QEW , which ascends over the Welland Canal on the Garden City Skyway . The highway entered Homer , then curved northeast and entered farmland . From here to its northern terminus , the highway was completely straight . It passed south of the St. Catharines / Niagara District Airport and later intersected Niagara Regional Road 106 .
Highway 55 passed through the small town of Virgil , which is centred on the Four Mile Creek . It intersected Four Mile Creek Road ( Niagara Regional Road 100 ) in the centre of the town , then entered back into an agricultural area . Shortly thereafter , the highway entered the urban area of Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake , where it ended at Mary Street ( Niagara Regional Road 87 ) .
Several wineries are established along the former route of Highway 55 , most notably the Jackson @-@ Triggs Estate .
= = History = =
A former Highway 55 designation connected Highway 6 and the QEW with Highway 53 , passing through the Mountain district of Hamilton ; this route was decommissioned in 1961 . The more recent designation was applied in late 1970 , following the establishment of Niagara Region .
During the initial settlement period of the Niagara area , following the American Revolutionary War , new wagon routes were built over native footpaths . Grimsby and Newark ( now Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake ) quickly became established settlements , but travel was cumbersome between them . Pioneers were forced to travel south along the Niagara Road to Queenston , where they turned west and followed the Iroquois Road . To remedy the situation , locals gathered in 1798 and constructed the Black Swamp Road to connect Newark with the Iroquois Road near its crossing of Ten Mile Creek ( now the location of the Welland Canal ) . The route , often subject to flooding from the waterlogged soil which it travelled over , was gradually improved , especially during the 1830s . In the late 1840s the Niagara and Ten Mile Creek Plank Road Company planked the length of the road . During the latter half of the 1800s , the road was macadamized , and gradually came to be known as the Niagara Stone Road as the surrounding swampland was drained and farmed .
The original incarnation of Highway 55 travelled through Hamilton . It was established in 1937 , following Upper Gage Avenue north from Rymal Road ( itself designated Highway 53 that same year ) to Crockett Avenue and the Sherman Access . It turned west and followed the access down the Niagara Escarpment , ending at Highway 6 ( John Street ) . The route of this highway changed several times through the late 1950s as the Burlington Skyway was constructed . By 1959 , a route down the new Kenilworth Access , north along Kenilworth Avenue and along what is now Burlington Street to the QEW was designated as Highway 55 ; both routes existed simultaneously between 1957 and 1958 . By 1961 , this route had been decommissioned .
The recent incarnation of Highway 55 was established following the release of the Niagara Peninsula Planning Study in 1964 , which recommended that the province take jurisdiction of the Niagara Stone Road ( then designated Lincoln County Road 3 ) . It was subsequently assumed on November 5 , 1970 , the same year the Regional Municipality of Niagara was formed . The route followed the entire length of the Niagara Stone Road from Homer to Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake and remained unchanged over its 27 years of existence . Highway 55 was transferred to the Regional Municipality of Niagara on April 1 , 1997 , as part of the first round of mass downloading . It is now designated as Niagara Regional Road 55 . The majority of the former route is named the Niagara Stone Road ; within Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake it is named Mississauga Street .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 55 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route was located in the Regional Municipality of Niagara .
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= Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits =
Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits is the first greatest hits album by American recording artist Christina Aguilera . Released on November 6 , 2008 by RCA Records , the compilation contains Aguilera 's hits from all of her studio albums released up to 2008 . It also featured four new additions : two remakes of her previous singles — " Genie in a Bottle " ( 1999 ) and " Beautiful " ( 2002 ) , and two original songs , " Keeps Gettin ' Better " and " Dynamite " . The compilation was released exclusively through Target retailer in the United States .
Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits was reviewed favorably by music critics , who praised her musical career over her first decade entering the music industry . The compilation debuted at number nine on the US Billboard 200 and has sold over 530 @,@ 000 copies in the US . Additionally , it entered the top ten record charts of multiple countries and achieved several certifications . Its only single " Keeps Gettin ' Better " debuted within the top ten of the US Billboard Hot 100 . To promote the album , Aguilera performed at the American Music Awards of 2008 and the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards .
= = Background and content = =
In September 2008 , it was announced that Aguilera would release a greatest hits album titled Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits , whose distribution rights in the United States belonged to Target retailer via her record label RCA Records . On the compilation 's title , Aguilera said : " I 'm looking forward to the next 10 years , which is partly why I named the album , Keeps Gettin ' Better , ' cause it does " . People who pre @-@ ordered the compilation would receive a free digital download version of the single " Keeps Gettin ' Better " . During an interview with the Los Angeles Times , Aguilera explained that Target " got such a great creative team " , and that 's why she worked with the retailer for the album . Released in November 2008 , Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits features all of Aguilera 's hits from her previous studio albums released up to 2008 and four new songs produced by Linda Perry . Two of which are remakes of her previous singles , " Genie 2 @.@ 0 " ( " Genie in a Bottle " ) , and " You Are What You Are ( Beautiful ) " ( " Beautiful " ) . The other new songs were " Keeps Gettin ' Better " and " Dynamite " . The new material is inspired by electropop , which was deemed as Lady Gaga @-@ influenced by a reviewer from Rolling Stone .
= = Promotion = =
" Keeps Gettin ' Better " was released as a single from the album and was released on September 22 , 2008 . An accompanying video saw Aguilera as Catwoman and performing in front of green screens . The single experienced moderate commercial success , peaking at number seven on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number four on the Canadian Hot 100 . On September 7 , 2008 , Aguilera performed a medley of " Genie 2 @.@ 0 " and " Keeps Gettin ' Better " at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards in Hollywood . On November 23 , Aguilera opened the American Music Awards of 2008 with a seven @-@ minute medley of her previous singles , which included " Beautiful " , " Keeps Gettin ' Better " , " Genie in a Bottle " , " Dirrty " , " Ain 't No Other Man " , and " Fighter " .
= = Critical reception = =
Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits received generally positive reviews from music critics . AllMusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine commented that the compilation " proves that no other teen pop singer of her era has a better track record than Christina and if the new songs are any indication , the title of this hits comp is no lie either . " Nick Levine from Digital Spy noted the " spunky attitude " of the compilation and compared her recordings to those of Britney Spears : " She may have started out with similar material to another Mickey Mouse Club alumnus , but Aguilera moved on to bigger and better things more quickly than Britney . " He further complimented on Aguilera 's songwriting skills .
Chris Willman from Entertainment Weekly noted the lack of traditional Aguilera styles on the new songs , stating : " The singer has banished melisma and belting from these electronic confections , and her chops sound just as hot set on simmer . " Writing for Sputnikmusic , Nick Butler positively reviewed Aguilera 's new material , saying : " Christina the pop singer is dead , long live Electro Christina [ ... ] At any rate , these four tracks are more than enough to build anticipation for what could be a very , very good album . " In a mixed review , an editor from Rolling Stone shared that Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits was " weighed down by four bland attempts at 2008 's trendy , Lady Gaga @-@ jacking electropop . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits debuted at number nine on the US Billboard 200 on the issue date of November 29 , 2008 , selling 73 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release . The album spent six weeks on the Top Catalog Albums , where it peaked at number 2 in 2010 . As of September 2014 , the greatest hits album has sold over 530 @,@ 000 copies , according to data compiled by Nielsen SoundScan . In Canada , the album charted at number twelve on the Canadian Albums Chart .
In Australia , Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits peaked at number eight on the ARIA Albums Chart on the issue date of November 23 , 2008 and spent nine weeks on the chart . In Austria , the album debuted at number ten on the Austrian Albums Chart on the issue date of November 21 , 2008 and remained on the chart for five weeks . The album also experienced moderate success in various European regions , including France ( number seven ) , Ireland and Finland ( number nine ) , and the United Kingdom ( number ten ) . In 2008 , Keeps Gettin ' Better sold 19 @,@ 030 physical copies and 250 digital units in France .
= = Track listings = =
Notes
^ [ a ] signifies a vocal producer
^ [ b ] signifies a co @-@ producer
^ [ c ] signifies an additional producer
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Battle of Marash =
The Battle of Marash ( Turkish : Maraş Muharebesi ) was a battle that took place in the early winter of 1920 between the French forces occupying the city of Maraş in the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish National Forces linked to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk . It was the first major battle of the Turkish War of Independence , and the three @-@ week @-@ long engagement in the city ultimately forced the French to abandon and retreat from Marash and resulted in a Turkish massacre of Armenian refugees who had just been repatriated to the city following the Armenian Genocide . The controversial retreat , along with the massacre that took place under French watch , was subsequently dubbed the " Marash Affair . "
= = Background = =
After the surrender of the Ottoman Empire to the Allies in October 1918 , the city of Marash had come under the joint @-@ occupation of the British and French armies ( the latter largely composed of Armenians from the French Armenian Legion ) . In February 1919 , Field Marshal Edmund Allenby appointed a number of French officers to oversee the administration of the region of Cilicia and the repatriation of tens of thousands of Armenians who had been deported during the war in the course of the Genocide . Within a few months , approximately 150 @,@ 000 Armenians had been repatriated , including 20 @,@ 000 natives from Marash .
In the months following the end of the war , Cilicia had also become a source of dispute between the British and French , who both aspired to establish influence in the region . The British government , however , was under strong domestic pressure to withdraw and demobilize its forces in the Middle East and on 15 September 1919 , Prime Minister David Lloyd George begrudgingly accepted a proposal by Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau to have the French formally assume control of Cilicia . The transfer of command took place on 4 November , but Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch 's promise to reinforce the existing forces in the area with at least 32 infantry battalions , 20 cavalry squadrons and 14 artillery batteries went unfulfilled . The French units were thus deprived of armored cars and air support and lacked automatic weapons , heavy artillery and even wireless transmitters and carrier pigeons .
= = Turkish Nationalist movements = =
The Anglo @-@ French rivalry had led to the coalescence and strengthening of the Turkish National Movement under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha . Kemal had denounced the Allied occupation of Cilicia in November 1919 and the forces loyal to him were tenaciously preparing to launch a major insurrection against the thinly spread French units garrisoned in Marash , Antep and Urfa . Experienced officers , including the Kurdish captain Ali Kılıç , were sent by Mustafa Kemal to organize the tribal units and chete ( irregular fighters ) bands in the region . The Turkish forces in Marash numbered 2 @,@ 500 . Some of them were armed with old hunting rifles and others with melee weapons . Before the battle , they obtained 850 rifles , 2 machine guns , 2 cannons ( not used during the fighting ) , from the gendarmerie building in Marash .
Those without firearms would arm themselves with rifles acquired from killed French soldiers . By January 1920 , French supply convoys and communication lines were regularly coming under attack by the partisans and those Armenians who had been repatriated were being harassed and pressured to leave their homes once more . The French attempted to mollify the minority Muslim elements ( Circassians , Alevis , Kurds ) in Marash by creating gendarmerie units but this only emboldened the Turkish Nationalists to hoist the Turkish flag over Marash 's abandoned citadel and to intimidate those Muslims who cooperated with the French . The French troops in Marash included many Algerians , and also Armenians who had been recently enlisted , and it was stated that the latter had supposedly " annoyed the local population , by their arrogant attitude as they strolled on the streets in their French uniforms . "
Seeing all this , Captain Pierre @-@ Jean Daniel André , the head of the Marash detachment , requested additional reinforcements but , due to the indecisiveness of his superior , Lt. Colonel Jean Flye @-@ Sainte @-@ Marie , he was ordered to go to Adana to apprise the division commander , Brigadier General Julien Dufieux , of the situation . Dufieux agreed to send extra men under the command of General Quérette to Marash but by 17 January , when the reinforcements arrived , the French had already lost the initiative : supply convoys in Bel Punar and El @-@ Oghlu had come under attack and a relief column led by battalion commander Major Corneloup had been ambushed . On 21 January , General Quérette summoned the Muslim notables of Marash to his headquarters located at a barracks in the north of the city and presented them with evidence pointing to their complicity in the attacks and demanded that they put an end to the hostilities . As the leaders departed , Turkish police chief Arslan Toğuz drew out his pistol and fired five rounds into the air , signaling the beginning of the uprising .
= = Active stage = =
The first French units to come under attack were those officers accompanying the local gendarmerie or standing guard . The contingents of the French garrison at Marash , numbering only 2 @,@ 000 men , were separated from one another in the city @-@ wide siege . Direct communications did not exist between Marash and division headquarters and General Dufieux was only informed of the insurrection on 31 January , after several Armenians from the French Armenian Legion managed to disguise themselves as Muslims and cross the battle lines . He immediately appointed Lieutenant Colonel Robert Normand to lead a relief expedition , composed of three infantry battalions and half a squadron of cavalry , to Marash , and dispatched aerial recon flights , giving hope to the besieged French , Armenians and American relief workers who were assisting the local population .
On 7 February , Normand 's unit fought its way into the city and began to bombard the Turkish positions with heavy artillery . The following day , he relieved Cornelope 's column , which had held its position for two weeks , and broke through to reach General Quérette 's headquarters . To Quérette 's astonishment , Normand told that he had come with orders from General Dufieux to begin the full evacuation of the French garrison of Marash , followed by the Christian and loyal Muslim population . Quérette was reluctant to carry out such a command but Normand claimed that no more reinforcements or supplies would be sent . With this in mind Quérette agreed to the evacuation . The order to evacuate ironically came at precisely the same moment that the Turkish Nationalists were seeking a ceasefire : no sooner had General Quérette begun negotiations with the Turkish representative , Dr. Mustafa , when he was told by Normand to prepare to evacuate . By 3 : 00 in the morning of 11 February , Quérette had destroyed the remaining ammunition dumps and was preparing to slip out under the cover of darkness , in order to prevent the terrified Armenian population from hindering his troops ' withdrawal . They were , however , unable to do so and 4 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 Armenians managed to flee with the French troops in a three @-@ day , 75 @-@ mile ( 121 km ) long march to İslahiye . Subsequently called the " Marash Affair , " many of the Armenian refugees died from exhaustion and from the bitter cold , such that there were only 1 @,@ 500 of their number when they reached İslahiye on 13 February .
The French casualties of the battle included 160 killed , 280 wounded , 170 missing and 300 severely frostbitten .
= = Massacre of Armenians = =
The three @-@ week siege of Marash was also accompanied by the wholesale massacre of the Armenian repatriates . Roving Turkish bands threw kerosene @-@ doused rags on Armenian homes and laid a constant barrage upon the American relief hospital . The Armenians themselves , as in previous times of trouble , sought refuge in their churches and schools . Women and children found momentary shelter in Marash 's six Armenian Apostolic , three Armenian Evangelical churches and in the city 's sole Catholic cathedral . The Armenian legionnaires attempted to put up a defense but were ultimately overwhelmed . All the churches and eventually the entire Armenian districts were put to flames . The plight of the Armenians was only exacerbated when the French decided to pull out on 10 February . When the 2 @,@ 000 Armenians who had taken shelter in the Catholic cathedral attempted to follow the retreat , they were cut down by Turkish rifle and machine gun fire .
Early reports put the number of Armenian dead at no less than 16 @,@ 000 , although this was later revised down to 5 @,@ 000 – 12 @,@ 000 , which were considered far more likely figures .
= = Aftermath = =
Though news of the siege of the French army and the massacre of the Armenians reached Allied and American representatives in Europe , the French High Command did not publicly indicate that anything serious had taken place . Internally , however , they were astonished by this move launched by the Turkish Nationalists . The battle and the massacre were discussed fervently in the European and American press , as well as the British Parliament . Colonel Normand 's role in ordering the evacuation , in particular , stirred controversy as members of General Dufieux 's staff maintained that no evacuation order had ever been given . Dufieux , however , was inexplicably told by senior commander and General of the Army of the Levant Henri Gouraud that he should let the matter drop . French Colonel Édouard Brémond , the chief administrator of the occupation zone , reflected on the decision in his memoirs :
The decision for the retreat remains a mystery . It was not made in Beirut , nor in Adana , but at Marash . There seems to be no doubt that the order to leave would not have been given if a wireless outfit had been available in Marash permitting unbroken communication with Adana .
A few years later , he stated frankly , " Colonel Normand did not bring an order for the evacuation ; he gave it [ emphasis in the original ] . " In his own analysis of the conflict , the American relief worker Stanley E. Kerr attributes the withdrawal inter alia to the untenable position the French military itself had assumed , its failure to provide adequate supplies to its men , and its inability to carry out intelligence work .
In Constantinople , Allied military representatives pushed to threaten the Ottoman government for the affair , while the French simultaneously explored the possibility of reaching a modus vivendi with Kemal . The Allied Supreme Council , which at the time was working out the details to a peace treaty that it would present to the Ottoman government , deliberated on how best to respond . Some of the delegates present , including Prime Minister David Lloyd @-@ George , insisted that strong pressure should be brought to bear against the Ottoman government to prevent new atrocities , but the other diplomats were skeptical of the idea . The officials also agreed that the Ottoman government should dismiss Kemal from office , although they admitted that such a move was impractical , since the Ottoman government held no control over Kemal , who was leading a counter Turkish government in Anatolia . A decision was finally reached on 10 March . British , French and Italian leaders agreed to authorize the formal occupation of Constantinople , which was carried out by the forces under General George F. Milne 's command on the morning of 16 March .
On 7 April 1925 , Marash became one of two cities in Turkey to receive a Turkish Medal of Independence ( the other city being İnebolu ) .
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= Greenzo =
" Greenzo " is the fifth episode of NBC 's second season of 30 Rock and twenty @-@ sixth episode overall . It was written by Jon Pollack and directed by series producer Don Scardino . It aired on November 8 , 2007 in the United States . Guest stars in this episode include Kevin Brown , Grizz Chapman , Al Gore , John Lutz , Madison McKinley Garton , Maulik Pancholy , Paula Pell , Dion Sapp , David Schwimmer and Meredith Vieira .
The episode focuses on Jack Donaghy 's ( played by Alec Baldwin ) success , and later disaster , with Greenzo ( David Schwimmer ) , " America 's first non @-@ judgmental , business @-@ friendly environmental advocate . " Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) decides to throw a party , but , knowing that nobody will attend , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) plot to make the party a success . Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) and Liz suspect that Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) is having an affair .
= = Plot = =
Don Geiss , the chairman of General Electric ( GE ) , challenges Jack and his rivals to come up with an idea to make money " from this environmentalism trend . " This leads to him casting an actor called Jared to play Greenzo , NBC 's environmental mascot . Initially , Greenzo is a success , making a well received appearance on The Today Show with Meredith Vieira . Eventually , he becomes more and more self @-@ absorbed and starts insulting the TGS staff and criticizing the staff 's environmentally unfriendly habits . This is until he conducts a second interview , when he begins ranting negatively about " big companies and their two @-@ faced , fat cat executives , " referring to GE and Jack . Angered , Jack fires Jared and tries tricking Al Gore into replacing him to no avail . Also , a drunken Greenzo shows up and tries to continue only to mess things up even more .
Meanwhile , Kenneth is planning a party . Knowing this , Liz recounts past parties of Kenneth 's to Tracy , telling him that she was the only other person who attended those parties . Feeling pity for Kenneth , Tracy tells the biggest gossips on TGS with Tracy Jordan , Grizz and Dot Com ( Grizz Chapman and Kevin Brown ) , that T.I. will be attending . They persuade other people to attend by telling various other lies . The resulting party is so outrageous that Kenneth decides never to throw a party again .
When Liz finds another woman 's lipstick in her apartment , she and Jenna begin to suspect that Pete , who is separated from his wife , is having an affair . Liz later discovers , much to her horror , that Pete is having an " affair " with his own wife , Paula Hornberger ( Paula Pell ) . Later , Pete asks if he can still stay with Liz because for the first time , they have been able to date .
= = Production = =
" Greenzo " is the first episode of 30 Rock written by Jon Pollack . Pollack was added to the writing staff of 30 Rock at the beginning of the second season . The episode is the ninth episode of 30 Rock directed by Don Scardino . This episode aired as part of Green Week , an initiative introduced by NBC 's Chief Executive Jeff Zucker which included having every primetime program which aired between November 4 , 2007 and November 10 , 2007 contain some sort of positive environmental theme . This was also the first episode of 30 Rock to air after the start of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . The strike began on November 5 , 2007 and ended on February 12 , 2008 . This episode was filmed on September 27 and September 28 , 2007 .
= = Reception = =
" Greenzo " brought in an average of 6 @.@ 6 million viewers , the highest amount of viewers since the second season premiere , " SeinfeldVision " . The episode also achieved a 3 @.@ 1 / 8 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic , matching the series ' highest rating in that demographic . The 3 @.@ 1 refers to 3 @.@ 1 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. and the 8 refers to 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast , in the U.S. This episode also ranked in first place in the men 18 – 34 demographic , against programs airing on other networks in the same timeslot .
Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide praised " David Schwimmer for throwing himself into this role " as Jared , " this rather unlikable lout . " Webb Mitovich also wrote that " [ Kenneth 's ] party in and of itself has to be one of 30 Rock 's finest and most manic moments . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad thought that " [ David ] Schwimmer was good as Greenzo " and that " the subplots were some of the most bizarre this season . " Robert Canning of IGN thought that the " cameo from Al Gore at the end of the show added little to the episode . It was a fine bit , but it wasn 't helped by the fact that nearly the entire scene had already aired in the promos leading up to the episode " and that " seeing [ Schwimmer ] desperately take on the role of Greenzo and then get carried away with the whole concept could have been hysterically self @-@ referential [ to his work on the situation comedy Friends ] . Instead we got Jerrod [ sic ] as Greenzo and the whole thing just felt flat and forced . " Canning rated the episode " 8 out of 10 " Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette 's Rob Owen also felt that Al Gore 's appearance had been " already given away in [ NBC 's ] promos " . He praised the episode 's dialogue , saying that Baldwin 's line , " you could put on a silly hat and tell the kids how outsourcing means cheaper toys for Christmas " was the sort of dialogue that " makes 30 Rock rock . Hard . " Jeff Labrecque of Entertainment Weekly wrote that this episode " was one of the best of season 2 " and that " Schwimmer 's performance reminded [ him ] of his most bizarre episodes as Friends ' Ross Geller , like ' The One With Ross 's Sandwich ' . " The episode of Friends referred to includes Schwimmer 's character , Ross , shouting at his boss for eating his special Thanksgiving leftover sandwich .
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= D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company =
The D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company is a professional light opera company that staged Gilbert and Sullivan 's Savoy operas nearly year @-@ round in the UK and sometimes toured in Europe , North America and elsewhere , from the 1870s until 1982 . The company was revived for short seasons and tours from 1988 to 2003 , and with Scottish Opera it later co @-@ produced two productions .
In 1875 , Richard D 'Oyly Carte asked the dramatist W. S. Gilbert and the composer Arthur Sullivan to collaborate on a short comic opera to round out an evening 's entertainment . When that work , Trial by Jury , became a success , Carte put together a syndicate to produce a full @-@ length Gilbert and Sullivan work , The Sorcerer ( 1877 ) , followed by H.M.S. Pinafore ( 1878 ) . After Pinafore became an international sensation , Carte jettisoned his difficult investors and formed a new partnership with Gilbert and Sullivan that became the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company . The company produced the succeeding ten Gilbert and Sullivan operas and many other operas and companion pieces at the Savoy Theatre in London , which Carte built in 1881 for that purpose . The company also mounted tours in Britain , New York and elsewhere , usually running several companies simultaneously . Carte 's able assistant , Helen Lenoir , became his wife in 1888 and , after his death in 1901 , she ran the company until her own death in 1913 . By this time , it had become a year @-@ round Gilbert and Sullivan touring repertory company .
Carte 's son Rupert inherited the company . Beginning in 1919 , he mounted new seasons in London with new set and costume designs , while continuing the year @-@ round tours in Britain and abroad . With the help of the director J. M. Gordon and the conductor Isidore Godfrey , Carte ran the company for 35 years . He redesigned the Savoy Theatre in 1928 and sponsored a series of recordings over the years that helped to keep the operas popular . After Rupert 's death in 1948 , his daughter Bridget D 'Oyly Carte inherited the company and hired Frederic Lloyd as general manager . The company continued to tour for 35 weeks each year , issue new recordings and play London seasons of Gilbert and Sullivan . In 1961 , the last copyright on the Gilbert and Sullivan operas expired , and Bridget set up and endowed a charitable trust that presented the operas until mounting costs and a lack of public funding forced the closure of the company in 1982 . It re @-@ formed in 1988 with a legacy left by Bridget D 'Oyly Carte , played short tours and London seasons , and issued some popular recordings . Denied significant funding from the English Arts Council , it suspended productions in 2003 . With Scottish Opera , it co @-@ produced The Pirates of Penzance 2013 and The Mikado in 2016 .
Some of the company 's performers , over the decades , became stars of their day and often moved on to careers in musical theatre or grand opera . The company licensed the operas for performance in Australasia and to numerous amateur troupes in Britain and elsewhere , providing orchestra parts and prompt books for hire . The company kept the Savoy operas in the public eye for over a century and left an enduring legacy of production styles and stage business that continue to be emulated in new productions .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
By 1874 , Richard D 'Oyly Carte , a musician and ambitious young impresario , had begun producing operettas in London . He announced his ambitions on the front of the programme for one of his productions that year : " It is my desire to establish in London a permanent abode for light opera . " The Observer reported , " Mr D 'Oyly Carte is not only a skilful manager , but a trained musician , and he appears to have grasped the fact that the public are beginning to become weary of what is known as a genuine opera bouffe , and are ready to welcome a musical entertainment of a higher order , such as a musician might produce with satisfaction " . He wanted to establish a body of tasteful English comic opera that would appeal to families , in contrast to the bawdy burlesques and adaptations of French operettas and opera bouffes that dominated the London musical stage at that time .
In early 1875 , Carte was managing London 's Royalty Theatre . Needing a short piece to round out an evening 's entertainment featuring the popular Offenbach operetta La Périchole he brought W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan together . On tour in 1871 , Carte had conducted Arthur Sullivan 's one @-@ act comic opera Cox and Box , which received an 1874 London revival . In 1873 , W. S. Gilbert had offered a libretto to Carte about an English courtroom , but at the time Carte knew of no composer available to set it to music . Carte remembered Gilbert 's libretto and suggested to Gilbert that Sullivan write the music for a one @-@ act comic opera , Trial by Jury , which was quickly composed and added to the Royalty 's bill in March 1875 . The witty and " very English " little piece proved even more popular than La Périchole and became the first great success of Carte 's scheme to found his school of English comic opera , playing for 300 performances from 1875 to 1877 , as well as touring and enjoying many revivals .
At the Theatre Royal , in Dublin , Ireland in September 1875 , while there managing the first tour of Trial by Jury , Carte met a young Scottish actress , Helen Lenoir . She became fascinated by his vision for establishing a company to promote English comic opera and gave up her next engagement to join his theatrical organisation as his secretary . Lenoir was well @-@ educated , and her grasp of detail and diplomacy , as well as her organisational ability and business acumen , surpassed even Carte 's . She became intensely involved in all of his business affairs and soon managed many of the company 's responsibilities , especially concerning touring . She later travelled to America numerous times over the years to arrange the details of the company 's New York engagements and American tours . Still , Carte continued to produce continental operetta , touring in the summer of 1876 with a repertoire consisting of three English adaptations of French opera bouffe and two one @-@ act English curtain raisers ( Happy Hampstead and Trial by Jury ) . Carte himself was the musical director of this travelling company , which disbanded after the tour .
In 1876 , Carte found four financial backers and formed the Comedy Opera Company in 1876 to produce more works by Gilbert and Sullivan , along with the works of other British lyricist / composer teams . With this theatre company , Carte finally had the financial resources , after many failed attempts , to produce a new full @-@ length Gilbert and Sullivan opera . Carte leased the Opera Comique , a small theatre off The Strand . The first comic opera produced by the Comedy Opera Company was Gilbert and Sullivan 's The Sorcerer , about a tradesmanlike London sorcerer . It opened in November 1877 together with Dora 's Dream , a curtain @-@ raiser with music by Sullivan 's assistant Alfred Cellier and words by Arthur Cecil , a friend of both Gilbert and Sullivan .
Instead of writing a piece for production by a theatre proprietor , as was usual in Victorian theatres , Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte produced the show with their own financial support . They were therefore able to select their own cast of performers , rather than being obliged to use the actors already engaged at the theatre . They chose talented actors , most of whom were not well @-@ known stars and did not command high fees , and to whom they could teach a more naturalistic style of performance than was commonly used at the time . Carte 's talent agency provided many of the artists to perform in the new work . They then tailored their work to the particular abilities of these performers . Some of the cast members , including principal comedian George Grossmith , Richard Temple and Rutland Barrington , stayed with the company for almost 15 years . Two other longstanding members of the company were Rosina Brandram , who started in D 'Oyly Carte touring companies with The Sorcerer , and Jessie Bond who joined the group for Pinafore at the Opera Comique in 1878 . As Grossmith wrote in 1888 , " We are all a very happy family . "
Knowing that Gilbert and Sullivan shared his vision of broadening the audience for British light opera by increasing its quality and respectability , Carte gave Gilbert wider authority as a director than was customary among Victorian producers , and Gilbert tightly controlled all aspects of production , including staging , design and movement . Gilbert hired the Gaiety Theatre 's ballet @-@ master John D 'Auban to choreograph most of the Savoy operas . The skill with which Gilbert and Sullivan used their performers had an effect on the audience ; as the critic Herman Klein wrote : " we secretly marvelled at the naturalness and ease with which [ the Gilbertian quips and absurdities ] were said and done . For until then no living soul had seen upon the stage such weird , eccentric , yet intensely human beings .... [ They ] conjured into existence a hitherto unknown comic world of sheer delight . " The Sorcerer ran for 178 performances , a healthy run at the time , making a profit , and Carte sent out a touring company in March 1878 . Sheet music from the show sold well , and street musicians played the melodies . The success of The Sorcerer showed Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan that there was a future in family @-@ friendly English comic opera .
= = = Pinafore to Patience = = =
The next Gilbert and Sullivan collaboration , H.M.S. Pinafore , opened in May 1878 . The opera 's initial slow business was generally ascribed to a heat wave that made the stuffy Opera Comique particularly uncomfortable . Carte 's partners in the Comedy Opera Company lost confidence in the show and posted closing notices . After Carte made promotional efforts and Sullivan included some of the Pinafore music in several promenade concerts that he conducted at Covent Garden , Pinafore became a hit . The Opera Comique was required to close at Christmas 1878 for repairs to drainage and sewage under the Public Health Act of 1875 . Carte used the enforced closure of the theatre to invoke a contract clause reverting the rights of Pinafore and Sorcerer to Gilbert and Sullivan after the initial run of H.M.S. Pinafore . Carte then took a six @-@ month personal lease on the theatre beginning on 1 February 1879 . Carte persuaded Gilbert and Sullivan that when their original agreement with the Comedy Opera Company expired in July 1879 , a business partnership among the three of them would be to their advantage . The three each put up £ 1 @,@ 000 and formed a new partnership under the name " Mr Richard D 'Oyly Carte 's Opera Company " . Under the partnership agreement , once the expenses of mounting the productions had been deducted , each of the three men was entitled to one third of the profits .
On 31 July 1879 , the last day of their agreement with Gilbert and Sullivan , the directors of the Comedy Opera Company attempted to repossess the set by force during a performance , causing a celebrated fracas . Carte 's stagehands managed to ward off their backstage attackers and protect the scenery . The Comedy Opera Company opened a rival production of H.M.S. Pinafore in London , but it was not as popular as the D 'Oyly Carte production , and soon closed . Legal action over the ownership of the rights ended in victory for Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan . From 1 August 1879 , the company , later called the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , became the sole authorised producer of the works of Gilbert and Sullivan .
Pinafore became so successful that the piano score sold 10 @,@ 000 copies , and Carte soon sent two additional companies out to tour in the provinces . The opera ran for 571 performances in London , the second longest run in musical theatre history up to that time . Over 150 unauthorised productions sprang up in America alone , but because American law then offered no copyright protection to foreigners , Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte had no way to prevent them . To try to make some money from the popularity of their opera in America , Carte travelled to New York with Gilbert , Sullivan and the company to present an " authentic " production of Pinafore on Broadway , beginning in December 1879 , also mounting American tours . Beginning with Pinafore , Carte licensed the J. C. Williamson company to produce the works in Australia and New Zealand .
In an effort to head off unauthorised American productions of their next opera , The Pirates of Penzance , Carte and his partners opened it in New York on 31 December 1879 , prior to its 1880 London premiere . Pirates was the only Gilbert and Sullivan opera to have its official premiere in America . Carte and his partners hoped to forestall further " piracy " by establishing the authorised production and tours in America before others could copy it and by delaying publication of the score and libretto . They did succeed in keeping for themselves the direct profits of the venture , but they tried without success for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas . Pirates was an immediate hit in New York , and later London , becoming one of the most popular Gilbert and Sullivan operas . To secure the British copyright , there was a perfunctory performance the afternoon before the New York premiere , at the Royal Bijou Theatre , Paignton , Devon , organised by Helen Lenoir .
The next Gilbert and Sullivan opera , Patience , opened at the Opera Comique in April 1881 and was another big success , becoming the second longest @-@ running piece in the series and enjoying numerous foreign productions . Patience satirised the self @-@ indulgent Aesthetic movement of the 1870s and ' 80s in England , part of the 19th @-@ century European movement that emphasised aesthetic values over moral or social themes in literature , fine art , the decorative arts , and interior design . From the beginning , the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company established strict rules for its actors and actresses , to avoid any hint of scandal such as performers were accused of in other companies . As Jessie Bond described in her autobiography :
No lingering about was allowed , no gossiping with the other actors ; the women ’ s dressing @-@ rooms were on one side of the stage , the men 's on the other , and when we were not actually playing we had to mount at once our respective narrow staircases – sheep rigorously separated from the goats ! Once , when my mother came to see me in London , expecting to find me dwelling in haunts of gilded luxury , and far down the road to perdition , I took her behind the scenes and showed her the arrangements for the actors and actresses , conventual in their austerity . ... I think there never was a theatre run on lines of such strict propriety ; no breath of scandal ever touched it in all the twenty years of my experience . Gilbert would suffer no loose word or gesture either behind the stage or on it , and watched over us young women like a dragon .
With profits from the success of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas and his concert and lecture agency ( his talent roster included Adelina Patti , Clara Schumann , Jacques Offenbach , Oscar Wilde and Charles Gounod ) , Carte bought property along the Strand with frontage onto the Thames Embankment , where he built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 . He chose the name in honour of the Savoy Palace . The Savoy Theatre was a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art facility , setting a new standard for technology , comfort and decor . It was the first public building in the world to be lit entirely by electric lights and seated nearly 1 @,@ 300 people ( compared to the Opera Comique 's 862 ) .
Patience was the first production at the new theatre , transferring there on 10 October 1881 . The first generator proved too small to power the whole building , and though the entire front @-@ of @-@ house was electrically lit , the stage was lit by gas until 28 December 1881 . At that performance , Carte stepped on stage and broke a glowing lightbulb before the audience to demonstrate the safety of the new technology . The Times concluded that the theatre " is admirably adapted for its purpose , its acoustic qualities are excellent , and all reasonable demands of comfort and taste are complied with . " Carte and his manager , George Edwardes ( later famous as manager of the Gaiety Theatre ) , introduced several innovations at the theatre , including numbered seating , free programme booklets , the " queue " system for the pit and gallery ( an American idea ) and a policy of no tipping for cloakroom or other services . Daily expenses at the theatre were about half the possible takings from ticket sales . The last eight of Gilbert and Sullivan 's comic operas were premièred at the Savoy .
During the years when the Gilbert and Sullivan operas were being written , the company also produced operas by other composer – librettist teams , either as curtain @-@ raisers to the Gilbert and Sullivan pieces , or as touring productions , as well as other works to fill the Savoy Theatre in between Savoy operas , and Carte also toured the Gilbert and Sullivan operas extensively . For example , a souvenir programme commemorating the 250th performance of Patience in London and its 100th performance in New York shows that , aside from these two productions of Patience , Carte was simultaneously producing two companies touring with Patience , two companies touring with other Gilbert and Sullivan operas , a company touring with Olivette ( co @-@ produced with Charles Wyndham ) a company touring Claude Duval in America , a production of Youth running at a New York theatre , a lecture tour by Archibald Forbes ( a war correspondent ) and productions of Patience , Pirates , Claude Duval and Billee Taylor in association with J. C. Williamson in Australia , among other things .
In the 1880s , Carte also introduced the practice of licensing amateur theatrical societies to present works for which he held the rights , increasing their popularity and the sales of scores and libretti , as well as the rental of band parts . This had an important influence on amateur theatre in general . Cellier and Bridgeman wrote in 1914 that , prior to the creation of the Savoy operas , amateur actors were treated with contempt by professionals . After the formation of amateur Gilbert and Sullivan companies licensed to perform the operas , professionals recognised that the amateur societies " support the culture of music and the drama . They are now accepted as useful training schools for the legitimate stage , and from the volunteer ranks have sprung many present @-@ day favourites . " Cellier and Bridgeman attributed the rise in quality and reputation of the amateur groups largely to " the popularity of , and infectious craze for performing , the Gilbert and Sullivan operas " . The National Operatic and Dramatic Association was founded in 1899 . It reported , in 1914 , that nearly 200 British societies were producing Gilbert and Sullivan operas that year . Carte insisted that amateur companies follow the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company staging , using its prompt books . Even after the copyrights expired at the end of 1961 , the company continued to , and still does , rent out band parts to companies around the world .
= = = Iolanthe to The Gondoliers = = =
After Patience , the company produced Iolanthe , which opened in 1882 . During its run , in February 1883 , Carte signed a five @-@ year partnership agreement with Gilbert and Sullivan , obligating them to create new operas for the company upon six months ' notice . Sullivan had not intended immediately to write a new work with Gilbert , but he suffered a serious financial loss when his broker went bankrupt in November 1882 and must have felt the long @-@ term contract necessary for his security . But he soon felt trapped . Gilbert scholar Andrew Crowther comments , regarding the agreement : " Effectively , it made [ Gilbert and Sullivan ] Carte 's employees – a situation which created its own resentments . " The partnership 's next opera , Princess Ida , opened in January 1884 . Carte soon saw that Ida was running weakly at the box office and invoked the agreement to call upon his partners for a new opera to be written . Almost from the beginning of the partnership , the musical establishment put pressure on Sullivan to abandon comic opera , and he soon regretted having signed the five @-@ year contract . In March 1884 , Sullivan told Carte that " it is impossible for me to do another piece of the character of those already written by Gilbert and myself . "
During this conflict and others during the 1880s , Carte and Helen Lenoir frequently had to smooth over the partners ' differences with a mixture of friendship and business acumen . Sullivan asked to be released from the partnership on several occasions . Nevertheless , they coaxed eight comic operas out of Gilbert and Sullivan in the 1880s . When Princess Ida closed after a comparatively short run of nine months , for the first time in the partnership 's history , the next opera was not ready . To make matters worse , Gilbert suggested a plot in which people fell in love against their wills after taking a magic lozenge – a scenario that Sullivan had previously rejected , and he now rejected the " lozenge plot " again . Gilbert eventually came up with a new idea and began work in May 1884 .
The company produced the first revival of The Sorcerer , together with Trial by Jury , and matinees of The Pirates of Penzance played by a cast of children , while waiting for the new work to be completed . This became the partnership 's most successful opera , The Mikado , which opened in March 1885 . The piece satirised British institutions by setting them in a fictional Japan . At the same time , it took advantage of the Victorian craze for the exotic Far East using the " picturesque " scenery and costumes of Japan . The Mikado became the partnership 's longest @-@ running hit , enjoying 672 performances at the Savoy Theatre , the second longest run for any work of musical theatre up to that time , and it was extraordinarily popular in the U.S. and worldwide . It remains the most frequently performed Savoy opera . Beginning with The Mikado , Hawes Craven , the designer of the sets for Henry Irving 's spectacular Shakespeare productions at the Lyceum Theatre , designed all of the D 'Oyly Carte sets until 1893 .
The partnership 's next opera was Ruddigore , which opened in January 1887 . It satirised and used elements of Victorian stock melodrama . The piece , though profitable , was a relative disappointment after the extraordinary success of The Mikado . When Ruddigore closed after a run of only nine months , the company mounted revivals of earlier Gilbert and Sullivan operas for almost a year . After another attempt by Gilbert to persuade Sullivan to set a " lozenge plot " , Gilbert met his collaborator half way by writing a serio @-@ comic plot for The Yeomen of the Guard , which premiered in October 1888 . The opera was a success , running for over a year , with strong New York and touring productions . During the run , in March 1889 , Sullivan again expressed reluctance to write another comic opera , asking if Gilbert would write a " dramatic work on a larger musical scale " . Gilbert declined , but offered a compromise that Sullivan ultimately accepted : The two would write a light opera for the Savoy , and at the same time , Sullivan could work on a grand opera ( Ivanhoe ) for a new theatre that Carte was constructing to present British grand opera . The new comic opera was The Gondoliers , which opened in December 1889 and became one of the partnership 's greatest successes . After Carte 's first wife died in 1885 , Carte married Helen Lenoir in 1888 , who was , by this time , nearly as important in managing the company as Carte himself .
During these years , the company 's high production values , and the quality of the operas , created a national and international taste for them , and the company mounted touring productions throughout the provinces , in America ( generally managed by Helen ) , Europe and elsewhere . Queen Victoria honoured the company by calling for a Royal Command Performance of The Gondoliers at Windsor Castle in 1891 . George Bernard Shaw , writing in The World in October 1893 , commented , " Those who are old enough to compare the Savoy performances with those of the dark ages , taking into account the pictorial treatment of the fabrics and colours on the stage , the cultivation and intelligence of the choristers , the quality of the orchestra , and the degree of artistic good breeding , so to speak , expected from the principals , best know how great an advance has been made by Mr. D 'Oyly Carte . "
= = = The Carpet Quarrel and the end of the partnership = = =
On 22 April 1890 , during the run of The Gondoliers , Gilbert discovered that maintenance expenses for the theatre , including a new £ 500 carpet for the front lobby of the theatre , were being charged to the partnership instead of borne by Carte . Gilbert confronted Carte , and Carte refused to reconsider the accounts : Even though the amount of the charge was not great , Gilbert felt it was a moral issue involving Carte 's integrity , and he could not look past it . Gilbert wrote in a letter to Sullivan that " I left him with the remark that it was a mistake to kick down the ladder by which he had risen " . Helen Carte wrote that Gilbert had addressed Carte " in a way that I should not have thought you would have used to an offending menial . " Gilbert brought a lawsuit , but Sullivan sided with Carte , who was building the Royal English Opera House , the inaugural production of which was to be Sullivan 's forthcoming grand opera . Gilbert won the suit , but the partnership disbanded .
Sullivan 's opera , Ivanhoe , had a successful run , but no other operas shared Carte 's new opera house , and so the theatre soon failed . Carte sold the opera house , and it eventually became the Palace Theatre .
After The Gondoliers closed in 1891 , Gilbert withdrew the performance rights to his libretti and vowed to write no more operas for the Savoy . The D 'Oyly Carte company turned to new writing teams for the Savoy , first producing The Nautch Girl , by George Dance , Frank Desprez and Edward Solomon , which ran for a satisfying 200 performances in 1891 – 92 . Next was a revival of Solomon and Sydney Grundy 's The Vicar of Bray , which played through the summer of 1892 . Grundy and Sullivan 's Haddon Hall then held the stage until April 1893 . While the company presented new pieces and revivals at the Savoy , Carte 's touring companies continued to play throughout Britain and in America . In 1894 , for example , Carte had four companies touring Britain and one playing in America .
Gilbert 's aggressive , though successful , legal action had embittered Sullivan and Carte , but the partnership had been so profitable that the Cartes eventually sought to reunite Gilbert and Sullivan . The reconciliation finally came through the efforts of Tom Chappell , who published the sheet music to the Savoy operas . In 1893 , the company produced the penultimate Gilbert and Sullivan collaboration , Utopia , Limited . While Utopia was being prepared , the company produced Jane Annie , by J. M. Barrie and Arthur Conan Doyle , with music by Ernest Ford . Despite the popularity of Barrie and Conan Doyle , the show was a flop , closing in July 1893 after only 51 performances . Utopia was the Savoy 's most expensive production to date , but it ran for a comparatively disappointing 245 performances , until June 1894 , turning a very modest profit . The company then played first Mirette , composed by André Messager , then The Chieftain , by F. C. Burnand and Sullivan . These ran for 102 and 97 performances , respectively . After The Chieftain closed , the company toured the London suburbs , while Carte leased the Savoy Theatre to the Carl Rosa Opera Company . The theatre was dark during the summer of 1895 , reopening in November for a revival of The Mikado . This was followed by The Grand Duke , in 1896 , which ran for 123 performances and was Gilbert and Sullivan 's only financial failure . The Gondoliers turned out to be Gilbert and Sullivan 's last big hit , and after The Grand Duke , the two men never collaborated again .
In 1894 , Carte had hired his son , Rupert , as an assistant . Rupert assisted Mrs. Carte and W. S. Gilbert with the first revival of The Yeomen of the Guard at the Savoy in May 1897 . Throughout the later 1890s , Carte 's health was declining , and Mrs. Carte assumed more and more of the responsibilities of running the opera company . She profitably managed the theatre and the provincial touring companies . The Savoy 's shows during this period received comparatively short runs , including His Majesty ( 1897 ) , The Grand Duchess of Gerolstein ( 1897 ) , The Beauty Stone ( 1898 ) and The Lucky Star ( 1899 ) , as well as revivals of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas . Sullivan 's The Beauty Stone ran for only 50 performances . In 1899 , the Savoy finally had a new success , with Sullivan and Basil Hood 's The Rose of Persia , which ran for 213 performances . Neither Carte nor Sullivan lived to see the production of Sullivan and Hood 's The Emerald Isle ( 1901 ) , for which Edward German completed the score .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
Carte left his theatre , opera company and hotels to his wife , who assumed full control of the family businesses . Her London and touring companies continued to present the Savoy operas in Britain and overseas . She leased the Savoy Theatre to William Greet in 1901 and oversaw his management of the company 's revival of Iolanthe and the production of several new comic operas , including The Emerald Isle ( 1901 ) , Merrie England ( 1902 ) and A Princess of Kensington ( with music by Edward German , libretto by Basil Hood ) , which ran for four months in early 1903 and then toured . When A Princess of Kensington closed at the Savoy , Mrs. Carte leased the theatre to other managements until 8 December 1906 . The company 's fortunes declined for a time , and by 1904 there was only a single touring company wending its way through the British provinces , when it took a seven @-@ month South African tour .
In 1906 – 07 , Mrs. Carte staged a repertory season at the Savoy Theatre , with Gilbert returning to direct . The season , which included Yeomen , The Gondoliers , Patience and Iolanthe , was a sensation and led to another in 1908 – 09 including The Mikado , Pinafore , Iolanthe , Pirates , The Gondoliers and Yeomen . Afterwards , however , Mrs. Carte 's health prevented her from staging more London seasons . She retired and leased the theatre to C. H. Workman , and the company did not perform in London again until 1919 , although it continued to tour throughout Britain .
After Gilbert 's death in 1911 , the company continued to produce productions of the operas in repertory until 1982 . In 1911 , Helen Carte hired J. M. Gordon as stage manager . Gordon , who was promoted to stage director in 1922 , had been a member of the company and a stage manager under Gilbert 's direction , and he fiercely preserved the company 's performing traditions in exacting detail for 28 years . Except for Ruddigore , which underwent some cuts and received a new overture , very few changes were made to the text and music of the operas as Gilbert and Sullivan had produced them , and the company stayed true to Gilbert 's period settings . The traditions evolved over time , after Gordon 's death , but many of Gilbert 's directorial concepts survived , both in the stage directions printed in the libretti and as preserved in company prompt books from the era . Original choreography was also maintained . In addition , some of the staging added over the years became traditional and was repeated again and again in successive productions . Many of these traditional stagings are imitated today in productions by both amateur and professional companies .
Helen Carte died in 1913 , and Carte 's son Rupert D 'Oyly Carte inherited the company . During World War I , he was away serving in the Royal Navy . According to H. M. Walbrook , " Through the years of the Great War [ the company ] continued to be on tour through the country , drawing large and grateful audiences everywhere . They helped to sustain the spirits of the people during that stern period , and by so doing they helped to win the victory . " The company also toured in North America several times , beginning with a Canadian tour in 1927 .
Rupert D 'Oyly Carte found the company 's productions increasingly " dowdy " , however , and on his return from the war , he determined to refresh them , bringing in new designers including W. Bridges @-@ Adams for the sets , and , for the costumes , George Sheringham and Hugo Rumbold . He also commissioned new costumes from Percy Anderson who had worked with Gilbert and Richard D 'Oyly Carte on the original productions of the later Savoy operas . Charles Ricketts redesigned sets and costumes for The Mikado ( 1926 ) and The Gondoliers ( 1929 ) . His costumes for The Mikado were retained by all subsequent designers until 1982 . In an interview in The Observer in August 1919 , Carte set out his policy for staging the operas : " They will be played precisely in their original form , without any alteration to the words , or any attempt to bring them up to date . " This uncompromising declaration was modified in a later interview in which he said , " the plays are all being restaged . ... Gilbert 's words will be unaltered , though there will be some freshness in the method of rendering them . Artists must have scope for their individuality , and new singers cannot be tied down to imitate slavishly those who made successes in the old days . "
The main company made a triumphant return to London for the 1919 – 20 season at the Prince 's Theatre , playing most of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas in repertory and showing off the new sets and costumes . The success of this season led to additional London seasons in 1919 – 20 , 1921 – 22 , 1924 , and 1926 ; the company toured the rest of the year . Carte 's first London season stimulated renewed interest in the operas , and by 1920 he had established a second , smaller company to tour smaller towns . It was disbanded in 1927 , although the company often ran multiple tours simultaneously . For London seasons , Carte engaged guest conductors , first Geoffrey Toye , then Malcolm Sargent , who examined Sullivan 's manuscript scores and purged the orchestral parts of accretions . So striking was the orchestral sound produced by Sargent that the press thought he had retouched the scores , and Carte had the pleasant duty of correcting their error . In a letter to The Times , he noted that " the details of the orchestration sounded so fresh that some of the critics thought them actually new ... the opera was played last night exactly as written by Sullivan . " Carte also hired Harry Norris , who started with the touring company , then was Toye 's assistant before becoming musical director .
In 1917 , the company made the first complete recording of a Gilbert and Sullivan opera , The Mikado , for the Gramophone Company ( later known as His Master 's Voice ) . Rupert D 'Oyly Carte supervised the company 's recordings , including eight more acoustic recordings by 1924 , and a series of complete electrical recordings in the late 1920s and early 1930s . There were additional recordings , in high fidelity , for Decca Records , in the late 1940s and early 1950s and stereo recordings in the late 1950s and early 1960s , all supervised after Rupert 's death by his daughter , Bridget D 'Oyly Carte .
= = = The new Savoy Theatre = = =
Rupert D 'Oyly Carte also redesigned the Savoy Theatre . On 3 June 1929 the Savoy closed , and it was completely rebuilt to designs by Frank A. Tugwell with décor by Basil Ionides . The old house had three tiers ; the new one had two . The seating capacity was increased from 986 to 1 @,@ 158 . The theatre reopened 135 days later on 21 October 1929 , with The Gondoliers , designed by Ricketts and conducted by Sargent . George Sheringham designed new productions that season of H.M.S. Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance , and Patience ( 1929 , with other designs contributed by Hugo Rumbold ) , and he later designed costumes for Trial by Jury and Iolanthe .
The Savoy also hosted London seasons for the company in 1930 – 31 , 1933 , 1941 , 1951 , 1954 , 1961 , 1963 – 64 , and 1975 . London seasons at other theatres , mostly Sadler 's Wells , included summer seasons from 1935 to 1939 , 1942 , 1947 to 1950 , 1953 , 1971 , 1975 , 1977 and 1980 ; and winter seasons in 1956 – 57 , 1958 – 59 , 1960 – 61 , 1963 – 63 , 1965 – 66 , 1967 – 68 , and then every winter between 1969 – 70 and 1981 – 82 . The company continued to tour the British provinces and abroad when it was not in London , and these tours also often included London suburbs . The company 's musical director from 1929 ( having been assistant musical director from 1925 ) was Isidore Godfrey , who retained the position until 1968 and guest conducted the company in 1975 , as part of the centenary season at the Savoy Theatre . Guest conductors during Godfrey 's tenure were Sargent and Boyd Neel . Henry Lytton retired in 1934 after a quarter century as the principal comedian , and the company made a highly successful eight @-@ month North American tour with its new principal comedian , Martyn Green . In 1938 , many company members participated in the Technicolor film of The Mikado produced and conducted by Geoffrey Toye .
On 3 September 1939 , at the outbreak of World War II , the British government ordered the immediate and indefinite closure of all theatres . Carte cancelled the autumn tour and disbanded the company . Theatres were permitted to reopen from 9 September , but it took some weeks to re @-@ form the company . Some performers , including Martyn Green , were already committed elsewhere , and Grahame Clifford was engaged to play his roles . The company resumed touring , in Edinburgh , on Christmas Day 1939 . The company continued to perform throughout the war , both on tour and in London , but in 1940 German bombing destroyed the sets and costumes for five of its shows : Cox and Box , The Sorcerer , H.M.S. Pinafore , Princess Ida and Ruddigore . The old productions of Pinafore and Cox and Box were recreated shortly after the war , and Ruddigore received a new production , planned by Carte but not seen until after his death . The other two operas took longer to rejoin the company 's repertory . On the other hand , for the first wartime season , Peter Goffin , a protege of Carte 's daughter , Bridget , had designed a new production of The Yeomen of the Guard first seen in January 1940 , and his new Ruddigore debuted in 1948 . A return to the U.S. in 1947 was very successful , and the company resumed frequent visits to America .
Rupert died in 1948 , leaving a strong company to his daughter Bridget D 'Oyly Carte . She soon hired Frederic Lloyd as general manager . Bridget and Lloyd also took steps to keep the productions fresh , engaging designers to redesign the costumes and scenery . Peter Goffin , who had redesigned Yeomen ( 1939 ) and Ruddigore ( 1948 ) for the company , created new settings and costumes for Bridget for half a dozen more productions : The Mikado ( 1952 ; settings only , most of the celebrated Charles Ricketts costumes being retained ) , Patience ( 1957 ) , The Gondoliers ( 1958 ) , Trial by Jury ( 1959 ) , H.M.S. Pinafore ( 1961 ; ladies ' costumes ) and Iolanthe ( 1961 ) . A new production of Princess Ida in 1954 was designed by James Wade . Eleanor Evans , however , was an example of one of the company 's stage directors ( from 1949 to 1953 ) who was said to be reluctant to update and freshen stagings . In 1957 , Goffin designed a unit set for the company to facilitate touring , reducing the number of vans required to carry the scenery from twenty to nine . A 1957 review of Yeomen in The Times praised the production and marvelled at " the continued vitality of the Savoy operas " , noting : " The opera remains enchanting ; the singing seems , on the whole , better and more musical than that which one used to hear , say , 30 years since ; and though the acting lacks some of the richly crusted performances of those days , it is perhaps none the worse for that " . In 1949 , the company began a new series of recordings with Decca , featuring Green , who had returned to the company after the war , and continued the series with his successor , Peter Pratt . The company cooperated with the production of the 1953 film The Story of Gilbert and Sullivan , which used some former members of the company in the cast . In 1955 , the company gave a seven @-@ month tour to the U.S. to celebrate the 75th anniversary of its first American productions . In 1959 , the company began the tradition of holding a zany " last night " on the last evening of each London season .
= = = Later years and closing = = =
With the approaching end of the D 'Oyly Carte monopoly on Gilbert and Sullivan performances , when the copyright on Gilbert 's words expired in 1961 ( Sullivan ’ s music had already come out of copyright at the end of 1950 ) , Bridget D 'Oyly Carte contributed the company and all its assets to an independent charitable trust . She endowed the trust with the company 's scenery , costumes , band parts and other assets , together with a cash endowment , and supervised the production of operas on behalf of the trust until economic necessity forced the closure of the company in 1982 . As it turned out , competing professional productions of Gilbert and Sullivan did not harm the company . Beginning in 1960 , the company re @-@ recorded all of the operas with Pratt 's successor , John Reed , and also recorded a number of other Sullivan pieces . It made a cinema film of The Mikado in 1966 , and recorded for television broadcast its productions of Patience ( 1965 ) and H.M.S. Pinafore ( 1973 ) . It also supplied the soundtrack for a cartoon film of Ruddigore ( 1967 ) . During the 1960s , the company gave five North American tours . A new stage director , Michael Heyland , was hired in 1969 , staying until 1978 .
In March and April 1975 , after the regular London season at Sadler 's Wells , the company moved to the Savoy Theatre for a fortnight 's centennial performances , beginning on 25 March , the 100th anniversary of the first performance of Trial by Jury . All thirteen surviving Gilbert and Sullivan operas were performed in chronological order . Trial by Jury was given four times , as a curtain raiser to The Sorcerer , Pinafore and Pirates and as an afterpiece following The Grand Duke . Before the first of the four performances of Trial , a specially written curtain raiser by William Douglas @-@ Home , called Dramatic Licence , was played by Peter Pratt as Richard D 'Oyly Carte , Kenneth Sandford as Gilbert and John Ayldon as Sullivan , in which Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte plan the birth of Trial in 1875 ; afterwards , the prime minister , Harold Wilson , and Bridget D 'Oyly Carte each gave a short speech . A highlight of the season was a new staging of Utopia Limited ( later given again at the Royal Festival Hall ) , its first revival by the company . The Grand Duke was given as a concert performance , with narration by the BBC presenter Richard Baker . Royston Nash , who was at the company 's musical helm from 1971 to 1979 , conducted most of the performances , with Isidore Godfrey ( Pinafore ) and Sir Charles Mackerras ( Pirates and Mikado ) as guest conductors . Princes Philip and Andrew saw The Gondoliers . In the final performance of Trial by Jury , the regular D 'Oyly Carte chorus was augmented by fourteen former stars of the company : Sylvia Cecil , Elsie Griffin , Ivan Menzies , John Dean , Radley Flynn , Elizabeth Nickell @-@ Lean , Ella Halman , Leonard Osborn , Cynthia Morey , Jeffrey Skitch , Alan Barrett , Mary Sansom , Philip Potter and Gillian Humphreys .
In 1977 , during Queen Elizabeth II 's Jubilee Year , the company gave a Royal Command Performance of Pinafore at Windsor Castle . The company visited Denmark in 1970 , Rome in 1974 , and gave its last American tours in 1976 and 1978 . Its last tour , in Australasia , conducted by the company 's new musical director , Fraser Goulding , was a success in 1979 . Throughout the 20th century , until 1982 , the company toured , on average , for 35 weeks per year ( in addition to its 13 @-@ week London seasons ) , fostering a " strong family atmosphere , reinforced by the number of marriages in the company and the fact that so many people stayed with it for so long . " Principal soprano Valerie Masterson married the company 's principal flautist , Andrew March . She explained , " people didn 't have flats or houses ... touring was your life . " Throughout its history , the company maintained strict moral standards , and it was sometimes referred to as the " Savoy boarding school " , enforcing policies regarding behaviour on and off stage , and even a dress code . Soprano Cynthia Morey ascribed the strong affection that artists had for the company to " the unique family atmosphere engendered by the company 's direct descent from its creators , Gilbert , Sullivan ... Richard D 'Oyly Carte , followed by his widow , Helen , his son Rupert , and finally his granddaughter Bridget . " The company also preserved , for over a century , what The Times called a " unique performance style , which may be summarised as a combination of good taste and good fun " .
After the 1979 tour , the rising costs of mounting year @-@ round professional light opera without any government support , despite some generous private contributions , caused the company to accrue increasing losses. in 1980 , the English Arts Council 's Music Panel and Touring Committee recommended that the Arts Council make a grant to the company , but this idea was rejected . The company 's fans made an effort to raise private funds , but these were insufficient to make up the accelerating losses . In 1981 , producer George Walker proposed to film the company performing all of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas but backed out . Bridget D 'Oyly Carte was forced to close the company in 1982 , after a final London season in which John Reed and Valerie Masterson returned as guest artists . It gave its last performance on 27 February 1982 , at the Adelphi Theatre . A three @-@ LP recording of this performance was released , which included songs from all of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas . The company had operated nearly continuously for 107 years since the opening of Trial by Jury in 1875 . Even after it closed , however , the company 's productions continued to influence the productions of other companies .
= = Revivals of the company = =
Dame Bridget D ’ Oyly Carte died in 1985 , leaving in her will a £ 1 million legacy to enable the company to be revived . The company secured sponsorship from Sir Michael Bishop , who later became chairman of the board of trustees , the Birmingham City Council and BMI British Midland Airways ( of which Bishop is chairman ) . Richard Condon was appointed the revived company 's first general manager , and Bramwell Tovey was its first musical director . In succeeding seasons , the company 's productions of The Mikado and H.M.S. Pinafore were nominated for Olivier Awards . From 1988 to 2003 , the company mounted productions of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas on tour and in London , and it produced several operettas by Offenbach , Lehár and Strauss . Unlike the original company , which had regularly performed up to a dozen operas each year , 48 weeks a year , the new company generally presented only one or two operas in shorter seasons . In the first season , in 1988 , the operas played were Iolanthe and The Yeomen of the Guard , both starring Gillian Knight . The company made its debut at the Sunderland Empire Theatre on 29 April 1988 , and , after touring , opened in London at the Cambridge Theatre in July . The press notices were good , particularly about the musical aspects of the new company ; opinion was divided about the staging . The Observer thought the productions " miles superior to the later work of the old D 'Oyly Carte ; better designed , better lit ... better played and better sung . " A review in The Guardian praised the musical standards , but added , " Gilbert and Sullivan is as much theatrical as musical entertainment and there remains a lot to be done on the visual side . "
The two operas presented in 1989 were The Mikado and The Pirates of Penzance . The new company 's first three productions were broadly traditional in their staging . The Pirates , however , marked a break with traditional presentations , with the setting a giant toy @-@ box and a collapsible toy boat . In 1990 the company presented campier versions of Pinafore and Trial ( including a heavily pregnant Angelina ) that were much criticised by the old company 's fans , who complained that it was a betrayal of the legacy left by Bridget D 'Oyly Carte . The next season departed further from earnest presentations in its production of The Gondoliers , which included a deeply corrugated stage floor , " startling " , " surreal , primary coloured , starkly angled sets " , gimmicky distracting business and generally staging that was considered " way over the top " . It " was unveiled to storms of outraged booing " . Most of the critics shared the public 's disapproval of the production . The Times wrote , " The satiric point disappears in meretricious ado and humourless humour " . Some critics , however , thought that it was time to sweep away " bad and lazy " traditions of the old company , calling the production " riotous , zany and subversive ... with a Goonish or Pythonesque sense of slapstick comedy " , noting that " The girls are pretty and the boys are handsome , and they sing and dance with a youthful freshness " . Also in 1991 , the company accepted an offer from the Alexandra Theatre , Birmingham , to make its base there , although its pattern of spring national tours and summer London seasons was not affected .
Another initiative was to stage a foreign operetta for the first time since Richard D 'Oyly Carte 's day , in what would be D 'Oyly Carte 's first co @-@ production . The work chosen was Orpheus in the Underworld , which Opera North presented in 1992 and D 'Oyly Carte toured in 1993 as part of its 35 @-@ week tour celebrating the 150th anniversary of Sullivan 's birth . The innovation was welcomed , receiving an Arts Council Grant , and the company later presented Die Fledermaus ( 1994 ) , La vie parisienne ( 1995 ) and The Count of Luxembourg ( 1997 ) . Of the Savoy operas , the new company never staged The Sorcerer , Patience , Princess Ida , Ruddigore , Utopia and The Grand Duke , stating that they lacked box @-@ office potential .
Unlike its predecessor , the new company was not a permanent ensemble with a recognisable style . Some performers appeared in several productions , but each production was cast anew , often with guest stars from British television in leading roles , with varying degrees of success . The chorus and orchestra of the new company were much smaller than those of the old company : the chorus was reduced from 32 ( or more ) to 20 , and the orchestra from 38 generally to 24 . For a 1998 production of Pirates at the Queen 's Theatre , the orchestra was even smaller : The Guardian wrote , " The goings @-@ on in the pit are dispiriting . Budgetary constraints have forced the company to re @-@ write the score for a band of nine instrumentalists . They play well enough , but every one of Sullivan 's parodies loses its clout . " The company received a modest Arts Council grant in 1997 to keep it afloat and turned to private funding from Raymond Gubbay for London seasons beginning in 1998 . Despite the lean forces , the company received generally favourable reviews over the next five years under the management of Ian Martin . Although the new company 's productions met with mixed reviews , some of its recordings have been well received . Many of these recordings also restore music that had been cut by Gilbert and Sullivan or the company over the years . Gubbay felt over @-@ committed by 2003 and pulled out . After fifteen years , with no Arts Council funding forthcoming , the company suspended productions in May 2003 .
From May to July 2013 , Scottish Opera produced a British touring production of The Pirates of Penzance in partnership with the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , although it was not reported what role the latter company took in the producing team . Richard Suart played Major @-@ General Stanley and Nicholas Sharratt played Frederic . The Daily Telegraph , The Guardian and The Times each gave the production three out of five stars . The company is co @-@ producing The Mikado with Scottish Opera on tour in May to July 2016 , directed by Martin Lloyd @-@ Evans and starring Suart , Sharatt , Andrew Shore and Rebecca Bottone .
= = Principal performers = =
Gilbert and Sullivan aficionados frequently use the names of the principal comedians of the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company to refer to time periods of the company 's history . Thus , after the sudden death of Sullivan 's brother Fred , who had created the role of the Learned Judge in Trial by Jury in 1875 , the unknown George Grossmith was recruited in 1877 . Before Grossmith left the company in 1889 , he created the principal comic roles in nine of the operas , and so the principal comedian parts in the operas are often referred to as the " Grossmith " roles . Other performers who created a long series of roles in the original productions of the operas included baritone Rutland Barrington , mezzo @-@ soprano Jessie Bond , soprano Leonora Braham , contralto Rosina Brandram , tenor Durward Lely and bass @-@ baritone Richard Temple . In the original New York City productions and British touring productions , soprano Geraldine Ulmar , baritone Signor Brocolini , comic George Thorne and bass @-@ baritone Fred Billington became particularly well known .
After Grossmith left the company , the most notable players of his roles during the rest of Gilbert 's lifetime were Walter Passmore ( principal comedian from 1894 to 1903 ) and Charles H. Workman , who played the roles on tour with the company from 1897 and took over as principal comedian at the Savoy between 1906 and 1909 . Both of these performers made recordings of songs from the Savoy operas . During the Passmore era , principal players of the company included Brandram and Barrington , as well as tenor Robert Evett , soprano Isabel Jay , sopranos Ruth Vincent and Florence St. John , tenor Courtice Pounds and his sister , mezzo @-@ soprano Louie Pounds . During Workman 's tenure , principal players included contralto Louie René , soprano Clara Dow , Leo Sheffield , and a young Henry Lytton . No complete recordings of the operas were made that included active members of the Company until the 1920s . Workman and W. S. Gilbert quarrelled over their production of Fallen Fairies in 1909 , and Gilbert banned Workman from appearing in his works in Britain . It is likely that , otherwise , Workman would have continued as principal comedian of the company . Indeed , Rupert D 'Oyly Carte wrote to Workman in 1919 asking him to return to the company as principal comedian , but Workman declined .
From 1909 to 1934 , the principal comedian was Henry Lytton , who had been playing a variety of roles with the company steadily since 1887 . He received a knighthood for his performances during his long tenure with the company . Lytton 's voice deteriorated during his later career , and when HMV embarked on a series of complete recordings of the operas after World War I , Lytton was not invited to record most of his roles . Instead , the concert singer George Baker was brought in to substitute . Other performers from this period include mezzo @-@ soprano Nellie Briercliffe , bass @-@ baritone Darrell Fancourt , who is estimated to have portrayed the Mikado of Japan more than 3 @,@ 000 times , contralto Bertha Lewis , tenor Derek Oldham , soprano Elsie Griffin and baritones Leo Sheffield and Sydney Granville .
Lytton was succeeded in 1934 by Martyn Green , who played the principal comic parts until 1951 , except for a gap from the end of 1939 to 1946 , when Grahame Clifford replaced him . Green 's time with the company is remembered for the early Decca recordings of the operas . During Green 's tenure , in addition to the long @-@ serving Fancourt , principal players included baritone Richard Walker , soprano Helen Roberts , mezzo @-@ soprano Marjorie Eyre , baritone Leslie Rands and contralto Ella Halman . Green was followed by Peter Pratt . He left the company in 1959 , after more than eight years as principal comedian , still only 36 years old . During Pratt 's years , principals included bass @-@ baritone Donald Adams , tenor Leonard Osborn ( who later directed the productions ) , contralto Ann Drummond @-@ Grant and mezzo @-@ soprano Joyce Wright .
Pratt 's successor was John Reed , who served as principal comedian for two decades . Other stars from this era were Thomas Round , Donald Adams , Gillian Knight , Valerie Masterson and Kenneth Sandford , all of whom , except the last , left the company for the wider operatic stage of Covent Garden , Sadler 's Wells , English National Opera , Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence and elsewhere . When Reed left the company in 1979 , his understudy James Conroy @-@ Ward took over until the closure of the company in 1982 .
From 1988 , the revived company used guest artists for each production . The most regularly seen principal comedians were Eric Roberts and Richard Suart , both of whom regularly perform the " Grossmith " roles for other opera companies . Others have included Sam Kelly , Jasper Carrott and Simon Butteriss .
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= Radioactive contamination from the Rocky Flats Plant =
The Rocky Flats Plant , a former U.S. nuclear weapons production facility located about 15 miles northwest of Denver , caused radioactive ( primarily plutonium , americium , and uranium ) contamination within and outside its boundaries . The contamination primarily resulted from two major plutonium fires in 1957 and 1969 ( plutonium is pyrophoric and shavings can spontaneously combust ) and from wind @-@ blown plutonium that leaked from barrels of radioactive waste . Much lower concentrations of radioactive isotopes were released throughout the operational life of the plant from 1952 to 1992 , from smaller accidents and from normal operational releases of plutonium particles too small to be filtered . Prevailing winds from the plant swept airborne contamination south and east , into populated areas northwest of Denver .
The contamination of the Denver area by plutonium from the fires and other sources was not publicly reported until the 1970s . According to a 1972 study coauthored by Edward Martell , " In the more densely populated areas of Denver , the Pu contamination level in surface soils is several times fallout " , and the plutonium contamination " just east of the Rocky Flats plant ranges up to hundreds of times that from nuclear tests . " As noted by Carl Johnson in Ambio , " Exposures of a large population in the Denver area to plutonium and other radionuclides in the exhaust plumes from the plant date back to 1953 . "
Weapons production at the plant was halted after a combined FBI and EPA raid in 1989 and years of protests . The plant has since been shut down , with its buildings demolished and completely removed from the site . The Rocky Flats Plant was declared a Superfund site in 1989 and began its transformation to a cleanup site in February 1992 . Removal of the plant and surface contamination was largely completed in the late 1990s and early 2000s . Nearly all underground contamination was left in place , and measurable radioactive environmental contamination in and around Rocky Flats will probably persist for thousands of years . The land formerly occupied by the plant is now the Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge . Plans to make this refuge accessible for recreation have been repeatedly delayed due to lack of funding and protested by citizen organizations . The Department of Energy continues to fund monitoring of the site , but private groups and researchers remain concerned about the extent and long @-@ term public health consequences of the contamination . Estimates of the public health risk caused by the contamination vary significantly , with accusations that the United States government is being too secretive and that citizen activists are being alarmist .
= = Background = =
The Rocky Flats Plant was located south of Boulder , Colorado and northwest of Denver . Originally under management of the Dow Chemical Company , management was transferred to Rockwell in 1975 . Initially having an area of 4 sq mi ( 10 km2 ) , the site was expanded with a 4 @,@ 600 acres ( 19 km2 ) buffer zone in 1972 .
Construction of the first buildings was started on the site on July 10 , 1951 . Production of parts for nuclear weapons began in 1953 . At the time , the precise nature of the work at Rocky Flats was a closely guarded secret . The plant produced fission cores for nuclear weapons , used to " ignite " fusion and fissionable fuel in all modern nuclear weapons . Fission cores resemble miniaturized versions of the Fat Man nuclear bomb detonated above Nagasaki . They are often referred to as " triggers " in official and news documents to obfuscate their function . For much of its operational lifetime , Rocky Flats was the sole mass @-@ producer of plutonium components for America 's nuclear stockpile .
Management of the site passed to EG & G in 1990 , which did not reapply for the contract in 1994 . Management of the site then passed to the Kaiser @-@ Hill Company as of July 1 , 1995 . The Department of Energy now manages the central portion of the plant where production buildings were once located , while the Fish and Wildlife Service has taken over management of the peripheral outer unit .
= = = 1957 fire = = =
On the evening of September 11 , 1957 , plutonium shavings in a glove box located in building 771 ( the Plutonium Recovery and Fabrication Facility ) spontaneously ignited . The fire spread to the flammable glove box materials , including plexiglas windows and rubber gloves . The fire rapidly spread through the interconnected glove boxes and ignited the large bank of High @-@ efficiency particulate air ( HEPA ) filters located in a plenum downstream . Within minutes the first filters had burned out , allowing plutonium particles to escape from the building exhaust stacks . The building exhaust fans stopped operating due to fire damage at 10 : 40 PM , which ended the majority of the plutonium release . Fire fighters initially used carbon dioxide fire extinguishers because water can act as a moderator and cause plutonium to go critical . They resorted to water hoses when the dry fire extinguishers proved ineffective .
The 1957 fire released 11 @-@ 36 Ci ( 160 – 510 grams or 0 @.@ 35 – 1 @.@ 12 pounds ) of plutonium , much of which contaminated off @-@ site areas as microscopic particles entrained in smoke from the fire . Isopleth diagrams from studies show portions of the city of Denver included in the area where surface sampling detected plutonium . The fact that the fire had resulted in significant plutonium contamination of surrounding populated areas remained secret . News reports at the time reported , per the Atomic Energy Commission 's briefing , that there was slight risk of light contamination and that no fire fighters had been contaminated . No abnormal radioactivity was reported by the Colorado Public Health Service .
= = = Pad 903 leakage = = =
Plutonium milling operations produced large quantities of toxic cutting fluid contaminated with particles of plutonium and uranium . Thousands of 55 @-@ gallon drums of the waste were stored outside in an unprotected earthen area called the 903 pad storage area , where they corroded and leaked radionuclides over years into the soil and water . An estimated 5 @,@ 000 gallons of plutonium @-@ contaminated oil leached into the soil between 1964 and 1967 . Portions of this waste , mixed with dust that composed Pad 903 , became airborne in the heavy winds of the Front Range and contaminated offsite areas to the south and east .
Leaking storage barrels at Pad 903 released 1 @.@ 4 @-@ 15 Ci ( 19 – 208 grams or 0 @.@ 042 – 0 @.@ 459 pounds ) of plutonium as airborne dust during the storage and subsequent attempts at cleanup . Much more remains interred under the Pad 903 area , which has been paved over with asphalt .
= = = 1969 fire = = =
Another major fire occurred on May 11 , 1969 in building 776 / 777 ( the Plutonium Processing Facility ) , again starting due to spontaneous combustion of plutonium shavings in a glove box . Fire fighters again resorted to fighting the fire with water after dry extinguishers proved ineffective . Despite recommendations after the 1957 fire , suppression systems were not built into the glove boxes .
While the fire bore marked similarities to the 1957 fire , the level of contamination was less severe because the HEPA filters in the exhaust system did not burn through ( After the 1957 fire , the filter material was changed from cellulose to nonflammable fiberglass ) . Had the filters failed or the roof ( which sustained heavy fire damage ) been breached , the release could have been more severe than the 1957 fire . About 1 @,@ 400 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 100 lb ) of plutonium was in the storage area where the fire occurred , and about 3 @,@ 400 kilograms ( 7 @,@ 500 lb ) total plutonium was in building 776 / 777 .
The 1969 fire released 13 @-@ 62 mCi ( 140 – 900 milligrams or 0 @.@ 00031 – 0 @.@ 00198 pounds ) of plutonium , about 1000th as much as was released in the 1957 fire . The 1969 fire , however , led local health officials to perform independent tests of the area surrounding Rocky Flats to determine the extent of the contamination . This resulted in the first releases of information to the public that populated areas southeast of Rocky Flats had been contaminated .
= = = Other sources = = =
Hundreds of other small plutonium fires and intentional incinerations also occurred at Rocky Flats that were not nearly as destructive .
Rockwell workers mixed hazardous and other wastes with concrete to create one @-@ ton solid blocks called pondcrete . These were stored in the open under tarps on asphalt pads . The pondcrete turned out to be weak storage , an outcome that had been predicted by Rockwell 's own engineers . Relatively unprotected from the elements , the blocks began to leak and sag . Nitrates , cadmium and low @-@ level radioactive waste began to leach into the ground and run downhill toward Walnut Creek and Woman Creek .
Most of the plutonium from Rocky Flats was oxidized plutonium , which does not readily dissolve in water . A large portion of the plutonium released into the creeks sank to the bottom and is now found in the streambeds of Walnut and Woman Creeks , and on the bottom of local public reservoirs just outside Rocky Flats : Great Western Reservoir , ( no longer used for city of Broomfield drinking water consumption as of 1997 but still used for irrigation ) , and Standley Lake , a drinking water supply for the cities of Westminster , Thornton , Northglenn and some residents of Federal Heights . As one of several forms of remediation and once the extent of the lapses at Rocky Flats became public knowledge , several streams that were formed by drainage through the contaminated areas of the Rocky Flats Plant were diverted such that they would no longer flow directly into some of the local reservoirs , such as Mower Reservoir and Standley Lake . Also , a surface water control system was built to allow runoff from contaminated creeks to collect in holding ponds and thus reduce or prevent direct runoff into Standley Lake . Proposals to remove or breach some of these dams to reduce the cost of maintenance have been protested by the cities downstream .
= = Reporting of contamination = =
No radioactivity warning , advisement or cleanup was provided to the public in the 1957 fire , the worse of the two major fires . At the time of the 1957 fire , AEC officials told the Denver Post that the fire “ resulted in no spread of radioactive contamination of any consequence . ” The public was not informed of substantial contamination from the 1957 plutonium fire until after the highly visible 1969 fire , when civilian monitoring teams confronted government officials with measurements made outside the plant of radioactive contamination suspected to be from the 1969 fire , which consumed hundreds of pounds of plutonium ( 850 kg ) .
The 1969 fire raised public awareness of potential hazards posed by the plant and led to years of increasing citizen protests and demands for plant closure . Releases from previous years had not been reported publicly prior to the fire ; airborne @-@ become @-@ groundborne radioactive contamination extending well beyond the Rocky Flats plant was not publicly reported until the 1970s .
In 2002 , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service surveyed tissues harvested from deer that lived at Rocky Flats for plutonium and other actinides . Isotopes of plutonium , americium , and uranium were detected , with the highest measured activity being 0 @.@ 0125 pCi / g ( 2360 seconds per disintegration ) for uranium @-@ 233 or uranium @-@ 234 . The increased cancer risk , as reported by the study , to an individual who ate 28 kilograms ( 62 lb ) of Rocky Flats deer meat per year over a 70 @-@ year lifetime was estimated to be as high as 1 in 210 @,@ 000 . This is near the conservative end of the EPA 's acceptable risk range .
In 2010 , samples of plutonium were found off @-@ site from Rocky Flats by citizens of the area . " High concentrations of plutonium were found in dust collected in a crawl space under a house where it had accumulated for 50 years . Specialist Marco Kaltofen of the Boston Chemical Data Corp. , who did the technical analysis of the samples , pointed out that this plutonium laden dust certainly endangered the health of anyone who spent much time in this crawl space . "
= = Contamination and health studies = =
Plutonium @-@ 239 and 240 emit ionizing radiation in the form of alpha particles . Inhalation is the primary pathway by which plutonium enters the body , though plutonium can also enter the body through a wound . Once inhaled , plutonium increases the risk of lung cancer , liver cancer , bone cancer , and leukemia . Once absorbed into the body , the biological half life of plutonium is about 200 years .
Following the public 1969 fire , surveys were taken of the land outside the boundaries of Rocky Flats to quantify the amount of plutonium contamination . Researchers noted that plutonium contamination from the plant was present , but did not match the wind conditions of the 1969 fire . The 1957 fire and leaking barrels on Pad 903 have since been confirmed to be the main sources of plutonium contamination . Authors Krey and Hardy estimated the total quantity of plutonium contamination outside of Rocky Flats 's boundaries to be 2 @.@ 6 Ci ( 36 grams or 0 @.@ 079 pounds ) , while Poet and Martell estimated the value to be 6 @.@ 6 Ci ( 92 grams or 0 @.@ 203 pounds ) . The study also noted that plutonium levels just outside the boundaries of the plant were hundreds of times higher than the background level caused by global fallout from nuclear testing , and that contamination to the north of the plant was probably caused by normal operations rather than accidental releases .
In a 1981 study by Dr. Carl Johnson , health director for Jefferson County , showed a 45 percent increase in congenital birth defects in Denver suburbs downwind of Rocky Flats compared to the rest of Colorado . Moreover , he found a 16 % increase in cancer rates for those living closest to the plant as compared to those on the outer perimeter of the area , and he estimated 491 excess cancer cases whereas the DOE estimated one . Real estate interests pressed the county to fire Johnson , claiming his findings hurt their industry . After electing a real estate investor to the county board , they succeeded . A 1987 study by Crump and others did not find the cancer rates in the northwestern portion of Denver to be significantly higher than other parts of the city and attributed variance in cancer rates to the population density of urban areas . Crump 's conclusions were contested by Johnson in a letter to the journal editor . In a 1992 survey of radiation risk analysis , the authors concluded , " Johnson failed to describe an effective and complete model for the cause of the cancers and its relationship to other knowledge as Crump et al. have done . Therefore , Crump et al . ' s explanation must be preferred . "
In 1983 , Colorado University Medical School professor John C. Cobb and the EPA reported plutonium concentrations from about 500 persons who had died in Colorado . A comparison study was done of those who lived near Rocky Flats with those who lived far from this nuclear weapons production site . The ratio of Pu @-@ 240 to Pu @-@ 239 was " minutely lower " for persons who lived within 50 km of Rocky Flats , but was more strongly correlated to age , gender , and smoking habits than proximity to the plant .
In 1991 , the Department of Energy 's public affairs group published a pamphlet stating that the inhalation of sediments that become resuspended in the air is considered the most significant pathway that could expose human beings to plutonium from the contaminated local reservoirs , but also stated that the airborne plutonium concentrations as measured by downwind air monitors remained below the DOE standard .
In a 1999 analysis , it was found that " the major event contributing the highest individual risk from plutonium released from Rocky Flats was the 1957 fire , " with wind distribution of plutonium from the 903 Pad Storage Area being the next greatest source of health risk . In this report , health risk estimates for off @-@ site humans had a variance of four orders of magnitude , from " between 2 @.@ 0 × 10 − 4 ( 95th percentile ) and 2 @.@ 2 × 10 − 8 ( 5th percentile ) , with a median risk estimate of 2 @.@ 3 × 10 − 6 . " The DOE maintains a list of Rocky Flats epidemiological studies .
In 2003 , Dr. James Ruttenber led a study on the health effects of plutonium . Conducted by the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center and the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment , the study concluded that lung cancer is linked to plutonium inhalation . " We have supporting evidence from other studies that , along with our findings , support the hypothesis that plutonium exposure causes lung cancer , " Ruttenber said . His group 's findings were part of a broader study that tracked 16 @,@ 303 people who worked at the Rocky Flats plant between 1952 and 1989 . Their research also found that these workers were 2 @.@ 5 times more likely to develop brain tumors than other people .
= = Legal actions = =
Subsequent to reports of environmental crimes being committed at Rocky Flats , the United States Department of Justice sponsored an FBI raid dubbed " Operation Desert Glow , " which began at 9 a.m. on June 6 , 1989 . The FBI entered the premises under the ruse of providing a terrorist threat briefing , and served its search warrant to Dominick Sanchini , Rockwell International 's manager of Rocky Flats .
The FBI raid led to the formation of Colorado 's first special grand jury , the juried testimony of 110 witnesses , reviews of 2 @,@ 000 exhibits and ultimately a 1992 plea agreement in which Rockwell admitted to 10 federal environmental crimes and agreed to pay $ 18 @.@ 5 million in fines out of its own funds . This amount was less than the company had been paid in bonuses for running the plant as determined by the GAO , and yet was also by far the highest hazardous @-@ waste fine ever ; four times larger than the previous record . Due to DOE indemnification of its contractors , without some form of settlement being arrived at between the U.S. Justice Department and Rockwell the cost of paying any civil penalties would ultimately have been borne by U.S. taxpayers . While any criminal penalties allotted to Rockwell would not have been covered by U.S. taxpayers , Rockwell claimed that the Department of Energy had specifically exempted them from most environmental laws , including hazardous waste .
As forewarned by the prosecuting U.S. Attorney , Ken Fimberg ( later Ken Scott ) , the Department of Justice 's stated findings and plea agreement with Rockwell were heavily contested by its own , 23 @-@ member special grand jury . Press leaks by both members of the DOJ and the grand jury occurred in violation of secrecy Rule 6 ( e ) regarding Grand Jury information . The public contest led to U.S. Congressional oversight committee hearings chaired by Congressman Howard Wolpe , which issued subpoenas to DOJ principals despite several instances of the DOJ 's refusal to comply . The hearings , whose findings include that the Justice Department had " bargained away the truth , " ultimately still did not fully reveal the special grand jury 's report to the public , which remains sealed by the DOJ courts .
The special grand jury report was nonetheless leaked to Westword . According to its subsequent publications , the Rocky Flats special grand jury had compiled indictments charging three DOE officials and five Rockwell employees with environmental crimes . The grand jury also wrote a report , intended for the public 's consumption per their charter , lambasting the conduct of DOE and Rocky Flats contractors for " engaging in a continuing campaign of distraction , deception and dishonesty " and noted that Rocky Flats , for many years , had discharged pollutants , hazardous materials and radioactive matter into nearby creeks and Broomfield 's and Westminster 's water supplies .
The DOE itself , in a study released in December of the year prior to the FBI raid , called Rocky Flats ' ground water the single greatest environmental hazard at any of its nuclear facilities . From the grand jury 's report : " The DOE reached this conclusion because the groundwater contamination was so extensive , toxic , and migrating toward the drinking water supplies for the Cities of Broomfield and Westminster , Colorado . "
A class action lawsuit , Cook v. Rockwell International Corp. , was filed in January 1990 against Rockwell and Dow Chemical ( due to the indemnity of nuclear contractors , the award would have be paid by the federal government ) . Sixteen years later , the plaintiffs were awarded $ 926 million in economic damages , punitive damages , and interest . The 10th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals subsequently threw out the verdict and ordered a retrial . A further appeal was rejected without comment by the United States Supreme Court in June 2012 .
Carl Johnson sued Jefferson County for unlawful termination , after he was forced to resign from his position as Director of the Jefferson County Health Department . He alleged that his termination was due to concerns by the board members that his reports of contamination would lower property values . The suit was settled out of court for $ 150 @,@ 000 .
= = Legacy = =
Denver 's automotive beltway does not include a component in the northwest sector , partly due to concerns over unremediated plutonium contamination .
In 2006 , according to DOE , " The selected remedy / corrective action for the Peripheral OU is no action . The RI / FS report ( RCRA Facility Investigation @-@ Remedial Investigation / Corrective Measures Study- Feasibility Study ) concludes that the Peripheral OU is already in a state protective of human health and the environment . "
In 2007 , the " Peripheral Operable Unit " ( Peripheral OU ) land area of Rocky Flats was redesignated as the Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge and fell under U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) stewardship in 2007 following the EPA ’ s determination that final corrective actions had been completed . According to the USFWS , " the refuge has remained closed to the public due to a lack of appropriations for refuge management operations " . The U.S. Government 's efforts to make the area surrounding the former plant into the Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge have been controversial due to the contamination , much of which is underground and not remediated . The substantially contaminated " Central Operable Unit " ( COU ) land area of Rocky Flats remains under DOE control , and is now surrounded by the refuge .
Plutonium 239 , with a 24 @,@ 000 year half life , will persist in the environment hundreds of thousands of years . The DOE 's assessment of the Central Operating Unit indicates that the long @-@ term risk to citizens living outside the boundaries of Rocky Flats is negligible , but citizen organizations state that the remediation of the site was inadequate .
= = Public opposition = =
On the weekend of April 28 , 1979 , more than 15 @,@ 000 people demonstrated against the Rocky Flats Nuclear Weapons Plant . The protest was coordinated with other anti @-@ nuclear demonstrations across the country . Daniel Ellsberg and Allen Ginsberg were among the 284 people who were arrested . The demonstration followed more than six months of continuous protests that included an attempted blockade of the railroad tracks leading to the site . Large pro @-@ nuclear counter demonstrations were also staged that year .
On October 15 , 1983 , about 10 @,@ 000 demonstrators turned out for protest at Rocky Flats ( well short of the 21 @,@ 000 hoped for by protest organizers ) . No arrests were made . On August 10 , 1987 ( the 42nd anniversary of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki ) , 320 demonstrators were arrested after they tried to force a one @-@ day shutdown of the plant . A similar protest with a turnout of about 3 @,@ 500 was staged on August 6 , 1989 ( the anniversary of the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima ) .
Though public demonstrations against plant operations ceased with the decommissioning of the plant , protests have continued regarding the disposal of nuclear waste from the site and the scale and scope of cleanup operations . Since 2013 , opposition has focused on the Candelas development located along the southern border of the former Plant site .
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= New York State Route 17M =
New York State Route 17M ( NY 17M ) is an east – west state highway in Orange County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 26 @.@ 63 miles ( 42 @.@ 86 km ) from west of the city of Middletown to what is currently the north – south section of NY 17 just southeast of the village of Harriman . It is a busy main street in Middletown and the village of Monroe ; in the former , it divides into a parkway for several blocks and forms the city 's major commercial strip , located between the downtown district and an interchange with Interstate 84 ( I @-@ 84 ) . The rest of the road is a two @-@ lane rural route . Between New Hampton and Goshen , the highway overlaps with U.S. Route 6 ( US 6 ) . The easternmost section of that overlap near Goshen is routed on the Quickway , making a three @-@ route concurrency with NY 17 .
Most of NY 17M follows the course used by NY 17 prior to the construction of the Quickway through the Catskill Mountains . The first section of the Quickway opened in 1951 and extended from Fair Oaks to Goshen . NY 17M was initially assigned to NY 17 's old surface routing between Fair Oaks and Middletown ; however , it was extended east to Harriman and , for a brief time , northwest to Wurtsboro as more sections of the freeway were completed .
= = Route description = =
The portions of NY 17M that lie north and east of the city of Middletown are maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) . Within the Middletown city limits , NY 17M is city @-@ maintained .
= = = Wallkill and Middletown = = =
County Route 76 ( CR 76 ) becomes NY 17M when the highway passes through the site of a former interchange ( once exit 118A ) with the nearby Quickway ( NY 17 ) in the town of Wallkill , located in northern Orange County . The junction was just north of the former right @-@ of @-@ way of the New York , Ontario and Western Railway , which NY 17M crosses as it makes its way southward over some gentle , lightly developed hills . After 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , the road reaches a signalized intersection with NY 302 , its first junction with another state highway . The junction currently serves as NY 302 's southern terminus ; however , NY 302 once continued south to Middletown by way of an overlap with NY 17M . Continuing on , NY 17M traverses increasingly developed areas , passing through the hamlet of Rockville on its way to the densely populated neighborhood of Washington Heights , situated just outside Middletown .
The route seamlessly passes from Washington Heights to Middletown , where it becomes known as North Street . The street is initially fairly wide — featuring shoulders on each side — but it narrows in the residential neighborhoods closer to the city 's center . Upon reaching the northern edge of Middletown 's central business district , the route turns right onto Wickham Avenue , which carries NY 211 through northern Middletown . The resulting overlap between NY 17M and NY 211 is a wrong @-@ way concurrency : NY 17M eastbound is concurrent with NY 211 westbound and vice versa . NY 17M and NY 211 head west along the fringe of downtown , climbing slightly in elevation as the street passes through mostly residential areas . After seven blocks , Wickham Avenue merges into West Main Street ; however , the road 's surroundings remain unchanged .
NY 17M and NY 211 continue along West Main Street for another four blocks , traversing a slight westerly turn in the street prior to intersecting Monhagen Avenue in the western part of the city . Both routes leave Main Street here : NY 211 turns right , following the road northwest toward Otisville while NY 17M heads left , proceeding southeastward toward downtown . It continues through a six @-@ block commercial and residential area to Mill Street , at which point Monhagen Avenue becomes Fulton Street and expands to become a parkway with a tree @-@ lined median strip . This stretch continues for five blocks along the southern edge of downtown Middletown to Academy Avenue , where NY 17M turns right and heads southward . After just two blocks , the route changes streets for the final time in Middletown , veering left onto Dolson Avenue .
= = = East of Middletown = = =
As Dolson Avenue , NY 17M passes by a single residential block before entering a linear commercial district that follows the highway to an interchange with I @-@ 84 roughly 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the south . The route initially remains two lanes wide , but widens to four lanes after crossing the Middletown and New Jersey Railway at @-@ grade . This stretch of NY 17M also features a center left @-@ turn lane to accommodate the traffic turning into the many commercial plazas on either side . The road remains within the Middletown city limits until a block before the intersection where US 6 comes in from the west and joins NY 17M . Together , they cross over I @-@ 84 at exit 3 , providing access to the cities of Port Jervis and Newburgh in the western and eastern parts of the county , respectively .
Just past I @-@ 84 , the Wawayanda hamlet of New Hampton begins , with car dealerships and other commercial establishments on either side . The road narrows to two lanes as the combined highways begin a slow , gentle descent through less developed areas to the bridge over the Wallkill River , situated at the northern tip of the county 's Black Dirt Region . Short sections of the approach on either side add a passing lane in the uphill direction . The river marks the Goshen town line , and the slight climb out of the river depression is accompanied again with some extra lanes . Past the climb , development aside the road picks up slightly , although most of the land around the highway remains undeveloped as open fields or forests . US 6 and NY 17M continue to the western outskirts of the village of Goshen , where they merge into NY 17 at exit 123 .
NY 17M follows the Quickway for about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , meeting NY 17A and NY 207 at an interchange ( exit 124 ) in a commercialized area southwest of the center of Goshen . It ultimately leaves the Quickway before US 6 does , splitting from the highway at exit 125 . From here to the village of Chester , NY 17M closely follows the NY 17 freeway , serving a handful of homes in an otherwise undeveloped area adjacent to the Quickway . In Chester , NY 17M becomes Brookside Avenue and intersects with NY 94 in the commercial center of the community . It continues on , passing through the rural areas of the southern portion of the town of Blooming Grove prior to becoming heavily developed as it passes into the town of Monroe .
Just inside the town line , NY 17M turns southward , leaving the vicinity of the Quickway and entering the village of Monroe . It bypasses the downtown portion of the village and its historic district to the west and south . Despite this fact , it still serves as one of the community 's major commercial strips , intersecting NY 208 in a built @-@ up area due west of downtown . The route continues to the east , serving commercial and residential areas on its way to the nearby village of Harriman . Development abates slightly past Harriman as NY 17M continues with a slight southward bent towards its final junction with NY 17 just outside the Harriman village limits in the town and village of Woodbury .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and designation = = =
What is now NY 17M was originally designated as part of Route 4 by the New York State Legislature in 1908 . The unsigned legislative route extended across the Southern Tier of New York , beginning near the shores of Lake Erie in Westfield and ending at the Hudson River in Highland Falls . The first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , at which time most of legislative Route 4 was designated as NY 17 . While Route 4 went northeast from Harriman , NY 17 continued south from the village toward the New Jersey state line .
In the late 1940s , construction began on the Quickway , a limited @-@ access highway connecting Binghamton to Harriman by way of the NY 17 corridor . The first portion to be built was the section between exit 118A in Fair Oaks and exit 123 near Goshen , which opened to traffic in July 1951 . NY 17 was subsequently realigned to bypass Middletown to the northeast on the new freeway while the former routing of NY 17 between US 6 south of Middletown and the new Fair Oaks interchange was redesignated as NY 17M . The remainder of old NY 17 from Middletown to Goshen remained part of US 6 , which had overlapped with NY 17 between Middletown and Goshen .
The Goshen – Chester and Chester – Harriman segments of the Quickway were completed in October 1954 and August 1955 , respectively , creating a continuous limited @-@ access highway between Fair Oaks and the New York State Thruway . US 6 and NY 17 were moved onto the highway as sections opened to traffic , while NY 17M was extended eastward along NY 17 's old routing to Harriman following the completion of the Quickway between Chester and the Thruway . On October 23 , 1958 , the portion of the Quickway between Fair Oaks and Wurtsboro ( exit 114 ) was completed as part of a realigned NY 17 . The former surface routing of NY 17 between the two locations initially became part of NY 17M ; however , this extension was eliminated in the late 1960s .
= = = Realignment and ramp closure = = =
NY 17M originally followed a slightly different alignment through downtown Middletown . When the route was first assigned , it continued south from Wickham Avenue on North Street , proceeding into what was then the main commercial hub of the city . The highway rejoined its modern alignment at the intersection of South Street and Fulton Street south of downtown . In 1969 , the city of Middletown began planning a project that would rehabilitate part of North Street . As part of the project , the section of North Street between Orchard Street and Main Street would be closed to traffic and converted into a pedestrian mall . The street was closed in early 1970 , forcing NY 17M to be realigned onto Wickham Avenue , West Main Street , and Monhagen Avenue . The pedestrian mall project faced opposition from business owners , leading to its cancellation on February 9 , 1970 . North Street was reopened one day later ; however , the rerouting of NY 17M proved to be permanent .
When the Quickway was first built , exit 118A was made up of two ramps , one leading from NY 17 eastbound to NY 17M and another connecting NY 17M westbound to NY 17 westbound . The exit was eliminated at some point after 1996 . The westbound on @-@ ramp was converted into a residential street known as Sands Road West while the eastbound half of the exit was completely removed . As a result , NY 17M 's western terminus is no longer at an intersecting road . Instead , the highway simply changes from a state highway to a county road at the former site of the exit .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Orange County .
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= The Wild Flower and the Rose =
The Wild Flower and the Rose is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on Frank Wilson , the son of an inventor who has constructed a new airplane model . After failing to secure financing , his father suggests that he marry Rose , the daughter of his wealthy employer , to get the money they need . Jack rejects this idea because he is engaged to another woman , but he soon learns she does not love him . He heads out West to seek a fortune and is quickly successful . He returns to the aviation field and meets Rose again , after a successful flight she confesses to loving him . The cast and staff credits are unknown , but the film may have included scenes from the 1910 International Aviation Meet at Belmont Park . One reviewer claimed that a Wright brothers flyer was also shown in full flight . The film was released on November 25 , 1910 , but is now presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from November 26 , 1910 . It states : " Frank Wilson is the son of an inventor who has perfected an airship model in which Jack is greatly interested , but which neither of them have the money to finance . Wilson tries to interest his wealthy employer , Fisher , but is unsuccessful in the attempt . However he gains the support of his employer 's beautiful daughter , Rose . The old inventor suggests to his son that if he marries Rose they could secure the money to perfect the invention . But Jack spurns the idea , as he is already engaged to marry a country girl , Daisy Lane , who , he believes , loves him devotedly . Upon learning that Daisy is a heartless coquette , Jack is heartbroken , and goes west to seek a fortune and forget her conduct . Success comes to him quickly , and he returns to tell his father that now , unaided , they can finance the invention . On the aviation field , Jack once more meets Rose , and confesses to her that it was the memory of her kindness that helped him achieve success . Jack makes a successful flight in the invention – a new style of aeroplane – and in offering her congratulations Rose confesses that she has loved him from the first . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . Cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Carl Louis Gregory , and Alfred H. Moses , Jr. though none are specifically credited . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters .
It is unknown when the film was shot , but the aviation meet may have been at Belmont Park in Long Island , New York . The second International Aviation Meet took place from October 22 – 30 , 1910 . One newspaper would state that a " one of the Wright Brothers ' 1910 model flying machines " was shown in full flight .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on November 25 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release , known advertising theaters include those in Nebraska , North Carolina , Pennsylvania , Arizona , Indiana , Montana , and Oklahoma , The New York Dramatic Mirror was neutral to slightly praising the production . The reviewer stated , " It is a discursive narrative , not bound by laws of cause and effect , although it does not contradict them . It is amusing to see the rapidity with which a motion picture hero goes West . He throws a toothbrush and his pajamas into a suitcase , takes his hat over his arm , and breaks the news to his father before stepping from the living room out into the street . The special point of this film is the aviation exhibition , which is well handled . The hero is a very jocose gentleman , who smiles broadly with and without provocation . Other parts are adequately filled . " The Moving Picture World spared three roughly three sentences surrounding the focus of the plot , " A love story built up around the invention of a new type of aeroplane . The machine flies and the inventor gets the girl of his choice . The picture has , therefore , a pleasant ending . "
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= Wyatt Earp =
Wyatt Berry Stapp Earp ( March 19 , 1848 – January 13 , 1929 ) was an American Old West gambler , a deputy sheriff in Pima County , and deputy town marshal in Tombstone , Arizona Territory , who took part in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral , during which lawmen killed three outlaw Cowboys . He is often regarded as the central figure in the shootout in Tombstone , although his brother Virgil was Tombstone city marshal and Deputy U.S. Marshal that day , and had far more experience as a sheriff , constable , marshal , and soldier in combat .
Earp lived a restless life . He was at different times a constable , city policeman , county sheriff , Deputy U.S. Marshal , teamster , buffalo hunter , bouncer , saloon @-@ keeper , gambler , Brothel keeper , miner , and boxing referee . Earp spent his early life in Iowa . In 1870 , Earp married his first wife , Urilla Sutherland Earp , who contracted typhoid fever and died shortly before their first child was to be born . Within the next two years Earp was arrested , sued twice , escaped from jail , then was arrested three more times for " keeping and being found in a house of ill @-@ fame " . He landed in the cattle boomtown of Wichita , Kansas , where he became a deputy city marshal for one year and developed a solid reputation as a lawman . In 1876 , he followed his brother James to Dodge City , Kansas , where he became an assistant city marshal . In winter 1878 , he went to Texas to track down an outlaw and met John " Doc " Holliday , whom Earp later credited with saving his life .
Earp moved constantly throughout his life from one boomtown to another . He left Dodge City in 1879 and moved to Tombstone with his brothers James and Virgil , where a silver boom was underway . There , the Earps clashed with a loose federation of outlaws known as the Cowboys . Wyatt , Virgil , and their younger brother Morgan held various law enforcement positions that put them in conflict with Tom and Frank McLaury , and Ike and Billy Clanton , who threatened on several occasions to kill the Earps . The conflict escalated over the next year , culminating on October 26 , 1881 in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral , in which the Earps and Holliday killed three of the Cowboys . In the next five months , Virgil was ambushed and maimed , and Morgan was assassinated . Pursuing a vendetta , Wyatt , his brother Warren , Holliday , and others formed a federal posse that killed three of the Cowboys whom they thought responsible . Wyatt was never wounded in any of the gunfights , unlike his brothers Virgil and James or Doc Holliday , which only added to his mystique after his death .
Earp was a lifelong gambler and was always looking for a quick way to make money . After leaving Tombstone , Earp went to San Francisco where he reunited with Josephine Earp . She became his common @-@ law wife . They joined a gold rush to Eagle City , Idaho , where they owned mining interests and a saloon . They left there to race horses and open a saloon during a real estate boom in San Diego , California . Back in San Francisco , Wyatt raced horses again , but his reputation suffered irreparably when he refereed the Fitzsimmons @-@ Sharkey boxing match and called a foul that led many to believe that he fixed the fight . They moved briefly to Yuma , Arizona before they joined the Alaskan Gold Rush to Nome , Alaska . They opened the biggest saloon in town and made a large sum of money . Returning to the lower 48 , they opened another saloon in Tonopah , Nevada , the site of a new gold find . In about 1911 , Earp began working several mining claims in Vidal , California , retiring in the hot summers with Josephine to Los Angeles .
When Earp died in 1929 , he was well known for his notorious handling of the Fitzsimmons @-@ Sharkey fight along with the O.K. Corral gun fight . An extremely flattering , largely fictionalized biography was published in 1931 after his death , becoming a bestseller and creating his reputation as a fearless lawman . Since then , Wyatt Earp has been the subject of and model for numerous films , TV shows , biographies , and works of fiction that have increased his mystique . Earp 's modern @-@ day reputation is that of the Old West 's " toughest and deadliest gunman of his day . " Until the book was published , Earp had a dubious reputation as a sometime Western lawman and gunfighter who had been arrested nine times and left more than one town with warrants for his arrest still outstanding . In modern times , Wyatt Earp has become synonymous with the stereotypical image of the Western lawman , and is a symbol of American frontier justice .
= = Early life = =
Wyatt was born on March 19 , 1848 , to Nicholas Porter Earp and his second wife , Virginia Ann Cooksey . He was named after his father 's commanding officer in the Mexican – American War , Captain Wyatt Berry Stapp , of the 2nd Company Illinois Mounted Volunteers . Some evidence supports Wyatt Earp 's birthplace as 406 South 3rd Street in Monmouth , Illinois , though the street address is disputed by Monmouth College professor and historian William Urban . Monmouth is in Warren County in western Illinois . Wyatt had an elder half @-@ brother from his father 's first marriage , Newton , and a half @-@ sister Mariah Ann , who died at the age of ten months .
In March 1849 or in early 1850 , Nicholas Earp joined about one hundred other people in a plan to relocate to San Bernardino County , California , where he intended to buy farm land . Only 150 miles ( 240 km ) west of Monmouth , their daughter Martha became ill . The family stopped and Nicholas bought a new 160 acres ( 0 @.@ 65 km2 ) farm 7 miles ( 11 km ) northeast of Pella , Iowa . Martha died there on May 26 , 1856 .
Nicholas and Virginia Earp 's last child Adelia was born in June 1861 in Pella . Newton , James , and Virgil joined the Union Army on November 11 , 1861 . Their father was busy recruiting and drilling local companies , and Wyatt and his two younger brothers Morgan and Warren were left in charge of tending 80 @-@ acre ( 32 ha ) of corn . Wyatt was only thirteen years old , too young to enlist , but he tried on several occasions to run away and join the army . Each time , his father found him and brought him home . James was severely wounded in Fredericktown , Missouri , and returned home in summer 1863 . Newton and Virgil fought several battles in the east and later followed the family to California .
= = = California = = =
On May 12 , 1864 , Nicholas Earp organized a wagon train and headed to San Bernardino , California , arriving on December 17 , 1864 . By late summer 1865 , Virgil found work as a driver for Phineas Banning 's Stage Coach Line in California 's Imperial Valley , and 16 @-@ year @-@ old Wyatt assisted . In spring 1866 , Wyatt became a teamster , transporting cargo for Chris Taylor . From 1866 – 1868 , he drove cargo over the 720 miles ( 1 @,@ 160 km ) wagon road from Wilmington , through San Bernardino then Las Vegas , Nevada , to Salt Lake City , Utah Territory .
In spring 1868 , Earp was hired to transport supplies needed to build the Union Pacific Railroad . He learned gambling and boxing while working on the rail head in the Wyoming Territory . Earp developed a reputation officiating boxing matches and refereed a fight in front of 3000 spectators between John Shanssey and Mike Donovan on July 4 , 1869 in Cheyenne , Wyoming .
= = = Lawman and marriage = = =
In spring 1868 , the Earps moved east again to Lamar , Missouri , where Wyatt 's father Nicholas became the local constable . Wyatt rejoined the family the next year . Nicholas resigned as constable on November 17 , 1869 to become the justice of the peace , and Wyatt was appointed constable in his place .
In late 1869 , Earp courted 20 @-@ year @-@ old Urilla Sutherland ( c . 1849 – 1870 ) , the daughter of William and Permelia Sutherland , who operated the Exchange Hotel in Lamar . They were married by his father Nicholas in Lamar on January 10 , 1870 , and in August 1870 Wyatt bought a lot on the outskirts of town for $ 50 where he built a house . Urilla was pregnant and about to deliver their first child when she suddenly died from typhoid fever . In November , Earp sold the lot and a house on it for $ 75 . Hoping to keep the office that he 'd been appointed to , he ran against his elder half @-@ brother Newton for the office of constable . The Earps may have hoped to keep the job in the family one way or another . Wyatt won by 137 votes to Newton 's 108 , but their father Nicholas lost the election for justice of the peace in a very close four @-@ way race .
= = = Lawsuits and charges = = =
After Urilla 's death , Wyatt went through a downward spiral and had a series of legal problems . On March 14 , 1871 , Barton County filed a lawsuit against Earp and his sureties . Earp was in charge of collecting license fees for Lamar , which funded local schools , and he was accused of failing to turn in the fees . On March 31 , James Cromwell filed a lawsuit against Earp , alleging that Earp had falsified court documents about the amount of money collected from Cromwell to satisfy a judgment . To make up the difference between what Earp turned in and Cromwell owed ( which he claimed to have paid ) , the court seized Cromwell 's mowing machine and sold it for $ 38 . Cromwell 's suit claimed that Earp owed him $ 75 , the estimated value of the machine .
On March 28 , 1871 Earp , Edward Kennedy , and John Shown were charged with stealing two horses , " each of the value of one hundred dollars " , from William Keys while in the Indian Country . On April 6 , Deputy United States Marshal J. G. Owens arrested Earp for the horse theft . Commissioner James Churchill arraigned Earp on April 14 , and set bail at $ 500 . On May 15 , an indictment was issued against Earp , Kennedy , and Shown . Anna Shown , John Shown 's wife , claimed that Earp and Kennedy got her husband drunk and then threatened his life to persuade him to help . On June 5 Edward Kennedy was acquitted while the case against Earp and John Shown remained . Earp did not wait for the trial . He climbed out through the roof of his jail and headed for Peoria , Illinois .
= = = Arrests in Peoria = = =
Years afterward , Wyatt 's biographer Stuart N. Lake wrote that Wyatt was hunting buffalo during the winter of 1871 – 72 . But Earp was arrested three times in the Peoria , Illinois area during that period . Earp is also listed in the Peoria city directory during 1872 as a resident in the house of Jane Haspel , who operated a brothel . In February 1872 , Peoria police raided the brothel , arresting four women and three men : Wyatt and Morgan Earp , and George Randall . They were charged with " Keeping and being found in a house of ill @-@ fame . " They were later fined twenty dollars plus costs for the criminal infraction . Wyatt Earp was arrested for the same crime on May 11 and again on September 10 , 1872 . The Peoria Daily National Democrat reported in September that Wyatt had been arrested aboard a floating brothel he owned named the Beardstown Gunboat with a woman named Sally Heckell , who called herself Wyatt Earp 's wife .
Some of the women are said to be good looking , but all appear to be terribly depraved . John Walton , the skipper of the boat and Wyatt Earp , the Peoria Bummer , were each fined $ 43 @.@ 15 . Sarah Earp , alias Sally Heckell , calls herself the wife of Wyatt Earp .
By calling Earp the " Peoria bummer " , the newspaper was including him in a class of " contemptible loafers who impose on hard @-@ working citizens , " a " beggar , " and worse than tramps . They were men of poor character who were chronic lawbreakers .
= = = Wichita , Kansas = = =
Wyatt moved to the growing cow town of Wichita in early 1874 , and local arrest records show that a prostitute named Sally Earp operated a brothel with the wife of his brother James from early 1874 to the middle of 1876 . Wyatt may have been a pimp , but historian Robert Gary L. Roberts believes it more likely that he was an enforcer , or a bouncer for the brothel . It is possible that he hunted buffalo during 1873 – 74 before he went to Wichita . When the Kansas state census was completed in June 1875 , Sally was no longer living with Wyatt , James , and Bessie .
Wichita was a railroad terminal and a destination for cattle drives from Texas . Like other frontier railroad terminals , when the cowboys accompanying the cattle drives arrived , the town was filled with drunken , armed cowboys celebrating the end of their long journey . Lawmen were kept busy . When the cattle drives ended and the cowboys left , Earp searched for something else to do . A newspaper story in October 1874 reported that he earned some money helping an off @-@ duty police officer find thieves who had stolen a man 's wagon . Earp officially joined the Wichita marshal 's office on April 21 , 1875 , after the election of Mike Meagher as city marshal ( or police chief ) , making $ 100 per month . He also dealt faro at the Long Branch Saloon . In late 1875 , the Wichita Beacon newspaper published this story :
On last Wednesday ( December 8 ) , policeman Earp found a stranger lying near the bridge in a drunken stupor . He took him to the ' cooler ' and on searching him found in the neighborhood of $ 500 on his person . He was taken next morning , before his honor , the police judge , paid his fine for his fun like a little man and went on his way rejoicing . He may congratulate himself that his lines , while he was drunk , were cast in such a pleasant place as Wichita as there are but a few other places where that $ 500 bank roll would have been heard from . The integrity of our police force has never been seriously questioned .
Earp was embarrassed on January 9 , 1876 when he was sitting with friends in the back room of the Custom House Saloon when his loaded single @-@ action revolver fell out of his holster . It discharged when the hammer hit the floor . " The ball passed through his coat , struck the north wall then glanced off and passed out through the ceiling . " Wyatt was so red @-@ faced by the incident that years later he persuaded biographer Stuart Lake to omit it from his book Wyatt Earp , Frontier Marshal .
Wyatt 's stint as Wichita deputy came to a sudden end on April 2 , 1876 , when Earp took too active an interest in the city marshal 's election . According to news accounts , former marshal Bill Smith accused Wyatt of using his office to help hire his brothers as lawmen . Wyatt got into a fistfight with Smith and beat him . Meagher was forced to fire Earp and arrest him for disturbing the peace , which ended a tour of duty that the papers called otherwise " unexceptionable " . Meagher won the election , but the city council was split evenly on re @-@ hiring Earp . His brother James opened a brothel in Dodge City , and Wyatt left Wichita to join him .
= = = Dodge City , Kansas = = =
After 1875 , Dodge City became a major terminal for cattle drives from Texas along the Chisholm Trail . Earp was appointed assistant marshal in Dodge City under Marshal Lawrence " Larry " Deger around May 1876 . There is evidence that Earp spent the winter of 1876 – 77 in another boomtown , Deadwood , Dakota Territory . He was not on the police force in Dodge City in late 1877 , but rejoined the force in spring 1877 at the request of mayor James H. " Dog " Kelley . The Dodge City newspaper reported in July 1878 that Earp had been fined $ 1 for slapping a muscular prostitute named Frankie Bell , who ( according to the papers ) " heaped epithets upon the unoffending head of Mr. Earp to such an extent as to provide a slap from the ex @-@ officer " . Bell spent the night in jail and was fined $ 20 , while Earp 's fine was the legal minimum .
In October 1877 , outlaw Dave Rudabaugh robbed a Sante Fe Railroad construction camp and fled south . Earp was given a temporary commission as Deputy U.S. Marshal and he left Dodge City , following Rudabaugh over 400 miles ( 640 km ) through Ft . Clark , Texas , where the newspaper reported his presence on January 22 , 1878 , and on to Fort Griffin , Texas .
He arrived at the frontier town on the Clear Fork of the Brazos River . Earp went to the Bee Hive Saloon , the largest in town and owned by John Shanssey , who Earp had known since he was 21 . Shanssey told Earp that Rudabaugh had passed through town earlier in the week , but he did not know where he was headed . Shanssey suggested that Earp ask gambler " Doc " Holliday , who had played cards with Rudabaugh . Holliday told Earp that Rudabaugh had headed back into Kansas .
By May 11 , 1878 , the Dodge newspapers reported that Wyatt had returned to Dodge City and on May 14 the Times noted that Wyatt had been appointed Assistant Marshal for the salary of $ 75 per month , serving under Charlie Bassett . Doc Holliday with his common @-@ law wife Big Nose Kate also showed up in Dodge City during the summer of 1878 . During the summer , Ed Morrison and other Texas cowboys rode into Dodge and shot up the town , galloping down Front Street . They entered the Long Branch Saloon , vandalized the room , and harassed the customers . Hearing the commotion , Wyatt burst through the front door into a bunch of guns pointing at him . Holliday was playing cards in the back and put his pistol at Morrison 's head , forcing him and his men to disarm . Earp credited Holliday with saving his life that day , and he and Earp became friends .
While in Dodge City , he became acquainted with James and Bat Masterson , Luke Short , and prostitute Celia Anne " Mattie " Blaylock . Blaylock became Earp 's common @-@ law wife until 1881 . Earp resigned from the Dodge City police force on September 9 , 1879 , and she accompanied him to Las Vegas in New Mexico Territory , and then to Tombstone in Arizona Territory .
= = = George Hoyt shooting = = =
At about 3 : 00 in the morning of July 26 , 1878 , George Hoyt ( spelled in some accounts as " Hoy " ) and other drunken cowboys shot their guns wildly , including three shots into Dodge City 's Comique Theater , causing comedian Eddie Foy to throw himself to the stage floor in the middle of his act . Fortunately , no one was injured . Assistant Marshal Earp and policeman Bat Masterson responded and " together with several citizens , turned their pistols loose in the direction of the fleeing horsemen " . As the riders crossed the Arkansas river bridge south of town , George Hoyt fell from his horse after he was wounded in the arm or leg . Earp told Stuart Lake that he saw Hoyt through his gun sights against the morning horizon and fired the fatal shot , killing him that day , but the Dodge City Times reported that Hoyt developed gangrene and died on August 21 after his leg was amputated .
= = Move to Tombstone , Arizona = =
In 1879 , Wyatt received a letter from his older brother Virgil , who was the town constable in Prescott , Arizona Territory . Virgil wrote Wyatt about the opportunities in the silver @-@ mining boomtown of Tombstone . In September 1879 , Wyatt resigned as assistant marshal in Dodge City . Accompanied by his common @-@ law wife Mattie Blaylock , his brother Jim and his wife Bessie , they left for Arizona Territory . They stopped in Las Vegas , New Mexico , where they reunited with Doc Holliday and his common @-@ law wife Big Nose Kate . The five of them arrived in Prescott in November . Wyatt , Virgil , and James Earp with their wives arrived in Tombstone on December 1 , 1879 , although Doc remained in Prescott , where the gambling afforded better opportunities . There , the Earps bought an interest in the Vizina mine , the First North Extension of the Mountain Maid mine , and some water rights . Later in life , Wyatt wrote that " In 1879 Dodge was beginning to lose much of the snap which had given it a charm to men of reckless blood , and I decided to move to Tombstone , which was just building up a reputation . "
On November 27 , 1879 , three days before moving to Tombstone , Virgil was appointed by Crawley Dake , U.S. Marshal for the Arizona Territory , as Deputy U.S. Marshal for the Tombstone mining district , some 280 miles ( 450 km ) from Prescott . His territory included all of the southeast area of the Arizona Territory .
On March 5 , 1879 , when the city of Tombstone was founded , it had about 100 people living in tents and a few shacks . By the time the Earps arrived nine months later on December 1 , it had grown to about 1 @,@ 000 residents . Wyatt brought horses and a buckboard wagon , which he planned to convert into a stagecoach , but on arrival he found two established stage lines already running . In Tombstone , the Earps staked mining claims and water rights interests , attempting to capitalize on the mining boom . Jim worked as a barkeep . On December 6 , 1879 , the three Earps and Robert J. Winders filed a location notice for the First North Extension of the Mountain Maid Mine . When none of their business interests proved fruitful , Wyatt was hired in April or May 1880 by Wells , Fargo & Co. agent Frederick James Dodge as a shotgun messenger on stagecoaches when they transported Wells Fargo strongboxes . In summer 1880 , younger brothers Morgan arrived from Montana and Warren Earp moved to Tombstone as well . In September , Wyatt 's friend Doc Holliday arrived from Prescott with $ 40 @,@ 000 in gambling winnings in his pocket .
= = = First confrontation with the Cowboys = = =
On July 25 , 1880 , U.S. Army Captain Joseph H. Hurst asked Deputy U.S. Marshal Virgil Earp to assist him in tracking Cowboys who had stolen six U.S. Army mules from Camp Rucker . Virgil requested the assistance of his brothers Wyatt and Morgan , along with Wells Fargo agent Marshall Williams , and they found the mules at the McLaurys ' ranch . McLaury was a Cowboy , a term which in that time and region was generally used to refer to a loose association of outlaws , some of whom also were landowners and ranchers . Legitimate cowmen were referred to as cattle herders or ranchers . They found the branding iron used to change the " U.S. " brand to " D.8. " Stealing the mules was a federal offense because the animals were U.S. property .
Cowboy Frank Patterson " made some kind of a compromise " with Captain Hurst , who persuaded the posse to withdraw , with the understanding that the mules would be returned . The Cowboys showed up two days later without the mules and laughed at Hurst and the Earps . In response , Capt. Hurst printed a handbill describing the theft , and specifically charged Frank McLaury with assisting with hiding the mules . He also reproduced the flyer in The Tombstone Epitaph , on July 30 , 1880 . Frank McLaury angrily printed a response in the Cowboy @-@ friendly Nuggett , calling Hurst " unmanly " , " a coward , a vagabond , a rascal , and a malicious liar " , and accused Hurst of stealing the mules himself . Capt. Hurst later cautioned Wyatt , Virgil , and Morgan that the Cowboys had threatened their lives . Virgil reported that Frank accosted him and warned him " If you ever again follow us as close as you did , then you will have to fight anyway . " A month later Earp ran into Frank and Tom McLaury in Charleston , and they told him if he ever followed them as he had done before , they would kill him .
= = = Becomes deputy sheriff = = =
On July 28 , 1880 , Wyatt was appointed Deputy Sheriff for the eastern part of Pima County , which included Tombstone , by Democratic County Sheriff Charlie Shibell . Wyatt passed on his Wells Fargo job as shotgun messenger to his brother Morgan . Wyatt did his job well , and from August through November his name was mentioned nearly every week by the The Tombstone Epitaph or the Nugget newspapers .
The deputy sheriff 's position was worth more than US $ 40 @,@ 000 a year ( about $ 980 @,@ 828 today ) because he was also county assessor and tax collector , and the board of supervisors allowed him to keep ten percent of the amounts paid . While Wyatt was Deputy Sheriff , former Democrat state legislator Johnny Behan arrived in September 1880 .
= = = Town marshal shot = = =
On October 28 , 1880 , popular Tombstone town marshal Fred White attempted to break up a group of five late @-@ night , drunken revelers shooting at the moon on Allen Street in Tombstone . Deputy Sheriff Wyatt was in Owens Saloon a block away , though unarmed . When he heard the shooting , he ran to the scene , borrowed a pistol from Fred Dodge and went to assist White . He saw White attempt to disarm Curly Bill Brocius and the gun discharge , striking White in the groin . Wyatt pistol @-@ whipped Brocius , knocking him to the ground . Then he grabbed Brocius by the collar and told him to get up . Brocius protested , asking , " What have I done ? "
Fred Dodge arrived on the scene . In a letter to Stuart Lake many years later , he recalled what he saw .
Wyatt 's coolness and nerve never showed to better advantage than they did that night . When Morg and I reached him , Wyatt was squatted on his heels beside Curly Bill and Fred White . Curly Bill 's friends were pot @-@ shooting at him in the dark . The shooting was lively and slugs were hitting the chimney and cabin ... in all of that racket , Wyatt 's voice was even and quiet as usual .
Wyatt altered his story later on , telling John H. Flood that he did not see Brocius 's pistol on the ground in the dark until afterward . The pistol contained one expended cartridge and five live rounds . Brocius waived a preliminary hearing so he and his case could be transferred to Tucson District Court . Virgil and Wyatt escorted Brocius to Tucson to stand trial , possibly saving him from a lynching . White , age 31 , died of his wound two days after his shooting .
On December 27 , 1880 , Wyatt testified that White 's shooting was accidental . Brocius expressed regret , saying he had not intended to shoot White . Gunsmith Jacob Gruber testified that Curly Bill 's single @-@ action revolver was defective , allowing it to be discharged at half @-@ cock . A statement from White before he died was introduced stating that the shooting was accidental . The judge ruled that the shooting was accidental and released Brocius . Brocius , however , remained intensely angry about how Wyatt had pistol @-@ whipped him and became an enemy to the Earps . Virgil was also appointed acting town marshal of Tombstone .
= = = Loses reappointment = = =
Wyatt only served as deputy sheriff for eastern Pima County for about three months because , in November , Democrat Shibell ran for re @-@ election against Republican challenger Bob Paul . The region was strongly Republican and Paul was expected to win . Republican Wyatt expected he would continue in the job . Given how fast eastern Pima County was growing , everyone expected that it would be split off into its own county soon with Tombstone as its seat . Wyatt hoped to win the job as the new county sheriff and continue receiving the plum 10 % of all tax moneys collected . Southern Pacific was the major landholder , so that tax collection was a relatively easy process .
On election day , November 2 , Precinct 27 in the San Simon Valley in northern Cochise County , turned out 104 votes , 103 of them for Shibell . Shibell unexpectedly won the election by a margin of 58 votes under suspicious circumstances .
James C. Hancock reported that Cowboys Curly Bill Brocius and Johnny Ringo served as election officials in the San Simon precinct . However , on November 1 , the day before the election , Ringo biographer David Johnson places Ringo in New Mexico with Ike Clanton . Curly Bill had been arrested and jailed in Tucson on October 28 for shooting Sheriff Fred White , and he was still there on election day .
The home of John Magill was used as the polling place . The precinct only contained about 10 eligible voters ( another source says 50 ) , but the Cowboys gathered non @-@ voters like the children and Chinese and had them cast ballots . Not satisfied , they named all the dogs , burros and poultry and cast ballots in their names for Shibell . The election board met on November 14 and declared Shibell as the winner .
Earp resigned from the Sheriff 's office on November 9 , 1880 , and Shibell immediately appointed Behan as the new Deputy Sheriff for eastern Pima County . Democrat Johnny Behan had considerably more political experience than Republican Wyatt Earp . Behan had previously served as Yavapai County Sheriff from 1871 to 1873 . He had been elected to the Arizona Territorial Legislature twice , representing Yavapai Country in the 7th Territorial Legislature in 1873 and Mohave County in the 10th in 1879 . Behan moved for a time to the northwest Arizona Territory , where he served as the Mohave County Recorder in 1877 and then deputy sheriff of Mohave County at Gillet , in 1879 .
Paul filed a lawsuit on November 19 contesting the election results , alleging that Shibell 's Cowboy supporters Iike Clanton , Curly Bill Brocius , and Frank McLaury had cooperated in ballot stuffing . Chief Justice of Arizona C.G.W. French ruled in Paul 's favor in late January 1881 , but Shibell appealed . His lawsuit was finally resolved by April 1881 . The election commission found that a mysterious " Henry Johnson " was responsible for certifying the ballots . This turned out to be James Johnson , the same James K. Johnson who had been shooting up Allen Street the night Marshal White was killed . Moreover , he was the same Johnson that testified at Curly Bill 's preliminary hearing after he shot Fred White . James Johnson later testified for Bud Paul in the election hearing and said that the ballots had been left in the care of Phin Clanton . None of the witnesses during the election hearing reported on ballots being cast for dogs . The recount found Paul had 402 votes and Shibell had 354 . Sixty @-@ two were kept from a closer examination . Paul was declared the winner of the Pima County sheriff election but by that time the election was a moot point . Paul could not replace Behan with Earp because on January 1 , 1881 , Cochise County was created out of the eastern portion of Pima County .
= = = Behan wins election = = =
Earp and Behan both applied to fill the new position of Cochise County sheriff , which like the Pima County Sheriff job paid the office holder 10 % of the fees and taxes collected . Earp thought he had a good chance to win the position because he was the former undersheriff in the region and a Republican , like Arizona Territorial Governor John C. Fremont . However , Behan had greater political experience and influence in Prescott .
Earp improbably testified during the preliminary hearing after the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral that he and Behan had made a deal . If Earp withdrew his application to the legislature , Behan agreed to appoint Earp as undersheriff . Behan received the appointment in February 1881 , but did not keep his end of the bargain and instead chose Harry Woods , a prominent Democrat , as undersheriff . Behan testified at first that he had not made any deal with Earp , although he later admitted he had lied . Behan said he broke his promise to appoint Earp because of an incident that occurred shortly before his appointment .
This incident arose after Earp learned that one of his prize horses , stolen more than a year before , was in the possession of Ike Clanton and his brother Billy . Earp and Holliday rode to the Clanton ranch near Charleston to recover the horse . On the way , they overtook Behan , who was riding in a wagon . Behan was also heading to the ranch to serve an election @-@ hearing subpoena on Ike Clanton . Accounts differ as to what happened next . Earp later testified that when he arrived at the Clanton ranch , Billy Clanton gave up the horse even before being presented with ownership papers . According to Behan 's testimony , however , Earp had told the Clantons that Behan was on his way to arrest them for horse theft . After the incident , which embarrassed both the Clantons and Behan , Behan testified that he did not want to work with Earp and chose Woods instead .
= = = Relationship to Sadie Marcus = = =
Thirty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Wyatt Earp and 35 @-@ year @-@ old Johnny Behan apparently shared an interest in the same 18 @-@ year @-@ old woman , Josephine Sarah Marcus . She said she first visited Tombstone as part of the Pauline Markham Theatre Troupe on December 1 , 1879 for a one @-@ week engagement but modern researchers have not found any record that she was ever part of the theater company . Behan owned a saloon in Tip Top , Arizona , where he maintained a prostitute named Sadie Mansfield . In September 1880 , Behan moved to Tombstone . Sadie may have returned to San Francisco and then joined Behan in Tombstone , where she and Behan continued their relationship . Sadie was a well @-@ known nickname for Sarah , and it was common for prostitutes to change their first name . Wyatt had a mischievous sense of humor . When they became a couple in 1882 , he knew his wife preferred the name " Josephine " and detested " Sadie " , but early in their relationship he began calling her ' Sadie ' .
Sadie Mansfield and Sadie Marcus had very similar names and initials and were both known by their friends as " Sadie . " Both made a stagecoach journey from San Francisco to Prescott , Arizona Territory ; both traveled with a black woman named Julia ; both were sexual partners with Behan ; both were 19 years old , born in New York City , and had parents from Prussia . The only difference noted in the 1880 census is their occupation : Sadie in San Francisco is listed as " At home " , while Sadie in Tip Top is recorded as a " Courtesan " . But Josephine said that her parents hid her activities , and they may have been covering for her when the census taker , a neighbor who knew the family , appeared on their doorstep .
In spring 1881 , Marcus found Behan in bed with the wife of a friend and kicked him out , although she still used the Behan surname through the end of that summer . Earp had a common @-@ law relationship with Mattie Blaylock , who was listed as his wife in the June 1880 census . She suffered from severe headaches and became addicted to laudanum , a commonly used opiate and painkiller . There are no contemporary records in Tombstone of a relationship between Josephine and Earp . Tombstone diarist George W. Parsons never mentioned seeing Wyatt and Josephine together and neither did John Clum in his memoirs . But Earp and Marcus certainly knew each other , as Behan and Earp both had offices above the Crystal Palace Saloon .
A letter written by former New Mexico Territory Governor Miguel Otero in 1940 appears to indicate that Earp had strong feelings for Josephine in April 1882 . After leaving Tombstone following the Earp Vendetta Ride , the Earp posse went to Albuquerque , New Mexico for two weeks . While there , Wyatt stayed with prominent businessman Henry N. Jaffa , who was also president of New Albuquerque ’ s Board of Trade . Like Josephine , Jaffa was Jewish .
Wyatt and Holliday had been fast friends since Holliday saved Earp 's life in Dodge City during 1878 . During their stay in Albuquerque , the two men ate at The Retreat Restaurant owned by " Fat Charlie " . Ortero wrote in his letter , " Holiday said something about Earp becoming ' a damn Jew @-@ boy . ' Earp became angry and left … . [ Henry ] Jaffa told me later that Earp ’ s woman was a Jewess . Earp did mezuzah when entering the house . " The Earp party split up in Albuquerque , and Holliday and Dan Tipton rode on to Pueblo , Colorado while the rest of the group headed for Gunnison . Earp 's anger at Holliday 's racial slur may indicate that his feelings for Josephine were more serious at the time than is commonly known . The information in the letter is compelling because at that time in the 1940s , the relationship between Wyatt Earp and Josephine Marcus in Tombstone was not public knowledge . Ortero could know these things only if he had a relationship with someone who had personal knowledge of the individuals involved .
Marcus went to great lengths to sanitize her own and Wyatt 's history . For example , she worked hard to keep both her name and the name of Wyatt 's second wife Mattie out of Stuart Lake 's 1931 book , Wyatt Earp : Frontier Marshal , and Marcus threatened litigation to keep it that way . Marcus also told Earp 's biographers and others that Earp never drank , did not own gambling saloons , and that he never provided prostitutes to customers , although strong evidence to the contrary exists .
= = = Interest in mining and gambling = = =
Losing the undersheriff position left Wyatt Earp without a job in Tombstone ; however , Wyatt and his brothers were beginning to make some money on their mining claims in the Tombstone area . In January 1881 , Oriental Saloon owner Mike Joyce gave Wyatt Earp a one @-@ quarter interest in the faro concession at the Oriental Saloon in exchange for his services as a manager and enforcer . Gambling was regarded as a legitimate profession , comparable to a doctor or member of clergy , at the time . Wyatt invited his friend , lawman and gambler Bat Masterson , to Tombstone to help him run the faro tables in the Oriental Saloon . In June 1881 , Wyatt also telegraphed another friend and gambler from Dodge , Luke Short , who was living in Leadville , Colorado , and offered him a job as a faro dealer .
Bat remained until April 1881 , when he returned to Dodge City to assist his brother Jim . On October 8 , 1881 , Doc Holliday got into a dispute with John Tyler in the Oriental Saloon . A rival gambling concession operator hired and disrupt Wyatt 's business . When Tyler started a fight after losing a bet , Wyatt threw him out of the saloon . Holliday later wounded Oriental owners Milt Joyce and his partner William Parker and was convicted of assault .
= = = Stands down lynch mob = = =
Stuart Lake described in his book how Earp single @-@ handedly stood down a large crowd that wanted to lynch gambler Michael O 'Rourke ( Johnny Behind the Deuce ) . O 'Rourke had killed Henry Schneider , chief engineer of the Tombstone Mining and Milling Company — he said in self @-@ defense . Henry was well @-@ liked and a mob of miners quickly gathered , threatening to lynch O 'Rourke on the spot . In fact , the Epitaph gave primary credit to Ben Sippy for standing down the crowd , assisted by Virgil Earp , Wyatt Earp , and Johnny Behan . This incident as described by Lake added to Earp 's modern legend as a lawman .
= = = Stagecoach robbers kill two = = =
Tensions between the Earps and both the Clantons and McLaurys increased through 1881 . On March 15 , 1881 , at 10 p.m. , three cowboys attempted to rob a Kinnear & Company stagecoach reportedly carrying US $ 26 @,@ 000 in silver bullion ( or about $ 637 @,@ 538 in today 's dollars ) . The amount of bullion actually carried has been questioned by modern researchers , who note that at the then current value of US $ 1 @.@ 00 per ounce , the bullion would have weighed about 1 @,@ 600 pounds ( 730 kg ) , a significant weight for a team of horses . The hold up took place near Benson , during which the robbers killed popular driver Eli " Budd " Philpot and passenger Peter Roerig .
The Earps and a posse tracked the men down and arrested Luther King , who confessed he had been holding the reins while Bill Leonard , Harry " The Kid " Head , and Jim Crain robbed the stage . They arrested King and Sheriff Johnny Behan escorted him to jail , but somehow King walked in the front door and almost immediately out the back door .
During the hearing into the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral , Wyatt testified that he offered the US $ 3 @,@ 600 in Wells Fargo reward money ( $ 1 @,@ 200 per robber ) to Ike Clanton and Frank McLaury in return for information about the identities of the three robbers . Wyatt testified that he had other motives for his plan as well : he hoped that arresting the murderers would boost his chances for election as Cochise County sheriff . Wyatt told the court that he had taken the extra step of obtaining a second copy of a telegram for Ike from Wells Fargo assuring that the reward for capturing the killers applied either dead or alive .
According to testimony given by Wyatt and Virgil , both Frank McLaury and Ike Clanton agreed to provide information to assist in capturing Leonard , Head , and Crain , but they never had a chance to fulfill the agreement . All three suspects were killed when attempting other robberies .
In his testimony at the court hearing , Clanton said Wyatt did not want to capture the men , but to kill them . Clanton told the court that Earp wanted to conceal the Earp family 's involvement in the Benson stage robbery . He said Wyatt swore him to secrecy and the next day Morgan Earp asked him whether he would make the agreement with Wyatt . He said that four or five days afterward Morgan had confided in him that he and Wyatt had " piped off $ 1 @,@ 400 to Doc Holliday and Bill Leonard " who were supposed to be on the stage the night Bud Philpot was killed . During his testimony , Clanton told the court , " I was not going to have anything to do with helping to capture — " and then he corrected himself " — kill Bill Leonard , Crane and Harry Head " . Clanton denied having any knowledge of the Wells Fargo telegram confirming the reward money .
= = = September stagecoach robbery = = =
Meanwhile , tensions between the Earps and the McLaurys increased when Cowboys robbed the passenger stage on the Sandy Bob Line in the Tombstone area on September 8 , bound for nearby Bisbee . The masked robbers shook down the passengers and robbed the strongbox . They were recognized by their voices and language . They were identified as Deputy Sheriff Pete Spence ( an alias for Elliot Larkin Ferguson ) and Deputy Sheriff Frank Stilwell , a business partner of Spence . Stilwell was fired a short while later as a Deputy Sheriff for Sheriff Behan ( for county tax " accounting irregularities " ) .
Wyatt and Virgil Earp rode with the sheriff 's posse attempting to track the stage robbers . Wyatt discovered an unusual boot heel print in the mud . The posse checked with a shoemaker in Bisbee and found a matching heel that he had just removed from Stilwell 's boot . A further check of a Bisbee corral turned up both Spence and Stilwell who were arrested by sheriff 's deputies Billy Breakenridge and Nagel .
Spence and Stilwell were arraigned on the robbery charges before Justice Wells Spicer who set their bail at $ 7 @,@ 000 each . They were released after paying their bail , but Spence and Stilwell were re @-@ arrested by Virgil for the Bisbee robbery a month later , on October 13 , on the new federal charge of interfering with a mail carrier . The newspapers , however , reported that they had been arrested for a different stage robbery that occurred ( October 8 ) near Contention City . Occurring less than two weeks before the O.K. Corral shootout , this final incident may have been misunderstood by the McLaurys . While Wyatt and Virgil were still out of town for the Spence and Stilwell hearing , Frank McLaury confronted Morgan Earp , telling him that the McLaurys would kill the Earps if they tried to arrest Spence , Stilwell , or the McLaurys again .
= = Gunfight on Fremont Street = =
On Wednesday , October 26 , 1881 , the tension between the Earps and the Cowboys came to a head . Ike Clanton , Billy Claiborne , and other Cowboys had been threatening to kill the Earps for several weeks . Tombstone city Marshal Virgil Earp learned that the Cowboys were armed and had gathered near the O.K. Corral . He asked Wyatt and Morgan Earp and Doc Holliday to assist him , as he intended to disarm them . Wyatt was acting as a temporary assistant marshal , Morgan was a Deputy City Marshal , and Virgil deputized Holliday for the occasion . At approximately 3 p.m. the Earps headed towards Fremont Street , where the Cowboys had been reported gathering .
They confronted five Cowboys in a vacant lot adjacent to the O.K. Corral 's rear entrance on Fremont Street . The lot between the Harwood House and Fly 's Boarding House and Photography Studio was narrow — the two parties were initially only about 6 to 10 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) apart . Ike Clanton and Billy Claiborne fled the gunfight . Tom and Frank McLaury along with Billy Clanton stood their ground and were killed . Morgan was clipped by a shot across his back that nicked both shoulder blades and a vertebra . Virgil was shot through the calf and Holliday was grazed by a bullet .
= = Charged with murder = =
On October 30 , as permitted by Territorial law , Ike Clanton filed murder charges against the Earps and Holliday . Justice Wells Spicer convened a preliminary hearing on October 31 to determine if there was enough evidence to go to trial . In an unusual proceeding , he took written and oral testimony from a number of witnesses over more than a month .
Sheriff Behan , testifying for the prosecution , said the Cowboys had not resisted but either thrown up their hands and turned out their coats to show they were not armed . He said that Tom McLaury threw open his coat to show that he was not armed and that the first two shots were fired by the Earp party . Sheriff Behan insisted Doc Holliday had fired first using a nickel @-@ plated revolver , although other witnesses reported seeing him carrying a messenger shotgun immediately beforehand .
The Earps hired an experienced trial lawyer , Thomas Fitch , as defense counsel . Wyatt testified that he drew his gun only after Billy Clanton and Frank McLaury went for their pistols . He detailed the Earps ' previous troubles with the Clantons and McLaurys and explained that they intended to disarm the cowboys . He said they fired in self @-@ defense . Fitch managed to produce testimony from prosecution witnesses during cross @-@ examination that was contradictory , or appeared to dodge his questions , or in which they said they could not remember .
After extensive testimony , Justice Spicer ruled on November 30 that there was not enough evidence to indict the men . He said the evidence indicated that the Earps and Holliday acted within the law and that Holliday and Wyatt had been deputized temporarily by Virgil . Even though the Earps and Holliday were free , their reputations had been tarnished . The Cowboys in Tombstone looked upon the Earps as robbers and murderers and plotted revenge .
= = = Cowboys ' revenge = = =
On December 28 , while walking between saloons on Allen Street in Tombstone , Virgil was ambushed and maimed by a shotgun round that struck his left arm and shoulder . Ike Clanton 's hat was found in the back of the building across Allen Street from where the shots were fired . Wyatt wired U.S. Marshal Crawley P. Dake asking to be appointed deputy U.S. marshal with authority to select his own deputies . Dake granted the request in late January and provided the Earps with some funds he borrowed from Wells Fargo | Wells , Fargo & Co. on behalf of the Earps , variously reported as $ 500 to $ 3 @,@ 000 .
In mid @-@ January , when Earp ally Rickabaugh sold the Oriental Saloon to Earp adversary Milt Joyce , Wyatt sold his gambling concessions at the hotel . The Earps also raised some funds from sympathetic business owners in town . On February 2 , 1882 , Wyatt and Virgil , tired of the criticism leveled against them , submitted their resignations to Dake , who refused to accept them because their accounts had not been settled . On the same day , Wyatt sent a message to Ike Clanton that he wanted to reconcile their differences , which Clanton refused . Clanton was also acquitted that day of the charges against him in the shooting of Virgil Earp , when the defense brought in seven witnesses who testified that Clanton was in Charleston at the time of the shooting .
The Earps needed more funds to pay for the extra deputies and associated expenses . Contributions received from supportive business owners were not enough . On February 13 , Wyatt mortgaged his home to lawyer James G. Howard for $ 365 @.@ 00 ( about $ 8 @,@ 950 today ) and received $ 365 @.@ 00 in U.S. gold coin . ( He was never able to repay the loan and in 1884 Howard foreclosed on the house . )
After attending a theatre show on March 18 , Morgan Earp was assassinated by gunmen firing from a dark alley through a door window into a room where he was playing billiards . Morgan was struck in the right side . The bullet shattered his spine , passed through his left side , and lodged in the thigh of George A. B. Berry . Another round narrowly missed Wyatt . A doctor was summoned and Morgan was moved from the floor to a nearby couch . The assassins escaped in the dark and Morgan died forty minutes later .
Wyatt Earp felt he could not rely on civil justice and decided to take matters into his own hands . He concluded that the only way to deal with Morgan 's assassins was to kill them all .
= = Earp vendetta ride = =
The day after Morgan 's assassination , Deputy U.S. Marshal Wyatt Earp formed a posse made up of his brothers James and Warren , Doc Holliday , Sherman McMaster , Jack " Turkey Creek " Johnson , Charles " Hairlip Charlie " Smith , Daniel " Tip " Tipton , and John Wilson " Texas Jack " Vermillion to protect the family and pursue the suspects , paying them $ 5 @.@ 00 a day . They took Morgan 's body to the railhead in Benson . James was to accompany Morgan 's body to the family home in Colton , California , where Morgan 's parents and wife waited to bury him . The posse guarded Virgil and Addie through to Tucson , where they had heard Frank Stilwell and other Cowboys were waiting to kill Virgil . The next morning Frank Stilwell 's body was found alongside the tracks riddled with buckshot and gunshot wounds . Wyatt and five other federal lawmen were indicted for murdering him and Tucson Justice of the Peace Charles Meyer issued warrants for their arrest .
The Earp posse briefly returned to Tombstone , where Sheriff Behan tried to stop them . The heavily armed posse brushed him aside . Hairlip Charlie and Warren remained in Tombstone , and the rest set out for Pete Spence 's wood camp in the Dragoon Mountains . They found and killed Florentino " Indian Charlie " Cruz . Two days later , near Iron Springs ( later Mescal Springs ) , in the Whetstone Mountains , they were seeking to rendezvous with a messenger for them . They unexpectedly stumbled onto the wood camp of Curly Bill Brocius , Pony Diehl , and other Outlaw Cowboys . According to reports from both sides , the two sides immediately exchanged gun fire . Except for Wyatt and Texas Jack Vermillion , whose horse was shot , the Earp party withdrew to find protection from the heavy gunfire . Curly Bill fired at Wyatt with a shotgun but missed . Eighteen months prior Wyatt had protected Curly Bill against a mob ready to lynch him and then provided testimony that helped spare Curly Bill from a murder trial for killing Sheriff Fred White . Now , Wyatt returned Curly Bill 's gunfire with his own shotgun and shot Curly Bill in the chest from about 50 feet ( 15m ) away . Curly Bill fell into the water by the edge of the spring and died .
Wyatt received bullet holes in both sides of his long coat and another struck his boot heel . After emptying his shotgun , Wyatt fired his pistol , mortally wounding Johnny Barnes in the chest and wounded Milt Hicks in the arm . Vermillion tried to retrieve his rifle wedged in the scabbard under his fallen horse , exposing himself to the Cowboys ' gunfire . Doc Holliday helped him get to cover . Wyatt had trouble remounting his horse because his cartridge belt had slipped down his legs . He was finally able to get on his horse and with the rest of the posse retreated .
The Earp Party rode north to the Percy Ranch , but were not welcomed by Hugh and Jim Percy , who feared the Cowboys ; after a meal and some rest , they left at about 3 : 00 in the morning of March 27 . The Earp party slipped into the area near Tombstone and met with supporters , including " Hairlip Charlie " Smith and Warren Earp . On March 27 , the posse arrived at the Sierra Bonita Ranch owned by Henry Hooker , a wealthy and prominent rancher . That night Dan Tipton caught the first stage out of Tombstone and headed for Benson , carrying $ 1 @,@ 000 from mining owner and Earp supporter E. B. Gage for the posse . Hooker congratulated Earp on the killing of Curly Bill . Hooker fed them and Wyatt told him he wanted to buy new mounts . Hooker was known for his purebred stallions and ran over 500 brood mares that produced horses that became known for their speed , beauty and temperament . He provided Wyatt and his posse with new mounts but refused to take Wyatt 's money . When Behan 's posse was observed in the distance , Hooker suggested Wyatt make his stand there , but Wyatt moved into the hills about three miles ( 5 km ) distant near Reilly Hill .
The federal posse led by Wyatt Earp was not found by the local posse , led by Cochise County Sheriff John Behan , although Behan 's party trailed the Earps for many miles . In the middle of April 1882 the Earp party left the Arizona Territory and headed east into New Mexico Territory and then into Colorado .
The coroner reports credited the Earp party with killing four men — Frank Stilwell , Curly Bill , Indian Charlie , and Johnny Barnes — in their two @-@ week @-@ long ride . In 1888 Wyatt Earp gave an interview to California historian H. H. Bancroft during which he claimed to have killed " over a dozen stage robbers , murderers , and cattle thieves " in his time as a lawman .
= = Life after Tombstone = =
The gunfight in Tombstone lasted only 30 seconds , but it would end up defining Earp for the rest of his life . After Wyatt killed Frank Stilwell in Tucson , his movements received national press coverage and he became a known commodity in Western folklore .
= = = Deals Faro in Colorado = = =
After killing the four Cowboys , Wyatt and Warren Earp , Holliday , Sherman McMaster , " Turkey Creek " Jack Johnson , and Texas Jack Vermillion left Arizona . Wyatt never returned to Tombstone . The group stopped in Albuquerque , New Mexico , where they met Deputy U.S. Marshal Bat Masterson , Wyatt 's friend . Masterson went with them to Trinidad , Colorado , where Masterson opened a Faro game in a saloon and later became Marshal .
Wyatt dealt faro at Masterson 's saloon for several weeks before he , McMaster , Vermillion , and Warren Earp left in May 1882 for Gunnison , Colorado .
The Earps and Texas Jack set up camp on the outskirts of Gunnison , where they remained quietly at first , rarely going into town for supplies . In Gunnison , they were reported to have pulled a " gold brick scam " on a German visitor named Ritchie by trying to sell him gold @-@ painted rocks for $ 2 @,@ 000 .
Wyatt and Holliday , who had been fast friends since Holliday saved Earp 's life in Dodge City during 1878 , had a serious disagreement and parted ways in Albuquerque . According to a letter written by former New Mexico Territory Governor Miguel Otero , Wyatt and Holliday were eating at " Fat Charlie 's " The Retreat Restaurant in Albuquerque " when Holiday said something about Earp becoming ' a damn Jew @-@ boy . ' Earp became angry and left … . [ Henry ] Jaffa told me later that Earp ’ s woman was a Jewess . Earp did mezuzah when entering the house . " Wyatt was staying with prominent businessman Henry N. Jaffa , who was also president of New Albuquerque ’ s Board of Trade . Jaffa was also Jewish , and based on the letter , Earp had , while staying in Jaffa ’ s home , honored Jewish tradition by performing the mezuzah upon entering his home . Earp 's anger at Holliday 's racial slur may indicate that the relationship between Josephine Marcus and Wyatt Earp was much more serious at the time than is commonly known . The information in the letter is compelling because at the time it was written in the 1940s , no one knew of any relationship between Wyatt Earp and Josephine Marcus while living in Tombstone . The only way Ortero could write about these things was if he knew someone with personal knowledge of the individuals involved . Holliday and Dan Tipton headed to Pueblo in late April 1882 and then Denver . Holliday and Wyatt met again in June 1882 in Gunnisonafter Wyatt helped to keep his friend from being convicted on murder charges against Frank Stillwell ; and then again lastly Wyatt was able to see his old friend Holliday in the late winter of 1886 , where they met in the lobby of the Windsor Hotel . Sadie Marcus described the skeletal Holliday as having a continuous cough and standing on " unsteady legs . ”
= = = Meets Josephine in San Francisco = = =
Sadie , traveling as either Mrs. J. C. Earp or Mrs. Wyatt Earp , left Tombstone for her family in San Francisco via Los Angeles on March 25 , 1882 . This was one week after Morgan Earp was assassinated and five days after Wyatt set out in pursuit of those he believed responsible .
In July , four months later , Wyatt traveled from Colorado to San Francisco where Sadie was living with her half @-@ sister Rebecca and husband Aaron Wiener , and where his brother Virgil was seeking treatment for his arm . Wyatt remained in San Francisco for about nine months until early 1883 , when he and Sadie left San Francisco together for Silverton , Colorado , where silver and gold mining were flourishing . It was the first of many mining camps and boom towns they lived in . Sadie was Wyatt 's common @-@ law wife until his death 46 years later .
= = = Mattie asks for divorce = = =
Wyatt still owned a house in Tombstone with his common @-@ law wife Mattie Blaylock , but she waited for him in Colton , where his parents and Virgil were living . But during the summer of 1882 , she sent Wyatt a letter saying she wanted a divorce . She had met a gambler from Arizona and he had asked her to marry him . Wyatt , who did not believe in divorce , refused . She ran away with the gambler anyway , and he later abandoned her in Arizona .
She moved to Pinal City , Arizona , where she resumed life as a prostitute . Mattie struggled with addictions and committed " suicide by opium poisoning " on July 3 , 1888 .
= = = Dodge City War = = =
During what became known as the Dodge City War , the Mayor tried to run Earp 's friend Luke Short , part owner of the Long Branch saloon , first out of business and then out of town . Short appealed to Masterson who contacted Earp . On May 31 , 1883 , Earp and Sadie went with Bat Masterson , Johnny Millsap , Shotgun John Collins , Texas Jack Vermillion , and Johnny Green to Dodge City to help Short .
Short was in Kansas City to appeal to Governor George Washington Glick for help but to no avail . When he returned , Short 's allies marched up Front Street into Short 's saloon , where they were sworn in as deputies by constable " Prairie Dog " Dave Marrow . The town council offered a compromise to allow Short to return for ten days to get his affairs in order , but Earp refused to compromise . When Short returned , there was no force ready to turn him away . Short 's Saloon reopened , and the Dodge City War ended without a shot being fired .
= = = Idaho mining venture = = =
In 1884 , Wyatt and his wife Josie , his brothers Warren and James , and James ' wife Bessie arrived in Eagle City , Idaho , another new boomtown that was created as a result of the discovery of gold , silver , and lead in the Coeur d 'Alene area . ( It 's now a ghost town in Shoshone County ) . Wyatt joined the crowd looking for gold in the Murray @-@ Eagle mining district . They paid $ 2 @,@ 250 for a 50 feet ( 15 m ) diameter white circus , in which they opened a dance hall and saloon called The White Elephant . An advertisement in a local newspaper suggests gentlemen " come and see the elephant " .
Earp was named Deputy Sheriff in the area including newly incorporated Kootenai County , Idaho , which was disputing jurisdiction of Eagle City with Shoshone County . There were a considerable number of disagreements over mining claims and property rights , which Earp had a part in . On March 28 , several feet of snow were still on the ground . Bill Buzzard , a miner of dubious reputation , began constructing a building when one of Wyatt 's partners , Jack Enright , tried to stop the construction . Enright claimed the building was on part of his property . Words were exchanged and Buzzard reached for his Winchester . He fired several shots at Enright and a skirmish developed . Allies of both sides quickly took defensive positions between snowbanks and began shooting at one another . Deputy Sheriff Wyatt Earp and his brother James stepped into the middle of the fray and helped peacefully resolve the dispute before anyone was seriously hurt . Shoshone County Deputy W. E. Hunt then arrived and ordered the parties to turn over their weapons .
In about April 1885 , it was reported that Wyatt Earp used his badge to join a band of claim jumpers in Embry Camp , later renamed Chewelah , Washington . Within six months their substantial stake had run dry , and the Earps left the Murray @-@ Eagle district . About 10 years later , after the Fitzimmons @-@ Sharkey fight , a reporter hunted up Buzzard and extracted a story from him that accused Wyatt of being the brains behind lot @-@ jumping and a real @-@ estate fraud , further tarnishing his reputation .
= = = San Diego real estate boom = = =
After the Coeur d 'Alene mining venture died out , Earp and Josie briefly went to El Paso , Texas before moving in 1887 to San Diego , where the railroad was about to arrive and a real estate boom was underway . They stayed for about four years , living most of the time in the Brooklyn Hotel . Earp speculated in San Diego 's booming real estate market . Between 1887 and around 1896 he bought four saloons and gambling halls , one on Fourth Street and the other two near Sixth and E , all in the " respectable " part of town . They offered 21 games including faro , blackjack , poker , keno , and other Victorian @-@ American games of chance like pedro and monte . At the height of the boom , he made up to $ 1 @,@ 000 a night in profit . Wyatt also owned the Oyster Bar located in the first granite @-@ faced building in San Diego , the four @-@ story Louis Bank Building at 837 5th Avenue , one of the more popular saloons in the Stingaree district . One of the reasons it drew a good crowd was the Golden Poppy brothel upstairs . Owned by Madam Cora , each room was painted a different color , like emerald green , summer yellow , or ruby red , and each prostitute was required to dress in matching garments .
Wyatt had a long @-@ standing interest in boxing and horse racing . He refereed boxing matches in San Diego , Tijuana , and San Bernardino . In the 1887 San Diego City Directory he was listed as a capitalist or gambler . He won his first race horse " Otto Rex " in a card game and began investing in racehorses . He also judged prize fights on both sides of the border and raced horses . Earp was one of the judges at the County Fair horse races held in Escondido in 1889 . As rapidly as the boom started , it came to an end , and the population of San Diego fell from a high of 40 @,@ 000 in 1885 when Earp arrived to only 16 @,@ 000 in 1890 .
On July 3 , 1888 , Mattie Blaylock , who had always considered herself Wyatt 's wife , committed suicide in Pinal , Arizona Territory , by taking an overdose of laudanum .
= = = San Francisco horse racing = = =
The Earps moved back to San Francisco in 1891 in part so Josie could be closer to her family . Earp developed a reputation as a sportsman as well as a gambler . He held onto his San Diego properties but their value fell , but he could not pay the taxes and was forced to sell the lots . He continued to race horses , but by 1896 he could no longer afford to own them but raced them on behalf of the owner of a horse stable in Santa Rosa that he managed for her . From 1891 to 1897 , they lived in at least four different locations in the city : 145 Ellis St. , 720 McAllister St. , 514A Seventh Ave. and 1004 Golden Gate Ave . In Santa Rosa , Earp personally competed in and won a harness race .
= = = Relationship to Marcus = = =
Josephine wrote in I Married Wyatt Earp : The Recollections of Josephine Sarah Marcus , that she and Wyatt were married in 1892 by the captain of multimillionaire Lucky Baldwin 's yacht off the California coast . Raymond Nez wrote that his grandparents witnessed their marriage , but no public record of the marriage has been found . Baldwin , a horse breeder and racer , also owned the Santa Anita racetrack in Los Angeles , which Wyatt — a long @-@ time horse aficionado — frequented when he was in town .
Earp 's relationship with Josephine Marcus was at times tempestuous . He had a mischievous sense of humor . He knew his wife preferred Josephine and detested " Sadie " , but early in their relationship he began calling her by that name . Josephine gambled to excess and Wyatt had affairs . Josephine later developed a reputation as a shrew who made life difficult for Earp .
Josephine frequently griped about Wyatt ’ s lack of work and financial success and even his character and personality . Wyatt would often go on long walks to get away from her . He was furious about her gambling habit , during which she lost considerable sums of money . Each may have engaged in extramarital affairs . Josephine could be controlling . Grace Spolidora was a teenager during the Earp 's many visits to her family 's home near Needles , California and sometimes went to San Diego with them . She attributed the highly exaggerated stories about Earp to Josephine . Sadie " would always interfere whenever Wyatt would talk with Stuart Lake . She always interfered ! She wanted him to look like a church @-@ going saint and blow things up . Wyatt didn 't want that at all ! "
= = = Fixes Fitzsimmons @-@ Sharkey fight = = =
On December 2 , 1896 , Earp was a last @-@ minute choice as referee for a boxing match that the promoters billed as the heavyweight championship of the world . Bob Fitzsimmons was set to fight Tom Sharkey that night at the Mechanics ' Pavilion in San Francisco . Earp had refereed 30 or so matches in earlier days , though not under the Marquis of Queensbury rules , but under the older and more liberal London Prize Ring Rules . The fight may have been the most anticipated fight on American soil that year . Fitzsimmons was favored to win , and the public and even civic officials placed bets on the outcome .
Fitzsimmons dominated Sharkey throughout the fight , and in the eighth round , he hit Sharkey with his famed " solar plexus punch " , an uppercut under the heart that could render a man temporarily helpless . Fitzsimmons ' next punch apparently caught Sharkey below the belt and Sharkey dropped , clutched his groin , and rolled on the canvas , screaming foul . Wyatt stopped the bout , ruling that Fitzsimmons had hit Sharkey below the belt , but virtually no one witnessed the punch . Earp awarded the fight to Sharkey , who attendants carried out as " limp as a rag " . The 15 @,@ 000 fans in attendance greeted his decision with loud boos and catcalls . It was widely believed that there had been no foul and Earp had bet on Sharkey . While several doctors verified afterward that Sharkey had been hit hard below the belt , the public had bet heavily on Fitzsimmons and they were livid at the outcome .
Fitzsimmons went to court to overturn Earp 's decision . Newspaper accounts and testimony over the next two weeks revealed a conspiracy among the boxing promoters to fix the fight 's outcome .
Stories about the fight and Earp 's contested decision were distributed nationwide to a public that until that time knew little of Wyatt Earp . Earp was parodied in editorial cartoon caricatures and vilified in newspaper stories across the United States .
On December 17 , Judge Sanderson finally ruled that prize fighting was illegal in San Francisco and the courts would not determine who the winner was . Sharkey retained the purse , but the decision provided no vindication for Earp . Until the fight , Earp had been a minor figure known regionally in California and Arizona . Afterward , his name was known from coast to coast in the worst possible way . Earp sold his interest in his horses on December 20 and left San Francisco shortly afterward . He only returned when he caught a boat to Alaska . Earp 's decision left a smear on his public character that followed him until he died and afterward .
Eight years later , Dr. B. Brookes Lee was arrested in Portland , Oregon . He had been accused of treating Sharkey to make it appear that he had been fouled by Fitzsimmons . Lee admitted it was true . " I fixed Sharkey up to look as if he had been fouled . How ? Well , that is something I do not care to reveal , but I will assert that it was done — that is enough . There is no doubt that Fitzsimmons was entitled to the decision and did not foul Sharkey . I got $ 1 @,@ 000 for my part in the affair . "
= = = Klondike Gold Rush = = =
On August 5 , 1897 , Earp and Josie once again joined in a mining boom and left Yuma , Arizona , for San Francisco , where they boarded the steamship Rosalie for Dawson in the Yukon to join in the Alaska Gold Rush . Earp had secured the backing of a syndicate of sporting men to open a gambling house there . He arrived in Dawson on September 12 , 1897 where he planned to open a Faro game . Earp and Josephine returned briefly to San Francisco on October 11 aboard the steamship City of Seattle with plans to return north as soon as possible . Upon returning north , Wyatt was offered a job as the marshal in Wrangell , Alaska , but he served for only 10 days .
The Earps may have spent the winter in Wrangell before setting out for Dawson in the spring on board the Governor Pingree but by the time they reached Rampart on the Yukon River , freeze @-@ up has set in . The Earps rented a cabin from Rex Beach for $ 100 a month and spent the winter of 1898 – 1899 there . He managed a small store during the spring of 1899 in St. Michael on the Norton Sound , a major gateway to the Alaskan interior via the Yukon River . By this time he decided the rush to stake a claim in the Klondike was over . Earp headed for Nome , Alaska , instead . In September , Earp and partner Charles E. Hoxie built the Dexter Saloon in Nome , the city 's first two story wooden building and its largest and most luxurious saloon . The second floor had twelve " clubrooms " upstairs decorated with fine mirrors , thick carpets , draperies , and sideboards . The building was used for a variety of purposes because it was so large : 70 by 30 feet ( 21 @.@ 3 m × 9 @.@ 1 m ) with 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) ceilings . Earp used the club rooms upstairs as a brothel , another fact that Josephine worked hard to see was omitted from stories about him .
On July 6 , 1900 , Wyatt 's brother Warren was shot and killed in a saloon in Willcox , Arizona . Wyatt learned about his death soon after , and although there are some modern rumors that he went to Arizona to avenge his brother 's death , no evidence has been found to support that theory .
While in Alaska , Wyatt rubbed elbows with future novelist Rex Beach , writer Jack London , playwright Wilson Mizner , and boxing promoter Tex Rickard , with whom Earp developed a long @-@ lasting relationship . Rickard was a partner in the Northern Saloon and gambling house in Nome . Both the Dexter and the Northern Saloon competed for business with more than 60 other saloons in town serving an estimated 20 @,@ 000 residents . Wyatt was arrested twice in Nome for minor offenses , including being drunk and disorderly , although he was not tried . Most members of law enforcement were corrupt or otherwise engaged .
= = = Saloon in Seattle = = =
In November 1899 , Earp apparently left Alaska and went to Seattle , Washington , with a plan to open a saloon and gambling room . On November 25 , 1899 the Seattle Star described him as " a man of great reputation among the toughs and criminals , inasmuch as he formerly walked the streets of a rough frontier mining town with big pistols stuck in his belt , spurs on his boots and a devil @-@ may @-@ care expression upon his official face " . The Seattle Daily Times was less full of praise , announcing in a very small article that he had a reputation in Arizona as a " bad man " .
He faced considerable opposition to his plan from John Considine , who controlled all three gaming operations in town . Although gambling was illegal , Considine had worked out an agreement with Police Chief C.S. Reed . But Earp partnered with an established local gambler name Thomas Urguhart and they opened the Union Club saloon and gambling operation in Seattle 's Pioneer Square . The Seattle Star noted two weeks later that Earp 's saloon was earning a large following . Considine unsuccessfully tried to intimidate Earp , but his saloon continued to prosper . On March 23 , 1900 , the state of Washington filed charges against several gamblers , including Earp and his partner . The club 's furnishings were confiscated and burned . The Earps returned briefly to San Francisco in April 1900 , but within a couple of months , Wyatt and Josephine returned to Oregon and caught the SS Alliance for Alaska .
= = = Silver boom in Tonopah = = =
Wyatt and Josie left Alaska and arrived in Los Angeles at the Hollenbeck Hotel on December 13 , 1901 . They had an estimated $ 80 @,@ 000 , a relative fortune ( equivalent to about $ 2 @,@ 280 @,@ 000 today ) . Three months later , in February 1902 , they arrived in Tonopah , Nevada , known as the " Queen of the Silver Camps " , where silver and gold had been discovered in 1900 and a boom was under way . Wyatt and Josie opened the Northern Saloon in Tonopah and he served as a Deputy U.S. Marshal under Marshal J.F. Emmitt . His saloon , oil , and copper mining interests produced some income for a period .
After Tonopah 's gold strike waned , they moved in 1905 to Goldfield , Nevada , where his brother Virgil and his wife were living . Tex Rickard was also already there and had opened a second Northern Saloon . He hired Wyatt as a pit boss . Wyatt also staked mining claims just outside Death Valley and elsewhere in the Mojave Desert . In 1906 he discovered several deposits of gold and copper near the Sonoran Desert town of Vidal , California on the Colorado River and filed more than 100 mining claims near the Whipple Mountains . While in Los Angeles they lived in at least nine small Los Angeles rentals as early as 1885 and as late as 1929 , mostly in the summer .
= = = Life in Los Angeles = = =
In 1910 , when he was 62 , the Los Angeles Police Department hired Wyatt and former Los Angeles detective Arthur Moore King at $ 10 @.@ 00 per day to carry out various tasks " outside the law " such as retrieving criminals from Mexico , which he did very capably . This led to Wyatt 's final armed confrontation . In October 1910 he was asked by former Los Angeles Police Commissioner H. L. Lewis to head up a posse to protect surveyors of the American Trona Company who were attempting to wrest control of mining claims for vast deposits of potash on the edge of Searles Lake held in receivership by the foreclosed California Trona Company . Wyatt and the group he guarded were regarded as claim jumpers and were confronted by armed representatives of the other company . King wrote , " it was the nerviest thing he had ever seen " . With guns pulled , Wyatt came out of his tent with a Winchester rifle , firing a round at the feet of Federal Receiver Stafford W. Austin . " Back off or I 'll blow you apart , or my name is not Wyatt Earp " . The owners summoned the U.S. Marshal who arrested Earp and 27 others , served them with a summons for contempt of court , and sent them home . Earp 's actions did not resolve the dispute , which eventually escalated into the " Pot Ash Wars " of the Mojave Desert .
On July 23 , 1911 , Earp was arrested in Los Angeles and charged with attempting to fleece J. Y. Peterson , a realty broker , in a fake faro game . Since money had not changed hands the charge against Earp was reduced to vagrancy and he was released on $ 500 bail .
= = = Happy Days mine = = =
The Earps bought a small cottage in Vidal , the only home they ever owned . Beginning in 1911 and until Wyatt 's health began in to fail in 1928 , Wyatt and Josie Earp summered in Los Angeles and spent the rest of the year in the desert working their claims . The " Happy Days " mine was located in the Whipple Mountains a few miles north of Vidal . The cottage was the only permanent residence they owned the entire time they were married . Wyatt had some modest success with the Happy Days gold mine and they lived on the slim proceeds of income from that and oil wells in Oakland and Kern County .
In about 1923 , Charles Welsh , a retired railroad engineer and friend that Earp had known since Dodge City , frequently invited the Earps to visit his family in San Bernardino . The Welsh family did not appreciate Josephine 's gambling habits . They noted that she received an allowance from her family ( likely her only living relative , half @-@ sister Rebecca and husband Aaron Wiener ) and gambled it away , often leaving Wyatt hungry .
When the Welsh family moved to Los Angeles , the Earps accepted an invitation to stay with them for a while in their top floor apartment until the Earps found a place to rent . After Earp and Josie moved into a bungalow nearby , Charlie Welsh 's daughter , Grace Spolidora , recalled that Josie , who had never had many domestic skills , did very little housekeeping or cooking for Wyatt . She and her sister Alma were concerned about the care Josie gave Wyatt . Even though he was very ill , she still did not cook for him . Spolidora , her sisters , and her mother brought in meals .
= = = Flood manuscript = = =
Earp began to collaborate with John Flood , a mining engineer and good friend , on a biography beginning in 1925 . The two men sat together every Sunday in the kitchen of Earp 's modest , rented bungalow . While Wyatt sipped a drink and smoked a cigar , they tried to tell Earp 's story . But Josephine was always present . She often interrupted and insisted " You can 't write that ! It needs to be clean . " She also demanded that they add more " pep " to the manuscript , which in her mind meant including the word " CRACK ! " in all caps . In the chapter about the shootout , the manuscript includes 109 uses of " CRACK " . She thought Earp needed to be shown as a hero , and the manuscript includes a chapter titled " Conflagration " in which Earp saves two women , one a cripple , from a Tombstone fire .
In 1990 , Spolidora was interviewed by a member of the San Bernardino historical society . She had been a teenager during the Earps ' many visits to the family home near Needles , California and sometimes went to San Diego with them . She attributed the highly exaggerated stories about Wyatt Earp to Josephine . Sadie " would always interfere whenever Wyatt would talk with Stuart Lake . She always interfered ! She wanted him to look like a church @-@ going saint and blow things up . Wyatt didn 't want that at all ! "
= = = Movie connections = = =
While living in Los Angeles , Earp became an unpaid film consultant for several silent cowboy movies . In 1916 , he went with his friend Jack London , who he knew from Nome , Alaska , to visit the set of former cowboy , sailor and movie actor @-@ turned @-@ film director Raoul Walsh who was shooting at the studio of Mutual Film conglomerate in Edendale , California . Walsh took the two men to dinner at Al Levy 's Cafe on Main and Third Street . During the meal , the highest paid entertainer in the world , Charlie Chaplin , dropped by to greet Wyatt Earp . Chaplin was impressed by both men , but particularly the former Tombstone marshal .
In 1915 , Earp visited the set of director Allan Dwan 's movie , The Half @-@ Breed , starring Douglas Fairbanks . In his autobiography , Dwan recalled , " As was the custom in those days , he [ Earp ] was invited to join the party and mingle with our background action . " Earp became friends with William Hart and later Tom Mix , the two most famous movie cowboys of their era . Hart was a stickler for realism in his depictions of Western life , and may have relied on Earp for advice . Earp later frequently visited the sets of movie director John Ford , whose movies starred Harry Carey .
In the early 1920s , Earp was given the honorary title of Deputy Sheriff in San Bernardino County , California . On January 25 , 1926 , Wyatt 's only surviving brother James died of cerebral apoplexy in San Bernardino , California .
= = = No regrets = = =
Two years before his death , Earp defended his decisions before the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral and his actions afterward in an interview with Stuart Lake , author of the 1931 largely fictionalized biography , Wyatt Earp : Frontier Marshal . He wrote Lake :
For my handling of the situation at Tombstone , I have no regrets . Were it to be done over again , I would do exactly as I did at that time . If the outlaws and their friends and allies imagined that they could intimidate or exterminate the Earps by a process of murder , and then hide behind alibis and the technicalities of the law , they simply missed their guess . I want to call your particular attention again to one fact , which writers of Tombstone incidents and history apparently have overlooked : with the deaths of the McLowerys , the Clantons , Stillwell , Florentino Cruz , Curly Bill , and the rest , organized , politically protected crime and depredations in Cochise County ceased .
He also said , " The good Lord owes me an explanation for the things that have happened in my life .
= = Death = =
Wyatt Earp was the last surviving Earp brother and the last surviving participant of the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral when he died at home in the Earps ' small rented bungalow at 4004 W 17th Street , in Los Angeles , of chronic cystitis on January 13 , 1929 at the age of 80 . Charlie Welsh 's daughter Grace Spolidora and his daughter @-@ in @-@ law , Alma , were the only witnesses to Wyatt 's cremation . Josephine was apparently too full of grief to assist . Wyatt was survived by Josephine and sister Adelia . He had no children .
= = = Hollywood pallbearers = = =
The funeral was held at the Congregational Church on Wilshire Boulevard . Earp 's pallbearers were William J. Hunsaker , ( Earp 's attorney in Tombstone and noted LA attorney ) ; Jim Mitchell ( Los Angeles Examiner reporter and Hollywood screenwriter ) ; George W. Parsons ( founding member of Tombstone 's " Committee of Vigilance " ) ; Wilson Mizner ( a friend of Wyatt 's during the Klondike Gold Rush ) ; John Clum ( a good friend from his days in Tombstone , former Tombstone mayor , and editor of The Tombstone Epitaph ) ; William S. Hart ( good friend and western actor and silent film star ) ; and Tom Mix ( friend and western film star ) . Mitchell wrote Wyatt 's local obituary . The newspapers reported that Tom Mix cried during his friend 's service . When Josephine did not attend Wyatt 's funeral , Grace Spolidora was furious . " She didn 't go to his funeral , even . She wasn 't that upset . She was peculiar . I don 't think she was that devastated when he died . "
= = = Privately buried = = =
Josie , who was of Jewish heritage , had Earp 's body cremated and secretly buried his remains in the Marcus family plot at the Hills of Eternity , a Jewish cemetery in Colma , California . When she died in 1944 , her remains were interred alongside his . In 1957 , the Tombstone Restoration Commission looked for Wyatt 's ashes with the goal of having them moved to Tombstone . They contacted family members seeking permission and the location of his ashes , but no one could tell them where Wyatt was buried , not even his closest living relative , George Earp . Arthur King , a deputy to Earp from 1910 to 1912 , finally revealed that Josephine had buried Wyatt 's cremated remains in Colma , California , and the Tombstone Commission cancelled its plans to relocate his ashes .
On July 8 , 1957 , thieves excavated the Earp 's grave in an apparent attempt to steal his cremated remains , but unable to find them , stole the simple , 600 pounds ( 270 kg ) grave marker . The stone was eventually returned but a new , more elaborate marker was erected later on . Their gravesite is the most visited resting place in the Jewish cemetery .
= = = Still controversial = = =
At the time of his death , he was still well known for his decision ending the Fitzimmons @-@ Sharkey fight along with the gunfight in Tombstone . His Associated Press obituary described him as a " gun @-@ fighter , whose blazing six @-@ shooters , were for most of his life allied with the side of law and order " . It also gave prominent attention to his officiating of the Fitzsimmons @-@ Sharkey fight .
= = Physical description = =
Like his brothers , Wyatt Earp was a physically imposing figure for his day : 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall , when most men were about 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 68 m ) . He was described in 1887 by the Los Angeles Herald as " quiet , unassuming , broad @-@ shouldered , with a large blonde mustache . He is dignified , self @-@ contained , game and fearless , and no man commands greater respect ... " He weighed about 165 to 170 pounds ( 75 to 77 kg ) , was long @-@ armed , and muscular , and was very capable of using his fists instead of his weapon to control those resisting his authority .
At about the same time , The Mirror , a newspaper in Monroe , Iowa printed a wire story originating in Denver . The anonymous reporter described Wyatt in detail :
Wyatt Earp , a man whose trigger finger had considerable to do in making the border history of the West , was in Denver for several days last week . He is tall and athletic . His eyes are blue and fringed with light lashes and set beneath blonde eyebrows . His hair , which was once as yellow as gold , is beginning to be stranded with white . A heavy , tawny mustache shades his firm mouth and sweeps below his strong , square chin . He wore ... a neat gray tailor @-@ made suit , immaculate linen and fashionable neckwear . With a Derby hat and a pair of tan shoes , he was a figure to catch a lady 's eye ...
In 1926 , writer Adela Rogers St. Johns met the elderly Earp for the first time .
He was straight as a pine tree , tall and magnificently built . I knew he was nearly 80 , but in spite of his snow white hair and mustache , he did not seem or look old . His greetings were warm and friendly . I stood in awe . Somehow , like a mountain , or desert , he reduced you to size .
= = Contemporary reputation = =
Among his peers , Wyatt was respected . His deputy Jimmy Cairns described Wyatt 's work as a police officer in Wichita , Kansas . " Wyatt Earp was a wonderful officer . He was game to the last ditch and apparently afraid of nothing . The cowmen all respected him and seemed to recognize his superiority and authority at such times as he had to use it . " He described Wyatt as " the most dependable man I ever knew ; a quiet , unassuming chap who never drank and in all respects a clean young fellow " .
When citizens of Dodge City learned the Earps had been charged with murder after the gunfight , they sent letters endorsing and supporting the Earps to Judge Wells Spicer .
John Clum , owner of The Tombstone Epitaph and mayor of Tombstone while Wyatt was a gambler and lawman there , described him in his book It All Happened in Tombstone .
Wyatt 's manner , though friendly , suggested a quiet reserve ... Frequently it has happened that men who have served as peace officers on the frontier have craved notoriety in connection with their dealings with the outlaw element of their time . Wyatt Earp deprecated such notoriety , and during his last illness he told me that for many years he had hoped the public would weary of the narratives — distorted with fantastic and fictitious embellishments — that were published from time to time concerning him , and that his last years might be passed in undisturbed obscurity .
Bill Dixon knew Wyatt early in his adult life . He wrote :
Wyatt was a shy young man with few intimates . With casual acquaintances he seldom spoke unless spoken to . When he did say anything it was to the point , without fear or favor , which wasn 't relished by some ; but that never bothered Wyatt . To those who knew him well he was a genial companion . He had the most even disposition I ever saw ; I never knew him to lose his temper . He was more intelligent , better educated , and far better mannered than the majority of his associates , which probably did not help them to understand him . His reserve limited his friendships , but more than one stranger , down on his luck , has had firsthand evidence of Wyatt 's generosity . I think his outstanding quality was the nicety with which he gauged the time and effort for every move . That , plus his absolute confidence in himself , gave him the edge over the run of men .
Public perception of his life has varied over the years as media accounts of his life have changed . The story of the Earps ' actions in Tombstone were published at the time by newspapers nationwide . Shortly after the shooting of Curly Bill , the Tucson Star wrote on March 21 , 1882 , in an editorial about the O.K. Corral gunfight , that the Cowboys had been ordered to put their hands up and after they complied , were shot by the Earps , stating , " The whole series of killings cannot be classed other than cold blooded murder . "
Famous lawman Bat Masterson described Wyatt in 1907 .
Wyatt Earp was one of the few men I personally knew in the West in the early days whom I regarded as absolutely destitute of physical fear . I have often remarked , and I am not alone in my conclusions , that what goes for courage in a man is generally fear of what others will think of him – in other words , personal bravery is largely made up of self @-@ respect , egotism , and apprehension of the opinions of others . Wyatt Earp 's daring and apparent recklessness in time of danger is wholly characteristic ; personal fear doesn 't enter into the equation , and when everything is said and done , I believe he values his own opinion of himself more than that of others , and it is his own good report he seeks to preserve ... He never at any time in his career resorted to the pistol excepting cases where such a course was absolutely necessary . Wyatt could scrap with his fists , and had often taken all the fight out of bad men , as they were called , with no other weapons than those provided by nature .
= = = Experience in gun fights = = =
Wyatt was reputed to be an expert with a pistol . He showed no fear of any man . The Tombstone Epitaph said of Wyatt , " bravery and determination were requisites , and in every instance proved himself the right man in the right place " .
Wyatt was lucky during the few gun fights he took part in from his earliest job as an assistant police officer in Wichita to Tombstone , where he was briefly Deputy U.S. Marshal . Unlike his lawmen brothers Virgil and James , Wyatt was never wounded , although once his clothing and his saddle was shot through with bullet holes . According to John H. Flood 's biography ( as dictated to him by Wyatt Earp ) , Wyatt vividly recalled a presence that in several instances warned him away or urged him to take action . This happened when he was on the street , alone in his room at the Cosmopolitan Hotel , at Bob Hatch 's Pool Hall , where he went moments before Morgan was assassinated , and again when he approached Iron Springs and surprised Curly Bill Brocius , killing him .
= = Later reputation = =
After the shootout in Tombstone , his pursuit and murder of those who attacked his brothers , and after leaving Arizona , Wyatt was often the target of negative newspaper stories that disparaged his and his brothers ' reputation . His role in history has stimulated considerable ongoing scholarly and editorial debate . A large body of literature has been written about Wyatt Earp and his legacy , some of it highly fictionalized . Considerable portions of it are either full of admiration and flattery or hostile debunking .
Wyatt was repeatedly criticized in the media over the remainder of his life . His wife Josephine wrote , " The falsehoods that were printed in some of the newspapers about him and the unjust accusations against him hurt Wyatt more deeply than anything that ever happened to him during my life with him , with the exception of his mother 's death and that of his father and brother , Warren . "
= = = Negative publicity = = =
On April 16 , 1894 , the Fort Worth Gazette wrote that Virgil Earp and John Behan had a " deadly feud " . It described Behan as " an honest man , a good official , and possessed many of the attributes of a gentleman " . Earp , on the other hand , " was head of band of desperadoes , a partner in stage robbers , and a friend of gamblers and professional killers ... Wyatt was the boss killer of the region . "
Former nemesis Johnny Behan continued to spread rumors about the Earps for the next 20 years . On December 7 , 1897 , he was quoted in a story in the Washington Post , reprinted by the San Francisco Call , describing the Earp 's lawbreaking behavior in Tombstone . After referring to the Fitzimmons @-@ Sharkey fight , the article quoted Behan . " The Clanton brothers and the McLowrys were a tough lot of rustlers who were the main perpetrators of the rascailly rife in that region . Between them and Earps rose a bitter feud over the division of the proceeds of the looting . The Earp boys believed they had failed to get a fair divide of the booty and swore vengeance . They caught their former allies in Tombstone unarmed and shot three of them dead while their hands were uplifted . " Behan went on to say , " They were hauled up before a Justice of the Peace ... Warrants were issued for their arrest , and , summoning a posse , I went out to bring the Earps in . They were chased entirely out of the country and Tombstone knew them no more . " Up until he died in 1912 , Johnny Behan lambasted the Earps as the bad men who had attacked the cowboys .
After Earp left Alaska in 1901 , the New York Sun printed a story in 1903 that described a confrontation Earp had reportedly had with a short 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) Cockney Canadian Mountie , who embarrassed Earp by demanding that he leave his weapon in his room . The story was reprinted as far away as New Zealand by the Otago Witness . The Dawson Record commented on the story , mocking the newspaper as a " venerable dispenser of truth . "
On April 13 , 1921 , the Arizona Republican ran a lengthy interview with Thomas Raines , a former resident of Tombstone . Raines remembered the Earps as having shot the Cowboys and killing Ike Clanton before they had a chance to surrender . He recalled that the Cowboys " were leading their horses out of the gate when they were confronted , almost from ambush , by four of the Earps , Virgil . Wyatt , Morgan and Jim and by Doc Holliday . Virgil Earp , armed with a sawed off express shotgun , and accompanying his demand with profanity , yelled " Hands up ! " But he didn 't wait for the action demanded and shot almost as soon as he spoke . Tom McLowery [ sic ] showed his empty bands , and cried . ' Gentlemen , I am unarmed . ' Holliday answered with the discharge of his shotgun . Ike Clanton fell at the first fire , mortally wounded , but he rolled over and fired two shots from his pistol between his bent knees . "
During 1922 , Frederick R. Bechdolt published the book When the West Was Young , which included a story about Wyatt 's time in Tombstone , but he mangled many basic facts . He described the Earp @-@ Clanton differences as the falling @-@ out of partners in crime .
On March 12 , 1922 , the Sunday Los Angeles Times ran a short , scandalous article titled " Lurid Trails Are Left by Olden @-@ Day Bandits " by J.M. Scanland . It described Wyatt and his brothers as a gang , comparable to the Dalton Gang , who waylaid the cowboys in the shoot out at the O.K. Corral . It said that the Earps were allies of Frank Stilwell , who had informed on them , so they killed him , and that Earp had died in Colton , California . In an article titled , " Lurid Trails Are Left By Olden Day Bandits , " the author described the Earp 's relationship with Sheriff Behan and the Cowboys :
Trouble arose between them and Sheriff John Behan , who tried to ' clean up ' the town . Trouble began when four cowboys refused to recognize the right of the Earp gang to rule the town . The cowboys were Bill and Ike Clanton and Tom and Frank McLowry . The Earps ordered the cowboys out of town and they were preparing to leave when they were waylaid and a gun battle followed during which Virgil Earp was shot in the leg , Morgan Earp in the shoulder and Ike Clanton was killed . The town was aroused and Frank Stilwell , who led the stage robberies , brought the trouble to a climax when he informed against his partners , because the Earps would not divide fairly . In a gun battle that followed , Stilwell killed Morgan Earp . A few months later another stage was robbed , and the driver , ' Bud ' Philpot , was killed .
Josephine and Earps ' friend and actor William Hart both wrote letters to the publisher . Josephine demanded that the error " must be corrected and printed in the same sensational manner " given to the correction as to the original article , which the paper published .
In 1924 , a story in a San Francisco paper said interviewing him was " like pulling teeth " . Earp did not trust the press and he preferred to keep his mouth shut . But the story by Scanland galvanized Earp . He was tired of all the lies perpetuated about him and became determined to get his story accurately told . He began to collaborate on a biography with his friend John Flood in 1925 . It took Earp until 1927 to track down J.M. Scanland , the author of the LA Times article , and extract a written retraction from him . These and other reports bothered Earp a great deal , and he finally decided to do something about them .
= = = Walter Noble Burns = = =
Author Walter Noble Burns visited Earp in September 1926 and asked him questions with the intent to write a book about Earp . Earp declined because he was already collaborating with John Flood . Burns visited Tombstone and based on what he learned decided instead to focus his book on Doc Holliday . He pestered Earp for facts , and on March 27 the next year , Earp finally responded to Burn 's repeated requests in an 11 @-@ page letter outlining the basic facts from Earp 's point of view .
When their efforts to get the Flood manuscript published failed , the Earps decided to appeal to Burns , whose own book was near publication . But he was not interested . His book was about to be published , free of the constraints imposed by a collaboration with Earp . Burns wrote them , " I should not now care to undertake another book which , in part at least , would be upon much the same lines ... I should have been delighted six months ago to accept your offer but it is too late now . My book has championed Mr. Earp 's cause throughout and I believe will vindicate his reputation in Tombstone in a way that he will like . " When Burns turned them down , Josephine actively worked to stop the publication of his book , fearful that their efforts to publish Wyatt 's biography would be thwarted as a result .
In late 1927 , Burns published Tombstone , An Iliad of the Southwest , a mesmerizing tale " of blood and thunder " , that christened Earp as the " Lion of Tombstone " . " Strong , bold , forceful , picturesque was the fighter of the old frontier . Something epic in him , fashioned in Homeric mold . In his way , a hero . " It included a good deal about Wyatt as well , much to the Wyatt and Josie 's displeasure . Readers and reviewers found they had a difficult time discerning between " fact and fiction " . The book was the first to popularize its subject for a mass reading audience . Burns treated Earp as a mythical figure , a " larger @-@ than @-@ life hero whose many portrayals in film , television , and books often render fidelity to truth the first casualty . "
= = = Billy Breakenridge = = =
While living in Vidal , Wyatt and Josie were visited by Billy Breakenridge , the former Tombstone deputy under John Behan . He pressed Wyatt for details about his time in Tombstone to add to his book Helldorado : Bringing Law to the Mesquite . Breakenridge was assisted by Western novelist William MacLeod Raine , who since 1904 had published more than 25 novels about Western history . The book was published in 1928 before Wyatt died . It depicted Wyatt as a thief , pimp , crooked gambler , and murderer . Breakenridge wrote that the Earps and Doc Holliday aggressively mistreated the guiltless cowboys until they were forced into a fatal confrontation . His description of the 1881 O.K. Corral gun fight stated that the Clanton and McLaury brothers were merely cowboys who had been unarmed and surrendered but the Earp brothers had shot them in cold blood . Wyatt and Josie protested that the book 's contents was biased and more fiction than fact . Earp complained about the book until his death in 1929 , and his wife continued in the same vein afterward .
= = = Edwin Burkholder = = =
Edwin V. Burkholder , who specialized in stories about the Old West , published an article about Wyatt in 1955 in Argosy Magazine . He called Wyatt Earp a coward and murderer , and manufactured evidence to support his allegations . He also wrote , using the pseudonyms " George Carleton Mays " and " J. S. Qualey " , for the Western magazine Real West . His stores were filled with sensational claims about Wyatt Earp 's villainy , and he made up fake letters to the editor from supposed " old @-@ timers " to corroborate this story .
= = = Frank Waters = = =
Frank Waters interviewed Virgil Earp 's widow , Allie Sullivan Earp , to write The Earp Brothers of Tombstone . The book was so contentious and disputed that he waited until 13 years after her death to publish the book . In it he condemned the Earp brothers ' character and called them names . The book " further embroidered upon Frank Waters 's imaginings about Wyatt 's adulterous affair " with Josephine . It was described by one reviewer as " a smear campaign levied against the Earp brothers " .
Waters used Allie Earp 's anecdotes as a frame for adding a narrative and " building a case , essentially piling quote upon quote to prove that Wyatt Earp was a con man , thief , robber , and eventually murderer " . Waters vociferously berated Wyatt :
Wyatt was an itinerant saloonkeeper , cardsharp , gunman , bigamist , church deacon , policeman , bunco artist , and a supreme confidence man . A lifelong exhibitionist ridiculed alike by members of his own family , neighbors , contemporaries , and the public press , he lived his last years in poverty , still vainly trying to find someone to publicize his life , and died two years before his fictitious biography recast him in the role of America 's most famous frontier marshal .
Allie Earp was so upset by the way Waters distorted and manipulated her words that she threatened to shoot him .
S.J. Reidhead , author of Travesty : Frank Waters Earp Agenda Exposed , spent nearly a decade searching for Water 's original manuscript , researching him , his background , and his bias against the Earps . In doing so , the author discovered that the story Waters presented against the Earps was primarily fictitious . " Nothing is documented , " she wrote . " There are no notes nor sourcing . There is only the original Tombstone Travesty manuscript and the final Earp Brothers of Tombstone . Because of his later reputation , few writers , even today , dare question Waters ' motives . They also do not bother fact checking the Earp Brothers of Tombstone , which is so inaccurate it should be considered fiction , rather than fact . "
Anti @-@ Earp writers and researchers use Frank Waters ' Earp Brothers of Tombstone , as their primary source for material that presents Wyatt Earp as something of a villainous monster , aided and abetted by his brothers who were almost brutes . Waters detested the Earps so badly that he presented a book that was terribly flawed , poorly edited , and brimming with prevarications . In his other work , Waters is poetic . In the Earp Brothers of Tombstone , he is little more than a tabloid hack , trying to slander someone he dislikes . To date , no reason has been uncovered for the bias Frank Waters exhibited against Wyatt Earp and his brothers .
= = = Ed Bartholomew = = =
In 1963 , Ed Bartholomew published Wyatt Earp , The Untold Story followed by Wyatt Earp : Man and Myth in 1964 . His books were strongly anti @-@ Earp and attacked Wyatt Earp 's image as a hero . Bartholomew went about this by reciting snippets of accumulated anti @-@ Earp facts , rumors , gossip , and innuendo . Bartholomew 's books started a trend of debunking Earp , and the academic community followed his lead , pursuing the image of Earp as a " fighting pimp " .
= = = Allen Barra = = =
In reviewing Allen Barra 's Inventing Wyatt Earp . His Life and Many Legends , William Urban , a Professor of History at Monmouth College in Warren County , Illinois , pointed out a number of factual inaccuracies in the book . One inconsistency by Barra pointed out by another reviewer includes a description of the poker game the night before the shootout . Ike Clanton 's account of the game ( the only one that exists ) gives the participants as John Behan , Virgil Earp , Ike Clanton , Tom McLaury , and a fifth man Ike did not recognize , while Barra wrote the Holliday had attended the game .
= = Fame = =
Earp was dismayed about the controversy that continually followed him . He wrote a letter to John Hays Hammond on May 21 , 1925 , telling him " notoriety had been the bane of my life . I detest it , and I never have put forth any effort to check the tales that have been published in which my brothers and I are supposed to have been the principal participants . Not one of them is correct . "
Finally attempting to counter negative accounts in newspapers and books , Earp tried to persuade his good friend , well @-@ known cowboy movie star William S. Hart , to make a movie about his life . " If the story were exploited on the screen by you , " he wrote Hart , " It would do much toward setting me right before a public which has always been fed lies about me . " Hart encouraged Earp to first find an author to pen his story .
= = = Flood manuscript = = =
After Earp failed to get his story told in a way that he approved , he began working in 1925 with former mining engineer John H. Flood , Jr. to get his life story committed to paper . Flood volunteered his time and attempted to write an authorized biography of Earp 's life , based on Earp 's recollections . But Flood 's writing was " stilted , corny and one @-@ dimensional , " and the manuscript , completed some time in early 1926 , never found a publisher . In February 1927 , editor Anne Johnston of Bobbs Merrill wrote back and was highly critical of the " stilted , florid and diffuse " writing . She wrote , " Now one forgets what it 's all about in the clutter of unimportant details that impedes its pace , and the pompous manner of its telling . "
Hart tried to help . In February 1926 he wrote The Saturday Evening Post and encouraged them to publish Flood 's biography so " that ... the rising generation may know the real from the unreal " , but Flood was a horrendous writer , and publisher after publisher rejected the manuscript .
A number of copies were made and sold in 1981 , and the original carbon copy of the typed manuscript , found among Josephine Earp 's papers , was given by Glenn Boyer to the Ford County Historical Society .
= = = Lake 's biography = = =
Unlike most legendary lawmen of the American West , Earp was relatively unknown until Stuart Lake published the first biography of Wyatt Earp , Wyatt Earp : Frontier Marshal in 1931 , two years after Earp died . Lake portrayed Earp as a " Western superhero " who single @-@ handedly cleaned up a town full of cowboy criminals . In fact Earp had been a stagecoach guard for Wells Fargo , a full @-@ time gambler , a regular associate of prostitutes , and , occasionally , a lawman .
Lake wrote the book with Earp 's input , but was only able to interview him eight times before Earp died , during which Earp sketched out the " barest facts " of his life . Despite having received very little information from Earp , Lake wrote the biography in the first person .
Lake initially sought Earp out hoping to write a magazine article about him . Earp was also seeking a biographer at about the same time . Earp , who was 80 , was concerned that his vantage point on the Tombstone story may be lost , and may have been financially motivated as he had little income in his last years of life .
During the interviews and in later correspondence , Josephine and Wyatt went to great lengths to keep her name out of Lake 's book . Lake wrote Earp that he planned to send portions of the book to his New York agent , but Earp objected because he wanted to read it first . After Earp 's death on January 13 , 1929 , Josephine continued to try to persuade Lake to leave her and Earp 's former wife , Mattie Blaylock , out of the book , even threatening legal action . Lake finally published Wyatt Earp : Frontier Marshal in 1931 , two years after Earp 's death .
Lake 's creative biography portrays Earp as a " Western superhero " , " gallant white knight " and entirely avoided mentioning Josephine Earp . A number of Hollywood movies have been directly and indirectly influence by Earp 's role as a western lawman . The book drew considerable positive attention and established Lake as a western screenwriter for years to come . It also established the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral in the public consciousness and Earp as a fearless lawman in the American Old West .
The book " is now regarded more as fiction than fact " , " an imaginative hoax , a fabrication mixed with just enough fact to give it credibility " .
= = = Reputation as a teetotaler = = =
Earp 's image is that of a teetotaler , but as a saloon owner and gambler , he drank occasionally as well . When Flood and Lake wrote their biographies , Prohibition was in force . Among the other facts Josephine wanted scrubbed from Earp 's history , she persuaded biographers Flood , Lake and Burns to write that Earp was a non @-@ drinker . A good friend of Earp 's , Charlie Welsh , was known to disappear for days at a time " to see property " , the family euphemism for a drinking binge , and Earp was his regular partner . Director John Ford said that whenever Josephine left town for religious conventions , Earp would come into town , play poker , and get drunk with the cowboy actors .
= = = " Buntline Special " = = =
In his book , Lake wrote about the Colt Buntline Special , a variant of long @-@ barreled Colt Single Action Army revolver . According to Lake 's biography , dime novelist Ned Buntline had five Buntline Specials commissioned . Lake described them as extra @-@ long , 12 inches ( 300 mm ) -long barrel Colt Single Action Army revolvers . Buntline was supposed to have presented them to lawmen in thanks for their help with contributing " local color " to his western yarns . According to Lake , the pistol was equipped with a detachable metal shoulder stock . Lake wrote that Earp and four other well @-@ known western lawmen — Bat Masterson , Bill Tilghman , Charlie Bassett and Neal Brown — each received a Buntline Special . However , neither Tilghman nor Brown were lawmen then .
Researchers have never found any record of an order received by the Colt company , and Ned Buntline 's alleged connections to Earp 's have been largely discredited .
After the publication of Lake 's book , various Colt revolvers with long ( 10 " or 16 " ) barrels were referred to as " Colt Buntlines " . Colt re @-@ introduced the revolvers in its second generation revolvers produced after 1956 . The Buntline Special was further popularized by The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp television series .
= = = Dubious claims by Earp = = =
Earp 's reputation has been confused by inaccurate , conflicting , and false stories told about him by others , and by his own claims that cannot be corroborated . For example , in an interview with a reporter in Denver in 1896 , he denied that he had killed Johnny Ringo . He then flipped his story , claiming he had killed Ringo . In 1888 , he was interviewed by an agent of California historian Hubert H. Bancroft , and Earp claimed that he had killed " over a dozen stage robbers , murderers , and cattle thieves " . In about 1918 he told Forrestine Hooker , who wrote an unpublished manuscript , and then Frank Lockwood , who wrote Pioneer Days in Arizona in 1932 , that he was the one who killed Johnny Ringo as he left Arizona in 1882 . However , Earp included details that do not match what is known about Ringo 's death . Earp repeated that claim to at least three other people .
At the hearing following the Tombstone shootout , Earp said he had been marshal in Dodge City , a claim he repeated in an August 16 , 1896 , interview that appeared in the San Francisco Examiner . But Earp had only been an assistant city marshal there .
During an interview with his future biographer Stuart Lake during the late 1920s , Earp said that he arrested notorious gunslinger Ben Thompson in Ellsworth , Kansas , on August 15 , 1873 , when news accounts and Thompson 's own contemporary account about the episode do not mention his presence . He also told Lake that he had hunted buffalo during 1871 and 1872 , but Earp was arrested three times in the Peoria area during that period for " Keeping and being found in a house of ill @-@ fame . " He was arrested and jailed on a horse theft charge on April 6 , 1871 . However he was not convicted of the last charge and was released .
In the same interview , Earp claimed that George Hoyt had intended to kill him , although newspaper accounts from that time report differently . He also said he and Bat Masterson had confronted Clay Allison when he was sent to Dodge City to finish George Hoyt 's job , and that they had forced him to back down . Two other accounts contradicted Earp , crediting cattleman Dick McNulty and Long Branch Saloon owner Chalk Beeson with convincing Allison and his cowboys to surrender their guns . Cowboy Charlie Siringo witnessed the incident and left a written account .
= = Modern image = =
Wyatt outlived his brothers , and due to the fame Wyatt gained from Lake 's biography and later adaptations of it , he is often mistakenly viewed as the central character and hero of the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral . In fact , Virgil Earp , as Deputy U.S. Marshal and Tombstone City Marshal , actually held the legal authority in Tombstone the day of the shootout . Virgil had considerably more experience with weapons and combat as a Union soldier in the Civil War , and in law enforcement as a sheriff , constable , and marshal than did Wyatt . As city marshal , Virgil made the decision to enforce a city ordinance prohibiting carrying weapons in town and to disarm the Cowboys . Wyatt was only a temporary assistant marshal to his brother .
= = = Cultural image as Western lawman = = =
Earp 's modern @-@ day reputation is that of the Old West 's " toughest and deadliest gunman of his day " . He is " a cultural icon , a man of law and order , a mythic figure of a West where social control and order were notably absent " . Due to Lake 's fanciful biography and because Wyatt outlived all of his brothers , his name became famous and he is the source of many movies , TV shows , biographies and works of fiction .
Western historian and author John Boessenecker describes Earp as an " enigmatic figure ... He always lived on the outer fringe of respectable society , and his closest companions were gamblers and sporting men ... Wyatt never set down roots in any one place ; when the money stopped coming in or his problems became too great , he would pull up stakes and move on to the next boomtown ... For his entire life was a gamble , an effort to make money without working hard for it , to succeed quickly without ever settling in for the long haul .
= = = Josephine Earp memoir = = =
One of the most well known and for many years respected books about Wyatt Earp was the book I Married Wyatt Earp , originally credited as a factual memoir by Josephine Marcus Earp . Published in 1976 , it was edited by amateur historian Glenn Boyer , and published by the respected University of Arizona Press . It was immensely popular for many years , capturing the imagination of people with an interest in western history , studied in classrooms , cited by scholars , and relied upon as factual by filmmakers .
In 1998 , writer Tony Ortega wrote a lengthy investigative article for the Phoenix New Times for which he interviewed Boyer . Boyer said that he was uninterested in what others think of the accuracy of what he has written . " This is an artistic effort . I don 't have to adhere to the kind of jacket that these people are putting on me . I am not a historian . I 'm a storyteller . " Boyer admitted that the book is " 100 percent Boyer " . He said the book was not really a first @-@ person account , that he had interpreted Wyatt Earp in Josephine 's voice , and admitted that he could not produce any documents to vindicate his methods .
Boyer and the University Press ' credibility was severely damaged . In 2000 the University referred all questions to university lawyers who investigated some of the allegations about Boyer 's work . Later that year the Press removed the book from their catalog . The book has been discredited as a fraud and a hoax that cannot be relied on .
As a result , other works by Boyer were subsequently questioned . His book , Wyatt Earp 's Tombstone Vendetta , published in 1993 , was according to Boyer based on an account written by a previously unknown Tombstone journalist that he named " Theodore Ten Eyck " , but whose identity could not be independently verified . Boyer claimed that the manuscript was " clearly authentic " and that it contained " fascinating revelations ( if they are true ) and would make an ace movie " . Boyer later said the character was in fact a blend of " scores of accounts " , but could not provide any sources .
History Professor William Urban also described " the questionable scholarship of Glenn Boyer , the dominant figure in Earpiana for the past several decades , who has apparently invented a manuscript and then cited it as a major source in his publications . This does not surprise this reviewer , who has personal experience with Boyer 's pretentious exaggeration of his acquaintance with Warren County records . "
= = In popular culture = =
When a post office was established in 1930 in the unincorporated settlement of Drennan , near the site of some of his mining claims , it was renamed Earp , California in his honor .
= = = Ship Wyatt Earp = = =
Arctic explorer Lincoln Ellsworth became fascinated with the Earp legend . Ellsworth completed four expeditions to Antarctica between 1933 and 1939 , using a former Norwegian herring boat as his aircraft transporter and base that he named Wyatt Earp after his hero .
Ellsworth befriended Earp 's widow , Josephine Earp . After Wyatt 's death , she wrote him that she was sending him Wyatt 's handgun , a shotgun , pipe , and wedding ring . She said she was sending him a .41 @-@ caliber Colt revolver , which she said Wyatt referred to affectionately as his " baby pony . " However , Ellsworth actually received a .45 @-@ caliber Colt revolver with a 7 ½ " barrel . Its serial number indicates it was originally shipped from the Colt factory on January 30 , 1883 . The shotgun was a 16 gauge double @-@ barreled hunting shotgun and case belonging to Wyatt . Ellsworth 's widow donated this pistol to the Arizona Historical Society in 1988 .
= = = Earp weapons auctioned = = =
On April 17 , 2014 , the family of deceased Earp amateur historian Glenn Boyer put much of his Earp collection and many artifacts up for auction . Among the 32 boxes of documentation , files , pictures and memorabilia for sale was a Colt .45 caliber said by Earp descendants to have been owned by Wyatt Earp . Also included in the auction was a Winchester lever @-@ action shotgun belonging to Wyatt Earp .
Earp was known to carry a .45 caliber pistol , as he did on the night of the Fitzimmons @-@ Sharkey fight in 1896 . Historians have credible evidence that Wyatt used a .44 caliber 1869 American model Smith & Wesson during the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral . This weapon was given by Earp to John Flood , who left it to Earp historian John D. Gilchriese .
Descendants of Wyatt Earp 's cousins assert that Earp carried the pistol featured in the auction and while in Tombstone , although the grips , barrel , and cylinder have been replaced . Only the frame is original , and its serial number has been filed off . But X @-@ ray testing showed an original serial number , 5686 , which matches a batch of revolvers purchased by the U.S. Army in 1874 .
The history of the items is controversial because they belonged to Boyer . John Boessenecker , a respected author of numerous articles on the American Old West and a collector of American Old West guns and memorabilia , said that it would be " impossible to separate the authenticity of the auction items from Boyer 's own troubled history . " This is particularly true because the provenance of the weapons is based on letters written by or given to Boyer . The authenticity of the revolver displayed at the auction is attested to by a typewritten letter dictated by Bill Miller to his daughter LaVonne Griffin . Miller was married to Estelle Edwards , the daughter of Adelia Earp Edwards , Wyatt 's sister . Before his death , Boyer completed a sworn affidavit attesting that the Colt .45 belonged to Earp . The affidavit is included with the revolver along with other expert findings . Critics challenge the authenticity of the letter because Boyer signed an affidavit in 1994 and stated again in 1999 , long after Bill Miller 's death , that he did not have any documentation from Miller . LeRoy Merz , the owner of Merz Antique Firearms , is the nation 's largest dealer in antique Winchesters in the United States . Despite Boyer 's affidavit , he said the missing serial number is a " kiss of death , " he says . " No serious collector will want that . "
The Wyatt revolver from Boyer 's estate was expected to fetch from $ 100 @,@ 000 and $ 150 @,@ 000 . On the day of the auction , more than 6 @,@ 400 online bidders and over 400 collectors from 49 countries took part in the auction . The revolver attributed to Wyatt Earp was sold to an unnamed phone bidder from New Mexico for $ 225 @,@ 000 . The Winchester lever @-@ action shotgun also said to be Wyatt Earp 's sold for $ 50 @,@ 000 , below the high value estimate of $ 125 @,@ 000 .
= = = Gunfight sketch sold at auction = = =
John H. Flood Jr . , Wyatt Earp 's secretary , who he regarded like a son , drew a sketch of the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral in 1926 under Wyatt 's supervision . The drawing placed participants and selected witnesses on Fremont Street in Tombstone , and Earp annotated it with lines indicating how the participants moved during the 30 @-@ second shootout . It was sold at auction by Alexander Autographs in early October 2010 , for $ 380 @,@ 000 .
= = = First depiction in film = = =
Earp 's good friend William Hart produced and wrote the first movie to depict Wyatt Earp , the seven @-@ reel epic Wild Bill Hickok released by Paramount in 1923 . Hart played Wild Bill Hickok and Bert Lindley played Earp . Earp served as a technical adviser on the film . This was the first movie that depicted Wyatt Earp , and the only movie that included his character before he died in 1929 . The role of Earp 's character in the movie was small . Bert Lindley is not listed on some descriptions of the movie and this portrayal of Earp is often overlooked . Alan Barra , author of Inventing Wyatt Earp : His Life and Many Legends , overlooked this movie in his biography .
In the film , Earp joined Calamity Jane , Bat Masterson , Doc Holliday , Charlie Bassett , Luke Short and Bill Tilghman in cleaning up a wild cowtown . Promotional copy for the film prominently mentioned Earp : " Back in the days when the West was young and wild , ' Wild Bill ' fought and loved and adventured with such famous frontiersmen as Bat Masterson and Wyatt Earp . " Earp was described in the promotional copy as " Deputy Sheriff to Bat Masterson of Dodge City , known as one of the three greatest gun @-@ men that ever lived , along with Bat Masterson and ' Wild Bill ' Hickok " . In reality , Earp was a virtually unknown assistant marshal in Dodge City when Wild Bill Hickok was murdered in 1876 .
= = = Depiction of Old West lawmen = = =
Wyatt Earp both directly and indirectly influenced the way movies depict lawmen in the American Old West . While living in Los Angeles , Earp met several well @-@ known and soon @-@ to @-@ be famous actors on the sets of various movies . He became good friends with Western actors William S. Hart , and Tom Mix . Stuart Lake 's book Wyatt Earp : Frontier Marshal was the basis for how Earp has been depicted as a fearless Western hero in a large number of films and books . The book was first adapted into a movie for Frontier Marshal in 1934 . Josephine Earp successfully pressured the producers to remove Wyatt 's name from the film , and the protagonist was renamed " Michael Wyatt " . The film was made again in 1939 . Josephine sued 20th Century Fox for $ 50 @,@ 000 , but with the provision that Wyatt 's name be removed from the title , and after she received $ 5 @,@ 000 , the movie was released as Frontier Marshal starring Randolph Scott playing Wyatt Earp . Sol M. Wurtzel produced both films .
Lake wrote another book about Wyatt Earp titled My Darling Clementine in 1946 that Director John Ford developed into the movie My Darling Clementine , which further boosted Wyatt 's reputation . The book later inspired a number of stories , movies and television programs about outlaws and lawmen in Dodge City and Tombstone . Lake wrote a number of screenplays for these movies and twelve scripts for the 1955 – 61 television series The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp starring Hugh O 'Brian as Earp .
The popular movie Gunfight at the O.K. Corral released in 1957 starring Burt Lancaster as Earp cemented his place in Western history as a hero lawman . The movie also altered the public 's perception of cowboys , who in Earp 's time and locale were outlaws , but in the movies were reinvented as good guys assisting the lawmen in their fight against the outlaws .
Director John Ford said that when he was a prop boy in the early days of silent pictures , Earp would visit pals he knew from his Tombstone days on the sets . " I used to give him a chair and a cup of coffee , and he told me about the fight at the O.K. Corral . So in My Darling Clementine , we did it exactly the way it had been . " When Ford was working on his last silent feature Hangman 's House in 1928 , which included the first credited screen appearances by John Wayne , Earp used to visit the set . John Wayne later told Hugh O 'Brian that he based his Western lawman walk , talk and persona to his acquaintance with Wyatt Earp , who was good friends with Mix . " I knew him ... I often thought of Wyatt Earp when I played a film character . There 's a guy that actually did what I 'm trying to do . " Wyatt Earp 's character has been the central figure in 10 films and featured in many more . Among the best @-@ known actors who have portrayed him are Randolph Scott , Guy Madison , Henry Fonda , Joel McCrea , Burt Lancaster , James Garner , Jimmy Stewart , Hugh O 'Brian , Kurt Russell and Kevin Costner .
With the emergence of television in the 1950s , producers spun out a large number of western @-@ oriented shows . At the height of their popularity in 1959 , there were more than two dozen " cowboy " programs on each week . At least six of them were connected to some extent with Wyatt Earp : The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp , Bat Masterson , Tombstone Territory , Broken Arrow , Johnny Ringo , and Gunsmoke .
= = = Earp legend in film and television = = =
Frontier Marshal ( 1934 ) – The first film adaptation of Stuart N. Lake 's novel . George O 'Brien plays " Michael Wyatt " .
Frontier Marshal ( 1939 ) – Randolph Scott as Wyatt Earp .
Tombstone , the Town Too Tough to Die ( 1942 ) – Stars Richard Dix .
My Darling Clementine ( 1946 ) – Stars Henry Fonda and directed by John Ford .
Wichita ( 1955 ) – Stars Joel McCrea .
The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp TV series ( 1955 – 1961 ) – Starring Hugh O 'Brian as Wyatt Earp .
Gunfight at the O.K. Corral ( 1957 ) – Stars Burt Lancaster .
Hour of the Gun ( 1967 ) – Stars James Garner in the first of two movies with Garner as Earp .
Doc ( 1971 ) – Gunfight of the O.K. Corral from Doc Holliday 's point of view . Stacy Keach as Doc and Harris Yulin as Wyatt .
Tombstone ( 1993 ) – Stars Kurt Russell .
Wyatt Earp : Return to Tombstone ( 1994 ) – Film combines colorized footage of The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp with new scenes filmed in Tombstone .
Wyatt Earp ( 1994 ) – Stars Kevin Costner .
Wyatt Earp 's Revenge ( 2012 ) – Stars Val Kilmer .
= = = Earp as a character or adaptation of the legend = = =
Law and Order ( 1932 ) – Walter Huston as Frame Johnson , inspired by Wyatt Earp .
Dodge City ( 1939 ) – Errol Flynn as Wade Hatton , inspired by Wyatt Earp .
Winchester ' 73 ( 1950 ) – James Stewart wins a rare Winchester rifle that is stolen . Will Geer portrays Wyatt Earp .
Gun Belt ( 1953 ) – Outlaw Billy Ringo tries to go straight .
Masterson of Kansas ( 1954 ) – Bat Masterson is assisted by Wyatt Earp and Doc Holliday .
Badman 's Country ( 1958 ) – Pat Garrett catches up to Butch Cassidy 's gang and calls in Wyatt Earp .
Alias Jesse James ( 1959 ) – Bob Hope stars and Hugh O 'Brian briefly appears as Wyatt Earp .
The Secret World of Eddie Hodges ( 1960 ) – TV musical starring Jackie Gleason and Hugh O 'Brian as Wyatt Earp .
Cheyenne Autumn ( 1964 ) James Stewart as Wyatt Earp and Arthur Kennedy as Doc Holliday .
Desafío en Rio Bravo ( 1965 ) – Guy Madison as Wyatt Earp .
" The Gunfighters " ( 1966 ) , an episode of Doctor Who – The TARDIS materializes in Tombstone prior to the gunfight .
Hour of the Gun ( 1967 ) James Garner as Wyatt Earp .
" Spectre of the Gun " ( 1968 ) , an episode of Star Trek : The Original Series – Officers of the USS Enterprise are cast as the Cowboys . Ron Soble plays Wyatt Earp .
Alias Smith and Jones – Cameron Mitchell as Wyatt Earp and Bill Fletcher plays Doc Holliday .
I Married Wyatt Earp ( 1983 ) – Based on the supposed memoir . Marie Osmond as Josephine Earp .
Sunset ( 1988 ) – Bruce Willis as Tom Mix and James Garner as Wyatt Earp .
Deadwood ( 2006 ) – Gale Harold as Wyatt Earp .
Hannah 's Law ( 2012 ) – Greyston Holt as Wyatt Earp .
Wynonna Earp ( TV Series ) ( 2016 ) – Ryan Northcott as Wyatt Earp and Tim Rozon as Doc Holliday .
= = Additional reading = =
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= Desert Strike =
Desert Strike : Return to the Gulf , commonly known as Desert Strike , is a shoot ' em up video game released by Electronic Arts ( EA ) in February 1992 for the Sega Genesis . The game was later released on several other formats such as the Super Nintendo Entertainment System , including a much upgraded version for the Amiga home computer . The game was inspired by the Gulf War and depicts a conflict between an insane Middle Eastern dictator , General Kilbaba , and the United States . The player controls a lone Apache helicopter and attempts to destroy enemy weapons and installations , rescue hostages and capture enemy personnel , while managing supplies of fuel and ammunition .
The lead designer , Mike Posehn , had no video game experience prior to developing Desert Strike . Inspired by Choplifter , he aimed to create a nonlinear game with smoothly animated vehicles . Posehn , a PhD in Mechanical Engineering , developed a camera system with momentum to mimic realistic helicopter movements . Three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) modeling was used to generate the vehicle sprites , which were later touched up on the pixel level with color .
Desert Strike was a strong commercial success : it was a chart @-@ topping best seller and at the time Electronics Arts ' highest ever selling game . The game also received a favourable critical response , with several magazines awarding scores of over 90 % . Reviewers praised the game 's enjoyability , mix of action and strategy , graphics and sound . There was some controversy regarding the game 's subject matter , with commentators criticising it as in poor taste due the proximity of its release to the recently ended Gulf War .
= = Gameplay = =
Desert Strike is a shoot ' em up game in which the player pilots an AH @-@ 64 Apache helicopter . The game is less frantic than typical shoot ' em ups , with the addition of greater strategic elements . The action takes place on open , multi @-@ directional scrolling levels viewed from an isometric perspective . The player views the action from outside the helicopter , rather than from within the cockpit .
Levels consist of several missions , which are based around the destruction of enemy weapons and installations , as well as rescuing hostages or prisoners of war , or capturing enemy personnel . The Apache is armed with a machine gun , more powerful Hydra rockets and yet more deadly Hellfire missiles . The more powerful the weapon , the fewer can be carried : the player must choose an appropriate weapon for each situation . Enemy weapons range from soldiers with small arms , to anti @-@ aircraft missiles to tanks and armoured cars .
The player 's craft has a limited amount of armour , which is depleted as the helicopter is hit by enemy fire . Should the armour reach zero , the craft will be destroyed , costing the player a life . The player must outmanoeuvre enemies to avoid damage , but can replenish armour by means of power @-@ ups or by airlifting rescued friendlies or captives to a landing zone . The helicopter has a finite amount of fuel which is steadily depleted over time . Should the fuel run out the Apache will crash , again costing the player a life . The craft can refuel by collecting fuel barrels : the player must therefore plan mission routes carefully in order to maximise efficiency . The helicopter also carries limited ammunition , which must be replenished by means of ammo crates .
= = Plot = =
The game opens with a self @-@ proclaimed general named Kilbaba ( Mubaba in the Super NES version ) seizing control of an unnamed , fictional Gulf state . Installing himself as dictator , Kilbaba quickly begins fortifying his position with military weapons and installations , including nuclear facilities with which to build bombs . The United States decides to send in a single helicopter , piloted by the player 's unnamed character and aided by a co @-@ pilot , to infiltrate and destroy Kilbaba 's forces in a series of swift strikes . In the final level , Kilbaba attempts to escape in a bomber plane armed with nuclear bombs , but the player destroys him and his plane before it leaves the runway . In the ending , the player and co @-@ pilot are seen at the White House , where they are commended by President Bill Clinton for their heroism .
The game 's plot was felt by commentators to be a thinly disguised reference to the Gulf War , while comparisons were drawn between Kilbaba and Saddam Hussein , and between the game 's unnamed desert setting and Iraq .
= = Development and release = =
The game was developed by a team headed by Mike Posehn . In the 1980s , Posehn had previously worked for EA as a software developer . Soon after leaving EA , he obtained a publishing deal with the company for Video Deluxe . The success of the software spurred Posehn to branch out and experiment with a flight simulator titled Fly for the IBM Personal Computer ; however , International Business Machines cancelled the project . Posehn later met with EA president Trip Hawkins who suggested that Posehn develop a game for the Genesis , which was soon to be released . He also recommended that Posehn create a game similar to the Apple II game Choplifter ; Hawkins felt flying a helicopter and rescuing people was " cool " .
Desert Strike underwent few changes from the plans outlined in the original design documents . The initial concept involved smoothly animated vehicles on an isometric playing field . The developers also aimed to include cinematic scenes , similar to The Revenge of Shinobi { { } } s introduction sequence . The game began development some time before any discussion of an American invasion of Iraq , originally based on the Lebanese Civil War and titled Beirut Breakout ; this was later changed to the Persian Gulf region . A special point system intended to punish players was omitted ; the system would have deducted points from the player 's score if they destroyed objects that resulted in negative economic and political results . The control scheme was not well received at internal reviews of the game 's early versions , and Posehn had to alter his original design to obtain approval for further development .
John Manley , an EA employee , assisted writing the game 's program . He and Posehn collaborated to create the game 's sandbox format , which they nicknamed " SNAFU " . Posehn wanted the game to have nonlinear gameplay , and Manley felt having a storyline and puzzles would help the player progress . Posehn disliked common gameplay elements like series of bosses and power @-@ ups . As a compromise , the developers only included power @-@ ups to replenish ammunition , armour , and other helicopter resources . To provide the player with options , the SNAFU system was designed to allow players to complete side missions in addition to main objectives . If the player alters the game scenario so that the objectives cannot be completed , the game instructs the player to reset the mission by returning to base .
Inspired by Matchbox toys he played with as a child , Posehn decided to make the size of the game sprites resemble toys . Posehn contacted his friend , Tim Calvin , to assist with designing and creating the vehicle sprites . Though Calvin was a practising dentist at the time , he also had experience with 3D modelling . He rendered 3D models on a computer and reduced them to the desired size . Different views were obtained by rotating the models along a single axis . Calvin added colour to the sprites to meet the production staff 's specifications ; most required black , white , red , and blue , as well as four shades of colours like green and brown . Calvin eventually felt the rendering process was a waste of resources and attempted to create sprites on the pixel level himself without 3D models . The developers , however , preferred the sprites created from the models over Calvin 's freestyle ones .
Posehn had a difficult time working within the Genesis 's output resolution of 320 × 240 . He wanted to show as much of the playing field as possible without losing the details of the sprites ; he felt a lack of graphical detail would make them less interesting . Posehn developed a dynamic camera system to help maintain what he felt was the right balance between the size of the field in view and the size of the game objects . The camera travels on an elliptic curve as the helicopter rotates to change the direction it travels ; this puts whatever is in front of the helicopter more in view on screen . Posehn also integrated momentum to the camera movements to smooth transitions . He spent several months working on the physics for the screen and helicopter to ensure realistic movement . Instead of using completely accurate physics , Posehn chose to model movement that he believed players would assume a helicopter would have . He believed players would be put off by physics that didn 't match their perceived movement .
After the success of the Genesis / Mega Drive version , work began on a conversion for the Amiga , with Gary Roberts ( known for a John Madden Amiga conversion ) and David Colclough ( responsible for Myth ) in charge of development . The developers retouched and redrew the graphics and added additional sound effects taken from military training videos . Conversions for other systems include the Atari Lynx , Super Nintendo Entertainment System , Master System , Game Gear and Game Boy . The game was also ported to the Game Boy Advance , ten years later in 2002 , as Desert Strike Advance , and was re @-@ released in 2006 for the PlayStation Portable as part of a budget compilation .
= = Reception = =
Commentators have felt the game was an attempt to capitalize on then @-@ recent , extensive news coverage of the Gulf War , which had focused on the use of advanced , impersonal weapons ( such as aircraft and guided missiles ) to destroy enemy weapons and installations . Some commentators considered the game 's subject matter in bad taste , with one magazine reporting an incident of veterans burning copies of the game .
Desert Strike was an immediate commercial success , going straight to the top of sales charts . The game remained a top @-@ 10 best seller for months after its release , and was at the time Electronic Arts ' highest selling game ever .
Mean Machines praised the sophistication and tactical freedom found in the game , as well as its longevity and graphics . The magazine deemed it one of the best shooters on the Mega Drive thus far , as well as the best game released for the console that month . Computer and Video Games felt the game 's subject matter was somewhat in bad taste , but praised its depth , soundtrack and sound effects . The magazine felt the game was " essential " for Mega Drive owners . ACE praised the balance of action and strategy , as well as the variety of missions . The magazine felt some of the graphics , particularly the explosions , were a little weak and complained that the fact that the helicopter is not fully rearmed and refuelled after the loss of a life was unduly frustrating . MegaTech magazine praised the graphics and gameplay , and said it was " one of the best shoot ' em ups on the Megadrive " . Retro Gamer included this " thinking man 's shoot- ' em @-@ up " among top ten Mega Drive games .
Amiga Action felt the game was not particularly innovative , but praised its open @-@ ended gameplay , graphics and sound . The reviewer claimed the Amiga version of the game ran more slowly than the Mega Drive version but overall felt the port was " a more than satisfactory translation " . Amiga Computing noted the improved graphics and sound over the Mega Drive version and praised the game as " EA 's finest moment since Populous " . The reviewer also acclaimed the game 's " brilliant playability " . Amiga Format commended the " Successful cross between a shoot ' em up and a flight simulator " , graphics , sound , varied missions and " tremendous fun " of the game , although the reviewer noted some " occasional glitches " occurring in the sound and graphics . CU Amiga praised the Amiga version 's improved graphics and sound , particularly the explosions , though the reviewer derided friendly units ' invincibility as unrealistic and complained of poor enemy artificial intelligence . The magazine however said that " All things considered , Desert Strike couldn 't be a better game " , praising the " fast and frantic " action and " just @-@ one @-@ more @-@ go appeal " . The One praised the mix of action and strategy as well as opining that the Amiga version was a strong improvement over the Mega Drive game . The magazine said the game " plays like a dream " and was " one of the best shoot ' em ups available for any games machine " .
The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly gave varying praise to the Lynx version 's controls and graphics , but concurred that on the smaller portable screen Desert Strike loses much of its impact and playability , as it is difficult to identify enemies or even see the bullets the player character fires .
GamePro gave the Game Boy version a positive review , saying it " has almost everything that made the original title great . " They particularly praised the graphics and extensive , realistic sound effects , remarking that they were very impressive given the limitations of Game Boy cartridges . Mike Weigand of Electronic Gaming Monthly likewise deemed it " A fairly faithful portable version of the 16 @-@ Bit military classic . "
= = Legacy = =
Desert Strike was followed by four sequels Jungle Strike , Urban Strike , Soviet Strike , and Nuclear Strike that expanded on the basic gameplay it established . The design staff made efforts to retain game mechanics they felt embodied the core of the original . They believed removing those elements would result in a loss of focus of what attracted fans . As the series moved to more advanced consoles , Posehn became less involved in the programming side of development . Jungle Strike and Urban Strike , both released for the Genesis , featured additional vehicles and locations . Soviet Strike , released for the original PlayStation and the Sega Saturn in 1996 , featured 3D graphics , as did Nuclear Strike , released on PC and PlayStation in 1997 and the Nintendo 64 in 1999 . A fifth sequel provisionally titled Future Strike was planned , but the game was eventually released as Future Cop : LAPD , a mech @-@ based shooter game .
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= The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour =
The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour ( also known as the Prohibited Tour ) was a comedy tour by American comedian and talk show host Conan O 'Brien . Its title is a reference to the 2010 Tonight Show host and timeslot conflict , which resulted in O 'Brien resigning from his position as host of The Tonight Show in January 2010 . O 'Brien reached a settlement with NBC that barred him from appearing on television until September 2010 , but it did not bar him from performing before a live audience in a concert setting . From April through June 2010 , O 'Brien performed 42 shows in the United States and Canada .
O 'Brien announced on March 11 , 2010 via his Twitter account that he would embark on a 30 @-@ city live tour beginning April 12 . Even with the unconventional marketing campaign of a single Twitter announcement , many locations sold out within hours of the tweet and additional shows were added on to meet demand . During the tour , O 'Brien announced that his new show , Conan , would debut on TBS in November 2010 . A documentary following O 'Brien during the tour , Conan O 'Brien Can 't Stop , was released in June 2011 .
= = Background and announcement = =
In January 2010 , late @-@ night talk show hosts Conan O 'Brien and Jay Leno engaged in a public relations conflict over who should host The Tonight Show . Due to low ratings for The Jay Leno Show and The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien , NBC announced a schedule change , moving Leno from 10 : 00 pm to 11 : 30 pm , and O 'Brien from 11 : 30 pm to 12 : 00 am . This change resulted in a public outcry and public demonstrations largely in support of O 'Brien . O 'Brien indicated that he would quit his show and leave the network if NBC were to implement it , citing the " destruction " of the venerable franchise which had aired at or around 11 : 30 pm for over 60 years .
As part of the deal between O 'Brien and NBC , O 'Brien was legally prohibited from appearing on television prior to September 1 , 2010 . He began to utilize social media to remain engaged with his fan base . O 'Brien started a Twitter account on February 24 , 2010 . After about one hour , O 'Brien 's subscriber list had reached over 30 @,@ 000 members and , approximately 30 minutes later , he was on the brink of passing 50 @,@ 000 followers . After 24 hours , O 'Brien had well over 300 @,@ 000 followers . In late May 2010 , he surpassed the one million mark for number of Twitter followers .
O 'Brien announced via his Twitter account that he would embark on a 30 @-@ city live tour on March 11 , 2010 , beginning on April 12 , 2010 . On the same day , teamcoco.com , an official website , was launched . According to TMZ , O 'Brien decided not to keep any of the proceeds from the tour , in order to employ his show 's staff members .
= = Format = =
Several members of O 'Brien 's staff joined him for the tour , including sidekick Andy Richter , and the former Tonight Show Band , temporarily renamed " The Legally Prohibited Band " . Max Weinberg , the band leader , was unable to participate in the tour due to his recent heart surgery , although he did appear at one of the New York City shows .
Signs at each venue encouraged audience members using Twitter during the show to use a unique hashtag . Reggie Watts served as the tour 's opening act . In the video introduction to the show , Conan appeared as an obese and bearded version of himself struggling to cope with the loss of his talk show while Eric Carmen 's " All By Myself " plays . He then transforms back into his thin self during his exercise montage ( by merely pulling off his body suit ) after getting the call to go on tour .
The tour differed from his television shows in that there was no desk or celebrity interviews , but presented as more of a variety show than a stand @-@ up routine . Many elements from TV were incorporated into the show , including video bits , musical and comic performers , and cameo appearances by celebrities . Classic sketches were also revived for the tour , albeit under different names due to legal issues over the ownership rights . The Masturbating Bear , for example , made a brief appearance before being transformed into the Self @-@ Pleasuring Panda . Also , the " Walker , Texas Ranger lever " was retitled the " Chuck Norris Rural Policeman Handle " . Triumph the Insult Comic Dog mocked the city the tour was appearing in as himself in a prerecorded bit that inserts information about the city by dubbing over the original audio . O 'Brien also introduced a giant inflatable bat he claimed to have purchased during Meat Loaf 's Bat Out of Hell tour and at one point walked onstage wearing a replica of Eddie Murphy 's purple suit from his comedy special Eddie Murphy Raw . In addition , O 'Brien performed music throughout the show , including the disco hit " I Will Survive " and a personal parody of " On the Road Again " .
= = Opening act = =
Reggie Watts ( select dates )
= = Special guests = =
= = Tour dates = =
Festivals and other miscellaneous performances
This concert is a part of the " Bonnaroo Music Festival "
= = = Box office score data = = =
= = Response = =
Just hours before the first show of the tour , O 'Brien announced that he would host a new show on cable station TBS , titled Conan , which debuted in November 2010 . In addition to the announcement of the television series , TBS also announced a one @-@ hour TBS Special , featuring several writers for Conan , as well Watts .
Even with ticket prices starting at $ 40 , The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour sold out . Footage of O 'Brien 's tour has been uploaded onto YouTube by fans in attendance and immediately went viral . A clip of O 'Brien 's performance of " I Will Survive " , for example , has received more than 320 @,@ 000 views .
Conan O 'Brien Can 't Stop , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary film shot during the tour , was released in June 2011 . It focuses on the production of the tour , O 'Brien 's interactions with fans and his crew , and O 'Brien 's thoughts on the Tonight Show conflict and legal injunction that inspired the tour . The movie was filmed , directed and produced by director Rodman Flender , a college friend of O 'Brien .
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= 1952 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1952 Atlantic hurricane season was a near normal Atlantic hurricane season , although it was the least active since 1946 . The season officially started on June 15 ; however , a pre @-@ season unnamed storm formed on Groundhog Day , becoming the only storm on record in the month of February . The other six tropical cyclones were named using the Joint Army / Navy Phonetic Alphabet , the first of which formed on August 18 . The final storm of the season dissipated on October 28 , two and a half weeks before the season officially ended on November 15 .
Four of the tropical cyclones made landfall during the season , the first being the February tropical storm that crossed southern Florida . The first hurricane , named Able , struck South Carolina with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , causing heavy damage near the coast and widespread power outages . It moved up most of the East Coast of the United States , leaving 3 deaths and widespread damage . As a developing tropical cyclone , Hurricane Charlie caused damaging flooding and landslides in southwest Puerto Rico . The final and strongest of the season , Hurricane Fox , struck Cuba with winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) ; it killed 40 people and left heavy damage , particularly to the sugar crop , reaching $ 10 million ( 1952 USD , $ 89 @.@ 1 million 2016 USD ) .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
On February 2 , a non @-@ frontal low formed in the western Caribbean Sea two months after the end of the hurricane season . It moved quickly north @-@ northwestward and acquired gale @-@ force winds as it brushed the northern coast of Cuba . Early on February 3 , the storm struck Cape Sable , Florida and quickly crossed the state . The Miami National Weather Service office recorded a wind gust of 68 mph ( 110 km / h ) during its passage . The winds damaged windows and power lines , catching residents and tourists off @-@ guard . The cyclone also dropped 2 – 4 inches ( 50 – 100 mm ) of precipitation along its path , causing crop damage in Miami @-@ Dade County .
After leaving Florida , the storm continued rapidly northeastward and transitioned into a tropical storm during the afternoon of February 3 . While off the coast of the Southeastern United States , it attained peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . On February 4 it evolved into an extratropical cyclone off the coast of North Carolina . Later that day , it passed over Cape Cod , and early on February 5 dissipated after crossing into Maine . The storm caused scattered power outages and gusty winds across New England . The cyclone remains the only tropical or subtropical storm on record during the month of February .
= = = Hurricane Able = = =
Over six months after the previous storm dissipated , a tropical depression developed just off the west coast of Africa on August 18 . It moved generally west- to west @-@ northwestward for much of its duration , intensifying into a tropical storm on August 24 east of the Lesser Antilles . The next day , Hurricane Hunters confirmed the presence of Tropical Storm Able . Passing north of the islands , the storm attained hurricane status on August 27 . On August 30 , Able turned to the north @-@ northwest due to an approaching cold front , and the next day made landfall near Beaufort , South Carolina as a Category 2 hurricane with peak winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . The town was heavily damaged , and was briefly isolated after winds downed power and telephone lines . Across South Carolina , the hurricane caused two indirect deaths , as well as moderate damage totaling $ 2 @.@ 2 million ( 1952 USD , $ 19 @.@ 6 million 2016 USD ) .
As Able turned north and northeastward over land , the winds quickly weakened to tropical storm force , although it retained gale force winds through North Carolina , Virginia , and Maryland ; this was due to remaining over the flat terrain east of the Appalachian Mountains , as well as retaining a plume of tropical moisture from its south . It left light damage in North Carolina , some of it due to a tornado . In Maryland , heavy rainfall caused widespread flooding , which washed out the tracks of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad near Baltimore . In Ellicott City , Maryland , the rains flooded several houses , forcing families to evacuate . Two tornadoes were also reported in the region , and damage in the Washington , D.C. area reached $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1952 USD , $ 4 @.@ 46 million 2016 USD ) . Further northeast , the storm continued to produce heavy rainfall , causing flooding , as well as one indirect death in Pennsylvania . After moving through New England , Able dissipated on September 2 near Portland , Maine .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
A cold front was located north of the Bahamas on August 26 , with a broad area of cyclonic turning located east of northern Florida . Atmospheric pressures were falling in the region , and gale force winds were recorded by 12 : 00 UTC on August 27 . Based on the structure , it is estimated that the frontal low developed into a tropical storm by 18 : 00 UTC that day . Ship reports in the region suggested peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . There was very dry air on the west side of the system , unusual for August , and the radius of maximum winds was around 115 mi ( 185 km ) , suggesting that the structure could have been akin to a subtropical cyclone . The storm continued to the northwest , making landfall very near Myrtle Beach , South Carolina at 02 : 00 UTC on August 28 . It spread rainfall across the Carolinas , later enhanced by Hurricane Able just days later , while cities reported winds of around 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . The storm weakened over land and dissipated late on August 28 over eastern Kentucky .
= = = Hurricane Baker = = =
The third tropical cyclone of the season developed on August 31 a short distance east of the northern Lesser Antilles . Its presence was reported by a ship the next day that encountered rough seas and gale force winds . As a result , the Weather Bureau sent the Hurricane Hunters to investigate the system , which reported a strengthening hurricane moving northwestward . Given the name Baker , the hurricane passed north of the Lesser Antilles , reaching peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) late on September 3 . For several days , the Hurricane Hunters reported similar winds , along with gusts up to 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) .
With a large anticyclone located over the Ohio Valley , Baker turned to the northeast on September 5 , passing about halfway between Bermuda and North Carolina . The hurricane slowly weakened as it moved through the north Atlantic Ocean , just missing Newfoundland while maintaining winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Wind gusts on Avalon Peninsula reached 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , and heavy fishing damage was reported in Lower Island Cove . After affecting the island , Baker transitioned into an extratropical storm , which lasted another day before dissipating south of Greenland .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
A dissipating cold front stalled across the northeastern Atlantic Ocean on September 7 , northeast of the Azores . That day , a closed circulation developed and quickly became independent of the front . Based on a uniform thermal structure , as well as ship reports in the region of gale @-@ force winds near the center , it is estimated that the system became a tropical storm early on September 8 . That day , the system moved west @-@ southwestward , atypical for cyclones in that region during September . On September 9 , the storm turned to the southeast , reaching estimated peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , based on ship observations . Moving slowly through the northern Azores , the storm produced winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) along Terceira Island . It slowly weakened , and by late on September 10 the system degraded into a tropical depression . By the next day , the system was interacting with an approaching cold front , indicating that the depression had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . Around 20 : 00 UTC , the storm moved ashore the southwestern tip of Portugal with gale @-@ force winds . The storm turned to the northwest through the Iberian Peninsula , dissipating on September 14 over southwestern France .
= = = Hurricane Charlie = = =
On September 22 , a tropical wave moved into the eastern Caribbean Sea , spawning a tropical depression near Hispaniola early on September 24 . As it tracked west @-@ northwestward , the low dropped heavy rainfall , peaking at 4 @.@ 42 in ( 112 mm ) in Christiansted , United States Virgin Islands , as well as 11 @.@ 9 in ( 300 mm ) in Garzas , Puerto Rico . In Puerto Rico , the rains caused and landslides that affected seven towns , notably Ponce , the island 's second @-@ largest city . There , at least 14 buildings were destroyed . The floods left more than 1 @,@ 000 people homeless , 300 of whom took refuge in a Red Cross shelter . Overall , the flooding on the island killed four people and left moderate damage of around $ 1 million ( 1952 USD , $ 8 @.@ 91 million 2016 USD ) .
After affecting Puerto Rico , the low continued to organize , and subsequently struck the Dominican Republic on September 23 . The circulation became disrupted while crossing Hispaniola , although it reorganized near the Turks and Caicos Islands and became Tropical Storm Charlie before reaching those islands . On September 25 , Charlie attained hurricane status , , and due to its continued northwest motion , the Weather Bureau advised small craft to remain at port in the southeastern United States coast . However , the hurricane turned to the north and northeast on September 26 , during which the Hurricane Hunters recorded peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . It briefly threatened Bermuda , prompting the United States Air Force to evacuate its fleet of airplanes from Kindley Air Force Base . Charlie ultimately northwest of Bermuda , and later began weakening . On September 29 it turned eastward , and later that day transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnants lasted two more days before dissipating 400 mi ( 640 km ) southeast of Newfoundland .
= = = Tropical Storm Dog = = =
On September 25 , a tropical wave spawned a tropical storm about 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . Given the name Dog , the storm moved northwestward for its entire duration . On September 26 , Hurricane Hunters observed winds of 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) , which indicated that Dog strengthened to just below hurricane intensity . The plane also estimated winds of around 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , although they were unable to locate a closed center of circulation . After approaching hurricane status , , Dog began a marked weakening trend , with winds of only 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) by September 27 . Continuing to weaken , the storm dissipated on September 29 . The Weather Bureau advised ships to avoid the storm , but overall Dog did not affect land . As the Hurricane Hunters did not reported a well @-@ defined circulation , there was a possibility Dog was not a tropical cyclone ; the report of the 1952 season assessed that Dog remained a tropical wave .
= = = Tropical Storm Eight = = =
On September 24 , a tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa . It is estimated that a closed circulation developed on the next day , suggesting the formation of a tropical depression . On September 26 , Santiago island within Cape Verde recorded winds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) as the system was passing to the southwest . A minimum pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) and ship reports of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) winds indicate that the system reached peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , or a minimal tropical storm . It turned to the north on September 27 and likely weakened , although observations were sparse . By September 30 , the system lost its circulation and degenerated into an open trough .
= = = Hurricane Easy = = =
On October 6 , a tropical depression formed about 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) east of Antigua , near where the previous hurricane developed . The depression proceeded northward , and was detected by the Hurricane Hunters on October 7 . The next day , a plane flew into Easy and reported peak winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , indicating the storm had rapidly intensified . By the time it reached peak intensity , the hurricane had turned sharply to the east , and later began to move toward the south . As quickly as it strengthened , Easy began to weaken , and an aircraft reported winds of only 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) on October 9 . The storm headed southwest , ultimately dissipating on October 11 about 155 mi ( 249 km ) southwest of where it formed . Easy never affected land .
= = = Hurricane Fox = = =
The strongest tropical cyclone of the season formed on October 20 in the Caribbean Sea off the northwest coast of Colombia , believed to have been from the Intertropical Convergence Zone . It moved northwestward , intensifying into a tropical storm on October 21 and a hurricane the following day . Fox subsequently turned to the north , intensifying to a major hurricane as it passed west of the Cayman Islands . Late on October 24 , the cyclone struck the small island of Cayo Guano del Estes in the Archipelago de los Canarreos , south of Cienfuegos , Cuba . It struck the island with peak winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) , and the island reported a minimum pressure of 934 mbar ( 27 @.@ 59 inHg ) . Shortly thereafter , Fox crossed the mainland coast of Cuba west of Cienfuegos , and it weakened while crossing the island .
Hurricane Fox crossed Cuba in a rural area dominated by sugar plantations , with heavy damage reported to 36 mills . In one town , the hurricane destroyed about 600 homes and damaged over 1 @,@ 000 more . Across the island , the strongest winds downed large trees and washed a large freighter ashore . Heavy rainfall affected all but the extreme eastern and western end of the island , with a peak of 6 @.@ 84 in ( 174 mm ) near Havana . The rains flooded low @-@ lying areas and caused rivers to exceed their banks . Throughout Cuba , Hurricane Fox injured 70 people , killed 40 , and heavy damage totaling $ 10 million ( 1952 USD , $ 89 @.@ 1 million 2016 USD ) . Fox was among the strongest hurricanes to strike the country .
After crossing Cuba , Fox emerged into the Atlantic Ocean with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , crossing central Andros and turning eastward though the Bahamas . On New Providence , the hurricane dropped 13 @.@ 27 in ( 337 mm ) of rainfall , Strong winds caused severe crop damage , leaving 30 % of the tomato crop destroyed . After briefly restrengthening to a major hurricane , Fox began a steady weakening trend . It turned abruptly to the north @-@ northwest , followed by another turn to the northeast . On October 28 , Fox was absorbed by a cold front west @-@ southwest of Bermuda .
= = = Tropical Storm Eleven = = =
A cold front stalled north of the Virgin Islands on November 23 , spawning an extratropical storm the next day . The system strengthened while moving northward , attaining gale force winds on November 25 . It was a large system , and a ship in the vicinity reported a pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . The observation , within a warm environment and in concurrence with gale force winds , suggested that the system became a tropical storm on November 26 , although the system likely was a subtropical cyclone due to the structure . Turning to the west @-@ northwest along a dissipating cold front , the storm reached peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) on November 27 . Another front in the region steered the storm to the south and east in a counterclockwise circle . Weakening slightly , the system briefly transitioned into an extratropical storm on November 30 before dissipating later that day within the front .
= = Storm names = =
These names were used to name storms during the 1952 season , the third and final time storm names were taken from the Joint Army / Navy Phonetic Alphabet . Names that were not used to designate tropical cyclones are marked in gray .
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= A Very Supernatural Christmas =
" A Very Supernatural Christmas " is the eighth episode of the paranormal drama television series Supernatural 's third season . It was first broadcast on The CW on December 13 , 2007 . The narrative follows series protagonists Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Jensen Ackles ) as they confront a pair of pagan gods ( Spencer Garrett and Merrilyn Gann ) who annually take human sacrifices .
Written by Jeremy Carver and directed by J. Miller Tobin , the episode was intended to be " the most violent Christmas special in the history of television " . Flashbacks were added to the plot when the main storyline came up short , allowing the writers to expand upon the childhoods of a young Sam ( Colin Ford ) and Dean ( Ridge Canipe ) .
While critics universally praised the flashback sequences and the performances of Ford and Canipe , they had differing opinions of the main storyline .
= = Plot = =
As the episode opens , a man visits his grandson for Christmas in Seattle , Washington . He dresses up as Santa Claus , but is pulled up the chimney and slaughtered by a mysterious figure . One year later , Sam ( Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Ackles ) pose as FBI agents to investigate a disappearance in Ypsilanti , Michigan . The discovery of a bloody tooth in the fireplace leads Sam to suspect that an evil version of Santa — many world lores tell of those who punish the wicked during Christmas — is at work . As the brothers search the town and debate about whether to celebrate Christmas that year — Dean insists while Sam refuses — another man is taken by a Santa @-@ dressed being . Upon investigation the following day , Sam notices that both families have the same wreath over their fireplaces . The wreath is found to be made of meadowsweet , an herb often used in pagan rituals to lure gods to a human sacrifice , which leads Sam to believe that they are dealing with Hold Nickar , the god of the winter solstice . Dean later admits that he wants to celebrate Christmas since it will be his last chance to — his demonic pact with a demon in " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part Two " only left him with one year to live . Sam responds that he cannot sit around celebrating and pretending that everything is okay while knowing that Dean will not be alive the next Christmas .
Further investigation and research lead the brothers to Edward ( Garrett ) and Madge Carrigan ( Gann ) , an apparently perfect couple whom Dean later refers to as " Ozzie and Harriet " ; the makers of the meadowsweet wreaths , the Carrigans lived in Seattle a year prior . Realizing that the couple are actually pagan gods , Sam and Dean break into their home , finding human remains in the basement . However , they are captured by the Carrigans and tied to chairs in the kitchen . The gods reveal that they have been attempting to blend into human society , reducing their annual sacrifices to only a few . They begin preparing Sam and Dean to be sacrificed , but are interrupted by a neighbor at the front door . When the Carrigans return , they find that the brothers have broken free . Knowing that the gods can be killed by evergreen wood , Sam and Dean stab them to death with branches of the Christmas tree . Later on , Dean is surprised to find that Sam has decorated their motel room with Christmas paraphernalia . They exchange gifts , all which were bought from the local gas station , and happily watch a football game on TV .
Throughout the episode , flashbacks depict a young Sam ( Ford ) and Dean ( Canipe ) on Christmas Eve of 1991 ; with their father out on a hunt , the brothers are staying alone in a motel room until he returns . As Sam wraps an object he obtained from Bobby Singer as a present for his father , he begins to question Dean about what their father is doing . Although Dean brushes him off , Sam reveals that he has read their father 's hunting journal . Dean acquiesces , and confirms that their father hunts monsters . This revelation terrifies Sam , who is afraid that the monsters will come after them . Later that night , Dean wakes Sam up and claims that their father briefly returned and left presents . When Sam 's gifts end up being a Barbie doll and a sparkly baton , Dean admits that he stole them from a nearby house . Despite this , Sam appreciates what Dean tried to do for him , and gives him the gift meant for their father — the amulet necklace that Dean has worn ever since .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
A fan of Christmas television specials growing up , series creator Eric Kripke desired to make " the most violent Christmas special in the history of television " . The myth of the anti @-@ Claus — an evil antithesis of Santa who " stuffs his victims in sacks and takes them off to eat them " — became the episode 's inspiration . However , the writers were hesitant to establish the creature as an anti @-@ Claus because it would implicate the existence of an actual Santa Claus . To remedy the dilemma , they incorporated the mythology of the pagan god Hold Nickar , who generally is believed to be the precedent of Santa . Kripke proudly noted that the lore is " one of [ their ] most accurate " since most Christmas traditions have pagan origins .
Though the episode itself was penned by Jeremy Carver , the writing staff contributed their ideas to the storyline . Within five minutes of brainstorming , they envisioned three scenes they had to do : the teaser , where a grandfather pretending to be Santa is pulled up the chimney and slaughtered ; a boy witnessing the Santa @-@ dressed villain brutally killing his father and then eating one of the cookies for Santa ; and the Winchesters killing someone with a Christmas tree .
= = = Flashbacks = = =
The initial draft of the script focused solely on the brothers ' attempts to kill the pagan gods ; when the episode came up short , Edlund suggested the addition of flashbacks to Sam and Dean 's childhood . The narrative device provided two revelations : the origins of Dean 's necklace , and the " beginning of Sam 's estrangement from his father and his indoctrination into the supernatural world " . Kripke noted that the staff loves to delve into the Winchesters ' childhoods , and deemed it " too good an opportunity to pass up " to be able to depict how Sam " lost his innocence " . Child actor Ridge Canipe reprised his role as a young Dean , while Colin Ford made his debut as a young Sam . Ford had not viewed the series prior to his audition , but watched the first season to research his character .
= = = Christmas theme = = =
Principal filming took place in Vancouver , British Columbia , and many visuals were influenced by the holiday theme . The " very festive , warm Christmas tones " of the Carrigans ' home were intended by set designer Jerry Wanek to create a contrast with the brothers ' " little coal @-@ burning old motel " . Diane Widas created the costumes , and had fun making the Carrigans ' Christmas sweaters " very campy " ; Edward 's sweater was originally going to be " over @-@ the @-@ top " with 3D snowmen . Because Santa and his elves worked in a " very tired little theme park " , the elves were given " ill @-@ fitting " costumes ; though new , they were altered to look " shabby " . The Santa 's " grungy " appearance reflected his drunken state .
Despite the dark storyline , Kripke found it important to maintain the " trappings of ... a really cheery , traditional Christmas special " . The spinning " A Special Presentation " title at the beginning of the episode was used by CBS in the 1980s , and Kripke was adamant on including it . Though it was very difficult to find who created and scored it , they eventually received permission . Keeping to the holiday theme , the episode shied away from the usual rock @-@ heavy soundtrack , and instead featured Christmas songs remade in different styles by composer Jay Gruska .
= = = Effects = = =
Visual effects shots often are produced but ultimately unused , and the episode was no exception . After Madge is killed , the script describes Edward as screaming her name " in all his godlike glory " . The visual effects department interpreted this literally , and had him transforming into a tree creature , " all wooden and gnarled " . However , it was deemed " a little too on the nose " .
= = Reception = =
On its initial broadcast , the episode was watched by 3 @.@ 02 million viewers . It received mixed reviews from critics . Julie Pyle of Airlock Alpha " really enjoyed " the " well directed , well written " episode , and " [ giggled ] with glee in anticipation of each ghastly Christmas nightmare " . Although she continued her criticism of the third season 's brighter lighting , she deemed it overall " another Christmas tradition to watch every year with our Charlie Brown Christmas DVDs " . Tina Charles of TV Guide enjoyed the monster of the week , but was " hooked " on the brothers ' storylines . She noted that Ford 's casting as a young Sam was " perfect " , and felt that Canipe 's performance as a young Dean had improved since his previous appearance in the first season . Likewise , Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune called it one of the " gems " of the third season . However , Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune disagreed , and gave the episode a C- . While she enjoyed the flashback sequences and praised Canipe and Ford for their " fierce little performances " , Peterson posited that the main storyline " seemed slapped together " and the pacing " felt sluggish " . Overall , she found it to be " your basic TV fruitcake — a dense combination of half @-@ baked dialogue and stale storytelling studded with chewy bits of sentimentality " .
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= Shelly Martinez =
Shelly Leonor Martinez ( born February 9 , 1980 ) is an American model , actress , professional wrestler and valet . She is known for her work with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) on its ECW brand under the ring name Ariel and for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) under the ring name Salinas as valet to The Latin American Xchange ( LAX ) .
Martinez entered professional wrestling in December 2000 . She worked mainly on the independent circuit in Southern California , using the name Desire , competing for promotions , including Revolution Pro Wrestling , Ultimate Pro Wrestling and the Empire Wrestling Federation ( EWF ) . In July 2002 , she teamed with Threat to win the EWF Tag Team Championship . In April 2005 , she signed a contract with WWE , and was assigned to their developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) . While in OVW she used the ring name Shelly , and managed several wrestlers , including Aaron Stevens , Paul Burchill and Seth Skyfire . She moved to the ECW brand in mid @-@ 2006 , and using a gimmick of a tarot reader , managed Kevin Thorn while known as Ariel . In mid @-@ 2007 , she was released from her WWE contract . Later that year , she signed with TNA , and began working as Salinas . She was associated with LAX , and managed both members of the team , Homicide and Hernandez . She left TNA in September 2008 , and has since appeared for several independent promotions .
Aside from wrestling , Martinez is also known for her acting and modelling work . She was a contestant on the reality television show , The Search for the Next Elvira , and has also appeared in films . She starred in The Notorious Jewel De 'Nyle & Shelly Martinez , a softcore pornography video alongside Jewel De 'Nyle , and has also posed nude on several occasions .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Martinez began working as a model in order to further her professional wrestling career . She also worked as an actress , and after being cast in an independent film about wrestling , she was introduced to a wrestling promoter and trainer . She trained at his school for two and a half years . Martinez first wrestled in Southern California under the ring name Desire , appearing in several independent promotions such as Revolution Pro Wrestling , Empire Wrestling Federation ( EWF ) and Ultimate Pro Wrestling ( UPW ) , where she worked as the storyline sister of Kyra . While in UPW , she also competed under the name Halloween Barbie . She also had a run in Women 's Extreme Wrestling , where she played the storyline cousin of Mercedes Martinez . On July 19 , 2002 , Martinez , under the name Desire , teamed with Threat to win the vacant EWF Tag Team Championship in a battle royal . They held the championship for 28 days , before losing it to PHAT ( Eric Matlock and Devon Willis ) on August 16 . In December 2004 , Martinez trained at World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) ' s developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) for a few weeks .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = = =
In April 2005 , Martinez signed a developmental contract with WWE . By July of that year she had begun training and wrestling in their primary developmental territory OVW , using simply " Shelly " as a ring name . Her first role there had her , along with Beth Phoenix , acting as co @-@ manager for Aaron Stevens . As part of her affiliation with Phoenix and Stevens , Shelly had an erotic gimmick , with a relationship between all three being implied . She was involved in a scripted rivalry with Alexis Laree , with Shelly and Phoenix attacking her on several occasions and the pair wrestled her in handicap matches . In her first singles match in OVW Shelly defeated Laree on October 29 . Shelly and Phoenix also appeared together on the January 27 , 2006 episode of Heat as part of The Heart Throbs ( Romeo Roselli and Antonio Thomas ) " Throb @-@ o @-@ Meter " section , dancing in the ring with the team and teasing a kiss , before being interrupted by Trevor Murdoch .
In February 2006 , Shelly began a gimmick of being obsessed with Paul Burchill , who was using a pirate gimmick on SmackDown ! . It began at the television tapings on February 1 , when Burchill had picked her up to perform a piledriver , but instead carried her backstage after looking at her underwear . This obsession provoked a feud with Phoenix , when Shelly attacked Phoenix who was attempting to stop Shelly from attacking Cherry during a match between Burchill and Deuce Shade . As part of the feud , Shelly and Phoenix competed against each other in several matches , including a street fight at the television tapings on April 19 . On the May 6 , 2006 episode of Velocity , Shelly appeared as Burchill 's valet for his match against Road Warrior Animal , and was referred to as his " buxom wench " . Returning to OVW , she became involved in Seth Skyfire 's ongoing feud with Mike " The Miz " Mizanin and Roni Jonah . Upon her debut on the ECW brand in mid @-@ 2006 , Martinez began using the ring name Ariel in OVW as well . In November 2006 , Ariel unsuccessfully challenged Beth Phoenix for the OVW Women 's Championship . Her final appearance in OVW came on January 25 , 2007 , when she and Jon Bolen defeated Stevens and Phoenix .
= = = = ECW ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
In mid @-@ 2006 , Martinez joined the ECW brand as Ariel , a tarot reading fortune teller . Originally , Martinez was to be part of a ' vampire ' faction with Gangrel and Kevin Thorn ; however , the faction did not materialise on television . Instead , Ariel and Thorn began appearing in vignettes together , and on July 25 , Thorn made his in @-@ ring debut with Ariel acting as his valet .
Ariel then increased her ringside presence during Thorn 's matches , often interfering in his matches , and Thorn began a scripted feud with Balls Mahoney . In order to counteract Ariel 's interference , Mahoney began bringing in Francine as an equalizer . Ariel made her ECW in @-@ ring debut against Francine on September 26 in an " Extreme Catfight " , which ended as a no contest due to interference from both Thorn and Mahoney . The two teams feuded until early October , until Francine was released by WWE . During a match between Thorn and CM Punk , Kelly Kelly interfered in order to help Punk . As a result , Punk won the match , and Ariel and Thorn attacked Kelly after the match . At the December to Dismember pay @-@ per @-@ view , Thorn and Ariel defeated Kelly and Kelly 's on @-@ screen boyfriend Mike Knox in a mixed tag team match , after Knox walked out on Kelly . The next week on ECW , Ariel lost to Kelly in a singles match , when Kelly utilized a schoolgirl for the victory .
On February 6 , 2007 , Ariel and Thorn joined Elijah Burke , Matt Striker , and Marcus Cor Von in forming the New Breed stable . Ariel began accompanying the New Breed to the ring during their matches , and appeared at WrestleMania 23 , managing the New Breed during their match against the ECW Originals . Shortly afterward , Burke announced a match between Thorn and CM Punk , after Punk had betrayed the New Breed , but Thorn lost . After the match , Thorn quit the New Breed , as none of the other members interfered during the match to help him . A few weeks later , on May 18 , Martinez was released from her WWE contract . In a 2013 interview , Martinez blamed her release on a confrontation with Dave Batista .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2007 – 2008 , 2016 ) = = =
At the Bound for Glory pay @-@ per @-@ view in October 2007 , Martinez participated in a Knockout Gauntlet battle royal to crown the first TNA Knockout Champion , which was won by Gail Kim . Shortly afterward , a masked member of The Latin American Xchange ( LAX ) began interfering in LAX 's matches to help them gain victories and attacking The Rock ' n Rave Infection 's valet , Christy Hemme . At the Final Resolution pay @-@ per @-@ view in January 2008 , the mystery masked wrestler was unveiled as Martinez after attacking Hemme again . On the following episode of Impact ! , Homicide and Hernandez gave her the name " Salinas " . Salinas then began accompanying Homicide and Hernandez to the ring as their valet .
She made her in @-@ ring debut for TNA in a singles against Awesome Kong , and was quickly defeated . She then began competing more frequently in matches , including intergender tag team matches alongside Homicide and Hernandez . Salinas participated at Lockdown in the first ever " Queen of the Cage " match , which was won by Roxxi Laveaux . After a Knockouts " Makeover Battle Royal " was announced for the Sacrifice pay @-@ per @-@ view , where one Knockout would get their head shaved , Salinas competed in a match to gain immunity from the head shaving on the May 8 episode of Impact ! , but was unsuccessful . At Sacrifice , the " Makeover Battle Royal " was won by Gail Kim , and Roxxi Laveaux had her head shaved . The same night , Salinas and Hector Guerrero were in the corner of LAX as they won the TNA World Tag Team Championship . As part of LAX 's feud with Beer Money , Inc . , Salinas wrestled their manager Jackie Moore on Impact ! in June 2008 , but lost by submission . She participated in a gauntlet battle royal match for the number one contendership to the TNA Women 's Knockout Championship , but was unsuccessful , and a few weeks later lost a three @-@ on @-@ one handicap match to Awesome Kong and The Beautiful People ( Velvet Sky and Angelina Love ) . After Beer Money , Inc. won the TNA World Tag Team Championship from LAX , the two teams began feuding , and at No Surrender in September , Salinas was attacked off camera by their manager Jackie Moore . This storyline was put in place as a way to take Martinez off television , as she had quit TNA to film an Italian thriller movie .
In 2016 , Martinez appeared on TNA 's One Night Only : Knockouts Knockdown 4 , where she fought Rebel in a losing effort .
= = = Other promotions = = =
Martinez has since wrestled under her real name for the Perros del Mal promotion in Mexico . Martinez is part of both World Independent Ladies Division and World Wrestling Fan Xperience in the Philippines . Martinez has also appeared as a valet for Dragon Gate USA .
Beginning in 2010 , Martinez began appearing for Championship Wrestling From Hollywood . She defeated Lucky O 'Shea in her debut match for the promotion in August 2010 . In 2013 , she was briefly associated with Todd Chandler , before switching her affections to Ricky Mandel , appearing as his storyline girlfriend .
On May 10 , 2014 , Martinez and JT Dunn competed in the 2014 WSU Queen and King of the Ring tournament , losing to the team of Candice LeRae and Joey Ryan .
= = Other media = =
She also starred in a pin @-@ up film titled American Pinups Vol . 2 . Martinez collaborated with Jewel De 'Nyle on an all @-@ female spanking and soft @-@ core bondage video entitled The Notorious Jewel De 'Nyle & Shelly Martinez . In October 2009 , Martinez posed nude for a contest called " THE 1 Contest " . In November 2012 Martinez appeared on the fourth season of the Bad Girls Club spin @-@ off Love Games : Bad Girls Need Love Too .
During her time on the Love Games she appeared in Episode 6 as Jamin 's ex and competed in the HBIC Challenge . She was a part of the question therapy after the challenge .
She starred in the independent supernatural horror movie Dead Things . In addition , she was a contestant on the reality show The Search for the Next Elvira , which debuted October 13 , 2007 , on the Fox Reality Channel . Martinez appears in the beginning of the Mötley Crüe music video for " Saints of Los Angeles " . In May 2011 , Martinez , Raven , and Cheerleader Melissa filmed the music video for the Smashing Pumpkins ' song " Owata " .
As of late 2011 , Martinez has been the official Hollywood event correspondent and hostess for the horror news website MoreHorror.com.
= = Personal life = =
Martinez is an advocate of medical marijuana as well as an animal rights activist .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
FTS ( Fun Time Shelly ) ( Chokehold STO )
The Shelly @-@ shock ( Sitout facebuster )
Signature moves
666 Forearm ( Multiple forearm smashes )
Big boot
Casadora Bulldog ( Wheelbarrow bulldog )
Corner foot choke
Camel clutch
Double choke
Diving crossbody
Drop toe @-@ hold
Elbow drop , with theatrics
Tornado DDT
Thesz press , followed by multiple punches
Wrestlers managed
Aaron Stevens
Paul Burchill
Seth Skyfire
Kevin Thorn
Elijah Burke
Marcus Cor Von
Matt Striker
Homicide
Hernandez
Entrance Themes
" Mi Destrojero " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; 2006 @-@ 2007 )
" To Live and Die In LAX ( Instrumental ) " by Dale Oliver and Serg Salinas ( TNA ; 2007 @-@ 2008 )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Empire Wrestling Federation
EWF Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Threat
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= Cesc Fàbregas =
Francesc " Cesc " Fàbregas Soler ( Catalan : [ ˈsɛsk ˈfaβɾəɣəs ] ; born 4 May 1987 ) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a central midfielder for English club Chelsea and the Spain national team .
Fàbregas came through La Masia , Barcelona 's youth academy , leaving at 16 when he was signed by English Premier League side Arsenal in September 2003 . Following injuries to key midfielders in the early part of the 2004 – 05 season , he went on establish himself in the team . He broke several of the club 's records in the process , earning a reputation as one of the best players in his position , and won the FA Cup in 2005 . After a protracted transfer saga Fàbregas left London on 15 August 2011 to return to Barcelona in a deal worth up to £ 35 million . During his three @-@ year spell at the Camp Nou , Fàbregas played in alongside Xavi and Andrés Iniesta and won a La Liga title , the Copa del Rey , the FIFA Club World Cup , the UEFA Super Cup and two Spanish Super Cups . He returned to London in June 2014 to Arsenal 's cross @-@ town rivals Chelsea for a fee of £ 30 million , and in his first year there he helped to secure League Cup and Premier League triumphs .
Internationally , Fàbregas made his debut for the Spanish national team in March 2006 . He represented his country in the 2006 FIFA World Cup , UEFA Euro 2008 , 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup , 2010 World Cup , Euro 2012 , 2013 Confederations Cup , the 2014 World Cup and Euro 2016 . He was a key figure in Spain 's European Championship victories in 2008 and 2012 and their 2010 World Cup triumph in which he supplied the pass for Andrés Iniesta 's winning goal in the final . On 12 October 2015 , Fàbregas earned his 100th cap for Spain .
= = Early years = =
Born in Arenys de Mar , Barcelona , Catalonia , to Francesc Fàbregas Sr. , who runs a property company , and Núria Soler , the owner of a pastry company , Fàbregas has supported FC Barcelona since childhood and went to his first match when he was nine months old with his grandfather . He began his club football career with CE Mataró before being signed for Barcelona 's La Masia youth academy aged ten in 1997 . His first coach , Señor Blai , reportedly did not select Fàbregas for matches against Barcelona in an attempt to hide him from their scouts . This tactic , however , was unable to withstand Barcelona for long , and Mataró gave in and allowed Fàbregas to train with Barcelona one day per week . Eventually Fàbregas joined Barcelona 's academy full @-@ time . His initial training was as a defensive midfielder playing alongside notable names such as Gerard Piqué and Lionel Messi . Although he was a prolific scorer , sometimes scoring even more than 30 goals in a season for the club 's youth teams , he did not manage to play a first team game at the Camp Nou . During his time at Barcelona 's youth academy , Fàbregas idolised Barcelona 's then @-@ captain and number four Pep Guardiola , who would later give Fàbregas his shirt as consolation when Fàbregas ' parents divorced .
= = Club career = =
= = = Arsenal = = =
= = = = Adapting to England = = = =
Sensing that he would have limited opportunities at Barcelona , Fàbregas joined Arsenal in their Academy , signing for the London club on 11 September 2003 . Initially , he found life difficult in England 's capital but soon struck a friendship with Spanish @-@ speaking teammate Philippe Senderos , who helped him settle down . As a 16 @-@ year @-@ old , Fàbregas did not contemplate breaking into the first team immediately but looked up to senior players like Patrick Vieira and Gilberto Silva , while concentrating on training and learning the English language . He nevertheless made his debut for Arsenal not long after , on 28 October 2003 , in a League Cup tie at home to Rotherham United . In doing so , he became Arsenal 's youngest @-@ ever first team player , aged 16 years and 177 days . He then became the youngest goalscorer in Arsenal 's history in a later round of the League Cup , scoring in a 5 – 1 victory against Wolverhampton Wanderers . Although Arsenal went on to win the league unbeaten in the 2003 – 04 season , Fàbregas was not awarded a winner 's medal because he did not play a single league game .
It was not until the start of the 2004 – 05 season that the Spaniard started making first team appearances in matches outside the League Cup . His first match of the season was against Manchester United in the FA Community Shield . Following an injury to Vieira , Fàbregas stepped in and made four consecutive Premier League starts . He was praised for his performances in those games , even claiming a goal against Blackburn Rovers in a 3 – 0 victory , and becoming Arsenal 's youngest @-@ ever goalscorer in a league game . With further injuries to Edu and Gilberto Silva , he received more playing time in all competitions . He signed his first professional contract with Arsenal in September 2004 , which committed his long @-@ term future to the club . In October 2004 , Arsenal lost 2 – 0 to Manchester United , ending their 49 @-@ match unbeaten run in the Premier League . The match was dubbed the " Battle of the Buffet " after pizza was thrown at Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson at the end of the match in the players ' tunnel by a then @-@ unknown Arsenal player . Speculation that the player was Fàbregas was confirmed in November 2011 by former Arsenal player Martin Keown on a phone @-@ in show on BBC Radio 5 Live . In the 2004 – 05 UEFA Champions League , he became the second @-@ youngest goalscorer in the competition 's history after scoring the third goal against Rosenborg in a 5 – 1 win . He concluded his season by winning his first honours with Arsenal when he was in the starting eleven that defeated Manchester United on penalties in the 2005 FA Cup Final .
= = = = Making the starting eleven = = = =
After the departure of Patrick Vieira to Juventus , Fàbregas was given the Frenchman 's number 4 shirt and featured regularly in the Arsenal central midfield alongside Gilberto Silva . He made 49 appearances in all competitions during the 2005 – 06 season . Despite his young age , his performances came under greater scrutiny due to his increased involvement in the first team . Further , as Fàbregas possessed a smaller frame and played with less aggression than Vieira , there were initially doubts over his ability to fill in the void left by the Frenchman . Nevertheless , Fàbregas asserted his own style of play and impressed pundits in the Champions League against Real Madrid and Juventus . In the latter , he scored Arsenal 's first goal and set up Thierry Henry for the second , at the same time proving that he could compete against tough , hard @-@ tackling midfielders like Vieira . He then played in the Final against his former club Barcelona , but Arsenal were defeated 2 – 1 , completing a trophyless 2005 – 06 campaign for Arsenal .
Fàbregas ' increase in exposure drew transfer speculation during the summer ; Real Madrid expressed a desire to sign the Spaniard despite his long @-@ term contract with Arsenal , but Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger stated that Arsenal would not listen to any offers . In September 2006 , with six years left on his deal , Arsenal offered a new five @-@ year deal ( with an option to extend by a further three years ) to the midfielder , which he signed on 19 October 2006 . While the contract was unusually long , Fàbregas cited Arsenal 's playing style and Wenger as reasons for his long @-@ term commitment to the club .
The 2006 – 07 season was a learning experience for the young Arsenal squad and Fàbregas . The club again failed to secure any major honours and were defeated by city rivals Chelsea in the League Cup Final . Fàbregas , however , emerged as one of the key creative players for the team , playing in every single league game . He kick @-@ started Arsenal 's 2006 – 07 UEFA Champions League campaign when he scored a brace in a 3 – 0 win over Dinamo Zagreb in a qualifier match . In the Premier League , he notched up 13 assists , which was the second @-@ highest total in the league . He ended the season with several individual honours , including the Golden Boy award , presented by the Italian paper TuttoSport , based on a poll of leading writers across Europe . He was also named in the 2006 UEFA Team of the Year , and named FA Premier League Player of the Month for January 2007 . Additionally , he was nominated for both PFA Players ' Player of the Year and PFA Young Player of the Year , although both awards went to Manchester United 's Cristiano Ronaldo . In June 2007 , he was named Arsenal 's Player of the Season , taking in 60 % of the votes .
The 2007 – 08 season began with much uncertainty for Arsenal . First , David Dein , the club 's vice @-@ chairman , left amidst allegations of internal strife , followed by the departure of the club 's all @-@ time top goalscorer and captain , Thierry Henry , who signed for Barcelona . There was also speculation over Wenger 's future with the club . Fàbregas knew that he would become the most important player for Arsenal , but stated he was ready for the challenge . He started the season well , chalking up goals and assists , and website soccernet attributed the early success of Arsenal to the young Spaniard . His start to the season also earned him the O2 Player of the Month award from Arsenal fans for August , September and October , as well as the Premier League Player of the Month for September . With Arsenal leading the league table until March , Fàbregas was equally instrumental in the club 's 2007 – 08 Champions League campaign ; in the return leg against Milan , the midfielder scored late in the game to send Arsenal into the quarter @-@ finals . Though Arsenal ended the season trophyless , Fàbregas amassed several personal awards . On 11 April 2008 , Fàbregas was nominated for the PFA Player of the Year and PFA Young Player of the Year awards for the second year running ; he was later crowned the winner of the latter , and named in the PFA Team of the Year . He was also named the 2007 – 08 Arsenal.com Player of the Season .
= = = = Captaincy = = = =
On 24 November 2008 , 14 league games into the 2008 – 09 season , Fàbregas was named as the successor to William Gallas as club captain . However , just as Arsenal were getting back into the title race after a poor start to the season , the Spaniard was ruled out for four months after sustaining a knee injury against Liverpool . The Gunners eventually finished the season without any silverware , coming in fourth in the league and being knocked out at the semi @-@ finals of the 2008 – 09 Champions League campaign . In tandem with Arsenal 's policy to groom its young players , the team that Fàbregas led into the new season consisted mostly of the same young nucleus as before , with the likes of Nicklas Bendtner , Gaël Clichy , Abou Diaby , Denílson , Samir Nasri , Alex Song and Theo Walcott in tow .
In the opening league game of 2009 – 10 season , Fàbregas scored a brace and managed two assists in Arsenal 's 6 – 1 away win against Everton . Arsenal went on to secure qualification for the 2009 – 10 Champions League campaign by beating Celtic over two legs , but their early momentum to the season was disrupted by consecutive league game losses to Manchester United and Manchester City . The team bounced back strongly after this setback , and with Fàbregas being prolific in scoring and setting up his teammates , it went unbeaten in the next 13 games . Despite suffering four league losses even before mid @-@ season approached , Arsenal managed to lead the league standings after 22 games . On 31 March 2010 , in the Champions League first leg of the quarter @-@ final against Barcelona , Fàbregas suffered a leg fracture before scoring the equalising goal in the game which ended 2 – 2 . Arsenal , who were four points behind league leaders Manchester United , were deprived of their captain for the remaining six league games of the season ; they were subsequently eliminated by Barcelona in the Champions League , and fell out of the league title race . Fàbregas was later named to the PFA Team of the Year .
Before the start of the 2010 – 11 season , there was once again intense media speculation about the Spaniard 's future , and in June 2010 , a € 35 million bid from Barcelona was rejected . The 2010 – 11 season turned out to be an extremely competitive one in the Premier League ; even though Arsenal had lost five games before mid @-@ season , they were jostling for pole position with Manchester United and Manchester City . Going into late February , Arsenal were still in contention for the quadruple , but within a span of two weeks they lost in the League Cup final , were eliminated by Barcelona in the Round of 16 of the Champions League , and defeated in the FA Cup quarter @-@ final . Although Fàbregas did not play in the League Cup Final , it was his misplaced backheel pass during the second leg of the Champions League game against Barcelona that allowed them to level the aggregate score . Arsenal remained in contention for the league title until a series of draws in the final third of the season caused them to fall too far behind league leaders Manchester United ; they ended the season fourth . The following season was once again marked by uncertainty . Barcelona made several bids for Fàbregas , while Nasri , Arsenal 's star performer the previous campaign , was courted by Manchester City .
= = = Barcelona = = =
= = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = =
On 15 August 2011 , Barcelona signed Fàbregas for an initial fee of € 29 million with a further € 5 million in variables , plus Fàbregas would pay Arsenal € 1 million a year from his wage for five years. ending one of the most protracted transfer sagas in recent times . Statistics show that in the five years prior to Fàbregas 's departure from Arsenal , Fàbregas created 466 goal @-@ scoring chances , made 86 assists and scored 48 goals , all three statistics topping those of new teammates Xavi and Andrés Iniesta , despite both having made more appearances in the same period .
Fàbregas joined a team that had won three La Liga titles in a row and two Champions League titles in three years , and one that featured the likes of Lionel Messi , Xavi Hernández , Andrés Iniesta and David Villa . He made his debut in the second leg of the Supercopa de España , coming on as a substitute against Real Madrid . Barcelona won the tie 3 – 2 and 5 – 4 on aggregate . He scored his first goal in a 2 – 0 win against Porto as Barcelona won the 2011 UEFA Super Cup , and his first league goal on his league debut against Villarreal . He went on to score three more league goals in the month of September , including a late equaliser in the 2 – 2 away draw to Valencia .
Fàbregas then spent the majority of October sidelined with a hamstring injury picked up on international duty . He made his return , and scored , in a 4 – 0 away victory to Viktoria Plzeň in the Champions League . He then made his league return in the 2 – 2 draw away to Athletic Bilbao , scoring a goal in the same match . Fàbregas then went on to score a brace in a 5 – 0 home victory against Levante before netting in a 3 – 1 away victory against Real Madrid . Fàbregas later scored against Brazilian club Santos to help Barcelona to a 4 – 0 victory in the 2011 FIFA Club World Cup final .
Fàbregas got another brace in a 4 – 0 victory against CA Osasuna in the Copa del Rey . He also scored in the semi @-@ final of the competition against Valencia to help Barcelona to the final with a 3 – 1 win on aggregate . He kept a regular run in the Barcelona side for the rest of the season , including appearances in both semi @-@ final legs of the 3 – 2 aggregate defeat to Chelsea in the Champions League , and a substitute appearance in the 3 – 0 victory against Athletic Bilbao in the Copa del Rey final .
Fàbregas ended his first season at Barcelona by winning the 2011 – 12 Copa del Rey , 2011 Supercopa de España , 2011 UEFA Super Cup and the 2011 FIFA Club World Cup , notching 15 goals and 20 assists in 48 appearances and four best midfielder awards .
= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =
Fàbregas ended his long goal drought for his club when he scored his first league goals of the season with a brace against Sevilla in a 3 – 2 away victory . He then scored three goals in October , coming in the league , Champions League and the Copa del Rey . He scored again on 25 November in a 4 – 0 win away to Levante . On 13 January 2013 , Fàbregas scored in a 3 – 1 win away to Málaga . Fàbregas scored his first hat @-@ trick of his career against Mallorca in a 5 – 0 victory on 6 April 2013 . He ended his second season at Barcelona by winning the first league title of his career , with a record 100 points . Barcelona were eliminated , however , in the semi @-@ finals of both the Copa del Rey , to rivals Real Madrid , and the Champions League , to winners Bayern Munich . Fàbregas ended the season with 14 goals and 12 assists in 48 appearances in all competitions .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
Barcelona began the season by winning the Supercopa de España . In the opening game of the league season on 18 August , Fàbregas provided five assists in a 7 – 0 win over Levante . He scored 8 goals in 36 league matches , including braces in away wins over Granada on 10 November and Getafe on 22 December , the latter including a penalty kick . He also scored the only goal of the game on 1 October as Barcelona won away at Celtic in the group stage of the Champions League , heading in Alexis Sánchez 's cross in the 73rd minute .
= = = Chelsea = = =
On 12 June 2014 , English Premier League team Chelsea signed Fàbregas on a five @-@ year contract for a fee in the region of € 33 million . Following his transfer he took the number 4 shirt , previously worn by David Luiz . Fàbregas spoke of his transfer , saying , " I asked Barcelona to find a way for me to leave the club , The president tried to stop the sale , but I already had my mind made up . " He went on to say , " If I didn 't think that I 'd be happy at Chelsea , I would 've never made this decision . Above all , I want to be happy both professionally and personally . "
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
Fàbregas made his competitive debut for Chelsea on 18 August as the team began their league season away to Burnley ; he played the full 90 minutes of a 3 – 1 victory , providing two assists . He was a nominee for the Premier League Player of the Month in August 2014 , with the accolade going instead to another new Chelsea signing , Diego Costa . On 13 September 2014 , after providing two assists in Chelsea 's 4 – 2 victory over Swansea City , Fàbregas became the first player ever in Premier League history to record at least one assist in six successive games ; four under Chelsea and two under Arsenal during the 2010 – 11 season . Four days later , he scored his first goal for the club , opening a 1 – 1 draw at home against Schalke 04 in Chelsea 's first match of the Champions League group stage .
His first league goal for Chelsea gave them a 2 – 1 win at Crystal Palace on 18 October , capping off a 19 @-@ pass move . Fàbregas also completed 123 passes , the most by any player on either side . On 10 December , with Chelsea already through to the knockout stage as group winners , Fàbregas scored an eighth @-@ minute penalty to open a 3 – 1 Champions League victory over Sporting CP . Twelve days later he scored a second league goal , set up by Eden Hazard and concluding a 2 – 0 win away to Stoke .
Fàbregas was fitted with a protective mask after breaking his nose in a collision with Charlie Adam during the reverse fixture on 4 April . Eight days later , he scored the only goal of the game in the 88th minute in a victory over Queens Park Rangers at Loftus Road . On 3 May , the day before his 28th birthday , he won his first Premier League title at the ninth attempt , following a 1 – 0 home win over Crystal Palace . During the penultimate game of the season , away at The Hawthorns against West Bromwich Albion , Fàbregas was shown the red card and booed off by fans for deliberately kicking the ball at Chris Brunt 's head while players were speaking to referee Mike Jones . On appeal , the suspension for this red card was cut from three matches to one .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
Fàbregas scored his first goal of the season on 16 September , as Chelsea defeated Maccabi Tel Aviv 4 – 0 in the Champions League . He , Costa and Oscar were jeered by the crowd in December after the dismissal of Mourinho , with the supporters believing that the trio 's conduct and poor performances were more culpable for the team 's poor form .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth team = = =
Although he features regularly for the Spain national football team , Fàbregas ' international career began at youth level . At the 2003 FIFA U @-@ 17 World Championship held in Finland , he finished as top scorer of the tournament despite playing in midfield , and was voted Player of the Tournament . Spain finished runners @-@ up in the tournament to Brazil . Fàbregas was next involved in the 2004 UEFA U @-@ 17 European Championship , where Spain also finished runners @-@ up . He was named the Golden Player of the tournament by FIFA .
= = = Senior team = = =
After emerging as one of Arsenal 's key players in only his second season at the club , it did not take long for Fàbregas to be called up to the senior squad . Noting his impressive performances in Arsenal 's 2006 Champions League campaign , Spain coach Luis Aragonés named the teenager in the team for a friendly against Ivory Coast . In that game , Fàbregas became the youngest player capped for Spain in 70 years , beating Sergio Ramos ' record . He received favourable reviews for his début , and was involved in the build @-@ up to Spain 's first goal in the 3 – 2 victory over the Ivorians .
= = = = 2006 World Cup = = = =
On 15 May 2006 , Fàbregas was selected for the Spanish 2006 FIFA World Cup squad . During the tournament , he came on as a second @-@ half substitute in Spain 's first two group matches , contributing an assist to striker Fernando Torres in their 3 – 1 victory against Tunisia . He then started alongside Spain 's reserve players ( including then @-@ Arsenal teammate José Antonio Reyes ) in Spain 's third group match against Saudi Arabia . He earned a starting role in Spain 's first knockout @-@ stage match against France , in place of Marcos Senna , but Spain lost 3 – 1 . Fàbregas also became the youngest player in Spanish football history to participate in a World Cup when he came on as a substitute for Luis García after 77 minutes in the 4 – 0 victory against Ukraine on 13 June 2006 ; he was then 19 years and 41 days old . He was later nominated for the Gillette Young Player of the World Cup , but Germany 's Lukas Podolski won the award .
= = = = UEFA Euro 2008 = = = =
In UEFA Euro 2008 , Fàbregas was handed the squad number 10 , rather than 18 which he had previously held . Despite featuring mostly as a substitute , the midfielder made a considerable impact in Spain 's campaign . He scored his first international goal in that competition in Spain 's 4 – 1 win over Russia and also had an assist in that game . Spain won all three of their group games and met Italy in the quarter @-@ finals . In that match , Fàbregas scored the winning penalty in the penalty shoot @-@ out after the teams remained deadlocked 0 – 0 after extra time . In the semi @-@ finals , Spain defeated Russia 3 – 0 with Fàbregas providing two assists . The midfielder made the starting eleven in the Final against Germany where Spain prevailed 1 – 0 ; this was Spain 's first major title since 1964 . For his efforts , Fàbregas was named in the Team of the Tournament , a 23 @-@ man squad selected by the UEFA Technical Team .
= = = = 2009 Confederations Cup = = = =
After missing out for several months due to his injury , Fàbregas regained his place as a regular in Vicente del Bosque 's squad . In June , he was named in the team for the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup . He scored his second international goal in a 5 – 0 win against New Zealand in the competition 's group stage . In the semi @-@ finals against the United States ( which Fàbregas started ) , Spain suffered a shock 2 – 0 loss , and its 15 @-@ game winning streak came to an end .
= = = = 2010 World Cup = = = =
Fàbregas was selected as a part of del Bosque 's 23 @-@ man squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup . With del Bosque preferring a starting midfield of Sergio Busquets , Xabi Alonso , Xavi and Andrés Iniesta , Fàbregas did not start in any of Spain 's games in the competition . He featured as a substitute in four of their seven matches , in which Spain lost their opening game before winning the next six en route to the final . In the Final itself , Fàbregas set up the extra @-@ time winner for Iniesta to win Spain the World Cup for the first time in their history .
= = = = UEFA Euro 2012 = = = =
Fàbregas was selected as a part of del Bosque 's 23 @-@ man squad for UEFA Euro 2012 . Fàbregas started in the front three of a 4 – 3 – 3 formation against Italy in Spain 's opening Group C match . In the 64th minute he scored the equaliser after Italy had taken the lead in the 61st minute ; the game finished in a 1 – 1 draw . He then scored his second goal of the tournament in the group stage match against Ireland . When Spain faced Portugal in the semi @-@ finals and the game remained scoreless at the end of extra time , Fàbregas scored the winning penalty of the shootout as Spain prevailed 4 – 2 . In the final against Italy , Fàbregas started and provided the assist to David Silva for the game 's opening goal , en route to a 4 – 0 Spain victory .
= = = = 2013 Confederations Cup = = = =
Fàbregas was named in the provisional squad in the lead up to the 2013 Confederations Cup by del Bosque . He made two starts in the competition and one substitute appearance , all during the group stage of the competition , and assisting a goal in Spain 's opening group match against Uruguay , which Spain won 2 – 1 . Spain won all their group matches , only conceding a goal and scoring 15 . Spain advanced to the final of the competition for the first time , after a lengthy and difficult semi @-@ final clash in a re @-@ match against their opponents of the European Championship Final of the previous year , Italy . The match ended 0 – 0 after extra time and Spain won 7 – 6 in the resulting penalty shoot @-@ out , but were eventually defeated 3 – 0 in the final by hosts and defending champions Brazil .
= = = = 2014 World Cup = = = =
Fàbregas was named in Spain 's 30 @-@ man provisional squad for the World Cup , and was also included in the final list for the tournament . He made his debut in the tournament in the opening 1 – 5 defeat to the Netherlands , replacing David Silva for the last 12 minutes . With Spain already eliminated , he played 22 minutes of 3 – 0 win against Australia in the last group game , this time in place of Santi Cazorla .
= = = = UEFA Euro 2016 = = = =
On 31 March 2015 , Fàbregas captained Spain for the first time , in their 0 – 2 friendly defeat to the Netherlands at the Amsterdam Arena . He earned his 100th cap on 12 October 2015 , becoming the tenth Spaniard to do so , in a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying match against Ukraine with Spain already qualified . In his milestone match at the Olympic Stadium in Kiev , he won a first @-@ half penalty when fouled by Oleksandr Kucher , but his spot kick was saved by Andriy Pyatov .
= = Style of play = =
= = = Arsenal and Chelsea = = =
Originally brought to Arsenal as a youth to slowly develop via the League Cup , Fàbregas was unexpectedly deployed as Arsenal 's starting central midfielder following injuries to fellow midfielders Patrick Vieira , Gilberto Silva and Edu during the 2004 – 05 season . While defensive midfielder Vieira served as his role model and mentor , he styled his game after his childhood hero and compatriot Pep Guardiola , whose shirt number 4 he would inherit in his subsequent move to Barcelona in 2011 . Because he was of a different mould from his Arsenal predecessors who played in the same position , this led to criticisms of his lightweight frame and less aggressive style of play , due to his development in the Barcelona Youth Academy , with former teammate Ashley Cole criticising the Spaniard as " an unproven featherweight " in his autobiography .
However , it did not take long for Fàbregas to become one of the most coveted and celebrated young talents in the game with his success at Arsenal . Functioning mostly as a playmaker and renowned for his passing range , he was described as the general of Arsenal 's first team , bringing vision , creativity , and an innate understanding of timing and space to Arsenal 's intricate passing game , displaying maturity that belied his age . He was the main creative force when he was at Arsenal , as exemplified by his 16 assists in all competitions in the 2006 – 07 season . Between 2006 – 07 and 2010 – 11 , Fàbregas created the most chances in the top @-@ division leagues of England , Spain , Italy , Germany and France .
At Arsenal , Fàbregas also often assumed responsibility for set pieces , taking corners , free kicks and penalties . By his own admission , scoring was a weaker part of his game in his first few seasons at Arsenal ; wasteful finishing also being symptomatic of the larger problem surrounding Arsenal in the 2005 – 06 and 2006 – 07 seasons . This changed initially in the 2007 – 08 season when he scored 11 goals in his first 16 games , and Arsenal manager Wenger claimed that the Spaniard 's previous inability to score was down to a mental state , and even compared the Spaniard to Michel Platini , a French midfielder renowned for scoring . There were also concerns raised over the large number of games Fàbregas was playing for club and country at such a young age , but while he initially avoided long spells on the sidelines , he played significantly fewer games due to injury in his last three seasons with Arsenal .
At Chelsea , Fàbregas played a similar playmaking role in midfield , using his technique , ball control , vision , and passing ability to dictate the tempo of his team 's play , while he was supported by defensive midfielders , in order to give him more space and time on the ball . In this deeper creative role , he excelled in Chelsea 's new style of play under Mourinho , where he proved to be an effective assist @-@ provider .
= = = Barcelona and Spain = = =
At Barcelona , Fàbregas continued to play a prominent midfield and playmaking role , although he was moved into a more offensive position than that which he had occupied at Arsenal . His new role with Barcelona was comparable to that which he had played with the Spanish national team . He effortlessly fit into Pep Guardiola 's 4 – 3 – 3 formation , participating in the midfield 's trademark " tiki @-@ taka " patient , attacking , build @-@ up style of play , also associated with the Spanish national squad under Luis Aragonés and Vicente del Bosque . Fàbregas was used in a variety of different roles under Guardiola , scoring several goals and providing many assists . Due to the presence of Xavi , Sergio Busquets and Andrés Iniesta in the three man midfield , as well as the emerging Thiago , Fàbregas was often employed out of position as a winger , or even as a supporting forward under Guardiola . He regularly performed in the role that Lionel Messi had often occupied during the previous season , functioning as a false @-@ 9 in a 4 – 6 – 0 formation ( a role which he would also play for Spain at Euro 2012 under Del Bosque ) , whilst Messi would play as a right winger or second forward . Fàbregas was , however , still used in deeper roles on occasion , as an attacking , deep @-@ lying or central playmaking midfielder , in particular under Guardiola 's immediate successors , Tito Vilanova and Gerardo Martino .
= = Outside football = =
= = = Personal life = = =
Fàbregas and his partner Daniella Semaan have two daughters , Lia ( born 2013 ) and Capri ( born 2015 ) .
= = = Sponsorship = = =
In 2011 , Fàbregas signed a sponsorship deal with German sportswear and equipment supplier , Puma . He appeared in an advert for the new Puma PowerCat 1 @.@ 12 in September 2011 and was one of the flagship wearers of Puma 's PowerCat range of football boots . When the PowerCat was succeeded by the evoPower , again Fàbregas was the forefront of Puma 's marketing campaign . In January 2014 , the brand launched a C4 evoPower boot , specifically designed for just Fàbregas to wear .
= = = Other projects = = =
Fàbregas starred in his own one @-@ time only television programme , called " The Cesc Fàbregas Show : Nike Live " , that aired on 19 May 2008 . The programme was sponsored by Nike and was shown on Sky Sports . The show featured Fàbregas in several sketches with then Arsenal teammates like Philippe Senderos and Nicklas Bendtner , as well as coach Arsène Wenger , Fàbregas ' parents and Little Britain star Matt Lucas .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
Statistics accurate as of 2 May 2016
= = = International = = =
Statistics accurate as of 1 June 2016
= = = = International goals = = = =
As of match played 1 June 2016 . Spain score listed first , score column indicates score after each Fábregas goal .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Arsenal
FA Cup : 2004 – 05
FA Community Shield : 2004
UEFA Champions League : Runners @-@ up 2005 – 06
Barcelona
La Liga : 2012 – 13
Copa del Rey : 2011 – 12
Supercopa de España : 2011 , 2013
UEFA Super Cup : 2011
FIFA Club World Cup : 2011
Chelsea
Premier League : 2014 – 15
Football League Cup : 2014 – 15
= = = International = = =
Spain
FIFA World Cup : 2010
UEFA European Championship : 2008 , 2012
= = = Individual = = =
FIFA U @-@ 17 World Championship Golden Ball : 2003
FIFA U @-@ 17 World Championship Golden Shoe : 2003
UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Football Championship Golden Player : 2004
Bravo Award : 2006
Golden Boy : 2006
UEFA Team of the Year ( 2 ) : 2006 , 2008
Premier League Player of the Month ( 2 ) : January 2007 , September 2007
PFA Young Player of the Year : 2007 – 08
PFA Team of the Year ( 2 ) : 2007 – 08 , 2009 – 10
UEFA Euro Team of the Tournament ( 2 ) : 2008 , 2012
ESM Team of the Year ( 3 ) : 2007 – 08 , 2009 – 10 , 2014 – 15
= = = Decorations = = =
Prince of Asturias Awards : 2010
Gold Medal of the Royal Order of Sporting Merit : 2011
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= S.S.C. Napoli =
Società Sportiva Calcio Napoli , commonly referred to as Napoli ( pronounced [ ˈnaːpoli ] ) , is a professional Italian football club based in Naples , Campania . The club plays in Serie A , the top flight of Italian football where it is currently competing in the 2015 – 16 season . One of the more successful clubs in Italian football , they have won 12 domestic trophies ; the Serie A twice , in 1986 – 87 and 1989 – 90 and runners up 6 times , they also have won the Coppa Italia five times and been runners up 4 times , and the Supercoppa Italiana twice . On the European stage they have won the UEFA Cup in 1988 – 89 .
Napoli is also the most successful football club in Southern Italy and the 4th most supported football club in Italy after Juventus and the two Milanese clubs Internazionale and Milan . The club is ranked as the 5th most valuable football club in Serie A behind Internazionale , Roma , Milan and Juventus in terms of annual revenue , generating € 125 @.@ 5 million during the 2015 financial year .
Napoli is also one of the associate members of the European Club Association , an organisation that replaced the previous G @-@ 14 which consists of major football clubs in Europe . According to Deloitte Football Money League , as of 2014 , Napoli is ranked as the 15th richest football club in the world .
Napoli is also ranked the 8th best club in European Football and the 2nd best club in Italy according to UEFA rankings as of January 2016 passing clubs like Chelsea and Paris Saint @-@ Germain which is a huge improvement from the 2010 @-@ 2011 season , when Napoli was only ranked the 106th best club in Europe .
The club has one of the highest incomes and largest fanbases in the world . Napoli was named the seventeenth most valuable association football club in the world by Forbes , valued at $ 353 million , in 2015 and one of only 7 of the top 20 most valuable clubs in the world to have no debt . As of 2015 Napoli had an annual turnover of $ 224 million which would be the 3rd highest in Serie A and the 16th highest turnover in the world for a football club .
The club is famous around the world for being the club where Diego Maradona played his football and became one of the greatest footballers of all time . Napoli is also the club where Ballon d 'Or and World Cup winner Fabio Cannavaro started his career and has been home to many other great players , including Gianfranco Zola .
The official anthem of the club is " ' O surdato ' nnammurato " .
= = History = =
The first club was founded as Naples Foot @-@ Ball & Cricket Club in 1904 by English sailor William Poths and his associate Hector M. Bayon . Neapolitans such as Conforti , Catterina and Amedeo Salsi were also involved , the latter of whom was the club 's first president . The original kit of the club was a sky blue and navy blue striped shirt , with black shorts . Naples ' first match was a 3 – 2 win against the English crew of the boat Arabik with goals from MacPherson , Scafoglio and Chaudoir . The name of the club was shortened to Naples Foot @-@ Ball Club in 1906 .
Early into its existence , the Italian Football Championship was limited to just Northern clubs , so Southern clubs competed against sailors or in cups such as Thomas Lipton 's Lipton Challenge Cup . In the cup competed between Naples and Palermo FBC , Naples won three finals . The foreign contingent at the club broke off in 1912 to form Internazionale Napoli , in time for both club 's debut in the Italian Championship of 1912 – 13 . Though the sides had a keen rivalry in the Campania section , they were not as successful outside of it and a few years after World War I , they merged as Foot @-@ Ball Club Internazionale @-@ Naples , also known as FBC Internaples .
= = = Associazione Calcio Napoli = = =
Under the presidency of Giorgio Ascarelli , the club changed its name to Associazione Calcio Napoli on 23 August 1926 . After a poor start , with a sole point in an entire championship , Napoli was readmitted to Serie A 's forerunner National Division by the Italian FA , and began to improve thanks in part to Paraguayan @-@ born Attila Sallustro , who was the first fully fledged hero to the fans . He was a capable goal @-@ scorer and eventually set the all @-@ time goal @-@ scoring record for Napoli , which still stands today .
Napoli entered the Serie A @-@ era under the management of William Garbutt . During his six @-@ year stint , the club would be dramatically transformed , frequently finishing in the top half of the table . This included two third @-@ place finishes during the 1932 – 33 and 1933 – 34 seasons , with added notables such as Antonio Vojak , Arnaldo Sentimenti and Carlo Buscaglia . For the years leading up to World War II Napoli went into decline , surviving relegation in 1939 – 40 by goal average .
Napoli lost a closely contested relegation battle at the end of 1942 and were relegated to Serie B. They moved from Stadio Giorgio Ascarelli to Stadio Arturo Collana and stayed in Serie B until after the war . When play continued , Napoli earned the right to compete in Serie A , but were relegated after two seasons for a bribery scandal . The club bounced back to ensure top flight football at the start of the 1950s . Napoli moved to their new home ground Stadio San Paolo in 1959 . Despite erratic league form with highs and lows during this period , including a further relegation and promotion , Napoli had some cup success when they beat SPAL to lift the Coppa Italia in 1962 , with goals from Gianni Corelli and Pierluigi Ronzon . Their fourth relegation cut celebrations short the following season .
= = = Napoli on the rise : Maradona era = = =
As the club changed their name to Società Sportiva Calcio Napoli on 25 June 1964 they began to rise up again , gaining promotion in 1964 – 65 . Under the management of former player Bruno Pesaola , they won the Coppa delle Alpi and were back amongst the elite in Serie A , with consistent top five finishes . Napoli came very close to winning the league in 1967 – 68 , finishing just behind AC Milan in second place . Some of the most popular players from this period were Dino Zoff , José Altafini , Omar Sívori , and hometown midfielder Antonio Juliano . Juliano would eventually break the appearance records , which still stands today .
The trend of Napoli performing well in the league continued into the 1970s , with third place spots in 1970 – 71 and 1973 – 74 . Under the coaching of former player Luís Vinício , this gained them entry into the early UEFA Cup competitions ; in 1974 – 75 they reached the third round knocking out Porto 2 – 0 on the way . During the same season , Napoli finished second in Serie A ; just two points behind champions Juventus . Solid performances from locally born players such as Bruscolotti , Juliano and Esposito were relied upon during this period , coupled with goals from Giuseppe Savoldi .
After beating Southampton 4 – 1 on aggregate to lift the Anglo @-@ Italian League Cup , Napoli were entered into the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup for 1976 – 77 , where they reached the semi @-@ finals , losing 2 – 1 on aggregate to Anderlecht . The club won their second Coppa Italia trophy in 1975 – 76 , knocking out Milan and Fiorentina en route , before beating rivals Verona 4 – 0 in the final . In terms of the Italian league , Napoli were still very much a consistent top six side for much of the late 1970s . Even into the earliest two seasons of the 1980s , the club were performing respectably with a third @-@ place finish in 1980 – 81 , however by 1983 they had slipped dramatically and were involved in relegation battles . Napoli broke the world transfer record fee , turning to Diego Maradona with a € 12 million deal from Barcelona on 30 June 1984 . The squad was gradually re @-@ built , with the likes of Ciro Ferrara , Salvatore Bagni , and Fernando De Napoli filling the ranks . The rise up the tables was gradual , by 1985 – 86 , they had a third @-@ place finish under their belts , but better was yet to come . The 1986 – 87 season was the landmark in Napoli 's history ; they won the double , securing the Serie A title by three points and then beating Atalanta 4 – 0 to lift the Coppa Italia .
Because a mainland Southern Italian team had never won the league before , this turned Diego Maradona into a cultural , social and borderline religious icon for Neapolitans , which stretched beyond the realms of just football .
The club were unsuccessful in the European Cup in the following season and finished runners @-@ up in Serie A. However , Napoli were entered into the UEFA Cup for 1988 – 89 and won their first major European title . Juventus , Bayern Munich , and PAOK were defeated on the way to the final , where Napoli beat Stuttgart 5 – 4 on aggregate , with two goals from Careca and one each from Maradona , Ferrara and Alemão .
Napoli added their second Serie A title in 1989 – 90 , beating Milan by two points in the title race . However , this was surrounded by less auspicious circumstances as Napoli were awarded two points for a game , when in Bergamo , an Atalanta fan threw a £ 100 lira coin at Alemão 's head . A controversial set of events set off at the 1990 World Cup , when Maradona made comments pertaining to North @-@ South inequality in the country and the risorgimento , asking Neapolitans to root for Argentina in the semi @-@ finals against Italy in Naples .
San Paolo was the only stadium during the competition where the Argentine National Anthem wasn 't jeered , Maradona bowed to the Napoli fans at the end and his country went on to reach the final . However , after the final the Italian Football Federation forced Maradona to take a doping test , which he failed testing positive for cocaine ; both Maradona and Napoli staff later claimed it was a revenge plot for events at the World Cup . Maradona was banned for 15 months and would never play for the club again . The club still managed to win the Supercoppa Italiana that year , with a record 5 – 1 victory against Juventus , but it would be their last major trophy for 22 years . In the European Cup however , they went out in the second round .
= = = Decline and rebirth = = =
Though the club finished fourth during the 1991 – 92 season , Napoli gradually went into decline after that season , both financially and on the field . Players such as Gianfranco Zola , Daniel Fonseca , Ciro Ferrara and Careca had all departed by 1994 . Nonetheless , Napoli did manage to qualify for the 1994 – 95 UEFA Cup , reaching the third round and in 1996 – 97 , Napoli appeared at the Coppa Italia final , but lost 3 – 1 to Vicenza . Napoli 's league form had dropped lower , and relegation to Serie B came at the end of 1997 – 98 when they recorded only three wins all season .
The club returned to Serie A after gaining promotion in the 1999 – 2000 season , though after a closely contested relegation battle , they were relegated immediately back down the following season . They failed to gain promotion following this and slipped further down . The failed 2001 – 02 Serie B campaign was costly , the cost of production was € 70 @,@ 895 @,@ 838 , just about € 10 million fewer than in 2000 – 01 Serie A , heavily due to the high amortisation of the player asset ( € 33 @,@ 437 @,@ 075 ) . However value of production was just € 21 @,@ 183736 ( excluding player profit ) and the net loss was € 28 @,@ 856 @,@ 093 that season . Net asset on 30 June 2002 was € 2 @,@ 166 @,@ 997 , already including about € 20 million recapitalisation . The club once quoted the law " 21 February 2003 No.27 " to lower the amortisation expense by extending the amortisation period beyond the contract length of players to 10 @-@ year ( UEFA ruled the Italian special law was not lawful and all club should use IFRS standards , thus causing a re @-@ capitalization crisis in 2006 ) , which some players contract ( with a total residual accounting value of € 46 @,@ 601 @,@ 225 ) was amortise in special way for € 4 @,@ 660 @,@ 123 only and the rest for € 1 @,@ 659 @,@ 088 in 2002 – 03 , however the cost of production was still exceed the value of production for € 19 @,@ 071 @,@ 218 in 2002 – 03 . By August 2004 , Napoli was declared bankrupt with debts estimated up to € 70 million . To secure football in the city , film producer Aurelio De Laurentiis refounded the club under the name Napoli Soccer , as they were not allowed to use their old name . FIGC placed Napoli in Serie C1 , where they missed out on promotion after losing 2 – 1 in play @-@ offs to local rivals Avellino in 2004 – 05 Serie C1 .
Despite the fact that Napoli were playing in such a low division , they retained higher average attendances than most of the Serie A clubs , breaking the Serie C attendance record with 51 @,@ 000 at one game . The following season , they secured promotion to Serie B and De Laurentiis bought back the club 's history , restoring its name to Società Sportiva Calcio Napoli in May 2006 . After just one season back in Serie B , they were promoted on the final day , along with fellow sleeping giants Genoa . Napoli finished the season placed eighth in the Serie A , enough to secure a place in the Intertoto Cup third round .
The 2008 – 09 season saw Napoli qualify for the UEFA Cup via the Intertoto Cup . The team was eliminated in the first round , however , by Portuguese team Benfica . At the domestic level , Napoli made a very impressive start , proposing as one of the main candidates for a Champions League spot ; results and performances , however , quickly declined in mid @-@ season , causing Napoli to fall down to 11th place in the league table , which led to the dismissal of manager Edy Reja in March 2009 , with former Italy manager Roberto Donadoni being appointed as his replacement .
Despite reinforcements in the summer transfer window , Napoli began the 2009 – 10 season with a number of poor results . After a 2 – 1 loss to Roma in October 2009 , Donadoni was relieved of his duties and replaced by former Sampdoria manager Walter Mazzarri . Under Mazzarri , Napoli climbed up the table , finishing in sixth place to qualify for a Europa League spot . Napoli , under Mazzarri 's guide and reinforced by players such as Edinson Cavani , spent part of the 2010 – 11 season in the second place , finishing third and qualifying directly to the group phase of the 2011 – 12 UEFA Champions League .
In the 2011 – 12 season , Napoli ended in fifth place in Serie A , but managed to defeat unbeaten champions Juventus in the Stadio Olimpico to win the Coppa Italia for the fourth time in the club 's history , 25 years after their last cup win . Star striker Edinson Cavani scored from a penalty kick in the 63rd minute and Marek Hamšík decided the game in the 83rd minute . Napoli also had a successful season in the Champions League , its first participation in the European Cup since the 1990 – 91 season . The team finished second in its group behind Bayern Munich , and ahead of Manchester City , progressing to the round of 16 , where it was knocked out by eventual winners Chelsea .
In 2012 – 13 , Napoli finished in second place in Serie A , the club 's best performance since winning the 1989 – 90 Scudetto . Edinson Cavani finished as top scorer in the division with 29 goals , which resulted in him being sold to Paris Saint @-@ Germain for a club record fee of £ 57 million .
In the 2013 close @-@ season , Walter Mazzarri left Napoli to become coach of Internazionale , and was replaced by Spaniard Rafael Benítez , who became the club 's first foreign coach since Zdeněk Zeman in 2000 . The money from selling Cavani went towards signing three Real Madrid players – Gonzalo Higuaín , Raúl Albiol and José Callejón – and other players including Dries Mertens and Pepe Reina . They finished the season by winning the 2014 Coppa Italia Final , their fifth title in the tournament , with a 3 – 1 win against Fiorentina with two goals from Lorenzo Insigne and another from Mertens , as well as qualifying for the Champions League by finishing 3rd in Serie A. According to the International Federation of Football History & Statistics ( IFFHS ) , Napoli was rated the third best club in the world in 2015 , despite failing to qualify for the 2014 @-@ 15 UEFA Champions League group stages .
On 1 December 2015 in the 2015 – 16 season , a 2 – 1 home win over league leaders Inter Milan sent Napoli to the top of Serie A for the first time in 25 years .
On 10 January 2016 an away 5 @-@ 1 victory against Frosinone made Napoli the champion of the first half of 2015 @-@ 16 Serie A season for the first time since the 1989 @-@ 90 season , thanks to Sassuolo 's 1 @-@ 0 win against Inter Milan in Giuseppe Meazza .
= = Players = =
= = = First team squad = = =
As of 26 July 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
As of 12 July 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = Primavera squad = =
= = = Retired numbers = = =
10 – Diego Armando Maradona , Second Striker , 1984 – 91
In the summer of 2000 Napoli retired the jersey number 10 belonged to former club legend Diego Armando Maradona who played for the club from 1984 to 1991 , as a tribute to his class and to the significant contribution made in the seven seasons with the shirt of Napoli . In order , the last players to wear number 10 were Fausto Pizzi ( 1995 – 1996 ) , Beto ( in 1996 – 1997 ) , Igor Protti in 1997 – 1998 was the last player to play and score a goal with the number 10 shirt in Serie A and Claudio Bellucci in 1998 – 1999 and 1999 – 2000 in Serie B. However , for regulatory reasons , the number was reissued on blue shirts 2004 to 2006 Serie C1 , a tournament where there is the old numbering from 1 to 11 . The last player to wear a sign and goals with this shirt in an official match was Mariano Bogliacino in the home match of 18 May 2006 against Spezia , valid for the final leg of the Supercoppa di Lega Serie C1 ; primacy belongs to him also for last appearance in the championship , 12 May 2006 at the home race of Lanciano . As regards exclusively the championship , however , goes to the Argentine footballer Roberto Sosa the distinction of being the last to wear the 10 at the San Paolo and at the same time to score in the match against Frosinone on 30 April 2006 .
= = = Notable players = = =
= = Current coaching , technical and administrative staff = =
Last updated : 24 August 2015
Source : it : SSC Napoli
= = Presidents = =
Below is the official presidential history of Napoli , from when Giorgio Ascarelli took over at the club in 1926 , until the present day . Napoli has had many managers and trainers , some seasons they have had co @-@ managers running the team . Here is a chronological list of them from 1926 onwards :
= = Managers = =
= = Statistics and records = =
Giuseppe Bruscolotti holds Napoli 's official appearance record , having made 511 over the course of 16 years from 1972 until 1988 . Antonio Juliano holds the record for league appearances with 394 ( 355 in Serie A ) over the course of 16 years from 1962 until 1978 .
The all @-@ time leading goalscorer for Napoli is Diego Armando Maradona , with 115 league goals scored . He finished the season of Serie A as the league 's topscorer , known in Italy as the capocannoniere , in the 1987 – 88 season with 15 goals . The record for most goals in the league ( also including tournaments Divisione Nazionale ) belongs to Attila Sallustro , with 106 goals , while the maximum scorer in Serie A is Antonio Vojak , with 102 goals . The record for most goals in a single tournament maximum number belongs to Gonzalo Higuaín , with 36 goals scored in the season 2015 – 2016 .
The biggest ever victory recorded by Napoli was 8 – 1 against Pro Patria , in the 1955 – 56 season of Serie A. Napoli 's heaviest championship defeat came during the 1927 – 28 season when eventual champions Torino beat them 11 – 0 .
On 26 July 2016 , Napoli player Gonzalo Higuaín became the third highest football transfer of all @-@ time and highest ever transfer for an Italian club , when he signed for € 90 million to Juventus .
Below are appearance and goalscoring records pertaining to Napoli players of all time . Still active players in bold :
As of 15 May 2016
= = Colours , badge and nicknames = =
As Naples is a coastal city , the colours of the club have always been derived from the blue waters of the Gulf of Naples . Originally while using the name Naples FBC , the colours of the club implemented two shades of blue . Since the 1920s however , a singular blue tone has been used in the form of azure ; as thus they share the nickname azzurri with the Italian national side . The shade of blue has been sky blue in many instances .
One of the nicknames of Napoli is I ciucciarelli which means " the little donkeys " in the local dialect , they were given this name after a particularly poor performance during the 1926 – 27 season . It was originally meant to be derogatory , as the Neapolitan symbol is a rampant black horse , the club however adopted the donkey as a mascot called ' O Ciuccio , displaying it with pride .
The club badge Napoli are most famous for is a large N placed within a circle . This crest can be traced back to Internazionale Napoli , who used a similar design on their shirts . Since the club officially adopted the N badge as its representative , Napoli have altered it slightly at various times ; sometimes it features the club 's name around it , sometimes it does not . The main difference between each badge is the shade of blue used . Usually the N is white , although it has occasionally been gold .
Partenopei is a popular nickname for the club and people from the city of Naples in general . It is derived from Greek mythology where the siren Parthenópē tried to enchant Odysseus from his ship to Capri . In the story Odysseus had his men tie him to the ship 's mast so he was able to resist the song of the siren ; as a result Parthenope , unable to live with the rejection of her love , drowned herself and her body was washed up upon the shore of Naples .
= = Social commitment = =
Napoli is a company active in the social field , Napoli has stood out for its support provided to multiple charities .
Through the direct participation of its members , the blue club sponsored initiatives in support of the hospitals towns , as well as initiatives to raise awareness against violence in sport and child poverty . With the ' support association town Scugnizzi , which operates in the juvenile prison of Nisida , Naples supports various projects aimed at the social reintegration of young offenders once granted their punishment .
Through fundraising supported directly and indirectly by its members , the Naples has provided its support to institutions such as the Robert F. Kennedy Foundation , Telethon , the Fondazione San Raffaele , the Stefano Borgonovo Foundation and Massimo Leone Foundation .
The Neapolitan club also undertook several initiatives in support of the victims of the earthquake of 2009 , from the transfer of the proceeds of the games to raise funds for the construction of a sports center in the capital of the Abruzzo .
= = = Sponsors and manufacturers = = =
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
Napoli is the fourth most supported football club in Italy with around 13 % of Italian football fans supporting the club . Like other top clubs in the country , Napoli 's fanbase goes beyond the Italian border ; it has been estimated by the club that there are around 6 million fans worldwide . Napoli is reputed to be one of the biggest clubs in Europe , with one of the highest average home attendance in Europe .
= = = Rivalries = = =
The Napoli fans have always had bad relations especially with the teams from the North of Italy . One of the first historical rivalries was with Hellas Verona , and later on in the second half of the 1980s rivalry with Inter Milan , Juventus and AC Milan was born , as Napoli defied the " Triad of the North " for the title of Champions of Italy .
The hostility of the ultras of Napoli with the fans of Lazio comes from the old friendship that Napoli had in the eighties with Roma fans , Napoli fans used to call Roma fans " cousins " , friendship then broke after the umbrella gesture of Salvatore Bagni of 25 October 1987 and after that came a very strong rivalry with the Roma .
Also there still remain rivalries with Sampdoria , Reggina and also with the Atalanta , Avellino , Bari , Bologna , Brescia , Cagliari , Lecce , Salernitana , Vicenza and Udinese . Other minor rivalry with Foggia , Perugia , Pisa , Pistoiese and Ternana .
= = = Derbies = = =
Unlike other Italian cities such as Genoa , Milan , Rome and Turin , Napoli is the only major football club in the city and therefore there is no derby in the strict sense of the term . Nevertheless , the fans of Napoli do co @-@ star in two particular derbies in Italy against other regional teams :
Derby della Campania generally refers to a rivalry with regional clubs , mainly Avellino and Salernitana . However , both teams have largely played in the lower divisions and meetings are largely limited to the Coppa Italia .
Derby of the Sun ( also called Derby of the South ) , at the height of its popularity in the seventies and eighties , starring Napoli and Roma .
= = = Friendships = = =
The twinning between supporters of the clubs Napoli and Genoa football club is one of the oldest in Italian football which started back on 16 May 1982 following a 2 – 2 draw in Naples between the two teams on the final day of the 1981 – 1982 Serie A season , a result that allowed the escape of Genoa from relegation and condemned AC Milan for the second time to relegation from Serie A to Serie B in its history . The history and friendship got even stronger for both teams when on the last day of the season in Serie B in the 2006 – 2007 season when both teams finished with a 0 – 0 draw at Genoa , ensuring both teams promotion to Serie A. Genoa ultras could be seen holding up banners saying " Benvenuto fratello napoletano " , meaning " Welcome , Neapolitan brother " . The historic partnership between the two groups of supporters was also honoured and supported by marketing initiatives .
There is also a strong supporter of friendship with Ancona and there are good relations with the fans of Catania and Borussia Dortmund .
A sympathy and good friendship was born with supporters of the Romanian football team Universitatea Craiova following the elimination of rivals FC Steaua Bucureşti from the Europa League at the hands of Napoli . They have a long @-@ standing friendship with Bulgarian fans of Lokomotiv Plovdiv ; Napoli gave birth to the name Napoletani Ultras Plovdiv and that is how the friendship arose .
= = S.S.C. Napoli as a company = =
S.S.C. Napoli was expelled from the professional league in 2004 . Thanks to Article 52 of N.O.I.F. , the sports title was transferred to Napoli Soccer ( later the new Napoli ) in the same year , while the old Napoli was liquidated . In the eve of bankruptcy , the club was in deep financial trouble to achieve positive operating income ( excluding windfall profit from players trading ) . At that time clubs using cash plus player swap to boost short term profit ( € 28 @,@ 329 @,@ 090 in 2000 – 01 ; € 17 @,@ 721 @,@ 534 in 2001 – 02 season ) , but also increased the long term cost ( as amortization ) by purchasing players . In the second last season before bankruptcy , the club was partially saved by the non @-@ standard accounting practice of amortization. it was due to Silvio Berlusconi , owner of Milan and prime minister of Italy , introduced Italian Law 91 / 1981 , Article 18B . Napoli was dramatically reduced the amortization from € 33 @,@ 437 @,@ 075 to € 1 @,@ 659 @,@ 088 + € 4 @,@ 660 @,@ 123 , due to € 46 @,@ 601 @,@ 225 of the intangible asset ( player contract ) , was deferred to amortize in 10 @-@ year installments , instead of varying from 1 to 5 years by the length of player contract . However , the practice was unable to save the club from the financial aid from the sugar daddy , which the owner withdrew .
Since refound in 2004 , S.S.C. Napoli S.p.A. had a sustainable management strategy . The club has one of thee largest supporting group in Italy ( or fourth , behind Juventus and Milan teams ) which was the main source of income , in terms of gate revenue and TV rights . Except the first few seasons , Napoli made an aggregate profit in successive years : in 2004 – 05 and 2005 – 06 season the net loss were € 7 @,@ 061 @,@ 463 and € 9 @,@ 088 @,@ 780 . In 2006 – 07 Serie B , Napoli made its first profit of € 1 @,@ 416 @,@ 976 The first Serie A season made new born Napoli had a net profit of € 11 @,@ 911 @,@ 041 It followed by a net profit of € 10 @,@ 934 @,@ 520 , due to the income from European matches was offset by the increase in cost . In 2009 – 10 season , Napoli heavily invested on players , made that season had a net profit of just € 343 @,@ 686 . In 2010 – 11 Serie A , Napoli returned to the right track with € 4 @,@ 197 @,@ 829 net profit . It was due to the new collective TV rights of Serie A , as well as qualified to 2010 – 11 UEFA Europa League .
Napoli shareholder equity on 30 June 2005 was a negative of € 261 @,@ 466 , which the club started from € 3 million capital and re @-@ capitalized € 3 @.@ 8 million during 2004 – 05 Serie C1 . On 30 June 2006 the equity was increased to € 211 @,@ 220 , as the net loss was backup by a re @-@ capitalisation of € 9 @.@ 3 million + € 261 @,@ 466 for previous net loss . On 30 June 2007 the equity was increased to € 1 @,@ 961 @,@ 975 , due to the net profit and a re @-@ capitalised of € 288 @,@ 780 ( to make the share capital back to € 500 @,@ 000 ) . On 30 June 2008 the equity was increased to € 13 @,@ 829 @,@ 015 with a capital increase of just € 1 @,@ 000 . The net income contributed the increase in equity on 30 June 2009 , which was € 24 @,@ 763 @,@ 537 . On 30 June 2010 the equity was at € 25 @,@ 107 @,@ 223 . On 30 June 2011 the equity was increased to € 29 @,@ 305 @,@ 052 . Though less than € 17 million equity contribution in total from Filmauro , Napoli achieved self @-@ sustainability by good management and its large fans base .
= = Honours = =
= = = National titles = = =
Serie A
Winners ( 2 ) : 1986 – 87 , 1989 – 90
Coppa Italia
Winners ( 5 ) : 1961 – 62 , 1975 – 76 , 1986 – 87 , 2011 – 12 , 2013 – 14
Supercoppa Italiana
Winners ( 2 ) : 1990 , 2014
= = = European titles = = =
UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League
Winners ( 1 ) : 1988 – 89
= = = Minor titles = = =
Serie B
Winners ( 2 ) : 1945 – 46 ( Serie A @-@ B Southern Italy co @-@ champions with Bari ) , 1949 – 50
Runners @-@ up ( 4 ) : 1961 – 62 , 1964 – 65 , 1999 – 00 , 2006 – 07
Serie C1
Winners ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06
Anglo @-@ Italian League Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1976
Coppa delle Alpi
Winners ( 1 ) : 1966
|
= Fairey Spearfish =
The Fairey Spearfish was a British carrier @-@ based , single @-@ engined , torpedo bomber / dive bomber that was ordered from Fairey Aviation for the Fleet Air Arm during World War II . Designed during the war , the prototype did not fly until July 1945 . Much larger than earlier naval bombers , it was designed for use aboard the large Malta @-@ class aircraft carriers that were cancelled after the war and was itself cancelled thereafter . Seven prototypes were ordered , but only five were built , of which four actually flew . They were mostly used for experimental work until the last aircraft was scrapped in 1952 .
= = Design and development = =
The Spearfish was designed by Fairey Aviation to Admiralty Specification O.5 / 43 as a replacement for the Fairey Barracuda in the torpedo / dive bomber role . In comparison to the Barracuda , the Spearfish had a much more powerful engine , an internal weapons bay and a retractable ASV Mk.XV surface @-@ search radar mounted behind the bomb bay . The Spearfish was half as large again as the Barracuda , as it was designed to be operated from the 45 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 46 @,@ 000 t ) Malta @-@ class aircraft carriers then under development .
In August 1943 , the company received an order for three prototypes to be built against Specification O.5 / 43 and the first prototype , serial number RA356 , was constructed at Fairey 's Hayes factory and first flew on 5 July 1945 from Heston Aerodrome ; the other two did not fly until 1947 . In November 1943 the company was ordered to build a dual @-@ control dive @-@ bombing trainer variant against Specification T.21 / 43 and this was built at the Heaton Chapel factory and assembled and flown at Ringway on 20 June 1946 . Three further development aircraft were ordered in May 1944 to be built at Heaton Chapel , with the last two to be fitted with a Rolls @-@ Royce Pennine engine ; only the first Centarus @-@ engined aircraft was built but never flew .
Production orders for 150 aircraft were placed to be built at Heaton Chapel ; the first ten aircraft were intended to use 2 @,@ 600 @-@ horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) Bristol Centaurus radial engine , Centaurus 59 engines on the next 22 , and Centaurus 60s of the remainder . In addition , the flaps were to be enlarged and lateral control was to be provided by spoilers with small " feeler " ailerons . With the cancellation of the Malta @-@ class carriers , the Fleet Air Arm no longer had a requirement for new torpedo bombers and the programme was cancelled . Work continued on the two other prototypes built at Hayes after the cancellation of the contract , albeit very slowly .
Test pilot and naval aviator Captain Eric Brown evaluated the first prototype and found " the controls in cruising flight were very heavy and , in fact , lateral control was so solid that I could barely move the ailerons with one hand at 130 knots ( 240 km / h ; 150 mph ) . " In bad weather a pilot circling a carrier while waiting to land would have been forced to fly such a wide circuit that he could not always keep the carrier in sight in bad weather . The later prototypes had ailerons boosted by hydraulic power and artificial feel to the stick from a spring , as an interim measure but Brown found " the second prototype was much less the pleasant aircraft to fly as the stick continually hunted either side of neutral and there was no build up of stick force with increase in speed . " The Spearfish lacked any sort of stall warning , which would have been a problem in operational use as the stall and approach speeds were fairly close . For the landing , the aircraft proved quite docile .
The first prototype was later used by Napier & Son at Luton for trials of the firm 's inflight de @-@ icing systems . It was then briefly used for ground @-@ training purposes beginning on 30 April 1952 , until scrapped shortly afterwards . The second prototype was used by the Royal Navy Carrier Trials Unit at RNAS Ford , Sussex , until it was sold for scrap on 15 September . The third prototype conducted ASV Mk.XV radar trials , but was damaged in a heavy landing on 1 September 1949 and sold for scrap on 22 August 1950 as uneconomical to repair . The fourth prototype never flew and was used as a source of spares . The sole Heaton Chapel @-@ built aircraft was the closest to the planned production configuration and it was used for engine @-@ cooling and power @-@ assisted flying @-@ control trials , until it was struck off charge on 24 July 1951 .
In a follow @-@ up , to meet Specification O.21 / 44 for a two @-@ seat strike fighter , the Spearfish was redesigned to accommodate a twin @-@ coupled Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin engine and contra @-@ rotating propellers . A variety of other engines were considered and although a production order was placed for three examples in 1944 , the programme was eventually shelved , remaining as an unfulfilled paper project .
= = Description = =
The Spearfish was a cantilever , mid @-@ wing monoplane , with an all @-@ metal , monocoque fuselage . The centre wing section was built integral with the fuselage and the outer wing panels could be hydraulically folded for carrier operations . A distinguishing feature of the wing was the large Fairey @-@ Youngman flaps that spanned 73 @.@ 5 % of the wing 's trailing edge . The Spearfish had an outward @-@ retracting conventional landing gear with a tailwheel . The wings housed a pair of 183 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 830 l ; 220 US gal ) fuel tanks , plus a 43 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 200 l ; 52 US gal ) tank in the leading edge of the starboard wing for a total of 409 imperial gallons ( 1 @,@ 860 l ; 491 US gal ) of fuel . The two @-@ man tandem cockpit had a hydraulically operated canopy .
The large internal weapons bay could alternatively carry up to four 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bombs , four depth charges , a torpedo , or a 180 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 820 l ; 220 US gal ) auxiliary fuel tank . The Spearfish was intended to carry four 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 Browning machine guns , two in a remote @-@ controlled Fraser @-@ Nash FN 95 barbette behind the cockpit and two in the wings . The only external offensive armament was 16 RP @-@ 3 rockets that could be carried underneath the outer wing panels .
= = Operators = =
United Kingdom
Royal Navy , Fleet Air Arm
= = Specifications ( Spearfish ) = =
Data from Fairey Aircraft Since 1915 & The Spearfish ... A Misconceived Welterweight
General characteristics
Crew : two
Length : 44 ft 7 in ( 13 @.@ 59 m )
Wingspan : 60 ft 3 in ( 18 @.@ 36 m )
Height : 13 ft 6 in ( 4 @.@ 11 m )
Empty weight : 15 @,@ 200 lb ( 6 @,@ 895 kg )
Gross weight : 21 @,@ 642 lb ( 9 @,@ 817 kg )
Max takeoff weight : 22 @,@ 083 lb ( 10 @,@ 017 kg )
Fuel capacity : 409 imperial gallons ( 1 @,@ 860 l ; 491 US gal )
Powerplant : 1 × Bristol Centaurus 57 18 @-@ cylinder radial engine , 2 @,@ 825 hp ( 2 @,@ 107 kW )
Propellers : 5 @-@ bladed Rotol VH 65 , 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) diameter
Performance
Maximum speed : 292 mph ( 470 km / h ; 254 kn )
Cruise speed : 196 mph ( 170 kn ; 315 km / h )
Range : 1 @,@ 036 mi ( 900 nmi ; 1 @,@ 667 km )
Combat range : 349 mi ( 303 nmi ; 562 km )
Service ceiling : 25 @,@ 000 ft ( 7 @,@ 620 m )
Time to altitude : 7 @.@ 75 minutes to 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 048 m )
Armament
Guns : 4 × .50 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 Browning machine guns , two in the wings and two in a Frazer @-@ Nash FN95 remote @-@ controlled dorsal barbette
Rockets : 16 × RP @-@ 3 rocket projectiles on underwing rails
Bombs : carried in an internal weapons bay ; either :
1 × torpedo or
2 @,@ 000 lb ( 907 kg ) of bombs or depth charges
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= Adams Avenue Parkway =
The Adams Avenue Parkway is a one @-@ half @-@ mile @-@ long ( 800 m ) private toll road in the U.S. state of Utah connecting U.S. Route 89 ( US @-@ 89 ) to Interstate 84 ( I @-@ 84 ) near Washington Terrace , Utah . The roadway opened in 2001 at a cost of $ 8 @.@ 9 million and was created after decades of requests by locals to connect the existing Adams Avenue to I @-@ 84 . This allowed commuters to bypass the rest of US @-@ 89 through Washington Terrace to I @-@ 84 .
= = Route description = =
The main access to the south end of the parkway is from I @-@ 84 at exit 85 , a pre @-@ existing diamond interchange with a local road in South Weber named 475 East . The four @-@ lane , 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) toll road , which has no shoulders or sidewalks , begins at Cottonwood Drive , I @-@ 84 's north side frontage road . It immediately crosses a bridge over the Weber River ( the Davis @-@ Weber County line and north limit of South Weber ) and the Union Pacific Railroad 's Evanston Subdivision ( the south limit of Washington Terrace ) . The parkway then curves northwest and climbs out of the Weber River 's floodplain with a maximum grade of nine percent , reaching the toll plaza most of the way up the hill .
After one intersection with 5900 South , which presently serves only the toll road company 's headquarters and a single commercial building , private maintenance gives way to a four @-@ lane city street with sidewalks just shy of 5800 South . The roadway continues northeasterly to the top of the hill near 5600 South , where pre @-@ existing Adams Avenue ( 500 East ) heads north , passing the Ogden Regional Medical Center to an intersection with Washington Boulevard ( US @-@ 89 ) on the Washington Terrace @-@ South Ogden border . Adams Avenue continues through South Ogden and into Ogden as a minor street one block east of US @-@ 89 , with a gap near 4600 South and more north of downtown Ogden . In 2006 approximately 1 @,@ 400 cars traveled the parkway on an average weekday .
= = Tolls = =
Tolls are collected in cash or via an ExpressCard account , a prepaid system that offers a discount for a $ 10 deposit to the account . The current toll is $ 1 in each direction for two @-@ axle vehicles and $ 0 @.@ 50 for each additional axle . Previously emergency vehicles ( ambulances ) were not charged a toll , however beginning July 3 , 2003 , they must pay the standard $ 1 toll . To allow quick passage through the toll barrier , these vehicles pay through a charge account . The Utah Department of Transportation worked out an agreement during local road construction for four days in 2003 to allow commuters to use the parkway free of charge .
= = History = =
The parkway was opened in 2001 after just under a year of construction and almost two decades of community requests . Local residents led by Doug and Bruce Stephens urged the state to connect I @-@ 84 directly to Adams Avenue , bypassing the congested US @-@ 89 . Then @-@ governor Mike Leavitt suggested that a private company rather than the state would need to build the road .
The roadway cost $ 8 @.@ 9 million ( equivalent to $ 13 @.@ 3 million in 2015 ) to build , of which the state provided $ 2 million ( equivalent to $ 3 million in 2015 ) . Additional funds came from taxes levied on property owners along the parkway . The entire stretch of road between Washington Boulevard and I @-@ 84 was built by the Adams Avenue Turnpike LLC ; however , they returned most of the road to local authorities . The only portion not kept was a one @-@ half @-@ mile @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) segment between about 5800 South and I @-@ 84 .
The roadway is defined under Weber County Ordinance , Title 31 , which grants a franchise to Adams Avenue Turnpike LLC for an initial term of 50 years ( expiring in 2051 ) .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Marcellus Formation =
Marcellus Formation ( also classified as the Marcellus Subgroup of the Hamilton Group , Marcellus Member of the Romney Formation , or simply the Marcellus Shale ) is a Middle Devonian age unit of marine sedimentary rock found in eastern North America . Named for a distinctive outcrop near the village of Marcellus , New York , in the United States , it extends throughout much of the Appalachian Basin . The shale contains largely untapped natural gas reserves , and its proximity to the high @-@ demand markets along the East Coast of the United States makes it an attractive target for energy development and export .
Stratigraphically , the Marcellus is the lowest unit of the Devonian age Hamilton Group , and is divided into several sub @-@ units . Although black shale is the dominant lithology , it also contains lighter shales and interbedded limestone layers due to sea level variation during its deposition almost 400 million years ago . The black shale was deposited in relatively deep water devoid of oxygen , and is only sparsely fossiliferous . Most fossils are contained in the limestone members , and the fossil record in these layers provides important paleontological insights on faunal turnovers . The black shales also contain iron ore that was used in the early economic development of the region , and uranium and pyrite which are environmental hazards . The fissile shales are also easily eroded , presenting additional civil and environmental engineering challenges .
= = Geology = =
= = = Description = = =
The Marcellus Formation is a black shale that may contain limestone beds and concentrations of iron pyrite ( FeS2 ) and siderite ( FeCO3 ) . Its sedimentary structure , or bedding , is moderately well developed . Like most shales , it tends to split easily along the bedding plane , a property known as fissility . Lighter colored shales in the upper portion of the formation tend to split into small thin @-@ edged fragments after exposure . These fragments may have rust stains from exposure of pyrite to air , and tiny gypsum ( CaSO4 · 2H2O ) crystals from the reaction between pyrite and limestone particles . Fresh exposures of the pyriteiferous shale may develop the secondary mineralization of orange limonite ( FeO ( OH ) · nH2O ) , and the pale yellow efflorescence or bloom of sulfur , associated with acid rock drainage .
Pyrite is especially abundant near the base , and the upper contacts of limestones , but framboidal microcrystals and euhedral crystals of pyrite occur throughout the organic @-@ rich deposits . The Marcellus also contains uranium , and the radioactive decay of the uranium @-@ 238 ( 238U ) makes it a source rock for radioactive radon gas ( 222Rn ) .
Measured total organic content of the Marcellus Formation ranges from less than 1 % in eastern New York , to over 11 % in the central part of the state , and the shale may contain enough carbon to support combustion . The more organic @-@ rich black shales can be bituminous , but are too old to contain bituminous coal formed from land plants . In petroleum geology , these black shales are an important source rock that filled conventional petroleum reservoirs in overlying formations , are an unconventional shale gas reservoir , and are an impermeable seal that traps underlying conventional natural gas reservoirs . To the west the formation may produce liquid petroleum ; further northt heating during deeper burial more than 240 million years ago cracked this oil into gas .
= = = Extent = = =
The Marcellus is found throughout the Allegheny Plateau region of the northern Appalachian Basin of North America . In the United States , the Marcellus shale runs across the Southern Tier and Finger Lakes regions of New York , in northern and western Pennsylvania , eastern Ohio , through western Maryland , and throughout most of West Virginia extending across the state line into extreme western Virginia . The Marcellus bedrock in eastern Pennsylvania extends across the Delaware River into extreme western New Jersey . It also exists in the subsurface of a small portion of Kentucky and Tennessee . Below Lake Erie , it can be found crossing the border into Canada , where it stretches between Port Stanley and Long Point to St. Thomas in southern Ontario .
= = = = Outcrops = = = =
The Marcellus appears in outcrops along the northern margin of the formation in central New York . There , the two joint planes in the Marcellus are nearly at right angles , each making cracks in the formation that run perpendicular to the bedding plane , which lies almost level . These joints form smooth nearly vertical cliffs , and the intersecting joint planes form projecting corners in the rock faces . Once exposed , the weathered faces lose most of their organic carbon , turning from black or dark gray to a lighter shade of gray .
Outcrops of the Marcellus can contain very small beds that resemble coal . The New York outcrops , and others further south in Pennsylvania and New Jersey , were extensively excavated in the early 19th century , sometimes at great expense , in the false hope of finding minable coal seams . In Perry County , Pennsylvania along the Juniata River the false coal beds become up to .3 m ( 1 ft ) thick , but they did not produce a valuable fuel , despite the considerable effort expended to mine it from the surrounding hills . Seaweed and marine plants probably formed the false coal . True coal is formed from terrestrial plants , which only began to appear in Marcellus and later fossils .
Close proximity to the surface of Marcellus bedrock south of the New York outcrops makes an east @-@ west band running through the city of Syracuse a high @-@ risk area for radon as an indoor air pollutant . From the surface exposures along the northern and eastern margins , the formation descends to depths of over 2 @,@ 700 m ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) below the surface in southern Pennsylvania .
= = = Structural geology = = =
Upturned beds are exposed in sections of the folded Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians , including exposures on the flanks and axis of the Broad Top Synclinorium in south central Pennsylvania . Exposed beds are nearly horizontal on the Allegheny Plateau , but upturned to form slightly overturned beds found along the Allegheny Front . From Wind Gap , Pennsylvania heading south , the dip of the beds steepens , becoming vertical at Bowmanstown on the Lehigh River . Nearby , in the Lehigh Gap area of Pennsylvania , the Marcellus is extensively faulted , and the beds are steeply overturned , with a reverse dip angle of up to 40 ° south .
The Marcellus Shale and the fine @-@ grained shales near the middle of the Mahantango Formation are classified by geologists as slope @-@ formers . Marcellus and Mahantango shale beds dipping at 60 ° to 75 ° to the west form the west facing slopes of Tonoloway Ridge on the west flank of the Cacapon Mountain anticline in the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia . On the eastern limb of this anticline , beds of these shales dipping to the east at a shallower angle also form the steep slopes on the east side of Warm Springs Ridge .
= = = Surficial geology = = =
The Marcellus is easily eroded , and is also found underlying low areas between some Appalachian ridges , forming linear valleys of moderate relief . These bedrock surfaces are typically covered with colluvium from erosion of stratigraphically higher and more erosion @-@ resistant strata that form the surrounding higher ground . The soils formed from the Marcellus and the overlying Hamilton shales are deep , free of stones , and well suited for agriculture . Sampling of soil formed on the Marcellus bedrock showed the dominant mineralogy consisted of quartz , illite , montmorillonite , muscovite , and biotite , with phases of todorokite and trona appearing at depths closer to the bedrock .
Upturned beds of the soft shale also capture streams and rivers with relatively straight segments in strike valleys such as the Aquashicola Creek and McMichael Creek at the foot of The Poconos , and the long , straight section of the Lost River in West Virginia . Below Port Jervis , New York , the Walpack Ridge deflects the Delaware River into the Minisink Valley , where it follows the southwest strike of the eroded Marcellus beds along the Pennsylvania – New Jersey state line for 40 km ( 25 mi ) to the end of the ridge at Walpack Bend in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area . The Minisink is a buried valley where the Delaware flows in a bed of glacial till that buried the eroded Marcellus bedrock during the last glacial period . This buried valley continues along the strike of the Marcellus southwest from the bend through Stroudsburg , Pennsylvania , and northeast from Port Jervis toward the Hudson River , along the route of the Delaware and Hudson Canal .
= = = Deposition = = =
Early in the Acadian orogeny , as the Acadian Mountains were rising up , the black and gray shales of the Hamilton Group began accumulating as erosion of the mountains deposited terrigenous sediments from the land into the sea . The Marcellus Shale was formed from the very first deposits in a relatively deep , sediment- and oxygen @-@ starved ( anoxic ) , trough that formed parallel to the mountain chain . These clastic fragments of rock were carried in braided streams to the ancient Catskill Delta , a river delta probably similar to the present day Niger Delta of Africa .
Smaller particles remained suspended longer in this epeiric sea , flowing offshore as turbidites in a slow but persistent underwater avalanche . They finally came to rest at the bottom of the Acadian foredeep in the Appalachian Basin , hundreds of meters from shore , at depths that may have been 150 m ( 490 ft ) or more beneath the surface . Alternatively , the basin may have been as shallow as 50 metres ( 160 ft ) or less , if the warm water was sufficiently stratified so that oxygen rich surface water did not mix with the anoxic bottom water . The Marcellus deposition produced a transgressive black shale , because it was deposited in deepening conditions when the basin floor dropped as the mountains rose up .
The dark shale facies of the Marcellus were formed from flysch , a fine mud deposited in the deep water ; it buried the underlying Onondaga limestone beds , as the deepening sea cut off the supply of carbonates that form limestone . Organic matter , probably dominated by plankton , also settled to the bottom , but the normal aerobic decay process was inhibited in the anaerobic environment thereby preserving the organic carbon . Uranium was also incorporated in these organic muds syndepositionally , meaning it was deposited at the same time , rather than being introduced to the formation later . The organic matter scavenged trace elements from the seawater , including the redox @-@ sensitive elements uranium , rhenium , molybdenum , osmium , chromium , and selenium .
The Marcellus was deposited during a period of development of land plants , when atmospheric oxygen was increasing , resulting in a reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere , and the seawater where it was deposited . Named members of the Marcellus reflect two composite depositional sequences , with a general coarsening upward cycle that continues into the base of the overlying Mahantango Formation . The interbedding of lighter shale and limestone members is attributed to relatively short @-@ term oscillations in basin depth . Later deep water depositional sequences formed the overlying Brallier Formation and Harrell Formation .
= = = = Age = = = =
On the geological timescale , the Marcellus occurs in the Middle Devonian epoch , of the Devonian period , in the Paleozoic era , of the Phanerozoic eon . Radiometric dating of a Marcellus sample from Pennsylvania placed its age at 384 million years old , and a sample from the bentonite at the top of the Onondaga at 390 ± 0 @.@ 5 million years old .
Relative age dating of the Marcellus places its formation in the Cazenovia subdivision of the Givetian faunal stage , or 391 @.@ 9 to 383 @.@ 7 million years ago ( Ma ) . The Union Springs member , at the base of the Marcellus in New York , has been dated to the end of the Eifelian , the stage which immediately preceded the Givetian . Anoxic dark shales in the formation mark the Kačák Event , a late @-@ Eifelian @-@ stage marine anoxic event also associated with an extinction event .
= = = Stratigraphy = = =
In the first Pennsylvania Geological Survey , begun in 1836 , Henry Darwin Rogers classified the Marcellus as the " Cadent Lower Black Slate " which he numbered " No . VIII b . " In the first New York State Geological Survey , also begun that year , James Hall established the term " Marcellus Shale " in his 1839 report titled " Marcellus Shales in Seneca County . " Professor Hall also argued in 1839 against formulating geological names based on observed characteristics that may vary from place to place or need revision in the future , and in favor of location @-@ based nomenclature where " the rock or group will receive its name from the place where it is best developed . " His arguments proved persuasive , and the location @-@ based name for this , and many of the other group names he published based on exposures in New York , were adopted in the second Pennsylvania survey , and are now widely accepted .
= = = = Overlying = = = =
In the first New York survey , the Marcellus shale was placed below the Hamilton Group at the base of the Erie division of the New York system , but this taxonomy is obsolete .
In current practice , the Marcellus Formation ( abbr . Dm or Dms ) is classified as the basal unit of the Hamilton Group ( Dh ) , lying beneath the Mahantango Formation ( Dmh ) member of this group in Pennsylvania and Maryland . In New York , the Mahantango , also of Middle Devonian age , is further divided . There the Marcellus is separated from the overlying Skaneateles Formation , a more clastic and fossiliferous dark shale , by the thin Stafford or Mottville Limestone bed .
In West Virginia , the Marcellus may be separated from the brown shales of the Mahantango by occasional sandstone beds and concretions , or it may lie directly below the younger Late Devonian Harrel Formation ( or its lateral equivalents ) because of a disconformity , which represents a gap in the geological record due to a period of erosion or non @-@ deposition . In eastern Ohio the Hamilton Group also lies disconformably beneath the Rhinestreet Shale Member of the West Falls Formation , another transgressive black shale tongue with similar characteristics to the Marcellus .
= = = = Underlying = = = =
The Marcellus shale is typically found deposited on the limestone of the Onondaga Formation ( Don ) , which extends down to the end of the Early Devonian period . The contact between them may be sharp , gradational , or erosional . In southwestern Ontario , Canada , north of Lake Erie , the Marcellus overlies the Dundee Formation , a lateral equivalent of the Onondaga . In Pennsylvania , the Marcellus forms a sharp conformable contact with the Onondaga 's Selinsgrove Limestone member . A thin pyrite @-@ carbonate bed is also found at the base of the Marcellus black shale in the exposures of south central Pennsylvania , above a thin calcerous green shale bed , which lies upon the Onondaga limestone .
In eastern New York , the contact between the Marcellus and Onondaga ( where present ) is gradational . In western New York , the Union Springs member of the Marcellus conformably overlies the Seneca member of the Onondaga Limestone , or the stratigraphically higher Cherry Valley Limestone member may rest directly and unconformably upon the Onondaga in the absence of the Union Springs shale . The local disappearance of units of the Onondaga suggests that its upper contact with the Marcellus can be erosional . In Erie County in western New York , both the upper and lower contact of the Marcellus are eroded away .
In eastern West Virginia the Marcellus overlies the Onesquethaw Group , consisting of the dark gray or green , calcitic , mostly nonfissil Needmore Shale , which grades westward into the Huntersville Chert . To the south and west , the Hamilton Group grades laterally into the Millboro Shale formation in southern West Virginia and Virginia , which grades into the lower part of the Chattanooga Shale of Tennessee .
The Milboro is gradational with the underlying Needmore Formation shale . South of the Mason @-@ Dixon line , due to the difficulty in differentiating the Millboro and Needmore shales with the limited exposures available , and initial uncertainty in correlation with the New York survey , they were mapped as the Romney Formation , a unit containing all the Middle Devonian strata , named for an exposure at Romney , West Virginia . The correlations were established by 1916 through tracing the New York exposures across Pennsylvania and Maryland into West Virginia , so under the principle of scientific priority , the Romney classification is now obsolete ; but its Marcellus and underlying Needmore shale members are still found grouped in an undifferentiated map unit ( Dmn ) .
= = = = = Tioga ash beds = = = = =
Tioga metabentonite or K @-@ bentonite – stratigraphic unit about .6 m ( 2 ft ) thick that consists of several discrete , relatively thin volcanic ash falls – is also included at the base of the Marcellus in eastern Pennsylvania . In 1843 it was described without being named by Hall , and more than 100 years passed before it was eventually named for the natural gas field in Tioga County , Pennsylvania , where it was encountered when drilling gas wells . It is a regional stratigraphic marker , used by geologists to identify the Marcellus , and correlate laterally equivalent strata . Difficulty in correctly identifying the more than 80 different ash falls during the Devonian period , collected in 15 or more beds , has also led to many miscorrelations .
From Virginia to New York the Tioga is widely distributed , running across the central and northern parts of the Appalachian basin , an areal extent exceeding 265 @,@ 000 km2 ( 102 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Explosive eruptions associated with the Acadian orogeny originating near present @-@ day central Virginia released the ash into the atmosphere . It was dispersed across the Appalachian , Michigan , and Illinois Basins by the southern trade winds , because this area was in the southern hemisphere during the Devonian period . The volcanic origin of the ash is evidenced by its distinctive mineralogy – the ash was deposited directly upon the water , so its angular quartz grains differ from the clastic sediments rounded through the erosion process that carries them to the sea . As the volcanic ash settled to the bottom , it was admixed with these terrigenous components , producing a distinctive lithology in the sedimentary rock .
The Tioga may appear in the formation as a gray , brown , black , or olive bed , or parting , consisting of coarse crystal tuff or tuffaceous shale , thinly laminated , with sand @-@ sized mica flakes . The Tioga ash bed zone consists of eight ash beds labeled according to their stratigraphic order from A ( oldest ) to H ( youngest ) , and another bed known as the Tioga middle coarse zone . Its basal beds are found within the uppermost beds of the Onondaga Limestone or Needmore Shale , and the uppermost ash bed within the lowermost part of the Marcellus or Millboro Shale . In western New York state , the Tioga Ash Bed B marks the boundary between the Moorehouse and Seneca Members of the Onondaga Formation , but in the central part of the state , and the southern part of the basin , the ash beds are actually in the Marcellus . This indicates that deposition of the Marcellus there began earlier , since the ash beds represent a single epoch in geologic time .
= = = = Thickness = = = =
Maximum thickness of the Marcellus ranges from 270 m ( 890 ft ) in New Jersey , to 12 m ( 40 ft ) in Canada . In West Virginia , the Marcellus Formation is as much as 60 m ( 200 ft ) thick . In extreme eastern Pennsylvania , it is 240 m ( 790 ft ) thick , thinning to the west , becoming only 15 m ( 49 ft ) thick along the Ohio River , and only a few feet in Licking County , Ohio . The thinning , or stratigraphic convergence , from east to west is caused by decreasing grain size in the clastic deposits , which entered the basin from the east . The beds finally " pinch out " westward because deposition was limited by the Cincinnati Arch , the bulge that formed the west shore of the basin . Where the formation is relatively thick , it is divided into several members , and as the formation continues to thicken to the east , these members are further divided . Some workers chose to classify the Marcellus as a subgroup , and classify some of the members as separate formations .
= = = = Named members = = = =
A local Purcell limestone member , 15 to 30 m ( 49 to 98 ft ) of inter @-@ bedded calcitic shale and limestone , divides the Marcellus in eastern Pennsylvania . The Purcell is stratigraphically equivalent to the Cherry Valley Limestone member in New York , a bioclastic packstone , consisting of skeletal limestones , with shaly intervals between its lower massive limestone layer , thick nodular limestone / marlstone , and upper limestone layer . Other named members include the Bakoven Shale , Cardiff Shale , Chittenango shale , Solsville sandstone , Union Springs shale and limestone , and Stony Hollow shale and limestone . The Union Springs , Cherry Valley , and Oatka Creek merge beneath Lake Erie , into the Bell Shale , Rockport Quarry Limestone , and Arkona Shale of Ontario .
The Union Springs is an organic @-@ rich , pyritiferous , thinly bedded , blackish gray to black shale with mudstone concretionary layers , and thin silt bands at the bottom . To the east , it becomes the Bakoven Member , a darker , less organic shale with fewer limestone layers . To the west the Union Springs beds thin , with its upper limestones merging with the overlying calcareous Cherry Valley Member . A regional unconformity appears in western New York , as the Union Springs lenses in and out , and then reappears in northwest Pennsylvania and northeast Ohio between the Onondaga and Cherry Valley .
In Western and central New York , the uppermost member is the dark grey to black organic @-@ rich Oatka Creek shale . Unlike the other Devonian shales in this region , the gray shale at the top of the Oatka Creek thickens gradually to the west , as well as the east , where it divides into the Cardiff member lying above the Chittenango member in central New York . Organic @-@ rich , fissile , sooty black shales make up the Chittenango Member . At the base of the Chittenango , above the Bierne Member shale , lies the Halihan Hill Bed , a highly bioturbated bioclastic limestone .
Further east , the homogeneous Cardiff divides into the Bridgewater , Solsville , and Pecksport shale members , from base to top . The Bridgewater is a fissile dark silty shale with relatively rare fossils . A thin concretionary zone lies above , then the Solsville grades from a gray calcareous shale , to sandy siltstones and fine sandstones at the top , with the gray shale of the Pecksport shale and siltsone overlying it .
In south central Pennsylvania , the Marcellus is mapped with three members , from top to base : The Mahanoy Member ( Dmm ) , a dark gray to grayish black silty shale and siltstone ; the Turkey Ridge Member ( Dmt ) , an olive to dark @-@ gray fine to medium grained sandstone ; and the Shamokin Member ( Dms ) , a dark gray to grayish black fissile carbonaceous shale that is calcareous in places near the base . The Turkey Ridge is commonly mapped in the Mahantango Formation , or included in the Montebello Formation ( Dmot ) , and only the Shamokin correlates with the Marcellus on adjacent map sheets . In extreme eastern Pennsylvania , the Broadhead Creek member , a dark gray silty shale with dark gray shaly limestone concretions , appears above the Stony Hollow and Union Springs , in a layer up to 275 m ( 902 ft ) thick .
= = = Fossils = = =
There are relatively sparse inclusions of fossilized marine fauna found in the Marcellus , but these fossils are still important to paleontology . For example , the Marcellus contains the oldest known diverse collection of thin @-@ shelled mollusks still having well preserved shell microstructure . It is also where goniatites , an extinct shelled swimmer similar to a squid , make their first appearance in the fossil record . Life on land also enters the fossil record in the Marcellus , with the trunks of branchless conifer trees that floated out to sea to be preserved in the black shale .
Marcellus fossils include specimens of the large clam @-@ like brachiopod Spinocyrtia . External molds of crinoids , plant @-@ like animals related to starfish also known as " sea lilies , " are found in the formation , with the molds partially filled with limonite ; brachiopod and bivalve ( clam ) molds have also been found in the shale . Small conical tentaculitids are commonly found in the Chittenango Member . The Halihan Hill bed contains styliolinids and macrofauna including brachiopods , coral @-@ like bryozoans , small bivalves and gastropods ( snails ) , incorporated after the faunal turnover when Emsian and Eifelian Schoharie / Onondaga fauna were replaced by the Givetian Hamilton fauna .
The Solsville member contains well preserved bivalves , gastropods , and brachiopods . These shellfish lived in the benthic zone at the bottom of marginal marine to open marine environments that existed west of the ancient Catskill Delta . The fossil record in this member shows the base was dominated by deposit feeders , while the upper layers were dominated by filter feeders . This can be correlated to the lithology : the finer sediments of the shales at the base of this member would contain abundant adherent organic matter for deposit feeders , but would tend to foul the gills of filter feeders when suspended ; the coarser sediments of the sandstones at the top would have contained less organic matter to support deposit feeders . Below the Solsville , at the base of the Otsego in eastern New York , a coral bed is found ; another coral bed can be seen at the top of the Marcellus near Berne , New York .
A diverse , eel @-@ like conodont fauna occurs in the limestone of the Cherry Valley Member , which is also known for its rich nautiloid and goniatite cephalopod fauna . Originally named the Goniatite Limestone , it produces their fossilized remains with shells that can be larger than .3 metres ( 1 ft ) across . It also contains the " Cephalopod Graveyard " in the Schoharie Valley of eastern New York , an unusual accumulation of abundant coiled and straight shells of several types of large adult cephalopods . This bed lacks juvenile fossils , indicating that if their behavior was similar to modern squid , this may have been an area where these Devonian cephalopods reproduced and died . This stratigraphic interval also provides an excellent example of incursion epiboles , which are sudden appearances and disappearances of fossil taxa in relatively thin sections of the rock unit . In the Cherry Valley , the taxa do not reoccur ; instead each thin concretionary limestone bed contains different species of goniatites . The Cherry Valley and Union Springs also contain well @-@ preserved anarcestida .
= = Economic impact = =
= = = Natural Gas = = =
The Marcellus natural gas trend , which encompasses 104 @,@ 000 square miles and stretches across Pennsylvania and West Virginia , and into southeast Ohio and upstate New York , is the largest source of natural gas in the United States , and production was still growing rapidly in 2013 . The Marcellus is an example of shale gas , natural gas trapped in low @-@ permeability shale , and requires the well completion method of hydraulic fracturing to allow the gas to flow to the well bore . The surge in drilling activity in the Marcellus Shale since 2008 has generated both economic benefits and environmental concerns — and thus , considerable controversy .
= = = Iron = = =
At the base of the Marcellus , in the pyrite @-@ carbonate bed between the carbonaceous black shale and a green calcareous shale bed , pyrite , carbonate , and groundwater reacted to form gossan iron oxide and gypsum . As far as the ground water necessary for the conversion could penetrate , the pyrite @-@ carbonate was converted to a usable brown hematite iron ore along the outcrops and near the bedrock surface . The Marcellus iron ore was actively mined in south Central Pennsylvania from its discovery in the late 18th century , until it was supplanted by the rich ore beds of the Iron Range of Minnesota in the early 20th century . The ore was easily located and worked from shallow pits and shafts , but once the usable upper deposits were removed , or if a mine shaft entered the bed too far below the surface , only unusable unconverted pyritic deposits were found .
Hematite ore was converted to pig iron in charcoal @-@ fired stone blast furnaces that were constructed throughout the Juniata River region near the workable ore deposits from the Marcellus and other formations . Iron products from this area , known as " Juniata Iron , " were produced during the period between the American Revolution and the American Civil War . These blast furnaces were important to the economy of the region at the time , but the cold blast stone furnaces typically employed were inefficient , and consumed significant amounts of timber from the nearby hardwood forests , which ultimately led to their demise . A typical furnace used 2 @,@ 400 kg ( 5 @,@ 300 lb ) of hematite ore and 7 @.@ 3 m3 ( 200 imp bu ) of charcoal to produce 910 kg ( 2 @,@ 010 lb ) of pig iron , and could produce several thousand pounds per day , which required logging more than 4 @,@ 000 m2 ( 1 acre ) of forest daily .
The ore from the Marcellus varied in thickness , becoming unworkably thin , and even disappearing altogether in places between the workable beds . The quality of the ore also varied , and it was not always profitable to smelt , as several furnaces built near iron ore mines in the Marcellus were abandoned before the ore and timber resources used to fuel them became scarce .
Ore found interbedded in the black slaty shale contained a relatively high proportion of carbon which was burned in the furnace , and sulfur , which produced a usable but " red @-@ short " iron . Red @-@ short iron has the undesirable properties of oxidizing more easily , and a tendency to crack , especially when heated to a red @-@ hot state . In some locations in Pennsylvania the quality of the ore was quite good , with relatively deep veins containing 45 % iron , and very low sulfur . In Virginia , the Marcellus ore occasionally contained zinc , which produced a characteristic green flame in the furnace as it was consumed , but deposited a hard mass of impure zinc oxide known as cadmia , which built up over time near the top of the flue , and had to be removed periodically to keep it unobstructed .
= = = = Iron pigments = = = =
Drainage that reacted with the pyrite inclusions also deposited a form of bog iron near several outcrops of the Marcellus . In the 19th century , iron ore from these deposits was used as a mineral paint pigment . After being heated in a kiln and finely ground , it was mixed with linseed oil , and used to paint exterior wood on barns , covered bridges , and railroad cars . In addition to the bog iron , at several sloped locations in eastern Pennsylvania brown hematite was found lying on the Marcellus bedrock buried beneath the soil . These deposits were also excavated and used for mineral paint during that time . A bed of hematite paint ore is also found almost directly below the Marcellus , but it is actually part of the underlying Oriskany Formation .
= = = = Chalybeate = = = =
Iron rich " ferruginous waters " emanating from chalybeate springs near the base of the Marcellus in Bedford , Pennsylvania were believed to have healing powers by Native Americans . The Bedford Springs Hotel was a mineral spa built in 1802 around a series of mineral springs , including one of these , its " iron spring " . The Chalybeate Springs Hotel , built nearby in 1851 around three other mineral springs including another chalybeate spring , became a " resort for invalids " . The iron @-@ rich waters were prescribed for anemia and related complications . Both of these mineral springs contain iron in the form of dissolved iron carbonate , which gives these waters a " slightly inky taste " .
= = = Other uses = = =
The Marcellus has also been used locally for shale aggregate and common fill , although the pyritic shales are not suitable for this purpose because of acid rock drainage and volumetric expansion . In the 19th century , this shale was used for walkways and roadways , and was considered superior " road metal " because the fine grained fragments packed together tightly , yet drained well after a rain .
The dark slaty shales may have the necessary cleavage and hardness to be worked , and were quarried for low grade roofing slate in eastern Pennsylvania during the 19th century . The slates from the Marcellus were inferior to the Martinsburg Formation slate quarried further south , and most quarries were abandoned , with the last significant operation in Lancaster County . The Marcellus black slate was also quarried in Monroe County , Pennsylvania , for school slates used by students in 19th @-@ century rural schools .
Carbonaceous shales , such as the Marcellus , are a possible target for carbon capture and storage for mitigation of global warming . Because carbon adsorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) at a greater rate than methane ( CH4 ) , carbon dioxide injected into the formation for geological sequestration could also be used to recover additional natural gas in a process analogous to enhanced coal bed methane recovery , but the practical value of this theoretical technique is not yet known . Scientists believe that adsorption would allow sequestration at shallower depths than absorption in deep saline formations , which must be at least 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) below the surface to maintain liquid CO2 in a supercritical state .
= = = Engineering issues = = =
Exposures from cut and fill road construction in Virginia and Pennsylvania have resulted in localized acid rock drainage due to oxidation of the pyrite inclusions . The newly exposed shale on the cut face weathers rapidly , allowing air and water into the unexcavated rock , resulting in acidic surface runoff after precipitation events . Acidic runoff disrupts aquatic ecosystems , and highly acidic soil contaminated by this runoff will not support vegetation , which is unsightly , and can lead to problems with soil erosion .
Natural decomposition of the shale into smaller fragments can affect slope stability , necessitating shallower slopes that require more material be disturbed in cut and fill work , exacerbating the acid rock drainage problem . The cut material cannot be used as fill beneath roads and structures due to volumetric expansion , compounding the problem . The Tioga ash beds contain bentonite clay which presents a landslide hazard in the unexcavated rock as well .
Damage to structures constructed on fill consisting of pyritic Marcellus shale has been caused by expansion from sulfuric acid ( H2SO4 ) runoff reacting with the calcite ( CaCO3 ) in the shale to produce gypsum ( CaSO4 ) , which has double the molar volume . Other sulfate minerals that can be produced by reactions with pyrite include anhydrite , melanterite , rozenite , jarosite , and alunite . The reactions have generated a heave pressure on the order of 500 kPa ( 10 @,@ 000 pounds per square foot ) , but may be able to generate four times this pressure enough to heave foundations in a 5 @-@ story building . Limestone , which is used to neutralize the acid drainage , can actually exacerbate the expansion problem by promoting sulfate – sulfate reactions that form the minerals thaumasite and ettringite , which have even higher molar volumes .
Drilling boreholes through the Hamilton Group shales in the subsurface can be problematic . The Marcellus has a relatively low density , and these shales may not be chemically compatible with some drilling fluids . The shale is relatively fragile , and may fracture under pressure , causing a problem in circulating the drilling fluid back up through the borehole known as lost circulation . The formation may also be under @-@ pressurized , further complicating the drilling process .
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= Alexander Godley =
General Sir Alexander John Godley , GCB , KCMG ( 4 February 1867 – 6 March 1957 ) was a senior British Army officer . He is best known for his role as commander of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force and II Anzac Corps during the First World War .
Born in Chatham , Godley joined the British Army in 1886 . He fought in the Boer War and afterwards served in a number of staff positions in England . In 1910 he went to New Zealand as Commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces . Promoted to temporary major general , he reorganised the country 's military establishment . Following the outbreak of the First World War , the New Zealand government appointed him as commander of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force , which he led for the duration of the war .
During the Gallipoli campaign , Godley commanded the composite New Zealand and Australian Division , before taking over command of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps for the final stages of the campaign . Promoted to lieutenant general , he had a brief period in command of I Anzac Corps before being given command of the II Anzac Corps . He led the corps for most of its service on the Western Front . Regarded as a cold and aloof commander , his popularity was further dented in October 1917 when he insisted on continuing an offensive in the Ypres salient when weather and ground conditions were not favourable . His corps suffered heavy losses in the ensuing battle . In 1918 , II Anzac Corps was re @-@ designated as British XXII Corps and he led it for the remainder of the war .
After the war , Godley spent time in occupied Germany as commander of firstly the IV Corps and then , from 1922 to 1924 , the British Army of the Rhine . In 1924 he was promoted to general and was made General Officer , Commanding , of England 's Southern Command . He was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in 1928 and was Governor of Gibraltar for five years until his retirement in 1933 . During the Second World War he commanded a platoon of the Home Guard . He died in 1957 at the age of 90 .
= = Early life = =
Alexander Godley was born in Chatham , Kent , England , on 4 February 1867 , the eldest son of William Godley , a British Army captain of Irish heritage . His father 's brother was John Robert Godley , the founder of Canterbury , New Zealand . When Godley was 13 , his father died leaving the family in dire financial straits .
Godley intended to enter the Royal Navy but changed his mind and chose to pursue a career with the British Army . With the aid of his family 's connections , he was educated at Haileybury College and entered the Royal Military College , Sandhurst , in 1885 . He was commissioned into the Royal Dublin Fusiliers the following year as a lieutenant , and became the unit 's adjutant .
An enthusiastic horseman , Godley engaged in hunting and polo , becoming extremely proficient in the latter sport . He later played in the first international polo match between England and Argentina at the Hurlingham Club in Buenos Aires . To supplement his pay , he trained polo ponies .
Godley remained with the Fusiliers until 1896 , at which time he was promoted to captain and appointed adjutant of the Mounted Infantry at Aldershot . Later that year he volunteered for service in Mashonaland , where he assisted in the suppression of a rebellion in the province . After serving with the Special Service Battalion of the Mounted Infantry , he returned to England the following year and was promoted brevet major .
= = Boer War = =
In 1898 Godley attended Staff College at Camberley but , following the outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 , ended his studies early to volunteer for service in Africa . Along with other officers of the Special Service Battalion , he helped to raise irregular mounted regiments . Godley was later adjutant to Colonel Robert Baden @-@ Powell and was present during the Siege of Mafeking . He was also chief staff officer to Lieutenant Colonel Herbert Plumer and later commanded the Rhodesian Brigade . In 1900 , Godley transferred to the Irish Guards before being appointed to the staff at Aldershot as commander of the Mounted Infantry . Three years later he transferred to Longmoor Military Camp , commanding the Mounted Infantry there until 1906 .
= = Commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces = =
Godley was a colonel and serving on the staff of 2nd Division when , in 1910 , he accepted the position of Commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces , as the New Zealand Army was then known . He had some reservations about his new appointment ; he had been in line for command of an infantry brigade and was concerned that being posted to remote New Zealand would be detrimental to his career . He arrived in New Zealand to take up his duties in December 1910 .
Promoted to temporary major general , Godley , together with fourteen British Army officers seconded to the New Zealand Military Forces , was tasked with reorganising and instilling professionalism in the military establishment of the country . Compulsory military training had recently been introduced by the government but with little thought as to its implementation . In refining the New Zealand Military Forces , Godley drew heavily on the recommendations of Lord Herbert Kitchener , who had visited New Zealand earlier in the year on an inspection tour .
Godley established the Territorial Force , which replaced the outdated and recently disbanded Volunteer Force . He organised the structure of the New Zealand Military Forces into four military districts , with each district to be capable of raising an infantry and a mounted brigade . The districts had a specified number of battalions and regiments organised along the lines of the British Army . He also formed a New Zealand Staff Corps to train and administer the Territorial Force . The quality of small arms and other personal equipment provided to the country 's military personnel were improved and orders placed for new artillery pieces and machine @-@ guns .
By 1914 the Territorial Force had some 30 @,@ 000 men involved in divisional level training camps ; two years previously , the manpower and logistical constraints of the force was such that only battalion level camps could be achieved . When General Ian Hamilton , the Inspector General of Overseas Forces , visited New Zealand in 1914 , he was impressed with the level of preparedness of the country 's military . This reflected positively on Godley 's work , and he was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George the same year .
From 1912 , Godley began putting plans in place for the rapid deployment of a New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) in the event of war in Europe . He anticipated that Imperial Germany would be the likely enemy and envisaged deployment to either Europe or possibly Egypt , to counter the likely threat to the Suez Canal in the event Turkey aligned itself with Germany . He envisioned the expected deployment would be co @-@ ordinated with an Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) and liaised with the Australian Chief of General Staff , Brigadier General Joseph Gordon , and the possibility of a composite division was discussed . The question of Germany 's possessions in the South Pacific was also raised , and it was agreed that New Zealand would have responsibility for German Samoa , while Australia dealt with German New Guinea . The arrangements Godley put in place for deployment for the NZEF were soon put to the test , for when the First World War began , a New Zealand occupation force was quickly assembled to occupy German Samoa .
= = First World War = =
The New Zealand government authorised the formation of the NZEF for service in the war in support of Great Britain , with Godley , having relinquished his position as commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces to Major General Alfred William Robin , as its commander . Godley would retain command of the NZEF for the duration of the war , making regular reports to James Allen , the New Zealand Minister of Defence . By October 1914 , the NZEF consisted of 8 @,@ 500 men and , along with Godley , embarked from Wellington for Europe . The NZEF was intended for service on the Western Front but was diverted to Egypt while in transit , following the entry of Turkey into the war . In Egypt , the NZEF underwent an intensive period of training under Godley 's supervision . Despite his strict approach to training and discipline , he was a relatively enlightened commander for his time ; he discreetly established drinking canteens and venereal disease treatment centres for his men .
= = = Gallipoli = = =
Prior to the start of the Gallipoli Campaign , Godley was made commander of the New Zealand and Australian Division , a composite formation of infantry brigades of the NZEF and the AIF . His new command was one of two infantry divisions of the newly formed Australian and New Zealand Army Corps , commanded by General William Birdwood .
Although an extremely competent administrator , there were reservations within the New Zealand government following Godley 's appointment as commander of the division . Allen , although publicly supportive of Godley , privately believed an alternative commander should be found after the division completed its training . Godley was a distant and remote divisional commander , not popular with most soldiers of his command . He also favoured the professional officers of the NZEF , most of whom were seconded from the British Army , over those drawn from the Territorial Force .
On the day of the landing at Gallipoli , 25 April 1915 , Godley came ashore on Gallipoli at midday . Consulting with Major General William Bridges that afternoon , Godley was of the view that the Allied forces , dealing with stiffer than expected resistance , should be evacuated ahead of an expected attack by Turkish forces the next morning . Although Bridges agreed with Godley , the commander of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force , Sir Ian Hamilton , ordered them to hold fast .
Godley continued as divisional commander for most of the campaign at Gallipoli . Of tall stature , he made constant tours of the front line amidst jokes that the communication trenches needed to be dug deeply to allow for his height . On one visit to Quinn 's Post on 7 May , he personally directed troop deployments to counter a potential Turkish counterattack . Despite his inspections , his reputation amongst the rank and file of the division did not improve . Nor was his co @-@ ordination of offensive operations sound ; during the August offensive , his lack of oversight allowed one of his brigade commanders , Brigadier General Francis Johnston , a British Army officer on secondment to the NZEF , to vacillate over deployment of reinforcements . On the morning of 8 August , the Wellington Infantry Battalion was in tenuous possession of Chunuk Bair but required support to consolidate its position . Johnstone did not order his reinforcements forward until later that day . Crucial momentum was lost and Chunuk Bair was later recaptured by the Turks .
When Birdwood took over command of the newly formed Dardanelles Army , Godley became commander of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps for the final stages of the Gallipoli campaign and was promoted to temporary lieutenant general on 25 November 1915 . With his appointment as corps commander , he also effectively took over responsibility for the administration of the AIF . The same month it was decided to evacuate the Allied forces from Gallipoli . Although much of the detailed planning for the evacuation was left to his Chief of Staff , Brigadier General Brudenell White , Godley closely inspected the plans before giving his approval . The evacuation was successfully carried out on the nights of 19 and 20 December , with Godley departing on the first night . Following the withdrawal , he was made Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath for his services at Gallipoli , on the recommendation of General Sir Charles Monro , who had replaced Hamilton as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force .
= = = Reforming in Egypt = = =
The NZEF and the AIF had returned to Egypt following their withdrawal from Gallipoli . The number of reinforcements from both New Zealand and Australia were more than enough to bring the existing ANZAC divisions back up to strength , and in January 1916 Godley proposed forming new divisions from the surplus reinforcements . These were the New Zealand Division and the Australian 4th and 5th Divisions . The new formations , together with the existing divisions , formed the I ANZAC Corps ( the renamed Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ) and II ANZAC Corps .
Godley was named as commander of I ANZAC Corps which included the original AIF divisions , the 1st and 2nd Divisions , and the newly formed New Zealand Division . These divisions were engaged in defensive duties along the Suez Canal . However , following the German attack at Verdun in February , it was decided that the planned move of I ANZAC Corps to the Western Front be expedited . Birdwood was to take the corps to France , and on 28 March 1916 , he exchanged commands with Godley , who took over II ANZAC Corps .
= = = Western Front = = =
Godley 's II ANZAC Corps consisted of the Australian 4th and 5th Divisions along with the ANZAC Mounted Division , and it took over the defensive duties of the I ANZAC Corps . The two Australian divisions were still relatively raw and Godley oversaw the intensive training of both formations . By the end of May 1916 , he considered the divisions to be the equal of the 1st and 2nd Australian divisions , which were by that time on the Western Front . The following month , the divisions of II ANZAC Corps began departing for France . Godley went on leave for a short time during this period of transition for his corps . In July , he returned to duty and II ANZAC Corps took over the section of the front line previously occupied by the I ANZAC Corps , near Armentieres . Later that same month , the 5th Division participated in the Battle of Fromelles in support of the neighbouring British XI Corps . It , together with the 4th Division , would later be transferred to the Somme .
Godley 's rank of lieutenant general was made substantive in September 1916 and he continued to lead the II ANZAC Corps while the I ANZAC Corps was engaged in the Battle of the Somme . In October , the New Zealand Division , blooded on the Somme , joined II ANZAC Corps along with the 3rd Division , previously based in England . The corps , attached to the Second Army , performed well in its first major engagement , the Battle of Messines . Writing to Allen after the battle , Godley regarded the capture of Messines as " ... the greatest success of the war so far , all of it achieved with much lighter casualties than those incurred on the Somme . " Despite this success , in August , Godley 's poor standing amongst the NZEF was publicly raised by a member of the New Zealand Parliament who had visited the front earlier in the year .
While serving on the Western Front , Godley continued to fulfill his role as the overall commander of the NZEF in addition to his corps command . By September 1917 , as reinforcements from New Zealand continued to arrive on the Western Front to replace the casualties lost in the major battles of the previous two years , Allen , still the Minister of Defence , was concerned by the drain on New Zealand 's manpower . Allen considered that Australia and Canada were not making their proper contributions to the war effort . In response , Godley pointed out that the Australian divisions had seen more action than the New Zealanders .
Godley 's II ANZAC Corps played an important role in the Passchendaele offensive in October 1917 . Following the success of his corps at the Battle of Broodseinde on 4 October 1917 , Godley believed the morale of the Germans was low , and pushed for further attacks to secure the Passchendaele Ridge . This was in concert with the preference of Field Marshal Douglas Haig , the commander of the British Expeditionary Force . However , Godley 's superior officer , General Herbert Plumer , preferred to halt the offensive as the weather had deteriorated immediately after the battle . An attack on 9 October by the 49th and 66th Divisions , both British formations attached to II ANZAC Corps , was hampered by the poor weather which showed no signs of abating and achieved very limited gains .
Despite this , and at Godley 's urging , a further attack was planned for 12 October , this time using the New Zealand Division and the Australian 3rd Division . By now the ground was a sea of mud and a lack of preparation on the part of Godley 's corps headquarters hampered the preliminary movements of the attacking divisions and supporting artillery . Godley 's plans for the attack were overly ambitious and beyond the scale of previous operations that had been mounted earlier in the month in better weather and ground conditions and with more time to prepare . The operation on 12 October proved to be a failure with limited gains and heavy losses in the attacking divisions . After the battle , Godley downplayed the losses in the New Zealand Division ( which amounted to around 2 @,@ 900 casualties ) and overstated the gains made in official correspondence to Allen , and a friend , Clive Wigram , who was the assistant private secretary to King George V.
Notwithstanding Godley 's efforts to placate him , Allen again raised his concerns over the extent of New Zealand 's contributions to the war relative to Australia 's and sought further explanation for the New Zealand losses of 12 October . Allen was also beginning to query the quality of British generalship . Godley raised the prospect of being replaced as commander of the NZEF , and proposed Major General Andrew Hamilton Russell , the commander of the New Zealand Division , as his successor . This never eventuated and Godley remained the commander of the NZEF until its disbandment in late 1919 .
In January 1918 , II ANZAC Corps had its Australian contingent transferred and it was redesignated as British XXII Corps . Two months later , the New Zealand Division was transferred to VII Corps . Godley 's corps was now composed largely of British Army divisions with a small contingent of New Zealand corps units . After being involved in the defence of the Allied positions during the German Spring Offensive of late March , it then participated , under French command , in the Second Battle of the Marne in July . Godley was temporary commander of III Corps in the Battle of Mont Saint @-@ Quentin during the early phase of the Hundred Days Offensive in August 1918 before returning to command of XXII Corps .
By the close of the war , Godley had been mentioned in despatches ten times . He also received a number of foreign decorations as a result of his war service . After an award of the French Croix de Guerre , he was appointed in 1918 to the French Legion of Honour as a Grand Officier , having previously been made a Croix de Commandeur in 1917 . He was also awarded the Serbian Great Officer Cross of the Order of the White Eagle ( with Swords ) in October 1916 , the Belgian Order of the Crown in 1917 and the Belgian Croix de guerre in 1918 .
= = Postwar career = =
After the war , Godley became Commander of IV Corps which was based in Germany as an occupation army , but he remained responsible for administration of the NZEF until it was disestablished in November 1919 . From 1920 to 1922 , he was Military Secretary to the Secretary of State for War . He then returned to Germany as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the British Army of the Rhine . Promoted to general in 1923 , the following year he was appointed commander of England 's Southern Command .
In August 1928 , Godley was appointed to the governorship of Gibraltar , a position in which he remained until his retirement in 1933 . Godley was considered the ablest of the immediate post war governors although he made a misjudgement in interfering in the politics of the Royal Calpe Hunt . The King had to intercede after Godley removed the master of the hunt creating large divisions that were not repaired until his successor took charge .
He always held his New Zealand soldiers in high esteem , even if that respect was not reciprocated , and made tours of New Zealand in 1934 and 1935 . When made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in January 1928 , he included in his coat of arms an image of a New Zealand infantryman .
In late 1936 , Godley was considered a possible candidate for the governorship of New South Wales but was ultimately not appointed to the position . In his retirement Godley wrote a number of professional articles and his memoirs , Life of an Irish Soldier , were published in 1939 . He later wrote and published British Military History in South America .
In June 1939 , Godley 's wife Louise , who he had married in 1898 , died in England . The couple were childless . She had lived in New Zealand during Godley 's term as Commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces , and had also accompanied him to Egypt during the war . While in Egypt , she had been mentioned in despatches for her work in setting up and running a hospital in Alexandria for New Zealand soldiers . A wreath was sent for the funeral by the New Zealand government on behalf of its citizens .
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Godley offered his services to the New Zealand government , but got no response . He later commanded a platoon of the Home Guard .
Alexander Godley died at the age of 90 in a rest home at Oxford on 6 March 1957 . His remains were cremated after a funeral service at Woodland St. Mary 's Church in Berkshire was held on 14 March 1957 . A memorial service was held at the Royal Military Chapel at the Wellington Barracks in London on 21 March 1957 . The service was attended by a representative of Queen Elizabeth II .
= = Publications = =
Godley , Alexander John , Sir ( 1939 ) . Life of an Irish Soldier : Reminiscences of General Sir Alexander Godley . New York : E.P. Dutton and Company . OCLC 398289 .
Godley , Alexander , Sir ( 1943 ) . British Military History in South America . London : Feilden Publications . OCLC 18542093 .
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= Fading ( song ) =
" Fading " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna from her fifth studio album , Loud ( 2010 ) . The song was written by Jamal Jones and Ester Dean , whilst production of the song was completed by Jones under his production name , Polow da Don . Musically , the song samples Irish instrumentalist and singer @-@ songwriter Enya 's " One by One " , whilst lyrically , the song is about leaving a man in a relationship . After Loud had strong digital download sales in the United Kingdom , " Fading " charted at number 187 on that country 's singles chart in November 2010 . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who praised da Don 's production , but one critic criticized Rihanna for copying herself and failing to create something different . Some critics also compared it to one of Rihanna 's previous singles , " Take A Bow " . The song has also been performed on select dates of the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) .
= = Background = =
Recording sessions for Loud began in February 2010 , and continued for six months , overlapping with Rihanna 's Last Girl on Earth Tour and during production of her debut feature film , Battleship . At the beginning of March 2011 , Rihanna asked fans to help her select her next single , following the release of " S & M " . Via Twitter , fans were asked to choose from " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " , " Man Down " , " California King Bed " or " Fading " . The most popular choice would have its video filmed at the end of March 2011 . On March 12 , 2011 , it was confirmed that fans had selected " California King Bed " as the next single to be released from the album in the United States . In August 2011 , a new version of " Fading " was leaked online , without the Enya sample .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Fading " was written by Jamal James and Ester Dean , whilst production of the song was completed by Polow da Don and samples Enya 's " One by One " from her album A Day Without Rain ( 2000 ) . The song was recorded by Sandy Vee at The Bunker Studio 's in Paris , France in 2010 . Musically , the song features a piano and violin led instrumental whilst lyrically , " Fading " is about the female protagonist leaving her boyfriend because she feels that they have become distant and their relationship has faded . The lyrics of the song feature Rihanna adopting a vocal diction which urges her boyfriend to leave and walk away from the relationship , " Go on , be gone / Bye bye so long / Can 't you see we 're fading away " . As noted by Emily Mackay of NME , the song is reminiscent of one of the singer 's previous songs about a relationship gone awry , " Take A Bow " , in lyrical content and musicality .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon Loud 's release , multiple music critics wrote about " Fading " as part of their review , many of whom praised the production of the song . Emily Mackay of NME wrote about the song as part of an overall review of the album , writing " A weird baroque pop opening , violin stabs and treated vocals , builds slowly into a rolling and shuddering beat and soft , sad @-@ toned piano . Mesfin Fekadu of The Boston Globe called the track " exceptional " and compared the lyrical content to that of one of Rihanna 's previous singles " Take A Bow " , writing that Rihanna is skilled at putting out songs about being the woman in a relationship who leaves the man , as she does in " Fading " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised Polow da Don 's production of the song , writing " ' Fading ' strategizes with long and short elements — sustained choruses and staccato verses , edgeless keyboard chords and notes that are suddenly truncated — to capture the ambivalence of a failing romance . " Melissa Maerz of Rolling Stone commented that the singer manages to remain " serene " on the song , even with the sampling of Enya 's " One by One " , and added that " maybe the good girl gone bad is getting better ? " , in reference to Rihanna 's third studio album title , Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) .
Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly simply wrote of " Fading " that the song , a " walk away ballad " , is a " gorgeously synthesized moment of sweet defiance " . David Driver of Sputnikmusic wrote that " Fading " , along with " California King Bed " , are both " well @-@ done , soulful ballads " and that they are " completely free " of the sulky tones which could be found on some compositions on Rihanna 's previous album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . Colin Gentry of 4Music also noted in his review that the song communicates a passionate expression of grief to the listener . Ryan Burleson of Consequence of Sound wrote that the song was one of the best on the album , commenting that it stands out " sonically " . Burleson added that it is " a hopeful , piano and string @-@ based R & B " song , and compared to the work of late 1990s artists such as Aaliyah and Faith Evans . Ryan Dombell of Pitchfork Media criticized " Fading " as well as Rihanna herself , for copying " [ her ] own lightweight R & B formula so much it 's redundant " .
= = Chart performance = =
Upon the release of Loud , " Fading " charted in three territories . The song debuted at number 37 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart for the issue dated November 14 , 2010 . The following week , it fell to number 79 . " Fading " charted at number 187 on the UK Singles Chart for the issue dated November 27 , 2010 . The song was more successful on the UK R & B Chart , where it peaked at number 34 in the same chart issue . In the United States , " Fading " peaked at number 42 on the R & B / Hip @-@ hop Digital Songs chart on December 3 , 2010 .
= = Live performances = =
Though the song has never been performed live as part of a televised performance , the song was featured on the set list of select dates of the Loud Tour . Rihanna performed the song on June 6 and 7 , 2011 , at the Air Canada Centre in Toronto , Canada , where the song was featured near the end of the set . As noted by Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun , after performing a selection of ballads from the singer 's repertoire , including " Unfaithful " , " Hate That I Love You " and " California King Bed " , Rihanna re @-@ appeared on stage wearing a rainbow colored feathered coat , denim bra and short shorts to perform " What 's My Name ? " , " Rude Boy " , " Fading " , " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Take a Bow " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Robyn Rihanna Fenty – Lead Vocals
Ester Dean – Background vocals
Jamal Jones and Ester Dean – Songwriting
Polow da Don – Production
Kuk Harrell , Josh Gudwin and Marcus Tovar – Vocal Recording
Kuk Harrell – Vocal production
Veronika Bozeman – Additional vocal production
Damien Lewis – Additional / Assistant Engineering
Mixed by Phil Tan at The Ninja Beat Club , Atlanta , GA – Mixing
Recorded by Sandy Vee at The Bunker Studios , Paris – Recording
Credits and personnel adapted from the liner notes of Loud .
= = Charts = =
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= Whistler Sliding Centre =
The Whistler Sliding Centre ( French : Centre des sports de glisse de Whistler ) is a Canadian bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton track located in Whistler , British Columbia , that is 125 km ( 78 mi ) north of Vancouver . The centre is part of the Whistler Blackcomb resort , which comprises two ski mountains separated by Fitzsimmons Creek . Located on the lowermost slope of the northern mountain ( Blackcomb Mountain ) , Whistler Sliding Centre hosted the bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton competitions for the 2010 Winter Olympics .
Design work started in late 2004 with construction taking place from June 2005 to December 2007 . Bobsledders Pierre Lueders and Justin Kripps of Canada took the first run on the track on 19 December 2007 . Certification took place in March 2008 with over 200 runs from six different start houses ( the place where the sleds start their runs ) , and was approved both by the International Bobsleigh and Tobogganing Federation ( FIBT ) and the International Luge Federation ( FIL ) . Training runs took place in late 2008 in preparation for the World Cup events in all three sports in early 2009 . World Cup competitions were held in February 2009 for bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton . The top speed for all World Cup events set by German luger Felix Loch at 153 @.@ 98 km / h ( 95 @.@ 68 mph ) . In late 2009 , more training took place in preparation for the Winter Olympics .
On 12 February 2010 , the day of the Olympic opening ceremonies , Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili was killed during a training run while reportedly going 143 @.@ 3 km / h ( 89 @.@ 0 mph ) . This resulted in the men 's singles event being moved to the women 's singles and men 's doubles start house while both the women 's singles and men 's doubles event were moved to the junior start house . During actual luge competition at the 2010 Winter Olympics , there were only two crashes , which resulted in one withdrawal . Skeleton races on 18 – 19 February had no crashes though two skeleton racers were disqualified for technical reasons . Bobsleigh competitions had crashes during all three events . This resulted in supplemental training for both the two @-@ woman and the four @-@ man event following crashes during the two @-@ man event . Modifications were made to the track after the two @-@ man event to lessen the frequency of crashes as well . A 20 @-@ page report was released by the FIL to the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) on 12 April 2010 and to the public on FIL 's website on 19 April 2010 regarding Kumaritashvili 's death . Safety concerns at Whistler have affected the track design for the Sliding Center Sanki that will be used for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi . This includes track simulation and mapping to reduce top speeds by 6 to 9 km / h ( 3 @.@ 7 to 5 @.@ 6 mph ) for the Sochi track .
Constructed on part of First Nations spiritual grounds , the track won two provincial concrete construction awards in 2008 while the refrigeration plant earned Canada 's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design " gold " certification two years later .
= = History = =
= = = Awarding and construction ( 2004 – 07 ) = = =
At the 115th IOC Session held at Prague in 2003 , Vancouver was chosen to host the 2010 Winter Olympics over Pyeongchang , South Korea , and Salzburg , Austria . On 15 November 2004 , it was announced that Stantec Architecture Limited , which designed the 2002 Winter Olympic bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton track in Park City , Utah , in the United States , would provide detail design and site master plan of the track . The company was advised by the German track engineering firm IBG . IBG had designed the tracks used in Oberhof , Germany , the 1988 Winter Olympics in ( Calgary ) and the 2006 Winter Olympics ( Cesana Pariol ) . The German firm is also the designer of the Russian National Sliding Centre , the venue for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi .
Site construction of the facility began on 1 June 2005 following environmental approval from the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act . Safety and security was then put in place on the site . During its peak of construction activities in the summer of 2006 , more than 500 workers were involved both at the Sliding Centre and at the Whistler Nordic Venue ( now Whistler Olympic Park ) . A core group of 60 workers was involved with track construction from June 2005 to December 2007 . Basic track construction was completed in November 2007 though fit @-@ out and testing continued into 2008 .
= = = First testing and certification ( 2007 – 08 ) = = =
The first run was on 19 December 2007 with Canadian bobsledder Pierre Lueders and his brakeman Justin Kripps starting at the Junior Start house ( Location where the sliders start their run on the track ) 520 m ( 1 @,@ 710 ft ) down the 1 @,@ 450 m ( 4 @,@ 760 ft ) track . A total of six runs were made under the auspices of the FIBT . The Canadian Luge Association opened a branch at the track in February 2008 . Luge tests occurred in late February 2008 and among the participants were Tatjana Hüfner ( Germany ) , Erin Hamlin ( United States ) , Armin Zöggeler ( Italy ) , and Regan Lauscher ( Canada ) . Bobsleigh participants during certification in March 2008 included Sandra Kiriasis ( Germany ) , Lueders ( Canada ) , and Shauna Rohbock ( United States ) while skeleton participants included Kristan Bromley ( Great Britain ) , Kerstin Jürgens ( Szymkowiak since summer 2008 – Germany ) , and Jon Montgomery ( Canada ) . Over 200 runs were taken from six different starting positions on the track .
Praise was given both by the FIBT and the FIL over the successful certification of the track . The Vancouver Organizing Committee ( VANOC ) reviewed the recommendations made from both the FIBT and the FIL to fine tune the track . Canadian teams continued testing and training at the track until 20 March 2008 . A total of 2155 runs ( 335 bobsleigh , 1077 luge , and 743 skeleton ) took place at the track with a total of 15 crashes . Final track inspection by the FIL Executive Board took place 25 – 27 September 2008 before the International Training Week later that year .
= = = 2008 – 09 Luge World Cup , including training = = =
International Training Week for luge took place at the track 7 – 15 November 2008 . A total of 2482 runs took place during the training with several injuries occurring , most notably Loch , the 2008 men 's singles world champion , who injured his shoulder . In a 9 December 2008 press release , the Centre was continuing certification by adding protections on the track against crashes and weather . FIL President Josef Fendt stated that the track 's speed was too high with top speeds reaching 149 km / h ( 93 mph ) during training . From the 2482 runs executed during the International Training week for luge , there were 73 crashes , a crash rate of three percent which was normal during new track testing . Three lugers , including Loch , were sent to the hospital , but were later released . Italy 's Zöggeler stated that " The track can be tackled . " and " does not see big problems for the athletes " while Fendt called for the top track speed for future tracks to be lowered to 135 or 136 km / h ( 84 or 85 mph ) where possible . For the 2008 – 09 World Cup season at the Centre , 15115 runs were made for bobsleigh ( 2153 ) , luge ( 9672 ) , and skeleton ( 3290 ) . After the World Cup event on 20 – 21 February 2009 , Austria 's Andreas Linger described the track as " fast , incredibly fast . "
Loch stated that luge speeds for men 's singles reached 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) before turn three at the women 's singles and men 's doubles ' start house . A total of 2818 runs for bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton were made at the track during the four @-@ week time period for the World Cup events . FIL President Fendt stated that " [ my ] technical delegate told me this week that the Games could start tomorrow and the track would be ready . " and he appreciated the whole Whistler Sliding Centre At the 2008 – 09 World Cup season finale , 135 athletes participated ( 67 men , 42 women , and 26 doubles ) though 144 athletes from 23 nations were registered . During the Luge World Cup event that weekend , 186 runs took place with 16 crashes .
= = = 2008 – 09 Bobsleigh and Skeleton World Cup and training = = =
The first bobsleigh and skeleton training week took place on 25 – 31 January 2009 to prepare for their respective World Cup events on 5 – 7 February 2009 . A total of 250 competitors from 24 nations took part in the World Cup practice for all five events ( Bobsleigh two @-@ man , bobsleigh two @-@ woman , bobsleigh four @-@ man , and men 's and women 's skeleton ) . Competition and weather affected testing and World Cup runs for the two @-@ week time period . A team of 118 personnel and 276 volunteers worked consecutive weeks at the Training Week and World Cup events . Track director Craig Lehto stated that the volunteer efforts were similar to what he had seen both at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City and the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary . The final two days of competition had 3000 total spectators . Medical services , led by VANOC and FIBT medical director Dr. David McDonagh , tested themselves with first responder care and mock scenarios that included athlete extraction from the sled if the accident was severe enough . These services were tested again during the Luge World Cup competition on 20 – 21 February 2009 . A total of 15 @,@ 000 spectators attended all five days for the bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton World Cup events , all sold out . FIBT President Robert H. Storey stated that the Centre " ... is fast , technical , demanding , and interesting . " . A total of 235 athletes participated in the 2008 – 09 World Cup event ( 92 four @-@ man , 54 two @-@ man , 40 two @-@ woman , 28 men 's skeleton , and 21 women 's skeleton ) .
= = = 2009 – 10 World Cups , including training = = =
A paid training session took place 27 October – 7 November 2009 at the Centre for bobsleigh teams in preparation for the 2010 Games . On 9 – 15 November 2009 , a second International Training Week for luge took place in preparation for the 2010 Games with the participation of 156 athletes from 27 nations . Venezuela 's Werner Hoeger was knocked unconscious during a practice run on 13 November 2009 and was denied any further make @-@ up runs . During training that week , Hoeger expressed concern about the safety of the track . These concerns called for the resignation of track director Ed Moffat , father of lugers Chris and Mike , to offer equal runs to all lugers in future events , to have Canada forfeit any extra training runs that were negotiated for the 2014 Winter Olympics , and for the Canadian Luge Association be reprimanded for unethical actions and not providing a safe sliding environment , especially after speeds were 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) higher than expected . Canadian Luge Association officials declined to comment though they stated to the New York Times that the lugers received up to three times the amount of training runs offered in the run @-@ up to the 2006 Winter Olympics at Cesana Pariol .
Team Canada ( luge ) did not participate in the World Cup event in Lillehammer , Norway during 12 – 13 December 2009 to train at the Sliding Centre and to compete at the Canadian National Championships that took place on 17 December 2009 . A training restriction went into effect on 31 December 2009 where only host nation Canada and athletes from developing nations were allowed to train before the 2010 Games . For the 2009 – 10 season , there were a total of 15736 runs among bobsleigh ( 2512 ) , luge ( 8794 ) , and skeleton ( 4070 ) with a total of 115 crashes among the three sliding disciplines .
= = = Public opening and post @-@ Olympic usage = = =
The Centre 's official website was launched in late June 2008 . Public self @-@ guided walking tours ran from 3 July through 31 August 2008 . The cost to the public was 5 Canadian dollars ( C $ 5 ) with children under 12 admitted free . World Cup competition for bobsleigh and skeleton took place on 2 – 8 February 2009 while luge took place on 20 – 21 February 2009 . The track was a finalist for the 2012 FIL World Luge Championships along with Altenberg , Germany , at the 2008 FIL Congress in Calgary , Alberta , but the track withdrew its bid before the 28 June 2008 selection . During a 4 – 5 April 2009 weekend meeting of the FIL Commission at St. Leonhard , Austria , it was recommended that the Centre be host for the 2013 FIL World Luge Championships . This was confirmed on 19 – 20 June 2009 at the 57th FIL Congress meeting in Liberec , Czech Republic .
Post @-@ Olympic usage is a responsibility of the Whistler 2010 Sports Legacies which operates the Sliding Centre , Whistler Olympic Park , and the Whistler Olympic and Paralympic Village . The goal of this organization is to promote the legacy of the 2010 Winter Olympics and 2010 Winter Paralympics , promote healthy lifestyles and tourism in the British Columbia province , and offer revenue for the maintenance of the three facilities .
= = 2010 Winter Olympics = =
= = = Nodar Kumaritashvili = = =
On 12 February 2010 , hours before the opening ceremony for the 2010 Winter Olympics , Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili suffered a crash during a training run exiting out of turn 16 . Kumaritashvili was injured when he flew off the track and collided with a steel pole . He was going 143 @.@ 3 km / h ( 89 @.@ 0 mph ) at the time of the crash . He died later that day from the injuries sustained in that crash . His accident came after other crashes during that week . This reignited concerns about the track 's safety . Kumaritashvili was the first Olympic athlete to die at the Winter Olympics in training since 1992 and the first luger to die in a practice event at the Winter Olympics since Kazimierz Kay @-@ Skrzypeski of Great Britain was killed at the luge track used for the 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck . It was also luge 's first fatality since 10 December 1975 when an Italian luger was killed . A joint statement was issued by the FIL , the IOC , and VANOC over Kumaritashvili 's death . Training was suspended for the rest of that day . According to the Coroners Service of British Columbia and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police , the cause of Kumaritashvili 's death was him coming out of turn 15 late and then not compensating before turn 16 .
As a preventive measure , an extra 100 ft ( 30 m ) of wall was added after the end of Turn 16 , and the ice profile was changed . Also , the men 's singles luge event start was moved from its start house to the one for both the women 's singles and men 's doubles event . Women 's singles and men 's doubles start was moved to the Junior start house of the track , located after turn 5 . Germany 's Natalie Geisenberger complained that it was not a women 's start but more of a Kinder ( " children " in ( German ) ) start . Her teammate Hüfner , who had the fastest speed on the two practice runs at 82 @.@ 3 mph ( 132 @.@ 4 km / h ) , stated that the new start position " does not help good starters like myself . " American Erin Hamlin , the 2009 women 's singles world champion , stated the track was still demanding even after the distance was lessened from 1 @,@ 193 to 953 m ( 3 @,@ 914 to 3 @,@ 127 ft ) and one was still hitting 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .
During a 14 February 2010 interview with Reuters , FIL Secretary @-@ General Svein Romstad stated that the federation considered cancelling the luge competition in the wake of Kumaritashvili 's death two days earlier . Romstad stated that " [ Kumaritashvili ] ... made a mistake " on the crash though " any fatality is unacceptable " . Additionally , Romstad stated that the start houses were moved to their current locations " mostly for an emotional reason " . Because of Kumaritashvili 's death , the FIL is working with the Sochi 2014 Olympic Organizing Committee over making the Russian National Sliding Centre in Rzhanaya Polyana slower in speed . Canada 's Alex Gough commented on 14 February ( two days after Kumaritashvili 's death ) that " We ’ ve got the world championships here in a few years ( 2013 ) so hopefully we can actually have a race " instead of the start at the Junior start house .
On 18 February 2010 , FIL President Fendt issued the following statement :
" At the conclusion of the luge competition at the Vancouver 2010 Olympic Games , our thoughts are with the family of Nodar Kumaritashvili . We again offer our heartfelt condolences to them , to his friends and to the entire Georgian Luge Federation . Nodar Kumaritashvili will forever stay in the hearts of all the members of the Luge family .
This has also been a difficult time for the Olympic athletes who competed in these Games . Their solidarity and sportsmanship was a tribute to the friend we lost . The International Luge Federation is touched by the outpouring of compassion and sympathy from people around the world . We will leave Whistler determined to do all we can to prevent a recurrence of this tragic event .
Kumaritashvili was buried in his hometown of Bakuriani , on 20 February 2010 . Georgian National Olympic Committee president Gia Natsvlishvili and Georgia president Mikheil Saakashvili raised concern and anger toward the Sliding Centre 's organizers that the safety concerns were not addressed .
= = = Luge = = =
On 11 February 2010 , Romania 's Violeta Strămăturaru was knocked unconscious after hitting several walls during a training run . She was strapped to a backboard and placed on a stretcher though her arms were moving . Strămăturaru withdrew before the women 's singles event .
In the first run of the men 's doubles luge competition on 17 February 2010 , Austria 's team of Tobias Schiegl and Markus Schiegl survived a crash on turn 16 where they came in at too high of an elevation . Tobias tried to correct the oversteer only to have the cousins collide on the opposite side of the ice wall , causing both to go airborne momentarily . Neither suffered any injury .
Mihaela Chiras of Romania suffered the only crash of ten actual competitive runs ( four men single , four women single , and two doubles ) , and that was during the second run of the women 's singles event . Each of the five days of luge competition was attended by a sold @-@ out crowd of 12 @,@ 000 spectators .
Event winners were Germany 's Loch in men 's singles , Germany 's Hüfner in women 's singles , and Austria 's Andreas and Wolfgang Linger in doubles .
= = = Skeleton = = =
The first skeleton practice began down the full length of the track on 15 February 2010 . It was the first time that had been done since Kumaritashvili 's death three days earlier . Britain 's Shelley Rudman stated that " The IOC and VANOC have done all they can to make it a safe environment " . Canada 's Mellisa Hollingsworth had the fastest women 's practice runs while her teammate Montgomery had the fastest men 's practice runs . Montgomery and Hollingsworth also had the fastest practice times on both the 16th and the 17th . No crashes occurred during the two days of skeleton competitions .
Event winners were Montgomery in the men 's and Britain 's Amy Williams in the women 's .
= = = Bobsleigh = = =
Bobsleigh practice began on 17 February 2010 with the two @-@ man event . Eight crashes among 57 runs took place that day . Three crashes occurred during the two @-@ man practice session on 18 February 2010 . Supplemental practice was offered on 19 February 2010 to both the two @-@ woman and four @-@ man events out of caution , and further preparation for both events that took place the following week .
For the first run on 20 February 2010 , a sled from Australia crashed out and did not finish , while a sled from Great Britain was disqualified when the sled 's brakeman was ejected during the first run . Liechtenstein 's sled crashed out during the first run and finished , but did not start the second run . During the two @-@ man event , runs three and four on 21 February 2010 were rescheduled to 16 : 00 PST ( 00 : 00 UTC on 22 February ) for run three and 17 : 35 PST ( 01 : 35 UTC on the 22nd ) for run four due to unseasonable warm weather . Temperatures reached 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) on the afternoon of the 20th and were expected to reach 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) on the afternoon of the 21st . No crashes occurred in the final two runs of the event . Germany 's André Lange and Kevin Kuske won the two @-@ man event .
Reactions from bobsledders about the track during the two @-@ man event varied from exciting to anxious to dangerous . The Associated Press spoke to 13 of the 21 drivers who competed at the two @-@ woman event on 23 – 24 February 2010 and the only one who did not feel safe on the track was Erin Pac of the United States . The three German drivers who competed in the two @-@ woman event stated through a team spokeswoman that they had no safety concerns about the track .
Minor changes were made to the track on 22 February 2010 after bobsleigh four @-@ man teams from Latvia and Croatia rolled over in supplementary practice . Following a meeting with 11 team captains , practice runs were postponed by the FIBT until later that day to adjust the shape of turn 11 so it would be easier for sleds to get through the rest of the track without crashing . FIBT spokesman Don Krone also stated that it was common that turn profiles were changed when it was being used by other sliding disciplines such as luge and skeleton .
After track alterations were done on 23 February 2010 , the two fastest four @-@ man practice times were done by Germany 's Lange and the United States ' Steven Holcomb . Australia withdrew its four @-@ man team on 23 February 2010 after two of its crew members suffered concussions from crashes sustained during track practice . Australia 's chef de mission Ian Chesterman stated that the decision was not taken lightly and was done on the side of safety .
In the two @-@ woman event , defending world champion Nicole Minichiello of Britain had her sled flip over after turn 12 during the third run , but both Minichiello and her brakeman Gillian Cooke walked away from the crash . Minichiello and Cooke decided not to start the final run . In the final run , Russia @-@ 2 's sled crashed which kept them at their finishing position of 18th . Meanwhile , the Germany @-@ 2 sled of Cathleen Martini and Romy Logsch was in fourth place after the third run , but was disqualified after Martini crashed in turn 13 of the final run , causing Logsch to be ejected from the sled . Both Martini and Logsch walked away from the crash by themselves . Before this incident , Martini had never crashed before in her career . Canada 's Kaillie Humphries and Heather Moyse won the event .
Lange had the fastest practice times in the four @-@ man event on the 24th with the final two practices taking place on the 25th .
For the four @-@ man event 's first two runs on 26 February , defending world champion Holcomb recorded the fastest track times in both runs while defending Olympic champion Lange had the fastest start times . Russia @-@ 2 driven by Alexandr Zubkov , the defending four @-@ man silver medalist and bronze medalist in the two @-@ man event at these Games , crashed out in the first run when one of his steering ropes broke . Austria @-@ 1 and Slovakia @-@ 1 also crashed out in the first run , and neither sled started the second run with Russia @-@ 2 . Second run crashes involved USA @-@ 2 , Great Britain @-@ 1 , and Japan @-@ 1 . USA @-@ 2 did not start the third run . There were no crashes in the final two runs of the event . America 's team of Holcomb , Steve Mesler , Curtis Tomasevicz , and Justin Olsen won the event .
= = Overall safety concerns = =
Kumaritashvili 's death raised concerns about athlete safety at the Winter Olympics . As of 21 February 2010 , there were 30 crashes in bobsleigh and luge at the Sliding Centre . Debate was raised on tightening qualification standards in weeding out unqualified athletes , in requiring a large number of training runs , in slowing down the sliding tracks , or in combining the three . The Russian National Sliding Centre planned for the bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton events at the 2014 Winter Olympics has not been built though organizers already said that it is designed to be 6 to 9 km / h ( 3 @.@ 7 to 5 @.@ 6 mph ) slower than The Whistler Sliding Centre . Sochi 's Sliding Centre will be monitored via 3 @-@ D computer graphics and simulation . The IOC has improved safety standards over the years such as lowering obstacles for the equestrian three @-@ day event , requiring protective head gear for boxing and ice hockey , and tightening qualification standards to preclude athletes not qualified for the event . FIBT President Storey wanted to wait to review safety of bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton until after the 2010 Games , stating that track designers needed to find a balance between challenges and dangers on the track . Track designer Gurgel told Sport Bild that perhaps track walls should be raised 40 to 50 cm ( 16 to 20 in ) on future courses though a risk @-@ proof course may not be possible . According to VANOC , over 30 @,@ 000 runs were made prior to the games with neither the FIBT nor the FIL issuing public danger warnings about the track . IOC President Jacques Rogge stated that he " will do everything in my power that this should not happen again in the future " .
The FIL published their reports in regards to Kumaritashvili 's death following the FIL Commissions Meeting in St. Leonhard , for both sport and technical commissions on 9 – 11 April 2010 . This report was prepared by Romstad and Claire DelNegro , FIL Vice @-@ President Sport Artificial Track . The 20 @-@ page report was released by the FIL to the IOC on 12 April 2010 and was released on FIL 's website to the public on 19 April 2010 . Documents released in February 2011 showed that the speed of the course was a concern for several years before Kumaritashvili 's death .
= = Track technical details = =
= = = Construction = = =
This venue was constructed on a First Nations designated site . According to the Squamish , the area is referred to as a " Wild Spirit Place " or Kwekwayex Kwelh7aynexw while the Lil 'oet call the area A7x7ulmecw or " Spirited Ground " . It represents the beating of the Thunderbird 's huge wings filled with thunder in the air .
Originally budgeted for C $ 55 million , the track 's actual costs were C $ 105 million ( € 68 million ) . The track is made of 350 metric tons ( 340 long tons ; 390 short tons ) of reinforced concrete that was applied using pressurized spraying to reach a maximum thickness of 6 in ( 15 cm ) . Additionally , the track contains 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) of steel conduit , 600 awnings , and 700 lights . A total of 350 track footings were used to set the track on its proper foundation . Forty percent of those footings were completed by July 2006 . There are over 100 km ( 62 mi ) of ammonia refrigeration piping used to keep the track frozen . Sloping and curves were contoured to within 1 to 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 039 to 0 @.@ 118 in ) of the planned design course . Ice thickness is 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 97 in ) that is maintained by hand . There are 36 on @-@ track video cameras and 42 " timing eyes " located at the Sliding Centre . The track also includes a control tower and administration buildings . There are two spectator overpasses ( between turns 1 and 2 , and turns 6 and 7 ) and three spectator underpasses ( between turns 8 and 9 , turns 11 and 12 , and turns 15 and 16 ) . It seated 11 @,@ 650 spectators during the 2010 Games .
= = = Sustainability = = =
To promote sustainability , the site was selected directly adjacent to an already used part of a major ski area . It was also designed to minimize vegetation and the ecological footprint in the area . For energy efficiency , trees were retained to cast shade with weather protection and a shading system used to cover parts of the track . The track itself is painted white to maintain low temperatures while minimizing energy demand on the refrigeration system . Waste heat from the refrigeration plant is captured and reused to heat buildings on @-@ site , and could provide other heat uses in the future . Any wood waste created from site clearing activities during venue construction was composted for reuse . Other on @-@ site buildings also followed similar green building design principles .
= = = Awards = = =
In 2008 , the Sliding Centre received two British Columbia Ready @-@ Mixed Concrete Association Awards for Excellence in Concrete Construction . The first award was for Public Works while the second one was for the Century Award .
On 22 August 2006 , VANOC targeted Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Canada by applying for " silver " green building certification for the 708 m2 ( 7 @,@ 620 sq ft ) refrigeration plant building . The refrigeration plant received " gold " certification level on 2 February 2010 .
= = = Characteristics = = =
Turn names for 4 – 6 and 8 were not given .
Track g @-@ forces were expected to reach up to 5 @.@ 02 for men 's singles luge . Maximum speed was reached at 147 @.@ 9 km / h ( 91 @.@ 9 mph ) in four @-@ man bobsleigh during the certification process .
= = Track records = =
The luge track records shown were set at the men 's singles start house and women 's singles / men 's doubles start houses during the World Cup competition in February 2009 . After Kumaritashvili 's death on 12 February 2010 , the competition for men 's singles was moved to the women 's singles / men 's doubles start house while the competition for women 's singles / men 's doubles was moved to the junior start house . The fastest runs set during the 2010 Winter Olympics are not on this list until an issue between the Whistler 2010 Sports Legacies and the FIL is resolved .
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= Siege of Naxos ( 499 BC ) =
The Siege of Naxos ( 499 BC ) was a failed attempt by the Milesian tyrant Aristagoras , operating with support from , and in the name of the Persian Empire of Darius the Great , to conquer the island of Naxos . It was the opening act of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars , which would ultimately last for 50 years .
Aristagoras had been approached by exiled Naxian aristocrats , who were seeking to return to their island . Seeing an opportunity to bolster his position in Miletus , Aristagoras sought the help of his overlord , the Persian king Darius the Great , and the local satrap , Artaphernes to conquer Naxos . Consenting to the expedition , the Persians assembled a force of 200 triremes under the command of Megabates .
The expedition quickly descended into a debacle . Aristagoras and Megabates quarreled on the journey to Naxos , and someone ( possibly Megabates ) informed the Naxians of the imminent arrival of the force . When they arrived , the Persians and Ionians were thus faced with a city well prepared to undergo siege . The expeditionary force duly settled down to besiege the defenders , but after four months without success , ran out of money and were forced to return to Asia Minor .
In the aftermath of this disastrous expedition , and sensing his imminent removal as tyrant , Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against Darius the Great . The revolt then spread to Caria and Cyprus . Three years of Persian campaigning across Asia Minor followed , with no decisive effect , before the Persians regrouped and made straight for the epicentre of the rebellion at Miletus . At the Battle of Lade , the Persians decisively defeated the Ionian fleet and effectively ended the rebellion . Although Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold , Darius vowed to punish Athens and Eretria , who had supported the revolt . In 492 BC therefore , the first Persian invasion of Greece , would begin as a consequence of the failed attack on Naxos , and the Ionian Revolt .
= = Background = =
In the Greek Dark Ages that followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization , significant numbers of Greeks had emigrated to Asia Minor and settled there . These settlers were from three tribal groups : the Aeolians , Dorians and Ionians . The Ionians had settled about the coasts of Lydia and Caria , founding the twelve cities which made up Ionia . These cities were Miletus , Myus and Priene in Caria ; Ephesus , Colophon , Lebedos , Teos , Clazomenae , Phocaea and Erythrae in Lydia ; and the islands of Samos and Chios . The cities of Ionia had remained independent until they were conquered by the famous Lydian king Croesus , in around 560 BC . The Ionian cities then remained under Lydian rule until Lydia was in turn conquered by the nascent Achaemenid Empire of Cyrus the Great . The Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule . Elsewhere in the empire , Cyrus was able to identify elite native groups to help him rule his new subjects — such as the priesthood of Judea . No such group existed in Greek cities at this time ; while there was usually an aristocracy , this was inevitably divided into feuding factions . The Persians thus settled for the sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city , even though this drew them into the Ionians ' internal conflicts . Furthermore , a tyrant might develop an independent streak , and have to be replaced . The tyrants themselves faced a difficult task ; they had to deflect the worst of their fellow citizens ' hatred , while staying in the favour of the Persians .
About 40 years after the Persian conquest of Ionia , and in the reign of the fourth Persian king , Darius the Great , the stand @-@ in Milesian tyrant Aristagoras found himself in this familiar predicament . Aristagoras 's uncle Histiaeus had accompanied Darius on campaign in 513 BC , and when offered a reward , had asked for part of the conquered Thracian territory . Although this was granted , Histiaeus 's ambition alarmed Darius 's advisors , and Histiaeus was thus further ' rewarded ' by being compelled to remain in Susa as Darius 's " Royal Table @-@ Companion " . Taking over from Histiaeus , Aristagoras was faced with bubbling discontent in Miletus .
Indeed , this period in Greek history is remarkable for the social and political upheaval in many Greek cities , particularly the establishment of the first democracy in Athens . The island of Naxos , part of the Cyclades group in the Aegean Sea , was also in this period affected by political turmoil . Naxos had been ruled by the tyrant Lygdamis , a protege of the Athenian tyrant Peisistratos , until around 524 BC , when he was overthrown by the Spartans . After this , a native aristocracy seems to have flourished , and Naxos became one of the most prosperous and powerful of the Aegean islands . Despite its success , Naxos was not immune to class tensions and internal strife , and shortly before 500 BC , the population seized power , expelling the aristocrats and establishing a democracy .
In 500 BC , Aristagoras was approached by some of the exiles from Naxos , who asked him to help restore them to the control of the island . Seeing an opportunity to strengthen his position in Miletus by conquering Naxos , Aristagoras approached the satrap of Lydia , Artaphernes , with a proposal . If Artaphernes provided an army , Aristagoras would conquer the island in Darius 's name , and he would then give Artaphernes a share of the spoils to cover the cost of raising the army . Furthermore , Aristagoras suggested that once Naxos fell , the other Cyclades would also quickly follow , and he even suggested that Euboea could be attacked on the same expedition . Artaphernes agreed in principle , and asked Darius for permission to launch the expedition . Darius assented to this , and a force of 200 triremes was assembled in order to attack Naxos the following year .
= = Prelude = =
The Persian fleet was duly assembled in the spring of 499 BC , and sailed to Ionia . Artaphernes put his ( and Darius 's ) cousin Megabates in charge of the expedition , and dispatched him to Miletus with the Persian army . They were joined there by Aristagoras and the Milesian forces , and then embarked and set sail . In order to avoid warning the Naxians , the fleet initially sailed north , towards the Hellespont , but when they arrived at Chios they doubled back and headed south for Naxos .
Herodotus recounts that Megabates made inspections of the ships ( probably whilst beached for the night ) , and came across one ship from Myndus which had not posted any sentries . Megabates ordered his guard to find the captain of the ship , Scylax , and then had the captain thrust into one of the ship 's oar holes with his head outside and his body inside the ship . News reached Aristagoras of the treatment of his friend and he went to Megabates and asked him to reconsider his decision . When Megabates refused to grant Aristagoras 's wishes , Aristagoras simply cut the captain loose himself . Predictably , Megabates was furious with Aristagoras , who in turn retorted " But you , what have you to do with these matters ? Did not Artaphrenes send you to obey me and to sail wherever I bid you ? Why are you so meddlesome ? " . According to Herodotus , Megabates was so enraged by this that he sent messengers to the Naxians to warn them of the approach of the Persian force .
Modern historians , doubting that a Persian commander would have sabotaged his own invasion , have suggested several other possible scenarios . It is , however , impossible to know exactly how the Naxians became aware of the invasion , but undoubtedly they were aware , and began to make preparations . Herodotus tells us that the Naxians had previously had no inkling of the expedition , but that when news arrived they brought everything in from the fields , gathered enough food with which to survive a siege and reinforced their walls .
= = Opposing forces = =
Herodotus does not provide complete numbers for either side , but gives some idea of the strength of the two forces . Clearly , since they were fighting on home territory , the Naxian forces could theoretically have included the whole population . Herodotus says in his narrative that the " Naxians have eight thousand men that bear shields " , which suggests that there were 8 @,@ 000 men capable of equipping themselves as hoplites . These men would have formed a strong backbone to the Naxian resistance .
The Persian force was primarily based around 200 triremes . It is not clear whether there were additional transport ships . The standard complement of a trireme was 200 men , including 14 marines . In the second Persian invasion of Greece , each Persian ship had carried thirty extra marines , and this was probably also true in the first invasion when the whole invasion force was apparently carried in triremes . Furthermore , the Chian ships at the Battle of Lade also carried 40 marines each . This suggests that a trireme could probably carry a maximum of 40 – 45 soldiers — triremes seem to have been easily destabilised by extra weight . If the Persian force at Naxos was similarly made up , then it would have contained somewhere in the region of 8 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 soldiers ( in addition to many unarmed rowers ) .
= = Siege = =
When the Ionians and Persians arrived at Naxos , they were faced by a well @-@ fortified and supplied city . Herodotus does not explicitly say , but this was presumably the eponymous capital of Naxos . He provides few details of the military actions that ensued , although there is a suggestion that there was an initial assault on the city , which was repelled . The Ionians and Persians thus settled down to besiege the city . However , after four months , the Persians had run out of money , with Aristagoras also spending a great deal . Thoroughly demoralised , the expedition prepared to return to Asia Minor empty handed . Before leaving , they built a stronghold for the exiled Naxian aristocrats on the island . This was a typical strategy in the Greek world for those exiled by internal strife , giving them a base from which to quickly return , as events permitted .
= = Aftermath = =
With the failure of his attempt to conquer Naxos , Aristagoras found himself in dire straits ; he was unable to repay Artaphernes the costs of the expedition , and had moreover alienated himself from the Persian royal family . He fully expected to be stripped of his position by Artaphernes . In a desperate attempt to save himself , Aristagoras chose to incite his own subjects , the Milesians , to revolt against their Persian masters , thereby beginning the Ionian Revolt . Although Herodotus presents the revolt as a consequence of Aristagoras 's personal motives , it is clear that Ionia must have been ripe for rebellion anyway , the primary grievance being the tyrants installed by the Persians . Aristagoras 's actions have thus been likened to tossing a flame into a kindling box ; they incited rebellion across Ionia ( and Aeolis and Doris ) , and tyrannies were everywhere abolished , and democracies established in their place .
Having brought all of Hellenic Asia Minor into revolt , Aristagoras evidently realised that the Greeks would need other allies in order to fight the Persians . In the winter of 499 BC , he sailed to mainland Greece to try to recruit allies . He failed to persuade the Spartans , but the cities of Athens and Eretria agreed to support the rebellion . In the spring of 498 BC , an Athenian force of twenty triremes , accompanied by five from Eretria , for a total of twenty @-@ five triremes , set sail for Ionia . They joined up with the main Ionian force near Ephesus . This force was then guided by the Ephesians through mountains to Sardis , Artaphernes 's satrapal capital . The Greeks caught the Persians unawares , and were able to capture the lower city . However , the lower city then caught on fire , and the Greeks , demoralised , then retreated from the city , and began to make their way back to Ephesus . The Persian troops in Asia Minor followed the Greek force , catching them outside Ephesus . It is clear that the demoralised and tired Greeks were no match for the Persians , and were completely routed in the battle which ensued at Ephesus . The Ionians who escaped the battle made for their own cities , while the remaining Athenians and Eretrians managed to return to their ships , and sailed back to Greece .
Despite these setbacks , the revolt spread further . The Ionians sent men to the Hellespont and Propontis , and captured Byzantium and the other nearby cities . They also persuaded the Carians to join the rebellion . Furthermore , seeing the spread of the rebellion , the kingdoms of Cyprus also revolted against Persian rule without any outside persuasion . For the next three years , the Persian army and navy were fully occupied with fighting the rebellions in Caria and Cyprus , and Ionia seems to have had an uneasy peace during these years . At the height of the Persian counter @-@ offensive , Aristagoras , sensing the untenability of his position , decided to abandon his position as leader of Miletus , and of the revolt , and he left Miletus . Herodotus , who evidently has a rather negative view of him , suggests that Aristagoras simply lost his nerve and fled .
By the sixth year of the revolt ( 494 BC ) , the Persian forces had regrouped . The available land forces were gathered into one army , and were accompanied by a fleet supplied by the re @-@ subjugated Cypriots , and the Egyptians , Cilicians and Phoenicians . The Persians headed directly to Miletus , paying little attention to other strongholds , presumably intending to tackle the revolt at its centre . The Ionians sought to defend Miletus by sea , leaving the defense of Miletus to the Milesians . The Ionian fleet gathered at the island of Lade , off the coast of Miletus . The Persians were uncertain of victory at Lade , so attempted to persuade some of the Ionian contingents to defect . Although this was unsuccessful at first , when the Persians finally attacked the Ionians , the Samian contingent accepted the Persian offer . As the Persian and Ionian fleets met , the Samians sailed away from the battle , causing the collapse of the Ionian battle line . Although the Chian contingent and a few other ships remained , and fought bravely against the Persians , the battle was lost .
With defeat at Lade , the Ionian Revolt was all but ended . The next year , the Persians reduced the last rebel strongholds , and began the process of bringing peace to the region . The Ionian Revolt constituted the first major conflict between Greece and the Persian Empire , and as such represents the first phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . Although Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold , Darius vowed to punish Athens and Eretria for their support for the revolt . Moreover , seeing that the myriad city states of Greece posed a continued threat to the stability of his empire , he decided to conquer the whole of Greece . In 492 BC , the first Persian invasion of Greece , the next phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars , would begin as a direct consequence of the Ionian Revolt .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Herodotus , The Histories ( Godley translation , 1920 )
Thucydides , History of The Peloponnesian Wars
Diodorus Siculus , Library
Cicero , On the Laws
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= Tropical Storm Alpha ( 2005 ) =
Tropical Storm Alpha was the twenty @-@ third named storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . The twenty @-@ one names from the predetermined A – W list having been used , Alpha was the first tropical storm ever to be given a name from the Greek alphabet . On October 20 , Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ five formed from a tropical wave near the Windward Islands . It became a tropical storm on October 23 , and reached its peak intensity but weakened again before making landfall in the Dominican Republic that afternoon . Crossing the island of Hispaniola it weakened to a tropical depression , and persisted until October 24 , when it dissipated . Its remnant low was absorbed by Hurricane Wilma 's large circulation .
Alpha dumped torrential rain on the island of Hispaniola , making it the eighth wettest storm to impact poverty @-@ stricken Haiti . It caused 26 deaths , 17 of them in Haiti and all of them caused by floods and rain @-@ related landslides . Roads were blocked for weeks and hundreds of houses were destroyed .
= = Meteorological history = =
Alpha 's origins were from a tropical wave that developed near the Windward Islands on October 20 . Satellite images indicated that a low pressure center associated with the tropical wave formed near Barbados and moved west @-@ northwest with increasing convective activity . In an area of light wind shear , the convection increased and Doppler weather radar data from Puerto Rico detected a well @-@ defined cyclonic circulation . On October 22 , the area of low pressure organized into Tropical Depression 25 , southeast of Hispaniola . Shortly thereafter , satellite imagery indicated that a closed circulation had developed , and the associated convection had started banding . Later that same day , the depression had organized enough to be upgraded to Tropical Storm Alpha ; this was the first time the National Hurricane Center had to use a Greek name for an Atlantic hurricane .
When Alpha came within the Doppler weather radar range of Puerto Rico , the radar suggested that an eyewall @-@ like feature had developed . Alpha was tracking along the southwest edge of a subtropical ridge . With nearby Hurricane Wilma 's large circulation , Alpha was experiencing strong southerly flow from Wilma . Alpha , with its small circulation , was then faced with the mountainous terrain of Hispaniola , which led forecasters to believe Alpha was soon to dissipate . Shortly after Alpha reached its peak intensity on October 23 its wind decreased . While convection remained in bands , the low level circulation was disrupted by land . This left the center ill @-@ defined and difficult to locate .
Late on October 23 , Alpha made landfall in Hispaniola , quickly decreasing in intensity as it did so . After making landfall , the storm weakened , leaving it just between tropical storm and tropical depression status . Because of the weakening , and the strong southerly flow from nearby Hurricane Wilma , it was hard to determine whether a low @-@ level circulation was present . However , satellite imagery suggested that a new center had developed over open waters to the north of Hispaniola . It was downgraded to a tropical depression early the next day , now re @-@ emerging over open waters . The storm soon developed an elongated center of circulation which indicated that the system was weakening . On October 24 the low @-@ level center had completely dissolved , and only a small area of convective activity persisted . Thus the system had dissipated , and was a remnant low pressure system when the National Hurricane Center issued their last advisories of Alpha . Shortly thereafter , the remnant low was absorbed into the circulation of Hurricane Wilma on October 25 .
= = Preparations = =
On October 22 , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning for the island of Hispaniola and a tropical storm watch for Turks and Caicos Islands and the southeastern Bahamas . The tropical storm watch was quickly upgraded to a tropical storm warning . In the Dominican Republic , authorities ordered the evacuation of at least 30 @,@ 000 people living in areas where flooding was possible . On October 22 and 23 , the Haitian government ordered level 1 and then level 2 alerts for the county in anticipation of Tropical Storm Alpha 's rainfall . Haiti was already experiencing flooding from Hurricane Wilma 's passage between October 8 and 19 , so the threat of more rainfall was particularly dire . The country 's Centre National de Meteorologie issued weather bulletins through existing media distribution channels with clear instructions on how residences should prepare for floods and landslides . The local government of the Sud @-@ Est Department ordered the evacuation of its capital city , Jacmel . The national government mobilized personnel and resources of the Direction of Civil Protection , the Secrétariat Permanent de Gestion des Risques et des Désastres ( SPGRD ) , and the National Police to pre @-@ arranged Emergency Operation Centres .
= = Impact = =
Although the storm 's circulation technically made landfall near Barahona in the Dominican Republic , the bulk of its impact occurred in the country 's poorer neighbor , Haiti . When Alpha arrived on Hispaniola it brought between 4 inches ( 101 mm ) and 7 @.@ 9 in ( 201 mm ) of rain which triggered floods and landslides . The road between Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and the Haiti 's Sud Department was closed at Grand @-@ Goâve in the Ouest department . In the coastal city of Léogâne near Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , bridges were closed to cars but not to pedestrians . Surging rivers east of Marigot and west of Jacmel closed roads in that region , and the main road between Jérémie and Les Cayes was also closed . Elsewhere in the country , landslides temporarily blocked several other major roads . Gonâve Island , which had been suffering a brutal drought , was stricken by floods which overwhelmed and washed away pipes of the water draining system in Nan Baré .
Damages in Haiti were mostly confined to the Ouest , Sud @-@ Est , and Grand 'Anse departments . In Haiti , 17 people died . Two drowned when a river overflowed in Grande Anse and two more died after being electrocuted during flooding , one in the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince suburb of Carrefour and the other in the southern town of Jacmel . The rest of the deaths were the results of landslides and flooding in various areas in the country . Across the country , 243 houses were destroyed , and 191 more were damaged .
Nine people were killed in the Dominican Republic : two fishermen went missing at sea during the storm and the others were swept away by flood waters when rivers burst their banks in Guaricanos and Puerto Plata . Otherwise , the damage in the Dominican Republic was minimal .
The Haitian government did not request international assistance , although The United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti ( MINUSTAH ) , the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) and the Haitian Red @-@ Cross , which were already working in Haiti , took on some supporting roles . In response to local flooding , the Jacmel Regional branch of the Red Cross distributed an additional 400 water purification tablets , 11 boxes of high @-@ energy biscuits , and 10 boxes of body soap .
= = Naming and records = =
Since all the twenty one predetermined hurricane names were exhausted after Hurricane Wilma , the Greek alphabet was used and the storm was designated Alpha once it reached tropical storm status . The name Alpha had been used before in the Atlantic for a subtropical storm , but 2005 was the first season to have a tropical storm Alpha .
At the time it was thought that Alpha was the twenty @-@ second storm of the season , and so was the storm which broke the 1933 season 's record for most storms in a single season . However post @-@ season analysis revealed that there was also a previously unnoticed subtropical storm on October 4 , which made Alpha the twenty @-@ third storm of the season . Alpha was the first tropical storm to be assigned a Greek @-@ alphabet name after the list of hurricane names was exhausted .
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= SMS Seeadler =
SMS Seeadler ( " His Majesty 's Ship Seeadler — Sea Eagle " ) was an unprotected cruiser of the Bussard class , the third member of a class of six ships built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . Her sister ships included Bussard , the lead ship , along with Falke , Condor , Cormoran , and Geier . Seeadler was built at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig in late 1890 , launched in February 1892 , and commissioned in August of that year . Intended for colonial service , Seeadler was armed with a main battery of eight 10 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and had a top speed of 15 @.@ 5 knots ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) .
Seeadler spent almost her entire career abroad . Following her commissioning , she joined the protected cruiser Kaiserin Augusta on a visit to the United States for the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's discovery of the Americas . She thereafter went to German East Africa , where she was stationed until 1898 . She returned to Germany briefly for a modernization in 1898 – 1899 , before being assigned to the South Seas Station in German New Guinea . During her tour in the Pacific , she participated in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in Qing China in 1900 . Her assignment in the Pacific was interrupted by the 1905 Maji @-@ Maji Rebellion in German East Africa , which prompted the German Navy to send Seeadler there .
Seeadler remained in East Africa for the next nine years , returning to Germany finally in January 1914 . She had spent over thirteen years abroad since her 1899 modernization , the longest period of continuous overseas service of any major German warship . After arriving in Germany , she was decommissioned . She was not mobilized after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , being too old to be of any fighting value . She was instead used as a mine storage hulk outside Wilhelmshaven . On 19 April 1917 , her cargo of mines exploded and destroyed the ship , though there were no casualties . Her wreck was never raised for scrapping .
= = Design = =
Seeadler was 83 @.@ 9 meters ( 275 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 7 m ( 42 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 42 m ( 14 @.@ 5 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 864 t ( 1 @,@ 835 long tons ; 2 @,@ 055 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines powered by four coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers . These provided a top speed of 15 @.@ 5 kn ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) and a range of approximately 2 @,@ 950 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 460 km ; 3 @,@ 390 mi ) at 9 kn ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . She had a crew of 9 officers and 152 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with eight 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns in single pedestal mounts , supplied with 800 rounds of ammunition in total . They had a range of 10 @,@ 800 m ( 35 @,@ 400 ft ) . Two guns were placed side by side forward , two on each broadside , and two side by side aft . The gun armament was rounded out by five revolver cannon . She was also equipped with two 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes , both of which were mounted on the deck .
= = Service history = =
Seeadler , named for the sea eagle , was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig in late 1890 . She was launched on 2 February 1892 , originally named Kaiseradler . The shipyard director , Kapitän zur See Aschmann gave the launching speech . She was completed by 27 June 1892 , when she was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy . The ship was renamed on 17 August when she was commissioned , since Kaiser Wilhelm II decided to rename his first yacht Kaiseradler instead . Seeadler began her sea trials the same day . On 25 October , she was accidentally rammed by the armored corvette Bayern in Kiel , but she suffered only light damage . Her trials lasted until 17 November ; she formally entered service with the fleet on 15 March 1893 .
After her commissioning , Seedadler was slated to replace Schwalbe in the East African Station in German East Africa . But first , Seeadler and the protected cruiser Kaiserin Augusta conducted a good @-@ will visit to the United States , a belated celebration of the 400th anniversary of Columbus 's first voyage across the Atlantic . The ships left Kiel on 25 March , but due to a mistaken estimate for the amount of coal that would be necessary to cross the Atlantic , Seeadler ran out of fuel while en route . Kaiserin Augusta took the cruiser under tow to Halifax , where she refilled her coal bunkers . The two cruisers reached Hampton Roads on 18 April . Ships from nine other navies , including the US Navy , arrived for a major celebration in New York harbor that was reviewed by Grover Cleveland , the President of the United States . Seeadler attracted particular attention due to her yacht @-@ like appearance .
= = = Deployment to East Africa = = =
After the conclusion of the festivities in the United States , Seeadler steamed back across the Atlantic , first to the Azores , before proceeding into the Mediterranean Sea and then into the Red Sea . There , she met Schwalbe at Aden on 20 June . Seeadler proceeded to Bombay , India for a period of routine maintenance that lasted from 3 July to 21 August . The cruiser finally arrived on station on 2 September when she dropped anchor in Zanzibar , where she met the survey ship Möwe , the other vessel on the East Africa Station . On 9 September both ships went to Kilwa ; a group of slave traders had attacked the small detachment of Polizeitruppe ( police force ) stationed there . The colonial army , the Schutztruppe ( protection force ) was unavailable to reinforce the police troops , and so Seeadler and Möwe bombarded the slavers and neutralize the threat .
Seeadler thereafter proceeded to Lourenço Marques in Portuguese Moçambique . A rebellion in the Portuguese colony threatened German nationals residing in the city ; Seeadler evacuated the civilians and took them to Zanzibar , where they arrived on 15 November . During this period , Möwe was transferred to German New Guinea , and Seeadler 's sister ships Condor and Cormoran arrived in German East Africa . Condor was to reinforce Seeadler and Cormoran was to continue on to the Pacific , but the latter remained in the area temporarily to strengthen the German naval force in the region . This was done both to observe the damage to German economic interests in Moçambique and as a show of force to prevent British encroachment on Delagoa Bay , which was the only supply port for the independent Transvaal . In January 1895 , Condor took over Seeadler 's role on the East African coast .
On 10 January , Seeadler departed for Bombay , where her boilers were repaired in a major overhaul . Workers from the Kaiserliche Werft in Kiel were sent to do the work . Seeadler was back in service by May , and on 18 May she departed Bombay , arriving in East Africa on 31 May . Cormoran was meanwhile detached from East Africa and allowed to continue to the Pacific . The rest of the year was uneventful for Seeadler , though she became briefly involved in political developments in East Africa . The British Jameson Raid into the Transvaal in December 1895 threatened some 15 @,@ 000 German nationals in the Transvaal , along with the investment of 500 million gold marks in the country . The German governor considered ordering Seeadler to contribute a landing force to protect the German consul in Pretoria , the capital of the Transvaal , but the defeat of the Jameson Raid rendered the plan redundant . Seeadler nevertheless remained in East Africa while tensions cooled . In mid @-@ February 1896 , she went to Cape Town for her yearly overhaul .
After completing her repairs , Seeadler was ordered to German South @-@ West Africa on 28 April to assist the Schutztruppe in suppressing a local rebellion . The ship was tasked with interrupting the shipment of weapons from British arms dealers to the rebels . Seeadler thereafter proceeded to Swakopmund on 5 May ; she was joined there by the gunboat Hyäne . The two ships sent forces ashore to defend the city . At the end of the month , Seeadler returned to East Africa . On 2 October , she steamed to Zanzibar to take the deposed Sultan Khalid bin Barghash to Dar es Salaam following the brief Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War . On 20 December , Seeadler was again called to Lourenço Marques after the German consul there , Graf von Pfeil was attacked by Portuguese colonial police . Condor joined her there on 2 January 1897 to strengthen the show of force . Seeadler thereafter proceeded to Cape Town for her yearly overhaul .
The following two years proceeded uneventfully . In January 1898 , Seeadler again returned to Cape Town for an overhaul before being ordered to return to Germany on 3 May . She left Dar es Salaam three days later and arrived in Aden on 31 May . There she met Schwalbe , which was replacing her in East Africa . Seeadler returned to Kiel on 26 June , and she was placed out of service on 9 July for a major overhaul in Danzig . The work was done at the Kaiserliche Werft , and the changes included removing the main mast and cutting down her rigging to a topsail schooner rig . On 3 October 1899 , Seeadler was recommissioned and was ordered to replace her sister Falke on the South Seas Station in German New Guinea . She departed Kiel on 19 October and stopped in Tangiers on 27 – 28 October to force restitution from the Moroccan government for German financial damages . Seeadler then proceeded to Germany 's south @-@ Pacific colonies , arriving on 15 November .
= = = Deployment to the Pacific = = =
Following her arrival in the Pacific , Seeadler first went to the Admiralty Islands on 18 January 1900 in response to the murder of European businessmen by natives there . Starting on 30 January , she took a cruise to tour the German holdings in the area that lasted for several weeks . Stops included the Caroline Islands and the Mariana Islands , both of which had been recently purchased from Spain . In May , a cruise to German Samoa followed ; there she met Cormoran . The two ships then toured the islands with the governor of German Samoa , Wilhelm Solf , and the Samoan chief , Mata 'afa Iosefo aboard Seeadler . In July 1900 , following the outbreak of the Boxer Rebellion in Qing China the previous year , Seeadler was sent from the South Seas Station to assist in the Western suppression of the Boxers . She arrived in Tsingtau in the Kiautschou Bay concession and joined the ships of the East Asia Squadron . She spent the following months off Chinese harbors with the armored cruiser Fürst Bismarck and the protected cruiser Hertha .
On 24 April 1901 , Seeadler was ordered to steam to the island of Yap in the Carolines to assist the stranded Norddeutscher Lloyd postal steamer SS München . A pair of tugboats had managed to pull the steamer free by the time Seeadler arrived on 3 May , though the cruiser 's crew assisted with repairs to the ship 's damaged hull . Seeadler thereafter returned to East Asia and resumed her patrols of Chinese harbors , though during this period she also visited Japanese harbors as well . These duties lasted until the end of 1902 . During Seeadler 's operations in China , her crew suffered only one casualty from enemy action . On 2 January 1903 , her sister Bussard arrived to take her place in East Asian waters , allowing Seeadler to return to the South Seas Station . Seeadler underwent a periodic overhaul in Uraga , outside Tokyo , Japan from 3 August to 14 September .
Following the outbreak of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in February 1904 , Seeadler was recalled to Tsingtau to be prepared for any possible hostilities involving Germany . During this period , Cormoran was replaced by Condor ; the two cruisers were joined by Seeadler 's old consort from East Africa , the survey vessel Möwe . In early 1905 , Seeadler conducted goodwill visits to the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) , before returning to Tsingtau in April . On 28 June , with the Russo @-@ Japanese War winding down following the decisive Japanese victory at the Battle of Tsushima , Seeadler was detached from the East Asia Squadron , permitting her return to the South Seas Station . While en route to her station area , Seeadler received an order to return to Africa during a stop at Ponape on 20 August . Her presence was necessary there to help put down a major uprising , the Maji Maji Rebellion , that had broken out in July . Seeadler ran aground twice , at Labuan and Singapore on her way to East Africa , but both incidents caused no damage . She arrived in Dar es Salaam on 1 October .
= = = Return to East Africa = = =
In mid @-@ October , Seeadler sent a landing party ashore at Samanga to protect the coastal telegraph line there . By mid @-@ December , she had returned to Dar es Salaam , before proceeding to Kilwa on 17 January 1906 . The cruiser was back in Dar es Salaam on 24 January . Another overhaul at Cape Town followed from 10 February to 16 March . By this time , the situation in East Africa had calmed , and the light cruiser Thetis , which had also been sent to suppress the Maji @-@ Maji uprising , was sent back to Germany . Seeadler nevertheless remained in the region , and was formally assigned to the East Africa Station in early 1907 . In October 1907 , then @-@ Korvettenkapitän ( Corvette Captain ) Hugo Meurer served as the ship 's commanding officer . He would hold the position until June 1909
In 1908 , Seeadler was joined by Bussard on the East Africa Station . From 18 February to 18 March , Seeadler underwent another overhaul at Cape Town . She thereafter proceeded to German South @-@ West Africa , stopping in Walvis Bay and Swakopmund . There , she cruised with the gunboat Panther in March and early April . On 18 April , she was back in Dar es Salaam . Another period of dockyard repairs followed from 12 to 26 September , this time in Bombay . The rest of 1908 continued uneventfully for Seeadler , as did the next few years . The only significant event came in early November 1911 , when Seeadler pulled the Hamburg @-@ Bremen @-@ Afrika Linie steamer SS Irmgard free after she ran aground off Quelimane . In 1913 , the mayor of Cape Town hosted delegations from Seeadler and the British protected cruiser HMS Hermes . And at the end of December , the princes Leopold and Georg of Bavaria visited Seeadler in Dar es Salaam while on an overseas tour .
= = = Later service = = =
On 9 January 1914 , Seeadler departed East Africa for the last time , bound for Germany . She had spent nearly thirteen and a half years abroad , the longest uninterrupted period of overseas service of any major German warship . Her replacement , her sister Geier , had not yet arrived but was en route . Seeadler stopped in Aden on 22 January , and arrived in Kiel on 18 March . She was then moved to Danzig and decommissioned . On 6 May 1914 , she was reclassified as a gunboat . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she was reduced to a hulk for storing naval mines since she was no longer fit for active service . She was towed to Wilhelmshaven and anchored in the outer roadstead . On 19 April 1917 , her cargo exploded while she was moored in the Jade outside Wilhelmshaven . The explosion destroyed the ship , but there were no casualties ; her wreck was never raised .
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= Wyangala =
Wyangala / ˈwaɪæŋɡɑːlə / is a small village in the Lachlan Valley , near the junction of the Abercrombie and Lachlan Rivers , just below the Wyangala Dam wall . It is in the South West Slopes of New South Wales , Australia , and about 320 km ( 200 mi ) west of the state capital , Sydney .
The village was named after a Wiradjuri word of unknown meaning . The Wiradjuri people were the original inhabitants of the Lachlan Valley , with campsites along river flats , on open land and by rivers . In 1817 John Oxley and George William Evans were the first Europeans to explore the valley . White settlement commenced several years later in the 1830s , leading to violent clashes between the native population and the settlers .
The present @-@ day village was established in 1928 , during the construction of Wyangala Dam . However , in the same area , there was a scattered pioneering settlement known as Wyangala Flats , which was established in the 1840s . This settlement was submerged under water following the completion of Wyangala Dam in 1935 . Although Wyangala grew substantially during periods of dam construction , the population dwindled in the subsequent years . This resulted in the removal of houses and the closure of most businesses , leaving Wyangala with a small primary school , a Catholic church , sports fields and parks , in addition to other facilities . There are no buildings of historical note , as the original purpose of the village was to solely provide utilitarian accommodation for the construction workers .
Attractions in the area include Lake Wyangala ( used for power generation , water @-@ sports and fishing activities ) , a nine @-@ hole golf course , walking and mountain bike trails , and the 1 @.@ 37 km ( 0 @.@ 85 mi ) long dam wall itself . Wyangala has a warm and temperate climate with a diverse range of native and exotic plants and animals , including threatened and endangered species . The flora , fauna and village residents occupy a hilly landscape dominated by granite , with large rock outcrops and boulders throughout the entire area .
= = History = =
= = = European settlement and the Wiradjuri people = = =
The Wiradjuri people were the original custodians of the region surrounding Wyangala . These skilled hunter @-@ fisher @-@ gatherers wore possum @-@ skin cloaks and lived along river flats , on open ground and by rivers . They were , and still remain , the largest indigenous group in New South Wales , with tribal lands encompassing the Macquarie , the Lachlan and the Murrumbidgee rivers .
Archaeological investigations have identified over 200 Wiradjuri campsites around Wyangala , suggesting the native population in the area was originally high . Campsites were located on gentle hill slopes , on elevated crests and on alluvial / colluvial terraces near the Lachlan River course .
The name ' Wyangala ' ( pronounced / ˈwaɪæŋɡɑːlə / ) originates from a Wiradjuri word of unknown meaning . However , similar sounding words in the Wiradjuri language indicate it may mean troublesome or bad ( wanggun ) white ( ngalar ) . The village , situated adjacent the Lachlan River , inherited this name , as did the scattered pioneering settlement of Wyangala Flats .
On 27 May 1815 , Deputy Surveyor George William Evans was the first European to discover the headwaters of the Lachlan River , naming it in honour of the NSW Governor , Lachlan Macquarie . Two years later Lieutenant John Oxley , with Evans by his side , explored the Lachlan from its junction with the Belubula River to the Great Cumbung Swamp , a distance of 1 @,@ 450 km ( 900 mi ) . As Oxley progressed down the Lachlan , he had friendly encounters with the Wiradjuri people , noting that the language they spoke was distinctly different from that used by the indigenous population on the coast . By the time Oxley had reached the Cumbung Swamp , he could advance no further due to the presence of ' impassable ' marshland , eventually being forced to abandon the journey and to turn back . Oxley believed he had reached a marshy inland sea , concluding that the interior of Australia was ' uninhabitable ' and unfit for settlement .
Despite Oxley 's bleak assessment of the Lachlan Valley , European settlement of the area began several years after the expedition . In 1831 Arthur Rankin and James Sloan , both cattlemen from Bathurst , were the first white settlers to move into the Valley . Encroachment on traditional Wiradjuri lands resulted in violent clashes between the indigenous population and the settlers . In the midst of this ongoing conflict , new land was made available in the Wyangala area by the colonial government . By the 1840s occupation licenses for land at Wyangala Flats were being auctioned from the Bathurst Police Office , and by 1860 country lots at Wyangala were selling from the Boorowa Police Office for £ 1 an acre . At this time and until the construction of the 1935 dam , the land at Wyangala was primarily used for wool production .
The conflict with the Wiradjuri people lessened by the 1850s , as gold mining and free selection brought new settlers to the area . The unrelenting tide of Europeans overwhelmed the indigenous population , resulting in the occupation of traditional lands , the destruction of sacred sites , and perhaps most damaging of all , the introduction of new diseases . This eventually led to the displacement and the decline of the Wiradjuri people .
= = = Gold and bushrangers = = =
Gold mining was prevalent in the nearby Mount McDonald area in the late 1800s and early 1900s after reef gold was discovered in 1880 . The quartz reefs were found by Donald McDonald and his party as they were prospecting the mountain ranges around Wyangala . It was mere chance that McDonald happened upon the gold — he had failed to find the precious metal in areas where he was looking . On the day of the discovery , he was returning to his campsite and saw sunlight reflecting off something beneath a tree , this turned out to be the first piece of gold . This eventually led to the discovery of two gold @-@ rich quartz reefs . As news of his discovery spread , miners were drawn to the area and slowly the township of Mount McDonald grew out of the forest . In its prime , the town had
some 600 persons living there as well as many people in the surrounding district . A school , at least one ( Catholic ) Church , banks , a general store ... a resident doctor and the inevitable pubs .
By the late 1920s , as mining declined , the town faded away . A hamlet of no more than 4 or 5 houses exists where the Mt McDonald township once stood .
Although most of the gold mining activity was limited to Mount McDonald , alluvial gold and precious gems were also found along the banks of the Lachlan River at Wyangala in the early 1900s . However , the find was not significant enough to see commercial interest .
The discovery of gold in other parts of New South Wales in the years prior to that found at Mount McDonald , led to increased bushranger activity . During the 1860s and 1870s the Lachlan Valley had serious problems with bushrangers , notably gangs led by Frank Gardiner , John Gilbert and Ben Hall , amongst others . Frank Gardiner was one of the most successful bushrangers of the time . His final robbery , which also was to be his greatest haul , occurred in 1862 at Eugowra Rocks . In this instance , Gardiner along with Ben Hall , John Gilbert and others , robbed a ' gold escort ' carrying in the range of ₤ 14 @,@ 000 – ₤ 22 @,@ 000 in gold and cash . It was rumored that Gardiner convinced the gang members to bury their share of the gold in a mountain cave near Wyangala .
Somewhere on a rock @-@ strewn mountain near the Fish River that empties into the Wyangala Dam , a fortune in stolen gold lies hidden .
Gardiner was to give the gang members a signal when it was safe to recover the gold . This was never to happen , as Gardiner was eventually exiled to the United States after being sent to prison . Five years after the heist , an Irishman arrived in New South Wales with a rough map marking the location of the gold , purportedly drawn by Gardiner . Even with this map and years of searching , no trace of the gold was ever found . By the late 1800s improved police efficiency was bringing to a close the era of the bushranger , many of whom had been gaoled , exiled , shot or hanged . This decline in criminal activity coincided with a general push to populate the region , the introduction of telegraph communications , and the development of transport infrastructure .
= = = 20th century = = =
By the early 1900s , unreliable river flows were stifling development in the Lachlan Valley . In 1902 the Legislative Assembly of New South Wales recognised the need for water conservation . Recurrent droughts and their associated effects on waterways , were impacting production and causing significant livestock deaths . The Assembly considered options to address the problem , including a proposal to build a reservoir at Wyangala . Previous surveys of the Lachlan Valley had identified Wyangala as being the only suitable location for a large water storage . These early discussions eventually led to the construction of the 1935 dam and the beginnings of present @-@ day Wyangala village .
= = = = 1928 – 1935 dam construction = = = =
To promote development in the region and to provide a reliable water supply , a dam was needed to regulate the Lachlan river @-@ flow . Following the completion of Burrinjuck Dam on the Murrumbidgee River , work started on Wyangala Dam . The official sod @-@ turning ceremony to mark the beginning of the A £ 1 @.@ 3 million project was performed by the NSW Premier , Sir Thomas Bavin , on 17 December 1928 . The ceremony was not conducted in the usual manner of turning over a sod of soil , it was achieved through the detonation of explosives , removing tonnes of earth and rock .
The ' galvanized @-@ iron town of Wyangala ' was established to house the construction workers on land once owned by the Green family — pioneering settlers . By January 1930 Wyangala had become a bustling center with 450 workers and their families in the village , and 74 children attending the new primary school . In the words of a district resident
the township is progressing rapidly . The most important buildings are : One post and telegraph office , two stores , two bakers ' shops , one police station , one medical practitioner , one butcher 's shop , one public hall and school , one church , one boarding @-@ house for the men employed at the works , one G.S. bank , one temporary power house , and about 40 private residences ... When the dam is full the water will cover our house . I should think it will be a nice sight when completed . A new road has just been built from Woodstock to the dam . It runs through some wonderful scenery . A 32 @-@ passenger bus runs from Woodstock to the dam tri @-@ weekly .
This major undertaking was not without incident . Four men died during the construction of the dam , the first being Leslie Jeffrey , falling into the Lachlan River and drowning in 1929 . His death was followed by that of Walter Watt , a laborer ( 1931 ) , Wickliffe Brien , a dogman ( 1931 ) and Patrick Lewis , a carpenter ( 1933 ) .
The original pioneering settlement and cemetery were submerged under water after the dam was completed in 1935 .
= = = = 1961 – 1971 dam upgrade = = = =
Wyangala failed to hold the surging floodwaters of the devastating 1952 deluge , which was greater than any water mass it had been designed to withstand .
Due to concerns about the original dam capacity to withstand floods and a projected increase in demand for water by the agricultural industry in the region , Wyangala Dam was upgraded and enlarged from 1961 to 1971 . With post @-@ war immigration at its height , the Wyangala population swelled with a multinational workforce . Housing for these workers and their families was provided in temporary demountable dwellings within the village . At this time and also during the 1935 dam build , utilitarian construction prevailed , giving Wyangala no dwellings of historical note .
The ten year , A £ 18 million enlargement project increased the storage capacity of the dam threefold . The total surface area of the upgraded reservoir was 5 @,@ 390 ha ( 13 @,@ 300 acres ) , storing 1 @,@ 220 @,@ 000 ML ( 43 @,@ 000 × 10 ^ 6 cu ft ) ( two and a half times the volume of Sydney Harbour ) , within a catchment of 8 @,@ 300 km2 ( 3 @,@ 200 sq mi ) .
The opening ceremony for the upgraded dam was scheduled to be performed by Sir Roden Cutler , Governor of NSW on February 8 , 1971 . However , because of heavy rains and road flooding three days prior to the event , the opening was delayed until August 6 , 1971 . Over 2000 guests and officials attended the ceremony . In the months and years following the dam opening , the population of Wyangala decreased significantly ; houses used by workers on the north @-@ west and north @-@ east sides of the village were removed , leaving only the houses seen in the present day village , just below the dam wall .
= = = = Post office , school and church = = = =
By March 1929 , with dam construction underway ( see above ) , up to 60 letters arrived in the village every day or two , whenever a vehicle made the trip from Cowra to Wyangala . With over 350 workers and their families already in the growing village , the lack of a post office or telegraph office was a great inconvenience to the residents . To alleviate this issue , and to provide the residents with a reliable postal service , Wyangala Dam Post Office was opened on 14 March 1929 . The newly opened post office stamped mail with a Type 2C postmark , which had a full stop after the ‘ W ’ of ‘ N.S.W. ’ .
Throughout the subsequent years , the village post office became an integral part of the Wyangala community , providing the expected postal and , at times , banking services ( as an agent for the Commonwealth Bank of Australia ) . In the post @-@ telegraph era , a manual telephone exchange was also located within the post office . The postmaster / mistress would run the telephone exchange in conjunction with running the post office . The telephone exchange was automated in the late 1980s and the post office itself was closed in 1998 .
Postmasters / mistresses from the 1970s until closure , included :
Ken and Peggy Bloomfield ( 1970s )
Rosa and Graham Parr ( 1970s to early 1980s )
Geoff and Vicki Scott ( early to mid 1980s )
Jim and Yvonne Thomas ( mid 1980s to early 1990s )
Peter Raudonkis ( 1990s )
Wyangala Dam Public School was established not long after the opening of the village post office , in 1929 . At the time it was the district 's second school . Its initial purpose was to provide primary level education for the children of the Dam construction workers . Since establishment , the school has been located at three different sites around the village . The first was near the present @-@ day bowling club , and then near the Vic Roworth Conference Center , and finally during the 1960s , it was moved to its current location on Waugoola Road . Notably , there was an earlier school at Wyangala , which was established 22 years prior . This school ran for six years and closed in 1913 .
The number of children attending the school has varied widely over the years , ranging from 70 + in 1930 , to 160 in the 1960s , to 20 + in the early 1980s , to under 10 in the 2000s .
The first church in Wyangala was a small building made from timber and corrugated iron , built during the construction of the 1935 dam . As with the village school , it was originally located near the present @-@ day country club , opposite the bowling green . After the dam was completed , the church was purchased by Mr Bert Priddle and transported to a property near Grenfell , where it was re @-@ erected and licensed as an Anglican place of worship on 17 November 1935 , eventually becoming consecrated by Bishop Wylde on 19 August 1953 .
The current church , St Vincent 's , was built at the center of the village under the direction of Aub Murray , with interdenominational help . It is of cinder block construction , with an iron roof . The church was officially opened on 19 November 1954 . The day after the opening , as preparations were being made for the first mass , a storm knocked down the rear wall of the church . Rebuilding the wall delayed the first mass until 5 December 1954 .
= = = = Murder = = = =
The only recorded case of a suspected murder in Wyangala village occurred in July 1935 , when the coroner , Mr H. D. Pulling found the death of Mr John Neilson , a worker at the dam , was caused by a bullet wound to the head . The suspects were named as Mrs Mavis Neilsen ( the victim 's wife ) and Mr Claude Charnock ( a family friend ) . Both suspects claimed the shooting was accidental and self @-@ inflicted . However , evidence from the post mortem , conducted by Dr Mahon of Cowra , and that of another witness , indicated the wound could not be self @-@ inflicted .
The suspects were charged and brought to trial in September 1935 , the Crown alleging that they conspired together to kill Mr John Neilson . A short time into the trial , before the prosecution could complete their case , there was a dramatic turn of events when the jury indicated they did not wish to continue , as ' the evidence was not good enough to convict the accused ' . The prosecutor appealed to the jury to wait to hear more witness and police testimony . However , after taking no more than a few seconds to consider the request , the jury members agreed there was no point continuing . Consequently , the judge acquitted both the accused and allowed them to go free .
= = Community = =
= = = Education , church hall and sport = = =
The village has a small one @-@ teacher primary school , Wyangala Dam Public School , located on Waugoola Rd . Students come from the nearby rural area , the villages of Wyangala and Darbys Falls , and the Mt McDonald hamlet . The school emphasises environmental education and runs a plant nursery , which provides trees and other flora to the local community .
Not far from the school , also on Waugoola Rd , there is a Catholic church , St Vincent 's , which serves as a community hall for village activities , in addition to providing mass services on Saturdays and Sundays .
Adjacent the village is a nine @-@ hole golf course , bowling green , tennis courts and cricket field . These facilities are managed by the Wyangala Country Club .
In August 2013 Wyangala Cricket Oval was officially renamed Matt Morrison Oval , in honour of Matt Morrison who had died earlier in the year . Development of the Wyangala Cricket Club oval and much of the sponsorship of the Wyangala Golf Club was attributed to him .
Sports clubs in Wyangala include the fishing , cricket , golf , bowling and ski clubs . The Fishing Club ( Wyangala Danglers ) has regular events and fishing competitions throughout the year , including inter @-@ club competitions . The Cricket Club competes in a district cricket competition with surrounding towns including , Carcoar , Morongla , Canowindra , Grenfell and Cowra teams . The Golf Club , on the other hand , has occasional challenges and events during the year ; and the Bowling Club holds regular casual meetings . The Ski Club has a club house on Main Beach of Wyangala Dam and holds occasional events during the year .
= = = Food , services and attractions = = =
The Wyangala Country Club , on the hillside opposite the village , has one restaurant , the Country Club Bistro , in addition to having a bar and entertainment facilities . Locals congregate at the club for regular sports club meetings , for discussion forums addressing important village issues , and for other community activities .
The village Service Station / store is located at the nearby Wyangala Waters State Park entrance . Diesel , Premium ULP , and Regular ULP are available . The store has a range of fishing and camping supplies , in addition to take away food and other supplies .
Wyangala has two conference venues , the first being the Vic Roworth Conference Center within the village , and the other being the community hall in Wyangala Waters State Park . Both have seating capacities for tens of participants .
There is one holiday house in the village , near Wyangala Dam Public School . Additional accommodation is found at Wyangala Waters State Park , which contains numerous powered and unpowered camping sites , five bungalows , three cottages , one lodge , seven cabins and Jayco ensuite cabins .
As early as the mid 1930s , Wyangala was earmarked as a major tourist attraction and important fishing ground for the Lachlan Valley . The objective of turning Wyangala into a ' national playground ' and resort was the vision of Reg Hailstone , a civic leader of the 1940s and 1950s . Although Wyangala never became a ' tourist resort ' , Hailstone 's vision for a national playground was fulfilled over the proceeding years .
Lake Wyangala ( the impounded reservoir within the Dam ) is a significant and popular inland fishing location . The lake contains :
Bream
Brown and Rainbow Trout
Carp
Catfish
Murray Cod
Silver , Golden and Macquarie Perch
Through the spring and summer seasons , Lake Wyangala is also utilised for various water sports , such as canoeing , jet @-@ skiing , sailing , swimming and water skiing . There are walking and mountain bike trails through bushland near the village and the State Park , and houseboat hire is available for those seeking the opportunity to explore the lake and catch fish . Waterslides located within the Park are currently not operating . Dissipater Park , just below the Dam wall , has BBQ facilities for picnics and other gatherings .
The 1 @.@ 37 km ( 0 @.@ 85 mi ) long Dam wall is a notable landmark in the Lachlan Valley . It is 85 m ( 279 ft ) high ( as tall as a 25 story building ) , and has a width at its base of 304 m ( 997 ft ) . It can be viewed from various locations around the village and from nearby lookouts , as well as from many kilometers away on Darbys Falls Road . Historically , it was possible to drive across the top of the wall . However , as of June 2014 , vehicle access was closed following the completion of an alternative access road ( Trout Farm Road ) and bridge downstream of the village .
= = Geography = =
= = = Location and demographics = = =
Wyangala is situated in the Australian state of New South Wales , approximately 320 km ( 200 mi ) west of Sydney . It lies in an area known as the South West Slopes , a region extending from north of Cowra , through southern New South Wales , and down into western Victoria .
In the 2011 census the population of Wyangala was 227 : 44 @.@ 9 % female and 55 @.@ 1 % male . The average age of the population is 54 years , 17 years above the Australian average . 78 @.@ 4 % of people living in Wyangala were born in Australia . Other countries of birth included England 5 @.@ 7 % , Finland 1 @.@ 8 % and the Netherlands 1 @.@ 8 % . The religious make up is 33 @.@ 5 % Anglican , 26 @.@ 9 % Catholic , 18 @.@ 1 % No Religion , 3 @.@ 5 % Uniting Church , 1 @.@ 8 % Lutheran .
59 @.@ 6 % of the people living in Wyangala are employed full @-@ time , 32 @.@ 3 % are working on a part @-@ time basis . Wyangala has an unemployment rate of 4 % . The main occupations of people from Wyangala are Managers 21 @.@ 3 % , Labourers 16 % , Technicians and Trades Workers 14 @.@ 9 % , Professionals 12 @.@ 8 % , Community and Personal Service Workers 11 @.@ 7 % , Clerical and Administrative Workers 9 @.@ 6 % , Sales Workers 6 @.@ 4 % , Machinery Operators And Drivers 4 @.@ 3 % . The median rent in Wyangala is $ 100 per week and the median mortgage repayment is $ 800 per month .
= = = Water resources = = =
The Lachlan Valley is a region of New South Wales ( NSW ) , which extends from Crookwell in the east , to Oxley in the west of the state . It covers a catchment area of 84 @,@ 700 km2 ( 32 @,@ 700 sq mi ) , making up 10 % of NSW . It is one of the most important agricultural regions in Australia ; accounting for 14 % of the state 's agricultural production . Lake Wyangala is the only major water storage within the Valley — supplying water to over 88 @,@ 000 ha ( 220 @,@ 000 acres ) of irrigated land . In addition to what is utilised by agricultural irrigators and horticulturalists , water from the reservoir is also used for : general industry , mining industries , recreational purposes , stock and domestic supplies , town water supply and aquatic habitat protection .
A hydro @-@ electric power station is located below the Wyangala Dam wall , beside the village , at Dissipater Park . It generates an average output of 42 @.@ 9 gigawatt @-@ hours ( 154 TJ ) per annum . This is enough electricity to supply almost 6400 three @-@ person households in the area , assuming 6 @,@ 723 kWh ( 24 @,@ 200 MJ ) per household per year .
= = = Biota , geology and climate = = =
Wyangala has a diverse range of native and exotic plants and animals , including vulnerable , threatened and endangered species . Flora and fauna found in and around the village include :
For major fish species in Lake Wyangala and the Lachlan River , see Attractions .
The aforementioned plant and animal species inhabit the geological subdivision known as the Lachlan Fold Belt . It is a zone folded and faulted with Early Silurian Wyangala Granite , which has intruded passively , deformed Ordovician greywackes and volcaniclastics .
The local Wyangala landform is characterised by granite rock outcrops and large boulders , scattered throughout a hilly landscape . This contributes greatly to the soils of the area , which are largely formed from the weathering of granite . They include fragile , shallow stony soils on the steep slopes , to naturally acidic and sodic soils on the lower slopes . These soils are prone to degradation issues , and are susceptible to erosion , nutrient loss and salinity .
The climate is warm and temperate in Wyangala , with significant rainfall throughout the year . According to Köppen climate classification it is classified as Cfa . The average annual temperature in Wyangala is 15 @.@ 2 ° C ( 59 @.@ 4 ° F ) , and it receives about 600 mm ( 24 in ) precipitation . The warmest month of the year is January with an average temperature of 23 @.@ 9 ° C ( 75 @.@ 0 ° F ) . In July , the average temperature falls to 7 @.@ 9 ° C ( 46 @.@ 2 ° F ) , the lowest average temperature of the whole year .
The difference in precipitation between the driest month and the wettest month is 17 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 69 in ) . Average temperatures vary during the year by 16 ° C ( 61 ° F ) .
= = Recent times = =
= = = Earthquake = = =
In October 2006 a magnitude 4 earthquake was felt throughout the New South Wales Central West , with the epicenter at Wyangala . An earthquake of this magnitude is classified as Light on the Richter scale and usually results in noticeable shaking of indoor objects and rattling noises . The State Water Corporation examined Wyangala Dam to see if it bore damage , finding that pressure and seepage gauges were unaffected by the earthquake . In addition , no damage or injuries were reported within the village or the State Park .
= = = Dam wall road closure = = =
In 2009 NSW State Water Corporation announced plans to permanently close public road access over Wyangala Dam wall , because of the introduction of ' tough new security measures ' and to comply with occupational health and safety requirements . This new policy was to coincide with a significant upgrade and increase in height of the Dam wall . State Water proposed that alternative access be provided to Wyangala via Mt McDonald Road . This announcement angered locals , as they believed the implications of such a change had not been considered . Concerns included :
Access to Wyangala Dam Public School , where children would need to travel 60 km ( 37 mi ) to get to school and back , instead of having a 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) journey
Local workers on the ' wrong ' side of the dam wall not being able to make the long detour via Mt McDonald Rd
The dangers of the narrow curves and bends on Mt McDonald road
Access time and ease of access for emergency services vehicles to Wyangala
The possible decline in patronage of Wyangala Waters State Park and Wyangala Country Club ( it is estimated over 75 % of visitors enter Wyangala via the Dam wall road )
The concerns voiced by local citizens , emergency services and local councils resulted in a review of the decision to reroute traffic through Mt McDonald road . Subsequently , a report prepared by Ian Armstrong recommended that a bridge be built across the Lachlan River , downstream of the village to give alternate access to Wyangala . This recommendation was accepted by most locals as the only viable option , even though there was dissent from people affected by the new road and bridge .
In June 2014 , the bridge ( Wyangala Bridge ) and new road ( Trout Farm Road ) were completed . As a result , vehicle access across the top of Wyangala Dam wall was closed .
= = = Removal of waterslides = = =
At the beginning of 2013 Wyangala Waters State Park advertised for expressions of interest to remove the water slides from within the Park . The slides had not been in use due to problems of Park management finding a suitable operator . This unexpected announcement by the Park resulted in an extensive campaign to save the slides .
Following the public outcry , the former NSW Deputy Premier , Andrew Stoner , put on hold plans to remove the slides , and moving forward , to appoint a group to review the slides future . This decision was welcomed by locals and the shire mayor , Bill West , who considered the slides " a very important tourist attraction ... and popular part of Cowra Shire " . As of June 2015 , no decision has been made regarding the future of the slides .
= = = Possible closure of school = = =
In 2015 , only 5 students were attending Wyangala Dam Public School . This significant decline in numbers has been attributed to the ageing population of the Wyangala community and the lack of any new young families within the village and surrounding area . Consequently , the school is at risk of closure if student numbers do not increase . A meeting to discuss the future of schooling within the village was held on 23 June 2015 with the Director of Public Schools Orange Network , allowing village residents and current and former students to ask questions and to present the case for keeping the school open . Any decision by the NSW Department of Education and Training regarding the schools future is to be decided later in 2015 . However , village residents have indicated they will create a working group to launch a campaign to attract new students to the school .
= = Timeline = =
A timeline of Wyangala and surrounding areas , from the 19th century until the 21st century :
Late 1800s
Prior to the establishment of present – day Wyangala .
Early 1900s
The commencement of present – day Wyangala village , with the construction of Wyangala Dam wall .
Late 1900s
During the 10 @-@ year period when Wyangala Dam was enlarged , and post upgrade .
Early 2000s
Areas once used for worker housing are now sports fields and a golf course .
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= Georgetown Hoyas =
The Georgetown Hoyas are the athletics teams that officially represent Georgetown University in college sports . Part of the NCAA 's Division I , the Hoyas field 23 varsity level sports teams , most of which participate in the Big East Conference , with the exception of the Division I FCS Patriot League in football . In late 2012 , Georgetown and six other Catholic , non @-@ FBS schools announced that they were departing the Big East for a new conference . The rowing and sailing teams also participate in east coast conferences . The men 's basketball team is the school 's most famous and most successful program , but Hoyas have achieved success in a wide range of sports .
The team name is derived from the mixed Greek and Latin chant , " Hoya Saxa , " ( meaning " What Rocks " ) which gained popularity at the school in the late nineteenth century . The name Hoyas came into use in the 1920s . Most teams have their athletic facilities on the main campus of Georgetown University . The men 's basketball team plays most of their home games at the Verizon Center in downtown Washington , D.C. and the baseball team plays at Shirley Povich Field in Cabin John , Maryland . Lee Reed took over as the school 's athletic director in April 2010 .
= = Traditions = =
= = = The word " hoya " = = =
The University admits that the precise origin of the term " Hoya " is unknown . At some point before 1893 , students well @-@ versed in classical languages combined the Greek hoia or hoya , meaning " what " or " such " , and the Latin saxa to form Hoya Saxa ! , or " What Rocks ! " This cheer may either refer to the stalwart defense of the football team , or to the baseball team , which was nicknamed the " Stonewalls " , or to the actual stone wall that surrounds the campus .
After World War I , the term " Hoya " was increasingly used on campus , including for the newspaper and the school mascot . In 1920 , students began publishing the campus 's first sports newspaper under the name The Hoya , after successfully petitioning the Dean of the College to use it instead of the proposed name , The Hilltopper . " Hilltoppers " was also a name sometimes used for the sports teams . By the fall of 1928 , the newspaper had taken to referring to the sports teams as the Hoyas . This was influenced by a popular half time show at football games , where the mascot , a dog nicknamed " Hoya , " would entertain fans .
Georgetown 's unique team name has caused opponents to mock Georgetown with chants including " What 's a Hoya ? " Harrison High School , located in Kennesaw , Georgia , is the only other institution in the country licensed to share this name . However , Georgetown Preparatory School , which separated from the University in 1927 , uses the name " Little Hoyas " for its sports teams and shares the University 's blue and gray color scheme .
= = = Mascot = = =
Georgetown 's nickname is The Hoyas , but its mascot is " Jack the Bulldog . " Various breeds of dogs have been used by the sports teams as mascots since the early 1900s . Several notable bull terriers like Sergeant Stubby and " Hoya " were used at football games in the 1920s , as was a Great Dane in the 1940s . However , in 1951 , the school suspended its football program because of the increasing cost of the game financially and academically , which left the school without an official live mascot .
In 1964 , the school permitted exhibition football games to resume , and students financed the purchase of a young English bulldog named Royal Jacket , whom they intended to rename " Hoya " , but he only responded to the callname " Jack " . This breed was chosen to represent the school because of their " tenacity . " The athletics department subsequently adopted as its logo a drawing of a bulldog sporting a blue and gray freshman beanie . The original Jack retired in 1967 , but the name was carried over to his successors . In 1977 , the university began the tradition of dressing up a student in a blue and gray bulldog costume , replacing the live bulldog , though several dogs periodically joined the costumed mascot during the 1980s and 1990s .
In 1999 , Scott R. Pilarz , S.J. , with the help of the Hoya Blue fan club , revived the tradition of an official live bulldog named Jack , to work along with the costumed mascot . When Pilarz left for the University of Scranton in 2003 , taking Jack with him , Georgetown secured a new bulldog puppy and found another Jesuit , Christopher Steck , S.J. , to care for him . The current bulldog is named " John S. Carroll , " a play on the name of Georgetown 's founder , which name allows for continuation of the " Jack the Bulldog " nickname . After Jack injured his leg in 2012 , two Georgetown parents donated a younger bulldog puppy , who the school refers to as " Jack Jr . "
= = = Colors = = =
Blue and gray are the official colors of Georgetown University and its athletic teams . The colors are an important reminder of the school 's past . During the American Civil War , Prussian blue was commonly used in Union uniforms , while cadet grey was used in Confederate uniforms . These colors were introduced by the rowing team in 1876 , who deemed blue and gray " appropriate colors for the [ Boat ] Club and expressive of the feeling of unity between the Northern and Southern boys of the College . " Girls from neighboring Georgetown Visitation sewed the original uniforms together for the team and presented the Boat Club with a blue and gray banner reading " Ocior Euro " ( Swifter than the Wind ) .
The basketball and lacrosse teams use gray as their primary color in home jerseys , with blue in away jerseys . White is also frequently used as an accent to these colors , and is actually the main color in the football and baseball teams ' away jerseys and the soccer team 's home jerseys . Campus spirit groups often encourage students to " bleed Hoya blue , " a slogan used on teeshirts and bumper stickers sold to fans . Fans are generally encouraged to wear gray to home games , and sellouts are referred to as a " gray out . " Though various shades are used , the primary ones suggested by the school 's identification policy are pantone 409 and pantone 282 , which is the same shade as Oxford Blue .
= = = Fight song = = =
The Georgetown Fight Song , known as " There Goes Old Georgetown " , is actually an amalgamation of three songs , only the oldest of which , 1913 's " The Touchdown Song " , contains the lyric " here goes old Georgetown " . Students combined a version of " The Touchdown Song " with " Cheer for Victory " , written in 1915 , and " The Hoya Song " , written in 1930 , both of which are included in their entirety . The authors of these songs , and of the combined version , are unknown .
Georgetown 's fight song is rare among U.S. university fight songs for mentioning other colleges by name . Specifically , it mentions Yale University , Harvard University , Princeton University , College of the Holy Cross , the United States Naval Academy , and Cornell University , who were all rivals of Georgetown in the early to mid @-@ 20th century , and mocks their fight songs . In recent years the Hoyas only play Cornell and Holy Cross regularly ( in football ) , and many of these schools no longer use the fight songs that Georgetown 's song mocks .
= = Varsity sports = =
Georgetown University fields 23 varsity level sports teams , 11 men 's teams , 11 women 's teams , and one co @-@ ed team . Intercollegiate sports include ( inaugural season in parentheses ) :
Men 's : baseball ( 1870 ) , basketball ( 1907 ) , crew ( 1876 ; 1958 ) , cross country ( 1924 ) , football ( 1887 ) , golf ( 1925 ) , lacrosse ( 1951 ) , soccer ( 1952 ) , swimming and diving ( 1949 ) , tennis ( 1920 ) , and track and field ( 1891 )
Women 's : basketball ( 1960 ) , crew ( 1975 ) , cross country ( 1976 ) , field hockey ( 1960 ) , golf ( 2001 ) , lacrosse ( 1975 ) , soccer ( 1991 ) , softball ( 2005 ) , swimming and diving ( 1975 ) , tennis ( 1960 ) , track and field ( 1976 ) , and volleyball ( 1960 )
Coed : sailing ( 1937 )
= = = Basketball = = =
The Georgetown University men 's basketball team is perhaps the most well @-@ known Hoya program . Georgetown 's first intercollegiate men 's basketball team was formed in 1907 . John Thompson III , son of the accomplished Hoyas coach John Thompson , is the current head coach . The Hoyas historically have been well regarded not only for their team success , but also for their ability to generate players that after graduation succeed both on the court , such as Patrick Ewing , and off , such as Paul Tagliabue and Henry Hyde . The team has reached the NCAA Tournament Final Four five times including the 1984 national championship , and has won the Big East Tournament seven times , and has also won or shared the Big East regular season title seven times .
The women 's basketball also plays in the Big East Conference , and are coached by Terri Williams @-@ Flournoy . The team was first formed in 1970 , and joined the Big East in 1983 . They play their home games on campus at McDonough Gymnasium . The women 's team so far has not seen the same success as the men 's , and have only been invited to the NCAA tournament three times , reaching the Sweet Sixteen in 1993 and 2011 , and the second round in 2010 . They have been invited to the Women 's National Invitation Tournament , five times , progressing furthest in 2009 by reaching the fourth round .
= = = Rowing = = =
Rowing at Georgetown has a distinguished history dating back to the founding of the Boat Club in 1876 . The team was however suspended from 1909 to 1920 due to lack of interest , and involvement in World War I. Georgetown added a men 's lightweight team in 1963 , a women 's team in 1975 , and a women 's lightweight team in 1996 .
The men have won 5 national championships at the Intercollegiate Rowing Association Regatta , the most recent being the men 's varsity lightweight fours with coxswain on June 5 , 2016 . The first national championship win was in 1991 with the varsity heavyweight fours with coxswain .
Under the guidance of coaches Tony Johnson and Steve Full , Georgetown competes as a member of the top leagues in American rowing , the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges and Eastern Association of Women 's Rowing Colleges . Georgetown 's four crew teams have seen success in recent years , including trips to the Henley Royal Regatta and entry into the Eastern Sprints for the men 's heavyweight and lightweight teams and second @-@ in @-@ the @-@ nation finishes for both men 's and women 's lightweight teams . Many Georgetown oarsmen and -women have gone on to represent the United States on national and Olympic teams . The lightweight women 's team has earned bronze medals at Women 's Eastern Sprints in the Lightweight Women 's Varsity 8 + in 2013 and the Lightweight Women 's Varsity 4 + in 2015 . The LW8 + crew earning bronze in 2013 was later named Row2k Crew of the Week .
The university rents space in Thompson Boat Center , though it has ongoing plans to build a new boathouse closer to campus . For land workouts , Georgetown rowers have access to the Rowing Training Center , a refurbished storeroom beneath the Leavey Center that was repurposed into an erg room in 2013 ( its underground , windowless location has inspired numerous nicknames such as the " Thunder Dungeon " ) . Notable Georgetown crew alumni include walk @-@ on Mike Vespoli , the founder and chief executive officer of Vespoli USA , Inc. as well as actor Bradley Cooper .
= = = Sailing = = =
The sailing team competes in the Middle Atlantic Intercollegiate Sailing Association ( MAISA ) of the Inter @-@ Collegiate Sailing Association ( ICSA ) . Under coach Mike Callahan has been ranked number 1 nationally in the ICSA Sailing World College Rankings on multiple occasions . The team sails from the Washington Sailing Marina Andrew Campbell was named U.S. Olympic Committee ( USOC ) Male Sailing Athlete of the Year in 2002 and 2005 , and ICSA College Sailor of the Year in 2006 . He is one of the six team members awarded as College Sailors of the Year on seven occasions , as Nevin Snow has taken the prize twice , in 2015 and 2016 . Campbell helped lead the team to the first of their 13 Inter @-@ Collegiate Sailing Association National Championships since 2001 , and are the reigning national co @-@ ed champions as of 2016 . During this time the team also won seven MAISA conference championships , known as the America Trophy . After the team 's 2013 national championship , they were invited to participate in the 2014 World University Match Racing Championships in Trentino , Italy , on Lago di Ledro , which they won 7 – 1 , besting nineteen teams from fourteen countries . The Hoyas won the Leonard M. Fowle Trophy to the best overall collegiate team in 2006 .
= = = Soccer = = =
The men 's soccer team was organized in 1952 , and have made four NCAA Tournament appearances , in 1994 , 1997 , 2010 , and 2012 . They play in the Big East Conference , and have made it to the Big East Tournament 19 times , and advanced to the finals in 2012 . They are coached by Brian Wiese , and play their home games on campus at North Kehoe Field . The women 's soccer team began play in 1991 , have been coached by Dave Nolan since 1999 , and share the same home field . The women 's team has been to the NCAA Tournament twice , in 2007 and 2010 , when they advanced to the quarterfinals .
Six players from the men 's soccer team have played professionally for Major League Soccer : Phil Wellington ( drafted in 1996 ) , Brandon Leib ( 1997 ) , Eric Kvello ( 1999 ) , Dan Gargan 2004 ( Selected 43rd overall in the 2005 MLS Supplemental Draft ) , Jeff Curtin 2005 ( 1st round draft Pick # 14 overall ) , and Steve Neumann 2014 ( 1st round draft pick in 2014 MLS SuperDraft , 4th overall pick ) . Ricky Schramm , who played on the 2006 Hoyas , was drafted in the 3rd round by D.C. United . Women 's team star Ingrid Wells has played on the United States U @-@ 23 women 's national soccer team and for Göteborg FC .
= = = Lacrosse = = =
Both the men 's and women 's lacrosse teams have been highly competitive in recent years , both in conference and tournament play . A men 's lacrosse team was first organized in 1951 , and entered Division 1 play in 1970 . The team played in the Eastern College Athletic Conference until the 2010 season , when the Big East Conference created a men 's league . The men 's team made the NCAA Tournament each season from 1996 – 2007 , reaching the Final Four in 1999 .
The women 's lacrosse team was formed in 1977 , and won the first 6 consecutive Big East titles from 2001 – 2006 . The Lady Hoyas reached the NCAA Women 's Lacrosse Championship final in both 2001 and 2002 . In 2005 , their first season under new coach Ricky Fried , the team went 13 – 5 and made the NCAA Tournament for the 8th straight year . Both the men 's and women 's teams play their home games on Multi @-@ Sport Field .
= = = Football = = =
The football team at Georgetown was first formed on November 1 , 1874 , with the earliest recorded games dating to 1887 . By the 1940s , Georgetown had one of the better college football teams in America , and played in the 1941 Orange Bowl , where they lost 14 – 7 to Mississippi State . As the college game became more expensive after World War II , however , Georgetown 's program began to lose money rapidly . The Hoyas last successful season was 1949 , when they lost in the Sun Bowl against Texas Western . However the program was losing too much money , and on March 22 , 1951 , the university 's president canceled the football program .
In 1964 , Georgetown allowed its students to start a football program as an exhibition @-@ only club sport . Varsity football resumed in 1970 at what later became known as the Division III level . Today , Georgetown plays at the Division I Football Championship Subdivision , competing in the Patriot League and perennially plays against Ivy League schools . The Hoyas have also begun a cross @-@ town rivalry with Howard University for a championship known as the D.C. Cup .
" Big Jim " Ricca , an NFL defensive end and offensive lineman , graduated in 1949 and was the last Hoya to play in an NFL game . In 2007 , the Washington Redskins made Alex Buzbee a reserve player , becoming the first Georgetown player on an NFL team since Ricca retired in 1956 . The 2011 Georgetown Football team finished 8 @-@ 3 , which was their first winning season since the 1999 campaign , giving them a second place in the conference .
= = = Track and field = = =
Georgetown has been nationally successful in both cross country and track and field . The men and women 's track and field teams practice off @-@ campus at Duke Ellington Track in neighboring Burleith . The men 's and women 's teams have both been ranked # 1 by the U.S. Track & Field and Cross Country Coaches Association in recent years , both nationally and in the Mid @-@ Atlantic Region . In 2011 , the women 's cross country program won Georgetown 's only other team NCAA Championship by besting Big East rival Villanova . Chris Miltenberg , women 's cross country coach , won the 2011 NCAA coach of the year for women 's cross country . Patrick Henner is the director of men 's and women 's track and field as of 2012 . Georgetown track and field has won 21 individual NCAA National Championships , being 15 by male athletes and 6 by female athletes . The first individual NCAA National Champion was Charles Capozzoli in cross country in 1952 . To date , there have also been 11 National Champions in indoor and 9 National Champions in outdoor NCAA track and field championships .
= = = Baseball = = =
Baseball is Georgetown 's oldest sport , with the first recorded game taking place in 1866 , and the team formally organized and sanctioned in 1870 . The Hoyas have seen little national success , with no appearances in the NCAA Division I Baseball Championship since the event was established in 1947 . The team was once known as the Stonewalls , and is one possible source of the Hoya Saxa cheer famous among all Georgetown sports teams . The Hoyas play their home games at Shirley Povich Field , a 1 @,@ 500 seat stadium located in Bethesda , Maryland and named for Washington Post sports columnist Shirley Povich . The stadium was built in 2000 . The Hoyas also utilize three lighted batting cages and two bullpen areas located on campus above Yates Field House , and adjacent to Kehoe Field .
= = = Golf = = =
The men 's golf team has won two Big East Conference championships : 1998 and 2010 . They are coached by Tommy Hunter , who was named Big East Coach of the Year in 2010 . They have crowned two national champions : Maurice McCarthy Jr. in 1928 and John Burke in 1938 .
= = National team championships = =
As of July 2 , 2015 , Georgetown has 2 NCAA team national championships .
Men 's ( 1 )
Basketball ( 1 ) : 1984
Women 's ( 1 )
Cross Country ( 1 ) : 2011
see also :
Big East Conference national team championships
List of NCAA schools with the most NCAA Division I championships
= = Club teams = =
Georgetown University fields numerous club sports teams . They range from club versions of varsity sports , such as tennis or basketball , to sports for which there is no varsity equivalent , such as men and women 's Water Polo Clubs or Ultimate Frisbee . The university began supporting club teams in 2000 . Though other teams exist , such as the Georgetown University Croquet Society , the Club Sports Board at Georgetown supports eleven men 's club teams , nine women 's , and three co @-@ ed teams ( year founded in parentheses ) :
Men 's : Boxing ( 2008 ) , Cycling , Ice Hockey , Basketball , Lacrosse ( 1995 ) , Rugby ( 1967 ) , Soccer , Ultimate Frisbee , Volleyball , Water polo ( 1993 ) , Triathlon ( 2005 )
Women 's : Squash ( 2008 ) , Water polo , Basketball , Field Hockey , Lacrosse , Rugby ( 2000 ) , Soccer ( 2001 ) , Ultimate Frisbee , Volleyball
Co @-@ ed : Equestrian , Racquetball ( 2007 ) , Tennis ( 2004 ) , Climbing ( 2010 )
= = = Rugby = = =
The Georgetown University Rugby Football Club is the intercollegiate men 's rugby union team that represents Georgetown in the USA Rugby Division II competition . It was founded in the spring semester of 1967 by former members of the Washington D.C. Rugby Football Club including graduate student Michael Murphy . In 2005 , Georgetown 's first reached the Final Four of the USA Rugby Collegiate Division II National Tournament . The " Hoya Ruggers " again reached for the semifinals in 2009 in Palo Alto , California , and have had an undefeated 2009 @-@ 10 season .
A women 's rugby team was founded in 2000 , and plays in Division II in the Potomac Rugby Union ( PRU ) . They have won the PRU championship four consecutive times from 2006 to 2009 . They have also been invited to the Mid @-@ Atlantic Rugby Football Union tournament three times , and were runners @-@ up in 2006 @-@ 07 .
= = = Ice hockey = = =
Georgetown 's ice hockey team plays in the ACHA Division II in the Atlantic Coast Collegiate Hockey League ( ACCHL ) as one of three teams whose primary conference is not the Atlantic Coast Conference . Since joining this conference in 2003 , the team has won the conference championship four times , in 2004 @-@ 05 , 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08 , and again in 2012 @-@ 13 . The team previously played in the Division III Mason @-@ Dixon Collegiate Hockey Association , where it won the league championship in 1997 , 1999 , and 2000 . In 2001 and 2002 , they were invited to the national tournament of the American Collegiate Hockey Association , which the team had joined in 1999 . Coach Brad Card now leads the team , taking over the bench for Coach John Kokidko . The team plays its home matches at the Washington Capitals ' practice arena , Kettler Capitals Iceplex in Ballston , Arlington , Virginia at the Ballston Common Mall .
= = Athletic directors = =
After Bernard Muir left the position as the Director of the Athletic Department on May 11 , 2009 , a year long search for a replacement began . Dr. Daniel R. Porterfield , Senior Vice President for Strategic Development , served as Interim Director of Athletics beginning June 3 , 2009 , until Lee Reed took the position on April 15 , 2010 .
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= Déjà Vu ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Déjà Vu " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Beyoncé , featuring vocals by rapper Jay @-@ Z. It was produced by Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins and Beyoncé for her second solo album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) . " Déjà Vu " is an R & B song , which incorporates elements of the 1970s funk and soul music . Its music is largely based on live instrumentation , including bass guitar , hi @-@ hat , horns , except Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine , which is a non @-@ live instrument . The song 's title and lyrics refer to a woman being constantly reminded of a past lover .
" Déjà Vu " was released as the album 's lead single to US radios on June 24 , 2006 . The song received generally mixed critical reviews . Many critics noted the similarities of " Déjà Vu " with Beyoncé 's own 2003 song " Crazy in Love " . Critics commended the assertiveness and the sensuality with which Beyoncé sings the lyrics and compared her vocal delivery to that of Tina Turner in the late 1980s . " Déjà Vu " and its Freemasons club remix version received three nominations at Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical at the 2007 Grammy Awards . It was recognized as the Best Song of 2006 at the Music of Black Origin ( MOBO ) Awards .
Commercially , " Déjà Vu " peaked at number four on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . It topped the Hot Dance Club Play chart , the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart , and the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . " Déjà Vu " peaked at number one on the UK Singles Chart and generally reached the top 20 in Europe . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Sophie Muller . About 5 @,@ 000 fans petitioned online for a re @-@ shoot of the video , complaining among others , the lack of theme , the wardrobe choice , and the seemingly sexual interactions between Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z.
= = Background and production = =
In 2005 , American record producer Rodney " DarkChild " Jerkins and producer Jon Jon Traxx " came up with the concept of doing an old @-@ school track , a throwback with real bass and horns " , to which the song 's title is partly attributed . Traxx with Jerkins , first recorded the bass sections , onto which the percussion , horns and vocals were layered . Production took place in Jerkins ' New Jersey @-@ based studio , and Sony Music Studios in New York City .
Jerkins recorded a demo version of the song with vocals by American songwriter Makeba Riddick , who is credited as co @-@ writer . They presented the demo to Beyoncé , who later approved of it . " Déjà Vu " also has lyrical contributions from songwriters Delisha Thomas and Keli Nicole Price , and Beyoncé 's husband ( then @-@ boyfriend ) Jay @-@ Z. He became involved at a late stage , when Beyoncé saw him trying to sing along to a recorded version of the track , and asked him to contribute . Jay @-@ Z recorded rap verses for the song and hence appears as a featured guest .
Concerning the production of " Déjà Vu " , Beyoncé told MTV News :
When I recorded ' Deja Vu ' ... I knew that even before I started working on my album , I wanted to add live instruments to all of my songs . It 's such a balance [ of music on the song ] [ ... ] It 's still young , still new and fresh , but it has the old soul groove . The energy is incredible . It 's the summer anthem , I pray . I feel it . Rodney Jerkins is incredible , Jay of course is on it , he blessed the song , I 'm happy with it .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Déjà Vu " is a contemporary R & B song , performed in a moderate hip hop groove . It is also influenced by late @-@ 1970s funk music , and it contains elements of soul music as well as dance @-@ pop music . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is composed in the key of G minor with a time signature in common time , and a moderate groove of 106 beats per minute . Beyoncé 's vocals range from the note of D ♯ 4 to F5 . The music is largely based on live instrumentation , including a bass guitar , conga , hi @-@ hat , and horns . A non @-@ live instrument , the Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine , provides the song 's heavy and energetic disco beat . Spence D. of IGN Music commented that Beyoncé 's vocals on the song are " silky smooth " and that her vocal range leans toward the high end , hence contrasting to the song 's low @-@ end construction . Mike Joseph of PopMatters noted that " Déjà Vu " is reminiscent of Michael Jackson 's " Off the Wall " ( 1980 ) .
The lyrics to " Déjà Vu " follow the verse – pre @-@ chorus – chorus pattern , and feature two rap verses . It is hook @-@ laden , similar in this respect to " Crazy in Love " . The lyrics detail a woman being constantly reminded of a past lover , shown in the lines , " Is it because I 'm missing you that I 'm having déjà vu ? " As the song opens , Beyoncé introducing the bass , hi @-@ hat and Roland TR @-@ 808 by name . The sounds of the instruments blend as they are being mentioned one after the other ; the horns are only audible in the pre @-@ chorus and hook sections , and a short section in the second rap . The bass guitar , which is the first instrument to enter , slides into the main two @-@ bar ostinato . Following the repeated bass slides , the hi @-@ hat and the Roland TR @-@ 808 begin playing .
After that Beyoncé mentions Jay @-@ Z , the bass glides up for a vibrato @-@ rich fill , giving way to the first rap . Backgrounded with a repeating groove , Beyoncé starts the first verse . The pre @-@ chorus follows , for which the bass changes to a more melodic tone " to play something more singing " , in the words of Jon Jon Webb , the bass player on the track . The melody returns to the main groove during the repeated hook . This pattern repeats and leads to the second rap verse . The third pre @-@ chorus " comes from Jerkins ' idea to have the part changes on top , with Webb 's main groove on the bottom " . It is followed by the main pre @-@ chorus , then the hook is repeated four times . The singing stops and the instruments fill in the space . The hi @-@ hat and Roland TR @-@ 808 also stop ; the song ends with the plucked bass and blasts of horns .
= = Release and reception = =
" Déjà Vu " was leaked to the internet on June 13 , 2006 . On June 24 , 2006 , it was released to radio stations in the United States , four weeks after Beyoncé informed Columbia , her record label , that B 'Day was completed . Over one month later , it was released to physical formats ; the track was released as a CD single on July 31 , 2006 in the United States . An enhanced CD was released on September 12 , containing five tracks and an additional " Déjà Vu " multimedia track . In the United Kingdom , the digital download became available on August 15 , 2006 . A CD maxi and a 12 " single were released on August 21 , 2006 . Beyoncé 's manager approached English production team Freemasons to remix " Déjà Vu " after hearing a remix they made for a song by singer Heather Headley . A club @-@ oriented version was produced and appeared on a " Green Light " Freemasons EP , released on July 31 , 2007 . A maxi single , featuring the album version of the track and Freemasons club mix , was released on August 5 , 2006 in European countries . During an interview , Beyoncé further spoke about her decision to release the song as the first single from the album , saying , " it was soulful and had a lot of horns , it just felt good , and it didn ' t sound like everything on the radio . It wasn ' t typical but it felt timeless . " . The UK hits compilation album Now That 's What I Call Music ! 65 , released in 2006 , features an alternative version of the single , omitting Jay @-@ Z 's parts and running to 3 : 25 minutes .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Déjà Vu " debuted to mixed and positive reviews among critics . Mike Joseph of the international webzine PopMatters ' believed that it was " fantastic to hear Beyoncé singing her lungs out over a full @-@ bodied groove featuring live instruments " . Spence D. of IGN Music , a multimedia news and reviews website , complimented Jerkins ' bass @-@ laden groove , writing that it brought the track to perfection . Describing " Déjà Vu " as a magnificent song , Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian complimented Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z collaboration calling it " feverish as pre @-@ watershed pop gets " . She added that even though when Jay @-@ Z is not physically present , he manages to bring out something formidable in Beyoncé that evokes " the young , feral Tina Turner " . Bernard Zuel The Sydney Morning Herald praised the assertiveness with which Beyoncé delivers her lines and considered buying " Déjà Vu " as worthwhile .
Several other music critics have compared " Déjà Vu " to Beyoncé 's 2003 single , " Crazy in Love " , the lead single of her debut album . According to Gail Mitchell of Billboard magazine , the song is viewed by many as a sequel to " Crazy in Love " . Jason King of the Vibe magazine deemed the song as " cloned from the DNA of the raucous ' Crazy in Love ' " while Thomas Inskeep of Stylus Magazine referred to it as " ' Crazy in Love ' lite " . Some reviewers , however , were negative to the parallels drawn between the two songs . Andy Kellman of Allmusic , an online music database , wrote that " [ ' Déjà Vu ' ] " had the audacity to not be as monstrous as ' Crazy in Love ' " , referring to the commercial success the latter experienced in 2003 . The internet @-@ based publication Pitchfork Media 's writer Ryan Dombal claimed that " this time [ Beyoncé ] out @-@ bolds the beat " .
Sasha Frere @-@ Jones of The New Yorker deemed the lyrics as a " perplexing view of memory " , while Chris Richards of The Washington Post characterized Beyoncé as a " love @-@ dazed girlfriend " in the song . Jody Rosen of the Entertainment Weekly referred to " Déjà Vu " as an " oddly flat " choice as a lead single . Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music regarded " Déjà Vu " as a good choice for a single but concluded that it does lack " the kind of killer chorus " to suggest that Beyoncé would take one further step " to outright global domination " . On the other hand , Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that Jay @-@ Z shows up " as calmly boastful as ever " in the song but he only makes Beyoncé 's " sound more insecure " . Kelefa Sanneh of the same publication noted that " the refrain doesn 't give Beyoncé a chance really to show off " and further described the song as a " fair @-@ to @-@ middling single from a singer who is the opposite of desperate " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
" Déjà Vu " was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration and Best R & B Song while the Freemasons club remix version was nominated for Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical at the 2007 Grammy Awards . It was also nominated for Best Collaboration alongside Beyoncé 's other song " Upgrade U " featuring Jay @-@ Z , at the Black Entertainment Television ( BET ) Awards . " Déjà Vu " won Best Song at the 2006 MOBO Awards in the UK . The following year , it also received two nominations for the Best R & B / Urban Dance Track and Best Pop Dance Track at the 22nd Annual International Dance Music Awards in 2007 . The writers of Rap @-@ Up magazine put the song at number ten on their list of the ten best singles of 2006 . In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the song at number six on their list of ten best Beyoncé 's songs . In a 2013 list of Jay @-@ Z 's 20 Biggest Billboard Hits , " Déjà Vu " was ranked at number 19 .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Déjà Vu " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 44 , less than a month before its physical release . After the release of the digital and physical components , the song sold 75 @,@ 000 downloads in its first week . It eventually peaked at number four on the Hot 100 chart . The track 's Freemasons / M. Joshua remix topped the US Hot Dance Club Play chart , while the album version peaked at number 18 on the same component chart . " Déjà Vu " also reached the top spot of the Hot Dance Singles Sales and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts , number nine on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart , and number 14 on the Top 40 Mainstream chart .
" Déjà Vu " reached the top 10 in eight European countries . Having sold 29 @,@ 365 units on its first week , the single made its debut at number one on the UK Singles Chart , becoming Beyoncé 's second solo number @-@ one single in the UK . The single reached the top five in Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Norway , and Switzerland and entered the top 10 in Belgium , Finland , and Germany . In Oceania , " Déjà Vu " peaked on the Australian Singles Chart at number 12 , and on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 15 . " Déjà Vu " emerged as the ninety @-@ eighth best @-@ selling single in Australia in 2006 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The music video for " Déjà Vu " was filmed by British director Sophie Muller in New Orleans , Louisiana on June 21 , 2006 , with parts of the video shot at the Maple Leaf Bar and the Oak Alley Plantation in Carrollton , Louisiana and Vacherie , Louisiana respectively . The footage features couture @-@ inspired outfits , vigorous footwork and sexually @-@ themed routines . The video simultaneously premiered on July 12 , 2006 on MTV 's show Total Request Live ( TRL ) , and Overdrive , MTV 's broadband video channel . It reached the top spot on the TRL , Yahoo ! , and MTV countdowns . The " Deja Vu " video topped the UK TV airplay chart in late July 2006 .
The video begins with showing Beyoncé against a green wall and Jay @-@ Z sitting on a chair inside a dark room . Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z then start to simultaneously play imaginary instruments , mimicking the song 's tune . Scenes of Beyoncé are then shown in several different rooms wearing different outfits . As the chorus begins , she is shown running around and dancing out in a large sugarcane field . At the end of the chorus , she dances in a red dress in front of a pond and in a large red dress out in front of a mansion . When Jay @-@ Z 's verse begins , the two are shown alone inside a room , Beyoncé is now barefoot and bare @-@ legged , she dances seductively around Jay @-@ Z , and leads to the controversial oral sex scene . Beyoncé is then shown wearing a green skirt and bedazzled bra while dancing around in sand . As the song progresses , she is shown dancing alone in a dark forest wearing a sparkling black dress as fireflies circle around her head . The song ends with Beyoncé leaning back in a pose as fireflies race away .
= = = Reception = = =
Reactions to the video were mixed . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine commented it is " more thematic and thought provoking than the videos for ' Baby Boy ' and ' Naughty Girl ' " , Beyoncé 's songs from her debut album , Dangerously in Love . Allhiphop 's Eb Haynes described the video " visually fresh " and " couture motivated " . A news article published by Hindustan Times reported that a particular scene in the video is suggestive of oral sex . Natalie Y. Moore of In These Times magazine echoed the latter 's commentary , writing that the video showcases Beyoncé " strutting her sexuality " , and that in Jay @-@ Z 's scenes it " looks as if any minute now she 'll give him fellatio " . The video later appeared on a list of Yahoo ! Music News ' Worst Videos of All Time , which pointed to the negative fan reaction and stated , " It 's probably the least horrific video listed ... but as far as Beyoncé videos go , it is [ sic ] a stinker . "
According to an MTV News staff report , as of July 2006 , more than two thousand people had signed an online petition addressed to Beyoncé 's record label , Columbia , demanding a reshoot for the video . By the end of August 2006 , 5000 additional fans had signed it . The petition requested the clip to be taped again because it was considered to be " an underwhelming representation of the talent and quality of previous music @-@ video projects of Ms. Beyoncé " . Included in the laundry list of offenses were " a lack of theme , dizzying editing , over @-@ the @-@ top wardrobe choices , and unacceptable interactions " between Beyoncé and her now @-@ husband , Jay @-@ Z. Beyoncé 's dance moves were also called into question by the petition , qualifying them as " erratic , confusing and alarming at times " . Additionally , fans complained about sexual theme depicted in the video , describing that some scenes as " unacceptable interactions [ between Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z ] " while also complaining of a " non @-@ existent sexual chemistry " between the two . The music video was awarded Best Video at the 2006 MOBO Awards . It also received two nominations for Sexiest Video and Best Hook @-@ Up at the 2007 MTV Australia Video Music Awards .
= = Live performances = =
" Déjà Vu " was performed by Beyoncé at the 2006 BET Awards on June 27 at the Shrine Auditorium . The show was opened with a performance of the song and Jay @-@ Z joined Beyoncé onstage during the second half of the song . William Keck of USA Today commented that Beyoncé " sizzled in a revealing silver ensemble " as she performed the song . She also performed " Déjà Vu " at the Fashion Rocks on September 8 , 2006 . According to Farrah Weinstein of MTV News , Beyoncé 's performance of the song was billed as a tribute to Josephine Baker , and both her stage set and outfit were in homage to the singer and dancer . The set was designed like an old cabaret club , complete with male dancers bearing saxophones , and both Beyoncé and her female dancers wore Baker 's trademark mini @-@ hula skirt embellished with fake bananas . She performed the song on the American morning news and talk show , Good Morning America during an episode which aired on September 8 , 2006 . Beyoncé also performed the song at The Ellen DeGeneres Show on September 9 , 2006 , and at The Tyra Banks Show on September 15 , 2006 . At the 2006 World Music Awards on November 15 , 2006 , Beyoncé opened the show with a performance of " Déjà Vu " .
In addition to her live performances of " Déjà Vu " in awards ceremonies and televised shows , the song was included on the set list for her tours The Beyoncé Experience and I Am ... World Tour . John Aizlewood of Daily Mail described the performance of the song during The Beyoncé Experience as " head @-@ spinning " . During Beyoncé 's performance of " Déjà Vu " at a concert in Toronto on August 25 , 2007 , she had a wardrobe malfunction as her dress flew over her head and was speculated to reveal her breast . However , a spokesperson for the singer denied speculations saying , " She 's wearing a flesh @-@ tone bra ! Do you really think Beyoncé would go onstage like that ? " . The video which was uploaded to YouTube went viral . Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times discussed about the malfunction , saying : " As a pop queen , Beyoncé is almost too perfect ... [ a ] ' wardrobe malfunction ' in Toronto garnered far more attention than was warranted partly because these mistakes contradicted her fiercely athletic style . " During the I Am ... World Tour , Beyoncé did not perform the whole song ; she sang several of the opening lines of " Déjà Vu " after her entrance on stage . During the revue I Am ... Yours which was a part of the tour , Beyoncé performed a jazz medley of " Déjà Vu " , " It Don 't Mean a Thing ( If It Ain 't Got That Swing ) " and " Bootylicious " and continued with a full version of the first song . Concert performances of " Déjà Vu " were included on her live albums The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) , I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas ( 2009 ) and I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) .
= = Cover versions = =
On January 31 , 2009 Jade Ewen performed the song during the Eurovision : Your Country Needs You show . Her performance was described as " a show @-@ stopping - and aptly chosen - rendition [ of the original ] " by Cher Thornhill of Daily Mail . During the finale of the tenth season of American Idol on May 25 , 2011 , the lady contestants joined together onstage to perform " Déjà Vu " along with a medley of Beyoncé 's other hit singles .
= = Formats and track listings = =
UK CD single
" Déjà Vu " ( Album Version ) – 3 : 59
" Déjà Vu " ( Freemasons Radio Mix ) – 3 : 15
Europe Maxi single
" Déjà Vu " ( Album Version ) – 3 : 59
" Déjà Vu " ( Freemasons Radio Mix ) – 3 : 15
" Déjà Vu " ( Freemasons Club Mix ) – 8 : 05
" Déjà Vu " ( Maurice 's Nusoul Mix ) – 6 : 00
" Déjà Vu " ( Maurice 's Nusoul Mixshow Mix ) – 5 : 57
= = Credits and personnel = =
Adapted from B 'Day 's liner notes .
Vocals : Beyoncé Knowles , Jay @-@ Z ( rap )
Recording : Jeff Villanueva , Jim Caruana
Assisted by : Rob Kinelski , Jun Ishizeki
Mix engineers : Jason Goldstein , Rodney Jerkins
Bass Guitar : Jon Jon
Horns played by : Ronald Judge , Allen " Al Geez " Arthur , Aaron " Goody " Goode .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Oxford Castle =
Oxford Castle is a large , partly ruined Norman medieval castle on the western side of central Oxford in Oxfordshire , England . Most of the original moated , wooden motte and bailey castle was replaced in stone in the 11th century and played an important role in the conflict of the Anarchy . In the 14th century the military value of the castle diminished and the site became used primarily for county administration and as a prison .
Most of the castle was destroyed in the English Civil War and by the 18th century the remaining buildings had become Oxford 's local prison . A new prison complex was built on the site from 1785 onwards and expanded in 1876 ; this became HM Prison Oxford .
The prison closed in 1996 and was redeveloped as a hotel . The medieval remains of the castle , including the motte and St George 's Tower and crypt , are Grade I listed buildings and a Scheduled Monument .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
According to the Abingdon Chronicle , Oxford Castle was built by the Norman baron Robert D 'Oyly the elder from 1071 – 73 . D 'Oyly had arrived in England with William I in the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 and William the Conqueror granted him extensive lands in Oxfordshire . Oxford had been stormed in the invasion with considerable damage , and William directed D 'Oyly to build a castle to dominate the town . In due course D 'Oyly became the foremost landowner in Oxfordshire and was confirmed with a hereditary royal constableship for Oxford Castle . Oxford Castle is not among the 48 recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 , but not every castle in existence at the time was recorded in the survey .
D 'Oyly positioned his castle to the west side of the town , using the natural protection of a stream of the River Thames on the far side of the castle , now called Castle Mill Stream , and diverting the stream to produce a moat . There has been debate as to whether there was an earlier English fortification on the site , but whilst there is archaeological evidence of earlier Anglo @-@ Saxon habitation there is no conclusive evidence of fortification . Oxford Castle was clearly an " urban castle " but it remains uncertain whether local buildings had to be demolished to make room for it . The Domesday Book does not record any demolition , so the land may have already been empty due to the damage caused by the Norman seizure of the town . Alternatively the castle may have been imposed over an existing street front which would have required the demolition of at least several houses .
The initial castle was probably a large motte and bailey , copying the plan of the castle that D 'Oyly had already built 12 miles ( 19 km ) away at Wallingford . The motte was originally about 60 feet ( 18 m ) high and 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide , constructed like the bailey from layers of gravel and strengthened with clay facing . There has been debate over the sequencing of the motte and the bailey : it has been suggested that the bailey may have built first , which would make the initial castle design a ringwork rather than a motte and bailey .
By the mid @-@ 12th century Oxford Castle had been significantly extended in stone . The first such work was St George 's Tower , built of coral rag stone in 1074 , 30 by 30 feet ( 9 m × 9 m ) at the base and tapering significantly toward the top for stability . This was the tallest of the castle 's towers , possibly because it covered the approach to the old west gate of the city .
Inside the walls the tower included a crypt chapel , which may be the site of a previous church . The crypt chapel originally had a nave , chancel and an apsidal sanctuary . It is a typical early Norman design with solid pillars and arches . In 1074 D 'Oyly and his close friend , Roger d 'Ivry endowed a chapel with a college of priests . At an early stage it acquired a dedication to Saint George .
Early in the 13th century the wooden keep on top of the motte was replaced with a ten @-@ sided stone shell keep , 58 feet ( 18 m ) , closely resembling those of Tonbridge and Arundel Castles . The keep enclosed a number of buildings , leaving an inner courtyard only 22 feet ( 7 m ) across . Within the keep , stairs led 20 feet ( 6 m ) down to an underground 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide stone chamber , with an Early English hexagonal vault and a 54 feet ( 16 m ) deep well providing water in the event of siege .
= = = Role in the Anarchy and Barons War = = =
Robert D 'Oyly the younger , Robert D 'Oyly the elder 's nephew , had inherited the castle by the time of the civil war of the Anarchy in the 1140s . After initially supporting King Stephen , Robert declared his support for Empress Matilda , Stephen 's cousin and rival for the throne , and in 1141 the Empress marched to Oxford to base her campaign at the castle . Stephen responded by marching unexpectedly from Bristol in December , attacking and seizing the town of Oxford and besieging Matilda in the castle . Stephen set up two siege mounds beside the castle , called Jew 's Mount and Mount Pelham , on which he placed siege engines , largely for show , and proceeded to wait for Matilda 's supplies to run low over the next three months . Stephen would have had difficulty in supplying his men through the winter period , and this decision shows the apparent strength of Oxford Castle at the time .
Matilda responded by escaping from the castle ; the popular version of this has the Empress waiting until the Castle Mill Stream was frozen over and then dressed in white as camouflage in the snow , being lowered down the walls with three or four knights , before escaping through Stephen 's lines in the night as the king 's sentries tried to raise the alarm . The chronicler William of Malmesbury , however , suggests Matilda did not descend the walls , but instead escaped from one of the gates . Matilda safely reached Abingdon @-@ on @-@ Thames and Oxford Castle surrendered to Stephen the next day . Robert had died in the final weeks of the siege and the castle was granted to William de Chesney for the remainder of the war . At the end of the war the constableship of Oxford Castle was granted to Roger de Bussy before being reclaimed by Henry D 'Oyly , Robert D 'Oyly the younger 's son , in 1154 .
In the Barons ' War of 1215 – 17 the castle was attacked again , prompting further improvements in its defences . In 1220 Falkes de Breauté , who controlled many royal castles in the middle of England , demolished the Church of St Budoc to the south @-@ east of the castle and built a moated barbican to further defend the main gate . The remaining wooden buildings were replaced in stone , including the new Round Tower which was built in 1235 . King Henry III turned part of the castle into a prison , specifically for holding troublesome University clerks , and also improved the castle chapel , replacing the older barred windows with stained glass in 1243 and 1246 . Due to the presence of Beaumont Palace to the north of Oxford , however , the castle never became a royal residence .
= = = 14th – 17th centuries = = =
By 1327 the fortification , particularly the castle gates and the barbican , was in poor condition and £ 800 was estimated to be required for repairs . From the 1350s onwards the castle had little military use and was increasingly allowed to fall into disrepair . The castle became the centre for the administration of the county of Oxford , a jail , and a criminal court . Assizes were held there until 1577 , when plague broke out in what became known as the " Black Assize " : the Lord Lieutenant of Oxfordshire , two knights , eighty gentlemen and the entire grand jury for the session all died , including Sir Robert D 'Oyley , a relative of the founder of the castle . Thereafter assizes ceased to be held at the castle .
By the 16th century the barbican had been demolished to make way for houses and the moat had begun to be occupied with housing . By 1600 the moat was almost entirely silted up and houses had been built all around the edge of the bailey wall . In 1611 King James I sold Oxford Castle to Francis James and Robert Younglove , who in turn sold it to Christ Church College in 1613 . The college then leased it to a number of local families over the coming years . By this time Oxford Castle was in a weakened state , with a large crack running down the side of the keep .
In 1642 the English Civil War broke out and the Royalists made Oxford their capital . Parliamentary forces successfully besieged Oxford in 1646 and the city was occupied by Colonel Ingoldsby . Ingoldsby improved the fortification of the castle rather than the surrounding town , and in 1649 demolished most of the medieval stonework , replacing it with more modern earth bulwarks and reinforcing the keep with earth works to form a probable gun @-@ platform . In 1652 , in the third English Civil War , the Parliamentary garrison responded to the proximity of Charles II 's forces by pulling down these defences as well and retreating to New College instead , causing great damage to the college in the process . In the event , Oxford saw no fresh fighting ; early in the 18th century , however , the keep was demolished and the top of the motte landscaped to its current form .
= = = Role as prison = = =
After the Civil War , Oxford Castle served primarily as the local prison . As with other prisons at the time , the owners , in this case Christ Church College , leased the castle to wardens who would profit by charging prisoners for their board and lodging . The prison also had a gallows to execute prisoners , such as Mary Blandy in 1752 . For most of the 18th century , the castle prison was run by the local Etty and Wisdom families and was in increasing disrepair . In the 1770s the prison reformer John Howard visited the castle several times , and criticised its size and quality , including the extent to which vermin infested the prison . Partly as a result of this criticism , it was decided by the County authorities to rebuild the Oxford Prison .
In 1785 the castle was bought by the Oxford County Justices and rebuilding began under the London architect William Blackburn . The wider castle site had already begun to change by the late 18th century , with New Road being built through the bailey and the last parts of the castle moat being filled in to allow the building of the new Oxford Canal terminus . Building the new prison included demolishing the old college attached to St George 's chapel and repositioning part of the crypt in 1794 . The work was completed under Daniel Harris in 1805 . Harris gained a reasonable salary as the new governor and used convict labour from the prison to conduct early archaeological excavations at the castle with the help of the antiquarian Edward King .
In the 19th century the site continued to be developed , with various new buildings built including the new County Hall in 1840 – 41 and the Oxfordshire Militia Armoury in 1854 . The prison itself was extended in 1876 , growing to occupy most of the remaining space . In 1888 national prison reforms led to the renaming of the county prison as HM Prison Oxford .
= = = Today = = =
Since 1954 the two oldest parts of the castle have been Grade I listed buildings : the 11th @-@ century motte with its 13th @-@ century well @-@ chamber , and the 11th @-@ century St George 's tower with its crypt chapel and the 18th @-@ century D @-@ wing and Debtors ' Tower . The site is protected as a Scheduled Monument .
The prison was closed in 1996 and the site reverted to Oxfordshire County Council . The Oxford Prison buildings have since been redeveloped as a restaurant and heritage complex , with guided tours of the historic buildings and open courtyards for markets and theatrical performances . The complex includes a hotel in the Malmaison chain , Malmaison Oxford , occupying a large part of the former prison blocks , with cells converted as guest rooms . However , those parts of the prison associated with corporal or capital punishment have been converted to offices rather than being used for guests . The mixed @-@ use heritage project , officially opened on 5 May 2006 , won the RICS Project of the Year Award 2007 .
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= Sang Penari =
Sang Penari ( The Dancer ) is a 2011 Indonesian film based on the trilogy of novels Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk by Ahmad Tohari and directed by Ifa Isfansyah . Starring Nyoman Oka Antara and Prisia Nasution , it tells the story of a young man and his friendship with his small village 's new ronggeng .
The second adaptation of the Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk trilogy , Sang Penari required two years of research to better present the historical context , including the 30 September Movement and ensuing anti @-@ communist actions ; these details , censored in the original trilogy by the New Order government , were more explicit than in the novels . Although the film was set and shot in Purwokerto , Central Java , neither of the leads was ethnic Javanese . Nasution , cast in her debut role , is Batak , while Antara is Balinese .
Upon its release on 10 November 2011 , Sang Penari was critically praised . Tohari called it a " sublime adaptation of his work " , while Labodalih Sembiring of the Jakarta Globe described its socio @-@ cultural elements as worthy of a Shakespearean tragedy . At the 2011 Indonesian Film Festival , Sang Penari won four awards , including Best Picture , out of nine nominations .
= = Plot = =
In 1953 , two tempeh bongkrèk makers in Dukuh Paruk , a small hamlet in Banyumas , Central Java , accidentally sell poisoned tempeh , which kills many residents , including the much respected ronggeng ( local traditional dancer ) . The residents of the hamlet begin panicking and rioting , causing the tempeh makers to commit suicide . Their daughter , Srintil , survives and is raised by her grandfather Sakarya ( Landung Simatupang ) .
Ten years later in 1963 , Srintil ( Prisia Nasution ) and Rasus ( Nyoman Oka Antara ) are fast friends . Rasus also has romantic feelings for her . With the hamlet starved and in a depression since the loss of its ronggeng , Sakarya receives a vision that Srintil will become a great ronggeng , capable of saving the hamlet from starvation . He then convinces Srintil to become a ronggeng . She then tries to proves herself to Kartareja ( Slamet Rahardjo ) , the hamlet 's ronggeng caretaker and his wife ( Dewi Irawan ) by dancing at the grave of Ki Secamenggala , the hamlet 's founder . Her attempt is only successful after Rasus gave her the ronggeng amulet belonged to the late ronggeng of Dukuh Paruk . Seeing this amulet , Kartareja then announces that Srintil has been chosen by the founder 's spirit . Meanwhile , Indonesian Communist Party member Bakar ( Lukman Sardi ) arrived in the hamlet and convincing local farmers to join the party , saying that the Communist party are the only ones who can help save the wong cilik ( underclass ) of Dukuh Paruk and their starved hamlet .
After the success of her dance at the grave of Ki Secamenggala , Srintil is told that she must undergo a ritual before she can truly become a ronggeng , called bukak klambu ( literally " opening the veil " ) ; her virginity will be sold to the highest bidder . This upsets Rasus , who tells Srintil that he is not comfortable with her becoming a ronggeng . Srintil says that she will give her virginity to Rasus , and on the day of the bukak klambu they have sex in a goat shack ; that evening , Srintil has sex with two other " highest bidders " and becomes a full ronggeng .
Devastated , Rasus runs away from the hamlet leaving Srintil broken @-@ hearted , and joins a local army base , where he befriends Sergeant Binsar ( Tio Pakusadewo ) . Binsar teaches him to read and wins Rasus ' trust . Meanwhile , the residents of Dukuh Paruk start to embrace communism under Bakar 's leadership , despite their unawareness of political knowledge . During Rasus ' military time , Dukuh Paruk 's ronggeng troupe which includes Kartareja , Sakarya , Sakum the blind kendhang player , and Srintil becomes increasingly popular and become involved in many rally events organised by the communist party .
Two years later , following the failed Communist @-@ led coup d 'état in Jakarta . Rasus is sent by Binsar in operations to clear the presence of Communists in the area . However , when Dukuh Paruk 's turn comes in the massacre , Rasus hurries back , leaving his army comrades to his hamlet to find and save Srintil . He found Dukuh Paruk have been destroyed and void of its inhabitants , leaving only Sakum , the blind kendhang player . His continued effort ended in vain as Rasus arrives in a hidden army concentration camp just as Srintil is taken away by the army and disappear along with the rest of Dukuh Paruk 's residents .
Ten years later , Rasus met a street dancer and a blind man in a village close to Dukuh Paruk who resemble Srintil and Sakum . He quickly stops her , giving her the amulet of Dukuh Paruk 's ronggeng which he found in Dukuh Paruk during his search for Srintil ten years ago . The dancer nervously accepts it and leave Rasus , who smiles , signalling his recognition of his love Srintil . The movie ends with the dancer and the blind man dancing away and disappear in the horizon .
= = Production = =
Sang Penari was directed by Ifa Isfansyah . Husband and wife team Wong Aksan and Titi Sjuman were chosen to do the scoring , which they spent a month and a half on ; they later said that work on the film brought them closer together . Shanty Harmayn , who had previously worked on Pasir Berbisik ( Whispering Sands ; 2004 ) , was chosen to produce , while Salman Aristo , known for his scripts for Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta ( Verses of Love ; 2008 ) and Laskar Pelangi ( Rainbow Warriors ; 2009 ) spearheaded the writing . The screenplay went through twelve drafts and took two years of research .
Sang Penari is based on the Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk ( Ronggeng of Paruk Hamlet ) by Ahmad Tohari ; it is the second adaptation of the work , after Darah dan Mahkota Ronggeng ( Blood and Crown of a Dancer ) , directed by Yazman Yazid and starring Ray Sahetapy and Enny Beatrice , in 1983 . The film was shot mostly in Banyumas , Central Java . Director Ifa Isfansyah attempted to cast the lead role of Srintil there , but failed after several months looking .
Isfansyah eventually chose a new actress , Prisia Nasution . Balinese actor Nyoman Oka Antara , who had previously played in Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta ( Verses of Love ; 2008 ) and Perempuan Berkalung Sorban ( The Girl With the Keffiyeh Around Her Neck ; 2009 ) , was cast in the leading male role . The film also featured Slamet Rahardjo , Dewi Irawan , Hendro Djarot , Tio Pakusadewo , Lukman Sardi , and Teuku Rifnu Wikana in supporting roles ; Happy Salma also had a cameo as a dancer .
= = Style and themes = =
Sang Penari touches on the history of communism in Indonesia , focusing on the nation 's communist party spreading its ideology and the government 's purge of the Communist Party 's members from 1965 – 1966 , which is thought to have killed several hundred thousand . It is only the third Indonesian film to cover the killings , following Arifin C. Noer 's G30S / PKI ( 1984 ) and Riri Riza 's Gie ( 2005 ) . Tohari later said that if he had written about the killings as they were depicted in the film , the repressive New Order government would have had him shot .
Sang Penari features many spoken lines in the Banyumasan language spoken in the area . It also features several aspects of Indonesian culture , including batik and Javanese music .
= = Release and reception = =
Sang Penari was released on 10 November 2011 . Tohari , who had refused to watch the first adaptation , enjoyed Sang Penari and reportedly considered it a " sublime adaptation of his work " . Triwik Kurniasari , writing for The Jakarta Post , described the film as " artistically stunning " and that Isfansyah " smoothly translates the sinister moment and the vicious attempts taken by the military in handling possible traitors " . Labodalih Sembiring , writing for the Jakarta Globe , said the socio @-@ cultural elements in the film were worthy of a Shakespearean tragedy and that it featured good acting and direction ; however , the film 's soundtrack was considered lacking .
= = Awards = =
Sang Penari was nominated for nine awards at the 2011 Indonesian Film Festival , winning four . The film was selected as the Indonesian entry for the Best Foreign Language Oscar at the 85th Academy Awards , but it did not make the final shortlist .
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= Megami Tensei =
Megami Tensei ( Japanese : 女神転生 , often translated as " Rebirth of the Goddess " ) , commonly abbreviated as MegaTen ( メガテン ) and marketed overseas as Shin Megami Tensei ( originally Revelations ) , is a Japanese media franchise created by Kouji Okada ( credited as Cozy Okada in English ) , Ginichiro Suzuki , and Kazunari Suzuki . It is primarily developed by Atlus and currently owned by Sega . The first entry in the series , Digital Devil Story : Megami Tensei , was released in 1987 and its success spawned one sequel , and later multiple subseries that form part of the Megami Tensei franchise . Aside from role @-@ playing games , the series includes examples of multiple genres such as tactical role @-@ playing , action role @-@ playing , and massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing . The first two titles in the series were published by Bandai Namco ( then Namco ) , but have been almost always published by Atlus in Japan and North America since the release of Shin Megami Tensei . For Europe , Atlus publishes the games through third @-@ party companies .
The series was originally based on Digital Devil Story , a science fiction novel series by Aya Nishitani . The series takes its name from the first book 's subtitle . Most Megami Tensei titles are stand @-@ alone entries with their own stories and characters . Recurring elements include plot themes , a story shaped by player choices , and game mechanics , the most notable being the ability to fight using and often recruit creatures ( Demons , Persona ) to aid the player in battle . Elements of multiple philosophies and religions , occultism , cyberpunk and early science fiction have all been incorporated into the series at different times .
Most of the early titles have not been localized , originally due to heavy religious influences then taboo in western video games . While not maintaining as high a profile as series such as Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest , it is highly popular in Japan and maintains a strong following in the west , finding critical and commercial success . Since the release of Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne in 2003 , the Shin Megami Tensei moniker has been attached to most entries in the west to help with marketing . The series has become well known for its artistic direction , challenging gameplay , and music . The series has equally raised controversy over its mature content , dark themes , and use of Christian religious imagery . Additional media includes manga adaptations , and anime films and TV series .
= = Titles = =
= = = Games = = =
The first installment in the franchise , Digital Devil Story : Megami Tensei , was released on September 11 , 1987 . The following entries have nearly always been unrelated to each other except in carrying over thematic and gameplay elements . The Megami Tensei games , and the later Shin Megami Tensei titles form the core of the series , while other subseries such as Persona and Devil Summoner are spin @-@ offs marketed as part of the franchise . There are also stand @-@ alone spin @-@ off titles .
= = = = Main series = = = =
Two entries have been released for the Famicom : Digital Devil Story : Megami Tensei in 1987 , and Digital Devil Story : Megami Tensei II in 1990 . The two titles are unrelated to each other in terms of story , and each introduced the basic gameplay and story mechanics that would come to define the series . Two entries were released for the Super Famicom : Shin Megami Tensei in 1992 , and Shin Megami Tensei II in 1994 .
After a nine @-@ year gap , Shin Megami Tensei III : Nocturne was released in 2003 for the PlayStation 2 . Its Maniax Edition director 's cut was released in Japan and North America in 2004 , and in Europe in 2005 . The numeral was dropped for its North American release , and its title changed to Shin Megami Tensei : Lucifer 's Call in Europe . The next entry , Shin Megami Tensei : Strange Journey , was released for the Nintendo DS in 2009 in Japan and 2010 in North America . Shin Megami Tensei IV for the Nintendo 3DS was released in 2013 in Japan and North America , and a year later in Europe as a digital @-@ only release . Another game set in the same universe , Shin Megami Tensei IV : Apocalypse , was released for the 3DS in February 2016 in Japan .
In addition to the main series , three Shin Megami Tensei spin @-@ off games exist . The first is Shin Megami Tensei If ... , released in the same year and on the same system as Shin Megami Tensei II . The second , Shin Megami Tensei : Nine , was released for the Xbox in 2002 . Originally designed as a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game ( MMORPG ) , it was later split into a dual single @-@ player and multiplayer package , and the single @-@ player version released first . The online version was delayed and eventually cancelled as the developers could not manage the required online capacities using Xbox Live . A true MMORPG , Shin Megami Tensei : Imagine , was released for Microsoft Windows in 2007 in Japan , 2008 in North America , and 2009 in Europe . Western service was terminated in 2014 when Marvelous USA , the game 's then @-@ handlers , shut down their PC Online game department . Its Japanese service is set to end in May 2016 .
= = = = Persona = = = =
Persona is the largest and most popular spin @-@ off from the Megami Tensei series . The first entry in the series , Megami Ibunroku Persona ( originally released overseas as Revelations : Persona ) was released in 1996 in Japan and North America . The first Persona 2 title , Innocent Sin , was released in 1999 in Japan . The second game , Eternal Punishment , was released in 2000 in Japan and North America . Persona 3 was released in 2006 in Japan , 2007 in North America , and 2008 in Europe . Its sequel , Persona 4 , was released in 2008 in Japan and North America , and in 2009 in Europe . A sixth entry in the series , Persona 5 , is scheduled for release in 2016 in Japan and 2017 in North America . In addition to the main Persona games are spin @-@ offs , so far focused on Persona 3 and 4 : the canon spin @-@ off Persona Q : Shadow of the Labyrinth , two fighting games Persona 4 Arena and its sequel Arena Ultimax , and rhythm game Persona 4 : Dancing All Night . While Persona 3 and 4 used the Shin Megami Tensei moniker , it was dropped for the Persona 4 Arena duology and Persona 4 Golden as it would have made the titles too long to be practical .
= = = = Other spin @-@ offs = = = =
Aside from Persona , there are other spin @-@ off series covering multiple genres . After the release of Shin Megami Tensei II , Atlus began focusing work on building spin @-@ offs and subseries that would form part of the Megami Tensei franchise . The Devil Summoner subseries began in 1995 with the release of Shin Megami Tensei : Devil Summoner . It was followed by Devil Summoner : Soul Hackers in 1997 , and two prequels set in 1920s Tokyo and revolving around demon summoner Raidou Kuzunoha : Raidou Kuzunoha vs. The Soulless Army and Raidou Kuzunoha vs. King Abaddon .
Shortly after Nocturne 's release , a duology titled Digital Devil Saga ( Digital Devil Saga : Avatar Tuner in Japan ) was created based around similar systems to Nocturne , and was also intended as a more accessible gaming experience . Two tactical role @-@ playing games have been developed by Atlus for the DS under the Devil Survivor moniker : the original Devil Survivor and Devil Survivor 2 . Both have received expanded ports for the 3DS . Other subseries include Last Bible , Devil Children and Majin Tensei . Two notable stand @-@ alone spin @-@ offs are Jack Bros. , and Tokyo Mirage Sessions ♯ FE , a crossover with Intelligent Systems ' Fire Emblem series .
= = = Related media = = =
Several titles in the franchise have received anime and manga adaptations : Persona 3 received both a four @-@ part theatrical adaptation ( No. 1 , Spring of Birth , No. 2 , Midsummer Knight 's Dream , No. 3 , Falling Down , No. 4 , Winter of Rebirth ) , and a non @-@ canon spin @-@ off series titled Persona : Trinity Soul . Persona 4 received two adaptations : Persona 4 : The Animation , based on the original game , and Persona 4 : The Golden Animation , based on its expanded PlayStation Vita port . A live @-@ action television series based on the original Devil Summoner was broadcast between 1997 and 1998 . Devil Survivor 2 also received an anime adaptation of the same name , while the Devil Children series received two anime adaptations . Multiple Shin Megami Tensei and Persona titles have received manga and CD drama adaptations . Action figures and merchandise related to Persona have also been produced .
= = Common elements = =
Despite most games in the series taking place in different continuities , they do share certain elements . One of its defining traits is it being set in a contemporary urban environment , specifically modern @-@ day Tokyo . This choice was originally made to set the game apart from other fantasy @-@ based gaming franchises of the time , as modern day Tokyo was rarely seen in games as opposed to versions of it from the past . Shin Megami Tensei II is one of the notable early exceptions , as it is set in a science fiction @-@ styled future despite still including fantasy elements . Two more recent notable departures were Strange Journey , which shifted the focus to Antarctica to portray the threat on a global scale , and Shin Megami Tensei IV , which included a medieval @-@ stage society existing separately from a modern @-@ day Tokyo .
The series title translates as " Rebirth of the Goddess " : this has carried over into the current Shin Megami Tensei series , which has been officially translated as " True Goddess Metempsychosis " . The word " Metempsychosis " refers to the cycle of reincarnation that ties into many Megami Tensei stories . The reborn goddess of the title has multiple meanings : it refers to a female character in each game that could be interpreted as the goddess , and is also representative of the drastic changes a location undergoes during a game . The concept of reincarnation was also included in narratives and gameplay mechanics to tie in with these themes . The series ' overarching title has been truncated to " MegaTen " by series fans . Originating in Japan , the abbreviation has become a common term for the series among its fans .
= = = Gameplay = = =
The gameplay in the series has become notable for its high difficulty , along with several mechanics that have endured through the years . A key element present since the first Megami Tensei is the ability to recruit demons to fight alongside the player in battle , alongside the ability to fuse two different demons together to create a more powerful demon . Equivalents to these systems appear in the later Persona titles . The game 's most recognizable battle system is the Press Turn system , first introduced in Nocturne . The Press Turn System is a turn @-@ based battle mechanic governing both the player party and enemies , where either party are rewarded an extra turn for striking an enemy 's weakness . A Moon Phase System or equivalent , in which phases of the moon or changes in the weather affected the behavior of enemies , is also featured in multiple games .
The layout of the first two Megami Tensei games were noticeably different from later games : Megami Tensei used a 3D first @-@ person perspective , while Megami Tensei II used a combination of first @-@ person 3D displays for battle and top @-@ down 2D displays for navigation . The change was suggested by staff members who did not want players getting lost in a large 3D environment . The 2D / first person viewpoint continued until Nocturne , which switched to a third @-@ person perspective . This was done due to a condition similar to car sickness called " 3D sickness " with first person shooters in Japan at the time : the developers wanted something for players to focus on . The first @-@ person perspective was reintroduced in Strange Journey , and incorporated into IV 's battles along with navigable 3D environments .
= = = Plots and themes = = =
Each title focuses on the extraordinary invading the ordinary world , though the two main Megami Tensei series focus on different things : Shin Megami Tensei focuses more on the main protagonist gaining the power needed to survive in a world ruled over by tyrannical deities , while Persona focuses on interpersonal relationships and the psychology of a group of people . That protagonist is generally male within the Shin Megami Tensei titles : while a female lead or the ability to choose a lead 's gender is not out of the question , many staff feel that Shin Megami Tensei lead roles are better suited to a male character . Throughout its lifetime , the series has incorporated elements of Gnosticism , various world mythologies and religions including Christianity and Buddhism , early science fiction , Jungian psychology and archetypes , occultism , punk , and cyberpunk . The science fiction and fantasy elements are brought together and unified through the use of philosophical concepts , enabling a blending of concepts and aesthetics that might normally clash .
The stories of the core Shin Megami Tensei titles frequently include fighting against a tyrannical God . The method of story @-@ telling in the series can involve traditional use of cutscenes and spoken dialogue ( Persona , Digital Devil Saga ) , or a text @-@ based minimalist approach that places emphasis on atmosphere ( Nocturne ) . A tradition within the core Shin Megami Tensei series is to focus on a single playable character as opposed to a group . A recurring character is Lucifer , the fallen angel who stands against God and is portrayed in multiple forms to represent his omnipotence . Since Megami Tensei II , the series has used a morality @-@ based decision system , where the player 's actions affect the outcome of the story . In Megami Tensei II , the alignments were defined as " Law " ( the forces of God ) and " Chaos " ( the army of Lucifer ) . In future games , an additional " Neutral " route was included where the player could reject both sides . Selected games have been thematically or otherwise linked to a particular alignment . Shin Megami Tensei II , due to events prior to the story , focuses on the " Law " alignment . For Nocturne , all the characters were roughly aligned with " Chaos " , which was done both to bring variety to the series and allow the development team more creative freedom . Shin Megami Tensei IV : Apocalypse is restricted to a " Neutral " alignment while still having multiple endings . The three @-@ tired alignment was used in Strange Journey , and continued into Shin Megami Tensei IV .
= = Development and history = =
= = = Origins = = =
The Megami Tensei series began life as a media expansion of the Digital Devil Story series , a set of science @-@ fantasy novels written by Aya Nishitani during the 1980s . The series ' creators were Kouji Okada ( credited as Cozy Okada in English ) , Ginichiro Suzuki , and Ginichiro 's son Kazunari . The first book in the Digital Devil Story series , Megami Tensei ( 女神転生 , lit . " Reincarnation of the Goddess " ) , provided the title for the original game , while the game 's story was based on both the first book and the third book Tensei no Shuuen ( 転生の終焉 , lit . " Demise of the Reincarnation " ) . The game was developed at Atlus and published by Bandai Namco ( then Namco ) . Although they wanted to incorporate as much of the original story as possible , the limited capabilities of the Famicom made this goal nearly impossible . The game proved popular in Japan , and effectively launched the Megami Tensei franchise , with its more ambitious direct sequel following in 1990 . During the development of Shin Megami Tensei , which was driven by the concept of a Super Famicom game with the company 's brand on it , the team slowly decided that they wanted to break the then @-@ current gaming status quo using its aesthetic and content . Despite this attitude , the staff considered Shin Megami Tensei to be a remake of Megami Tensei II . In many of these earlier games , staff members at Atlus had cameos . The majority of the Megami Tensei series is developed by Atlus ' R & D Department 1 . Other developers have been involved with the series : these include Multimedia Intelligence Transfer ( Last Bible series ) , Lancarse ( Strange Journey ) , CAVE ( Imagine ) and Nex Entertainment ( Nine ) , and Arc System Works ( Persona 4 Arena ) .
Most of the games up to 2003 were handled by Okada , but when he departed to form his own company Gaia , Kazuma Kaneko became the series ' creative director . There are two main writers in the franchise : Shogo Isogai and Ryutaro Ito . Ito first worked on Megami Tensei II , joining the team after development to write the script , along with working with the script and being part of the debug team . Isogai 's first work for the series was the script for Shin Megami Tensei II . The next entry If ... was also written by Ito , and designed as a departure from the grand scale of previous games , instead being set within a cloistered school environment . His final work for the series was the first Devil Summoner . Isogai also worked on Shin Megami Tensei II and If ... , and later worked on multiple Devil Summoner games , Nocturne and Strange Journey . The music for the first five main Megami Tensei titles was composed by Tsukasa Masuko . For Nocturne , Shoji Meguro , who had done work on earlier spin @-@ off titles , was brought in . He later became well known for his work on the Persona titles .
= = = Art design = = =
The Shin Megami Tensei and Persona art styles have been defined by two different artists : Kazuma Kaneko and Shigenori Soejima . Kaneko had a long history with the series , having done some work on the original Megami Tensei titles . His first prominent work for the series was on Shin Megami Tensei , who worked on both the sprite art and promotional artwork for the game 's characters and demons . He was also responsible for suggesting many of the game 's darker features , defining the series ' eventual identity . Before designing each demon , Kaneko looks up his chosen subject to get their mythological background , and uses that in their design . Many of Kaneko 's demon designs were influenced by both creatures and deities from world mythology , and monsters from popular culture like Godzilla . Alongside working on Shin Megami Tensei II , If ... and Nocturne , he also did character designs for the first three Persona games . Kaneko 's style has been described as " cold [ and ] stoic " , evolving into that state over time to keep the artwork as close as possible to the in @-@ game render .
Soejima 's first work for the series was as part of the digital coloring team for the first Devil Summoner . He later had minor roles in artwork and character design in the first Persona and Soul Hackers . He later did the secondary characters for the Persona 2 duology , and was also part of the team checking over the PlayStation ports of the first three Shin Megami Tensei games , as well as minor work on Nocturne . Soejima was chosen as the lead designer for Persona 3 by Kaneko , as Kaneko wanted the younger staff members to gain experience . Persona 3 proved challenging for Soejima as he needed to refine his drawing style and take the expectations of series fans into account . He would go on to design for Persona 3 FES and Portable , Persona 4 and Persona 5 . Soejima 's drawing style is recognized as being lighter @-@ toned than Kaneko 's work on the Shin Megami Tensei games .
Other designers have also worked on the series . For Nine , the developers wanted to have a new style to suit the game 's original vision , so the characters were designed by animator Yasuomi Umetsu . Another designer for the series is Masayuki Doi , who had made a name for himself with the Trauma Center series ; and designed the main characters for Shin Megami Tensei IV . Inspired in his work by Kaneko 's designs , he created the main characters ' clothing to be a blend of Japanese and western fashions while incorporating design elements from the Star Wars series . For the Devil Survivor games , Atlus were aiming to appeal to a wider audience and reinvigorate the Megami Tensei franchise , hiring Suzuhito Yasuda as character designer for this purpose . Some monsters in the second Devil Survivor were designed by manga artist Mohiro Kitoh .
= = = Localization = = =
For a long time , the Megami Tensei franchise was not exported to western territories despite there being a recognized market . The original reasons were the heavy religious themes and symbols used , which were considered taboo in western game markets , and Nintendo 's strict content guidelines for overseas releases . Later , many of these early works were prevented from coming overseas due to their age , which would have put them at a disadvantage in the modern gaming market . Early entries on the PlayStation were also blocked by Sony of America 's then @-@ current approval policies . The first title in the franchise to be localized was the action spin @-@ off Jack Bros. ; the first role @-@ playing game in the franchise to receive an overseas release was the first Persona game . This was done to give Atlus ' North American branch a flagship RPG franchise that could compete with the likes of Final Fantasy , Suikoden and Breath of Fire . According to Okada , the naming of creatures and enemies was adjusted from the main series and original Japanese release of Persona to make it more acceptable for an overseas audience . Though it managed to establish the franchise overseas , the localization was a taxing task due to a small staff and the need to change multiple aspects to suit a North American audience , including removing references to Japanese culture and changing one character from a Japanese to African @-@ American . The first Persona 2 title , Innocent Sin , needed to be passed over due to shortage of manpower and the fact that development was focused on the second title , Eternal Punishment .
Nocturne was the first release in the Shin Megami Tensei series to be released overseas . After the release of Nocturne , Atlus ' overseas branches decided to add the Shin Megami Tensei moniker to future releases within the Megami Tensei franchise to help market the games . Despite many of the original games not bearing the moniker , it ultimately worked in Atlus ' favor as , regardless of title differences , the games chosen for localization were all part of the larger Megami Tensei franchise , and using the core Shin Megami Tensei moniker kept all the titles under a single banner . Before this decision was made , the series was given the localized title Revelations , used for the first Persona and the first Last Bible . Later , changes to titles were made to make them less unwieldy , such as with Raidou Kuzunoha vs. The Soulless Army . Called Raidō Kuzunoha vs. The Super @-@ Powered Army in Japan , the title was altered as it sounded " goofy " in English . By the time Strange Journey was in development , the franchise had a strong presence overseas , so the team created Strange Journey with localization in mind : the two aspects actively linked with this were the game 's setting in Antarctica as opposed to modern @-@ day Japan , and the fact that it was not given a numeral . Starting with Shin Megami Tensei IV , the company decided to actively promote the franchise overseas to North America , Europe and mainland Asia . After 2016 , due to Atlus USA 's merger with Sega of America , Sega took over North American publishing duties , although the Atlus brand remained intact .
In general , Atlus publishes Megami Tensei games in Japan and North America , but as they lack a European branch , they publish titles in the region through third @-@ party companies such as Ghostlight and NIS America . Their latest partnership , after their deal with NIS America ended with the publication of Odin Sphere Leifthrasir , was with European publishing firm Deep Silver to publish multiple titles in the region , including Shin Megami Tensei IV : Apocalypse and Persona 5 . Atlus has occasionally published titles digitally in Europe .
= = Reception = =
Prior to its popularity in the west , the game was a major franchise in Japan , having sold over 4 million units by 2003 . By November 2014 , the series has sold approximately 13 million packaged units worldwide , with the combined series grouped within the Megami Tensei franchise accounting for 7 million and the Persona series accounting for 6 @.@ 2 million . Megami Tensei is one of Atlus ' best @-@ selling and most important franchises .
Japanese website 4Gamer.net referred to the series as one of Japan 's biggest role @-@ playing franchises . UGO Networks writer K. Thor Jensen cited the first Megami Tensei game as the first successful use of cyberpunk aesthetics in video games , saying that the series ' mix of science fiction elements and the occult " create a truly unique fictional cyberpunk world " . Nintendo Power has noted that Atlus always mixes " familiar gameplay " with surprising settings when creating games for the series , citing Persona , with its " modern @-@ day horror stories " and " teams of Japanese high @-@ school kids " , as the perfect example . The editor also added that Strange Journey followed a similar system , calling it a " science @-@ fiction makeover " of the series . In an article about the interaction of Japanese and Western gaming culture , 1UP.com mentioned the Shin Megami Tensei subseries alongside Nippon Ichi Software 's Disgaea series . Kurt Kalata wrote : " [ They ] may not be big sellers , but they 've garnered underground success and attracted thousands of obsessed fans . " GameSpot writer Andrew Vestal referred to the series as the third biggest series in Japan after Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest . IGN 's Matt Coleman mentioned Nocturne in the article " A History of Console RPGs " , referring to its content as " challenging stuff for a genre that used to be all about princess saving and evil cleansing " .
Digital Devil Story : Megami Tensei II and Shin Megami Tensei both appeared on Famitsu 's 2006 " Top 100 Favorite Games of All Time " audience poll at No. 58 and No. 59 , respectively . RPGFan 's " Top 20 RPGs of the Past Decade " list was topped by the two Digital Devil Saga games , followed by Persona 3 in second place , while Persona 4 ranked fourth place . Kalata , writing for Gamasutra , referred to Nocturne as one of the 20 essential RPGs for players of the genre . GameTrailers cited the Press Turn system as one of the best JRPG battle systems in existence , with particular reference to the version used in Shin Megami Tensei IV .
Alongside its critical acclaim , the series has garnered controversy both in Japan and overseas . Amongst the material cited are its demon negotiation mechanic , depictions of suicide and cannibalism , religious criticism , its use and mixture of Christian and occult imagery , political references , depictions of homosexuality , and its sometimes @-@ strange demon designs . Specific examples have been cited by western journalists . The original release of Persona caused concern due to the title 's religious implications . 1UP.com 's 2007 game awards , which ran in the March 2008 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly , Persona 3 was given the " Most controversial game that created no controversy " award : the writers said " Rockstar 's Hot Coffee sex scandal and Bully 's boy @-@ on @-@ boy kissing 's got nothing on this PS2 role @-@ player 's suicide @-@ initiated battles or subplot involving student @-@ teacher dating . " GamesRadar included the series on its list of " Controversies Waiting to Happen " , saying that the lack of public outcry was due to its niche status when compared to other series with similar content . Writing for 1UP.com in a later article , Kalata traced this use of controversial content back to the Digital Devil Story novels , which depicted violence and rape committed by demons , and said that " Such violence is not particularly rare in the land of Japanese animation , but it became even more disturbing in [ Megami Tensei II ] " .
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= Hurricane Juan =
Hurricane Juan was a significant tropical cyclone that heavily damaged Canada in late September 2003 . It was the tenth named storm and the sixth hurricane of the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season . Juan formed southeast of Bermuda on September 24 from a tropical wave that had tracked across the subtropical Atlantic Ocean . It tracked northward and strengthened over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream , reaching Category 2 strength on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale on September 27 . The hurricane peaked in intensity with sustained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) that same day , losing some strength as it raced over cooler waters toward the coast of Nova Scotia . Juan made landfall between Shad Bay and Prospect in the Halifax Regional Municipality early on September 29 as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Juan retained hurricane strength while crossing Nova Scotia from south to north , though it weakened to a tropical storm over Prince Edward Island . It was absorbed by another extratropical low later on September 29 near Anticosti Island in the northern Gulf of Saint Lawrence .
The hurricane inflicted extensive damage across central Nova Scotia and into Prince Edward Island , with lesser damage east and west of the storm centre . Most of the damage occurred as a result of the intense winds that buffeted the region . Juan 's passage resulted in eight fatalities and over CA $ 300 million ( US $ 200 million ) in damage . It was described as the worst storm to hit Halifax since 1893 .
= = Meteorological history = =
A large tropical wave accompanied by a broad area of low pressure moved off the coast of Africa on September 14 , 2003 . It initially tracked westward and remained disorganized due to unfavourable upper @-@ level wind shear . On September 20 , the convection around the system greatly increased during interaction with the circulation of a large upper @-@ level low , though unfavorable conditions caused the activity to remain disorganized . The system as a whole moved to the northwest around the upper @-@ level low and developed a mid @-@ level circulation . It interacted with a frontal zone , and became better organized on September 23 while located 450 mi ( 725 km ) south of Bermuda . Later that day , a low @-@ level circulation developed within the system , though its involvement with the proximate frontal zone prevented it from being classified a tropical depression . Deep convection increased near the centre on September 24 , and the system quickly developed banding features and distinct outflow . Based on the increase in organization , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) classified it as Tropical Depression Fifteen later that day while it was located about 345 miles ( 555 km ) southeast of Bermuda . Operationally , the agency did not initiate storm advisories until 27 hours after the time of its formation determined by post @-@ hurricane season analysis .
Initially , the depression possessed a combination of tropical and subtropical characteristics ; it remained attached to a nearby frontal zone , though the organization of the convection and a warm core within the system resulted in classification as a tropical cyclone . Forecasters had predicted the depression would only slowly strengthen and reach a peak intensity of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . However , the depression steadily organized and had strengthened into Tropical Storm Juan by early September 25 . Juan moved northwestward at around 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) in response to a developing subtropical ridge to its east . On September 26 , an eye feature developed , and very deep convection increased around the circulation . The cloud pattern continued to consolidate , and Juan attained hurricane status later on September 26 while located 165 mi ( 270 km ) southeast of Bermuda . The hurricane moved into an area of warm waters and light wind shear , allowing for additional strengthening ; by September 27 , Juan had attained a peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) while located 635 mi ( 1 @,@ 020 km ) south of Halifax , Nova Scotia . At this peak strength , the eye of the hurricane was distinct and embedded within a well @-@ defined and round central dense overcast .
Hurricane Juan remained at peak intensity for over 24 hours . After moving northwestward for an extended period of time , it turned and accelerated to the north . The eye became less distinct on September 28 , and the hurricane weakened slightly . Due to its fast forward motion , Juan had little time to weaken over significantly colder waters before making landfall between Shad Bay and Prospect ( near Halifax ) on September 29 with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . It weakened quickly while rapidly moving across the southern Canadian Maritimes and crossing the Nova Scotia peninsula as a hurricane . Juan had diminished to a tropical storm as it moved over Prince Edward Island by early September 29 . Later that afternoon , the storm was absorbed by a large extratropical low over the northwestern Gulf of Saint Lawrence .
= = Preparations = =
The first advisories were issued by the Canadian Hurricane Centre on September 26 , although at that time they broadly suggested the possibility existed for wind and rain across Atlantic Canada . As Juan approached on September 27 , warning broadcasts on local media in Atlantic Canada were changed accordingly . The public and emergency officials in the expected landfall area were told to make preparations for a potential disaster , after the CHC bulletins indicated the possibility existed for significant wind damage and flooding from both heavy rain and storm surges , as well as power outages .
On the morning of September 28 , reports indicated that Juan would make landfall either as a tropical storm or marginal Category 1 hurricane . Weather broadcasts up to that time gave every indication that the storm would weaken prior to landfall . By 6 p.m. ADT ( 2100 UTC ) , additional warnings had been issued since Juan was expected to make landfall as a strong Category 1 or weak Category 2 hurricane . Most businesses in the areas affected were closed on Sundays , which meant that preparations could not be made at the last minute . Although no large @-@ scale evacuations were made , local evacuations for low @-@ lying areas were issued on the evening of September 28 . In all , several hundred people were affected by these evacuations . Utility workers also stood on standby before the storm hit , preparing for large @-@ scale power outages .
= = Impact = =
= = = Nova Scotia = = =
Hurricane Juan 's maximum sustained wind speed at landfall in Nova Scotia was measured at 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . The urban concentration surrounding Halifax Harbour bore the brunt of the highest sustained winds and strongest wind gusts during the storm ; some unofficial estimates have placed gusts as high as 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) . Wave @-@ rider weather buoys off the entrance of Halifax Harbour snapped their moorings after reportedly recording waves in excess of 65 ft ( 20 m ) . Significant erosion occurred on the populated shores of the harbour , particularly in the Bedford Basin where residential properties and railway tracks received most of the wave action . Storm surges of 5 to 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 m ) were reported in the harbour ; it was the highest surge ever recorded in Halifax Harbour . Rainfall was fairly light due to the fast movement and dry air on the southern side of the storm . There were no rainfall reports greater than 2 inches ( 52 mm ) .
Juan caused widespread structural and vegetation damage across the region , particularly in and around the Halifax Regional Municipality . Extensive damage to trees was reported , which blocked many streets and knocked down power lines . Many homes and businesses suffered property damage , particularly roof damage on structures , and some weaker structures were destroyed . HRM estimated that 31 % of residential homes suffered some degree of damage and 27 % of homes had enough damage to warrant an insurance claim . In downtown Halifax , erosion @-@ control boulders the size of garbage cans were hurled from Halifax Harbour onto boardwalks and parking lots and piers . The Victoria General Hospital experienced roof and water damage and was evacuated during the storm , as were numerous tall apartment buildings and other multi @-@ family residences . Billboards and signs were also destroyed , and dozens of vehicles were crushed by trees and other debris . The city 's cherished Point Pleasant Park and Public Gardens suffered massive loss of trees and remained closed for months .
Juan set an all @-@ time maximum wind gust speed record at the Halifax Stanfield International Airport ; during the peak of the storm , a gust reached 143 km / h , a record which still stands to this day . Another high windspeed occurred at the McNabs Island autostation , which recorded a 2 @-@ minute sustained wind of 151 km / h , with gusts to 176 km / h . Hurricane @-@ force gusts extended as far east as Beaver Island , where gusts reached 132 km / h . The hurricane was strong enough to destroy the anemometers at Shannon Hill , Chebucto Head and Sambro Island , even though the Sambro Island instrument had survived a 193 km / h storm some years earlier .
At the harbour entrance , on Sambro Island , a historic building beside the oldest lighthouse in North America was badly damaged and remains unrepaired in 2007 . The hurricane caused severe damage to shipping in Halifax Harbour . A visiting recreational schooner named Larinda was sunk at the wharf beside the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic and a harbour tour ketch Mar was driven ashore in Eastern Passage on the opposite side of Halifax Harbour . Another harbour tour vessel , the tern schooner Silva , broke from her moorings and caused extensive damage to the Cable Wharf on the Halifax Waterfront . Dozens of smaller yachts were also driven ashore ; extensive damage occurred to yacht clubs in the Bedford Basin and Northwest Arm . Dozens of containers were knocked off two container ships at the South End Container Terminal . Wharves on the Halifax and Darmouth waterfront suffered large amounts of damage and several railcars were washed into the harbour at the Dartmouth railway yard ; one of the tracks for the double @-@ track main line was washed out in several places along the Bedford Basin near Millview . Coastal flooding was also reported around Halifax Harbour as a result of the storm surge , although inland flooding was minor as rainfall was not heavy due to Juan 's fast forward movement .
Less severe property damage was recorded west of the storm 's track into St. Margarets Bay and Mahone Bay . In addition to Halifax Regional Municipality 's urban core , the town of Truro and all of rural Colchester County as well as the western part of Pictou County experienced property damage and power outages from falling trees ; numerous barns and other agricultural buildings were damaged east of the storm 's path , including a replica of the Hector in Pictou Harbour . The severity of property damage in the metropolitan areas of Halifax and Dartmouth of Halifax Regional Municipality initially led some forecasters to believe that Juan was likely a Category 3 hurricane ; however , the sustained wind reports did not justify that suggestion . Many of the deciduous trees in central Nova Scotia still had leaves , which magnified the effects of wind damage . Overall , the number of damaged trees was estimated to be in the millions .
Juan claimed six lives ( two directly ) in Nova Scotia . Both of the direct deaths were due to fallen trees ; one was a Halifax paramedic and the other was a motorist in Enfield . Three of the four indirect deaths were as a result of a house fire started by candles when electricity was cut , and the fourth was in relief work after the storm .
= = = Rest of Atlantic Canada = = =
When the storm tracked across Nova Scotia and into the Northumberland Strait , it was still a Category 1 hurricane , weakening to a tropical storm as it emerged into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence . Wind gusts of 86 mph ( 139 km / h ) were reported in Charlottetown and 67 mph ( 107 km / h ) in the Iles de la Madeleine in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence .
Damage was also reported in Prince Edward Island as a result of the storm , particularly around Charlottetown , where its waterfront sustained heavy wave damage to pleasure craft and sea walls , as well as significant damage to the older urban forest in that city 's downtown core . Extensive tree damage was also reported across the island , as well as structural damage to weaker buildings , such as barns and silos . The hurricane left portions of the island without power . The narrow path meant that damage was quite localized ; little damage was reported in New Brunswick or western Prince Edward Island . Voting in the PEI general election on September 29 was also disrupted , though more than 80 % of voters made it to polling stations .
Two deaths were reported in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence off the remote Anticosti Island in Quebec . They were fishermen from New Brunswick operating near Anticosti Island .
= = Aftermath = =
In the hours following the storm a state of emergency was declared in Halifax Regional Municipality and parts of neighbouring East Hants Municipal District and Colchester County . The Government of Nova Scotia requested that the federal government deploy 600 Canadian Forces personnel to assist local authorities in HRM with cleanup in the urban area and to assist utility crews with electrical power restoration . Many utility workers , especially those employed by Nova Scotia Power and the dozens of crews from Maritime Electric and NB Power who responded under mutual assistance agreements , worked for almost three weeks without any considerable amount of rest . Many residents praised utility crews for their hard work in restoring the extensive damage .
The devastated Point Pleasant Park remained closed for cleanup after the storm before re @-@ opening in June 2004 , nine months after the storm hit , with a damaged shoreline and almost 85 % of its trees removed . A revitalization and reforestation program began in 2005 .
The Government of Nova Scotia pledged $ 10 million ( 2003 CAD ) in relief money after the hurricane hit , and private contributions were also made quickly after the storm hit . Prince Edward Island also pledged $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 2003 CAD ) immediately after the hurricane hit , and the federal government also announced their own package . The Mayor of Toronto at the time , Mel Lastman , also contributed $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 2003 CAD ) to replace damaged trees in Prince Edward Island .
Hurricane Juan alerted residents , governments , utilities , and emergency management agencies throughout Atlantic Canada to improve preparations for devastating events such as hurricanes , especially with climatological data pointing to possible increased frequency of major ocean storms and extratropical cyclones . In addition to Juan , three other storms — Fabian , Isabel and Kate — had a significant effect on land or offshore in Canada during the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season .
Preparations and planning have been underway since 2003 and were first tested when Hurricane Ophelia was forecast to brush near Nova Scotia in early September 2005 . Hurricane Juan has also resulted in several changes to the Meteorological Service of Canada 's Canadian Hurricane Centre , which has relocated from a vulnerable and exposed location in an office building in Dartmouth , Nova Scotia , to a more secure location that can withstand hurricane damage . CHC 's hurricane warning system has also been improved ; traditionally , CHC did not issue standard hurricane or tropical storm watches or warnings , just high wind and heavy rainfall warnings , which were often not heeded by local residents . Beginning in the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season , CHC began using standard hurricane warnings for storms potentially affecting Canada . Canada issued its first hurricane warning in 2008 in anticipation of Hurricane Kyle and in 2009 , issued its second hurricane watch in anticipation of Hurricane Bill .
Hurricane Juan lent its name to a severe blizzard that struck Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island a few months later in February 2004 which quickly became known as White Juan because the paralyzing effects of the massive snowfall evoked the recent hurricane .
= = = Retirement = = =
Because of its effects in Canada , the name Juan was retired in April 2004 and will never be used again for an Atlantic hurricane . Environment Canada noted that its request for retirement was " in consideration of the lost and damaged lives , the impact to economy , and the widespread destruction of trees throughout two provinces " . It was the first time that the Meteorological Service of Canada had specifically requested a hurricane name be retired . The name was replaced by Joaquin for the 2009 season , however it was not used during that year . For the 2015 season , when the tenth storm developed , the name Joaquin was used for the first time . That name was also retired following the season and was replaced with Julian for the 2021 season .
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= Mam Sonando =
Mam Sonando ( Khmer : ម ៉ ម សូណង ់ ដូ ; born February 13 , 1942 ) is a Cambodian radio journalist with French dual citizenship . He is the owner and director of Phnom Penh 's Beehive Radio , which the Committee to Protect Journalists ( CPJ ) described in 2012 as " one of Cambodia 's few independent news outlets " . He also acts as a political commentator for the station .
Sonando has been imprisoned three times on charges related to his reporting : a 2003 arrest for " inciting riots " , a 2005 arrest for defamation , and a 2012 arrest for insurrection . His twenty @-@ year prison sentence for the latter was protested by human rights groups , and US President Barack Obama expressed concerns about the case in a meeting with Prime Minister Hun Sen. The sentence was overturned by an appeals court in March 2013 , and Sonando was instead given a five @-@ year suspended sentence on charges of causing civil unrest .
= = Biography = =
Mam Sonando was born on February 13 , 1942 in a small district called Kampong Siem in Kampong Cham Province , Cambodia . His father , Mam Soth , was a lawyer . His mother Eam Ouch was born in Battambang province . Sonando traveled to Paris in 1964 for school . He attended the Vaugirard State Technical College of Photography and Cinematography , in Paris , France , from 1969 to 1970 . In 1973 , he received a bachelor 's degree with major in sociology and cinematography and audio visuals , at the Paris XV University .
He left Cambodia again in 1975 to avoid the rule of the Khmer Rouge , remaining in France until 1993 . That year , he returned to Cambodia and acquired a broadcasting license for a new station which he named Beehive Radio . He used the station to advertise a new political party , the Beehive Democratic Society Party , and stood in the 1998 parliamentary election . According to the Asia Times , his campaign only won him " a reputation as an eccentric , spouting Buddhist philosophy , pleas for democracy and a personal campaign for attention . " After failing to be elected , Sonando dissolved his party , but continued broadcasting on Beehive Radio as an independent journalist .
Sonando is the owner and director of Beehive Radio . In 2012 , Human Rights Watch described Beehive Radio as " a key platform for promotion of human rights and democracy in Cambodia " . The station is one of the few to address controversial topics , including " Cambodian civil society , the fight against HIV / AIDS , maternal mortality and human trafficking , campaigns for women 's rights and gender equality , political and economic transparency , equitable and sustainable development , labor rights , environmental protection , the rule of law , and electoral education and election monitoring . " It also carries programming by Radio Free Asia , Voice of America , the Cambodian Center for Human Rights , and Radio France Internationale .
The station is funded by a combination of advertising and private donations . Some companies have declined to advertise with Beehive Radio due to its occasionally controversial reporting and political stances . Sonando also refuses to run advertisements for " vice " products , including cigarettes .
= = 2003 arrest = =
In January 2003 , riots broke out in Phnom Penh after a Cambodian newspaper incorrectly reported that a Thai actress had stated Angkor Wat properly belonged to Thailand . On 29 January , the Thai embassy was burned , and hundreds of Thai immigrants fled the country to avoid the violence . During the riots , a caller to Beehive Radio claimed incorrectly that Cambodian embassy officials were killed in Bangkok . On 31 January , Sonando was arrested and accused of " relaying false information " , " inciting discrimination " , and " inciting crime " . He stated to reporters , " They blame me for broadcasting an opinion of a listener which turned out to be untrue . But if I have to go to jail to allow people to express their opinion I am happy . "
Sonando was formally charged in court on 1 February ; ten days later , he was released on bail . The charges never came to trial .
= = 2005 arrest = =
Sonando was arrested again on 11 October 2005 after reporting on Prime Minister Hun Sen 's treaty with Vietnam settling the two nations ' border dispute ; the report included a discussion with a French @-@ based expert who criticized Hun Sen 's concessions . Sonando was charged with " criminal defamation " , " disseminating false information " , and " incitement " . On 3 November , he was denied bail .
Sonando 's arrest was criticized by the United Nations and the European Union . A coalition of 70 Cambodian civil society organizations also pushed for his release . CPJ condemned the arrest as part of a " broad crackdown on freedom of expression " , and Amnesty International named him a prisoner of conscience .
In late January 2006 , Sonando was granted bail ahead of a visit by US Assistant Secretary of State Christopher R. Hill . Hun Sen described the release as a " gift " to the visitor . The charges against Sonando were dropped before the end of the month .
= = 2012 arrest = =
In mid @-@ 2012 , Beehive Radio reported on an International Court of Justice complaint against Prime Minister Hun Sen blaming him for the 2010 Phnom Penh stampede , in which 347 people were killed . The report sparked a new series of disputes between Sonando and Hun Sen. On 26 June 2012 , Hun Sen called for Sonando 's arrest while Sonando was out of the country , accusing him of heading a separatist plot in Kratié Province to break it away from the rest of the nation . From 15 to 17 May , the province had been the site of a protest against evictions for a new rubber plant that residents accused of " land @-@ grabbing " . On the final day of the protests , soldiers opened fire on a crowd of families , killing a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl . Though Sonando returned during the 2012 ASEAN meeting , he was not arrested until 15 July , a few days after its end .
Hun Sen accused Sonando of attempting to create a " state within a state " , and Sonando was formally charged with " insurrection " and " inciting people to take up weapons against state " . The charges carried a maximum sentence of 30 years in prison . Secessionist charges were also brought against several community activists from the province .
According to Ou Virak of the Cambodian Center for Human Rights , Sonando was then imprisoned in a cell shared with 17 other people , leaving him " half a square meter [ 5 square feet ] to sleep in " . On 22 July , he was moved to a prison hospital on account of illness .
Sonando 's arrest quickly generated domestic and international criticism . A coalition of 22 Cambodian rights groups , known as the Cambodian Human Rights Action Committee , called on the government to free Sonando " to save the country 's reputation " . Members of Beehive Radio and the Association of Democrats protested in front of Phnom Penh 's royal palace on 23 July .
CPJ called for Sonado 's immediate release , stating that Hun Sen had " a well @-@ worn history of leveling unsubstantiated anti @-@ state charges against journalists to stifle criticism of the administration . " Human Rights Watch said that " Sonando 's arrest on the heels of [ US Secretary of State Hillary ] Clinton 's visit is a brazen signal that Hun Sen thinks that the US wants his cooperation on other matters so much that he isn 't afraid to lower the boom on his critics " . Amnesty International again named Sonando a prisoner of conscience , " held for the peaceful exercise of his right to freedom of expression " . The International Federation for Human Rights and the World Organisation Against Torture issued a joint statement noting that they were " gravely concerned " about the charges and calling for Sonando 's immediate release . Reporters Without Borders described the arrest as " like a parting slap to all those who attended last week 's ASEAN summit in Phnom Penh . As soon the diplomats leave , the authorities arrest dissidents . " The Ireland @-@ based NGO Front Line Defenders included him on the short list for its 2013 Human Rights Defender at Risk award .
On 1 October 2012 , Sonando was found guilty by a Phnom Penh court . He was sentenced to twenty years ' imprisonment and fined 10 million riel ( US $ 2 @,@ 500 ) . In November , US President Barack Obama raised concerns about the case during a meeting with Hun Sen. French Prime Minister Jean @-@ Marc Ayrault also called for Sonando to be released .
An appeals court overturned Sonando 's conviction on anti @-@ state charges on 14 March 2013 , finding that there had been no evidence to convict him . The court instead gave Sonando a five @-@ year suspended sentence on charges that he had been involved in the Kratié unrest . A crowd of hundreds of Sonando supporters gathered outside the courthouse to hear the verdict . Amnesty International called the ruling " a positive step for freedom of expression in the country " , but added that " Mam Sonando should never have been imprisoned in the first place , and the convictions that stand appear baseless . " Sonando was released from prison on 15 March , the day after the ruling . Following his release , Sonando stated his intention to clear his name of the remaining charges .
= = 2014 protest = =
In January 2014 , Mam Sonando organized a mass demonstration , which demanded the government to expand his radio reach and open a TV station . The Minister of Information Khieu Kanharith denied the permission for the expansion but Mam Sonando told reporters the denial is unconstitutional . Protesters clashed with police on January 28 , injuring at least 9 of the demonstrators . In response to the violence , Human Rights Watch calls for the United Nations to pressure the Cambodian government . Reporters Without Borders and Freedom House have also condemned the violence .
= = Personal life = =
Sonando is married to Den Phanara . He is a devout Buddhist who constructed a Buddhist temple beside his radio station , and is an avid fan of jazz .
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= John Bowker ( baseball ) =
John Brite Bowker ( born July 8 , 1983 ) is an American professional baseball outfielder and first baseman who is a free agent . He stands 6 feet 1 inch ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) tall and weighs 205 pounds ( 93 kg ) . He has played for the San Francisco Giants , Pittsburgh Pirates and Philadelphia Phillies of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) and the Yomiuri Giants and Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles of Nippon Professional Baseball ( NPB ) . He bats and throws left @-@ handed .
Bowker was drafted out of Long Beach State University in the third round of the 2004 MLB draft by the San Francisco Giants . He spent the next few years in their minor league system and ranked among the Eastern League leaders in several hitting categories in 2007 . He was called up by the Giants shortly after the 2008 season began , and he became the first San Francisco @-@ era Giant to hit a home run in his first two major league games . He was the Giants ' starting first baseman for much of the season and finished the year batting .255 with 10 home runs in 111 games . In 2009 , Bowker won the Pacific Coast League batting title with a .342 average . However , he batted .194 in 31 major league games . He began 2010 as the Giants ' right fielder but lost the job soon after the season started . He was optioned to Fresno in June and was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates at the trade deadline . Bowker was called up by the Pirates in September and finished the 2010 season batting .219 with 5 home runs in 67 games . He started the 2011 season as a reserve outfielder on the Pirates ' team but was designated for assignment and sent to the minors after April . He batted .306 with 15 home runs and 76 RBI in 106 games with their International League team before getting traded to the Philadelphia Phillies at the end of August . Used mainly as a pinch hitter , Bowker had no hits in 13 at @-@ bats with Philadelphia . Following the season , he was released so he could sign with the Yomiuri Giants in Japan .
= = Early years = =
Bowker was born to Brite and Chris Bowker on July 8 , 1983 , in Sacramento , California . Growing up , he attended Mariemont Elementary School , Arden Middle School , and Rio Americano High School . He began his baseball career playing for an Arden Park Little League team coached by his father , and he played baseball at Rio Americano , along with football and basketball . He decided to concentrate on baseball as a sophomore . He lettered three seasons in baseball , two seasons in football and one season in basketball in addition to being named all @-@ league in each of these sports . He set Rio Americano 's single @-@ season records for batting average ( .463 ) hits ( 41 ) , home runs ( 8 ) and runs batted in ( RBI ) ( 41 ) .
After graduating from Rio Americano , Bowker enrolled at Long Beach State University . In 2004 , he led the LBSU Dirtbags to the NCAA Super Regionals and was included on the 1st Team All @-@ Big West . After batting .323 in his first two years at Long Beach , he entered the 2004 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft and was selected in the third round by the San Francisco Giants .
= = Professional career = =
= = = San Francisco Giants = = =
= = = = 2004 – 2007 = = = =
To begin his minor league career , Bowker was assigned to the rookie @-@ league Arizona League Giants . After batting .512 with 22 hits , 2 home runs , and 11 RBI in 10 games for the Giants , he was promoted to the Salem @-@ Keizer Volcanoes of the single @-@ A short season Northwest League . With Salem @-@ Keizer , he batted .323 with 41 hits , 4 home runs , and 16 RBI in 31 games . Between the AZL Giants and Salem @-@ Keizer , he appeared in 41 games , batting .371 with 63 hits , 6 home runs , and 27 RBI in 41 games .
In 2005 , Bowker attended Giants ' spring training but was sent to the minors on March 2 . He spent the season with the single @-@ A advanced San Jose Giants . In 121 games , he had 124 hits , 27 doubles , 13 home runs , and 67 RBI while batting .267 . He batted .238 with a double , a home run , and 4 RBI in 5 playoff games as San Jose won the California League championship .
Bowker attended spring training with the Giants in 2006 , but he was sent to the minors on March 2 . He spent most of the season with San Jose , where he batted .284 with 131 hits , 6 triples , 7 home runs , and 66 RBI in 112 games . His 32 doubles ranked tenth overall in the league . In 5 playoff games , he batted .182 with 4 hits , 2 doubles , and 1 triple . He also appeared in two games for the triple @-@ A Fresno Grizzlies of the Pacific Coast League , where he had two hits in four at bats .
Bowker attended spring training with the Giants in 2007 but only appeared in two spring training games . He spent the entire season with the Connecticut Defenders , the Giants ' double @-@ A affiliate in the Eastern League . He set career highs with 139 games played , a .307 batting average , 160 hits , 22 home runs , 90 RBI , 35 doubles , and 6 triples . He ranked seventh in the league in batting average ( among qualifiers ) , first in games , second in hits ( to Jordan Brown ) , fifth in doubles ( tied with David Smith ) , fifth in triples ( tied with Clete Thomas and Michael Spidale ) , and third in RBI ( behind Jeff Larish and Oscar Salazar ) . His 22 home runs were tied for fifth in the league ( with Salazar and Luis Jiménez ) and set a Connecticut franchise record .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Entering the 2008 season , Bowker was named the ninth best prospect in the Giants ' organization by Baseball America . He attended spring training again but was sent to Fresno on March 11 . On April 11 , Bowker was called up by the Giants , and he joined the team the next day after having only 3 hours of sleep the night before . In a 7 – 5 loss to the St. Louis Cardinals that day , he got his first hit ( a single ) and drove in three runs with his first home run , both against Todd Wellemeyer , as he became the eighth player in San Francisco Giants history to hit a home run in his debut . The next day , in the Giants ' 7 – 4 victory over the Cardinals , Bowker had four RBI and hit his second home run , against Joel Piñeiro , becoming the first player in San Francisco Giants history to hit a home run in each of his first two Major League games . He had seven RBI in his first two games , the most by any major leaguer in his first two games since Joe Cunningham had seven in 1954 . Bowker replaced Rich Aurilia as the Giants ' starting first baseman on April 21 . On June 7 , he hit the first grand slam of his career , against Luis Ayala , in a 6 – 0 victory over the Washington Nationals . On July 2 , Bowker hit a two @-@ run " Splash Hit " home run into McCovey Cove against Ryan Dempster in a 6 – 5 loss to the Chicago Cubs . He was batting .274 before the All @-@ Star break , but after batting .152 with two RBI in 21 games after the break , he was optioned to Fresno on August 13 to make room on the roster for Travis Ishikawa , who replaced him as the Giants ' first baseman . He was recalled by the Giants on September 2 after rosters expanded . Used mainly as a pinch @-@ hitter in September , he batted .346 with 1 home run in 15 games to finish the season with a .255 batting average ( 10th among NL rookies ) , 83 hits ( 9th among NL rookies ) , 14 doubles , 3 triples ( tied for 4th among NL rookies ) , 10 home runs ( tied for 4th among NL rookies ) , and 43 RBI ( 6th among NL rookies ) in 111 games . At Fresno , he batted .237 with 22 hits , 3 doubles , 1 triple , 2 home runs , and 9 RBI in 23 games .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
On March 29 , 2009 , Bowker was optioned to Fresno . In June , Bowker was named the Pacific Coast League player of the week for two straight weeks ( May 24 – 31 and June 1 – 7 ) after batting .519 with five doubles , six home runs , 16 runs scored , and 18 RBI over that span . He was called up to the Giants on July 9 when Ryan Sadowski was optioned to Fresno . On July 19 , he had a game @-@ winning sacrifice fly against Zach Duke in the Giants ' 4 – 3 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates . Bowker split time in left field with Randy Winn and at first base with Ishikawa , but he was returned to Fresno on July 26 so the Giants could call up Eugenio Vélez after Bowker batted .156 with 4 RBI in 11 games . He was recalled at the beginning of August but was sent back to Fresno after appearing in two games . On August 16 , Bowker tied a Grizzlies ' record ( shared by Dante Powell ) by driving in seven runs in an 8 – 5 victory over the Nashville Sounds . He hit three @-@ run home runs against Tim Dillard and John Axford , and he was walked with the bases loaded by David Johnson . On September 1 , he was recalled when rosters expanded . He was used mainly as a pinch @-@ hitter until September 23 , when he took over left field after Vélez was moved from left field to second base to replace the injured Freddy Sanchez . In 31 games with the Giants that year , Bowker batted .194 with 13 hits , 2 doubles , 2 triples , 2 home runs , and 7 RBI in 67 at bats . In 104 games at Fresno , he batted .342 with 125 hits , 22 doubles , 4 triples , 21 home runs , and 83 RBI . He tied for ninth in the league in home runs ( with Prentice Redman ) and tied for eight in RBI ( with Allen Craig ) . He led the league in batting , becoming the first Fresno player to win the batting title since Brian Dallimore in 2003 . Bowker was named to the PCL 's regular @-@ season All @-@ Star team , post @-@ season All @-@ Star team , and All @-@ PCL team .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
Although Nate Schierholtz was expected to be the Giants ' Opening Day right fielder in 2010 , Bowker won the position after hitting six home runs in spring training . On April 7 , Bowker hit a two @-@ run home run against Brett Myers in a 10 – 4 victory over the Houston Astros . After batting .214 with four RBI in his first 10 games , Bowker was replaced by Schierholtz as the starting right fielder on April 17 . On May 7 , Bowker hit a ninth @-@ inning game @-@ tying home run against Francisco Rodríguez in an eventual 6 – 4 loss to the New York Mets . After batting .207 with 17 hits , 3 doubles , 3 home runs , and 8 RBI in 41 games , Bowker was optioned to Fresno on June 2 to make room for Pat Burrell on the roster . He was named the PCL Player of the Week from June 14 to June 21 after he had a 13 @-@ game hitting streak and a 6 @-@ game RBI streak end that week . After batting .310 with 61 hits , 12 doubles , 14 home runs , and 36 RBI in 51 games with Fresno , Bowker and Joe Martinez were traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates on July 31 for Javier López .
= = = Pittsburgh Pirates = = =
Upon being acquired , Bowker was assigned by the Pirates to the Indianapolis Indians of the triple @-@ A International League , where he batted .319 in 25 games with 29 hits , 7 doubles , 2 triples , 4 home runs , and 10 RBI . He was called up to the Pittsburgh club on September 1 as rosters expanded . By September 13 , he had taken over from Lastings Milledge as the Pirates ' everyday right fielder . He hit a two @-@ run home run against Barry Enright and had three hits on September 18 in a 9 – 6 victory over the Arizona Diamondbacks . Four days later , Bowker again had three hits and two RBI , including a solo home run against Kyle Lohse , in an 11 – 6 victory over the Cardinals . He had a pinch @-@ hit three @-@ run double against Mike MacDougal on September 28 in a 7 – 2 victory over the Cardinals . With the Pirates in 2010 , Bowker batted .232 with 16 hits , 5 doubles , 2 home runs , and 13 RBI in 26 games . His major league totals from 2010 were 33 hits , 5 doubles , 8 home runs , and 21 RBI in 67 games .
Bowker made the Pirates ' Opening Day roster in 2011 as a reserve oufielder . After he had 4 hits ( 1 double ) and 2 RBI in 17 at @-@ bats over 19 games , he was designated for assignment to make room on the roster for Xavier Paul on April 27 . On May 4 , he was assigned to Indianapolis after clearing waivers . In 106 games with Indianapolis , Bowker batted .306 with 129 hits , 27 doubles , 1 triple , 15 home runs , and 76 RBI ( ninth in the league ) . On August 30 , 2011 , Bowker was traded to the Philadelphia Phillies for a player to be named later or cash .
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
Bowker was used almost exclusively as a pinch @-@ hitter with the Phillies . He had no hits in 13 at @-@ bats with the Phillies and was left off their postseason roster . With the Phillies and Pirates in 2011 , Bowker batted .133 with two RBI in 31 games .
= = = Yomiuri Giants = = =
On January 10 , 2012 , Bowker was released by the Phillies in order to pursue a career in Nippon Professional Baseball . Three days later , he signed a one @-@ year deal with the Yomiuri Giants .
He struggled in the regular season , having only .196 batting average , 3 home runs and 10 RBIs . But his performance in the Climax Series and Japan Series would be outstanding and were crucial to Giants ' both series ' Champion . Particularly in Japan Series , which included a near @-@ miss of a tie of Japan series record of 6 RBIs in a game ( which he had 5 ) and leading his Team with 7 RBI and 2 Home Runs . Despite losing to starting pitcher teammate Tetsuya Utsumi in Japan Series Most Valuable Player award , he was still awarded in Outstanding Player award .
= = = Second stint with the San Francisco Giants = = =
= = = = 2015 = = = =
In January 2015 , Bowker signed a minor league contract with the Giants to return to playing baseball in America . Along with Ryan Vogelsong , who had played for the Orix Buffaloes , he is the second Giants draftee to return to the Giants after playing in NPB .
On June 11 , 2015 Bowker was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates organization for a PTBNL . He elected free agency on November 6 .
= = Personal life = =
Growing up , Bowker rooted for the San Francisco Giants , the team that drafted him . His uncle , Jeff Carmichael ( who coached him growing up ) , helps him train during the offseason .
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= Action of 13 March 1806 =
The Action of 13 March 1806 was a naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars , fought when a British and a French squadron met unexpectedly in the mid @-@ Atlantic . Neither force was aware of the presence of the other prior to the encounter and were participating in separate campaigns . The British squadron consisted of seven ships of the line accompanied by associated frigates , led by Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren , were tasked with hunting down and destroying the French squadron of Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez , which had departed Brest for raiding operations in the South Atlantic in December 1805 , at the start of the Atlantic campaign of 1806 . The French force consisted of one ship of the line and one frigate , all that remained of Contre @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Durand Linois ' squadron that had sailed for the Indian Ocean in March 1803 during the Peace of Amiens . Linois raided British shipping lanes and harbours across the region , achieving limited success against undefended merchant ships but repeatedly withdrawing in the face of determined opposition , most notably at the Battle of Pulo Aura in February 1804 . With his stores almost exhausted and the French ports east of the Cape of Good Hope that could have offered him replenishment eliminated , Linois decided to return to France in January 1806 , and by March was inadvertently sailing across the cruising ground of Warren 's squadron .
Linois had twice failed to capture , or even seriously engage , large and valuable British merchant convoys on his cruise . When he saw scattered sails in the distance at 03 : 00 on 13 March 1806 , he decided to investigate in his ship of the line Marengo , in the hope that the ships would again prove to be a merchant convoy . By the time he realised that the approaching ships were actually a powerful naval squadron , he was too close to outrun the lead ship , Warren 's flagship HMS London . As London engaged Marengo , the French frigate Belle Poule attempted to escape from the approaching squadron independently , but was also run down and brought to battle by the British frigate HMS Amazon . Both engagements lasted over three hours and were bloody , the French ships surrendering after three and a half hours and losing nearly 70 men between them .
The battle marked the end of Linois 's three @-@ year campaign against British trade and was the second British victory of the Atlantic campaign , following the Battle of San Domingo the previous month . Willaumez eventually returned to France , although without many of his squadron who were destroyed by British operations or Atlantic gales . Linois , despite the criticism levelled at him for his failures in the Indian Ocean , was considered to have fought hard and been unlucky to have encountered such an overwhelming force . Made a prisoner of war , Linois was not exchanged by Napoleon , who criticised his behaviour during the campaign and refused to employ him at sea again .
= = Background = =
By March 1806 , the French squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Durand Linois had been operating against British trade in the Indian Ocean and elsewhere since the start of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 . Despatched to India before war was declared , Linois left Brest in March 1803 , sailing to the South China Sea in an effort to intercept the China Fleet , a huge merchant convoy from Canton to Britain via Madras that carried goods worth in excess of £ 8 million . On 15 February 1804 , Linois encountered the China Fleet , which due to delays with the squadron in India had sailed without its Royal Navy escort . The loss of this undefended convoy could have devastated the British economy and been the highlight of Linois 's career , but instead the French admiral was fooled by a ruse of the convoy commander , Commodore Nathaniel Dance . Dance pretended that some of his East Indiaman merchant ships were disguised ships of the line and engaged Linois at long range , dissuading the French commander from pressing the attack . Dance 's merchant ships even pursued the fleeing French squadron for some distance , before resuming their original course . This affair , known as the Battle of Pulo Aura , was a humiliation for Linois and provoked Napoleon 's fury when the Emperor was informed of it by the governor of Île de France , Charles Decaen .
Six months later , Linois was operating off the Indian port of Vizagapatam when his squadron encountered the British warship HMS Centurion and two merchant ships under her protection . In the ensuing Battle of Vizagapatam , Centurion was badly damaged ; one of the merchant ships was captured and the other driven ashore . Rather than ensure the capture or destruction of Centurion , Linois refused further combat for fear of damaging his ships in shallow coastal waters and withdrew , again provoking censure from Napoleon . In August 1805 , Linois was engaged with another convoy of East Indiamen in the central Indian Ocean , but on this occasion was confronted by the ship of the line HMS Blenheim under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Thomas Troubridge . After some ineffectual skirmishing , Linois withdrew again , unwilling to risk taking fatal damage to his ships so far from a safe port . Although he had seized five Indiamen and a number of small ships that had been sailing individually during his three @-@ year cruise , he failed to make a significant impact on British trade in the region and ruined his reputation as a successful naval commander . Deciding to switch his operations to the Atlantic after discovering that a squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Edward Pellew was searching for him , Linois visited the Cape of Good Hope , where one of his frigates was wrecked . He subsequently cruised the coast of West Africa , capturing two small ships but again failing to make a significant impact on British trade in the region . Learning from an American ship that a British expeditionary force had captured Cape Town , Linois decided to return to France with his remaining ships , the 74 @-@ gun ship of the line flagship Marengo and the frigate Belle Poule , sailing northwards and crossing the equator on 17 February .
Unknown to Linois , he was sailing directly into the middle of a complex series of manoeuvres by British and French squadrons known as the Atlantic campaign of 1806 . On 13 December , two large French squadrons sailed from Brest under orders to operate against British Atlantic trade . The first , under Vice @-@ Admiral Corentin @-@ Urbain Leissegues , consisting of the 120 @-@ gun Impérial , four other ships of the line and three smaller vessels , sailed for the Caribbean . The second under Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez , who commanded six ships of the line and four smaller vessels , sailed for the South Atlantic . These squadrons were able to escape due to the reduction in the size and diligence of the British continental blockade that had been relaxed in the aftermath of the Trafalgar campaign of 1805 , in which 13 French and 12 Spanish ships of the line had been captured or destroyed . These losses significantly reduced the ability of the French and their allies to operate in the Atlantic . However , all of these ships came from the Mediterranean fleets : the Brest fleet had failed to even leave port in support of the campaign and thus survived unscathed . When the blockade was relaxed , the squadrons were able to break out into the Atlantic without resistance , following their orders to avoid combat with significant British forces and to cruise British trade routes in search of lightly protected merchant convoys . In response , the British rapidly mustered three squadrons of their own in pursuit . The first , under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Richard Strachan , was ordered to the South Atlantic , to operate in the region of Saint Helena . The second under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren was sent to the mid @-@ Atlantic , based around Madeira , while the third under Sir John Thomas Duckworth was detached from the blockade of Cadiz . Duckworth pursued Lessigues to the Caribbean and on 6 February annihilated his force at the Battle of San Domingo , but Willaumez avoided encountering any of the squadrons sent to intercept him . Anticipating Willaumez 's return to France , the remaining British squadrons took up station in the Mid @-@ Atlantic .
= = Battle = =
On 13 March 1806 , Warren 's squadron was cruising in the Eastern Atlantic . Most of the squadron were grouped to the northwest , but HMS London under Captain Sir Harry Burrard @-@ Neale and the flagship HMS Foudroyant under Captain John Chambers White were sailing together some distance from the rest of the British force , in company with the frigate HMS Amazon under Captain William Parker . At 03 : 00 , sails were spotted to the north @-@ east by lookouts on London . Hastening in pursuit with the wind from the south @-@ west , Captain Neale signalled the location of the strange ships to Warren with blue lights , the admiral following with Amazon and the rest of the squadron trailing behind . To the north @-@ east , Linois had also sighted sails in the distance and turned Marengo south @-@ west in pursuit , anticipating a third encounter with a valuable merchant convoy . Captain Alain @-@ Adélaïde @-@ Marie Bruilhac of Belle Poule insisted that the sails were from British warships , but Linois over @-@ ruled him , arguing that any warships would be part of the convoy 's escort and could be avoided in the night . It was not until 05 : 30 , when London appeared from the gloom just ahead of Marengo that Linois realised his mistake . He attempted to escape , but his ships had been at sea for an extended period and were sluggish compared to the 98 @-@ gun London , which rapidly came alongside the French ship of the line and opened a heavy fire .
Linois returned London 's fire as best he could , but by 06 : 00 he realised that he was outmatched and swung away , issuing orders for Captain Bruilhac in Belle Poule to escape as best he could . The frigate however , which had been firing at London during the battle , continued engaging the larger ship to give Linois support as he attempted to pull away . At 06 : 15 , Bruilhac sighted Amazon bearing down and also withdrew , pulling ahead of Neale 's ship which continued to fire into Marengo . Both Marengo and London had suffered severe damage to their rigging , and neither were able to effectively manoeuvre : as a result , Linois was unable to avoid either Neale 's continued fire or shots from Amazon as Parker swept past in pursuit of Belle Poule . By 08 : 30 , Parker 's frigate was alongside Bruilhac 's and the ships exchanged fire over the next two hours , Amazon succeeding in damaging Belle Poule 's rigging to prevent her escape . Behind the battling frigates , Marengo had taken further battering from London and by 10 : 25 also came under fire from Foudroyant , and HMS Repulse under Captain Arthur Kaye Legge . HMS Ramillies under Captain Francis Pickmore was also rapidly coming into range . In the face of this overwhelming force , the French ship of the line had no option but to surrender , although by the time the tricolour was lowered at nearly 11 : 00 , both Linois and Captain Joseph @-@ Marie Vrignaud had been taken below with serious wounds .
Almost simultaneously with the surrender of Marengo , Captain Bruilhac surrendered Belle Poule , the damage inflicted by Amazon and the presence of Warren 's squadron persuading him that further resistance was hopeless . French losses in the engagement were severe , Marengo suffering extensive damage to her hull and rigging and losing 63 men killed and 83 wounded from a crew of 740 . The latter included both Linois and his son with serious wounds and Captain Vrignaud , who had to have an arm amputated . Losses on Belle Poule included six killed and 24 wounded from her complement of 330 . British losses were comparatively light , London suffering ten dead and 22 wounded and Amazon four killed and five wounded . London was the only British ship damaged , mainly in her rigging , which was hastily repaired in the aftermath of the battle .
= = Aftermath = =
On 23 April , a heavy storm swept the Eastern Atlantic , striking Warren 's squadron and their prizes . Marengo was seriously damaged , losing all three masts and taking on a large quantity of water that had to be pumped overboard by the understrength crew working in shifts . Five men were drowned . Ramilles also suffered in the high winds , losing almost all her masts and rolling for some hours , completely out of control . It was only when the storm had abated that jury masts could be raised and the scattered ships could rejoin the squadron for its journey back to Britain , arriving at Spithead . Willaumez eventually returned to the North Atlantic in the early summer , passing through the Caribbean before being dispersed in a hurricane , his ships scattered across the Western Atlantic . Most eventually reached France , but the campaign had been another disaster for the French Navy , with less than half of the ships sent out returning to Brest . The loss of Marengo and Belle Poule formed a footnote to the campaign , but the defeat of Linois was widely celebrated in Britain , where both ships were commissioned into the Royal Navy under their French names . Linois was praised for his defence of his ship in the face of overwhelming British force , and historian William James , writing in 1827 , considered that had Linois faced London alone he might have had the advantage . Four decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants from London and Amazon still living in 1847 .
The engagement was not quite the end for Linois ' squadron : the last survivor , the frigate Sémillante had originally been ordered to sail for Mexico in March 1805 . This plan was foiled by an encounter with the British frigate HMS Phaeton in the Philippines , and Captain Léonard @-@ Bernard Motard returned to the Indian Ocean , operating for the next three years against British shipping from Île de France . Eventually the old frigate was assessed as worn out and sold from service in 1808 , operating as a privateer for a year before she was captured in 1809 . Napoleon refused to exchange Linois for a British prisoner , and the Emperor 's fury at the admiral 's failures in the Indian Ocean prevented any subsequent appointments . In 1814 , after Napoleon 's abdication , the new French regime made Linois governor of Martinique , but when the Hundred Days began , Linois declared for Napoleon and the British invaded and captured his island . His career over , Linois retired . He died some 34 years later , in 1848 .
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= Interstate 590 =
Interstate 590 ( I @-@ 590 ) is a north – south auxiliary Interstate Highway that serves the immediate southeastern suburbs of the city of Rochester , New York , in the United States . It extends for 5 @.@ 07 miles ( 8 @.@ 16 km ) from an interchange with I @-@ 390 in Brighton to the Can of Worms , a complex interchange connecting I @-@ 590 to I @-@ 490 ( the Eastern Expressway ) just inside the Rochester city line . I @-@ 590 makes up the southeast quadrant of the Rochester Outer Loop , which continues west on I @-@ 390 and north past the Can of Worms on New York State Route 590 ( NY 590 ) . The highway is a spur route of I @-@ 90 ; the connection between the two is made via both I @-@ 390 and I @-@ 490 .
The portion of I @-@ 590 between Winton Road and the Can of Worms was originally constructed in the 1960s and designated as part of NY 47 from Elmwood Avenue northward . In the late 1970s , I @-@ 590 was proposed as a designation for the entire southern half of the Outer Loop . Ultimately , it was cut back to its current western terminus at the then @-@ proposed I @-@ 390 . I @-@ 590 was officially assigned in 1980 following the elimination of NY 47 , and the last segment of the freeway between Winton Road and I @-@ 390 was completed by the following year .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 590 begins at a semi @-@ directional T interchange with I @-@ 390 in the town of Brighton , a southern suburb of the city of Rochester . The route heads east from the junction , passing under South Clinton Avenue ( which passes through the east half of the interchange but does not connect to either freeway ) and traveling east through open fields to its first interchange ( a diverging diamond interchange ) at South Winton Road . Here , the surroundings rapidly change from fields to densely populated residential areas as it passes through a more developed section of Brighton . As it approaches NY 31 ( Monroe Avenue ) at exit 2 , I @-@ 590 turns a full 90 degrees to the north . Past NY 31 , I @-@ 590 runs through the former Erie Canal and Rochester Subway bed .
The freeway travels due north along this stretch , flanked on both sides by residential neighborhoods separated from I @-@ 590 only by sound barriers . Not far to the north of the intersection with NY 31 is exit 3 , a partial diamond interchange for Elmwood Avenue permitting access from I @-@ 590 south and to I @-@ 590 north . Prior to 1980 , NY 47 entered the freeway at this point and followed both I @-@ 590 and NY 590 north to Sea Breeze . Another partial interchange with Highland Avenue follows at exit 4 — making the two connections that exit 3 omits — before I @-@ 590 enters the Can of Worms , a complex interchange connecting I @-@ 590 to I @-@ 490 . North of the ramps leading to I @-@ 490 , I @-@ 590 descends northeastward into a cut and passes below both I @-@ 490 and NY 96 as it becomes NY 590 , which continues onward toward Sea Breeze .
= = History = =
I @-@ 590 appeared on maps of the Rochester area as early as 1977 as a designation for the portion of the Rochester Outer Loop south of I @-@ 490 . At the time , only two portions of the loop — from I @-@ 490 in Gates southeast to NY 383 in Chili and from Winton Road in Brighton to I @-@ 490 in Rochester — were complete and open to traffic . The western portion was constructed c . 1965 and designated as part of NY 47 . The eastern section , which opened from Monroe Avenue ( NY 31 ) to the Can of Worms c . 1965 and from NY 31 west to Winton Road by 1968 , was part of NY 47 between Elmwood Avenue and I @-@ 490 . South of Elmwood Avenue , the expressway had no signed number as the Federal Highway Administration had yet to assign the I @-@ 590 designation . Construction on the missing section of the Outer Loop 's southern half began in the late 1970s .
Around the same time , the state of New York began to look into the possibility of changing the designations that were assigned to the Outer Loop . In one proposal submitted to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials in the late 1970s , I @-@ 590 would be truncated to begin at the then @-@ proposed junction with I @-@ 390 in Brighton but also extended northward along the Sea Breeze Expressway to NY 104 in Irondequoit . The rest of the loop south of I @-@ 490 , meanwhile , would become part of an extended I @-@ 390 . NY 47 , the then @-@ current designation for much of the Outer Loop , would be eliminated entirely . Most of the plans went into effect when the NY 47 designation was eliminated on March 18 , 1980 . The southern half of the Outer Loop was signed as planned ; however , I @-@ 390 and I @-@ 590 were modified to end at their junctions with I @-@ 490 . The section of I @-@ 590 from Winton Road to I @-@ 390 — as well as the interchange connecting the two — was completed c . 1981 .
In 2012 , a diverging diamond interchange was added at the intersection of I @-@ 590 and Winton Road in the Brighton suburb of Rochester .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Monroe County .
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= Glass fiber =
Glass fiber ( or glass fibre ) is a material consisting of numerous extremely fine fibers of glass .
Glassmakers throughout history have experimented with glass fibers , but mass manufacture of glass fiber was only made possible with the invention of finer machine tooling . In 1893 , Edward Drummond Libbey exhibited a dress at the World 's Columbian Exposition incorporating glass fibers with the diameter and texture of silk fibers . This was first worn by the popular stage actress of the time Georgia Cayvan . Glass fibers can also occur naturally , as Pele 's hair .
Glass wool , which is one product called " fiberglass " today , was invented in 1932 – 1933 by Russell Games Slayter of Owens @-@ Corning , as a material to be used as thermal building insulation . It is marketed under the trade name Fiberglas , which has become a genericized trademark . Glass fiber when used as a thermal insulating material , is specially manufactured with a bonding agent to trap many small air cells , resulting in the characteristically air @-@ filled low @-@ density " glass wool " family of products .
Glass fiber has roughly comparable mechanical properties to other fibers such as polymers and carbon fiber . Although not as strong or as rigid as carbon fiber , it is much cheaper and significantly less brittle when used in composites . Glass fibers are therefore used as a reinforcing agent for many polymer products ; to form a very strong and relatively lightweight fiber @-@ reinforced polymer ( FRP ) composite material called glass @-@ reinforced plastic ( GRP ) , also popularly known as " fiberglass " . This structural material product contains little or no air or gas , is more dense , and is a much poorer thermal insulator than is glass wool .
= = Fiber formation = =
Glass fiber is formed when thin strands of silica @-@ based or other formulation glass are extruded into many fibers with small diameters suitable for textile processing . The technique of heating and drawing glass into fine fibers has been known for millennia ; however , the use of these fibers for textile applications is more recent . Until this time , all glass fiber had been manufactured as staple ( that is , clusters of short lengths of fiber ) .
The modern method for producing glass wool is the invention of Games Slayter working at the Owens @-@ Illinois Glass Co . ( Toledo , Ohio ) . He first applied for a patent for a new process to make glass wool in 1933 . The first commercial production of glass fiber was in 1936 . In 1938 Owens @-@ Illinois Glass Company and Corning Glass Works joined to form the Owens @-@ Corning Fiberglas Corporation . When the two companies joined to produce and promote glass fiber , they introduced continuous filament glass fibers . Owens @-@ Corning is still the major glass @-@ fiber producer in the market today .
Composition . The most common types of glass fiber used in fiberglass is E @-@ glass , which is alumino @-@ borosilicate glass with less than 1 % w / w alkali oxides , mainly used for glass @-@ reinforced plastics . Other types of glass used are A @-@ glass ( Alkali @-@ lime glass with little or no boron oxide ) , E @-@ CR @-@ glass ( Electrical / Chemical Resistance ; alumino @-@ lime silicate with less than 1 % w / w alkali oxides , with high acid resistance ) , C @-@ glass ( alkali @-@ lime glass with high boron oxide content , used for glass staple fibers and insulation ) , D @-@ glass ( borosilicate glass , named for its low Dielectric constant ) , R @-@ glass ( alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high mechanical requirements as reinforcement ) , and S @-@ glass ( alumino silicate glass without CaO but with high MgO content with high tensile strength ) .
Naming and use . Pure silica ( silicon dioxide ) , when cooled as fused quartz into a glass with no true melting point , can be used as a glass fiber for fiberglass , but has the drawback that it must be worked at very high temperatures . In order to lower the necessary work temperature , other materials are introduced as " fluxing agents " ( i.e. , components to lower the melting point ) . Ordinary A @-@ glass ( " A " for " alkali @-@ lime " ) or soda lime glass , crushed and ready to be remelted , as so @-@ called cullet glass , was the first type of glass used for fiberglass . E @-@ glass ( " E " because of initial electrical application ) , is alkali free , and was the first glass formulation used for continuous filament formation . It now makes up most of the fiberglass production in the world , and also is the single largest consumer of boron minerals globally . It is susceptible to chloride ion attack and is a poor choice for marine applications . S @-@ glass ( " S " for " Strength " ) is used when high tensile strength ( modulus ) is important , and is thus an important building and aircraft epoxy composite . The same substance is known as R @-@ glass ( " R " for " reinforcement " ) in Europe ) . C @-@ glass ( " C " for " chemical resistance " ) and T @-@ glass ( " T " is for " thermal insulator " – a North American variant of C @-@ glass ) are resistant to chemical attack ; both are often found in insulation @-@ grades of blown fiberglass .
= = Chemistry = =
The basis of textile @-@ grade glass fibers is silica , SiO2 . In its pure form it exists as a polymer , ( SiO2 ) n . It has no true melting point but softens up to 1200 ° C , where it starts to degrade . At 1713 ° C , most of the molecules can move about freely . If the glass is extruded and cooled quickly at this temperature , it will be unable to form an ordered structure . In the polymer it forms SiO4 groups which are configured as a tetrahedron with the silicon atom at the center , and four oxygen atoms at the corners . These atoms then form a network bonded at the corners by sharing the oxygen atoms .
The vitreous and crystalline states of silica ( glass and quartz ) have similar energy levels on a molecular basis , also implying that the glassy form is extremely stable . In order to induce crystallization , it must be heated to temperatures above 1200 ° C for long periods of time .
Although pure silica is a perfectly viable glass and glass fiber , it must be worked with at very high temperatures , which is a drawback unless its specific chemical properties are needed . It is usual to introduce impurities into the glass in the form of other materials to lower its working temperature . These materials also impart various other properties to the glass that may be beneficial in different applications . The first type of glass used for fiber was soda lime glass or A @-@ glass ( " A " for the alkali it contains ) . It is not very resistant to alkali . A new type , E @-@ glass , was formed ; this is an alumino @-@ borosilicate glass that is alkali @-@ free ( < 2 % ) . This was the first glass formulation used for continuous filament formation . E @-@ glass still makes up most of the glass fiber production in the world . Its particular components may differ slightly in percentage , but must fall within a specific range . The letter E is used because it was originally for electrical applications . S @-@ glass ( S for " stiff " ) is a high @-@ strength formulation for use when tensile strength is the most important property . C @-@ glass was developed to resist attack from chemicals , mostly acids that destroy E @-@ glass . T @-@ glass is a North American variant of C @-@ glass . A @-@ glass is an industry term for cullet glass , often bottles , made into fiber . AR @-@ glass is alkali @-@ resistant glass . Most glass fibers have limited solubility in water but are very dependent on pH . Chloride ions will also attack and dissolve E @-@ glass surfaces .
E @-@ glass does not actually melt , but softens instead , the softening point being " the temperature at which a 0 @.@ 55 – 0 @.@ 77 mm diameter fiber 235 mm long , elongates under its own weight at 1 mm / min when suspended vertically and heated at the rate of 5 ° C per minute " . The strain point is reached when the glass has a viscosity of 1014 @.@ 5 poise . The annealing point , which is the temperature where the internal stresses are reduced to an acceptable commercial limit in 15 minutes , is marked by a viscosity of 1013 poise .
= = Properties = =
= = = Thermal = = =
Glass fibers are useful thermal insulators because of their high ratio of surface area to weight . However , the increased surface area makes them much more susceptible to chemical attack . By trapping air within them , blocks of glass fiber make good thermal insulation , with a thermal conductivity of the order of 0 @.@ 05 W / ( m · K ) .
= = = Tensile = = =
The strength of glass is usually tested and reported for " virgin " or pristine fibers — those that have just been manufactured . The freshest , thinnest fibers are the strongest because the thinner fibers are more ductile . The more the surface is scratched , the less the resulting tenacity . Because glass has an amorphous structure , its properties are the same along the fiber and across the fiber . Humidity is an important factor in the tensile strength . Moisture is easily adsorbed and can worsen microscopic cracks and surface defects , and lessen tenacity .
In contrast to carbon fiber , glass can undergo more elongation before it breaks . There is a correlation between bending diameter of the filament and the filament diameter . The viscosity of the molten glass is very important for manufacturing success . During drawing ( pulling of the glass to reduce fiber circumference ) , the viscosity must be relatively low . If it is too high , the fiber will break during drawing . However , if it is too low , the glass will form droplets rather than drawing out into fiber .
= = Manufacturing processes = =
= = = Melting = = =
There are two main types of glass fiber manufacture and two main types of glass fiber product . First , fiber is made either from a direct melt process or a marble remelt process . Both start with the raw materials in solid form . The materials are mixed together and melted in a furnace . Then , for the marble process , the molten material is sheared and rolled into marbles which are cooled and packaged . The marbles are taken to the fiber manufacturing facility where they are inserted into a can and remelted . The molten glass is extruded to the bushing to be formed into fiber . In the direct melt process , the molten glass in the furnace goes directly to the bushing for formation .
= = = Formation = = =
The bushing plate is the most important part of the machinery for making the fiber . This is a small metal furnace containing nozzles for the fiber to be formed through . It is almost always made of platinum alloyed with rhodium for durability . Platinum is used because the glass melt has a natural affinity for wetting it . When bushings were first used they were 100 % platinum , and the glass wetted the bushing so easily that it ran under the plate after exiting the nozzle and accumulated on the underside . Also , due to its cost and the tendency to wear , the platinum was alloyed with rhodium . In the direct melt process , the bushing serves as a collector for the molten glass . It is heated slightly to keep the glass at the correct temperature for fiber formation . In the marble melt process , the bushing acts more like a furnace as it melts more of the material .
Bushings are the major expense in fiber glass production . The nozzle design is also critical . The number of nozzles ranges from 200 to 4000 in multiples of 200 . The important part of the nozzle in continuous filament manufacture is the thickness of its walls in the exit region . It was found that inserting a counterbore here reduced wetting . Today , the nozzles are designed to have a minimum thickness at the exit . As glass flows through the nozzle , it forms a drop which is suspended from the end . As it falls , it leaves a thread attached by the meniscus to the nozzle as long as the viscosity is in the correct range for fiber formation . The smaller the annular ring of the nozzle and the thinner the wall at exit , the faster the drop will form and fall away , and the lower its tendency to wet the vertical part of the nozzle . The surface tension of the glass is what influences the formation of the meniscus . For E @-@ glass it should be around 400 mN / m .
The attenuation ( drawing ) speed is important in the nozzle design . Although slowing this speed down can make coarser fiber , it is uneconomic to run at speeds for which the nozzles were not designed .
= = = Continuous filament process = = =
In the continuous filament process , after the fiber is drawn , a size is applied . This size helps protect the fiber as it is wound onto a bobbin . The particular size applied relates to end @-@ use . While some sizes are processing aids , others make the fiber have an affinity for a certain resin , if the fiber is to be used in a composite . Size is usually added at 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 0 % by weight . Winding then takes place at around 1000 m / min .
= = = Staple fiber process = = =
For staple fiber production , there are a number of ways to manufacture the fiber . The glass can be blown or blasted with heat or steam after exiting the formation machine . Usually these fibers are made into some sort of mat . The most common process used is the rotary process . Here , the glass enters a rotating spinner , and due to centrifugal force is thrown out horizontally . The air jets push it down vertically , and binder is applied . Then the mat is vacuumed to a screen and the binder is cured in the oven .
= = Safety = =
Glass fiber has increased in popularity since the discovery that asbestos causes cancer and its subsequent removal from most products . However , the safety of glass fiber is also being called into question , as research shows that the composition of this material ( asbestos and glass fiber are both silicate fibers ) can cause similar toxicity as asbestos .
1970s studies on rats found that fibrous glass of less than 3 micrometers in diameter and greater than 20 micrometers in length is a " potent carcinogen " . Likewise , the International Agency for Research on Cancer found it " may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen " in 1990 . The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists , on the other hand , says that there is insufficient evidence , and that glass fiber is in group A4 : " Not classifiable as a human carcinogen " .
The North American Insulation Manufacturers Association ( NAIMA ) claims that glass fiber is fundamentally different from asbestos , since it is man @-@ made instead of naturally @-@ occurring . They claim that glass fiber " dissolves in the lungs " , while asbestos remains in the body for life . Although both glass fiber and asbestos are made from silica filaments , NAIMA claims that asbestos is more dangerous because of its crystalline structure , which causes it to cleave into smaller , more dangerous pieces , citing the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services :
Synthetic vitreous fibers [ fiber glass ] differ from asbestos in two ways that may provide at least partial explanations for their lower toxicity . Because most synthetic vitreous fibers are not crystalline like asbestos , they do not split longitudinally to form thinner fibers . They also generally have markedly less biopersistence in biological tissues than asbestos fibers because they can undergo dissolution and transverse breakage .
A 1998 study using rats found that the biopersistence of synthetic fibers after one year was 0 @.@ 04 – 10 % , but 27 % for amosite asbestos . Fibers that persisted longer were found to be more carcinogenic .
= = Glass @-@ reinforced plastic ( fiberglass ) = =
Glass @-@ reinforced plastic ( GRP ) is a composite material or fiber @-@ reinforced plastic made of a plastic reinforced by fine glass fibers . Like graphite @-@ reinforced plastic , the composite material is commonly referred to as fiberglass . The glass can be in the form of a chopped strand mat ( CSM ) or a woven fabric .
As with many other composite materials ( such as reinforced concrete ) , the two materials act together , each overcoming the deficits of the other . Whereas the plastic resins are strong in compressive loading and relatively weak in tensile strength , the glass fibers are very strong in tension but tend not to resist compression . By combining the two materials , GRP becomes a material that resists both compressive and tensile forces well . The two materials may be used uniformly or the glass may be specifically placed in those portions of the structure that will experience tensile loads .
= = Uses = =
Uses for regular glass fiber include mats and fabrics for thermal insulation , electrical insulation , sound insulation , high @-@ strength fabrics or heat- and corrosion @-@ resistant fabrics . It is also used to reinforce various materials , such as tent poles , pole vault poles , arrows , bows and crossbows , translucent roofing panels , automobile bodies , hockey sticks , surfboards , boat hulls , and paper honeycomb . It has been used for medical purposes in casts . Glass fiber is extensively used for making FRP tanks and vessels .
Open @-@ weave glass fiber grids are used to reinforce asphalt pavement . Non @-@ woven glass fiber / polymer blend mats are used saturated with asphalt emulsion and overlaid with asphalt , producing a waterproof , crack @-@ resistant membrane . Use of glass @-@ fiber reinforced polymer rebar instead of steel rebar shows promise in areas where avoidance of steel corrosion is desired .
= = Role of recycling in glass fiber manufacturing = =
Manufacturers of glass @-@ fiber insulation can use recycled glass . Recycled glass fiber has up to a 40 % recycled glass .
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= Ayscoghe Boucherett =
Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Ayscoghe Boucherett , JP DL ( 16 April 1755 – 15 September 1815 ) was a British landowner , businessman and Member of Parliament for Great Grimsby from 1796 to 1803 .
Born into a family of the Lincolnshire landed gentry , Boucherett became involved in local politics in Lincolnshire , and ( owing mainly to his marriage ) with artistic and mercantile circles in London . He was the chairman of the Grimsby Haven Company , which oversaw the reopening and expansion of Grimsby 's first dock . He was a friend of the artist Sir Thomas Lawrence and the proprietor of Willingham , Lincolnshire , where he constructed his country seat , Willingham House , in 1790 . For his investment in the Haven Company , he received the support of Lord Yarborough , one of its main investors and a principal land @-@ owner in Grimsby ; owing largely to Lord Yarborough 's patronage , Boucherett was returned as the Member of Parliament for that borough at the 1796 election . He was not a frequent voter , but used his position to further the interests of his corporation . Nonetheless , the company met with financial difficulties after it opened the Harbour in 1800 . In 1803 , Boucherett resigned his seat in favour of Yarborough 's heir and pursued a quieter political life . He died in a carriage accident in 1815 .
= = Early life and family connections = =
Boucherett was born on 16 April 1755 , the son of Ayscoghe Boucherett of Willingham and Stallingborough , Lincolnshire , and his wife , Mary White . The elder Boucherett had been the High Sheriff of Lincolnshire in 1754 , and was a landed gentleman in Lincolnshire , whose family was descended from Huguenot merchants ; they married into the Ayscoghe family and inherited the Willingham estate through this marriage . The elder Boucherett 's daughter , Mary , had married Michael Barne of Sotterley , Suffolk , an army officer and a member of parliament for Dunwich .
The younger Boucherett was admitted at Queen 's College , Cambridge , in 1773 , aged 18 , but did not take a degree . He married , on 17 March 1789 , Emelia Crockatt , daughter of Charles Crockatt , a merchant , of London and of Luxborough Hall , Essex , and his wife , Anna Muilman , who married , when widowed , the insurance broker and art connoisseur John Julius Angerstein . This union helped the younger Boucherett to garner connexions in London merchant circles . Emilia Boucherett died on 5 February 1837 , aged 75 . The Boucheretts had one son and three daughters :
Emilia Mary Boucherett ( 7 August 1790 – 29 November 1870 ) . Died unmarried .
Ayscoghe Boucherett , J.P. , D.L. ( 24 September 1791 – 1857 ) , he was High Sheriff of Lincolnshire in 1820 . He married , on 11 May 1816 , Louisa Pigou , daughter of Frederick John Pigou of Dartford , Kent , and his wife Louisa , née Minchin . They had : Ayscoghe Boucherett ( 1817 – 32 ) , Henry Robert Boucherett , J.P. ( 1818 – 77 ) , who was High Sheriff of Lincolnshire in 1866 , Hugo Boucherett ( 1819 – c . 1839 ) , Louisa Boucherett ( 1821 – 95 ) , and Emilia Jessie Boucherett ( 1825 – 1905 ) , who was a noted women 's rights campaigner .
Maria Boucherett ( born 30 October 1795 ) . She married , on 15 August 1815 , Charles Parker Newdigate Newdegate of Harefield , Middlesex ; their only child was the Conservative politician and Member of Parliament for North Warwickshire , Charles Newdigate Newdegate .
Juliana Boucherett ( bapt . 27 April 1798 ) . Died unmarried .
Boucherett paid for the construction of a new family seat in 1790 ; Willingham House was a larger and grander mansion than the family 's previous seat closer to Willingham , and was constructed in the neoclassical style , most likely by Robert Mitchell , two miles west of the earlier house .
= = Friendship with Sir Thomas Lawrence = =
The family 's connection with the art connoisseur John Julius Angerstein led to them becoming acquainted with certain artistic circles in the late eighteenth century ; most notably , they established a close friendship with the portrait painter Sir Thomas Lawrence , who would go on to be President of the Royal Academy . He visited Willingham House , the Boucherett family 's country home , composing a number of studies in pastel of Boucherett 's young children , beginning in 1793 . The Boucherett family were also painted several times by Lawrence ; he painted a group portrait of Emilia Boucherett , and her two eldest children , Ayscoghe and Emilia Maria , alongside Mrs Boucherett 's half @-@ sister , Juliana Angerstein ; another group portrait , The Children of Ayscoghe Boucherett , depicting the four children of Boucherett and his wife , ( painted in 1808 and now held in the Louvre Museum ) , has been described as " one of Lawrence 's most celebrated group portraits " . A separate study of the three daughters , Emilia Mary , Maria and Juliana , was sold by the auction house Christie 's in 2012 for £ 121 @,@ 000 .
= = Member of Parliament and public service = =
In the 1790s , Boucherett began to rise through Lincolnshire 's civic and mercantile circles , especially in the north of the County , where the family had their seat ; his connexions helped him to become involved with a group of businessmen planning to reopen and expand Grimsby 's harbour . His rise is charted in his appointments to several civic posts : to be High Steward of Grimsby from 1794 ( he remained as such until his death ) , succeeding Christopher Clayton , and to be High Sheriff of Lincolnshire for 1795 – 6 . As these plans for the harbour came to fruition , he was appointed chairman of the company tasked with performing the required work ; it was the Grimsby Haven Company , which was created by an Act of Parliament in 1796 ( 36 Geo III , chap . 98 ) for the express purpose of building the dock and repairing the Haven . He secured the friendship and patronage of Charles Anderson Pelham , 1st Baron Yarborough , a prominent local land @-@ owner involved in the Haven Company , and was returned as the Member of Parliament for Great Grimsby in 1796 owing to this friendship .
Yarborough , Boucherett 's patron , was an opponent of the administration of William Pitt the Younger and supported the Duke of Portland during the 1790s . Boucherett was an infrequent voter , but he told the diarist Joseph Farington that , when he did vote , he tended to do so with Charles James Fox , rather than Pitt the Younger , although , he later became " disgusted " at Fox 's style of opposition ; he is also known to have voted against the Ferrol Expedition in 1801 . The seat did allow for him to further the interests of the Haven Company , with him proposing a bill to grant more funds in 1799 . He found , though , that his funds and the financial success of the company were both in decline by 1801 . Although re @-@ elected in 1802 , the following year he resigned in favour of Lord Yarborough 's eldest son and heir , the Hon. Charles Anderson Pelham , later 1st Earl and 2nd Baron Yarborough .
= = Later life = =
Although opened in 1800 at the cost of £ 100 @,@ 000 , the new harbour at Grimsby failed to attract the levels of trade the company had projected , caused largely by a lack of inland transport networks . The financial problems facing the Grimsby Haven Company led to factions and difficulty in its running and put strain on Boucherett 's relations with Yarborough ; having invested much money and time in the now failing company , Boucherett also found it draining of him financially .
Aside from Parliamentary and business commitments , he served as a Deputy Lieutenant for Lincolnshire and a Justice of the Peace . Boucherett was also an officer in the Yeoman volunteers , being a Captain the Market Raisin Yeomanry in 1798 and then a Lieutenant @-@ Colonel in and Commandant of the North Lincolnshire Yeomanry from 1814 until his death . He died in a carriage accident on 15 September 1815 . At his death , his assets barely covered the debts he had accrued in his lifetime . He was succeeded as the High Steward of Grimsby by the Hon. George Anderson Pelham , the second son of the first Lord Yarborough .
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= NBN Television =
NBN Television , ( commonly known as NBN ) is an Australian television station based in Newcastle , Australia . The station was inaugurated on 4 March 1962 as the first regional commercial television station in New South Wales , and has since expanded to 39 transmitters throughout the northern half of New South Wales and parts of South East Queensland , including Tamworth , Tweed Heads , Lismore , Coffs Harbour , Hunter Region , Central Coast and the Gold Coast . It is owned by the Nine Network , with its schedule closely following those of metropolitan counterparts TCN in Sydney and QTQ in Brisbane .
The station callsign , NBN , is an acronym for Newcastle Broadcasting New South Wales . NBN is the only regional station in Australia to produce a one @-@ hour news bulletin seven days a week . Since 2007 , it has been owned by Nine 's parent company Nine Entertainment Co . ( formerly PBL Media ) , making it a sister station to its metropolitan counterparts . Prior to 1 July 2016 , NBN operated as an independent regional station , and not as part of the main network .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
NBN 's original owner , the Newcastle Broadcasting and Television Corporation ( NBTC ) was founded in May 1958 to begin preparations for the upcoming television licence allocations . The main shareholders in NBTC were United Broadcasting Company ( owned by the Lamb family , owners of radio station 2KO ) , Airsales Broadcasting Company ( owners of local radio station 2HD ) , and the Newcastle Morning Herald and Miners Advocate ( to be bought out by John Fairfax and Sons Ltd . ) . In accordance with the Australian Broadcasting Control Board regulations , at least 50 % of the company had to be locally owned . 750 @,@ 000 shares were made available by the NBTC ( at 10 shillings , equivalent to A $ 1 each ) . Approximately 2000 people bought shares .
The Australian Broadcasting Control Board awarded the commercial television licence for the Newcastle and Hunter Valley area to the NBTC on 1 August 1961 . NBN @-@ 3 would transmit on VHF channel 3 , from a transmitter atop Mount Sugarloaf near Newcastle . Council approval for the transmitter was issued on 17 July that year .
The call @-@ letters , NBN , were derived from the company 's name , Newcastle Broadcasting and Television Corporation , with the second N representing New South Wales , as required by law . Unofficially , it stood for Newcastle Broadcasting Network .
Construction began in November 1961 , supervised by engineers from RCA in the United States . It was a step backwards for RCA , building a new station transmitting in black and white while colour television was fast becoming the norm in the United States . Ninety per cent of the original equipment was imported from the United States , and held in bond until they were due to be installed . Equipment was purchased with colour production and transmission in mind , so that only 20 % modification would be required when colour came to NBN . Studios were to be built on a 3 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) block at Mosbri Crescent , near the city centre .
Work on the 142 m ( 466 ft ) transmitter was delayed by a combination of weather , the conditions for the road leading to Mount Sugarloaf , and excited sightseers blocking work trucks during the weekends . During that time , the technical team stayed at the top of the mountain . The construction took 8 months at a cost of A $ 1 @.@ 5 million , and required staff to work seven days a week ( except on Christmas Day ) to make the deadline .
Test transmissions took place in early 1962 , and could be seen as far away as Muswellbrook , Avalon , Katoomba , Lithgow , Gloucester and around Port Kembla .
= = = = Opening night = = = =
NBN Television commenced transmission on 4 March 1962 . The first programme on launch night began at 6pm , a taped welcome by the then @-@ Postmaster General Charles Davidson . Following that was a guided tour around the NBN studios by the original production manager , Matthew Tapp .
Murray Finlay began one of the longest newsreading careers in Australia with NBN 's first news bulletin at 6.30pm. This was followed by The Phil Silvers Show at 7pm , and the 1937 movie Green Light starring Errol Flynn at 7 @.@ 30 ; the George Sanders Theatre series followed at 9pm , with opening episode , The Man in the Elevator , followed by the first episode from the Halls of Ivy , then the first Mystery Theatre program , The Missing Head at 10 pm . Anglican Bishop James Housden gave the first evening meditation at 10.30pm , marking the end of the first night of transmission for NBN @-@ 3 in Newcastle . Commercials on the first night included Rothmans Cigarettes , Streets Ice Cream , Ampol , Commonwealth Bank , Shell , and W.D. & H.O. Wills , amongst others .
In the lead @-@ up to the opening night , the station promised at least two movies a week , as well as men 's interest programs each Saturday afternoon between 3pm and 4pm – a commitment successfully met , along with female @-@ targeted programming in the early afternoon , and children 's programming from 4.30pm to 6.30pm weekdays and mature programming thirty minutes before closedown each night . NBN Television broadcast fifty @-@ six hours in its first week of transmission , setting the Australian television record for the most time spent on air in a week for a new television station .
= = = 1960s to the 1970s = = =
Soon after launch night , NBN extended television coverage from Bungwahl to Broken Bay and as far west as Aberdeen . The station only operated eight hours per day , however several programs were produced locally including Home at Three , Let 's Cook With Gas , Tempo , Focus , as well as nightly news bulletins at 6.30pm.
In 1963 , Australian Consolidated Press and News Limited bought 200 @,@ 000 shares in the Newcastle Broadcasting and Television Corporation . Shortly after , United Broadcasting Company sold its shares to Neatherley Investments Limited in Adelaide , and Australian United Investments in Melbourne , with each company purchasing 100 @,@ 000 shares . Time Enterprises , purchased Australian United Investments 's shares in November 1967 .
During the period between 1968 and 1969 , NBN secured a relay from the Postmaster @-@ General to enhance their news service . In 1970 , NBN began upgrading its studios in preparation for the commencement of colour television at a cost of A $ 360 @,@ 000 . The improvements included an enlarged film department ; a film editing and cleaning equipment ; a larger master control with four video transfer machines ; a new telecine room with caption scanner and slide drums ; as well as an expansion of the administration and staff offices which also included new offices and a boardroom .
In 1972 , NBN was granted a licence to operate a translator in the Upper Hunter from Rossgole Lookout near Aberdeen , on VHF channel 10 . Concurrently in April 1972 , NBN expanded its nightly news service to one hour , becoming the first television station in Australia to have a one @-@ hour news bulletin . As a part of earlier preparations for colour production , between 1972 and 1973 , orders were placed with Rank Cintel and the EMI Group in the United Kingdom and Ampex in the United States for new colour equipment , in time for colour transmission tests on 7 October 1974 . On 1 March 1975 , the station began regular colour transmissions , whilst transmission was expanded to Banderra Downs , Merriwa , Mount Helen , and Murrurundi at a cost of A $ 180 @,@ 000 . In 1978 , the Newcastle Broadcasting and Television Corporation made a bid for local station ( and former owner ) 2HD , however was disallowed by the Australian Broadcasting Tribunal . Also during the same year more extensions were added to the studios , which included a new car park , and was officially opened on 17 November 1978 .
On 22 November 1979 the Newcastle Broadcasting and Television Corporation officially became NBN Limited , and the station itself renamed from Channel Three to NBN Television . By the late 1970s , NBN was producing twenty hours a week of local and networked programming from its studios , which in turn led the station to purchase a Bell Jet Ranger helicopter for news coverage purposes .
= = = 1980s to the 1990s = = =
In early 1980 , NBN purchased Southern Television Corporation Limited , owners of NWS @-@ 9 in Adelaide , for A $ 19 million . During the same year , NBN began a teletext service and also purchased the free local newspaper , the Newcastle Star . In 1981 , Hadjoin Pty . Ltd . , a subsidiary of Parry 's Esplanade Limited ( later Parry Corporation ) , purchased 19 @.@ 88 % of NBN Limited for A $ 6 @.@ 7 million .
Parry had then attempted to buy Michael Wansey 's stake in NBN , but was blocked by the Supreme Court of New South Wales . It was later revealed that the Lambs had opposed NBN 's purchase of the Star newspaper ( created and owned by Wansey ) and the attempt to buy 2HD . The company also faced possible suspension from the Australian Stock Exchange if a decision was not made soon . To resolve the tension , NBN sold NWS @-@ 9 to the Lambs in exchange for the majority stake in NBN in 1982 . With the buy @-@ out of community shares in NBN , the station ceased to be what Hunter residents considered to be " their own ' . It came at a cost . Wansey mortgaged his shares to Parry who called in the debt .
On 16 March 1983 , Hadjoin finally completed the purchase of NBN , officially delisting the company . It had cost Parry A $ 6 @.@ 76 per share to acquire 1 @,@ 285 @,@ 289 shares . Michael Wansey resigned from the board at the end of the year as a result . In 1984 , plans for a second independent station in Newcastle had failed . During that time , NBN and ABC Newcastle were asked to leave the VHF band to accommodate FM radio . NBN would have been on UHF channel 51 , and ABC on UHF channel 48 , however this did not eventuate . A proposal to launch a radiated subscription television service with community broadcasting during the daytime hours had also failed that year .
In the late 1980s , NBN 's Perth @-@ based owner , Parry Corporation , spun off NBN Limited into a new company , NBN Enterprises , and took a 40 % stake in the new company , with Security Pacific Capital Corporation buying 60 % . Parry sold their stake soon after , holding onto Papua New Guinea television station NTN , which NBN had helped to set up . Fulcrum Media 's move to later purchase the station was a source for confusion , as it was revealed that many companies , including the NSW State Superannuation Board and Westpac Banking Corporation , held substantial stakes in Fulcrum Media . Parry Corp 's new owner CityWest issued a court challenge to re @-@ acquire NBN , but it was revealed that CityWest was held by Hong Kong company Hung Lung Corporation , thereby violating foreign ownership laws . Following ownership changes , NBN Enterprises was sold to Washington H. Soul Pattinson for A $ 36 million .
NBN was one of many stations opposed to aggregation , and offered an alternative by opening up a second station which it would operate for a period of time before selling it . This proposal was however rejected , and aggregation occurred on 31 December 1991 , with NBN acquiring Nine Network affiliation . Following aggregation , the station 's coverage expanded to cover all of northern New South Wales , whilst concurrently programming extended to twenty @-@ four hours in a day , in stereophonic sound . In 1994 , NBN Television 's logo was updated to a pseudo @-@ Nine logo , similar to fellow affiliate WIN Television .
= = = 2000s = = =
Throughout the 2000s , NBN was regarded as one of the leaders in digital broadcasting , not only being the first to produce a nightly regional news bulletin in full digital format , using a digital friendly news set , but also Australia 's first fully digital outside broadcast van .
In 2004 , Washington H. Soul Pattinson began moves to transfer control of the station to its publicly listed subsidiary , Soul Pattinson Telecommunications , which became SP Telemedia as a result .
On 30 January 2006 , NBN adopted a new logo and on air graphics , in line with Nine 's new logo . However , the news department did not update its graphics until 15 March . During April 2007 , SP Telemedia announced that it would consider selling NBN Television , and had received at least two bids , one each from WIN Corporation and PBL Media . On 9 May 2007 , PBL Media 's ( now Nine Entertainment Co . ) A $ 250 million bid became final , winning the sale . However , upon acquiring NBN , PBL did not fold it into the main Nine Network , but continued to operate it as a regional station . The purchase also secured permanent status of supplying Nine 's content to the station 's entire coverage area , sparing any future affiliation switches ( particularly the 2016 Australian television shakeup involving Southern Cross Austereo and WIN Corporation ) .
Following Nine 's relaunch of their high definition simulcast as " Nine HD " on 17 March 2008 , NBN launched their own HD simulcast in mid @-@ 2008 called " NBN HD " .
On 9 August 2009 , NBN began transmission of the new digital channel GO ! ( now 9Go ! ) on channel 88 .
= = = 2010s = = =
In 2010 , it was announced that two of NBN 's inner Newcastle retransmitter sites in Charlestown and Cooks Hill were selected to carry 3D broadcasts of the 2010 State of Origin series .
On 26 September 2010 , NBN began transmission of the HD digital channel GEM ( now 9Gem ) on channel 80 .
On 26 March 2012 , NBN began transmission of Nine 's metropolitan informercial channel Extra on channel 84 .
On 27 January 2014 , along with the Nine Network , NBN switched from the Supertext logo to Nine 's Closed Captioning logo .
After Nine revived 9HD and launched new lifestyle channel 9Life on 26 November 2015 , NBN made no announcements of its intent to follow Nine 's move in regional areas , instead continuing to broadcast 9Gem 's HD feed on channel 80 . NBN released a statement on its website days before the 9HD relaunch , saying that efforts are made to upgrade its stations across the region . On 10 February 2016 , Nine Entertainment Co. announced that NBN would receive both 9HD and 9Life in " coming months " , with further confirmation on 16 February that they would launch on 1 March 2016 . As a result , their channel listing was reshuffled to match to Nine 's metropolitan listing with 9Gem on channel 82 , 9Go ! on channel 83 , 9Life on channel 84 and Extra on channel 85 .
On 9 February 2016 , it was announced that Kylie Blucher , managing director of QTQ Brisbane , would be appointed managing director of NBN while retaining her position at QTQ , stating that she would " be splitting [ her ] time between Brisbane and Newcastle " .
Alongside the launch of 9HD and 9Life on 1 March 2016 , NBN 's unique branding began to be phased out in favour of Nine 's mainstream branding already in place on its metropolitan stations and its Darwin station . The mainstream logos for Nine and 9HD were used with " NBN " written alongside in a smaller font . On 1 July 2016 , coinciding with the media shakeup of WIN and Southern Cross , NBN 's unique branding was completely phased out . However , NBN News remains under its unique name and the small " NBN " on the Nine watermark is still used in areas where NBN 's signal overlaps with TCN Sydney and QTQ Brisbane to differentiate between the stations .
= = News = =
NBN News is the only regional mainland news service to produce a nightly bulletin seven nights a week . The news service employs 60 staff and produces over 20 @,@ 000 local news stories annually , of which is combined with news reports from the Nine Network , the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and ITN ; with local stories in all of its sub @-@ markets . Throughout its history , NBN News produced Good Morning News , Good Evening News , News Night , NBN Evening News , and NBN Late Edition News and currently running NBN News .
NBN 's local news is presented from the station 's news studios at Mosbri Crescent in Newcastle , by Paul Lobb and Natasha Beyersdorf on weekdays , with Jane Goldsmith on weekends . Mitchell Hughes and Gavin Morris present sport and weather respectively on weekdays , whilst weekend sport is presented by Chris White .
NBN was the first to launch an hour @-@ long news bulletin in April 1972 , and from launch night until the 1980s , Murray Finlay was the face of NBN 's news bulletins , and was one of Australia 's longest serving newsreaders . In 1975 , Finlay was joined by Ray Dinneen at the news desk , who remained in that position until retirement in December 2010 . In 1979 , the news service received an award for its coverage of the Star Hotel riot .
On 1 March 1985 , Jim Sullivan began his career as news director for the service , which has ultimately led him to become Australia 's longest serving news director .
NBN News ' footage of the tragic events of the 1989 Newcastle earthquake was beamed throughout the world , with NBN 's reporters also being interviewed by international news services .
During the 1990s , the news service produced bulletins for the breakfast and late night timeslots , however this was later replaced by the Nine Network 's Nightline bulletin . Also , for a short period , the 4.30pm bulletin was broadcast coupled with introductions and weather reports produced by the station in Newcastle .
Liaising with NBN News director Jim Sullivan , NBN Late Edition News producer , Matt Carden secured a live feed through the Nine Network of ABC America enabling first pictures to be aired of the New York attacks within minutes . When NBN Late Edition News opened a short time later , newsreader Jodi McKay handed over to ABC News America 's coverage of events , anchored by Peter Jennings . The bulletin was extended until 1am when NBN handed over to TCN @-@ 9 for the start of almost five days of continuous national coverage .
NBN News is unique as it simulcasts live across all 6 markets . After the major national stories are presented , the program is split into six Local Window opt @-@ outs , featuring pre @-@ recorded local bulletins for each regional market and a live local news round @-@ up for Newcastle . After the first break , the bulletin continues as a live simulcast across the network with further Local Window opt @-@ outs for sport and weather . News , sport and weather presenters start early at NBN recording introductions to each of the local stories which will be inserted into the live broadcast at 6pm . Top Stories are produced by regional news bureaus at Port Macquarie , Coffs Harbour , Central Coast , Tamworth , Lismore and the Gold Coast .
In 2006 , NBN aired its 20,000th news bulletin during the week of 26 March ; commemorating the event , NBN News produced five news specials that summarised the prior 44 years of news production .
NBN also broadcasts Nine Network 's news content , including Nine 's Early Morning News , Today , Nine 's Morning News , Nine News Now , Nine 's Afternoon News , A Current Affair , and Nine News : First at Five . NBN , however , does not air Nine 's flagship 6PM Bulletin ( i.e. either Nine News Sydney or Nine News Queensland ) , since NBN News serves as the station 's flagship bulletin .
Paul Lobb took over as the network 's main male newsreader after Ray Dinneen retired on 17 December 2010 .
Following the appointment of Kylie Blucher as the station 's managing director , NBN News opener and graphics were relaunched , aligning with Nine 's metropolitan and Darwin stations , yet retaining the well @-@ known theme music composed by Laurence Schuberth . Although a " lite " version of the graphics were introduced in February 2014 , it did not became identical with Nine News until April 2016 .
= = Local programming = =
NBN has always produced some local programming , and had set a record for most local programming and transmission hours in its first week of operation . It was also a member of Australian Television Facilities , and had a hand in the production of drama series Silent Number .
In 1963 , NBN won the Logie Award for Enterprising Programming ( which was only for country stations ) , and another Outstanding Contribution by a Regional Station award in 1978 . NBN purchased the Romper Room franchise from Fremantle International in 1967 , which broadcast for over three decades . The original hostess was Miss Anne , followed by Miss Lyn , Miss Pauline and finally , Miss Kim who hosted the program until its demise due to ' political correctness ' . ( For example , a favourite feature called ' bounce @-@ the @-@ ball ' was deemed inappropriate because not all children could bounce a ball ) . At first the ' Miss 's ' were assisted by NBN 's station mascot , Buttons the Cat , who underwent a number of incarnations as its costume aged and became outdated . Later , Buttons was retired , being replaced by Humphrey B. Bear ( as NBN had gained the rights to the character through their purchase of Southern Television Corporation ) , A Local suited character was then determined to be more suitable for a regional Television Station and the concept of Big Dog was created , the character and suit were created in Wyong on the NSW Central Coast and Big Dog came into being .
Local travel agency Jayes presented their own travel show , Travel Time with Jayes , broadcast on Sunday nights for over 20 years , starting in 1962 . Also , every four years , NBN produces a live 24 @-@ hour telethon to raise money for local charities .
NBN premiered Today Extra in 1989 . The lifestyle program was broadcast three days per week as part of NBN 's day @-@ time line @-@ up . On 3 January 2007 , it was announced that NBN would axe Today Extra , claiming it was no longer economically viable , with a drop in ratings and a shrinking advertising base . The program 's axing ended the career for former weatherman Nat Jeffery , who presented the program for 18 years , and worked at the station for 28 years .
= = Community support = =
NBN has long been a supporter of many local events and groups in the northern New South Wales region . They are currently sponsors of the Newcastle Northstars in the Australian Ice Hockey League . The station has sponsored the Newcastle Knights NRL rugby league team for most of the 1990s and the 2000s , with the NBN logo visible on the team 's uniform . The former Hunter Pirates NBL basketball team ( and their predecessor , the Newcastle Falcons ) as well as the Newcastle United Jets soccer team ( and their predecessor , the Newcastle Breakers ) , have also both received sponsorship from NBN Television .
= = Logos = =
The original NBN logo , featuring the numeral three inside a ring was replaced by several others over the years . The three was used due to the station 's frequency allocation , being transmitted on VHF channel 3 from a transmitter atop Mount Sugarloaf near Newcastle . On 22 November 1979 the logo was updated with the letters NBN replacing the numeral three . The blue and green logo coincided with the renaming of the station from Channel Three to the current name , NBN Television , and its parent company renaming from the Newcastle Broadcasting and Television Corporation to NBN Limited .
Despite pressure from the Nine Network to adopt the nine dots , NBN Television retained its logo for a few years after aggregation . However , in 1994 , NBN added nine dots into a new logo designed similarly to the Nine Network 's , and also began using Nine 's on @-@ air promotion , with the NBN logo replacing Nine 's . In 1998 , the dots were changed to spheres .
Three @-@ dimensions were added to the letters NBN in 2002 , coinciding with a revamp of the station 's on @-@ air identity , concurrently with the Nine Network . On 30 January 2006 , the station relaunched its logo to coincide with the Nine Network 's fiftieth year of broadcasting . The new logo designed by Bruce Dunlop Associates saw the removal of the nine dots , with a blue square added to behind the letters NBN . However , in 2008 , the nine dots were reinstated into the logo and the dots are first 3D discs in 2008 , then 2D dots in January 2009 , then later spheres in September 2009 .
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= Debian =
Debian ( / ˈdɛbiən / ) is a Unix @-@ like computer operating system that is composed entirely of free software , most of which is under the GNU General Public License , and packaged by a group of individuals called the Debian Project . Three main branches are offered : Stable , Testing , and Unstable .
The Debian Stable Linux distribution is one of the most popular for personal computers and network servers , and has been used as a base for several other distributions . The Debian Testing and Unstable branches are rolling release and eventually become the Stable distribution after development and testing . Packages are first uploaded to Unstable , from which they migrate to Testing . When Testing is mature enough it becomes Stable .
Debian was first announced in 1993 by Ian Murdock , Debian 0 @.@ 01 was released in August 1993 , and the first stable release was made in 1996 . The development is carried out over the Internet by a team of volunteers guided by the Debian Project Leader and three foundational documents : the Debian Social Contract , the Debian Constitution , and the Debian Free Software Guidelines . New distributions are updated continually , and the next candidate is released after a time @-@ based freeze .
As one of the earliest Linux distributions , it was envisioned that Debian was to be developed openly in the spirit of the GNU Project . This vision drew the attention and support of the Free Software Foundation , which sponsored the project for one year from November 1994 to November 1995 . Upon the ending of the sponsorship , the Debian Project formed the non @-@ profit organisation Software in the Public Interest .
= = Features = =
Debian has access to online repositories that contain over 50 @,@ 000 software packages making it one of the largest software compilations . Debian officially contains only free software , but non @-@ free software can be downloaded from the Debian repositories and installed . Debian includes popular free programs such as LibreOffice , Firefox web browser , Evolution mail , K3b disc burner , VLC media player , GIMP image editor , and Evince document viewer . Debian is a popular choice for web servers .
The cost of developing all of the packages included in Debian 5 @.@ 0 Lenny ( 323 million lines of code ) has been estimated to be about US $ 8 billion , using one method based on the COCOMO model . As of 2016 , Black Duck Open Hub estimates that the current codebase ( 74 million lines of code ) would cost about US $ 1 @.@ 4 billion to develop , using a different method based on the same model .
The current stable release , Debian 8 @.@ 5 code @-@ named Jessie , is officially supported on ten architecture ports . Notable changes in this release include using systemd as the default init system .
= = = Kernels = = =
Debian supports Linux officially , offered kFreeBSD for version 7 but not 8 , and GNU Hurd unofficially . GNU / kFreeBSD was released as a technology preview for IA @-@ 32 and x86 @-@ 64 architectures , and lacked the amount of software available in Debian 's Linux distribution . Official support for kFreeBSD was removed for version 8 , which did not provide a kFreeBSD @-@ based distribution .
Several flavors of the Linux kernel exist for each port . For example , the i386 port has flavors for IA @-@ 32 PCs supporting Physical Address Extension and real @-@ time computing , for older PCs , and for x86 @-@ 64 PCs . The Linux kernel does not officially contain firmware without sources , although such firmware is available in non @-@ free packages and alternative installation media .
= = = Installation and Live images = = =
Debian offers DVD and CD images for installation that can be downloaded using BitTorrent or jigdo . Physical disks can also be bought from retailers . The full sets are made up of several discs ( the amd64 port consists of 10 DVDs or 69 CDs ) , but only the first disc is required for installation , as the installer can retrieve software not contained in the first disc image from online repositories .
Debian offers different network installation methods . A minimal install of Debian is available via the netinst CD , whereby Debian is installed with just a base and later added software can be downloaded from the Internet . Another option is to boot the installer from the network .
Installation images are hybrid on some architectures and can be used to create a bootable USB drive ( Live USB ) .
The default desktop may be chosen from the DVD boot menu among GNOME , KDE Software Compilation , Xfce and LXDE , and from special disc 1 CDs .
= = = Desktop environments = = =
Debian offers CD images specifically built for GNOME ( the default in Wheezy ) , KDE Software Compilation , Xfce and LXDE . MATE is officially supported , while Cinnamon support was added with Debian 8 @.@ 0 Jessie . Less common window managers such as Enlightenment , Openbox , Fluxbox , IceWM , Window Maker and others are available .
The default desktop environment of version 7 @.@ 0 Wheezy was temporarily switched to Xfce , because GNOME 3 did not fit on the first CD of the set . The default for the version 8 @.@ 0 Jessie was changed again to Xfce in November 2013 , and back to GNOME in September 2014 .
= = = Debian Live = = =
Debian releases live install images for CDs , DVDs and USB thumb drives , for IA @-@ 32 and x86 @-@ 64 architectures , and with a choice of desktop environments . These Debian Live images allow users to boot from removable media and run Debian without affecting the contents of their computer .
A full install of Debian to the computer 's hard drive can be initiated from the live image environment .
Personalized images can be built with the live @-@ build tool for discs , USB drives and for network booting purposes .
= = = Package management = = =
Package management operations can be performed with different tools available on Debian , from the lowest level command dpkg to graphical front @-@ ends like Synaptic . The recommended standard for administering packages on a Debian system is the apt toolset .
dpkg provides the low @-@ level infrastructure for package management . The dpkg database contains the list of installed software on the current system . The dpkg command tool does not know about repositories . The command can work with local .deb package files , and information from the dpkg database .
= = = = APT tools = = = =
An Advanced Packaging Tool ( APT ) tool allows administering an installed Debian system to retrieve and resolve package dependencies from repositories . APT tools share dependency information and cached packages .
Aptitude is a command line tool that also offers a text @-@ based user interface . The program comes with enhancements such as better search on package metadata .
apt @-@ get and apt @-@ cache are command tools of the standard apt package. apt @-@ get installs and removes packages , and apt @-@ cache is used for searching packages and displaying package information .
= = = = = GDebi and other front @-@ ends = = = = =
GDebi is an APT tool which can be used in command @-@ line and on the GUI . GDebi can install a local .deb file via the command line like the dpkg command , but with access to repositories to resolve dependencies . Other graphical front @-@ ends for APT include Software Center , Synaptic and Apper .
= = = Branches = = =
Three branches of Debian ( also called releases , distributions or suites ) are regularly maintained :
Stable is the current release and targets stable and well @-@ tested software needs . Stable is made by freezing Testing for a few months where bugs are fixed and packages with too many bugs are removed ; then the resulting system is released as Stable . It is updated only if major security or usability fixes are incorporated . This branch has an optional backports service that provides more recent versions of some software . Stable 's CDs and DVDs can be found in the Debian website .
Testing is the preview branch that will eventually become the next major release . The packages included in this branch have had some testing in Unstable but they may not be fit for release yet . It contains newer packages than Stable but older than Unstable . This branch is updated continually until it is frozen . Testing 's CDs and DVDs can be found on the Debian website .
Unstable , always codenamed Sid , is the trunk . Packages are accepted without checking the distribution as a whole . This branch is usually run by software developers who participate in a project and need the latest libraries available , and by those who prefer bleeding @-@ edge software . Debian does not provide Sid installation discs . This branch can be installed through a system upgrade from Testing .
Other branches in Debian :
Oldstable is the prior Stable release . It is supported by the Debian Security Team until one year after a new Stable is released , and since the release of Debian 6 , for another 2 years through the Long Term Support project . Eventually , Oldstable is moved to a repository for archived releases .
Oldoldstable is the prior Oldstable release . It is supported by the Long Term Support community . Eventually , Oldoldstable is moved to a repository for archived releases .
Experimental is a temporary staging area of highly experimental software that is likely to break the system . It is not a full distribution and missing dependencies are commonly found in Unstable , where new software without the damage chance is normally uploaded .
The snapshot archive provides older versions of the branches . They may be used to install a specific older version of some software .
= = = = Numbering scheme = = = =
Stable and Oldstable get minor updates , called point releases ; as of April 2016 , the Stable release is version 8 @.@ 5 , and the Oldstable release is version 7 @.@ 10 .
The numbering scheme for the point releases up to Debian 4 @.@ 0 was to include the letter r ( for revision ) after the main version number and then the number of the point release ; for example , the latest point release of version 4 @.@ 0 is 4.0r9. This scheme was chosen because a new dotted version would make the old one look obsolete and vendors would have trouble selling their CDs .
From Debian 5 @.@ 0 , the numbering scheme of point releases was changed , conforming to the GNU version numbering standard ; the first point release of Debian 5 @.@ 0 was 5 @.@ 0 @.@ 1 instead of 5.0r1. The numbering scheme was once again changed for the first Debian 7 update , which was version 7 @.@ 1 . The r scheme is no longer in use , but point release announcements include a note about not throwing away old CDs .
= = = = Code names = = = =
The code names of Debian releases are names of characters from the Toy Story films . Debian 8 was named Jessie , after the cowgirl in Toy Story 2 and Toy Story 3 . The Testing branch is currently named Stretch , after the toy rubber octopus in Toy Story 3 . The Unstable trunk is permanently nicknamed Sid , after the emotionally unstable boy next door who regularly destroyed toys .
This naming tradition came about because Bruce Perens was involved in the early development of Debian while working at Pixar .
= = = = Blends = = = =
Debian Pure Blends are subsets of a Debian release configured out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ box for users with particular skills and interests . For example , Debian Jr. is made for children , while Debian Science is for researchers and scientists . The complete Debian distribution includes all available Debian Pure Blends . " Debian Blend " ( without " Pure " ) is a term for a Debian @-@ based distribution that strives to become part of mainstream Debian , and have its extra features included in future releases .
= = = Logo = = =
The Debian " swirl " logo was designed by Raul Silva in 1999 as part of a contest to replace the semi @-@ official logo that had been used . The winner of the contest received an @ debian.org email address , and a set of Debian 2 @.@ 1 install CDs for the architecture of their choice . There has been no official statement from the Debian project on the logo 's meaning , but at the time of the logo 's selection , it was suggested that the logo represented the magic smoke that made computers work .
One theory about the origin of the Debian logo is that Buzz Lightyear , the chosen character for the first named Debian release , has a swirl in his chin . Stefano Zacchiroli also suggested that this swirl is the Debian one .
= = = Archive areas = = =
The Debian Free Software Guidelines ( DFSG ) define the distinctive meaning of the word " free " as in " free and open @-@ source software " . Packages which comply with these guidelines , usually under the GNU General Public License , Modified BSD License or Artistic License , are included inside the main area ; otherwise , they are included inside the non @-@ free and contrib areas . These last two areas are not distributed within the official installation media , but they can be adopted manually .
Non @-@ free includes packages which do not comply with the DFSG , such as documentation with invariant sections and proprietary software , and legally questionable packages . Contrib includes packages which do comply with the DFSG but fail other requirements . For example , they may depend on packages which are in non @-@ free or requires such for building them .
Richard Stallman and the Free Software Foundation have criticized the Debian project for hosting the non @-@ free repository and because the contrib and non @-@ free areas are easily accessible , an opinion echoed by some in Debian including the former project leader Wichert Akkerman . The internal dissent in the Debian project regarding the non @-@ free section has persisted , but the last time it came to a vote in 2004 , the majority decided to keep it .
= = = Multimedia support = = =
Multimedia support has been problematic in Debian regarding codecs threatened by possible patent infringements , without sources or under too restrictive licenses , and regarding technologies such as Adobe Flash . Even though packages with problems related to their distribution could go into the non @-@ free area , software such as libdvdcss is not hosted at Debian .
A notable third party repository exists , formerly named debian @-@ multimedia.org , providing software not present in Debian such as Windows codecs , libdvdcss and the Adobe Flash Player . Even though this repository is maintained by Christian Marillat , a Debian developer , it is not part of the project and is not hosted on a Debian server . The repository provides packages already included in Debian , interfering with the official maintenance . Eventually , project leader Stefano Zacchiroli asked Marillat to either settle an agreement about the packaging or to stop using the " Debian " name . Marillat chose the latter and renamed the repository to deb @-@ multimedia.org. The repository was so popular that the switchover was announced by the official blog of the Debian project .
= = = Hardware support = = =
= = = = Hardware requirements = = = =
Hardware requirements are at least those of the kernel and the GNU toolsets . Debian supports uniprocessor and symmetric multiprocessor systems . Debian 's recommended system requirements depend on the level of installation , which corresponds to increased numbers of installed components :
The real minimum memory requirements depend on the architecture and may be much less than the numbers listed in this table . It is possible to install Debian with 60 MB of RAM for x86 @-@ 64 ; the installer will run in low memory mode and it is recommended to create a swap partition . The installer for z / Architecture requires about 20 MB of RAM , but relies on network hardware . Similarly , disk space requirements , which depend on the packages to be installed , can be reduced by manually selecting the packages needed . As of August 2014 , no Pure Blend exists that would lower the hardware requirements easily .
It is possible to run graphical user interfaces on older or low @-@ end systems , but the installation of window managers instead of desktop environments is recommended , as desktop environments are more resource @-@ intensive . Requirements for individual software vary widely and must be considered , with those of the base operating environment .
= = = = Architecture ports = = = =
= = = = = Official ports = = = = =
As of the Jessie release , the official ports are :
amd64 : x86 @-@ 64 architecture with 64 @-@ bit userland and supporting 32 @-@ bit software
arm64 : ARMv8 @-@ A architecture
armel : Little @-@ endian ARM architecture ( ARMv4T instruction set ) on various embedded systems ( embedded application binary interface ( EABI ) )
armhf : ARM hard @-@ float architecture ( ARMv7 instruction set ) requiring hardware with a floating @-@ point unit
i386 : IA @-@ 32 architecture with 32 @-@ bit userland , compatible with x86 @-@ 64 machines
mips : Big @-@ endian MIPS instruction set
mipsel : Little @-@ endian MIPS instruction set
powerpc : PowerPC architecture
ppc64el : Little @-@ endian PowerPC64 architecture supporting POWER7 + and POWER8 CPUs
s390x : z / Architecture with 64 @-@ bit userland , intended to replace s390
= = = = = Unofficial ports = = = = =
Unofficial ports are available as part of the Unstable distribution :
alpha : DEC Alpha architecture
hppa : HP PA @-@ RISC architecture
hurd @-@ i386 : GNU Hurd kernel on IA @-@ 32 architecture
kfreebsd @-@ amd64 : Kernel of FreeBSD on x86 @-@ 64 architecture
kfreebsd @-@ i386 : Kernel of FreeBSD on IA @-@ 32 architecture
m68k : Motorola 68k architecture on Amiga , Atari , Macintosh and various embedded VME systems
mips64el : Little @-@ endian 64 @-@ bit MIPS instruction set
powerpcspe : PowerPCSPE architecture , incompatible with PowerPC
ppc64 : PowerPC64 architecture supporting 64 @-@ bit PowerPC CPUs with VMX
sh4 : Hitachi SuperH architecture
sparc64 : Sun SPARC architecture with 64 @-@ bit userland
x32 : x32 ABI userland for x86 @-@ 64
= = = Embedded systems = = =
Debian supports a variety of ARM @-@ based NAS devices . The NSLU2 was supported by the installer in Debian 4 @.@ 0 and 5 @.@ 0 , and Martin Michlmayr is providing installation tarballs since version 6 @.@ 0 . Other supported NAS devices are the Buffalo Kurobox Pro , GLAN Tank , Thecus N2100 and QNAP Turbo Stations .
Devices based on the Kirkwood system on a chip ( SoC ) are supported too , such as the SheevaPlug plug computer and OpenRD products . There are efforts to run Debian on mobile devices , but this is not a project goal yet since the Debian Linux kernel maintainers would not apply the needed patches . Nevertheless , there are packages for resource @-@ limited systems .
There are efforts to support Debian on wireless access points . Debian is known to run on set @-@ top boxes . Work is ongoing to support the AM335x processor , which is used in electronic point of service solutions . Debian may be customized to run on cash machines .
BeagleBoard , a low @-@ power open @-@ source hardware single @-@ board computer ( made by Texas Instruments ) has switched to Debian Linux preloaded on its Beaglebone Black board 's flash .
= = = Support for communities = = =
= = = = Localization = = = =
Several parts of Debian are translated into languages other than American English , including package descriptions , configuration messages , documentation and the website . The level of software localization depends on the language , ranging from the highly supported German and French to the hardly translated Creek and Samoan . The installer is available in 73 languages .
= = = = Virtual communities = = = =
Debian provides packages made for virtual communities . The Facebook and Twitter application interfaces are available to programmers ; the Pidgin messaging client used a custom plugin for Facebook until the networking site added support for XMPP . Debian 5 @.@ 0 Lenny was the last release supporting Tencent QQ . Communication with Skype is possible using software in the contrib area .
= = Policies = =
Debian is known for its manifesto , social contract , and policies . Debian 's policies and team efforts focus on collaborative software development and testing processes . As a result of its policies , a new major release tends to occur every two years with revision releases that fix security issues and important problems .
= = = Organization = = =
The Debian project is a volunteer organization with three foundational documents :
The Debian Social Contract defines a set of basic principles by which the project and its developers conduct affairs .
The Debian Free Software Guidelines define the criteria for " free software " and thus what software is permissible in the distribution . These guidelines have been adopted as the basis of the Open Source Definition . Although this document can be considered separate , it formally is part of the Social Contract .
The Debian Constitution describes the organizational structure for formal decision @-@ making within the project , and enumerates the powers and responsibilities of the Project Leader , the Secretary and other roles .
Debian developers are organized in a web of trust . There are at present about one thousand active Debian developers , but it is possible to contribute to the project without being an official developer .
The project maintains official mailing lists and conferences for communication and coordination between developers . For issues with single packages and other tasks , a public bug tracking system is used by developers and end users . Internet Relay Chat channels ( primarily on the Open and Free Technology Community ( OFTC ) and freenode networks ) are also used for communication among developers and to provide real time help .
Debian is supported by donations made to organizations authorized by the leader . The largest supporter is Software in the Public Interest , the owner of the Debian trademark , manager of the monetary donations and umbrella organization for various other community free software projects .
A Project Leader is elected once per year by the developers . The leader has special powers , but they are not absolute , and appoints delegates to perform specialized tasks . Delegates make decisions as they think is best , taking into account technical criteria and consensus . By way of a General Resolution , the developers may recall the leader , reverse a decision made by the leader or a delegate , amend foundational documents and make other binding decisions . The voting method is based on the Schulze method ( Cloneproof Schwartz Sequential Dropping ) .
Project leadership is distributed occasionally . Branden Robinson was helped by the Project Scud , a team of developers that assisted the leader , but there were concerns that such leadership would split Debian into two developer classes . Anthony Towns created a supplemental position , Second In Charge ( 2IC ) , that shared some powers of the leader . Steve McIntyre was 2IC and had a 2IC himself .
One important role in Debian 's leadership is that of a release manager . The release team sets goals for the next release , supervises the processes and decides when to release . The team is led by the next release managers and stable release managers . Release assistants were introduced in 2003 .
= = = Developer recruitment , motivation , and resignation = = =
The Debian project has an influx of applicants wishing to become developers . These applicants must undergo a vetting process which establishes their identity , motivation , understanding of the project 's principles , and technical competence . This process has become much harder throughout the years .
Debian developers join the project for many reasons . Some that have been cited include :
Debian is their main operating system and they want to promote Debian
To improve the support for their favorite technology
They are involved with a Debian derivative
A desire to contribute back to the free @-@ software community
To make their Debian maintenance work easier
Debian developers may resign their positions at any time or , when deemed necessary , they can be expelled . Those who follow the retiring protocol are granted the " emeritus " status and they may regain their membership through a shortened new member process .
= = = Development procedures = = =
Each software package has a maintainer that may be either one person or a team of Debian developers and non @-@ developer maintainers . The maintainer keeps track of upstream releases , and ensures that the package coheres with the rest of the distribution and meets the standards of quality of Debian . Packages may include modifications introduced by Debian to achieve compliance with Debian Policy , even to fix non @-@ Debian specific bugs , although coordination with upstream developers is advised .
The maintainer releases a new version by uploading the package to the " incoming " system , which verifies the integrity of the packages and their digital signatures . If the package is found to be valid , it is installed in the package archive into an area called the " pool " and distributed every day to hundreds of mirrors worldwide . The upload must be signed using OpenPGP @-@ compatible software . All Debian developers have individual cryptographic key pairs . Developers are responsible for any package they upload even if the packaging was prepared by another contributor .
Initially , an accepted package is only available in the Unstable branch . For a package to become a candidate for the next release , it must migrate to the Testing branch by meeting the following :
It has been in Unstable for a certain length of time that depends on the urgency of the changes .
It does not have " release @-@ critical " bugs , except for the ones already present in Testing . Release @-@ critical bugs are those considered serious enough that they make the package unsuitable for release .
There are no outdated versions in Unstable for any release ports .
The migration does not break any packages in Testing .
Its dependencies can be satisfied by packages already in Testing or by packages being migrated at the same time .
The migration is not blocked by a freeze .
Thus , a release @-@ critical bug in a new version of a shared library on which many packages depend may prevent those packages from entering Testing , because the updated library must meet the requirements too . From the branch viewpoint , the migration process happens twice per day , rendering Testing in perpetual beta .
Periodically , the release team publishes guidelines to the developers in order to ready the release . A new release occurs after a freeze , when all important software is reasonably up @-@ to @-@ date in the Testing branch and any other significant issues are solved . At that time , all packages in the Testing branch become the new Stable branch . Although freeze dates are time @-@ based , release dates are not , which are announced by the release managers a couple of weeks beforehand .
A version of a package can belong to more than one branch , usually Testing and Unstable . It is possible for a package to keep the same version between stable releases and be part of Oldstable , Stable , Testing and Unstable at the same time . Each branch can be seen as a collection of pointers into the package " pool " mentioned above .
= = = Security = = =
The Debian project handles security through public disclosure rather than through obscurity . Debian security advisories are compatible with the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures dictionary , are usually coordinated with other free software vendors and are published the same day a vulnerability is made public . There used to be a security audit project that focused on packages in the stable release looking for security bugs ; Steve Kemp , who started the project , retired in 2011 but resumed his activities and applied to rejoin in 2014 .
The Stable branch is supported by the Debian security team ; Oldstable is supported for one year . Although Squeeze is not officially supported , Debian is coordinating an effort to provide long @-@ term support until February 2016 , five years after the initial release , but only for the IA @-@ 32 and x86 @-@ 64 platforms . Testing is supported by the Testing security team , but does not receive updates in as timely a manner as Stable . Unstable 's security is left for the package maintainers .
The Debian project offers documentation and tools to harden a Debian installation both manually and automatically . Security @-@ Enhanced Linux and AppArmor support is available but disabled by default . Debian provides an optional hardening wrapper , and does not harden all of its software by default using gcc features such as PIE and buffer overflow protection , unlike operating systems such as OpenBSD , but tries to build as many packages as possible with hardening flags .
= = = = 2008 OpenSSL vulnerability = = = =
In May 2008 , it was revealed that a Debian developer discovered that the OpenSSL package distributed with Debian and derivatives such as Ubuntu , made a variety of security keys vulnerable to a random number generator attack , since only 32 @,@ 767 different keys were generated . The security weakness was caused by changes made in 2006 by another Debian developer in response to memory debugger warnings . The complete resolution procedure was cumbersome because patching the security hole was not enough ; it involved regenerating all affected keys and certificates .
= = = Derivatives = = =
Debian is one of the most popular Linux distributions , and many other distributions have been created from the Debian codebase , including Ubuntu and Knoppix . As of 2016 , DistroWatch lists 126 active Debian derivatives . The Debian project provides its derivatives with guidelines for best practices and encourages derivatives to merge their work back into Debian . A sign of cooperation with Ubuntu can be seen in the Debian package tracker .
= = History = =
= = = Birth ( 1993 – 1998 ) = = =
Debian was first announced on August 16 , 1993 , by Ian Murdock , who initially called the system " the Debian Linux Release " . The word " Debian " was formed as a combination of the first name of his then @-@ girlfriend Debra Lynn and his own first name . Before Debian 's release , the Softlanding Linux System ( SLS ) had been a popular Linux distribution and the basis for Slackware . The perceived poor maintenance and prevalence of bugs in SLS motivated Murdock to launch a new distribution .
Debian 0 @.@ 01 , released on August 1993 , was the first of several internal releases . Version 0 @.@ 91 was virtually the first public release , providing support through mailing lists hosted at Pixar . The release included the Debian Linux Manifesto , outlining Murdock 's view for the new operating system . In it he called for the creation of a distribution to be maintained openly , in the spirit of Linux and GNU .
The Debian project released the 0.9x versions in 1994 and 1995 . During this time it was sponsored by the Free Software Foundation for one year . Ian Murdock delegated the base system , the core packages of Debian , to Bruce Perens and Murdock focused on the management of the growing project . The first ports to non @-@ IA @-@ 32 architectures began in 1995 , and Debian 1 @.@ 1 was released in 1996 . By that time and thanks to Ian Jackson , the dpkg package manager was already an essential part of Debian .
In 1996 , Bruce Perens assumed the project leadership . Perens was a controversial leader , regarded as authoritarian and strongly attached to Debian . He drafted a social contract and edited suggestions from a month @-@ long discussion into the Debian Social Contract and the Debian Free Software Guidelines . After the FSF withdrew their sponsorship in the midst of the free software vs. open source debate , Perens initiated the creation of the legal umbrella organization Software in the Public Interest instead of seeking renewed involvement with the FSF . He led the conversion of the project from a.out to ELF . He created the BusyBox program to make it possible to run a Debian installer on a single floppy , and wrote a new installer . By the time Debian 1 @.@ 2 was released , the project had grown to nearly two hundred volunteers . Perens left the project in 1998 .
Ian Jackson became the leader in 1998 . Debian 2 @.@ 0 introduced the second official port , m68k . During this time the first port to a non @-@ Linux kernel , Debian GNU / Hurd , was started . On December 2 , the first Debian Constitution was ratified .
= = = Leader election ( 1999 – 2005 ) = = =
From 1999 , the project leader was elected yearly . The Advanced Packaging Tool was deployed with Debian 2 @.@ 1 . The amount of applicants was overwhelming and the project established the new member process . The first Debian derivatives , namely Libranet , Corel Linux and Stormix 's Storm Linux , were started in 1999 . The 2 @.@ 2 release in 2000 was dedicated to Joel Klecker , a developer who died of Duchenne muscular dystrophy .
In late 2000 , the project reorganized the archive with new package " pools " and created the Testing distribution , made up of packages considered stable , to reduce the freeze for the next release . In the same year , developers began holding an annual conference called DebConf with talks and workshops for developers and technical users . In May 2001 , Hewlett @-@ Packard announced plans to base its Linux development on Debian .
In July 2002 , the project released version 3 @.@ 0 , code @-@ named Woody , the first release to include cryptographic software , a free licensed KDE and internationalization . During these last release cycles , the Debian project drew considerable criticism from the free software community because of the long time between stable releases .
Some events disturbed the project while working on Sarge , as Debian servers were attacked by fire and hackers . One of the most memorable was the Vancouver prospectus . After a meeting held in Vancouver , release manager Steve Langasek announced a plan to reduce the number of supported ports to four in order to shorten future release cycles . There was a large reaction because the proposal looked more like a decision and because such a drop would damage Debian 's aim to be " the universal operating system " .
= = = Sarge and later releases ( 2005 – 2015 ) = = =
The 3 @.@ 1 Sarge release was made in June 2005 . This release updated 73 % of the software and included over 9 @,@ 000 new packages . A new installer with a modular design , Debian @-@ Installer , allowed installations with RAID , XFS and LVM support , improved hardware detection , made installations easier for novice users , and was translated into almost forty languages . An installation manual and release notes were in ten and fifteen languages respectively . The efforts of Skolelinux , Debian @-@ Med and Debian @-@ Accessibility raised the number of packages that were educational , had a medical affiliation , and ones made for people with disabilities .
In 2006 , as a result of a much @-@ publicized dispute , Mozilla software was rebranded in Debian , with Firefox becoming Iceweasel and Thunderbird becoming Icedove . The Mozilla Corporation stated that software with unapproved modifications could not be distributed under the Firefox trademark . Two reasons that Debian modifies the Firefox software are to change the non @-@ free artwork and to provide security patches . In February 2016 , it was announced that Mozilla and Debian had reached agreement and Iceweasel would revert to the name Firefox ; similar agreement was anticipated for Icedove / Thunderbird .
A fund @-@ raising experiment , Dunc @-@ Tank , was created to solve the release cycle problem and release managers were paid to work full @-@ time ; in response , unpaid developers slowed down their work and the release was delayed . Debian 4 @.@ 0 ( Etch ) was released in April 2007 , featuring the x86 @-@ 64 port and a graphical installer . Debian 5 @.@ 0 ( Lenny ) was released in February 2009 , supporting Marvell 's Orion platform and netbooks such as the Asus Eee PC . The release was dedicated to Thiemo Seufer , a developer who died in a car crash .
In July 2009 , the policy of time @-@ based development freezes on a two @-@ year cycle was announced . Time @-@ based freezes are intended to blend the predictability of time based releases with Debian 's policy of feature based releases , and to reduce overall freeze time . The Squeeze cycle was going to be especially short ; however , this initial schedule was abandoned . In September 2010 , the backports service became official , providing more recent versions of some software for the stable release .
Debian 6 @.@ 0 ( Squeeze ) was released in February 2011 , introduced Debian GNU / kFreeBSD as a technology preview , featured a dependency @-@ based boot system , and moved problematic firmware to the non @-@ free area . Debian 7 @.@ 0 ( Wheezy ) was released in May 2013 , featuring multiarch support and Debian 8 @.@ 0 ( Jessie ) was released in April 2015 , using systemd as the new init system . At present , Debian is still in development and new packages are uploaded to Unstable every day .
Throughout Debian 's lifetime , both the Debian distribution and its website have won various awards from different organizations , including Server Distribution of the Year 2011 , The best Linux distro of 2011 , and a Best of the Net award for October 1998 .
On December 2 , 2015 , Microsoft announced that they would offer Debian GNU / Linux as an endorsed distribution on the Azure cloud platform .
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= Deepika Padukone =
Deepika Padukone ( pronounced [ d ̪ iːpɪkaː pəɖʊkoːɳ ] ; born 5 January 1986 ) is an Indian film actress . She is one of the highest @-@ paid Indian celebrities and is cited in the media as one of the nation 's most popular and attractive personalities . Padukone has established a career in Hindi films , and is the recipient of several awards , including three Filmfare Awards .
Padukone , the daughter of the badminton player Prakash Padukone , was born in Copenhagen and raised in Bangalore . As a teenager she played badminton in national level championships , but left her career in sport to become a fashion model . She soon received offers for film roles , and made her acting debut in 2006 as the title character of the Kannada film Aishwarya . Padukone then played dual roles in her first Bollywood release — the 2007 blockbuster Om Shanti Om — and won a Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut . Padukone received praise for portraying the lead female roles in the romance Love Aaj Kal ( 2009 ) and the drama Lafangey Parindey ( 2010 ) , but her performances in the romance Bachna Ae Haseeno ( 2008 ) and the comedy Housefull ( 2010 ) met with negative reviews .
The 2012 box office hit Cocktail marked a turning point in Padukone 's career , earning her praise and Best Actress nominations at several award ceremonies . She rose to prominence with starring roles in the comedies Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani ( 2013 ) , Chennai Express ( 2013 ) , and Happy New Year ( 2014 ) , and the historical romance Bajirao Mastani ( 2015 ) , all of which rank among the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films . Padukone 's acclaimed portrayal of a character based on Juliet in the tragic romance Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela ( 2013 ) and a headstrong architect in the comedy @-@ drama Piku ( 2015 ) won her two Best Actress awards at Filmfare .
Alongside her acting career , Padukone participates in stage shows , has written columns for an Indian newspaper , is a prominent celebrity endorser for brands and products , and is vocal about issues such as feminism and depression . She has designed her own line of clothing for women and is the founder of The Live Love Laugh Foundation , which creates awareness on mental health in India .
= = Early life and modelling career = =
Deepika Padukone was born on 5 January 1986 in Copenhagen , Denmark , to Konkani @-@ speaking parents . Her father , Prakash , is a former badminton player of international repute , and her mother , Ujjala , is a travel agent . Her younger sister , Anisha , is a golfer . Her paternal grandfather , Ramesh , was a secretary of the Mysore Badminton Association . The family relocated to Bangalore , India , when Padukone was a year old . She was educated at Bangalore 's Sophia High School , and completed her pre @-@ university education at Mount Carmel College . She subsequently enrolled at the Indira Gandhi National Open University for a Bachelor of Arts degree in sociology , but later quit it due to scheduling conflicts with her modelling career .
Padukone has admitted to being socially awkward as a child , and did not have many friends . The focus of her life was badminton , which she played competitively from a young age . Describing her daily routine in a 2012 interview , Padukone said , " I would wake up at five in the morning , go for physical training , go to school , again go for playing badminton , finish my homework and go to sleep . " Padukone continued to pursue a career in badminton throughout her school years , and played the sport in national level championships . She also played baseball in a few state level tournaments . While concentrating on her education and sporting career , Padukone also worked as a child model , first appearing in a couple of advertising campaigns at the age of eight . In the tenth grade , she changed focus and decided to become a fashion model . She later explained , " I realised that I was playing the game only because it ran in the family . So , I asked my father if I could give up the game and he wasn 't upset at all . " In 2004 , she began a full @-@ time career as a model under the tutelage of Prasad Bidapa .
Early in her career , Padukone gained recognition with a television commercial for the soap Liril , and modelled for various other brands and products . In 2005 , she made her runway debut at the Lakme Fashion Week for designer Suneet Varma , and won the " Model of the Year " award at the Kingfisher Fashion Awards . Padukone 's fame increased when she appeared in a highly popular print campaign for the 2006 Kingfisher Calendar ; the designer Wendell Rodricks commented , " Since Aishwarya Rai , we haven 't had a girl as beautiful and fresh . " Rodricks had spotted her at a Ganjam jewellery class he was teaching and signed her up with the Matrix agency . At the age of 21 , Padukone relocated to Mumbai and stayed at her aunt 's home . That year , she gained wider recognition by featuring in the music video for Himesh Reshammiya 's song " Naam Hai Tera . "
Padukone soon began to receive offers for film roles . Believing herself to be too inexperienced as an actor , she instead enrolled for a course at Anupam Kher 's film academy . Following much media speculation , the director Farah Khan , who had noticed her in Reshammiya 's music video , made the decision to cast her for a role in Happy New Year .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Film debut and breakthrough ( 2006 – 09 ) = = =
Padukone announced in 2006 that she would make her film debut with Aishwarya , a Kannada film directed by Indrajit Lankesh . The romantic comedy was a remake of the Telugu film Manmadhudu , and she was cast in the title role opposite the actor Upendra . The film proved a major commercial success . RG Vijayasarathy of Rediff.com was appreciative of Padukone 's screen presence but added that " she needs to work on her emotional scenes . "
By the end of 2006 , Farah Khan 's Happy New Year was shelved , and Khan had instead cast Padukone for the reincarnation melodrama Om Shanti Om ( 2007 ) . Set against the backdrop of the Hindi film industry , the film tells the story of a struggling actor in the 1970s who dies soon after witnessing the murder of the woman he loved , and is reincarnated to avenge her death . Shah Rukh Khan starred as the protagonist , and Padukone featured in dual roles — Shantipriya , a leading actress of the 1970s , and later as Sandy , an aspiring actress . She said , " I 've grown up watching [ Shah Rukh ] and always admired him so much . To get to work with him ... is quite wonderful . It was also fantastic that Farah showed faith in my talent and cast me opposite him . " In preparation for her role , Padukone watched several films of actresses Helen and Hema Malini to study their body language , which she felt " were more graceful " and " completely different from today 's actors . " However , her voice was dubbed by the voice artist Mona Ghosh Shetty . For one of the songs in the film , " Dhoom Taana , ” Padukone drew upon Indian classical dance , and according to Dorling Kindersley , " mesmeriz [ ed ] audiences " by using hasta mudras ( hand gestures ) . Om Shanti Om was a commercial success , and emerged as the highest @-@ grossing film of the year , with a global revenue of ₹ 1 @.@ 49 billion ( US $ 22 million ) . Taran Adarsh of the entertainment portal Bollywood Hungama reviewed , " Deepika has all it takes to be a top star — the personality , the looks and yes , she 's supremely talented too . Standing in the same frame as [ Shah Rukh ] and getting it right is no small achievement . She comes as a whiff of fresh air ! " At the annual Filmfare Awards ceremony , Padukone was awarded the Best Female Debut Award and received her first nomination in the Best Actress category .
Bollywood Hungama reported that the success of Om Shanti Om proved a breakthrough for Padukone . She followed this success with the role of Gayatri ( one of star Ranbir Kapoor 's love interests ) , a feisty student in Australia who moonlights as a cab driver in Yash Raj Films ' romantic comedy Bachna Ae Haseeno ( 2008 ) . The film was a financial success , but Namrata Joshi of Outlook wrote that Padukone 's performance was disappointing : " She is mannequin @-@ like and utterly lacks fire and zing . "
Padukone 's first release of 2009 came alongside Akshay Kumar in the Nikhil Advani @-@ directed kung fu comedy Chandni Chowk To China , in which she portrayed the dual roles of Indian @-@ Chinese twin sisters Sakhi and Suzy . Produced by Warner Bros. , it had one of the widest international releases ever given to an Indian film . Padukone learned the Japanese martial art form of jujutsu , and performed her stunts without the use of a body double . Despite the hype , Chandni Chowk To China proved a major financial failure with worldwide earnings of ₹ 554 @.@ 7 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 2 million ) on a budget of ₹ 800 million ( US $ 12 million ) . Film critics were generally disappointed with the picture and Padukone 's performance ; Justin Trout of Orlando Weekly noted that she " is so wasted in Chandni Chowk , my mind often wandered back to Om Shanti Om during her scenes , possibly as a defense mechanism . "
That same year , Padukone featured in an item number ( for a song called " Love Mera Hit Hit " ) in the drama Billu , following which she appeared alongside Saif Ali Khan in the romantic drama Love Aaj Kal from the writer @-@ director Imtiaz Ali . The film documented the changing value of relationships among the youth , and had Padukone play the part of Meera Pandit , a head @-@ strong career woman . With a worldwide gross of ₹ 1 @.@ 2 billion ( US $ 18 million ) , Love Aaj Kal proved to be the third highest @-@ grossing film of 2009 . Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis said that Padukone " delivers the best of her four performances so far " and Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India mentioned her as " definitive and strong . " At the 55th Filmfare Awards Padukone received a nomination for Best Actress .
= = = Career struggles ( 2010 – 11 ) = = =
Padukone had five film releases in 2010 . Her first role was in Vijay Lalwani 's psychological thriller Karthik Calling Karthik , where Padukone was cast as the supportive girlfriend of a depressed man ( played by Farhan Akhtar ) who goes through a series of changes after receiving mysterious phone calls every morning . Derek Elley of Variety found the film to be " thinly plotted " but added that " the uncomplicated ingenuousness of Padukone ... helps make the tall tale convincing . " Commercially , the film performed poorly . Her most economically profitable film that year was Sajid Khan 's ₹ 1 @.@ 15 billion ( US $ 17 million ) -grossing comedy film Housefull in which she featured alongside an ensemble cast including Akshay Kumar , Ritesh Deshmukh , Lara Dutta , Arjun Rampal , Jiah Khan and Boman Irani . Raja Sen described the film as a " festival of bad acting " and attributed Padukone 's poor performance to her " plasticky expressions . "
Pradeep Sarkar 's drama Lafangey Parindey ( 2010 ) saw Padukone star opposite Neil Nitin Mukesh in the role of Pinky Palkar , a blind girl determined to win a skating competition . In preparation for her role , she observed the interactions of blind people and rehearsed scenes while blindfolded . Writing for The Hindu , Sudhish Kamath was particularly impressed by Padukone and wrote that she " exercises considerable restraint " in playing her part . Later that year , Hindustan Times published that the film helped change people 's perception of Padukone , with focus directed on her acting prowess rather than her appearance . Her next role was opposite Imran Khan in the Danish Aslam @-@ directed romantic comedy Break Ke Baad . CNN @-@ IBN 's Rajeev Masand found the film to be " reasonably engaging " and noted that it was " watchable largely for the performance of its leading lady . " Both Lafangey Parindey and Break Ke Baad underperformed at the box office .
Padukone 's final release of 2010 was Ashutosh Gowarikar 's period film Khelein Hum Jee Jaan Sey opposite Abhishek Bachchan . Based on the book Do and Die by Manini Chatterjee , the film is a retelling of the 1930 Chittagong armoury raid . Bachchan featured as the revolutionary leader Surya Sen and Padukone played Kalpana Dutta , his confidante . Padukone said that she did not research for the role as there were " hardly ... any reference points as to what Kalpana looked like other than a few photos , " and relied completely on Gowarikar 's direction . A review published in The Telegraph was appreciative of Padukone 's portrayal , and the film received a generally positive critical reception . Despite this , it proved a major commercial disappointment .
Padukone began 2011 with an item number in Rohan Sippy 's Dum Maaro Dum . The song was a remixed version of the iconic song " Dum Maro Dum , " from the 1971 film Hare Rama Hare Krishna , which featured Zeenat Aman . Padukone referred to it as " the wildest song any actress has done ; " the song 's " suggestive lyrics " and " raunchy moves " attracted controversy including a court case for indecency . Her next film was Prakash Jha 's socio @-@ political drama Aarakshan , co @-@ starring Amitabh Bachchan , Saif Ali Khan , Manoj Bajpayee and Prateik Babbar , which dealt with the political issue of caste @-@ based reservations in India . Trade journalists had high expectations for the film which ultimately flopped at the box office . Critical reaction was largely negative , though Pratim D. Gupta mentioned Padukone as the most " refreshing thing about [ the ] movie . " Her final appearance that year was in Rohit Dhawan 's comedy @-@ drama Desi Boyz alongside Akshay Kumar , John Abraham and Chitrangada Singh , a role that failed to propel her career forward . The series of poorly received films led critics to perceive that Padukone had " [ lost ] her sparkle . "
= = = Establishing with Cocktail ( 2012 – 14 ) = = =
In an interview for The Indian Express , Padukone said that her starring role in the 2012 Homi Adajania @-@ directed romantic comedy Cocktail marked a significant turning point in her career . Raja Sen of Rediff.com opined that she had successfully proved to be a " stunning girl who can also act . " Set in London , Cocktail tells the story of a software engineer ( played by Saif Ali Khan ) and his relationship with two temperamentally different women — an impulsive party girl ( Veronica , played by Padukone ) and a submissive girl next door ( Meera , played by Diana Penty ) . During the script narration , the producer Dinesh Vijan offered Padukone the choice of which woman to play ; she decided on Veronica to expand her horizons as an actress . Portraying the role was a creative and physical challenge for her , and to achieve the physical requirements of her character she exercised extensively and followed a rigorous diet . Critics were divided in their opinion of the film , but particularly praised Padukone 's performance ; Devesh Sharma of Filmfare credited her as the " soul of the film " and wrote that she " excels in every scene , whether as a material girl who enjoys sex , drugs and rock and roll or as the jealousy ridden girl out to destroy herself . " Cocktail earned Padukone Best Actress nominations at several award ceremonies , including Filmfare , Screen , and IIFA . The film proved a box office hit as well .
In 2013 , Padukone established herself as a leading actress of contemporary Hindi cinema by featuring in four of the top @-@ grossing productions of the year . She collaborated with Saif Ali Khan for the fourth time ( alongside John Abraham , Jacqueline Fernandez , Ameesha Patel , and Anil Kapoor ) in Abbas @-@ Mustan 's Race 2 , an ensemble action thriller that served as a sequel to the 2008 film Race . The film received predominantly negative reviews from critics , but with a total collection of ₹ 1 @.@ 62 billion ( US $ 24 million ) , it proved to be a commercial success . In a particularly scathing review , Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV wrote that both Padukone and Fernandez " strut around like wound @-@ up automatons that are all decked @-@ up but have nowhere to go . "
Ayan Mukerji 's romantic comedy Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani was Padukone 's next film release . Co @-@ starring alongside Ranbir Kapoor , Kalki Koechlin , and Aditya Roy Kapoor , she was cast as Naina Talwar , a " shy wallflower , " which marked a departure from the glamorous characters that she had a reputation for portraying . Film critics praised Padukone 's performance , though their response to the film was mixed . Raja Sen thought that the film " lacked a good story " but added that Padukone " acts within herself and eschews exaggeration , and the results are impressive ... This may be her most self @-@ aware performance so far " . The pairing of Padukone with her former boyfriend was highly anticipated , and the film proved a major success with a worldwide revenue of ₹ 3 @.@ 02 billion ( US $ 45 million ) . Her next appearance was opposite Shah Rukh Khan in Rohit Shetty 's action @-@ comedy film Chennai Express . She played Meenalochini Azhagusundaram , a Tamil girl on the run from her father ( a local don ) , which required that she adopt a Tamil accent . Critical opinion on her accent was mixed , but her performance received praise ; film critic Aseem Chhabra concluded , " Padukone is delightful in the film — beautiful , smiling , and often a lot more playful and funny than Khan . " Chennai Express was Padukone 's second consecutive release to earn over ₹ 3 billion ( US $ 45 million ) in worldwide ticket sales ; both Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani and Chennai Express rank among the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films of all time .
Padukone next played opposite Ranveer Singh in Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela , an adaptation of the Shakespearean tragedy of Romeo and Juliet from director Sanjay Leela Bhansali . Her role was Leela , a Gujarati girl based on the character of Juliet . Initially titled Ram @-@ Leela , the film 's title was changed after a court case was registered against Bhansali , Padukone , and Singh for " offending the religious sentiments " of the Hindu community by showcasing sex and violence under a title that referred to the life of Lord Rama . Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela released among protests across several states in India , but was generally well received by critics . Meena Iyer of The Times of India mentioned Padukone as " breathtaking " , and writing for Deccan Chronicle , Khalid Mohamed concluded that " it ’ s Deepika Padukone whom the film belongs to . Looking drop dead gorgeous and going at her part with a wallop , she ’ s the prime asset of Ram @-@ Leela . " The film earned ₹ 2 @.@ 02 billion ( US $ 30 million ) worldwide , making it Padukone 's fourth consecutive box office hit of the year . Her performances in Chennai Express and Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela won her several awards , including the Screen Award for Best Actress for both films and the Filmfare Award for Best Actress for the latter .
In 2014 , Padukone featured opposite Rajinikanth in the Tamil film Kochadaiiyaan , a period drama that was shot using motion capture technology . In Homi Adajania 's widely praised satire Finding Fanny , Padukone played a young widow who takes a road trip with her dysfunctional friends ( played by Arjun Kapoor , Naseeruddin Shah , Dimple Kapadia and Pankaj Kapur ) in search of a woman named Fanny . The film was screened at the 19th Busan International Film Festival ; critic Anuj Kumar of The Hindu wrote that Padukone successfully " takes off the fineries of Bollywood and you can sense the freedom from baggage in her performance " . Later that year , she starred opposite Shah Rukh Khan for the third time in Farah Khan 's renewal of Happy New Year . She played a bar dancer who trains a group of underachievers for a dance competition . Sanjukta Sharma of Mint found her role to be of minimal importance that required her only to be " a pretty thing to be laughed at and pitied " , but the film became one of her most successful , earning over ₹ 3 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 51 million ) worldwide .
= = = Piku and beyond ( 2015 – present ) = = =
Following an appearance in an online video on feminism , entitled My Choice , under the direction of Homi Adajania , Padukone took on the role of a headstrong Bengali architect who cares for her hypochondriac father ( played by Amitabh Bachchan ) in Shoojit Sircar 's comedy @-@ drama Piku ( 2015 ) . Reviews for the film were positive ; Tanmaya Nanda of Business Standard praised the film 's feminist tone , and wrote that Padukone proves " what she is capable of when given something more to do than look pretty and be the crazy @-@ dance girl at parties " . NDTV 's Saibal Chatterjee opined that she " holds Piku together with a restrained star turn " . With a worldwide gross of over ₹ 1 @.@ 40 billion ( US $ 21 million ) , the film emerged as a box office hit , and garnered Padukone several awards , including second Best Actress awards at Filmfare and Screen .
Later that year , Padukone played the part of a businessperson who helps Ranbir Kapoor 's character overcome his conflicts in Imtiaz Ali 's romantic drama Tamasha . Despite poor financial returns , Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com named Padukone 's performance as the best by an actress that year , writing that she " is so potent in Tamasha , it ’ s almost as if you can hear her heartbeat across the screen " . In her final release of 2015 , Padukone reunited with Sanjay Leela Bhansali and Ranveer Singh in Bajirao Mastani , a historical drama about a tragic extramarital affair . Singh was cast as the maratha general Bajirao I , while Priyanka Chopra and Padukone featured as his first and second wife , respectively . In preparation for the role of the warrior @-@ princess Mastani , Padukone learnt sword @-@ fighting , horse @-@ riding and kalaripayattu . With a revenue of over ₹ 3 @.@ 3 billion ( US $ 49 million ) , Bajirao Mastani proved to be the fourth highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of the year . Anupama Chopra found Padukone " riveting " in the film , but Subhash K. Jha while praising her " grace and dignity " thought that she was " way too subtle and silken , and not steely enough as [ a ] firebrand warrior @-@ princess " . At the 61st Filmfare Awards , Bajirao Mastani was named Best Film and Padukone received her second Best Actress nomination in that year .
As of June 2016 , Padukone has completed filming for her first project in Hollywood — the action film xXx : The Return of Xander Cage — in which she plays the lead female role opposite Vin Diesel . She has also filmed for an item number in Dinesh Vijan 's romance film Raabta . In addition , Padukone will collaborate with Bhansali and Singh for the third time in Padmavati , a historical drama based on the life of Rani Padmini .
= = Other work = =
In addition to acting , Padukone has written opinion columns and has been involved with women 's health and fitness magazines . She has also supported charitable organisations , and has performed for stage shows . In 2009 , she was hired by Hindustan Times to write weekly columns for their lifestyle section ; through these columns she interacted with her fans and passed details of her personal and professional life . That year , she participated in the World 10K Bangalore marathon , which raised ₹ 13 @.@ 1 million ( US $ 190 @,@ 000 ) in support of 81 NGOs . In 2010 , Padukone adopted the Maharashtrian village of Ambegaon as part of NDTV 's Greenathon Campaign , to provide the village with a regular supply of electricity . She visited Indian jawans ( troops ) in Jammu , for an Independence Day special episode of NDTV 's reality show Jai Jawaan .
Padukone took part in the opening ceremony of the third season of the Indian Premier League at the DY Patil Stadium in Navi Mumbai . Three years later , she performed alongside Shah Rukh Khan , Katrina Kaif , and Pitbull for the sixth edition of the Indian Premier League . In 2014 , she participated in a concert tour across North America , entitled " SLAM ! The Tour " , in which she performed alongside her co @-@ stars from Happy New Year . Padukone has also been involved with the Olympic Gold Quest team , established by her father and Geet Sethi to support Indian athletes at the Olympic Games , along with sports personalities such as Leander Paes and Viswanathan Anand and several other actors . In 2013 , she launched her own line of clothing for women , in association with the retail chain Van Heusen .
Padukone has also been outspoken on issues such as feminism and has said , " New feminism isn 't about being aggressive ; it 's about reaching the top yet being soft . It 's about being you — feminine , strong and full of will power . ” In a 2015 interview , Padukone spoke about her personal experience of overcoming depression , and in October that year she formed a foundation to create awareness on mental health in India , named The Live Love Laugh Foundation . The following year , she launched a campaign named More Than Just Sad to assist general physicians in their treatment of patients suffering from depression or anxiety . Also in 2016 , the foundation teamed with Facebook and the AASRA organisation to launch multilingual tools and educational resources in Facebook 's networking site to support people with suicidal tendencies .
= = Personal life = =
Padukone shares a close bond with her family , and visits them regularly in her hometown of Bangalore . She lives by herself in Prabhadevi , a neighbourhood in Mumbai , and admits to missing the presence of her family there . She says , " I miss them , but luckily I have a life of my own , which keeps me from getting homesick . I wouldn ’ t want them to uproot their lives from Bengaluru just to be with me . " A practicing Hindu , Padukone considers religion to be an important aspect of her life and makes frequent visits to temples and other religious shrines .
While filming Bachna Ae Haseeno in 2008 , Padukone began a romantic relationship with co @-@ star Ranbir Kapoor . She spoke openly about the relationship and sported a tattoo of his initials on the nape of her neck . She has said that the relationship had a profound effect on her , transforming her into a more confident and social person . The Indian media speculated on an engagement , and reported that this had occurred in November 2008 , although Padukone had stated that she had no plans to marry within the next five years . The couple broke up a year later ; she professed in an interview to feeling " angry " and " betrayed " for a long time , but insisted that they remained on good terms . In a 2010 interview , Padukone made a comment that the media speculated was a reference to her break @-@ up with Kapoor :
The first time he cheated on me , I thought there was something wrong with me or the relationship , but when someone makes a habit of it , you know the problem lies with him . Yet I was foolish enough to give him a second chance because he begged and pleaded , despite the fact that everyone around me said he was still straying . I guess I really wanted to believe in him . Then I actually caught him red @-@ handed . It took me a while to get out . But having done that , nothing can make me go back .
Kapoor initially denied the allegations , but according to The Times of India , he later admitted to the infidelity . In 2013 , following the production of Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani , Padukone told Filmfare that she now " shares a great comfort level " with him .
In 2011 , a set of pictures showing Padukone kissing the actor Siddharth Mallya at an Indian Premier League match were made available on the web . This led to wide speculation in the media about the nature of their relationship , which Padukone declined to talk about publicly . The following year there were reports about a break @-@ up , to which she said : " Just because we are not seen together , it doesn 't mean that we are not friends anymore . " She has since denied reports of her link @-@ up to Ranveer Singh , stating that she is " not in a frame of mind to be in a relationship . "
= = In the media = =
The journalist Vir Sanghvi , in 2013 , described Padukone as " strong , someone who makes up her own mind , [ and ] has motivation within herself . " She is particularly known in the media as a professional , disciplined performer , whose " work takes precedence over everything else . " A reviewer for Rediff.com described her personality as " simple , " " grounded , " and " accessible , " and wrote , " She takes criticism in her stride , acknowledges her limitations and strives to work hard at getting better . She handles praise with equal composure . " Ayan Mukerji ( the director of Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani ) considers her to be " a woman who will flirt with you but you will love to take her home to meet your mom as well . " Padukone has maintained a Twitter account since 2010 , and launched an official Facebook page in 2013 . She is the most followed Indian actress on Twitter and most liked Indian actor on Facebook .
One of the highest @-@ paid actresses in Bollywood , Padukone is considered among the most popular and high @-@ profile celebrities in India . Analysing her career , Reuters published that after making a successful debut with Om Shanti Om , she featured in a series of films for which critics labelled her as " wooden " and " mocked her accent . " The Indian Express added , " Not too long ago after a few unwise script calls and the public blow up of her high profile relationship with Ranbir Kapoor , Deepika was written off . Credit to her much touted professionalism , dedication , discipline and perseverance that she bounced back . " Following the major success of Cocktail , Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani , and Chennai Express , several media publications began crediting her as the most successful contemporary actress in India . From 2012 – 15 , she has featured on the Indian edition of the Forbes ' " Celebrity 100 , " a list based on the income and popularity of India 's celebrities . She ranked among the top 25 each year , peaking at the eighth position in 2014 with an estimated annual earning of ₹ 672 million ( US $ 10 million ) .
Padukone is considered a sex symbol and style icon in India – the media cites her figure , height 1 @.@ 74 m ( 5 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ) , smile , and eyes as her distinctive physical features . The actress ranks high on various listings of the most attractive Indian celebrities . In 2008 , she topped Indian Maxim 's " Hot 100 " list , and in 2012 , she was named " India 's Most Beautiful Woman " by the Indian edition of People magazine . Padukone was ranked first on The Times of India 's listing of the " Most Desirable Woman " in 2012 and 2013 , after being ranked third and fourth , respectively , for the preceding two years ; she was placed second in both 2014 and 2015 . In 2010 and 2014 , she was named the " World 's Sexiest Woman " by the Indian edition of FHM . She has additionally featured in the UK magazine Eastern Eye 's " World 's Sexiest Asian Women " list from 2009 to 2015 , ranking among the top ten each year . In 2013 , Filmfare declared her as the winner of the " Most Fashionable Star " poll , and credited her as one of the " few actresses who experiments with colours , cuts and silhouettes . " In the fitness book The Four @-@ Week Countdown Diet , the actress was cited by Namita Jain as " the ultimate role model for a healthy , fit and active lifestyle . "
Padukone is an active celebrity endorser for several brands and products , including Tissot , Sony Cyber @-@ shot , Nescafe , Vogue eyewear , Maybelline and Pepsi , among others . In 2012 , it was reported that Padukone had signed on for an endorsement deal with Garnier worth ₹ 60 million ( US $ 890 @,@ 000 ) , a record breaking remuneration for an Indian actress .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = Selected filmography = = =
= = = Awards = = =
Padukone has been the recipient of three Filmfare Awards : Best Female Debut for Om Shanti Om ( 2007 ) , and two Best Actress awards for Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela ( 2013 ) and Piku ( 2015 ) .
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= The Big Bang ( Doctor Who ) =
" The Big Bang " is the thirteenth and final episode in the fifth series of British science fiction television programme Doctor Who , broadcast on 26 June 2010 on BBC One . It is the second part of the two @-@ part series finale started with " The Pandorica Opens " , written by Steven Moffat and directed by Toby Haynes .
Following the end of the previous episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) is trapped in a prison from which escape is impossible , the TARDIS has blown up with River Song ( Alex Kingston ) inside , and the Doctor 's companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) has been shot and killed by an Auton replica of her fiancé Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) . As the universe is collapsing , the Doctor uses time travel to solve these problems and ultimately reboot the universe .
The episode sees the climax of Amy 's character arc and the story arc of the series regarding the cracks in the universe , though Moffat chose to leave a few things unexplained . Taking place mainly in a museum , most scenes in the episode were shot at Brangwyn Hall in February 2010 . " The Big Bang " was seen by 6 @.@ 696 million viewers in the UK and received the highest Appreciation Index of the fifth series at 89 . It received mostly positive reviews from critics , though many commented on the complicated nature of the plot and whether some aspects made sense . The two @-@ part story won the 2011 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form .
= = Plot = =
Following on from " The Pandorica Opens " , the Doctor has been sealed in the Pandorica , a trap created by his greatest enemies ; River Song is trapped aboard the exploding TARDIS ; and an Auton version of Rory has shot and killed his fiancée Amy . The TARDIS 's explosion has caused the whole universe to have never existed , except for the Earth , its moon , and a sun @-@ like object , otherwise leaving a dark infinite void . Only stone versions of the Doctor 's foes surround the Pandorica .
As Rory is mourning over Amy , the Doctor appears using River 's vortex manipulator . He hands Rory his sonic screwdriver and explains how to use it to open the Pandorica and free his younger self . Following these instructions , Rory frees the Doctor , who then places Amy 's body inside the Pandorica . He explains that the Pandorica , being the " perfect prison " , will not allow its occupant to escape , not even by dying , and will restore her once given an imprint of her DNA . The Doctor then retrieves River 's manipulator and uses it to jump ahead nearly two millennia ; Rory , in his ageless Auton body , decides to stay with the Pandorica and guard it , creating the myth of " The Last Centurion " over the years , a myth that ends with him supposedly killed during the London Blitz .
In 1996 , seven @-@ year @-@ old Amelia Pond ( Caitlin Blackwood ) finds instructions from the Doctor leading her to the National Museum , where the Pandorica is on display . She touches the box , allowing it to revitalise Amy and release her . They are soon joined by the Doctor and Rory , now a museum guard who secretly survived the Blitz . After a tearful reunion , they are chased by a Dalek restored by the light of the Pandorica . The Doctor uses the vortex manipulator to go back and give Rory his screwdriver , as well as leave Amelia the clues to the museum . Amelia soon disappears : a sign , according to the Doctor , that the universe is collapsing rapidly . The injured body of a future version of the Doctor appears and whispers something to his earlier self . The Doctor takes off with Amy and Rory to the roof of the museum , where he discovers that the " sun " is the still @-@ exploding TARDIS . Rory hears a voice coming from the exploding TARDIS and the Doctor amplifies the voice and discovers it is River Song in a time @-@ loop , implemented by the TARDIS to keep her alive . The Doctor saves River , and as the quartet reunites , the Doctor is shot by the Dalek and sends himself backwards in time . Amy and Rory depart while River threatens the Dalek before shooting and destroying it .
Amy and Rory discover that the wounded Doctor had told his earlier self to create a diversion , allowing him to rig the Pandorica to fly into the TARDIS explosion . The Doctor postulates that enough of the original universe still exists in the Pandorica to completely restore it via the exploding TARDIS . After a tearful farewell to Amy , Rory , and River where he instructs Amy to focus on her family and Rory to restore them in the new universe , the Doctor engages the Pandorica and flies it into the exploding TARDIS . A second Big Bang occurs . The Doctor comes to consciousness and begins witnessing events in his life in reverse as the cracks in the universe close . The Doctor has to stay outside this new universe in order for that to happen . After a final goodbye to Amelia on the night they met , he enters the cracks and disappears .
Amy wakes on 26 June 2010 in her home to discover that her parents have been brought back into existence and she and Rory celebrate their wedding day . At the reception , River leaves her blank diary for Amy which prompts Amy to recall the Doctor and something he told her when she was seven during his rewind . She interrupts her father 's speech , imploring the " Raggedy " Doctor from her memories to come back . As she recites the old wedding proverb ( " something old , something new , something borrowed , and something blue " ) , relating that to what the Doctor had said about the TARDIS , the TARDIS and the Doctor appear . The Doctor comes out of the TARDIS and after a brief conversation with Amy , introduces himself by saying " Hello everyone ! I 'm Amy 's imaginary friend , but I came anyway ! " and joins the wedding festivities . Afterwards , he returns River 's diary and the vortex manipulator to her so she can return to her own time . She sadly tells him he will soon learn who she truly is and that it will change everything . Aboard the TARDIS , the Doctor explains to Amy and Rory that unanswered questions remain about the destruction of the TARDIS and the nature of " the silence " that will fall . The Doctor receives a telephone call alerting him to the presence of " an escaped Egyptian goddess on the Orient Express , in space " . He tells them that this will have to be goodbye . They agree that it is goodbye and Amy leans out of the TARDIS and yells " Goodbye ! " . The three then leave on their next adventure .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Aspects of " The Big Bang " were outlined by lead writer and executive producer Steven Moffat as he planned the arc of the series . Moffat stated he left room to improvise on the story and was pleased with the result , describing it as " mad " and " amazing " . Moffat stated that the title " The Big Bang " is his favourite dirty Doctor Who joke as it is a reference to the fact that Amy and Rory conceive their child on the TARDIS that night , as revealed in the next series in " A Good Man Goes to War " . Gillan described Rory 's vigil for Amy as the " ultimate romantic gesture " which showed how much he loved Amy , and was where Amy realised how much she loved him . Moffat thought that standing guard for two thousand years would make up for shooting her . Moffat had always intended for Amy and Rory to get married " from the off " . Moffat described the conclusion as the story of how Amy has been changed by the Doctor and the Doctor 's success at restoring her spirit to the girl he first met , believing that a man could drop out of the sky and " fix everything " . However , he did not return for her as he had promised and she grew believing that he was a liar and could not be trusted ; Amy returns to her original belief when she stands up at her wedding and proclaims that the Doctor is real and that he will arrive . Though the episode is the end of the series , Moffat left questions to be answered in the next series , including the mystery of River Song 's identity and the " Silence " which appeared to cause the TARDIS to blow up .
" The Big Bang " deliberately revisits several scenes from earlier in the series . The first scene in the episode mirrors the start of " The Eleventh Hour " . As the Doctor rewinds through his life , he sees events which relate to " The Lodger " , but which were not shown in that episode . His conversation with Amy during the events of " Flesh and Stone " , however , appeared in that episode . It was shot in extreme close @-@ up but the Doctor 's tweed jacket is still visible , which the present Doctor in that episode had previously lost to the Weeping Angels .
Moffat found it interesting that the Doctor regularly experienced time out of order and was used to a whole different kind of causality . He believed that the Doctor would attempt to cheat and break his own rules to save the universe from collapsing . The time travel used in the episode is compatible with the theory of time travel . As the episode features many " time @-@ jumps " when the Doctor travels back to do things seen in the opening credits , Moffat decided to make it less complicated by allowing the audience to figure things out before they occurred . He did this by calling attention to the future @-@ Doctor in the opening scenes by having him wearing a fez and holding a mop , and as the viewers saw the Doctor later acquire these items they would begin to connect the events . Moffat mentioned the fez to fellow executive producers Piers Wenger and Beth Willis ; they both were worried that Smith would become too attached to the hat and want to incorporate it into his costume , but Moffat assured him that he was planning on destroying the fez . Wenger later stated that Smith was " one of the few people who can pull off a fez " .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
The read @-@ through for " The Big Bang " took place on 13 January 2010 in the Upper Boat Studios . The episode was filmed in the sixth production block along with " The Pandorica Opens " . The Doctor visits previous episodes as he is being erased from history ; these scenes , taking place in " Flesh and Stone " and " The Lodger " , were filmed with their respective episodes . The first scenes filmed for " The Big Bang " were shot in the TARDIS set , including the very last scene . The beginning of the episode , in which the fez @-@ wearing Doctor from the future confronts Rory , was filmed on 5 February 2010 at Margam Country Park , Port Talbot . As it was filmed near the end of production of the series , " The Big Bang " had a smaller effects budget than other episodes , but this was compensated with cinematic lighting . The TARDIS appears in the time vortex during the ending credits , an idea of director Toby Haynes .
Brangwyn Hall in Swansea was used as the museum . Haynes wanted the museum to feel " massive and eerie " , and coached Blackwood to " live in the moment " . The opening sequence featuring young Amelia is filmed from her height , and was inspired by Steven Spielberg films in which people would look at things in awe . During this scene Haynes played appropriate music to help Blackwood get into the mood , as he had done during similar scenes when directing " The Pandorica Opens " . The set was filled with things that would seem like typical exhibits in the daytime , but appeared spooky at night . The exhibits also included historical anomalies which were the result of history collapsing , such as penguins on the Nile . Though Blackwood appeared as the seven @-@ year @-@ old version of Amy in " The Eleventh Hour " , the episode marked the first time Gillan and Blackwood — who are actually cousins — acted together . Gillan initially found this " weird " , but she commented that they quickly got used to it . The two versions of Amy were purposely dressed in similar colours . The cold open ends with Amy telling her younger self " Okay kid , this is where it gets complicated " after she has been revealed in the Pandorica . Moffat , after viewing the rushes , ordered the sequence to be reshot as Gillan had said " really complicated " , which conveyed a different meaning . As they had run out of time filming in the museum , all of the shots looking into the Pandorica were filmed three weeks later in the Pandorica chamber set .
During the scene in which the Doctor and Rory are talking after Rory has let him out of the Pandorica , one of the stone Daleks was originally supposed to move , operated by Haynes himself . However , the scene was cut from the final episode . A stunt performer for Smith performed the sequence in which a future version of the Doctor who had been shot by a Dalek fell down the museum stairs ; he did the stunt three times before Haynes captured the angles and shots he wanted . On the DVD commentary , Haynes stated that the shot in the episode is mostly the first take . River 's costume in the episode was intended to resemble both the costumes of Princess Leia and Han Solo in the Star Wars films , so she appeared like a " female Han Solo " .
Originally there was a scene after the four had been reuinited in the museum where Amy had a " meltdown " and Rory assured her it was okay ; this was cut due to pacing issues , which pleased Darvill as he disliked his performance in the scene . Gillan stated that the episode was the " most difficult " for her , as it was " a big climax for Amy and her story that 's been building through the series ... it just required a lot of kind of concentration and emotion . " In August 2011 she stated that the Doctor and Amy 's farewell was the most emotional scene for her to film . The scene in which the Doctor gives a final speech to young Amelia was not filmed with Smith and Blackwood on the same set . Smith 's dialogue was shot first in the bedroom set , while the corner with the bed was recreated and filmed with Blackwood as a pick @-@ up . Blackwood fell asleep during filming . Amy and Rory 's wedding reception was filmed at Miskin Manor . Gillan found wearing the dress strange , while Darvill felt as if he was gate @-@ crashing someone else 's wedding , as he did not know any of the extras there . Haynes wanted to first show the revelation that the TARDIS would appear at the reception in a small way with minor changes such as the glasses tinkling and chandelier shaking , and build it up from there . Moffat thought that Amy would want a big wedding with a lot of dancing . In the script it was written that the Doctor was a " terrible dancer " and danced like a " drunk giraffe " , and Smith additionally came up with his own routine .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Big Bang " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 26 June 2010 . The extended 55 minute episode lasted from 6 : 05 p.m. to 7 : 00 . Possibly due to the early start time , overnight ratings showed that the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 09 million viewers , with 4 @.@ 64 million on BBC One and 445 @,@ 000 on a simulcast on BBC HD . Final consolidated ratings calculated by BARB reported that the episode had been watched by a total of 6 @.@ 696 million viewers , with 6 @.@ 118 million on BBC One and 578 @,@ 000 on BBC HD . The episode also received an Appreciation Index of 89 , the highest of the series and the four main channels the day it was broadcast .
A Region 2 DVD and Blu @-@ ray containing this episode together with " Vincent and the Doctor " , " The Lodger " and " The Pandorica Opens " was released on 6 September 2010 . It was then re @-@ released as part of the complete series five DVD on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Big Bang " met with mostly positive reviews from critics . Richard Edwards of SFX gave the episode five out of five stars and wrote " Steven Moffat pulls off the remarkable feat of making it feel like the logical denouement of last week 's outing . " While he noted that the " end of the world " scenario was very common , he said that it had never " been quite so pleasingly complex " and that " even if there are several plot holes , it 's difficult to get too worried about them when the story packs such a strong emotional wallop " . Den of Geek 's Simon Brew also gave the episode a positive review , writing " if you were awaiting a simple , easy @-@ to @-@ explain blockbuster of a Doctor Who series finale , you simply didn 't get it here . Instead , if you were looking for something really very ambitious , often quite confusing , yet ultimately far more satisfying , then ' The Big Bang ' absolutely hit the mark . "
IGN 's Matt Wales gave the episode a 10 out of 10 rating of " Masterful " , describing it as " wonderfully wide @-@ eyed , genuinely magical adventure " and adding that it " ended the series on an unquestionable high " . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave " The Big Bang " a B + , describing it as not " wholly successful ... the climactic action is a bit too rushed and the epilogue too relaxed " . While it was " still beyond @-@ statisfactory and filled with great moments " , he thought it felt " like a letdown after last week 's superb ' Pandorica Opens ' " . Zap2it 's Sam McPherson gave it an A and described it as " a great conclusion to a great season " and while " the entire universe @-@ rescue plot was a little boring ... the characters made the episode one of the best ever " . However , he did wish that it kept more of the darker tone from " The Pandorica Opens " , labelling " The Big Bang " as " a bit of a tonal letdown " .
Dan Martin of The Guardian wrote that the " finale was brilliant – a classic modern fairytale unfolding before our eyes " . Gavin Fuller , writing for The Daily Telegraph , summarised the episode as " interesting and enjoyable , but not quite the spectacular conclusion you might hope for . " He particularly praised Matt Smith 's portrayal of the Doctor in the scenes of his sacrifice and rewinding of his timeline , and also described the presentation of the universe collapsing as " effective " . However , Fuller had some criticisms of the plot , seeing it as potentially confusing . He also expressed disappointment with the " easy " solutions to some of the problems facing the Doctor in this episode . Fuller also wrote that the episode 's solutions were " rather paradoxical in nature [ since the Doctor ] only escapes as Rory lets him out once given the means to do so by the Doctor travelling back in time once he 's escaped . " , though Martin in The Guardian excused this paradox due to the episode being set " in the eye of the storm as history collapses [ and so ] ... hardly working to the same rulebook " .
Along with " The Pandorica Opens " , " The Big Bang " was awarded the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Short Form ) , the fifth time Doctor Who has won the award , and the fourth time a Steven Moffat episode has won . In February 2013 , Moffat stated that " The Big Bang " was his personal favourite among the Doctor Who episodes he wrote . " I thought it was just a great , fun , funny , witty episode . I was proud of that . "
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= Jerry Fodor =
Jerry Alan Fodor ( / ˈfoʊdər / ; born 1935 ) is an American philosopher and cognitive scientist . He holds the position of State of New Jersey Professor of Philosophy , Emeritus , at Rutgers University and is the author of many works in the fields of philosophy of mind and cognitive science , in which he has laid the groundwork for the modularity of mind and the language of thought hypotheses , among other ideas . He is known for his provocative and sometimes polemical style of argumentation and as " one of the principal philosophers of mind of the late twentieth and early twenty @-@ first century . In addition to having exerted an enormous influence on virtually every portion of the philosophy of mind literature since 1960 , Fodor ’ s work has had a significant impact on the development of the cognitive sciences . "
Fodor argues that mental states , such as beliefs and desires , are relations between individuals and mental representations . He maintains that these representations can only be correctly explained in terms of a language of thought ( LOT ) in the mind . Furthermore , this language of thought itself is an actually existing thing that is codified in the brain and not just a useful explanatory tool . Fodor adheres to a species of functionalism , maintaining that thinking and other mental processes consist primarily of computations operating on the syntax of the representations that make up the language of thought .
For Fodor , significant parts of the mind , such as perceptual and linguistic processes , are structured in terms of modules , or " organs " , which he defines by their causal and functional roles . These modules are relatively independent of each other and of the " central processing " part of the mind , which has a more global and less " domain specific " character . Fodor suggests that the character of these modules permits the possibility of causal relations with external objects . This , in turn , makes it possible for mental states to have contents that are about things in the world . The central processing part , on the other hand , takes care of the logical relations between the various contents and inputs and outputs .
Although Fodor originally rejected the idea that mental states must have a causal , externally determined aspect , he has in recent years devoted much of his writing and study to the philosophy of language because of this problem of the meaning and reference of mental contents . His contributions in this area include the so @-@ called asymmetric causal theory of reference and his many arguments against semantic holism . Fodor strongly opposes reductive accounts of the mind . He argues that mental states are multiply realizable and that there is a hierarchy of explanatory levels in science such that the generalizations and laws of a higher @-@ level theory of psychology or linguistics , for example , cannot be captured by the low @-@ level explanations of the behavior of neurons and synapses . He has also emerged as a prominent critic of what he characterizes as the ill @-@ grounded Darwinian and neo @-@ Darwinian theory of natural selection .
= = Biography = =
Jerry Fodor was born in New York City in 1935 , of Jewish descent . He received his A.B. degree ( summa cum laude ) from Columbia University in 1956 , where he studied with Sydney Morgenbesser , and a PhD in Philosophy from Princeton University in 1960 , under the direction of Hilary Putnam . From 1959 to 1986 Fodor was on the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge , Massachusetts . From 1986 to 1988 he was a full professor at the City University of New York ( CUNY ) . Since 1988 he has been State of New Jersey Professor of Philosophy and Cognitive Science at Rutgers University in New Jersey . Besides his interest in philosophy , Fodor passionately follows opera and regularly writes popular columns for the London Review of Books on that and other topics .
Philosopher Colin McGinn , who taught with Fodor at Rutgers , described him in these words :
" Fodor ( who is now a close friend ) is a gentle man inside a burly body , and prone to an even burlier style of arguing . He is shy and voluble at the same time ... a formidable polemicist burdened with a sensitive soul .... Disagreeing with Jerry on a philosophical issue , especially one dear to his heart can be a chastening experience .... His quickness of mind , inventiveness , and sharp wit are not to be tangled with before your first cup of coffee in the morning . Adding Jerry Fodor to the faculty at Rutgers [ University ] instantly put it on the map , Fodor being by common consent the leading philosopher of mind in the world today . I had met him in England in the seventies and ... found him to be the genuine article , intellectually speaking ( though we do not always see eye to eye ) . "
Fodor is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . He has received numerous awards and honors : New York State Regent 's Fellowship , Woodrow Wilson Fellowship ( Princeton University ) , Chancellor Greene Fellow ( Princeton University ) , Fulbright Fellowship ( Oxford University ) , Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences , and a Guggenheim Fellowship . He won the first Jean Nicod Prize for philosophy of mind and cognitive philosophy in 1993 . His lecture series for the Prize , later published as a book by MIT Press in 1995 , was titled The Elm and the Expert : Mentalese and Its Semantics . In 1996 – 1997 , Fodor delivered the prestigious John Locke Lectures at the University of Oxford , titled Concepts : Where Cognitive Science Went Wrong , which went on to become his 1998 Oxford University Press book of the same name . He has also delivered the Patrick Romanell Lecture on Philosophical Naturalism ( 2004 ) and the Royce Lecture on Philosophy of Mind ( 2002 ) to the American Philosophical Association , of whose Eastern Division he has served as Vice President ( 2004 – 2005 ) and President ( 2005 – 2006 ) . In 2005 , he won the Mind & Brain Prize .
He lives in New York with his wife , the linguist Janet Dean Fodor , and has two grown children .
= = Fodor and the nature of mental states = =
In his article " Propositional Attitudes " ( 1978 ) , Fodor introduced the idea that mental states are relations between individuals and mental representations . Despite the changes in many of his positions over the years , the idea that intentional attitudes are relational has remained unchanged from its original formulation up to the present time .
In that article , he attempted to show how mental representations , specifically sentences in the language of thought , are necessary to explain this relational nature of mental states . Fodor considers two alternative hypotheses . The first completely denies the relational character of mental states and the second considers mental states as two @-@ place relations . The latter position can be further subdivided into the Carnapian view that such relations are between individuals and sentences of natural languages and the Fregean view that they are between individuals and the propositions expressed by such sentences . Fodor 's own position , instead , is that to properly account for the nature of intentional attitudes , it is necessary to employ a three @-@ place relation between individuals , representations and propositional contents .
Considering mental states as three @-@ place relations in this way , representative realism makes it possible to hold together all of the elements necessary to the solution of this problem . Further , mental representations are not only the objects of beliefs and desires , but are also the domain over which mental processes operate . They can be considered the ideal link between the syntactic notion of mental content and the computational notion of functional architecture . These notions are , according to Fodor , our best explanation of mental processes .
= = The functional architecture of the mind = =
Following in the path paved by linguist Noam Chomsky , Fodor developed a strong commitment to the idea of psychological nativism . Nativism postulates the innateness of many cognitive functions and concepts . For Fodor , this position emerges naturally out of his criticism of behaviourism and associationism . These criticisms also led him to the formulation of his hypothesis of the modularity of the mind .
Historically , questions about mental architecture have been divided into two contrasting theories about the nature of the faculties . The first can be described as a " horizontal " view because it sees mental processes as interactions between faculties which are not domain specific . For example , a judgment remains a judgment whether it is judgment about a perceptual experience or a judgment about the understanding of language . The second can be described as a " vertical " view because it claims that our mental faculties are domain specific , genetically determined , associated with distinct neurological structures , and so on .
The vertical vision can be traced back to the 19th century movement called phrenology and its founder Franz Joseph Gall . Gall claimed that mental faculties could be associated with specific physical areas of the brain . Hence , someone 's level of intelligence , for example , could be literally " read off " from the size of a particular bump on his posterior parietal lobe . This simplistic view of modularity has been disproved over the course of the last century .
Fodor revived the idea of modularity , without the notion of precise physical localizability , in the 1980s , and became one of the most vocal proponents of it with the 1983 publication of his monograph Modularity of Mind . Two properties of modularity in particular , informational encapsulation and domain specificity , make it possible to tie together questions of functional architecture with those of mental content . The ability to elaborate information independently from the background beliefs of individuals that these two properties allow Fodor to give an atomistic and causal account of the notion of mental content . The main idea , in other words , is that the properties of the contents of mental states can depend , rather than exclusively on the internal relations of the system of which they are a part , also on their causal relations with the external world .
Fodor 's notions of mental modularity , informational encapsulation and domain specificity have been taken up and expanded , much to Fodor 's chagrin , by cognitive scientists such as Zenon Pylyshyn and evolutionary psychologists such as Steven Pinker and Henry Plotkin , among many others . But Fodor complains that Pinker , Plotkin and other members of what he sarcastically calls " the New Synthesis " have taken modularity and similar ideas way too far . He insists that the mind is not " massively modular " and that , contrary to what these researchers would have us believe , the mind is still a very long way from having been explained by the computational , or any other , model .
= = Intentional realism = =
In A Theory of Content and Other Essays ( 1990 ) , Fodor takes up another of his central notions : the question of the reality of mental representations . Fodor needs to justify representational realism to justify the idea that the contents of mental states are expressed in symbolic structures such as those of the LOT .
= = = Fodor 's criticism of Dennett = = =
Fodor starts with some criticisms of so @-@ called standard realism . This view is characterized , according to Fodor , by two distinct assertions . One of these regards the internal structure of mental states and asserts that such states are non @-@ relational . The other concerns the semantic theory of mental content and asserts that there is an isomorphism between the causal roles of such contents and the inferential web of beliefs . Among modern philosophers of mind , the majority view seems to be that the first of these two assertions is false , but that the second is true . Fodor departs from this view in accepting the truth of the first thesis but rejecting strongly the truth of the second .
In particular , Fodor criticizes the instrumentalism of Daniel Dennett . Dennett maintains that it is possible to be realist with regard to intentional states without having to commit oneself to the reality of mental representations . Now , according to Fodor , if one remains at this level of analysis , then there is no possibility of explaining why the intentional strategy works :
" There is ... a standard objection to instrumentalism ... : it is difficult to explain why the psychology of beliefs / desires works so well , if the psychology of beliefs / desires is , in fact , false .... As Putnam , Boyd and others have emphasized , from the predictive successes of a theory to the truth of that theory there is surely a presumed inference ; and this is even more likely when ... we are dealing with the only theory in play which is predictively crowned with success . It is not obvious ... why such a presumption should not militate in favour of a realist conception ... of the interpretations of beliefs / desires . "
= = = Productivity , systematicity and thought = = =
Fodor also has positive arguments in favour of the reality of mental representations in terms of the LOT . He maintains that if language is the expression of thoughts and language is systematic , then thoughts must also be systematic . Fodor draws on the work of Noam Chomsky to both model his theory of the mind and to refute alternative architectures such as connectionism . Systematicity in natural languages was explained by Chomsky in terms of two more basic concepts : productivity and compositionality .
Productivity refers to a representational system 's unbounded ability to generate new representations from a given set of symbols . " John " , " loves " , and " Mary " allow for the construction of the sentences " John loves Mary " and " Mary loves John " . Fodor 's language of thought theorizes that representations are decomposable into constituent parts , and these decomposed representations are built into new strings .
More important than productivity is systematicity since it does not rely on questionable idealizations about human cognition . The argument states that a cognizer is able to understand some sentence in virtue of understanding another . For example , no one who understands " John loves Mary " is unable to understand " Mary loves John " , and no one who understands " P and Q " is unable to understand " P " . Systematicity itself is rarely challenged as a property of natural languages and logics , but some challenge that thought is systematic in the same way languages are . Still others from the connectionist tradition have tried to build non @-@ classical networks that can account for the apparent systematicity of language .
The fact that systematicity and productivity depend on the compositional structure of language means that language has a combinatorial semantics . If thought also has such a combinatorial semantics , then there must be a language of thought .
The second argument that Fodor provides in favour of representational realism involves the processes of thought . This argument touches on the relation between the representational theory of mind and models of its architecture . If the sentences of Mentalese require unique processes of elaboration then they require a computational mechanism of a certain type . The syntactic notion of mental representations goes hand in hand with the idea that mental processes are calculations which act only on the form of the symbols which they elaborate . And this is the computational theory of the mind . Consequently , the defence of a model of architecture based on classic artificial intelligence passes inevitably through a defence of the reality of mental representations .
For Fodor , this formal notion of thought processes also has the advantage of highlighting the parallels between the causal role of symbols and the contents which they express . In his view , syntax plays the role of mediation between the causal role of the symbols and their contents . The semantic relations between symbols can be " imitated " by their syntactic relations . The inferential relations which connect the contents of two symbols can be imitated by the formal syntax rules which regulate the derivation of one symbol from another .
= = The nature of content = =
From the beginning of the 1980s , Fodor adhered to a causal notion of mental content and of meaning . This idea of content contrasts sharply with the inferential role semantics to which he subscribed earlier in his career . As of 2010 Fodor criticizes inferential role semantics ( IRS ) because its commitment to an extreme form of holism excludes the possibility of a true naturalization of the mental . But naturalization must include an explanation of content in atomistic and causal terms .
= = = Anti @-@ holism = = =
Fodor has made many and varied criticisms of holism . He identifies the central problem with all the different notions of holism as the idea that the determining factor in semantic evaluation is the notion of an " epistemic bond " . Briefly , P is an epistemic bond of Q if the meaning of P is considered by someone to be relevant for the determination of the meaning of Q. Meaning holism strongly depends on this notion . The identity of the content of a mental state , under holism , can only be determined by the totality of its epistemic bonds . And this makes the realism of mental states an impossibility :
" If people differ in an absolutely general way in their estimations of epistemic relevance , and if we follow the holism of meaning and individuate intentional states by way of the totality of their epistemic bonds , the consequence will be that two people ( or , for that matter , two temporal sections of the same person ) will never be in the same intentional state . Therefore , two people can never be subsumed under the same intentional generalizations . And , therefore , intentional generalization can never be successful . And , therefore again , there is no hope for an intentional psychology . "
= = = The asymmetric causal theory = = =
Having criticized the idea that semantic evaluation concerns only the internal relations between the units of a symbolic system , Fodor can adopt an externalist position with respect to mental content and meaning . For Fodor , in recent years , the problem of naturalization of the mental is tied to the possibility of giving " the sufficient conditions for which a piece of the world is relative to ( expresses , represents , is true of ) another piece " in non @-@ intentional and non @-@ semantic terms . If this goal is to be achieved within a representational theory of the mind , then the challenge is to devise a causal theory which can establish the interpretation of the primitive non @-@ logical symbols of the LOT . Fodor 's initial proposal is that what determines that the symbol for " water " in Mentalese expresses the property H2O is that the occurrences of that symbol are in certain causal relations with water . The intuitive version of this causal theory is what Fodor calls the " Crude Causal Theory . " According to this theory , the occurrences of symbols express the properties which are the causes of their occurrence . The term " horse " , for example , says of a horse that it is a horse . In order to do this , it is necessary and sufficient that certain properties of an occurrence of the symbol " horse " be in a law @-@ like relation with certain properties which determine that something is an occurrence of horse .
The main problem with this theory is that of erroneous representations . There are two unavoidable problems with the idea that " a symbol expresses a property if it is ... necessary that all and only the presences of such a property cause the occurrences . " The first is that not all horses cause occurrences of horse . The second is that not only horses cause occurrences of horse . Sometimes the A ( horses ) are caused by A ( horses ) , but at other times — when , for example , because of the distance or conditions of low visibility , one has confused a cow for a horse — the A ( horses ) are caused by B ( cows ) . In this case the symbol A doesn ’ t express just the property A , but the disjunction of properties A or B. The crude causal theory is therefore incapable of distinguishing the case in which the content of a symbol is disjunctive from the case in which it isn ’ t . This gives rise to what Fodor calls the " problem of disjunction " .
Fodor responds to this problem with what he defines as " a slightly less crude causal theory " . According to this approach , it is necessary to break the symmetry at the base of the crude causal theory . Fodor must find some criterion for distinguishing the occurrences of A caused by As ( true ) from those caused by Bs ( false ) . The point of departure , according to Fodor , is that while the false cases are ontologically dependent on the true cases , the reverse is not true . There is an asymmetry of dependence , in other words , between the true contents ( A |
= A ) and the false ones ( A =
A or B ) . The first can subsist independently of the second , but the second can occur only because of the existence of the first :
From the point of view of semantics , errors must be accidents : if in the extension of " horse " there are no cows , then it cannot be required for the meaning of " horse " that cows be called horses . On the other hand , if " horse " did not mean that which it means , and if it were an error for horses , it would never be possible for a cow to be called " horse . " Putting the two things together , it can be seen that the possibility of falsely saying " this is a horse " presupposes the existence of a semantic basis for saying it truly , but not vice versa . If we put this in terms of the crude causal theory , the fact that cows cause one to say " horse " depends on the fact that horses cause one to say " horse " ; but the fact that horses cause one to say " horse " does not depend on the fact that cows cause one to say " horse " ... "
= = Functionalism = =
During the 1960s , various philosophers such as Donald Davidson , Hilary Putnam , and Fodor tried to resolve the puzzle of developing a way to preserve the explanatory efficacy of mental causation and so @-@ called " folk psychology " while adhering to a materialist vision of the world which did not violate the " generality of physics " . Their proposal was , first of all , to reject the then @-@ dominant theories in philosophy of mind : behaviorism and the type identity theory . The problem with logical behaviorism was that it failed to account for causation between mental states and such causation seems to be essential to psychological explanation , especially if one considers that behavior is not an effect of a single mental event / cause but is rather the effect of a chain of mental events / causes . The type @-@ identity theory , on the other hand , failed to explain the fact that radically different physical systems can find themselves in the identical mental state . Besides being deeply anthropocentric ( why should humans be the only thinking organisms in the universe ? ) , the identity @-@ type theory also failed to deal with accumulating evidence in the neurosciences that every single human brain is different from all the others . Hence , the impossibility of referring to common mental states in different physical systems manifests itself not only between different species but also between organisms of the same species .
One can solve these problems , according to Fodor , with functionalism , a hypothesis which was designed to overcome the failings of both dualism and reductionism . What is important is the function of a mental state regardless of the physical substrate which implements it . The foundation for this view lies in the principle of the multiple realizability of the mental . Under this view , for example , I and a computer can both instantiate ( " realize " ) the same functional state though we are made of completely different material stuff ( see graphic at right ) . On this basis functionalism can be classified as a form of token materialism .
= = Evolution = =
Fodor has co @-@ written a book with the biolinguist Massimo Piattelli @-@ Palmarini called What Darwin Got Wrong ( 2010 ) which describes neo @-@ Darwinists as being " distressingly uncritical " and says of Darwin 's theory of evolution that " it overestimates the contribution the environment makes in shaping the phenotype of a species and correspondingly underestimates the effects of endogenous variables . " Evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne describes this book as " a profoundly misguided critique of natural selection " and " as biologically uninformed as it is strident . " Moral philosopher and anti @-@ scientism author Mary Midgley praises What Darwin Got Wrong as " an overdue and valuable onslaught on neo @-@ Darwinist simplicities " . The book also received positive review by mathematician and Intelligent Design Theorist William Dembski .
= = Criticism = =
A wide variety of philosophers of diverse orientations have challenged many of Fodor 's ideas . For example , the language of thought hypothesis has been accused of either falling prey to an infinite regress or of being superfluous . Specifically , Simon Blackburn suggested in an article in 1984 that since Fodor explains the learning of natural languages as a process of formation and confirmation of hypotheses in the LOT , this leaves him open to the question of why the LOT itself should not be considered as just such a language which requires yet another and more fundamental representational substrate in which to form and confirm hypotheses so that the LOT itself can be learned . If natural language learning requires some representational substrate ( the LOT ) in order for it to be learned , why shouldn 't the same be said for the LOT itself and then for the representational substrate of this representational substrate and so on , ad infinitum ? On the other hand , if such a representational substrate is not required for the LOT , then why should it be required for the learning of natural languages ? In this case , the LOT would be superfluous . Fodor , in response , argues that the LOT is unique in that it does not have to be learned via an antecedent language because it is innate .
In 1981 Daniel Dennett had formulated another argument against the LOT . Dennett suggested that it would seem , on the basis of the evidence of our behavior toward computers but also with regard to some of our own unconscious behavior , that explicit representation is not necessary for the explanation of propositional attitudes . During a game of chess with a computer program , we often attribute such attitudes to the computer , saying such things as " It thinks that the queen should be moved to the left " . We attribute propositional attitudes to the computer and this helps us to explain and predict its behavior in various contexts . Yet no one would suggest that the computer is actually thinking or believing somewhere inside its circuits the equivalent of the propositional attitude " I believe I can kick this guy 's butt " in Mentalese . The same is obviously true , suggests Dennett , of many of our everyday automatic behaviors such as " desiring to breathe clear air " in a stuffy environment .
Some linguists and philosophers of language have criticized Fodor 's self @-@ proclaimed " extreme " concept nativism . Kent Bach , for example , takes Fodor to task for his criticisms of lexical semantics and polysemy . Fodor claims that there is no lexical structure to such verbs as " keep " , " get " , " make " and " put " . He suggests that , alternatively , " keep " simply expresses the concept KEEP ( Fodor capitalizes concepts to distinguish them from properties , names or other such entities ) . If there is a straightforward one @-@ to @-@ one mapping between individual words and concepts , " keep your clothes on " , " keep your receipt " and " keep washing your hands " will all share the same concept of KEEP under Fodor 's theory . This concept presumably locks on to the unique external property of keeping . But , if this is true , then RETAIN must pick out a different property in RETAIN YOUR RECEIPT , since one can 't retain one 's clothes on or retain washing one 's hands . Fodor 's theory also has a problem explaining how the concept FAST contributes , differently , to the contents of FAST CAR , FAST DRIVER , FAST TRACK , and FAST TIME . Whether or not the differing interpretations of " fast " in these sentences are specified in the semantics of English , or are the result of pragmatic inference , is a matter of debate . Fodor 's own response to this kind of criticism is expressed bluntly in Concepts : " People sometimes used to say that exist must be ambiguous because look at the difference between ' chairs exist ' and ' numbers exist ' . A familiar reply goes : the difference between the existence of chairs and the existence of numbers seems , on reflection , strikingly like the difference between numbers and chairs . Since you have the latter to explain the former , you don 't also need ' exist ' to be polysemic . "
Some critics find it difficult to accept Fodor 's insistence that a large , perhaps implausible , number of concepts are primitive and undefinable . For example , Fodor considers such concepts as EFFECT , ISLAND , TRAPEZOID , and WEEK to be all primitive , innate and unanalyzable because they all fall into the category of what he calls " lexical concepts " ( those for which our language has a single word ) . Against this view , Bach argues that the concept VIXEN is almost certainly composed out of the concepts FEMALE and FOX , BACHELOR out of SINGLE and MALE , and so on .
= = Books = =
What Darwin Got Wrong , with Massimo Piattelli @-@ Palmarini , Farrar , Straus and Giroux , 2010 , ISBN 0 @-@ 374 @-@ 28879 @-@ 8 .
LOT 2 : The Language of Thought Revisited , Oxford University Press , 2008 , ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 954877 @-@ 3 .
Hume Variations , Oxford University Press , 2003 , ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 928733 @-@ 3 .
The Compositionality Papers , with Ernie Lepore , Oxford University Press , 2002 , ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 925216 @-@ 5 .
The Mind Doesn 't Work That Way : The Scope and Limits of Computational Psychology , MIT Press , 2000 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 56146 @-@ 8 .
In Critical Condition , MIT Press , 1998 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 56128 @-@ X.
Concepts : Where Cognitive Science Went Wrong , The 1996 John Locke Lectures , Oxford University Press , 1998 , ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 823636 @-@ 0 .
The Elm and the Expert : Mentalese and Its Semantics , The 1993 Jean Nicod Lectures , MIT Press , 1994 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 56093 @-@ 3 .
Holism : A Consumer Update , with Ernie Lepore ( eds . ) , Grazer Philosophische Studien , Vol 46 . Rodopi , Amsterdam , 1993 , ISBN 90 @-@ 5183 @-@ 713 @-@ 5 .
Holism : A Shopper 's Guide , with Ernie Lepore ( eds . ) , Blackwell , 1992 , ISBN 0 @-@ 631 @-@ 18193 @-@ 8 .
A Theory of Content and Other Essays , MIT Press , 1990 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 56069 @-@ 0 .
Psychosemantics : The Problem of Meaning in the Philosophy of Mind , MIT Press , 1987 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 56052 @-@ 6 .
The Modularity of Mind : An Essay on Faculty Psychology , MIT Press , 1983 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 56025 @-@ 9 .
Representations : Philosophical Essays on the Foundations of Cognitive Science , Harvard Press ( UK ) and MIT Press ( US ) , 1979 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 56027 @-@ 5 .
The Language of Thought , Harvard University Press , 1975 , ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 51030 @-@ 5 .
The Psychology of Language , with T. Bever and M. Garrett , McGraw Hill , 1974 , ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 30663 @-@ 5 .
Psychological Explanation , Random House , 1968 , ISBN 0 @-@ 07 @-@ 021412 @-@ 3 .
The Structure of Language , with Jerrold Katz ( eds . ) , Prentice Hall , 1964 , ISBN 0 @-@ 13 @-@ 854703 @-@ 3 .
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= Celebration ( Madonna song ) =
Celebration is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Madonna for her third greatest hits album of the same name ( 2009 ) . It was written and produced by Madonna , Paul Oakenfold and Ian Green , with additional writing from Ciaran Gribbin . The song was released digitally on July 31 , 2009 by Warner Bros. Records . Madonna collaborated with Oakenfold to develop a number of songs . Amongst all the songs developed by them , two were chosen for the greatest hits album with " Celebration " being released as the first single from it . It is a dance @-@ oriented song with influences of Madonna 's singles from the 1980s and 1990s , and consisting of a speak @-@ sing format bridge . The lyrics of the song invites one to come and join a party .
" Celebration " received mixed reviews from contemporary critics . It peaked at number one in Bulgaria , Finland , Israel , Italy , Slovakia and Sweden , while reaching the top five in other nations , including Canada , France , Germany , Japan and the United Kingdom where it debuted at number three on the UK Singles Chart . It became Madonna 's 55th entry on the US Billboard Hot 100 , where it debuted and peaked at number 71 , and her 40th number @-@ one song on the dance chart .
The music video used the Benny Benassi remix of the song . It portrayed Madonna and her tour dancers solo dancing to the song . Cameo appearances were made by model Jesus Luz and in an alternative video by her daughter Lourdes . At the 2010 Grammy Awards , the song received a nomination in the Best Dance Recording category . The song was used as a closing for The MDNA Tour in which Madonna energetically danced in a glittery outfit , and at one point put on a pair of headphones and pantomimed scratching records with colored cubes falling in the backdrop .
= = Background = =
In March 2009 , Madonna 's representative Liz Rosenberg confirmed that Madonna wrote three new tracks for the compilation album , with Paul Oakenfold being confirmed as producer for two of the new songs . Attitude magazine reported in an interview with Oakenfold that the tracks he produced with Madonna are called " Broken ( I 'm Sorry ) " and " Celebrate " . He stated that the new music is " lyrically classic Madonna with an edgy modern sound . " The song " Celebrate " , later renamed as " Celebration " , has backing music composed by Ciaran Gribbin , Ian Green and Paul Oakenfold , with lyrics and vocal melody composed by Madonna .
According to Gribbin , Madonna approached Oakenfold , asking him what he was working on and whether he would be interested in sending her some material for which she could write lyrics . Oakenfold , along with Green and Gribbin had been working on new tracks for Oakenfold 's upcoming album . They sent fifteen of those tracks to Madonna . She chose " Broken " and " Celebration " from them . Then Oakenfold , Gribbin and Green developed the chord structure , arranged the backing track and added guitars , keyboards and drums . Madonna then wrote the lyrics and melody based on this backing track .
Warner Bros. Records announced " Celebration " as the lead single from the album . It was released to radio stations on August 3 , 2009 , with remixes having been released to dance clubs on July 24 , 2009 . A world premiere of the Paul Oakenfold 12 " Dub version was played on the Pete Tong BBC Radio 1 show on July 24 , 2009 .
= = Composition = =
" Celebration " has been described as a sleek dance @-@ oriented track with influences of previous dance singles by Madonna from the early 90s such as , " Vogue " ( 1990 ) and " Deeper and Deeper " ( 1992 ) . It consists of a pumping , house style music in it . Paul Oakenfold described the composition as " lyrically classic Madonna with an edgy modern sound . " Influences of Europop are found in the song , but not to the extent of previous single , " Hung Up " ( 2005 ) . According to a writer from the Los Angeles Times , the song has a highly energetic synth @-@ pop groove while referencing 80s Madonna songs . The bridge is in a speak @-@ sing format , where Madonna 's voice , consisting of a little edge , declares that " I [ didn 't ] recognize you with your clothes on . "
" Celebration " is set in the time signature of common time with a dance beat tempo of 126 beats per minute . It is set in the key of B minor with Madonna 's voice spanning from F ♯ 3 to B4 . The song has a basic sequence of Em – F ♯ m – Bm – Bm as its chord progression . The lyrics call the listener to join in a party and celebrate . They are written in the form of an invitation , which asks one to come and join " the dance of life . " Stephen M. Deusner of Pitchfork Media explained that the song is " personality @-@ driven pop " , meaning that the lyrics and the melody becomes immaterial to the fact that Madonna is singing the song .
= = Critical reception = =
Todd Martens from the Los Angeles Times stated that " Celebration " works as a throwaway , midsummer dance pop number . However , he felt that the song had modest goals , " at least by Madonna 's standards . Even when it gets a bit risque [ ... ] silliness rules the day . She invites us ' to the dance of life , ' and coasts over the chorus . " He went on to add that the song " is an effective look back , a gliding , reassuring number that she [ Madonna ] hasn 't forgotten her beginning . But rather than instill a sense of nostalgia , everything feels a bit obligatory . The sound of an artist , hopefully , ready for the next chapter . " Michael Slezak from Entertainment Weekly called the song " unapologetically dance @-@ y " but felt " disappointed that lyrically , Madonna seems to be revisiting the ' Party ! Get on the floor ! ' theme for the umpteenth time without even the slightest bit of linguistic flair . " Chris Williams from Billboard said that " Madonna 's latest single won 't start any new trends , but it does return the singer to her dance @-@ floor roots . " It further added that " ' Celebration ' [ is ] a score for Madonna 's retro @-@ futuristic fan base and a nice bookend to her collection of chart glories . "
James Montogomery from MTV commented : " [ The song is ] all pulsing sirens , wobbly bass and four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor beat , with an expansive electro chorus that sounds like a truckload of Nintendo Entertainment Systems exploding in unison ( only sexier ) . " Frase McAlpine from BBC gave the song three out five stars and said : " I can 't be the only person in the world who is slightly disappointed that this song isn 't a jaunty ' 80 syn @-@ disco rave up , in which Madge skips around in a big pink wig , like she used to in the olden days . " He went on to add that " Celebration " is a decent dance track for Madonna to play on her tours . Stephen M. Deusner of Pitchfork Media complimented the song , calling it " personality @-@ driven pop " in which Madonna has never sounded more convincing . Deusner added that the track sounds like " it 's conjuring several of Madonna 's younger selves " in its modest goal to just make people move . Sarah Crompton from The Daily Telegraph said that the song is infinitely forgettable . Popjustice named the song one of the best 100 singles of 2009 . Louis Virtel of The Backlot included the song at number sixty @-@ five on his list of " The 100 Greatest Madonna Songs , " referring to the track as a " rollicking dance jam " that is a " perfect companion piece to [ Madonna 's ] other testament to celebration , Holiday . ” At the 52nd Grammy Awards , the song received a nomination in the Best Dance Recording category .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Celebration " debuted and peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 71 on the issue dated August 22 , 2009 . The song became Madonna 's 55th entry on the chart . It debuted on the Hot Dance Club Songs and Hot Dance Airplay charts at numbers 29 and seven , respectively . On the issue of September 26 , 2009 , " Celebration " became Madonna 's 40th number @-@ one song on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , the most for an artist . The song also debuted on the Adult Pop Songs chart at number 36 . " Celebration " has sold 192 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the United States as of April 2010 . In Canada , the song debuted at number 56 on the Canadian Hot 100 and reached a peak of five the next week , becoming the week 's airplay gainer .
It also debuted at 48 in Spain and made a top @-@ five debut at three in Finland . The next week , the song reached the top of the chart in Finland , where it remained for six non @-@ consecutive weeks , and was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . Other debuts were in Ireland at 33 , and 31 in Sweden where it jumped to number @-@ one the next week . On August 30 , 2009 , " Celebration " debuted at number 40 on the Australian Singles Chart . The song also debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number three on the issue dated September 20 , 2009 , becoming her 60th top ten single . It also became the first ever number one in the Scottish singles chart , staying at the top spot for 2 weeks there . In Italy , the song debuted at the top of the chart and was certified platinum by the Federation of the Italian Music Industry ( FIMI ) for shipment of 60 @,@ 000 copies of the single . The song peaked at number four on the Danish Singles Chart and was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies of the single .
= = Music video = =
On Madonna 's official website , it was reported that a music video was filmed in Milan , Italy , where " die @-@ hard fans " showed up on July 18 , 2009 for the filming of segments showcasing fans dancing and " being themselves . " A similar shoot took place later in Barcelona . The video was directed by Jonas Åkerlund , who worked with Madonna in her videos for " Ray of Light " , " Music " , " American Life " and " Jump " . The Guardian reported that Madonna 's daughter Lourdes appeared in the video . Madonna 's official website , announced the premiere of the video to be on September 1 , 2009 . It was released simultaneously on music channels worldwide , and on iTunes . The video was available for free download on iTunes until Thursday , when it then went up to purchase only . It was made as free download , so that buyers are made aware of the pre @-@ order details of the Celebration album .
The music video was filmed in Milan , Italy between the dates of the 2009 leg of her Sticky & Sweet Tour . The concept of the video is in similarity to the title of the song ; celebration of Madonna 's career . According to MTV , the video is a throwback to Madonna 's Erotica era and encompasses a dark music image . The Benny Benassi remix of the song is used in the video . It starts with Madonna asking the line " Haven 't I seen you somewhere before ? " . The music starts and the scenes cut between Madonna and her dancers start dancing to the music of the song . Madonna wears a crystal embossed , shouldered Balmain dress with knee @-@ high Christian Louboutin boots . While she is present in almost every frame of the camera , she does not perform choreographed dance moves . Her dance is mostly confined to casual maneuvers . The dancers on the other hand , perform choreographed moves as a solo act . As the song progresses , more dancers are shown and they ultimately reach a club . The DJ in the club is portrayed by model Jesus Luz . Madonna indulges in sensual poses with him and removes his clothes in an attempt to recognize him , as the line " I guess I don 't recognize you with your clothes on " is played . The two of them brush their lips together , and Madonna moves away to the dance floor again . Lourdes makes an appearance near the end of the video . She appears in an eighties styled , polka @-@ dotted leotard and pants , and does a back arch on the ground . Madonna is then shown on the ground on all fours , or dancing while grabbing her groin . Both Madonna 's and her dancer 's moves are edited to appear in fast forward . Hip hop styled dancing is showcased towards the end of the video . The end shot of the video portrays Madonna sliding down on the ground . Teaser trailers for the video , show Oakenfold dancing to the song , but his scenes are not included in the final version .
Daniel Kreps from Rolling Stone commented that " the Rock and Roll Hall of Famer [ Madonna ] prov [ es ] her dance moves are still razor @-@ sharp as she turns 51 . " James Montogomery from MTV complemented Madonna 's dance moves in the video , and said : " She is 51 , twice divorced , a mother of four and she is ( quite rightfully ) unashamed by any of this . Sexual politics , anyone ? " Olivia Smith of the New York Daily News commented that " Madge has her family – her daughter and her lover – at her latest party , in which she 's still at the hotblooded center of her life . " She also noted that the video exemplifies the fact that Madonna is an artist with a long musical past . However , the tone of the video explains that Madonna is ready to leave that past and move forward . According to Smith , although Madonna has toned down her appearance , " the 51 @-@ year @-@ old is still her pelvis @-@ swirling overtly sexual self in her new video . "
On September 17 , 2009 , an alternate edit of the music video ( " fan version " ) was released via Madonna 's MySpace . The video contains footage filmed in Barcelona , Spain and Milan , Italy and features fans , as well as cameo appearances by Madonna 's daughter Lourdes Leon , Paul Oakenfold , and the director himself .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Writer – Madonna , Paul Oakenfold , Ciaran Gribbin and Ian Green
Producer – Madonna and Paul Oakenfold
Additional productions – Ian Green
Background vocals – Ian Green
Record mixing – Demacio " Demo " Castellon for the Demolition Crew
Pro Tools – Ron Taylor
Assistant engineer – Nick Banns
Mastering – Chris Gehringer at Sterling Sound
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Utagawa Toyoharu =
Utagawa Toyoharu ( 歌川 豊春 , c . 1735 – 1814 ) was a Japanese artist in the ukiyo @-@ e genre , known as the founder of the Utagawa school and for his uki @-@ e pictures that incorporated Western @-@ style geometrical perspective to create a sense of depth .
Born in Toyooka in Tajima Province , Toyoharu first studied art in Kyoto , then in Edo ( modern Tokyo ) , where from 1768 he began to produce designs for ukiyo @-@ e woodblock prints . He soon became known for his uki @-@ e " floating pictures " of landscapes and famous sites , as well as copies of Western and Chinese perspective prints . Though his were not the first perspective prints in ukiyo @-@ e , they were the first to appear as full @-@ colour nishiki @-@ e , and they demonstrate a much greater mastery of perspective techniques than the works of his predecessors . Toyoharu was the first to make the landscape a subject of ukiyo @-@ e art , rather than just a background to figures and events . By the 1780s he had turned primarily to painting . The Utagawa school of art grew to dominate ukiyo @-@ e in the 19th century with artists such as Utamaro , Hiroshige , and Kuniyoshi .
= = Life and career = =
Utagawa Toyoharu was born c . 1735 in Toyooka in Tajima Province . He studied in Kyoto under Tsuruzawa Tangei of the Kanō school of painting . It may have been around 1763 that he moved to Edo ( modern Tokyo ) , where he studied under Toriyama Sekien . The Toyo ( 春 ) in the art name Toyoharu ( 豊春 ) is said to have come from Sekien 's personal name Toyofusa ( 豊房 ) . Some sources hold he also studied under Ishikawa Toyonobu and Nishimura Shigenaga . Other art names Toyoharu went under include Ichiryūsai ( 一竜斎 ) , Senryūsai ( 潜竜斎 ) , and Shōjirō ( 松爾楼 ) . Tradition holds that the name Utagawa derives from Udagawa @-@ chō , where Toyoharu lived in in the Shiba district in Edo . His common name was Tajimaya Shōjirō ( 但馬屋 庄次郎 ) , and he also used the personal names Masaki ( 昌樹 ) and Shin 'emon ( 新右衛門 ) .
Toyoharu 's work began to appear about 1768 . His earliest work includes woodblock prints in a refined , delicate style of beauties and actors . Soon he began to produce uki @-@ e " floating picture " perspective prints , a genre in which Toyoharu applied Western @-@ style one @-@ point perspective to create a realistic sense of depth . Most were of famous sites , including theatres , temples , and teahouses . Toyoharu 's were not the first uki @-@ e — Okumura Masanobu had made such works since the early 1740s , and claimed the genre 's origin for himself . Toyoharu 's were the first uki @-@ e in the full @-@ colour nishiki @-@ e genre that had developed in the 1760s . Several of his prints were based on imported prints from the West or China .
From the 1780s Toyoharu appears to have dedicated himself to painting , and also produced kabuki programs and billboards . He headed the painters involved in the restoration of Nikkō Tōshō @-@ gū in 1796 . He died in 1814 and was buried in Honkyōji Temple in Ikebukuro under the Buddhist posthumous name Utagawa @-@ in Toyoharu Nichiyō Shinji ( 歌川院豊春日要居士 ) .
Western influence on Toyoharu
= = Style = =
Toyoharu 's works have a gentle , calm , and unpretentious touch , and display the influence of ukiyo @-@ e masters such as Ishikawa Toyonobu and Suzuki Harunobu . Harunobu pioneered the full @-@ colour nishiki @-@ e print and was particularly popular and influential in the 1760s , when Toyoharu first began his career .
Toyoharu procuded a number of willowy , graceful bijin @-@ ga portraits of beauties in hashira @-@ e pillar prints . Only about fifteen examples of his bijin @-@ ga are known , almost all from his earliest period . One of the better @-@ known examples of Toyoharu 's work in this style is a four @-@ sheet set depicting the Chinese ideal of the Four Arts . Toyoharu produced a small number of yakusha @-@ e actor prints that , in contrast to the works of the leading Katsukawa school , are executed in the learned style of an Ippitsusai Bunchō .
While Toyoharu trained in Kyoto he may have been exposed to the works of Maruyama Ōkyo , whose popular megane @-@ e were pictures in one @-@ point perspective meant to be viewed in a special box in the manner of the French vue d 'optique . Toyoharu may also have seen the Chinese vue d 'optique prints made in the 1750s that inspired Ōkyo 's work .
Early in his career , Toyoharu began producing the uki @-@ e for which he is best remembered . Books on geometrical perspective translated from Dutch and Chinese sources appeared in the 1730s , and soon after , ukiyo @-@ e prints displaying these techniques appeared first in the works of Torii Kiyotada and then of Okumura Masanobu . These early examples were inconsistent in their application of perspective techniques , and the results can be unconvincing ; Toyoharu 's were much more dextrous , though not strict — he manipulated it to allow the representation of figures and objects that otherwise would have been obscured . Toyoharu 's works helped pioneer the landscape as an ukiyo @-@ e subject , rather than merely a background for human figures or events , as in Masanobu 's works . Toyoharu 's earliest uki @-@ e cannot be reliably dated , but are assumed to have appeared before 1772 : early in that year the Great Meiwa Fire in Edo destroyed the Niō @-@ mon gate in Ueno , the subject of Toyoharu 's Famous Views of Edo : Niō @-@ mon in Ueno .
Several of Toyoharu 's prints were imitations of imported prints of famed European locations , some of which were Western and others Chinese imitations of Western prints . The titles were often fictional : The Bell which Resounds for Ten Thousand Leagues in the Dutch Port of Frankai is an imitation of a print of the Grand Canal of Venice from 1742 by Antonio Visentini , itself based on a painting by Canaletto . Toyoharu titled another A Perspective View of French Churches in Holland , though he based it on a print of the Roman Forum . Toyoharu took licence with other details of foreign lands , such as having the Dutch swim in their canals . Japanese and Chinese mythology were also frequent subjects in Toyoharu 's uki @-@ e prints , the foreign perspective technique giving such prints an exotic feel .
In his nikuhitsuga paintings the influence of Toyonobu can seem strong , but in his seals on these paintings Toyoharu proclaims himself a pupil of Sekien . His efforts contributed to the development of the Rinpa school .
' ' The Four Arts ' ' by Toyoharu
Perspective prints by Toyoharu
= = Legacy = =
The popularity of Toyoharu 's work peaked in the 1770s . By the 19th century , Western @-@ style perspective techniques had ceased to be a novelty and had been absorbed into Japanese artistic culture , deployed by such artists as Hokusai and Hiroshige , two artists best remembered for their landscapes , a genre Toyoharu pioneered .
The Utagawa school that Toyoharu founded was to become one of the most influential , and produced works in a far greater variety of genres than any other school . His students included Toyokuni and Toyohiro ; Toyohiro worked in the style of his master , while Toyokuni , who headed the school from 1814 , became a prominent and prolific producer of yakusha @-@ e prints of kabuki actors . Other well @-@ known members of the school were Utamaro , Hiroshige , Kuniyoshi , and Kunisada . Though Japanese art schools , such as the Katsukawa in ukiyo @-@ e and the Kanō in painting , emphasized a uniformity of style , a general style in the Utagawa school is not easy to recognize aside from a concern with realism and facial expresseiveness . The school dominated ukiyo @-@ e production by the mid @-@ 19th century , and most of the artists — such as Kobayashi Kiyochika — who documented the modernization of Japan during the Meiji period during ukiyo @-@ e 's declining years belonged to the Utagawa school .
The Torii school lasted longer , but the Utagawa school had more adherents . It fostered closer master – student relations and more systematized training than in other schools . Excepting a few prominent examples , such as Hiroshige or Kuniyoshi , the later generations of artists tended to lack stylistic diversity , and their work has become emblematic of ukiyo @-@ e 's decline in the 19th century .
Toyoharu also taught painting . His most prominent student was Sakai Hōitsu .
As of 2014 , studies into Toyoharu 's work have not been carried out in depth . Cataloguing and analyzing his work and his and his publishers ' seals was still in its infancy .
Members of the Utagawa school
Paintings by Toyoharu and his followers
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= Æsir – Vanir War =
In Norse mythology , the Æsir – Vanir War was a conflict between two groups of deities that ultimately resulted in the unification of the Æsir and the Vanir into a single pantheon . The war is an important event in Norse mythology , and the implications for the potential historicity surrounding accounts of the war are a matter of scholarly debate and discourse .
Fragmented information about the war appears in surviving sources , including Völuspá , a poem collected in the Poetic Edda in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources ; in the book Skáldskaparmál in the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson ; and in euhemerized form in the Ynglinga saga from Heimskringla , also written by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century .
= = Attestations = =
The following attestations provide information about the war :
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
In two stanzas of Völuspá , the war is recounted by a völva ( who refers to herself here in the third person ) while the god Óðinn questions her . In the first of the two stanzas , the völva says that she remembers the first war in the world , when Gullveig was stabbed with spears and then burnt three times in one of Óðinn 's halls , yet that Gullveig was reborn three times . In the later stanza , the völva says that they called Gullveig Heiðr ( meaning " Bright One " or potentially " Gleaming " or " Honor " ) whenever she came to houses , that she was a wise völva , and that she cast spells . Heiðr performed seiðr where she could , did so in a trance , and was " always the favorite of wicked women . "
In a later stanza , the völva then tells Óðinn that all the powers went to the judgment seats and discussed whether the Æsir should pay a fine or if all of the gods should instead have tribute . Further in the poem , a stanza provides the last of the völva 's account of the events surrounding the war . She says :
Odin shot a spear , hurled it over the host ;
that was still the first war in the world ,
the defense wall was broken of the Æsir 's stronghold ;
the Vanir , indomitable , were trampling the plain .
These stanzas are unclear , particularly the second half of stanza 23 , but the battle appears to have been precipitated by the entry of Gullveig / Heiðr among the Æsir . Stanza 23 relates a difficulty in reaching a truce which led to the all @-@ out war described in stanza 24 . However , the reference to " all the gods " could , in Lindow 's view , indicate a movement towards a community involving both the Æsir and the Vanir . Ursula Dronke points to extensive wordplay on all the meanings of the noun gildi and the adjective gildr to signal the core issue of whether the Æsir will surrender their monopoly on human tribute and join with the " all @-@ too @-@ popular " Vanir ; as their only alternative , they attack again .
= = = Prose Edda = = =
In the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál ( chapter 57 ) , the god Bragi explains the origin of poetry . Bragi says that it originated in the Æsir – Vanir War , when during the peace conference the Æsir and the Vanir formed a truce by all spitting into a vat . When they left , the gods decided that it should not be poured out , but rather kept as a symbol of their peace , and so from the contents made a man , Kvasir . Kvasir is later murdered , and from his blood is made the Mead of Poetry .
= = = Heimskringla = = =
In chapter 4 of Heimskringla , Snorri presents a euhemerized account of the war . Snorri states that Óðinn led a great army from Asia ( " Ásaland " ) to attack the people of " Vanaland . " However , according to Snorri , the people of Vanaland were well prepared for the invasion ; they defended their land so well that victory was up for grabs from both sides , and both sides produced immense damage and ravaged the lands of one another .
Snorri states that the two sides eventually tired of the war and both agreed to meet to establish a truce . Snorri continues that the two sides did so and exchanged hostages . Vanaland are described as having sent to Asaland their best men : Njörðr — described as wealthy — and his son Freyr in exchange for Asaland 's Hœnir — described here as large , handsome , and thought of by the people of Vanaland well suited to be a chieftain . Additionally , Asaland sends Mímir — a man of great understanding — in exchange for Kvasir , who Snorri describes as the wisest man of Vanaland .
Snorri continues that , upon arrival in Vanaland , Hœnir was immediately made chief and Mímir often gave him good counsel . However , when Hœnir was at meetings and at the Thing without Mímir by his side , he would always answer the same way : " Let others decide . " Subsequently , the Vanaland folk suspected they had been cheated in the exchange by the Asaland folk , so they seized Mímir and beheaded him and sent the head to Asaland . Óðinn took the head of Mímir , embalmed it with herbs so that it would not rot , and spoke charms over it , which gave it the power to speak to him and reveal to him secrets .
According to Snorri , Óðinn then appointed Njörðr and Freyr to be priests of sacrificial customs and they became Diar ( " Gods " ) of the people of Asaland . Freyja , described as daughter of Njörðr , was the priestess of these sacrifices , and here she is described as introducing seiðr to Asaland .
= = Theories = =
A number of theories surround the Æsir – Vanir War :
= = = Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European basis = = =
As the Vanir are often considered fertility gods , the Æsir – Vanir War has been proposed as a reflection of the invasion of local fertility cults somewhere in regions inhabited by the Germanic peoples by a more aggressive , warlike cult . This has been proposed as an analogy of the invasion of the Indo @-@ Europeans . Georges Dumézil stated that the war need not necessarily be understood in terms of historicity more than any other myth however .
Scholars have cited parallels between the Æsir – Vanir War , The Rape of the Sabine Women from Roman mythology , and the Mahabharata from Hindu mythology , providing support for a Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European " war of the functions . " Explaining these parallels , J. P. Mallory states :
Basically , the parallels concern the presence of first- ( magico @-@ juridical ) and second- ( warrior ) function representatives on the victorious side of a war that ultimately subdues and incorporates third function characters , for example , the Sabine women or the Norse Vanir . Indeed , the Iliad itself has also been examined in a similar light . The ultimate structure of the myth , then , is that the three estates of Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European society were fused only after a war between the first two against the third .
= = = Other = = =
Many scholars consider the figures of Gullveig / Heiðr and Freyja the same . These conclusions have been made through comparisons between the figure of Gullveig / Heiðr 's use of seiðr in Völuspá and the mention of Freyja introducing seiðr to the Æsir from the Vanir in Heimskringla . This is at times taken further that their corruption of the Æsir led to the Æsir – Vanir War .
Lindow states that he feels that even if the two are not identical , the various accounts of the war seem to share the idea of a disruptive entry of persons into a people . Lindow compares the appearance of Gullveig / Heiðr into the Æsir to that of Hœnir and Mímir 's disruption amongst the Vanir in Heimskringla . Lindow further states that all three accounts share the notion of acquisition of tools for the conquest of wisdom ; the practice of seiðr in two accounts and the head of Mímir in one .
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= Pokémon Colosseum =
Pokémon Colosseum ( ポケモンコロシアム , Pokemon Koroshiamu ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Genius Sonority and published by Nintendo as part of the Pokémon series . It was released exclusively for the GameCube on November 21 , 2003 , in Japan ; March 22 , 2004 , in North America ; and May 14 , 2004 , in Europe . Unlike previous titles , the game does not feature random encounters with Pokémon ; instead , the player can steal ( " snag " ) the Pokémon of other Pokémon Trainers . The game also features several battle modes for single @-@ player and multiplayer gameplay .
The game is set in the desertous region of Orre . The player protagonist is Wes , a former member of Team Snagem . Throughout the game , the player rescues " Shadow Pokémon " — Pokémon who have had their hearts darkened by Cipher , an antagonistic organization — via snagging . Rui , a non @-@ player girl , serves as Wes 's sidekick and identifies Shadow Pokémon .
Pokémon Colosseum was exhibited at E3 2003 . North American pre @-@ orders were packaged with a bonus disc that allows the player to download the Pokémon Jirachi . Upon release , the game was generally well @-@ received , with praise directed at its graphics and music . It was a commercial success , with 1 @.@ 5 million copies sold in the United States and 656 @,@ 270 in Japan .
= = Gameplay = =
Pokémon Colosseum is a 3D role @-@ playing game viewed from a third @-@ person perspective . The player , controlling a Pokémon Trainer named Wes ( default name ) , moves through various towns and other locations ( traversed using a type of one @-@ wheeled motorcycle ) , battling enemy Trainers and completing quests . Items are purchased at " Pokémon Mart " locations using the game 's currency , " Pokémon Dollars " ( ) . When a battle starts , the screen switches to a turn @-@ based interface where the player 's and enemies ' Pokémon fight . Most battles are of the " double battle " format , which means two Pokémon on each side at one time . However , each Trainer can carry up to six Pokémon at one time , so once a Pokémon is defeated , his or her Trainer must switch out another one unless no more are left . Battles are also conducted at " Colosseums " in several cities .
Unlike most Pokémon games , Colosseum does not feature random encounters . The player begins the game with two Pokémon . More are obtained throughout the game by " Snagging " them from other Trainers using Poké Balls of various strengths . Only specifically designated " Shadow Pokémon " , whose hearts have been artificially closed , can be Snagged . Pokémon can be traded between Colosseum and the Game Boy Advance games Pokémon Ruby , Sapphire , FireRed , LeafGreen , or Emerald .
Each of the player 's Shadow Pokémon has a purple gauge that is drained by battling and coming to like the player . Once a Pokémon 's gauge is empty , the player may " Purify " the Pokémon by bringing him or her to Celebi 's shrine in Agate Village , or by using a rare " Time Flute " item . Purifying Shadow Pokémon is desirable because while in that status , they will often disobey the player , they cannot gain experience points , and their moves are at first restricted to " Shadow Rush " . Additionally , Shadow Pokémon will sporadically enter " Hyper Mode " state during battle , causing them to disobey the player character or attack themselves until the condition is alleviated by selecting the " Call " battle command .
Aside from the story mode , Colosseum also features several non @-@ canonical battle modes . In the " Quick Battle " mode , the player can battle either CPU trainers or friends , using Pokémon obtained in the story mode or randomly assigned ones . Battles in this mode do not result in gain of experience points or money . In the single @-@ player battle mode , the player competes at Colosseums — stadiums used throughout the game for Pokémon battles — and earns " Poké Coupons " , another currency which can be used to buy rare items . In the " Gang Battle " mode , up to four players can compete in a tournament . The first can use Pokémon obtained in the story mode , or from the Game Boy Advance games . Players two through four , however , can only use Pokémon from the Game Boy Advance games .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Pokémon Colosseum is set in the Orre region . Orre is a mostly desertous region in which no wild Pokémon can be found ( although the sequel , Pokémon XD : Gale of Darkness , adds wild Pokémon spots to the region ) . Orre consists of many cities , towns , and Colosseums .
= = = Characters = = =
The game 's player protagonist is by default named Wes ( レオ , Reo , Leo ) , but as with most Pokémon games , the player can change his name . Wes 's Starter Pokémon are Espeon and Umbreon , two fox @-@ like Pokémon who start at higher levels than most Starter Pokémon . Team Snagem ( スナッチ団 , Sunatchi @-@ dan , Team Snatch ) , a criminal organization that uses the " Snag machine " technology to capture the Pokémon of Trainers , serves as an antagonistic entity in the game . However , shortly after the game 's start , the Cipher Syndicate ( シャドー , Shadō , Shadow ) is revealed to be the main antagonistic force , having partnered with Snagem to obtain Pokémon from Trainers , corrupting them , and distributing them throughout Cipher and other places such as Pyrite Town . Wes is a former employee of Team Snagem . The organization also employs many grunt workers , as well as four administrators : disco @-@ loving Miror B. ( ミラーボ , Mirābo , Mirorbo ) , the explosively @-@ tempered bodybuilder , Dakim ( ダキム , Dakimu ) , the queen of the Under , Venus ( ヴィーナス , Vīnasu ) , and the strategist of a scientist , Ein ( ボルグ , Borugu , Borg ) .
= = = Story = = =
The game begins with a cold open in which Wes infiltrates and destroys the Team Snagem hideout before leaving the organization . Wes starts at the Outskirt Stand , a dilapidated train engine in the middle of the desert that has been converted into a shop . With Espeon and Umbreon , Wes 's first opponent is a Trainer named Willie . Wes then leaves the Stand and heads to the oasis @-@ esque Phenac City in time to see two men dragging a sack . After defeating them in battle , Wes unties the sack to find Rui , a girl with the ability to discern Shadow Pokémon . They meet the mayor , Es Cade , who seems very bothered about the Cipher problem , but seems to do nothing about it . Later , upon leaving Phenac Colosseum , three Snagem grunts find Wes and Rui . The grunts then reveal to Rui that he was a member of Snagem , and an excellent Snagger . Wes then confronts one of the grunts , which results in the latter 's defeat . Finding out that he is an expert at snagging Pokémon , Rui asks him to join forces with her in finding and snagging Shadow Pokémon .
As the game progresses , Wes becomes a target of a powerful organization known as Cipher . After leaving Phenac , he visits Pyrite Town , where Rui was kidnapped . In Pyrite , Shadow Pokémon are openly offered to winners of the town 's Colosseum tournament . The local police force is powerless to stop the practice , so Duking , an influential man in Pyrite , asks Wes to enter the tournament and investigate . Wes enters the Colosseum challenge and defeats four trainers to win . Inside a nearby building , a Cipher Peon is about to present the Shadow Pokémon prize , but another one recognizes Wes . The pair then battle their way through the building and a maze @-@ like cave set in the rock behind . Eventually , they face and defeat Miror B. , one of four Cipher Admins . Afterwards , Wes returns a Pokémon Miror B. stole from Duking . A team of kids working in Duking 's house introduce themselves as members of an anti @-@ Cipher news network , known as the Kids Grid , who pledge their help to Wes and Rui .
Their next stop is Agate Village , a forested village in the mountains . As Rui introduces Wes to her grandfather Eagun , another villager runs into the room , telling them that the Relic Stone — a shrine protected by Celebi — is under attack . Wes , following Eagun to the center of the tree , fights off four Cipher agents before the Relic Stone is safe . After resting , Wes is given access to the Relic Stone , the only place where he can purify Shadow Pokémon . On a suggestion from Eagun , Wes decides to train his skills at the nearby Mt . Battle .
Upon reaching Mt . Battle , people inform Wes and Rui that Cipher has already taken over the first section of the mountain . After battling nine other Trainers , Wes battles the Cipher administrator Dakim . Dakim owns a Shadow Entei , who is one of the trio of legendary beasts . After defeating Dakim , Wes heads to The Under , which is an underground city located underneath Pyrite Town , and under the control of Cipher . More members of the Kids Grid are here . They tell the player of Venus , another Cipher administrator , who has influence over The Under . After Wes confronts Venus , the owner of the second legendary beast Suicune , she flees . Next , Wes and Rui head to the Shadow Pokémon Lab , where Pokémon are transformed into Shadow Pokémon . After defeating numerous Cipher peons , Wes faces Ein , the final Cipher administrator and the owner of the final legendary beast Raikou .
Wes and Rui then go to Realgam Tower . All four administrators are there and ready to face Wes again . After doing so , he is granted access to the Colosseum at the top of the building . There , he is greeted by a large crowd . A Cipher man named Nascour tells Wes that he will have to face four trainers . After Wes defeats all four trainers , Nascour fights him . Once defeated , Nascour tries to leave , only to be interrupted by Es Cade . Es Cade reveals that he is really none other than Evice , the head of Cipher , and battles Wes . When Wes defeats him , Evice attempts to escape by helicopter , but the legendary Pokémon Ho @-@ Oh swoops in and blasts it out of the sky . Evice and Nascour are presumably arrested .
= = Development and release = =
Pokémon Colosseum was developed by the Japanese game developer Genius Sonority , and published by Nintendo . Just as Nintendo 64 predecessors Pokémon Stadium and Pokémon Stadium 2 had served as home console counterparts to the first- and second @-@ generation handheld titles , Colosseum had a similar role for the third generation .
The new concept for Pokémon Colosseum was influenced by RPGs such as Final Fantasy VII and Persona 2 over the Pokémon mold . When asked in an interview with Prima Games why the gameplay of Colosseum did not mirror that of the handheld Pokémon games , Pokémon director Junichi Masuda explained : " How players communicate with each other has been key to the Pokémon games – it is the backbone of all Pokémon game designs . I feel that the handheld systems work better than the home @-@ based consoles . It 's certainly possible to come up with concepts for home @-@ based consoles , but we might then have to change the core of the game . "
The transition to 3D also brought new graphical changes . Wes was designed to look " hazy " and about 17 years old . Genius Sonority ported most of the models and animations of first- and second @-@ generation Pokémon from Stadium and Stadium 2 . Genius Sonority based most of Orre on the real @-@ life city of Phoenix , Arizona . As a whole , the graphics were influenced more by manga than by established Pokémon convention .
A preview for the game was hosted at E3 2003 . Upon completion of development , Colosseum received a rating of " E " ( Everyone ) from the Entertainment Software Rating Board , " All Ages " from Computer Entertainment Rating Organization , and " 3 + " from Pan European Game Information . The game was released on November 21 , 2003 in Japan ; March 22 , 2004 in North America , and May 14 , 2004 in Europe .
Nintendo also published supplementary media to unlock additional content . Pre @-@ ordered copies of the game came with a bonus disc that contains trailers for the game and the film Pokémon : Jirachi Wish Maker . The North American disc also contains the exclusive Pokémon Jirachi that can be downloaded to the player 's copy of Ruby or Sapphire . The Japanese release contains a downloadable Celebi instead and requires a completed save file of Pokémon Colosseum . The disc also updates the software in Ruby and Sapphire to remove a " berry glitch " discovered in 2003 . Despite public anticipation the Bonus Disc was not released in PAL territories , prompting Nintendo to issue an official apology . However a Jirachi was later included in the PAL version of the game Pokémon Channel . In Japan , scannable cards for the Nintendo e @-@ Reader were available for purchase that featured additional trainers to battle and Shadow Pokémon .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Pokémon Colosseum was generally well @-@ received upon release , with respective scores of 73 / 100 and 73 @.@ 46 % from aggregators Metacritic and Game Rankings . Allgame staff writer Scott Alan Marriott gave the game three and a half stars out of five , although he did not review the game with more depth .
Critics praised Colosseum as the first true 3D role @-@ playing installment in the Pokémon series . Gamers Hell reviewer John K. called it " certainly a step in the right direction to a good 3D Pokémon game " , although he felt that the limited number of Pokémon and lack of a true overworld detracted from the experience . IGN staff writer Craig Harris said that the adaptation of the Pokémon RPG formula to the 3D zeitgeist " does a decent enough job " and is " a bit more linear and straightforward " .
The new 3D graphics received mixed remarks . Harris called the game " [ g ] raphically ... a mixed bag " , praising the visual style of the game 's Pokémon but criticizing the " poorly modeled and animated , angular " style of the Trainers . GameSpot reviewer Ryan Davis offered a similar opinion , concluding that " [ t ] he visual style ... has gone off the deep end " . GamePro writer Star Dingo called the graphics as a whole " insanely cute " but criticized the lack of animations showing two Pokémon attacking in tandem . GameZone 's review took a more positive stance , saying that " [ a ] nimations are brief but impressive ; each attack move is more elaborate and more extravagant on the ' Cube . " Nintendo Power thought similarly , commending the " amazing level of detail " .
GameZone compared the overall town design and environments to those of the landmark Final Fantasy VII . Dingo complained that " there are some characters to talk to and chests to find , but no ' overworld ' with free @-@ roaming monsters to capture . " John K. stated that " [ t ] he towns are made with enough detail , but sometimes a bit dull . "
Harris denounced the game 's usage of old Pokémon battle cries , a recurring complaint of the series . Dingo called the music as a whole " a bit too low @-@ tech and synthetic " . GameZone , in contrast , stated that the sound effects evoke nostalgia for Pokémon Red and Blue , and that the music tracks " have more depth than any of the songs from the previous Pokemon [ sic ] games . " John K. said that the music is neither annoying nor entertaining . Retronauts described Colosseum as " terrible " , citing the reuse of graphics from the Pokémon Stadium games .
In 2006 , Nintendo Power listed Colosseum as the 121st greatest video game to appear on a Nintendo console .
= = = Sales = = =
Three weeks before its release , pre @-@ orders of Pokémon Colosseum made it the best @-@ selling game on Amazon.com. In the game 's first week of release in the United Kingdom , it boosted the GameCube 's market share from 16 % to 32 % . It was the best @-@ selling GameCube game of May 2004 , and fourteenth among all consoles . In 2005 , the game was certified as part of Nintendo 's Player 's Choice line in North America , representing at least 250 @,@ 000 copies sold . As of 2007 , the game has sold over 1 @.@ 15 million copies in the United States and 656 @,@ 270 in Japan . It is the best @-@ selling RPG for the GameCube .
= = = Legacy = = =
Pokémon Colosseum spawned a high @-@ profile tournament in the United Kingdom entitled " Pokémon Colosseum Battlemaster 2004 " . The first round of battles was held at Toys " R " Us locations , with later battles taking place in movie theaters . Across Europe , the game was bundled with GameCube consoles shortly after its release . Special editions of this set also included a copy of Pokémon Box : Ruby and Sapphire — a game that allows players to organize and store up to 1 @,@ 500 Pokémon from their games — as well as a memory card and a Game Boy Advance – GameCube link cable .
A manga adaptation of Colosseum 's plot was printed in 2004 issues of the Japanese magazine CoroCoro Comic and titled Pokémon Colosseum Snatcher Leo ( ポケモンコロシアムスナッチャーズレオ ) . The game was followed by a 2005 sequel entitled Pokémon XD : Gale of Darkness . Set in Orre five years after Colosseum , it features a new protagonist snagging Shadow Pokémon from Team Cipher . Shadow Lugia is the game 's mascot , and serves as an antagonist whom the player can snag . The game alludes to Wes , Rui , and The Under , though they do not appear .
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= Do or Die ( Super Furry Animals song ) =
" Do or Die " is the eleventh single by Super Furry Animals . It was the last single to be taken from the Guerrilla album and was the band 's last release for Creation Records . The track reached number 20 in the UK Singles Chart after its release on 17 January 2000 . The group had originally wanted to release " Wherever I Lay My Phone ( That 's My Home ) " as the final single from Guerilla but Creation instead chose " Do or Die " , a decision which the band claimed not to understand .
Although " Do or Die " features " daft lyrics " , its name was inspired by Mahatma Gandhi 's Quit India speech which called for Indians to " Do or Die " to end British Imperial rule in the country . Critical reaction was largely positive with the song being named ' Single of the Week ' by the Melody Maker and appearing at number 55 in the NME 's single of the year list for 2000 despite an earlier claim by the magazine that there was " no need whatsoever " to release the track as a single . The music video for " Do or Die " was directed by Jake & Jim and features live action footage of the group 's heads on brightly coloured cartoon bodies .
= = Themes and recording = =
According to Gruff Rhys " Do or Die " has a " ridiculously positive outlook " and was written in an attempt to " kickstart [ the band ] back into gear " after a bad period in the singer 's life . The track is a " driving song " and features sampled car noises so that " even if you 're not in a car it feels like you are " . Although Rhys has called the track a " dumb pop song " with " really daft " lyrics , he has also claimed that the title was inspired by the Quit India speech made by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942 at the Gowalia Tank in Bombay in which Gandhi called for his countrymen to " Do or Die " and use non @-@ violent resistance to end British Imperial rule in India . Rhys has stated that he feels the fact that " five @-@ year @-@ olds " can jump up and down to the song , singing " Gandhi lyrics " , is important , as it contrasts with the " self @-@ important ... pompous " lyrics of singers such as Jim Morrison and Robert Plant . The track was recorded in the middle of 1998 at Real World Studios , Box , Wiltshire , along with the rest of Guerrilla , and was produced by Super Furry Animals .
= = Composition = =
" Do or Die " is 1 minute and 59 seconds long and is in the key of A major . The instruments used on the track are tuned slightly sharper than standard . The song begins with an intro featuring a lead guitar and keyboard melody , which plays twice , accompanied by a rhythm guitar riff alternating between A and D chords , drums and bass . The track breaks down to just rhythm guitar , drums and bass for the first verse which begins after 13 seconds . The first chorus begins after 23 seconds with a distorted guitar playing the chord sequence D5 , C5 , B ♭ 5 and A5 twice while Rhys sings " If we do or die we should try , if we don 't try I say bye @-@ bye , and if I say bye @-@ bye , I 'll wonder why we didn 't try to do or die " backed by high harmony backing vocals and occasional keyboard noises . The song breaks down again for a second verse before the second chorus enters at 46 seconds . An instrumental passage follows with the lead guitar and keyboard reprising the melody which plays during the intro . The instrumental leads into a double chorus . At the end of the final chorus the track crescendos , with Rhys singing " yeah , yeah , yeah " and all instruments with the exception of the keyboard coming to an abrupt silence after 1 minute and 43 seconds . Keyboard noises continue and gradually fade out until the track ends .
= = Release and critical reception = =
The Super Furry Animals had originally intended to issue the song " Wherever I Lay My Phone ( That 's My Home ) " as the third single from Guerrilla but , on returning from an American tour in 1999 , found that their record company , Creation , had not done any work regarding the release . Returning from a tour of Europe later the same year the band discovered that both their record label and record plugging company had folded and that Creation made the decision , first to release " Night Vision " instead of " Wherever I Lay My Phone ( That 's My Home ) " , and then to replace " Night Vision " with " Do or Die " as the last single from Guerrilla . Singer Gruff Rhys has expressed dissatisfaction with this choice , claiming that he is not sure how the decision was made and that he wanted " Wherever I Lay My Phone ( That 's My Home ) " to be released as he " quite fancied the idea of a novelty hit " . However , the group ultimately felt " Wherever I Lay My Phone ( That 's My Home ) " could not be issued in any case following the December 1999 release of " I Wanna 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 With You " by Jimmy Cauty 's Solid Gold Chartbusters , which was " based on the same Nokia ringtone " .
" Do or Die " was issued on CD , cassette and 7 " on 17 January 2000 , the band 's last release for Creation , and reached number 20 in the UK Singles Chart . The track became the shortest song ever to be performed on the BBC 's Top Of The Pops programme when the group appeared on the show to promote the single 's release . The track was included on the band 's ' greatest hits ' compilation album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 , issued in 2004 .
" Do or Die " was awarded ' Single of the Week ' in the January 19 – 25 , 2000 issue of the Melody Maker by guest reviewers Pär Wiksten and Christina Bergmark from The Wannadies who gave the track " all the points we can afford " and claimed that it ends perfectly . The NME described the song as " not the best track from ... Guerrilla , but then not the worst either " and claimed that it was mostly of note because it was the second single by Super Furry Animals to be less than two minutes long following 1996 's " God ! Show Me Magic " . Despite stating that there was " no need whatsoever " for the release , the NME ranked " Do or Die " at number 55 in their single of the year list for 2000 . In a 2005 review of the reissued Guerrilla , Pitchfork described the track as " near @-@ perfect sunny pop " while , in an earlier review of Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 , the website called " Do or Die " " proggy quasi @-@ Britpop " and likened its guitar part to " Jessica " by The Allman Brothers Band . Also reviewing Songbook ... , the BBC described " Do or Die " as one of several " great hairy rock outs " on the record , The Washington Post called it " straightforward pop @-@ punk " and Drowned in Sound labelled it a " guitar @-@ laden sugar rush " . Website Cokemachineglow likened the track to the work of The Stooges . Pitchfork claimed that the single 's b @-@ sides , the " inescapably sha @-@ la @-@ la @-@ ing ' Colorblind ' " and the " piano @-@ accented bounder " " Missunderstanding ( sic ) " , pale beside " Do or Die " and the other tracks on Guerilla although they " do manage to scratch the itch for more SFA " .
= = = Accolades = = =
* denotes an unordered list
= = Music video = =
A promotional music video was produced to accompany the release of " Do or Die " as a single . The video was directed by Jake & Jim who also directed the video for the group 's previous single , " Fire in My Heart " . The video begins with the camera zooming in through the door of a cartoon house in the desert to reveal Super Furry Animals playing along to the track in a room . The band 's heads and instruments are live action footage , filmed in London , while their bodies and surroundings are brightly coloured animations . During the first verse , shots of the group playing the track in the room are intercut with images of band members on cartoon surfboards superimposed onto real life footage of giant waves . This process is repeated during the second chorus , with the video cutting between shots of the band playing in the room and images of the band superimposed onto live footage of tornados . After 1 minute and 4 seconds images of the group 's heads being swept along in a lava flow are intercut with the band playing along with the track in the now red room with lava visible through the windows . Snow then begins to fall in the room and the video cuts to shots of the group eascaping an avalanche in a bobsled . As the track ends the lightbulb in the room begins to swing frantically and Super Furry Animals are bathed in a green " radioactive or alien glow " . A shot of the house in front of a nuclear explosion cuts to footage of the band frozen mid @-@ word , with the camera moving through 360 degrees to reveal them as two dimensional cutouts . The " Do or Die " music video was named as ' Video of the week ' in the 12 – 18 January issue of Melody Maker and was included on the DVD release of the band 's greatest hits album , Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
CD with fold @-@ out poster ( CRESCD329 ) , MC ( CRES329 ) , 7 " ( CRE329 )
" Do or Die " – 2 : 05
" Missunderstanding ( sic ) " – 3 : 24
" Colorblind " – 3 : 32
= = Personnel = =
Gruff Rhys – vocals
Huw Bunford – guitar
Guto Pryce – bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – keyboards
Dafydd Ieuan – drums
= = Singles chart position = =
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= SexyBack =
" SexyBack " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Justin Timberlake for his second studio album , FutureSex / LoveSounds ( 2006 ) . It was released on July 18 , 2006 , to US mainstream and rhythmic radio stations by Jive Records as the lead single from the album . The song was written and produced by Nate Hills , Tim Mosley , and Timberlake himself . Discussing " SexyBack " , Timberlake revealed that he went " left " , singing the song in a rock style , not an R & B style . He described the song as musicians David Bowie and David Byrne " covering " James Brown 's 1970 song " Sex Machine " . The track features Timbaland on backing vocals , while Timberlake 's voice is distorted . The instrumentation used in the song includes a pounding bass beat , electronic chords , and drum machine sounds .
" SexyBack " became Timberlake 's first number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 , staying seven weeks at the top spot . It also topped several of Billboard magazine 's other charts , including the Billboard Pop 100 , Hot Dance Airplay , and Hot Digital Songs charts , and entered the top ten on most singles charts . Internationally , it became Timberlake 's first single to reach number one in the United Kingdom . In Australia , the track was Timberlake 's second number @-@ one single , spending two consecutive weeks at the top . " SexyBack " was certified three @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and three @-@ times platinum by Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) . " SexyBack " is one of the best selling singles of all time .
The track won Best Dance Recording at the 2007 Grammy Awards . In addition , the song won Timberlake the People 's Choice Award for Favorite R & B song and the Male Artist of the Year at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards . The music video was filmed in June 2006 ; Timberlake decided to work with director Michael Haussman based on the latter 's work on Madonna 's 1994 music video " Take a Bow " .
= = Production = =
Timberlake began working on his second studio album , FutureSex / LoveSounds , in December 2005 . Within three weeks , " SexyBack " was one of several songs that were recorded for the album , having been recorded in less than a day . Timberlake told The Weekend Mail in 2006 that it was the " second or third song " he did with Timbaland in a list of 10 songs they recorded for the album . The song was written and produced by Justin Timberlake , Timbaland , and Nate " Danja " Hills , and mixed by Jimmy Douglass , using Pro Tools . Mixing took place in April 2006 , using a Neve VR @-@ series console .
Hills played the Akai MPC3000 and other virtual synths on his Macintosh computer , while Timbaland performed instruments on the Ensoniq ASR @-@ 10 sampling keyboard . Bill Pettaway played the guitar , which his part was recorded in two minutes , while Darryl Pearson was the bassist . Both the guitar and bass were digitally imported in Pro Tools during mixing , and only a section of the guitar recording was copied and pasted throughout the song .
= = Music = =
Timberlake described " SexyBack " as " an experiment gone right from the sort of synthesizer influence to the distorted vocals " , adding that it was " one of the songs that the more you listen to it its just hook after hook after hook . Its just one of those ' flow off the top of your head ' tracks , in terms of melody . We wanted to keep it loose and not too rehearsed , it 's one of those very experimental records though . " Timberlake revealed that he went " left " , regarding going more rock , not in how he developed the song , but in the way he sang the song . " I wanted to sing the song like a rock and roll singer , not an R & B singer . That 's the approach . " The day before recording , Timberlake and Timbaland had listened to David Bowie 's " Rebel Rebel " and the Rapture 's " House of Jealous Lovers " . Timberlake wanted to achieve the songs ' " raw energy " . Timberlake said that he modeled himself on Bowie and Prince , and described the song as Bowie and David Byrne " covering " James Brown 's 1970 song " Sex Machine " . Timberlake said that the song " doesn 't qualify as rock or straight funk " and that he was happy with the description " club funk " . He was " keen for a new musical direction " following the release of his first album , Justified . " I listened to the radio for a few months and thought , ' All this sounds like shit , what do I want to hear ? ' . That 's really all I did . Everything 's [ sic ] got so repetitive , everything sounds the same . I had to create something unique otherwise there 's no point putting it out . "
" SexyBack " is an " urgent , pulsing track , a cocktail of soaring , distorted vocals and heavy , electronic chords threaded together with rap " , according to Camilla Long from The Observer . The song is composed in the key of A Phrygian dominant mode — and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 117 beats per minute . The song features a pounding bass beat and electronic sounds , and does not include Timberlake 's " famous falsetto " . The song 's musicscape includes two @-@ note dirty electronic riffs , " leapfrogging keyboards " , beat box sound , and incorporates the " same leaky faucet " sounds of musician Obie Trice 's 2004 song " The Setup " . In addition , the track features Timbaland on backing vocals .
Timberlake 's voice in the song is processed , slowed down to where his voice is unrecognizable , with muffled vocals . The song also features Timberlake 's " low register distorted vocals . " Timberlake revealed that the vocals in the song were influenced by Prince .
= = Lyrics = =
Douglas explained the title of the song , and how it affected the concept :
" Justin [ Timberlake ] goes in the chorus ' Go head be gone with it ' , I called the song ' Be Gone With It ' , just to label it . So they 're developing this song and they 're going nuts and loving it , and as they play it , and I 'm like : ' I don 't think this hook is strong enough . ' But then , at the very last minute , Justin very , very cleverly decided to call it ' Sexyback ' , and that changed the whole dimension of the song . The first thing you hear when you listen to the song is ' I 'm bringing sexy back ' , and after that you don 't care or don 't notice that there is no hook . And then there 's the unique thing of Timbaland acting as a narrator , saying things like ' take it to the bridge ' , or ' yeah ' . Every time Justin leaves a space , he fills it in . It 's two guys interacting . "
Timberlake said that the chorus was " very James Brown @-@ ish , call out and repeat , like ' Sex Machine ' . " He wrote the track " from top to bottom . ' I 'm bringing sexy back , yeah ! I 'm bringing . . . ' It 's a very physical song , meant to provoke ... sexual dance . ' Sex Machine ' is the closest reference . " Timberlake said that the lyric , " bringing sexy back " , was one of the first lines he came up with . In addition , he admitted that the song was not going to be titled " SexyBack " , saying , " We weren 't originally going to call it ' SexyBack ' . I definitely didn 't think it would become the most worn @-@ out phrase of 2006 . It just sounded like a nice opening to the song . "
Adam Graham of The Detroit News noted that Timberlake sings about whips and chains , while Bill Lamb of About.com said the song has a " bit of s & m tease about shackles and whips " . Furthermore , The Georgia Straight 's Martin Turenne said that Timberlake is " shackled to the bedpost , invites the crack of his mistress 's whip . " Ben Williams of New York magazine wrote that Timberlake had been working on his pickup lines , with " You see these shackles baby I 'm your slave / I 'll let you whip me if I misbehave . " Jason Bracelin of the Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal reported that Timberlake sings about " threatening to steal your girl . " Charlie Brooker for The Guardian , in regards to the lyric , " them other fuckers don 't know how to act " , writing that Timberlake 's translation is of him telling everyone in the world that they are a " clueless fornicator " . Further in his report , Brooker opined that Timberlake " threatens us " by using " language so offensive " with the line , " You motherfuckers , watch how I attack " . In addition , Brooker noted that the line , " If that 's your girl you 'd better watch your back " , as Timberlake stating his intention to meddle in the private affairs of others . Barry Schwartz of Stylus noted that the song features " pillow talk " , in reference of the song 's " sex @-@ crazed lyrics " .
= = Critical reception = =
In the Billboard magazine review of the album , contributor Katy Kroll wrote that Timberlake " claims to be bringing ' sexy ' back to pop music , and indeed he is . You can almost feel beads of sweat rolling off the title track and ' SexyBack ' featuring Timbaland " . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly was complimentary towards Timbaland , producer of the song , writing that Timbaland offers " tougher , trickier rhythms , minimal live playing , a plethora of hip @-@ hop cameos , and a self @-@ consciously hard , edgy club sensibility " to " SexyBack " . Russell Baillie of The New Zealand Herald noted , " The producer 's angular synthesizer crunch is all over it – at best on the single ' SexyBack ' where they dispense with a chorus , leaving the song sustained by its vocal fireworks , electrofunk and Timberlake 's repeated declaration that ' I 'm bringing sexy back . ' " PopMatters ' contributor Quentin B. Huff wrote that " SexyBack " was the " fraternal twin " to Nelly Furtado 's 2006 song " Promiscuous " . Andrew Murfett of The Age wrote that the song was a " raunchy club banger that slyly suppresses " Timberlake 's customary falsetto . He continues , " it 's introduced a new phrase into the pop cultural lexicon " . Glenn Gamboa of Newsday was complimentary towards the song , writing that it was " Timberlake at his best , mainstreaming a combination of the wild , edgy dance @-@ pop style of Basement Jaxx with Missy Elliott 's more experimental hip @-@ hop to create a boldly inventive sound that still pleases the masses . "
Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times wrote : " ... ' SexyBack ' , a twitchy , emaciated track that shot to the top of the charts and also became an irritating catchphrase . ( Suddenly everyone was bringing AdjectiveBack . ) " Dagny Salas of North by Northwestern commented that Timberlake and Timbaland trade ridiculous lines , with " Get your sexy on / Go ahead , be gone with it " and " Dirty babe / You see these shackles / Baby I ’ m your slave / I ’ ll let you whip me if I misbehave . " Salas continued in her review that it was not a song that should be good , " but does that really matter when it ’ s Good in the way that songs are during the summer [ ... ] That kind of good makes songs like ' SexyBack ' completely irresistible . " Matt Burns of The Post wrote , " Take the polarizing summer single ' SexyBack ' , a repetitive song with little structure that doesn 't know when to stop , all centered on a ridiculous declaration . Somehow , it works . " The Diamondback 's Michael Greenwald reported that " SexyBack " was " lyrically , musically and vocally the weakest song " on the album . A writer of The State Journal @-@ Register was not impressed with the song and concluded , with " ' SexyBack ' is the most annoyingly dumb song to hit Billboard 's No. 1 since ' Hollaback Girl ' " . Guy Blackman of The Sunday Age wrote : " The distorted vocals and stilted production of first single ' Sexyback ' make Timberlake 's claim to be ' bringing sexy back ' ... seem almost laughable . " Entertainment Weekly put it on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade , " best @-@ of " list , saying , " Justin Timberlake We didn 't even know that sexy was missing until 2006 . We 're just happy Justin brought it back safe and sound . " Charlie Brooker , columnist for The Guardian , jokingly criticised Timberlake , saying " How DARE this dot @-@ eyed , crop @-@ haired , fun @-@ sized , guff @-@ tongued , pirouetting waif @-@ boy scamper on to the world 's airwaves and loudly proclaim to be the sole global administrator of all things sexy ? You 'd think it takes massive balls to do something like that , but given the shrill , squeaking vocals cheeping through his ghastly little gobhole , it 's safe to assume he 's got testes the size of capers . He 's practically a human dog whistle , the shrieking , high @-@ pitched , mosquito @-@ lunged ponce . "
Upon the song 's release , it received divided opinions , which pleased Timberlake . " This is such a departure from the first record , " said Timberlake . " More people might like it , less people might like it , but you can 't call me a chicken . "
= = Legacy and accolades = =
" SexyBack " helped introduce EDM sounds to top 40 radio , as it brought together variations of electronic dance music with Timberlake ’ s R & B sounds . VH1 listed it 3rd on their list of the " 100 Greatest Songs of the ’ 00s , " while Los Angeles Times listed it as an honorable mention among " the most timeless tunes of the 2000s " , with an editor stating it " sounded wholly unfamiliar and unique . " Entertainment Weekly deemed it a " modern day classic . "
" SexyBack " won the People 's Choice Award for Favorite R & B song at the 2007 awards ceremony . At the 49th Grammy Awards , " SexyBack " won a Grammy Award in the category of Best Dance Recording . At the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards , Timberlake won Male Artist of the Year for " SexyBack " , " Let Me Talk To You / My Love " , and " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " . Additionally , it won an ASCAP Pop Music Award in 2007 in the category Most Performed Songs .
= = Chart performance = =
" SexyBack " was commercially successful in the United States . The single debuted at number 90 on the Billboard Hot 100 in July 2006 . After climbing to number 31 , it propelled to number one the following week . " SexyBack " became Timberlake 's first number @-@ one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 from his Futuresex / Lovesounds album . The single spent seven consecutive weeks at the number @-@ one position on the Hot 100 . In addition to the Hot 100 , " SexyBack " also topped the following Billboard charts : Hot Dance Airplay , Hot Dance Club Play , Hot Dance Singles Sales , Pop 100 Airplay , Pop 100 , and Top 40 Mainstream charts . " SexyBack " was certified three @-@ times Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . This song made the then @-@ seventh @-@ biggest jump to number one in the Billboard Hot 100 history , climbing thirty spots from number 31 landing it at the summit of the chart on September 9 , 2006 . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the song had its biggest selling week in September 2006 and sold 250 @,@ 000 as a digital download . As of June 2014 , the song has sold 4 @,@ 494 @,@ 000 copies .
In the United Kingdom , " SexyBack " debuted at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart based solely on download sales one week prior to its physical release , and ascended to the top of the chart the following week , becoming Timberlake 's first UK number @-@ one single . On the Australian ARIA Charts , " SexyBack " debuted at number one and spent two consecutive weeks at the top becoming Timberlake 's second number one single there ( after " Rock Your Body " reached the summit in 2003 ) , and has been certified two @-@ times Platinum by ARIA Charts . Also , in Canada and Austria , the single has peaked at number three and number five respectively , becoming his most successful single tied with his third released single " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " in both nations . It has also been certified three @-@ times Platinum in Canada .
In Sweden , " SexyBack " peaked at number four , while in France it peaked at number eight becoming Timberlake 's first top ten hit from the album , and would later score two more top ten singles with " My Love " and " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " . The song peaked at number one in Germany , Ireland , New Zealand and Norway , and at number two in Switzerland and Belgium .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " SexyBack " was directed by Michael Haussman and features Spanish actress Elena Anaya . The video was filmed in June 2006 and shot in a luxury building in Barcelona , Spain . In discussion of the video filmed in Barcelona , Timberlake said : " Obviously we went for the architecture , the exteriors , the interiors — the vibe in Spain is different than anywhere else in the world . It 's so cool to shoot there , but the girls are also pretty hot , so that doesn 't hurt either " .
Timberlake decided to work with director Michael Haussman , following his work on Madonna 's 1994 music video for " Take a Bow " . " It 's one of my favorite videos Madonna 's ever done , " Timberlake said . " Even today , I still remember the visuals , the images , how he captured her . A lot of times , Madonna seems like she 's the person in control , and in that video , she seemed vulnerable . It was a cool thing to see . " The video was first shown on MTV 's Making the Video on July 25 , 2006 .
The video starts off with a cable car looking over a large city ( Barcelona , from the West looking East ) while a German newscast featuring Alexander von Roon plays on TV and switches to a luxurious @-@ looking hotel in Plaça de Catalunya with Elena Anaya taking off her sweater . It then cuts to Timberlake in a different room ; then to a club scene and Timberlake in front of a white background . The video alternates between those four viewpoints , with Timberlake and Anaya seeming to be spies in the hotel room and strangers in the club . At a certain point , Timberlake goes over to Anaya 's room by jumping over to her balcony . Then when Anaya goes to check it out , Timberlake traps and passionately has sex with her . In the club , it ends with Timberlake kissing Anaya in a bathroom stall . In the hotel room scene , Timberlake leaves by the same way he entered and moments later jumps to the next balcony before an explosion ensues . It ends with the figure of Anaya sitting in a chair beside a small television in which a kiss is frozen on the screen .
= = Live performances = =
Timberlake performed " SexyBack " and " My Love " as a medley for the opening of the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards and again for the MTV Europe Music Awards 2006 , which he also hosted . In addition , he performed the song at the Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show . On August 25 , 2013 , Timberlake performed " SexyBack " in a medley with other of his songs at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards .
" SexyBack " was featured on FutureSex / LoveShow ( 2007 ) , Legends of the Summer ( 2013 ) and The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 / 14 ) .
= = Cover versions = =
The indie rock band Rock Plaza Central gained attention for their radically different cover of " SexyBack " , with brass @-@ and @-@ banjo roots @-@ rock stylings . It was released as a promotional single and a bonus track on the Wal @-@ Mart version of the 2007 cover album Poison 'd ! by American rock band Poison . British soul singer Corinne Bailey Rae recorded a jazz / swing version whilst appearing on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge in 2007 . American pop rock band Maroon 5 covered the beginning of the song as part of a medley during their 2012 Overexposed Tour . Cartoon stars Weebl and Bob covered the song with their version " Pastry " including the refrain " I 'm bringing pastry back "
= = Track listings = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Rebellion of Cao Qin =
The Rebellion of Cao Qin ( simplified Chinese : 曹石之变 ; traditional Chinese : 曹石之變 ; pinyin : Cáoshí Zhī Biàn ) was a day @-@ long uprising in the Ming Dynasty capital of Beijing on August 7 , 1461 , staged by Chinese general Cao Qin ( 曹钦 ; d . 1461 ) and his Ming troops of Mongol and Han descent against the Tianshun Emperor ( 1457 – 1464 ) . The rebellion was orchestrated by Cao and his officers due to fear of being next on Tianshun 's purge @-@ list of those who helped him gain back the throne from his half @-@ brother the Jingtai Emperor , who had earlier succeeded during the 1449 Tumu Crisis . The leaked plot of rebellion was a failure , three of Cao 's brothers were killed during the ensuing battle , and Cao Qin was forced to commit suicide during the effort of a last stand against imperial troops storming his Beijing residential compound . The rebellion marked the high point in political tension over allowing Mongols to be employed in the Ming military command structure . Ming Chinese officials often made recompense with Mongol subordinates for military merits while at the same time strategically relocating their troops and families away from the capital .
= = Background = =
During the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) , the Mongols enrolled in military service were either originally prisoners of war or they were those who voluntarily submitted to the Ming and settled in China . Others fled their homeland on the northern steppe due to natural disasters such as droughts , seeking refuge in China where Mongol families found lodging and hospitality . Some Mongols became distinguished military officers , were granted noble ranks , and on rarer occasions became ministers in the state bureaucracy . Mongols of noble lineage socialized with Chinese literati of the two capitals ( Nanjing and Beijing ) while they also had their sons educated in the Chinese classic texts . Nonetheless , Mongols in the Ming Empire were often held in suspicion by Chinese Ming authorities . Mongols of lower social stature were often accused by Chinese officials of being prone to violence , banditry , and becoming beggars and even prostitutes . Ming officials used the excuse of military campaigns to relocate and scatter Mongol troops and families throughout China so that they would not be concentrated in North China ( which neighbored the enemy territory of the Mongol heartland ) . Wu Tingyun argues that there was a noticeable shift in Ming court policies after the 1449 Tumu Crisis in dealing with the Mongols ; he stated that beforehand the Ming court actively encouraged Mongol immigration , and afterwards merely managed those who had already sided with the Ming .
On July 20 , 1461 , after Mongols had staged raids in June into Ming territory along the northern tracts of the Yellow River , the Minister of War Ma Ang ( 马昂 ; 1399 – 1476 ) and General Sun Tang ( 孙镗 ; d . 1471 ) were appointed to lead a force of 15 @,@ 000 troops to bolster the defenses of Shaanxi . Historian David M. Robinson states that " these developments must also have fed suspicion about Mongols living in North China , which in turn exacerbated Mongol feelings of insecurity . However , no direct link can be found between the decision by the Ming Mongols in Beijing to join the [ 1461 ] coup and activities of steppe Mongols in the northwest . "
= = Day before the coup = =
On August 6 , 1461 , the Tianshun Emperor issued an edict telling his nobles and generals to be loyal to the throne ; this was in effect a veiled threat to Cao Qin , after the latter had his associate in the Imperial Guard murdered to cover up crimes of illegal foreign transactions . This soldier in the imperial guard had acted as Cao 's private commercial agent , but when this man failed to keep affairs secret , Cao had the soldier 's wife tell authorities that her husband had gone mad and fled . Lu Gao ( 逯杲 ; d . 1461 ) , head officer of the Imperial Guard , had authorities apprehend the missing soldier with approval of the Emperor , whereupon Cao had his former commercial agent beaten to death before authorities could reach him .
The General Shi Heng ( 石亨 ; d . 1459 ) , who aided Tianshun 's succession , starved to death in prison after a similar warning from an imperial edict ; his son Shi Biao ( 石彪 ) was executed in 1460 . Cao Qin was to take no chances in allowing himself to be ruined in similar fashion . Cao 's Mongol troops were veterans who had fought in several campaigns under the eunuch Cao Jixiang ( 曹吉祥 ) — Cao Qin 's adoptive father — in the 1440s . The loyalty of Cao 's Mongol @-@ officer clients was secure due to circumstances of thousands of military officers who had to accept demotions in 1457 because of earlier promotions in aiding Jingtai 's succession . Robinson states that " Mongol officers no doubt expected that if Cao fell from power , they would soon follow . "
Cao either planned to kill Ma Ang and Sun Tang as they were to depart the capital with 15 @,@ 000 troops to Shaanxi on the morning of August 7 , or he simply planned to take advantage of their leave . The conspirators are said to have planned to place their heir apparent on the throne and demote Tianshun 's position to " grand senior emperor " , the title delegated to him during the years of his house arrest from 1450 to 1457 , under Jingtai 's rule .
= = Murder of Lu Gao and Li Xian 's memorial = =
While Cao held a banquet for his Mongol officers on the night of August 6 , two of his Mongol officers slipped away from the festivity and leaked Cao 's plot to the high @-@ level Mongol commanders Wu Jin ( 吴瑾 ) and Wu Cong ( 吴琮 ) around 1 : 00 am to 3 : 00 am in the morning of August 7 . Wu Jin alerted General Sun Tang about the plot , and soon after Sun alerted the emperor with a message slipped through the Western Chang 'an Gate . Upon receiving this warning , the Emperor arrested the eunuch conspirator Cao Jixiang and had all nine gates of Beijing and all four gates of the Forbidden City blockaded . Meanwhile , Cao Qin began to suspect that the plot was leaked , and so moved with his troops around 5 : 00 to 7 : 00 am in the morning of August 7 to inspect the gates of the Imperial City ; when the Dongan Gate ( the eastern entrance ) failed to open , his suspicions were confirmed .
While his forces searched for Ma Ang and Sun Tang , Cao visited the home of Lu Gao , head of the Imperial Guard who led the efforts to investigate Cao Jixiang and Cao Qin , and killed Lu in his own home ( decapitating and dismembering him ) . After killing Lu Gao , Cao Qin found and detained the Grand Secretary Li Xian ( 李贤 ; 1408 – 1467 ) , showing him the severed head of Lu Gao and explaining that Lu had driven him to rebellion . Li Xian agreed to draft a memorial to the throne explaining that Cao Qin wished the emperor no harm , that his vengeance against Lu Gao was finished , and asked for an imperial pardon . Cao 's men had also detained the Minister of Personnel , Wang Ao ( 王翱 ; 1384 – 1467 ) , and using writing materials from his office Li and Wang composed the memorial . Wang and Li slipped the message through the door panels of the gate to the Imperial City , but the gates remained tightly shut , so Cao Qin began calling for the death of Li Xian . Wang Ao and Wan Qi ( 万祺 ; d . 1484 ) , a director of the Ministry of Personnel , dissuaded Cao Qin from killing Li , noting Li had written the funerary inscription for Cao 's adopted father Jixiang .
= = The failed coup and inner city battle = =
After Li 's message was unable to get through , Cao Qin began the assault on Dongan Gate , East Chang 'an Gate and West Chang 'an Gate , setting fire to the western and eastern gates ; these fires were extinguished later in the day by pouring rain . Defending these gates were 5 @,@ 610 imperial bodyguards , who were generously rewarded after the conflict for their merit in maintaining a strong defense . Ming troops poured into the area outside the Imperial City to counterattack ; Li Xian and Wang Ao were able to flee , but Wu Jin and the head of the Censorate , Kou Shen ( 寇深 ; 1391 – 1461 ) , were killed by Cao 's soldiers . Kou had earlier denounced Cao as a criminal and was an associate of Lu Gao ; when Cao 's soldiers found Kou in a waiting room outside Chang 'an Gate , he cursed at them before they cut him down .
General Sun led the charge against Cao Qin right outside Donghua Gate , while Ma Ang approached Cao Qin 's forces from the rear in a flank . Cao was forced to withdraw and set up temporary camp at Dongan Gate . By midday , Sun Tang 's forces had killed two of Cao Qin 's brothers ( Sun personally shot the second with an arrow after Cao Qin 's brother led cavalry charges against imperial troops ) . Sun 's forces had also severely wounded Cao Qin in both his arms ; his forces took up position in the Great Eastern Market and Lantern Market northeast of Dongan Gate , while Sun deployed artillery units against the rebels . Cao lost his third brother , Cao Duo ( 曹铎 ) , while attempting to flee out of Beijing by the Chaoyang Gate . Cao made another dash for the northeastern gates of the capital ( Anding Gate and Dongzhi Gate ) , and then back to Chaoyang Gate , all of which remained closed . Finally , Cao fled with his remaining forces to fortify his residential compound in Beijing . Ming troops under Sun Tang and the newly arrived Marquis of Huichang , Sun Jizong ( 孙继宗 ) , stormed the residence . To avoid arrest and execution , Cao Qin committed suicide by throwing himself down a well . Imperial troops recovered his body and then decapitated it .
= = Aftermath = =
As promised by Grand Secretary Li Xian before the final assault on the Cao residence , imperial troops were allowed to confiscate for themselves what they could find from Cao Qin 's property . Li had also given another incentive that any imperial soldier who captured a rebel would be rewarded with the same title and office their captive had . Those found to be followers of Cao Qin were soon after executed , including members of the Imperial Guard and the Yuzhou Guard on August 22 , 1461 . On August 8 , Cao Jixiang was publicly dismembered , a sentence and execution which ministers of state were made aware of by the Tianshun Emperor once he held an audience at the Median Gate . The dismembered corpses of Cao Qin and his brothers were left outside and exposed to the elements . Cao 's father @-@ in @-@ law was spared from punishment since it was known that he had refused to communicate with Cao Qin during the latter 's rise to power as a career general .
The Tianshun Emperor spared some of the culprits the sentence of death by commuting their sentence to imprisonment instead ; this included Vice Commissioner @-@ in @-@ chief Esen Temür , who lowered himself down the city walls of Beijing and was later found in a farmer 's melon patch as far as Tongzhou District . Others were exiled to Lingnan to " suffer the inhospitable tropical climate for the remainder of their lives , " according to Robinson . Li Xian also pressured the Emperor to pardon and exonerate " those who had been forced to join " Cao 's rebellion .
Rewards were given to those who captured the escapees of the plot , including Chen Kui , Grand Defender of Tianjin , who was promoted . On August 9 , the Mongol officer Wu Cong was put in charge of the Chief Military Commission of the Left ; in September , twenty taels of silver and two @-@ hundred piculs of grain were added to his stipend . Ma Ang was made the Junior Guardian of the Heir Apparent in September . Plaques were made to commemorate the dead who fought against Cao Qin .
Besides the handling of punishments and rewards , the court made other efforts to reestablish order in the capital region . Nonessential taxes were suspended . Nobles of the imperial clan patrolled the gates of the imperial city while rebels were still at large . Some residents in Beijing abused the order that they alert authorities of remaining culprits of the coup in order to label personal enemies as " rebels " to take their property . To discourage this , the emperor had several dozen of these looters beaten and paraded through the streets as criminals . In an edict of August 9 , the Emperor reassured loyal Mongol officers of Baoding that Mongol participation in Cao 's rebellion did not mean persecution for them . In October , Mi Duo @-@ duo @-@ lai , commander of Baoding and veteran Mongol officer who fought against Esen Tayisi 's 1449 invasion , was ordered to stay put in Baoding , a gesture by the emperor that there was no need to worry about loss of authority .
Three weeks after Cao Qin 's failed uprising , the Mongol leader Bolai , who had been staging raids into northern China , sent an embassy into China to request formal tribute relations and to serve as a vassal to the Ming . News of this rebellion reached the Joseon court of Korea by September 9 , while the Korean official in charge of the report perhaps embellished the level of gore and violence by stating that tens of thousands had died and the three days of pouring rain following the rebellion flooded even the Forbidden City with streams of blood and rain . A native rebellion would not threaten the capital city again until the fall of Beijing to the army of Li Zicheng in 1644 , marking the end of the dynasty and , shortly after , the beginning of Manchu conquest . Until the conquest of the Manchu Qing Dynasty , Chinese officials continued to show a large degree of apprehension over Mongols in military service to the Ming , and still favored relocation schemes . However , Cao 's rebellion marked the last event when Ming Mongols were of great importance to court affairs ; although many Mongol officers retained hereditary titles of noble lineage , the nobility within the military command structure declined as a whole while men from more humble origins eventually displaced them .
= = Historiography = =
= = = Pre @-@ modern sources = = =
The general Chinese history texts on the Ming Dynasty , including the Mingdai Shi and the Mingshi , briefly mention Cao Qin 's failed coup of 1461 . Cao Qin 's coup and the events leading up to it were covered in Gao Dai 's Hong you lu of 1573 , Jiao Hong 's Guochao Xianzheng lu of 1594 – 1616 , the Huang Ming shi gai of 1632 and the Mingshi jishi benmo of 1658 . Li Xian also wrote about Cao Jixiang 's career in his " Cao Jixiang zhi bian , " featured in the Huang Ming mingchen jingji lu that was edited by Huang Xun in 1551 .
= = = Modern sources = = =
The historian Meng Sen ( 1868 – 1938 ) , who compiled , edited , and commented on texts dealing with the Ming and Qing eras , stressed that Tianshun was an incompetent ruler for having allowed Shi Heng and Cao Jixiang to develop into formidable threats to central rule . Henry Serruys , whom Robinson calls " the most authoritative writer on the Ming Mongols " , did not mention this rebellion in any of his written works . Historians Tang Gang and Nan Bingwen remark in their 1985 publication of the Mingshi that the 1461 coup weakened the power of Ming rule . The historian David M. Robinson devoted the article Politics , Force and Ethnicity in Ming China to the subject of Cao Qin 's rebellion and the Ming Mongols . The historian Okuyama Norio wrote an essay in 1977 arguing that Cao Qin 's coup of 1461 should be understood as a single event in the wider context of continuous power struggles between civil officials and military officers during Tianshun 's reign .
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= Zinc =
Zinc is a chemical element with symbol Zn and atomic number 30 . It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table . In some respects zinc is chemically similar to magnesium : the ion is of similar size and the only common oxidation state is + 2 . Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earth 's crust and has five stable isotopes . The most common zinc ore is sphalerite ( zinc blende ) , a zinc sulfide mineral . The largest workable lodes are in Australia , Asia , and the United States . Zinc is refining by froth flotation of the ore , roasting , and final extraction using electricity ( electrowinning ) .
Brass , an alloy of copper and zinc in various proportions , was used as early as the third millennium BC in the Aegean , Iraq , the United Arab Emirates , Kalmykia , Turkmenistan and Georgia , and the second millennium BC in West India , Uzbekistan , Iran , Syria , Iraq , and Israel ( Judea ) . Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India and was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century . The mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th century BC . To date , the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar , in Rajasthan , as early as the 9th century AD when a distillation process was employed to make pure zinc . Alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called " philosopher 's wool " or " white snow " .
The element was probably named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German word Zinke ( prong , tooth ) . German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited with discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746 . Work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800 . Corrosion @-@ resistant zinc plating of iron ( hot @-@ dip galvanizing ) is the major application for zinc . Other applications are in electrical batteries , small non @-@ structural castings , and alloys such as brass . A variety of zinc compounds are commonly used , such as zinc carbonate and zinc gluconate ( as dietary supplements ) , zinc chloride ( in deodorants ) , zinc pyrithione ( anti @-@ dandruff shampoos ) , zinc sulfide ( in luminescent paints ) , and zinc methyl or zinc diethyl in the organic laboratory .
Zinc is an essential mineral perceived by the public today as being of " exceptional biologic and public health importance " , especially regarding prenatal and postnatal development . Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with many diseases . In children , deficiency causes growth retardation , delayed sexual maturation , infection susceptibility , and diarrhea . Enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry , such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans . Consumption of excess zinc can cause ataxia , lethargy and copper deficiency .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Zinc is a bluish @-@ white , lustrous , diamagnetic metal , though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish . It is somewhat less dense than iron and has a hexagonal crystal structure , with a distorted form of hexagonal close packing , in which each atom has six nearest neighbors ( at 265 @.@ 9 pm ) in its own plane and six others at a greater distance of 290 @.@ 6 pm . The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 ° C. Above 210 ° C , the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating . Zinc is a fair conductor of electricity . For a metal , zinc has relatively low melting ( 419 @.@ 5 ° C ) and boiling points ( 907 ° C ) . The melting point is the lowest of all the transition metals aside from mercury and cadmium .
Many alloys contain zinc , including brass . Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium , antimony , bismuth , gold , iron , lead , mercury , silver , tin , magnesium , cobalt , nickel , tellurium and sodium . Although neither zinc nor zirconium are ferromagnetic , their alloy ZrZn
2 exhibits ferromagnetism below 35 K.
A bar of zinc generates a characteristic sound when bent , similar to tin cry .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Zinc makes up about 75 ppm ( 0 @.@ 0075 % ) of Earth 's crust , making it the 24th most abundant element . Soil contains zinc in 5 – 770 ppm with an average 64 ppm . Seawater has only 30 ppb and the atmosphere , 0 @.@ 1 – 4 µg / m3 .
The element is normally found in association with other base metals such as copper and lead in ores . Zinc is a chalcophile , meaning the element has a low affinity for oxides and prefers to bond with sulfides . Chalcophiles formed as the crust solidified under the reducing conditions of the early Earth 's atmosphere . Sphalerite , which is a form of zinc sulfide , is the most heavily mined zinc @-@ containing ore because its concentrate contains 60 – 62 % zinc .
Other source minerals for zinc include smithsonite ( zinc carbonate ) , hemimorphite ( zinc silicate ) , wurtzite ( another zinc sulfide ) , and sometimes hydrozincite ( basic zinc carbonate ) . With the exception of wurtzite , all these other minerals were formed by weathering of the primordial zinc sulfides .
Identified world zinc resources total about 1 @.@ 9 billion tonnes . Large deposits are in Australia , Canada and the United States , with the largest reserves in Iran . At the current rate of consumption , one source has estimated those reserves could be depleted between 2027 and 2055 . About 346 million tonnes have been extracted throughout history to 2002 , and scholars for the National Academy of Sciences estimate that about 109 million tonnes are in use .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Five isotopes of zinc occur in nature . 64Zn is the most abundant isotope ( 48 @.@ 63 % natural abundance ) . That isotope has such a long half @-@ life , at 4 @.@ 3 × 1018 a , that its radioactivity can be ignored . Similarly , 70Zn ( 0 @.@ 6 % ) , with a half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 3 × 1016 a is not usually considered to be radioactive . The other isotopes found in nature are 66Zn ( 28 % ) , 67Zn ( 4 % ) and 68Zn ( 19 % ) .
Several dozen radioisotopes have been characterized . 65Zn , which has a half @-@ life of 243 @.@ 66 days , is the least active radioisotope , followed by 72Zn with a half @-@ life of 46 @.@ 5 hours . Zinc has 10 nuclear isomers . 69mZn has the longest half @-@ life , 13 @.@ 76 h . The superscript m indicates a metastable isotope . The nucleus of a metastable isotope is in an excited state and will return to the ground state by emitting a photon in the form of a gamma ray . 61Zn has three excited states and 73Zn has two . The isotopes 65Zn , 71Zn , 77Zn and 78Zn each have only one excited state .
The most common decay mode of a radioisotope of zinc with a mass number lower than 66 is electron capture . The decay product resulting from electron capture is an isotope of copper .
n
30Zn + e − → n
29Cu
The most common decay mode of a radioisotope of zinc with mass number higher than 66 is beta decay ( β − ) , which produces an isotope of gallium .
n
30Zn → n
31Ga + e − + ν
e
= = Compounds and chemistry = =
= = = Reactivity = = =
Zinc has an electron configuration of [ Ar ] 3d104s2 and is a member of the group 12 of the periodic table . It is a moderately reactive metal and strong reducing agent . The surface of the pure metal tarnishes quickly , eventually forming a protective passivating layer of the basic zinc carbonate , Zn
5 ( OH )
6 ( CO3 )
2 , by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide . This layer helps prevent further reaction with air and water .
Zinc burns in air with a bright bluish @-@ green flame , giving off fumes of zinc oxide . Zinc reacts readily with acids , alkalis and other non @-@ metals . Extremely pure zinc reacts only slowly at room temperature with acids . Strong acids , such as hydrochloric or sulfuric acid , can remove the passivating layer and subsequent reaction with water releases hydrogen gas .
The chemistry of zinc is dominated by the + 2 oxidation state . When compounds in this oxidation state are formed , the outer shell s electrons are lost , yielding a bare zinc ion with the electronic configuration [ Ar ] 3d10 . In aqueous solution an octahedral complex , [ Zn ( H
2O ) 6 ] 2 + is the predominant species . The volatilization of zinc in combination with zinc chloride at temperatures above 285 ° C indicates the formation of Zn
2Cl
2 , a zinc compound with a + 1 oxidation state . No compounds of zinc in oxidation states other than + 1 or + 2 are known . Calculations indicate that a zinc compound with the oxidation state of + 4 is unlikely to exist .
Zinc chemistry is similar to the chemistry of the late first @-@ row transition metals , nickel and copper , though it has a filled d @-@ shell and compounds are diamagnetic and mostly colorless . The ionic radii of zinc and magnesium happen to be nearly identical . Because of this some , of the equivalent salts have the same crystal structure , and in other circumstances where ionic radius is a determining factor , the chemistry of zinc has much in common with that of magnesium . In other respects , there is little similarity with the late first @-@ row transition metals . Zinc tends to form bonds with a greater degree of covalency and much more stable complexes with N- and S- donors . Complexes of zinc are mostly 4- or 6- coordinate although 5 @-@ coordinate complexes are known .
= = = Zinc ( I ) compounds = = =
Zinc ( I ) compounds are rare and require bulky ligands to stabilize the low oxidation state . Most zinc ( I ) compounds contain formally the [ Zn2 ] 2 + core , which is analogous to the [ Hg2 ] 2 + dimeric cation present in mercury ( I ) compounds . The diamagnetic nature of the ion confirms its dimeric structure . The first zinc ( I ) compound containing the Zn — Zn bond , ( η5 @-@ C5Me5 ) 2Zn2 , is also the first dimetallocene . The [ Zn2 ] 2 + ion rapidly disproportionates into zinc metal and zinc ( II ) , and has been obtained only a yellow glass only by cooling a solution of metallic zinc in molten ZnCl2 .
= = = Zinc ( II ) compounds = = =
Binary compounds of zinc are known for most of the metalloids and all the nonmetals except the noble gases . The oxide ZnO is a white powder that is nearly insoluble in neutral aqueous solutions , but is amphoteric , dissolving in both strong basic and acidic solutions . The other chalcogenides ( ZnS , ZnSe , and ZnTe ) have varied applications in electronics and optics . Pnictogenides ( Zn
3N
2 , Zn
3P
2 , Zn
3As
2 and Zn
3Sb
2 ) , the peroxide ( ZnO
2 ) , the hydride ( ZnH
2 ) , and the carbide ( ZnC
2 ) are also known . Of the four halides , ZnF
2 has the most ionic character , while the others ( ZnCl
2 , ZnBr
2 , and ZnI
2 ) have relatively low melting points and are considered to have more covalent character .
In weak basic solutions containing Zn2 + ions , the hydroxide Zn ( OH )
2 forms as a white precipitate . In stronger alkaline solutions , this hydroxide is dissolved to form zincates ( [ Zn ( OH ) 4 ] 2 − ) . The nitrate Zn ( NO3 )
2 , chlorate Zn ( ClO3 )
2 , sulfate ZnSO
4 , phosphate Zn
3 ( PO4 )
2 , molybdate ZnMoO
4 , cyanide Zn ( CN )
2 , arsenite Zn ( AsO2 )
2 , arsenate Zn ( AsO4 )
2 · 8H
2O and the chromate ZnCrO
4 ( one of the few colored zinc compounds ) are a few examples of other common inorganic compounds of zinc . One of the simplest examples of an organic compound of zinc is the acetate ( Zn ( O
2CCH3 )
2 ) .
Organozinc compounds are those that contain zinc – carbon covalent bonds . Diethylzinc ( ( C
2H5 )
2Zn ) is a reagent in synthetic chemistry . It was first reported in 1848 from the reaction of zinc and ethyl iodide , and was the first compound known to contain a metal – carbon sigma bond .
Tests for Zinc
Cobalticyanide paper ( Rinnmann 's test for Zn ) can be used as a chemical indicator for zinc . 4g of K3Co ( CN ) 6 and 1g of KClO3 is dissolved on 100ml of water . Paper is dipped in the solution and dried at 100 * C. One drop of the sample is dropped onto the dry paper and heated . A green disc indicates the presence of zinc .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient use = = =
Various isolated examples of the use of impure zinc in ancient times have been discovered . Zinc ores were used to make the zinc – copper alloy brass thousands of years prior to the discovery of zinc as a separate element . Judean brass from the 14th to 10th centuries BC contains 23 % zinc .
Knowledge of how to produce brass spread to Ancient Greece by the 7th century BC , but few varieties were made . Ornaments made of alloys containing 80 – 90 % zinc , with lead , iron , antimony , and other metals making up the remainder , have been found that are 2 @,@ 500 years old . A possibly prehistoric statuette containing 87 @.@ 5 % zinc was found in a Dacian archaeological site .
The oldest known pills were made of the zinc carbonates hydrozincite and smithsonite . The pills were used for sore eyes and were found aboard the Roman ship Relitto del Pozzino , wrecked in 140 BC .
The manufacture of brass was known to the Romans by about 30 BC . They made brass by heating powdered calamine ( zinc silicate or carbonate ) , charcoal and copper together in a crucible . The resulting calamine brass was then either cast or hammered into shape for use in weaponry . Some coins struck by Romans in the Christian era are made of what is probably calamine brass .
Strabo writing in the 1st century BC ( but quoting a now lost work of the 4th century BC historian Theopompus ) mentions " drops of false silver " which when mixed with copper make brass . This may refer to small quantities of zinc that is a by @-@ product of smelting sulfide ores . Zinc in such remnants in smelting ovens was usually discarded as it was thought to be worthless .
The Berne zinc tablet is a votive plaque dating to Roman Gaul made of an alloy that is mostly zinc .
The Charaka Samhita , thought to have been written between 300 and 500 AD , mentions a metal which , when oxidized , produces pushpanjan , thought to be zinc oxide . Zinc mines at Zawar , near Udaipur in India , have been active since the Mauryan period . The smelting of metallic zinc here , however , appears to have begun around the 12th century AD . One estimate is that this location produced an estimated million tonnes of metallic zinc and zinc oxide from the 12th to 16th centuries . Another estimate gives a total production of 60 @,@ 000 tonnes of metallic zinc over this period . The Rasaratna Samuccaya , written in approximately the 13th century AD , mentions two types of zinc @-@ containing ores : one used for metal extraction and another used for medicinal purposes .
= = = Early studies and naming = = =
Zinc was distinctly recognized as a metal under the designation of Yasada or Jasada in the medical Lexicon ascribed to the Hindu king Madanapala and written about the year 1374 . Smelting and extraction of impure zinc by reducing calamine with wool and other organic substances was accomplished in the 13th century in India . The Chinese did not learn of the technique until the 17th century .
Alchemists burned zinc metal in air and collected the resulting zinc oxide on a condenser . Some alchemists called this zinc oxide lana philosophica , Latin for " philosopher 's wool " , because it collected in wooly tufts , whereas others thought it looked like white snow and named it nix album .
The name of the metal was probably first documented by Paracelsus , a Swiss @-@ born German alchemist , who referred to the metal as " zincum " or " zinken " in his book Liber Mineralium II , in the 16th century . The word is probably derived from the German zinke , and supposedly meant " tooth @-@ like , pointed or jagged " ( metallic zinc crystals have a needle @-@ like appearance ) . Zink could also imply " tin @-@ like " because of its relation to German zinn meaning tin . Yet another possibility is that the word is derived from the Persian word سنگ seng meaning stone . The metal was also called Indian tin , tutanego , calamine , and spinter .
German metallurgist Andreas Libavius received a quantity of what he called " calay " of Malabar from a cargo ship captured from the Portuguese in 1596 . Libavius described the properties of the sample , which may have been zinc . Zinc was regularly imported to Europe from the Orient in the 17th and early 18th centuries , but was at times very expensive .
= = = Isolation = = =
Metallic zinc was isolated in India by 1300 AD , much earlier than in the West . Before it was isolated in Europe , it was imported from India in about 1600 CE . Postlewayt 's Universal Dictionary , a contemporary source giving technological information in Europe , did not mention zinc before 1751 but the element was studied before then .
Flemish metallurgist and alchemist P. M. de Respour reported that he had extracted metallic zinc from zinc oxide in 1668 . By the start of the 18th century , Étienne François Geoffroy described how zinc oxide condenses as yellow crystals on bars of iron placed above zinc ore that is being smelted . In Britain , John Lane is said to have carried out experiments to smelt zinc , probably at Landore , prior to his bankruptcy in 1726 .
In 1738 in Great Britain , William Champion patented a process to extract zinc from calamine in a vertical retort style smelter . His technique resembled that used at Zawar zinc mines in Rajasthan , but no evidence suggests he visited the Orient . Champion 's process was used through 1851 .
German chemist Andreas Marggraf normally gets credit for discovering pure metallic zinc , even though Swedish chemist Anton von Swab had distilled zinc from calamine four years previously . In his 1746 experiment , Marggraf heated a mixture of calamine and charcoal in a closed vessel without copper to obtain a metal . This procedure became commercially practical by 1752 .
= = = Later work = = =
William Champion 's brother , John , patented a process in 1758 for calcining zinc sulfide into an oxide usable in the retort process . Prior to this , only calamine could be used to produce zinc . In 1798 , Johann Christian Ruberg improved on the smelting process by building the first horizontal retort smelter . Jean @-@ Jacques Daniel Dony built a different kind of horizontal zinc smelter in Belgium that processed even more zinc . Italian doctor Luigi Galvani discovered in 1780 that connecting the spinal cord of a freshly dissected frog to an iron rail attached by a brass hook caused the frog 's leg to twitch . He incorrectly thought he had discovered an ability of nerves and muscles to create electricity and called the effect " animal electricity " . The galvanic cell and the process of galvanization were both named for Luigi Galvani , and his discoveries paved the way for electrical batteries , galvanization , and cathodic protection .
Galvani 's friend , Alessandro Volta , continued researching the effect and invented the Voltaic pile in 1800 . The basic unit of Volta 's pile was a simplified galvanic cell , made of plates of copper and zinc separated by an electrolyte and connected by a conductor externally . The units were stacked in series to make the Voltaic cell , which produced electricity by directing electrons from the zinc to the copper and allowing the zinc to corrode .
The non @-@ magnetic character of zinc and its lack of color in solution delayed discovery of its importance to biochemistry and nutrition . This changed in 1940 when carbonic anhydrase , an enzyme that scrubs carbon dioxide from blood , was shown to have zinc in its active site . The digestive enzyme carboxypeptidase became the second known zinc @-@ containing enzyme in 1955 .
= = Production = =
= = = Mining and processing = = =
Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use , trailing only iron , aluminium , and copper with an annual production of about 13 million tonnes . The world 's largest zinc producer is Nyrstar , a merger of the Australian OZ Minerals and the Belgian Umicore . About 70 % of the world 's zinc originates from mining , while the remaining 30 % comes from recycling secondary zinc . Commercially pure zinc is known as Special High Grade , often abbreviated SHG , and is 99 @.@ 995 % pure .
Worldwide , 95 % of new zinc is mined from sulfidic ore deposits , in which sphalerite ( ZnS ) is nearly always mixed with the sulfides of copper , lead and iron . Zinc mines are scattered throughout the world , with the main areas being China , Australia , and Peru . China produced 38 % of the global zinc output in 2014 .
Zinc metal is produced using extractive metallurgy . The ore is finely ground , then put through froth flotation to separate minerals from gangue ( on the property of hydrophobicity ) , to get a zinc sulfide ore concentrate consisting of about 50 % zinc , 32 % sulfur , 13 % iron , and 5 % SiO
2 .
Roasting converts the zinc sulfide concentrate to zinc oxide :
2 ZnS + 3 O
2 → 2 ZnO + 2 SO
2
The sulfur dioxide is used for the production of sulfuric acid , which is necessary for the leaching process . If deposits of zinc carbonate , zinc silicate , or zinc spinel ( like the Skorpion Deposit in Namibia ) are used for zinc production , the roasting can be omitted .
For further processing two basic methods are used : pyrometallurgy or electrowinning . Pyrometallurgy reduces zinc oxide with carbon or carbon monoxide at 950 ° C ( 1 @,@ 740 ° F ) into the metal , which is distilled as zinc vapor to separate it from other metals , which are not volatile at those temperatures . The zinc vapor is collected in a condenser . The equations below describe this process :
2 ZnO + C → 2 Zn + CO
2
ZnO + CO → Zn + CO
2
In electrowinning , zinc is leached from the ore concentrate by sulfuric acid :
ZnO + H
2SO
4 → ZnSO
4 + H
2O
Finally , the zinc is reduced by electrolysis .
2 ZnSO
4 + 2 H
2O → 2 Zn + 2 H
2SO
4 + O
2
The sulfuric acid is regenerated and recycled to the leaching step .
When galvanised feedstock is fed to an electric arc furnace , the zinc is recovered from the dust by a number of processes , predominately the Waelz process ( 90 % as of 2014 ) .
= = = Environmental impact = = =
Refinement of sulfidic zinc ores produces large volumes of sulfur dioxide and cadmium vapor . Smelter slag and other residues contain significant quantities of heavy metals . About 1 @.@ 1 million tonnes of metallic zinc and 130 thousand tonnes of lead were mined and smelted in the Belgian towns of La Calamine and Plombières between 1806 and 1882 . The dumps of the past mining operations leach zinc and cadmium , and the sediments of the Geul River contain non @-@ trivial amounts of heavy metals . About two thousand years ago , emissions of zinc from mining and smelting totaled 10 thousand tonnes a year . After increasing 10 @-@ fold from 1850 , zinc emissions peaked at 3 @.@ 4 million tonnes per year in the 1980s and declined to 2 @.@ 7 million tonnes in the 1990s , although a 2005 study of the Arctic troposphere found that the concentrations there did not reflect the decline . Anthropogenic and natural emissions occur at a ratio of 20 to 1 .
Zinc in rivers flowing through industrial and mining areas can be as high as 20 ppm . Effective sewage treatment greatly reduces this ; treatment along the Rhine , for example , has decreased zinc levels to 50 ppb . Concentrations of zinc as low as 2 ppm adversely affects the amount of oxygen that fish can carry in their blood .
Soils contaminated with zinc from mining , refining , or fertilizing with zinc @-@ bearing sludge can contain several grams of zinc per kilogram of dry soil . Levels of zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interfere with the ability of plants to absorb other essential metals , such as iron and manganese . Zinc levels of 2000 ppm to 180 @,@ 000 ppm ( 18 % ) have been recorded in some soil samples .
= = Applications = =
Major applications of zinc include ( numbers are given for the US )
Galvanizing ( 55 % )
Brass and bronze ( 16 % )
Other alloys ( 21 % )
Miscellaneous ( 8 % )
= = = Anti @-@ corrosion and batteries = = =
Zinc is most commonly used as an anti @-@ corrosion agent , and galvanization ( coating of iron or steel ) is the most familiar form . In 2009 in the United States , 55 % or 893 thousand tonnes of the zinc metal was used for galvanization .
Zinc is more reactive than iron or steel and thus will attract almost all local oxidation until it completely corrodes away . A protective surface layer of oxide and carbonate ( Zn
5 ( OH )
6 ( CO
3 )
2 ) forms as the zinc corrodes . This protection lasts even after the zinc layer is scratched but degrades through time as the zinc corrodes away . The zinc is applied electrochemically or as molten zinc by hot @-@ dip galvanizing or spraying . Galvanization is used on chain @-@ link fencing , guard rails , suspension bridges , lightposts , metal roofs , heat exchangers , and car bodies .
The relative reactivity of zinc and its ability to attract oxidation to itself makes it an efficient sacrificial anode in cathodic protection ( CP ) . For example , cathodic protection of a buried pipeline can be achieved by connecting anodes made from zinc to the pipe . Zinc acts as the anode ( negative terminus ) by slowly corroding away as it passes electric current to the steel pipeline . Zinc is also used to cathodically protect metals that are exposed to sea water . A zinc disc attached to a ship 's iron rudder will slowly corrode while the rudder stays intact . Similarly , a zinc plug attached to a propeller or the metal protective guard for the keel of the ship provides temporary protection .
With a standard electrode potential ( SEP ) of − 0 @.@ 76 volts , zinc is used as an anode material for batteries . ( More reactive lithium ( SEP − 3 @.@ 04 V ) is used for anodes in lithium batteries ) . Powdered zinc is used in this way in alkaline batteries and the case ( which also serves as the anode ) of zinc – carbon batteries is formed from sheet zinc . Zinc is used as the anode or fuel of the zinc @-@ air battery / fuel cell . The zinc @-@ cerium redox flow battery also relies on a zinc @-@ based negative half @-@ cell .
= = = Alloys = = =
A widely used zinc alloy is brass , in which copper is alloyed with anywhere from 3 % to 45 % zinc , depending upon the type of brass . Brass is generally more ductile and stronger than copper , and has superior corrosion resistance . These properties make it useful in communication equipment , hardware , musical instruments , and water valves .
Other widely used zinc alloys include nickel silver , typewriter metal , soft and aluminium solder , and commercial bronze . Zinc is also used in contemporary pipe organs as a substitute for the traditional lead / tin alloy in pipes . Alloys of 85 – 88 % zinc , 4 – 10 % copper , and 2 – 8 % aluminium find limited use in certain types of machine bearings . Zinc is the primary metal in American one cent coins ( pennies ) since 1982 . The zinc core is coated with a thin layer of copper to give the appearance of a copper coin . In 1994 , 33 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 36 @,@ 600 short tons ) of zinc were used to produce 13 @.@ 6 billion pennies in the United States .
Alloys of zinc with small amounts of copper , aluminium , and magnesium are useful in die casting as well as spin casting , especially in the automotive , electrical , and hardware industries . These alloys are marketed under the name Zamak . An example of this is zinc aluminium . The low melting point together with the low viscosity of the alloy makes possible the production of small and intricate shapes . The low working temperature leads to rapid cooling of the cast products and fast production for assembly . Another alloy , marketed under the brand name Prestal , contains 78 % zinc and 22 % aluminium , and is reported to be nearly as strong as steel but as malleable as plastic . This superplasticity of the alloy allows it to be molded using die casts made of ceramics and cement .
Similar alloys with the addition of a small amount of lead can be cold @-@ rolled into sheets . An alloy of 96 % zinc and 4 % aluminium is used to make stamping dies for low production run applications for which ferrous metal dies would be too expensive . For building facades , roofing , and other applications for sheet metal formed by deep drawing , roll forming , or bending , zinc alloys with titanium and copper are used . Unalloyed zinc is too brittle for these manufacturing processes .
As a dense , inexpensive , easily worked material , zinc is used as a lead replacement . In the wake of lead concerns , zinc appears in weights for various applications ranging from fishing to tire balances and flywheels .
Cadmium zinc telluride ( CZT ) is a semiconductive alloy that can be divided into an array of small sensing devices . These devices are similar to an integrated circuit and can detect the energy of incoming gamma ray photons . When behind an absorbing mask , the CZT sensor array can determine the direction of the rays .
= = = Other industrial uses = = =
Roughly one quarter of all zinc output in the United States in 2009 was consumed in zinc compounds ; a variety of which are used industrially . Zinc oxide is widely used as a white pigment in paints and as a catalyst in the manufacture of rubber to disburse heat . Zinc oxide is used to protect rubber polymers and plastics from ultraviolet radiation ( UV ) . The semiconductor properties of zinc oxide make it useful in varistors and photocopying products . The zinc zinc @-@ oxide cycle is a two step thermochemical process based on zinc and zinc oxide for hydrogen production .
Zinc chloride is often added to lumber as a fire retardant and sometimes as a wood preservative . It is used in the manufacture of other chemicals . Zinc methyl ( Zn ( CH3 )
2 ) is used in a number of organic syntheses . Zinc sulfide ( ZnS ) is used in luminescent pigments such as on the hands of clocks , X @-@ ray and television screens , and luminous paints . Crystals of ZnS are used in lasers that operate in the mid @-@ infrared part of the spectrum . Zinc sulfate is a chemical in dyes and pigments . Zinc pyrithione is used in antifouling paints .
Zinc powder is sometimes used as a propellant in model rockets . When a compressed mixture of 70 % zinc and 30 % sulfur powder is ignited there is a violent chemical reaction . This produces zinc sulfide , together with large amounts of hot gas , heat , and light .
Zinc sheet metal is used to make zinc bars .
64Zn , the most abundant isotope of zinc , is very susceptible to neutron activation , being transmuted into the highly radioactive 65Zn , which has a half @-@ life of 244 days and produces intense gamma radiation . Because of this , zinc oxide used in nuclear reactors as an anti @-@ corrosion agent is depleted of 64Zn before use , this is called depleted zinc oxide . For the same reason , zinc has been proposed as a salting material for nuclear weapons ( cobalt is another , better @-@ known salting material ) . A jacket of isotopically enriched 64Zn would be irradiated by the intense high @-@ energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon , forming a large amount of 65Zn significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon 's fallout . Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built , tested , or used .
65Zn is used as a tracer to study how alloys that contain zinc wear out , or the path and the role of zinc in organisms .
Zinc dithiocarbamate complexes are used as agricultural fungicides ; these include Zineb , Metiram , Propineb and Ziram . Zinc naphthenate is used as wood preservative . Zinc in the form of ZDDP , is used as an anti @-@ wear additive for metal parts in engine oil .
= = = Dietary supplement = = =
In most single @-@ tablet , over @-@ the @-@ counter , daily vitamin and mineral supplements , zinc is included in such forms as zinc oxide , zinc acetate , or zinc gluconate . Zinc is believed to be an antioxidant that may protect against accelerated aging of the skin and muscles of the body ; studies differ as to its effectiveness . Zinc also helps speed up the healing process after an injury . It is also suspected of being beneficial to the human immune system , and deficiency may be deleterious to virtually all parts of the system .
Zinc deficiency has been associated with major depressive disorder ( MDD ) , and zinc supplements may be an effective treatment .
Zinc serves as a simple , inexpensive , and critical tool for treating diarrheal episodes among children in the developing world . Zinc becomes depleted in the body during diarrhea , but recent studies suggest that replenishing zinc with a 10- to 14 @-@ day course of treatment can reduce the duration and severity of diarrheal episodes and may also prevent future episodes for as long as three months .
The Age @-@ Related Eye Disease Study determined that zinc can be part of an effective treatment for age @-@ related macular degeneration . Zinc supplement is an effective treatment for acrodermatitis enteropathica , a genetic disorder affecting zinc absorption that was previously fatal to affected infants .
Gastroenteritis is strongly attenuated by ingestion of zinc , possibly by direct antimicrobial action of the ions in the gastrointestinal tract , or by the absorption of the zinc and re @-@ release from immune cells ( all granulocytes secrete zinc ) , or both .
In 2011 , researchers at John Jay College of Criminal Justice reported that dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of drugs in urine . Similar claims appear in web forums .
= = = Zinc lozenges and the common cold = = =
In studies of zinc supplements and the common cold , zinc acetate produced the most positive results , apparently because acetate does not bind zinc ions .
= = = Topical use = = =
Topical preparations of zinc include those used on the skin , often in the form of zinc oxide . Zinc preparations can protect against sunburn in the summer and windburn in the winter . Applied thinly to a baby 's diaper area ( perineum ) with each diaper change , it can protect against diaper rash .
Chelated zinc is used in toothpastes and mouthwashes to prevent bad breath .
Zinc pyrithione is widely included in shampoos to prevent dandruff .
Zinc ions are effective antimicrobial agents even at low concentrations .
= = = Organic chemistry = = =
Organozinc chemistry is the science of copounds that contain carbon @-@ zinc bonds , describing the physical properties , synthesis , and chemical reactions.Many organozinc compounds are important . Among important applications are
The Frankland @-@ Duppa Reaction in which an oxalate ester ( ROCOCOOR ) reacts with an alkyl halide R 'X , zinc and hydrochloric acid to form the α @-@ hydroxycarboxylic esters RR 'COHCOOR
The Reformatskii reaction in which α @-@ halo @-@ esters and aldehydes are converted to β @-@ hydroxy @-@ esters
The Simmons – Smith reaction in which the carbenoid ( iodomethyl ) zinc iodide reacts with alkene ( or alkyne ) and converts them to cyclopropane
The Addition reaction of organozinc compounds to form carbonyl compounds
The Barbier reaction ( 1899 ) , which is the zinc equivalent of the magnesium Grignard reaction and is the better of the two . In presence of water , formation of the organomagnesium halide will fail , whereas the Barbier reaction can take place in water .
On the downside , organozincs are much less nucleophilic than Grignards , and they are expensive and difficult to handle . Commercially available diorganozinc compounds are dimethylzinc , diethylzinc and diphenylzinc . In one study , the active organozinc compound is obtained from much cheaper organobromine precursors
The Negishi coupling is also an important reaction for the formation of new carbon @-@ carbon bonds between unsaturated carbon atoms in alkenes , arenes and alkynes . The catalysts are nickel and palladium . A key step in the catalytic cycle is a transmetalation in which a zinc halide exchanges its organic substituent for another halogen with the palladium ( nickel ) metal center .
The Fukuyama coupling is another coupling reaction , but it uses a thioester as reactant and produces a ketone .
Zinc has found many applications as catalyst in organic synthesis including asymmetric synthesis , being cheap and easily available alternative to precious metal complexes . The results ( yield and ee ) obtained with chiral zinc catalysts are comparable to those achieved with palladium , ruthenium , iridium and others , and zinc becomes metal catalyst of choice .
= = Biological role = =
Zinc is an essential trace element for humans and other animals , for plants and for microorganisms . Zinc is found in nearly 100 specific enzymes ( other sources say 300 ) , serves as structural ions in transcription factors and is stored and transferred in metallothioneins . It is " typically the second most abundant transition metal in organisms " after iron and it is the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes .
In proteins , Zinc ions are often coordinated to the amino acid side chains of aspartic acid , glutamic acid , cysteine and histidine . The theoretical and computational description of this zinc binding in proteins ( as well as that of other transition metals ) is difficult .
Between 2 and 4 grams of zinc are distributed throughout the human body . Most zinc is in the brain , muscle , bones , kidney , and liver , with the highest concentrations in the prostate and parts of the eye . Semen is particularly rich in zinc , a key factor in prostate gland function and reproductive organ growth .
In humans , zinc plays " ubiquitous biological roles " . It interacts with " a wide range of organic ligands " , and has roles in the metabolism of RNA and DNA , signal transduction , and gene expression . It also regulates apoptosis . A 2006 study estimated that about 10 % of human proteins ( 2800 ) potentially bind zinc , in addition to hundreds more that transport and traffic zinc ; a similar in silico study in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana found 2367 zinc @-@ related proteins .
In the brain , zinc is stored in specific synaptic vesicles by glutamatergic neurons and can " modulate brain excitability " . It plays a key role in synaptic plasticity and so in learning . However , it has been called " the brain 's dark horse " because it also can be a neurotoxin , suggesting zinc homeostasis plays a critical role in normal functioning of the brain and central nervous system .
= = = Enzymes = = =
Zinc is an efficient Lewis acid , making it a useful catalytic agent in hydroxylation and other enzymatic reactions . The metal also has a flexible coordination geometry , which allows proteins using it to rapidly shift conformations to perform biological reactions . Two examples of zinc @-@ containing enzymes are carbonic anhydrase and carboxypeptidase , which are vital to the processes of carbon dioxide ( CO
2 ) regulation and digestion of proteins , respectively .
In vertebrate blood , carbonic anhydrase converts CO
2 into bicarbonate and the same enzyme transforms the bicarbonate back into CO
2 for exhalation through the lungs . Without this enzyme , this conversion would occur about one million times slower at the normal blood pH of 7 or would require a pH of 10 or more . The non @-@ related β @-@ carbonic anhydrase is required in plants for leaf formation , the synthesis of indole acetic acid ( auxin ) and alcoholic fermentation .
Carboxypeptidase cleaves peptide linkages during digestion of proteins . A coordinate covalent bond is formed between the terminal peptide and a C = O group attached to zinc , which gives the carbon a positive charge . This helps to create a hydrophobic pocket on the enzyme near the zinc , which attracts the non @-@ polar part of the protein being digested .
= = = Other proteins = = =
Zinc serves a purely structural role in zinc fingers , twists and clusters . Zinc fingers form parts of some transcription factors , which are proteins that recognize DNA base sequences during the replication and transcription of DNA . Each of the nine or ten Zn2 + ions in a zinc finger helps maintain the finger 's structure by coordinately binding to four amino acids in the transcription factor . The transcription factor wraps around the DNA helix and uses its fingers to accurately bind to the DNA sequence .
In blood plasma , zinc is bound to and transported by albumin ( 60 % , low @-@ affinity ) and transferrin ( 10 % ) . Because transferrin also transports iron , excessive iron reduces zinc absorption , and vice versa . A similar antagonism exists with copper . The concentration of zinc in blood plasma stays relatively constant regardless of zinc intake . Cells in the salivary gland , prostate , immune system , and intestine use zinc signaling to communicate with other cells .
Zinc may be held in metallothionein reserves within microorganisms or in the intestines or liver of animals . Metallothionein in intestinal cells is capable of adjusting absorption of zinc by 15 – 40 % . However , inadequate or excessive zinc intake can be harmful ; excess zinc particularly impairs copper absorption because metallothionein absorbs both metals .
= = = Dietary reference intake = = =
The Food and Nutrition Board of the U.S. Institute of Medicine updated Estimated Average Requirements ( EARs ) and Recommended Dietary Allowances ( RDAs ) for zinc in 2001 . The current EARs for zinc for women and men ages 14 and up are 6 @.@ 8 mg / day and 9 @.@ 4 mg / day , respectively . The RDAs are 8 and 11 mg / day . RDAs are higher than EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements . RDA for pregnancy equals 11 mg / day . RDA for lactation equals 12 mg / day . For infants up to 12 months the RDA is 3 mg / day and for children ages 1 – 13 years the RDA increases with age from 3 to 8 mg / day . As for safety , the Food and Nutrition Board also sets Tolerable Upper Intake Levels ( known as ULs ) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient . In the case of zinc the UL is set at 40 mg / day . Collectively the EARs , RDAs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes . The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and set its UL at 25 mg / day .
For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value ( % DV ) . For zinc labeling purposes 100 % of the Daily Value was 15 mg , but as of May 2016 it has been revised to 11 mg . A table of the pre @-@ change adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake . Food and supplement companies have until July 28 , 2018 to comply with the change .
= = = Dietary intake = = =
Animal @-@ sourced foods ( meat , fish , shellfish , fowl , eggs , dairy ) provide zinc . The concentration of zinc in plants varies with the level in the soil . With adequate zinc in the soil , the food plants that contain the most zinc are wheat ( germ and bran ) and various seeds ( sesame , poppy , alfalfa , celery , mustard ) . Zinc is also found in beans , nuts , almonds , whole grains , pumpkin seeds , sunflower seeds and blackcurrant .
Other sources include fortified food and dietary supplements in various forms . A 1998 review concluded that zinc oxide , one of the most common supplements in the United States , and zinc carbonate are nearly insoluble and poorly absorbed in the body . This review cited studies that found lower plasma zinc concentrations in the subjects who consumed zinc oxide and zinc carbonate than in those who took zinc acetate and sulfate salts . However , harmful excessive supplementation is a problem among the relatively affluent , and should probably not exceed 20 mg / day in healthy people .
For fortification , however , a 2003 review recommended cereals ( containing zinc oxide ) as a cheap , stable source that is as easily absorbed as the more expensive forms . A 2005 study found that various compounds of zinc , including oxide and sulfate , did not show statistically significant differences in absorption when added as fortificants to maize tortillas . A 1987 study found that zinc picolinate was better absorbed than zinc gluconate or zinc citrate . However , a study published in 2008 determined that zinc glycinate is the most readily absorbed of the four available dietary supplement compounds .
= = = Deficiency = = =
Zinc deficiency is usually due to insufficient dietary intake , but can be associated with malabsorption , acrodermatitis enteropathica , chronic liver disease , chronic renal disease , sickle cell disease , diabetes , malignancy , and other chronic illnesses . Groups at risk for zinc deficiency include the elderly , children in developing countries , and those with renal dysfunction .
In the United States , a federal survey of food consumption determined that for women and men over the age of 19 , average consumption was 9 @.@ 7 and 14 @.@ 2 mg / day , respectively . For women , 17 % consumed less than the EAR , for men 11 % . The percentages below EAR increased with age .
Symptoms of mild zinc deficiency are diverse . Clinical outcomes include depressed growth , diarrhea , impotence and delayed sexual maturation , alopecia , eye and skin lesions , impaired appetite , altered cognition , impaired host defense properties , defects in carbohydrate utilization , and reproductive teratogenesis . Mild zinc deficiency depresses immunity , although excessive zinc does also . Animals with a zinc deficiency require twice as much food to attain the same weight gain as animals with sufficient zinc .
Despite some concerns , western vegetarians and vegans do not suffer any more from overt zinc deficiency than meat @-@ eaters . Major plant sources of zinc include cooked dried beans , sea vegetables , fortified cereals , soy foods , nuts , peas , and seeds . However , phytates in many whole @-@ grains and fibers may interfere with zinc absorption and marginal zinc intake has poorly understood effects . The zinc chelator phytate , found in seeds and cereal bran , can contribute to zinc malabsorption . Some evidence suggests that more than the US RDA ( 15 mg ) of zinc daily may be needed in those whose diet is high in phytates , such as some vegetarians . These considerations must be balanced against the paucity of adequate zinc biomarkers , and the most widely used indicator , plasma zinc , has poor sensitivity and specificity . Diagnosing zinc deficiency is a persistent challenge .
Nearly two billion people in the developing world are deficient in zinc . In children , it causes an increase in infection and diarrhea and contributes to the death of about 800 @,@ 000 children worldwide per year . The World Health Organization advocates zinc supplementation for severe malnutrition and diarrhea . Zinc supplements help prevent disease and reduce mortality , especially among children with low birth weight or stunted growth . However , zinc supplements should not be administered alone , because many in the developing world have several deficiencies , and zinc interacts with other micronutrients .
= = Soil remediation = =
The Ericoid Mycorrhizal Fungi Calluna , Erica and Vaccinium can grow in zinc metalliferous soils .
= = = Agriculture = = =
Zinc deficiency appears to be the most common micronutrient deficiency in crop plants ; it is particularly common in high @-@ pH soils . Zinc @-@ deficient soil is cultivated in the cropland of about half of Turkey and India , a third of China , and most of Western Australia . Substantial responses to zinc fertilization have been reported in these areas . Plants that grow in soils that are zinc @-@ deficient are more susceptible to disease . Zinc is added to the soil primarily through the weathering of rocks , but humans have added zinc through fossil fuel combustion , mine waste , phosphate fertilizers , pesticide ( zinc phosphide ) , limestone , manure , sewage sludge , and particles from galvanized surfaces . Excess zinc is toxic to plants , although zinc toxicity is far less widespread .
= = Precautions = =
= = = Toxicity = = =
Although zinc is an essential requirement for good health , excess zinc can be harmful . Excessive absorption of zinc suppresses copper and iron absorption . The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants , invertebrates , and even vertebrate fish . The Free Ion Activity Model is well @-@ established in the literature , and shows that just micromolar amounts of the free ion kills some organisms . A recent example showed 6 micromolar killing 93 % of all Daphnia in water .
The free zinc ion is a powerful Lewis acid up to the point of being corrosive . Stomach acid contains hydrochloric acid , in which metallic zinc dissolves readily to give corrosive zinc chloride . Swallowing a post @-@ 1982 American one cent piece ( 97 @.@ 5 % zinc ) can cause damage to the stomach lining through the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach .
Evidence shows that people taking 100 – 300 mg of zinc daily may suffer induced copper deficiency . A 2007 trial observed that elderly men taking 80 mg daily were hospitalized for urinary complications more often than those taking a placebo . Levels of 100 – 300 mg may interfere with the utilization of copper and iron or adversely affect cholesterol . Zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interferes with the plant absorption of other essential metals , such as iron and manganese . A condition called the zinc shakes or " zinc chills " can be induced by inhalation of zinc fumes while brazing or welding galvanized materials . Zinc is a common ingredient of denture cream which may contain between 17 and 38 mg of zinc per gram . Disability and even deaths from excessive use of these products have been claimed .
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) states that zinc damages nerve receptors in the nose , causing anosmia . Reports of anosmia were also observed in the 1930s when zinc preparations were used in a failed attempt to prevent polio infections . On June 16 , 2009 , the FDA ordered removal of zinc @-@ based intranasal cold products from store shelves . The FDA said the loss of smell can be life @-@ threatening because people with impaired smell cannot detect leaking gas or smoke , and cannot tell if food has spoiled before they eat it . Recent research suggests that the topical antimicrobial zinc pyrithione is a potent heat shock response inducer that may impair genomic integrity with induction of PARP @-@ dependent energy crisis in cultured human keratinocytes and melanocytes .
= = = Poisoning = = =
In 1982 , the US Mint began minting pennies coated in copper but containing primarily zinc . The new zinc pennies pose a risk of zinc toxicosis , which can be fatal . One reported case of chronic ingestion of 425 pennies ( over 1 kg of zinc ) resulted in death due to gastrointestinal bacterial and fungal sepsis . Another patient who ingested 12 grams of zinc showed only lethargy and ataxia ( gross lack of coordination of muscle movements ) . Several other cases have been reported of humans suffering zinc intoxication by the ingestion of zinc coins .
Pennies and other small coins are sometimes ingested by dogs , requiring veterinary removal of the foreign objects . The zinc content of some coins can cause zinc toxicity , commonly fatal in dogs through severe hemolytic anemia and liver or kidney damage ; vomiting and diarrhea are possible symptoms . Zinc is highly toxic in parrots and poisoning can often be fatal . The consumption of fruit juices stored in galvanized cans has resulted in mass parrot poisonings with zinc .
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= Engleromyces sinensis =
Engleromyces sinensis is a species of fungus in the family Xylariaceae . It was described as new to science in 2010 , based on specimens collected in 1958 and incorrectly identified as Engleromyces goetzii . The fungus is known only from China , where it grows on bamboo culms . It forms fruit bodies in the shape of two roughly circular buff @-@ colored lobes measuring up to 50 cm ( 20 in ) in diameter that envelop the bamboo . E. sinensis has been used as a folk remedy against cancer and infection in Tibet , Yunnan , and Sichuan Provinces . Several bioactive metabolites have been isolated and identified from the fungus .
= = Discovery = =
Engleromyces sinensis was described as a new species in 2010 . The authors were studying members of the family Xylariaceae that were housed in the Mycological Herbarium of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing , and discovered that five specimens labeled as E. goetzii , collected from Jade Dragon Snow Mountain ( Yunnan Province ) in 1958 , did not match descriptions of the species published by Paul Christoph Hennings ( 1900 ) , Curtis Gates Lloyd ( 1917 ) , R.W.G. Dennis ( 1961 ) or Jack Rogers ( 1981 ) . These species descriptions , which were based on collections made in Africa , convinced the authors that the Chinese collections were sufficiently different from E. goetzii to warrant describing a new species . Prior to this discovery , Engleromyces was a monotypic genus . The specific epithet sinensis means " Chinese " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Engleromyces sinensis form two roughly spherical lobes that partially envelop the bamboo substrate . The official description gives dimensions of 4 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 9 in ) by 4 – 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 2 in ) and 1 @.@ 6 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) in height , although specimens in markets measuring 10 to 50 cm ( 4 to 20 in ) in diameter have been noted . When young , the surface is buff @-@ colored with a pinkish hue and slightly dimpled surface ; the color changes to grayish @-@ brown and the surface becomes smoother as the fungus matures . The internal flesh is buff colored , with a firm texture that later becomes woody . The ostioles ( minute openings through which spores are released ) , which are scattered about the surface of the fruit bodies , are somewhat nipple @-@ like when young but later become sharper ( punctate ) . Situated under a crust with a thickness of about 1 mm , the perithecia are arranged in rows . They are spherical to flask shaped , with eight @-@ spored asci . The asci are funnel or T @-@ shaped , somewhat like a golf tee , and measure about 4 by 4 µm . They have an apical apparatus ( a region at the ascus tip that forms the spore @-@ shooting mechanism ) that stains blue in Melzer 's reagent . The smooth , black ascospores are lined up in a single row , and feature drop @-@ like appendages that are visible when still in the ascus . Measuring 15 – 19 by 11 @.@ 5 – 12 @.@ 5 µm , they are broadly inequilateral with one or both ends shortened , and lack a germ pore .
In contrast to E. goetzii ( the type species of Engleromyces ) , E. sinensis has smaller spores , and an apical apparatus that is T @-@ shaped rather than cuboid . E. goetzii fruit bodies can grow quite large – " to the size of a football " – and weigh up to 4 kilograms ( 8 @.@ 8 lb ) . They only grow on the African alpine bamboo ( Yushania alpina ) . The Siamese jelly ball fungus , Gelatinomyces siamensis , produces fruit bodies that are superficially similar to those of E. sinensis . However , the former are smaller , have a gelatinous texture , and are only found in Thailand , where they grow on bamboo culms and branches at elevations ranging from 390 – 840 m ( 1 @,@ 280 – 2 @,@ 760 ft ) .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Engleromyces sinensis is known only from China , including its type location in Yunnan , China , in Yulong County . The fungus has also been collected from Mêdog County ( Tibet ) , where it was found growing in a coniferous forest . It has been collected at elevations between 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 500 m ( 6 @,@ 600 to 11 @,@ 500 ft ) . Fruit bodies grow on and partially envelop bamboo culms . Specifically , E. sinensis has been recorded from a species of bamboo variously known as Fargesia melanostachys or F. yulongshanensis , depending on the authority . Engleromyces collections made in Nepal , initially identified as E. goetzii , are likely to be E. sinensis .
= = Research = =
Engleromyces sinensis is used in China in traditional medicine for its antibiotic and antiinflammatory properties , and is sold in market stalls in Yunnan . Several bioactive metabolites have been isolated and identified from the fungus . It produces engleromycin , a cytochalasin . This compound , which is also made by E. goetzii , has antibiotic and cytotoxic activity . Additional metabolites include the novel compound neoengleromycin , and the previously known cytochalasin D and 19 @,@ 20 @-@ epoxycytochalasin D. Neoengleromycin has an unusual chemical structure featuring a rare amine @-@ substituted hydroxamic acid skeleton .
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