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= Puss in Boots =
" Master Cat , or The Booted Cat " ( Italian : Il gatto con gli stivali ; French : Le Maître chat ou le Chat botté ) , commonly known in English as " Puss in Boots " , is a European literary fairy tale about a cat who uses trickery and deceit to gain power , wealth , and the hand of a princess in marriage for his penniless and low @-@ born master . The oldest record of written history dates from Italian author Giovanni Francesco Straparola , who included it in his The Facetious Nights of Straparola ( c . 1550 – 53 ) in XIV – XV . Another version was published in 1634 , by Giambattista Basile with the title Cagliuso . The tale was written in French at the close of the seventeenth century by Charles Perrault ( 1628 – 1703 ) , a retired civil servant and member of the Académie française . The tale appeared in a handwritten and illustrated manuscript two years before its 1697 publication by Barbin in a collection of eight fairy tales by Perrault called Histoires ou contes du temps passé . The book was an instant success and remains popular .
Perrault 's Histoires has had considerable impact on world culture . The original Italian title of the first edition was Costantino Fortunato , but was later known as Il gatto con gli stivali ( lit . The cat with the boots ) ; the French title was " Histoires ou contes du temps passé , avec des moralités " with the subtitle " Les Contes de ma mère l 'Oye " ( " Stories or Fairy Tales from Past Times with Morals " , subtitled " Mother Goose Tales " ) . The frontispiece to the earliest English editions depicts an old woman telling tales to a group of children beneath a placard inscribed " MOTHER GOOSE 'S TALES " and is credited with launching the Mother Goose legend in the English @-@ speaking world . " Puss in Boots " has provided inspiration for composers , choreographers , and other artists over the centuries . The cat appears in the third act pas de caractère of Tchaikovsky 's ballet The Sleeping Beauty , for example , and makes appearances in other media . Puss in Boots is a popular pantomime in the UK .
= = Plot = =
The tale opens with the third and youngest son of a miller receiving his inheritance — a cat . At first , the youngest son laments , as the eldest brother gains the mill , and the middle brother gets the mules . The feline is no ordinary cat , however , but one who requests and receives a pair of boots . Determined to make his master 's fortune , the cat bags a rabbit in the forest and presents it to the king as a gift from his master , the fictional Marquis of Carabas . The cat continues making gifts of game to the king for several months .
One day , the king decides to take a drive with his daughter . The cat persuades his master to remove his clothes and enter the river which their carriage passes . The cat disposes of his master 's clothing beneath a rock . As the royal coach nears , the cat begins calling for help in great distress . When the king stops to investigate , the cat tells him that his master the Marquis has been bathing in the river and robbed of his clothing . The king has the young man brought from the river , dressed in a splendid suit of clothes , and seated in the coach with his daughter , who falls in love with him at once .
The cat hurries ahead of the coach , ordering the country folk along the road to tell the king that the land belongs to the " Marquis of Carabas " , saying that if they do not he will cut them into mincemeat . The cat then happens upon a castle inhabited by an ogre who is capable of transforming himself into a number of creatures . The ogre displays his ability by changing into a lion , frightening the cat , who then tricks the ogre into changing into a mouse . The cat then pounces upon the mouse and devours it . The king arrives at the castle that formerly belonged to the ogre , and , impressed with the bogus Marquis and his estate , gives the lad the princess in marriage . Thereafter , the cat enjoys life as a great lord who runs after mice only for his own amusement .
The tale is followed immediately by two morals : " one stresses the importance of possessing industrie and savoir faire while the other extols the virtues of dress , countenance , and youth to win the heart of a princess . " The Italian translation by Carlo Collodi notes that the tale gives useful advice if you happen to be a cat or a Marquis of Carabas .
This is the theme in France , but other versions of this theme exist in Asia , Africa , and South America .
= = Background = =
Perrault 's " The Master Cataa , or Puss in Boots " is the most renowned tale in all of Western folklore of the animal as helper . However , the trickster cat was not Perrault 's invention . Centuries before the publication of Perrault 's tale , Somadeva , a Kashmir Brahmin , assembled a vast collection of Indian folk tales called Kathā Sarit Sāgara ( lit . " The ocean of the streams of stories " ) that featured stock fairy tale characters and trappings such as invincible swords , vessels that replenish their contents , and helpful animals . In the Panchatantra ( lit . " Five Principles " ) , a collection of Hindu tales from the fifth century A.D. , a tale follows a cat who fares much less well than Perrault 's Puss as he attempts to make his fortune in a king 's palace .
In 1553 , " Costantino Fortunato " , a tale similar to " Le Maître Chat " , was published in Venice in Giovanni Francesco Straparola 's Le Piacevoli Notti ( lit . The Facetious Nights ) , the first European storybook to include fairy tales . In Straparola 's tale however , the poor young man is the son of a Bohemian woman , the cat is a fairy in disguise , the princess is named Elisetta , and the castle belongs not to an ogre but to a lord who conveniently perishes in an accident . The poor young man eventually becomes King of Bohemia . An edition of Straparola was published in France in 1560 . The abundance of oral versions after Straparola 's tale may indicate an oral source to the tale ; it also is possible Straparola invented the story .
In 1634 , another tale with a trickster cat as hero was published in Giambattista Basile 's collection Pentamerone although neither the collection nor the tale were published in France during Perrault 's lifetime . In Basile , the lad is a beggar boy called Gagliuso ( sometimes Cagliuso ) whose fortunes are achieved in a manner similar to Perrault 's Puss . However , the tale ends with Cagliuso , in gratitude to the cat , promising the feline a gold coffin upon his death . Three days later , the cat decides to test Gagliuso by pretending to be dead and is mortified to hear Gagliuso tell his wife to take the dead cat by its paws and throw it out the window . The cat leaps up , demanding to know whether this was his promised reward for helping the beggar boy to a better life . The cat then rushes away , leaving his master to fend for himself . In another rendition , the cat performs acts of bravery , then a fairy comes and turns him to his normal state to be with other cats .
It is likely that Perrault was aware of the Straparola tale , since ' Facetious Nights ' was translated into French in the C16 and from thence passed into the oral tradition .
= = Publication = =
The oldest record of written history was published in Venice by the Italian author Giovanni Francesco Straparola in his The Facetious Nights of Straparola ( c . 1550 @-@ 53 ) in XIV @-@ XV . His original title was Costantino Fortunato ( lit . Lucky Costantino ) .
Le Maître Chat , ou le Chat Botté was later published by Barbin in Paris in January 1697 in a collection of tales called Histoires ou contes du temps passé . The collection included " La Belle au bois dormant " ( " The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood " ) , " Le petit chaperon rouge " ( " Little Red Riding Hood " ) , " La Barbe bleue " ( " Blue Beard " ) , " Les Fées " ( " The Enchanted Ones " , or " Diamonds and Toads " ) , " Cendrillon , ou la petite pantoufle de verre " ( " Cinderella , or The Little Glass Slipper " ) , " Riquet à la Houppe " ( " Riquet with the Tuft " ) , and " Le Petit Poucet " ( " Hop o ' My Thumb " ) . The book displayed a frontispiece depicting an old woman telling tales to a group of three children beneath a placard inscribed " CONTES DE MA MERE LOYE " ( Tales of Mother Goose ) . The book was an instant success .
Le Maître Chat first was translated into English as " The Master Cat , or Puss in Boots " by Robert Samber in 1729 and published in London for J. Pote and R. Montagu with its original companion tales in Histories , or Tales of Past Times , By M. Perrault . The book was advertised in June 1729 as being " very entertaining and instructive for children " . A frontispiece similar to that of the first French edition appeared in the English edition launching the Mother Goose legend in the English @-@ speaking world . Samber 's translation has been described as " faithful and straightforward , conveying attractively the concision , liveliness and gently ironic tone of Perrault 's prose , which itself emulated the direct approach of oral narrative in its elegant simplicity . " Since that publication , the tale has been translated into various languages and published around the world .
= = Question of authorship = =
Perrault 's son Pierre Darmancour was assumed to have been responsible for the authorship of Histoires with the evidence cited being the book 's dedication to Élisabeth Charlotte d 'Orléans , the youngest niece of Louis XIV , which was signed " P. Darmancour " . Perrault senior , however , long was known to have been interested in contes de veille or contes de ma mère l 'oye , and in 1693 published a versification of " Les Souhaits Ridicules " and , in 1694 , a tale with a Cinderella theme called " Peau d 'Ane " . Further , a handwritten and illustrated manuscript of five of the tales ( including Le Maistre Chat ou le Chat Botté ) existed two years before the tale 's 1697 Paris publication . Pierre Darmancour was sixteen or seventeen years old at the time the manuscript was prepared and , as scholars Iona and Peter Opie note , quite unlikely to have been interested in recording fairy tales . Darmancour , who became a soldier , showed no literary inclinations , and , when he died in 1700 , his obituary made no mention of any connection with the tales . However , when Perrault senior died in 1703 , the newspaper alluded to his being responsible for " La Belle au bois dormant " , which the paper had published in 1696 .
= = Adaptations = =
Perrault 's tale has been adapted to various media over the centuries . Ludwig Tieck published a dramatic satire based on the tale , called Der gestiefelte Kater , and , in 1812 , the Brothers Grimm inserted a version of the tale into their Kinder- und Hausmärchen . In ballet , Puss appears in the third act of Tchaikovsky 's The Sleeping Beauty in a pas de caractère with The White Cat . In film and television , Walt Disney produced an animated black and white silent short based on the tale in 1922 . It was also adapted into a manga by the famous Japanese writer and director Hayao Miyazaki in 1969 , and in the mid @-@ 1980s , Puss in Boots was televised as an episode of Faerie Tale Theatre with Ben Vereen and Gregory Hines in the cast . Another version from the Cannon Movie Tales series features Christopher Walken as Puss , who in this adaptation is a cat who turns into a human when wearing the boots . Another adaptation of the character with little relation to the story was in the Pokémon anime episode " Like a Meowth to a Flame , " where a Meowth owned by the character Tyson wore boots , a hat , and a neckerchief . DreamWorks Animation released the animated feature Puss in Boots , with Antonio Banderas reprising his voice @-@ over role from the Shrek films , on November 4 , 2011 . This new film 's story bears no similarities to the book . The cat food named Puss n Boots is owned by Retrobrands USA LLC and is available in the USA and Canada .
= = Commentaries = =
Jacques Barchilon and Henry Pettit note in their introduction to The Authentic Mother Goose : Fairy Tales and Nursery Rhymes that the main motif of " Puss in Boots " is the animal as helper and that the tale " carries atavistic memories of the familiar totem animal as the father protector of the tribe found everywhere by missionaries and anthropologists . " They also note that the title is original with Perrault as are the boots ; no tale prior to Perrault 's features a cat wearing boots .
Folklorists Iona and Peter Opie observe that " the tale is unusual in that the hero little deserves his good fortune , that is if his poverty , his being a third child , and his unquestioning acceptance of the cat 's sinful instructions , are not nowadays looked upon as virtues . " The cat should be acclaimed the prince of ' con ' artists , they declare , as few swindlers have been so successful before or since . The success of Histoires is attributed to seemingly contradictory and incompatible reasons . While the literary skill employed in the telling of the tales has been recognized universally , it appears the tales were set down in great part as the author heard them told . The evidence for that assessment lies first in the simplicity of the tales , then in the use of words that were , in Perrault 's era , considered populaire and du bas peuple , and finally , in the appearance of vestigial passages that now are superfluous to the plot , do not illuminate the narrative , and thus , are passages the Opies believe a literary artist would have rejected in the process of creating a work of art . One such vestigial passage is Puss 's boots ; his insistence upon the footwear is explained nowhere in the tale , it is not developed , nor is it referred to after its first mention except in an aside .
According to the Opies , Perrault 's great achievement was accepting fairy tales at " their own level . " He neither recounted them with impatience nor mockery , and without feeling that they needed any aggrandisement such as a frame story — although he must have felt it useful to end with a rhyming moralité . Perrault would be revered today as the father of folklore if he had taken the time to record where he obtained his tales , when , and under what circumstances .
Bruno Bettelheim remarks that " the more simple and straightforward a good character in a fairy tale , the easier it is for a child to identify with it and to reject the bad other . " The child identifies with a good hero because the hero 's condition makes a positive appeal to him . If the character is a very good person , then the child is likely to want to be good too . Amoral tales , however , show no polarization or juxtaposition of good and bad persons because amoral tales such as " Puss in Boots " build character , not by offering choices between good and bad , but by giving the child hope that even the meekest can survive . Morality is of little concern in these tales , but rather , an assurance is provided that one can survive and succeed in life . Small children can do little on their own and may give up in disappointment and despair with their attempts . Fairy stories , however , give great dignity to the smallest achievements ( such as befriending an animal or being befriended by an animal , as in " Puss in Boots " ) and that such ordinary events may lead to great things . Fairy stories encourage children to believe and trust that their small , real achievements are important although perhaps not recognized at the moment .
In Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion Jack Zipes notes that Perrault " sought to portray ideal types to reinforce the standards of the civilizing process set by upper @-@ class French society " . A composite portrait of Perrault 's heroines , for example , reveals the author 's idealized female of upper @-@ class society is graceful , beautiful , polite , industrious , well groomed , reserved , patient , and even somewhat stupid because for Perrault , intelligence in womankind would be threatening . Therefore , Perrault 's composite heroine passively waits for " the right man " to come along , recognize her virtues , and make her his wife . He acts , she waits . If his seventeenth century heroines demonstrate any characteristics , it is submissiveness .
A composite of Perrault 's male heroes , however , indicates the opposite of his heroines : his male characters are not particularly handsome , but they are active , brave , ambitious , and deft , and they use their wit , intelligence , and great civility to work their way up the social ladder and to achieve their goals . In this case of course , it is the cat who displays the characteristics and the man benefits from his trickery and skills . Unlike the tales dealing with submissive heroines waiting for marriage , the male @-@ centered tales suggest social status and achievement are more important than marriage for men . The virtues of Perrault 's heroes reflect upon the bourgeoisie of the court of Louis XIV and upon the nature of Perrault , who was a successful civil servant in France during the seventeenth century .
According to fairy and folk tale researcher and commentator Jack Zipes , Puss is " the epitome of the educated bougeois secretary who serves his master with complete devotion and diligence . " The cat has enough wit and manners to impress the king , the intelligence to defeat the ogre , and the skill to arrange a royal marriage for his low @-@ born master . Puss 's career is capped by his elevation to grand seigneur and the tale is followed by a double moral : " one stresses the importance of possessing industrie et savoir faire while the other extols the virtues of dress , countenance , and youth to win the heart of a princess . "
The renowned illustrator of Dickens ' novels and stories , George Cruikshank , was shocked that parents would allow their children to read " Puss in Boots " and declared : " As it stood the tale was a succession of successful falsehoods — a clever lesson in lying ! — a system of imposture rewarded with the greatest worldly advantages . "
Another critic , Maria Tatar , notes that there is little to admire in Puss — he threatens , flatters , deceives , and steals in order to promote his master . She further observes that Puss has been viewed as a " linguistic virtuoso " , a creature who has mastered the arts of persuasion and rhetoric to acquire power and wealth . " Puss in Boots " has successfully supplanted its antecedents by Straparola and Basile and the tale has altered the shapes of many older oral trickster cat tales where they still are found . The morals Perrault attached to the tales are either at odds with the narrative , or beside the point . The first moral tells the reader that hard work and ingenuity are preferable to inherited wealth , but the moral is belied by the poor miller 's son who neither works nor uses his wit to gain worldly advantage , but marries into it through trickery performed by the cat . The second moral stresses womankind 's vulnerability to external appearances : fine clothes and a pleasant visage are enough to win their hearts . In an aside , Tatar suggests that if the tale has any redeeming meaning , " it has something to do with inspiring respect for those domestic creatures that hunt mice and look out for their masters . " Briggs does assert that cats were a form of fairy in their own right having something akin to a fairy court and their own set of magical powers . Still , it is rare in Europe 's fairy tales for a cat to be so closely involved with human affairs . According to Jacob Grimm , Puss shares many of the features that a household fairy or deity would have including a desire for boots which could represent seven @-@ league boots . This may mean that the story of " Puss and Boots " originally represented the tale of a family deity aiding an impoverished family member .
Stefan Zweig , in his 1939 novel , Ungeduld des Herzens , references Puss in Boots ' procession through a rich and varied countryside with his master and drives home his metaphor with a mention of Seven League Boots .
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= Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 4 =
Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 4 ( ペルソナ4 , Perusona Fō ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Atlus for Sony 's PlayStation 2 , and chronologically the fifth installment in the Persona series , itself a part of the larger Megami Tensei franchise . Persona 4 was released in Japan in July 2008 , North America in December 2008 , and Europe in March 2009 , and was later re @-@ released on the PlayStation Network in April 2014 . An enhanced remake for the PlayStation Vita , Persona 4 Golden , was released in Japan in July 2012 , in North America in November 2012 , and in Europe in February 2013 .
Persona 4 takes place in a fictional Japanese countryside and is indirectly related to earlier Persona games . The player @-@ named main protagonist is a high @-@ school student who moved into the countryside from the city for a year . During his year @-@ long stay , he becomes involved in investigating mysterious murders while harnessing the power of summoning Persona . The game features a weather forecast system with events happening on foggy days to replace the moon phase system implemented in the previous games .
The plot of Persona 4 was inspired by the work of mystery novelists owing to its murder mystery premise . The rural setting was based on a town on the outskirts of Mount Fuji and intended as a " ' nowhere ' place " and is the central setting to have players sympathize with the daily life of the characters . The developers added many in @-@ game events to prevent the game from becoming stale . During the localization , numerous alterations to names and cultural references were made to preserve the effect through translation , but some Japanese cultural references were altered or removed .
The release of the game in Japan was accompanied by merchandise such as character costumes and accessories . The North American package of the game was released with a CD with selected music from the game , and , unlike Persona 3 , the European package also contained a soundtrack CD . The music , as with the previous game , was composed primarily by Shoji Meguro . He was joined this time by Shihoko Hirata , who performed vocals on various songs , including the theme song " Pursuing My True Self " . The game was positively received by critics and developed into a full franchise . Various manga and light novel adaptations and spin @-@ offs have been produced . A television anime adaptation by AIC ASTA , titled Persona 4 : The Animation , aired in Japan between October 2011 and March 2012 , with an anime adaptation of Persona 4 Golden , produced by A @-@ 1 Pictures , airing as of July 2014 . The game has also spawned two fighting game sequels , Persona 4 Arena and Persona 4 Arena Ultimax , and a rhythm game , Persona 4 : Dancing All Night .
= = Gameplay = =
Persona 4 blends traditional RPG gameplay with simulation elements . The player controls the game 's protagonist , a teenage boy who is named by the player , who comes to the town of Inaba for a year . Gameplay is divided between the real world of Inaba , where the protagonist carries out his daily life , and the mysterious " TV World " , where various dungeons filled with monsters known as Shadows await . With the exception of scripted events , such as plot progression or special events , players can choose to spend their day how they like , be it participating in various real world activities , such as joining school clubs , taking part @-@ time jobs , or reading books , or exploring the TV World 's dungeons to gain experience and items . Days are broken up into various times of day , the most reoccurring being " After School / Daytime " and " Evening " , with most activities causing time to move on . Certain activities are limited depending on the time of day , days of the week , and the weather , with most evening activities unavailable if the player visits the TV World that day . Furthermore , some activities and dialogue choices may be limited by the protagonist 's five attributes ; Understanding , Diligence , Courage , Knowledge , and Expression , which can be increased by performing certain activities that build them . Whilst the player is free to choose how to spend their time , if they fail to rescue someone who is trapped in the TV World by the time fog appears in town , which takes place after several days of consecutive rain , the game will end , forcing the player to return to a week prior . As the game progresses , the protagonist forms friendships with other characters known as " Social Links " , which are each represented by one of the Major Arcana . As these bonds strengthen , the Social Links increase in Rank , which grant bonuses when creating new Personas in the Velvet Room . Additionally , strengthening Social Links with the main party members grant them additional abilities , such as the ability to perform a follow @-@ up attack or an additional ability for their Persona .
= = = Personas = = =
The main focus of the game revolves around Personas , avatars projected from one 's inner self that resemble mythological figures and represent the façades worn by individuals to face life 's hardships . Each Persona possesses its own skills , as well as strengths and weaknesses to certain attributes . As Personas gain experience from battle and level up , that Persona can learn new skills , which include offensive or support abilities used in battle , or passive skills that grant the character benefits . Each Persona can carry up to eight skills at a time , with older skills needing to be forgotten in order to learn new ones . Whilst each of the main party members have their own unique Persona , which transforms into a stronger form after maxing out their Social Link , the protagonist has the " Wild Card " ability to wield multiple Personas , which he can switch between during battle to access different movesets . The player can earn new Personas from Shuffle Time , with the protagonist able to carry more Personas as he levels up . Outside of the dungeons , the player can visit the Velvet Room , where players can create new Personas , or summon previously acquired Personas for a fee . New Personas are created by fusing two or more monsters to create a new one , which receives some of the skills passed down from its material monsters . The level of Personas that can be created are limited by the protagonist 's current level . If the player has built up a Social Link relating to a particular Arcana , then a Persona relating to that Arcana will receive a bonus upon creation .
= = = Combat = = =
Inside the TV World , the player assembles a party , consisting of the protagonist and up to three other characters , to explore randomly generated dungeons , each tailored around a victim who had been kidnapped . On each floor of a dungeon , the player may find roaming Shadows , as well as treasure chests containing items and equipment . Players progress through the dungeon by finding the stairs somewhere on each floor to progress to the next , eventually reaching the final floor where a boss enemy awaits . The player enters battle upon coming into contact with a Shadow . The player can gain an advantage by attacking the Shadow from behind , whilst being attacked from behind themselves will give the enemy an advantage . Similar to the Press Turn system used in other Shin Megami Tensei games , battles are turn @-@ based with characters fighting enemies using their equipped weapons , items , or the special skills of their Personas . Aside from the protagonist , who is controlled directly , the other characters can either be given direct commands or be assigned ' Tactics ' which alter their battle AI . If the protagonist loses all of his HP , the game ends , returning players to the title screen .
Offensive abilities carry several attributes , including Physical , Fire , Ice , Wind , Electricity , Light , Dark and Almighty . As well as various enemies carrying different attributes , player characters may also have strengths or weaknesses against certain attacks depending on their Persona or equipment . By exploiting an enemy 's weakness or performing a critical attack , the player can knock them over , granting the attacking character an additional move , whilst the enemy may also be granted an additional move if they target a player character 's weakness . If the player knocks all of the enemies down , they may be granted the opportunity to perform an " All @-@ Out Attack " , in which all the players rush the downed enemies to inflict heavy damage . Following a battle , players gain experience points , money , and items from their battle . Sometimes after a battle , the player may participate in a mini @-@ game known as " Shuffle Time " , which can grant player various bonuses or new Personas .
= = Story = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Persona 4 takes place in the fictional , rural Japanese town of Inaba , which lies among floodplains and has its own high school and shopping districts . Unexplained murders have taken place in the small town , where bodies are found dangling from television antennas and their cause of death unknown . At the same time , rumor has begun to spread that watching a switched @-@ off television set on rainy midnights will reveal a person 's soulmate . The game also follows the main characters into the TV World , a fog @-@ shrouded realm filled with monsters called Shadows , which can only be accessed through TV sets .
The protagonist is a high school student who has recently moved from a large city to Inaba , where he is to live and attend school for a year . At school , he quickly becomes friends with Yosuke Hanamura , the somewhat @-@ clumsy son of the manager of the local Junes megastore ; Chie Satonaka , an energetic girl with a strong interest in martial arts ; and Yukiko Amagi , a calm and refined girl who helps out at her family 's inn . A few days into the game , the protagonist , Yosuke , and Chie follow the " Midnight Channel " rumor , which leads them to discover the TV World and meet Teddie , a friendly creature that appears as a hollow bear costume . Using Personas , the students form an Investigation Team to investigate the connection between the TV world and the murders , and possibly capture the culprit . As the game progresses , the group gains new members , including : Kanji Tatsumi , a male delinquent who has a talent for feminine hobbies ; Rise Kujikawa , a former teen idol trying to find her identity who moves to Inaba as a transfer student ; and Naoto Shirogane , a young female detective investigating the case with the local police who wears masculine clothing and presents herself as male due to fear of rejection .
= = = Plot = = =
On April 11 , 2011 , the protagonist arrives in Inaba to live with the Dojimas , consisting of his uncle Ryotaro and his cousin Nanako , for one year , as his parents are working abroad . Just after his arrival , a TV announcer is found dead , her body hanging from an antenna ; Saki Konishi , the high school student who had discovered the body , is later found dead herself , hung upside @-@ down from a telephone pole . After the protagonist and his friends accidentally enter the TV world , they encounter Teddie , who helps them travel freely between the TV and real worlds . They awaken their Persona abilities , realizing that the murders stem from attacks by Shadows , beings native to the TV world created from repressed emotions , and are able to rescue several would @-@ be victims . Yosuke , Chie , Yukiko , Kanji , Rise , and Teddie one by one come to accept the parts of their psyches they rejected , which manifest as giant Shadows in the TV world , allowing them to wield Personas whilst each joins the group in turn . Mitsuo Kubo , a student from another high school who disappears following the death of Kinshiro Morooka , the protagonist 's foul @-@ mouthed homeroom teacher , claims credit for the murders ; it is eventually learned that Kubo only killed Morooka and played no part in the other murders , having murdered Morooka simply to gain credit for the other murders . Naoto Shirogane , a nationally @-@ renowned " Detective Prince " investigating the case , is also rescued and gains a Persona , and joins the group who learn that " he " is actually a girl who assumed a male identity to avoid the police 's sexism .
Events come to a head when Ryotaro Dojima mistakenly accuses the protagonist of being involved in the murders . Nanako is kidnapped during the protagonist 's interrogation , leading Ryotaro to engage in a vehicular pursuit with the culprit . The chase ends as they both crash ; the kidnapper escapes with Nanako through a television set in his truck , and the gravely @-@ injured Ryotaro entrusts her rescue to the group . The group tracks them down within the TV world ; the culprit , Taro Namatame , becomes a god @-@ like monster — Kunino @-@ sagiri — which attacks them but is defeated , and both he and Nanako are taken to the Inaba hospital . When Nanako appears to die , the group furiously confronts Namatame ; as the protagonist , the player must help the others realize that Namatame is not the killer by pointing out the lack of a proper motive , and subsequently work to determine that Ryotaro 's assistant , Tohru Adachi , is the true killer . Failure to do so ends the game with the party unable to solve the case ; Nanako either remaining dead , or reviving but remaining hospitalised ; and the recurring fog permanently setting in , the last of which will eventually lead to humanity 's demise .
Having identified the culprit as Adachi , the party chases and locates him within the TV world . Adachi explains that his actions were out of both boredom and the belief that humanity is better off believing what it wants ; his claims are dismissed by the party as the rantings of a madman . After fighting Adachi , he is possessed by Ameno @-@ sagiri , the Japanese God of Fog , who reveals that the fog is harmful to people and will eventually cause humanity to fall into a permanent state of ignorance and transform into Shadows . Upon his defeat , he agrees to lift the fog , congratulating the party on their resolve . Defeated , the wounded Adachi agrees to assume responsibility for his actions and turns himself in . The game moves forward to the day before the protagonist must travel home . If the player returns to the Dojima residence , the game ends with the party sending the protagonist off as he departs Inaba . Alternatively , should the player be able to identify the unexplained cause of the Midnight Channel and attempt to resolve this plot element , the protagonist meets with the party , and together they decide to end the case for good .
The protagonist confronts the gas station attendant encountered at the start of the game , who reveals herself to be the Japanese goddess Izanami , the " conductor " behind the game 's events . The cause of the recurring fog is established as an attempt to create a world of illusion by merging the TV world with the human world , all for the " sake " of humanity . The group tracks Izanami down within the TV world and battle her , but is at first unable to win ; the defeated protagonist is given strength by the bonds he has forged with those around him , and with this power awakens a new Persona — Izanagi @-@ no @-@ Okami — which he uses to defeat Izanami . In doing so , the fog in each world is lifted , and the TV world is restored to its original form . The game ends with the party sending the protagonist off the following day , and a post @-@ credits scene depicts the group resolving to remain friends forever , as the protagonist examines a photo of the party .
= = Development = =
According to the game director Katsura Hashino , while " ideas [ had been ] thrown around earlier " , development on Persona 4 in Japan did not begin until after the release of Persona 3 . The development team consisted of the team from Persona 3 and new hires which included fans of Persona 3 . Atlus intended to improve both the gameplay and story elements of Persona 3 for the new game , to ensure it was not seen as a " retread " of its predecessor . Hashino said that " to accomplish that , we tried to give the players of Persona 4 a definite goal and a sense of purpose that would keep motivating them as they played through the game . The murder mystery plot was our way of doing that . " The plot of Persona 4 was " greatly inspired " , according to Hashino , by mystery novelists such as Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , Agatha Christie and Seishi Yokomizo . Persona 4 was officially unveiled in the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu in March 2008 . An article in the issue detailed the game 's murder mystery premise , rural setting , and new weather forecast system . The game 's North American release date was announced at the 2008 Anime Expo in Los Angeles , California . Atlus would not make an add @-@ on disc or epilogue for Persona 4 , as had been done with the Persona 3 FES . Persona 4 allowed players full control of characters in battle . This was due to negative comments from players about most of the player team in Persona 3 being controlled by the game 's AI . The amount of data the team ended up incorporating around school life , character relationships and spoke character dialogue was so large that there were fears it would not fit onto a single disc . The anime cutscenes were produced by Studio Hibari .
The design of Inaba is based on a town on the outskirts of Mount Fuji . Its rural design was a source of conflict between Persona 4 's developers , as " each staff member had their own image of a rural town " , according to director Katsura Hashino . The entire staff went " location hunting " to determine Inaba 's design . Inaba does not represent " a country town that has tourist attractions " , but rather a non @-@ notable , " ' nowhere ' place " . Hashino described the town as being " for better or for worse ... a run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill town " . Unlike other role @-@ playing games , which may have large worlds for the player to explore , Persona 4 mostly takes place in Inaba . This reduced development costs , and enabled Atlus " to expand other portions of the game " in return . A central setting also allows players to " sympathize with the daily life that passes in the game " . To prevent the setting from becoming stale , the development team established a set number of in @-@ game events to be created to " keep the game exciting " . The choice of Japanese mythical figures for the characters ' Personas as opposed to the Graeco @-@ Roman deities used in earlier games was directly inspired by the new setting . The appearances of Personas were based on the characters ' personalities . The design team had a good deal of creating freedom , as while Japanese deities has well @-@ defined character traits , their appearances were generally little known . The Shadows were created by Hashino without much outside consultation , although he had help from female staff for female Shadow selves .
Despite living in the countryside , Persona 4 characters were designed to look and sound " normal " and like " modern high @-@ schoolers " , according to lead editor Nich Maragos . Initially , he wrote the game 's cast as being " more rural than was really called for " . " The characters aren 't really hicks ... They just happen to live in a place that 's not a major metropolitan area . " While interviewing members of Persona 4 's development team , 1UP.com editor Andrew Fitch noted that the characters from the city — Yosuke and the protagonist — have " more stylish " hair than the other characters . Art director Shigenori Soejima used hair styles to differentiate between characters from the city versus the country . " With Yosuke in particular , I gave him accessories , such as headphones and a bicycle , to make it more obvious that he was from the city . "
= = = Localization = = =
As with Persona 3 , the localization of Persona 4 was handled by Yu Namba and Nich Maragos of Atlus USA . In addition , there were four translators and two further editors . The Social Links were divided equally between the translators and editors . During localization of the game , character 's names were altered for the international audience for familiarity , including Kuma being renamed Teddie . A similar change was done for Rise Kujikawa 's stage name , " Risechie " ( りせちー , Risechī ) in Japan to " Risette " . Nanba also explained the change from " Community " ( コミュニティ , Komyuniti ) to " Social Link " , regarding the gameplay mechanic , as " community " has a different meaning in English , whereas Igor in his speeches often refers to " society " and " bonds " . Names were also altered for pun and other linguistic effect including dungeon items ' names such as the Kae Rail ( カエレール , Kaerēru ) becoming the " Goho @-@ M " , as the item 's use of returning the player to the entrance was taken to be " go home " and changing Junes 's slogan from " Everyday Young Life ! Junes ! " ( エヴリディ ・ ヤングライフ ！ ジュネス ！ , Evuridei Yangu Raifu ! Junesu ! , with " Junes " coming from the French Jeunesse for youth ) to " Everyday 's great at your Junes " , and eliminating some Japanese cultural references that would not transfer , such as the reference to Kosuke Kindaichi . There were also some issues regarding the translation of the names of Yukiko , Kanji and Rise 's dungeons , as the English names were made to fit the original Japanese graphics , and the " Void Quest " dungeon 's graphics were specifically made to harken back to the NES . He also remarked on how popular the interpretations of Kanji 's Shadow were in the west , and how it did not change how the character was seen by the other audience . A different change was the fact the main characters in the English dub referred to others members of the cast on a first @-@ name basis , while the Japanese version differed in this regard . For the dub , the editors sometimes switched between first @-@ name and last @-@ name referral for dramatic effect .
Atlus 's senior project manager Masaru Nanba commented it was decided that " Shin Megami Tensei " was to be kept in the title of Persona 3 and Persona 4 , as it was believed that they were part of the same series as Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne ; however , the " Shin Megami Tensei " title was omitted from both Persona 4 Golden and Persona 4 Arena , as it would have been much too long . Similarly , Persona 4 : The Ultimate in Mayonaka Arena and Persona 4 : The Golden were shortened to the previously stated titles . As with Persona 3 , the honorifics used in the Japanese voice track were retained in the English dub , despite proving contentions among series fans . This was done as part of an intended trend to remain faithful to the original source material . The pronunciations of honorifics , along with the sounds of names , were a point that was carefully considered by the localization team and it took a while for the English cast to get used to them . A member of the English dub that also appeared in Persona 3 was Yuri Lowenthal . Though he had dubbed characters in Persona 3 , Namba wanted him to have a larger part . His role as Yosuke ended up featuring 1000 more lines of dialogue than the other major characters . Important roles for the localization team were Teddie and Rise , as they would be the party 's supports . Another element in the English script was that the use of swear words was increased over Persona 3 : the first draft featured very strong language which was cut as it did not seem suited . The character Kanji was given a lot of swearing in his dialogue , due to his volatile nature . The use of swearing was carefully considered depending on the emotional situation .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack was primarily composed and directed by Shoji Meguro . The soundtrack features songs with vocals by Shihoko Hirata , whom Meguro felt was able to meet the range of emotion needed for the soundtrack , with the lyrics being written by Reiko Tanaka . Meguro was given a rough outline of the game 's plot and worked on the music in the same manner and simultaneously with the development of the story and spoken dialog , starting with the overall shape of the songs and eventually working on the finer details . According to Meguro , the songs " Pursuing My True Self " and " Reach Out to the Truth " were composed to reflect the inner conflicts of the game 's main characters ; the former song , used as the opening theme , helped to set an understanding of the characters ' conflicts , while the latter , used in battle sequences , emphasized the " strength of these characters to work through their internal struggles . " The " Aria of the Soul " theme used in the Velvet Room , a concept common to all the Persona games , remained relatively unchanged , with Meguro believing " the shape of the song had been well @-@ defined " from previous games . Composers Atsushi Kitajoh and Ryota Koduka also contributed music for the game . Kitajoh , who had previously written music for Atlus with Growlanser VI and Trauma Center : New Blood , contributed four themes to Persona 4 , while Koduka wrote the " Theme of Junes " .
Persona 4 's two @-@ disc soundtrack was released in Japan by Aniplex on July 23 , 2008 . The soundtrack was also released in North America . The side A of the soundtrack is the bonus disc packaged with each game , while side B of the soundtrack was part of Amazon.com 's exclusive Persona 4 Social Link Expansion Pack . Similarly to Persona 3 , a " Reincarnation " album , titled Never More , was released in Japan on October 26 , 2011 , featuring full length cuts of the game 's vocal tracks and extended mixes of some of the instrumental tracks . Never More made it to the top of both the Oricon Weekly Album Charts and Billboard 's Japan Top Albums chart for the week of its release , selling nearly 27 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Remake and spinoffs = =
= = = Persona 4 Golden = = =
Persona 4 Golden , released in Japan as Persona 4 : The Golden ( ペルソナ4 ザ ・ ゴールデン , Perusona Fō Za Gōruden ) , was announced in August 2011 as an enhanced remake of Persona 4 for the portable PlayStation Vita . It was originally planned by Atlus to be a PlayStation Portable title , similar to Persona 3 Portable , which would have required removing some of the features of the PlayStation 2 game . However , the Vita provided sufficient resources that allowed Atlus to expand the game . It is an expanded version of the PlayStation 2 title , adding new features and story elements to the game . A new character named Marie was added to the story . Additional Personas , character outfits , and expanded spoken lines and anime cutscenes are included as well as two new Social Links for Marie and Tohru Adachi . The game supports the wireless networking features of the Vita , allowing a player to call in help from other players to help in dungeon battles . Another new feature is a garden that produces items the player can use in the various dungeons . The game was released in Japan on June 14 , 2012 . Persona 4 : The Golden is also the first Persona game to be released in traditional Chinese .
The release of Persona 4 : The Golden resulted in the surge of sales of PlayStation Vitas . During its debut week , the game sold 137 @,@ 076 units in Japan . Media Create stated that the game 's outstanding sales that surpassed the debuts of other titles from Persona series may be due to the exposure the Persona 4 game has had in other forms of media . As of mid @-@ July 2012 , the game had sold 193 @,@ 412 units in Japan . The game was the eighth most purchased digital Vita game on the Japanese PlayStation Network in 2013 . As of April 2014 , the game shipped 350 @,@ 000 copies in Japan , and over 700 @,@ 000 copies were shipped worldwide as of December 2013 .
A soundtrack was released in Japan on June 27 , 2012 , consisting of a single disc of 15 new tracks composed and arranged by Shoji Meguro and Atsushi Kitajoh .
In an interview with RPGamer at E3 2012 , Atlus USA revealed that in terms of bonus content in the special " TV Channel " feature , the US release will have 99 @.@ 9 % of the content the Japanese version has , with only one or two commercials missing . It was released for the PlayStation Vita on November 20 , 2012 . A special 10 @,@ 000 copies were also released on November 20 , 2012 , as the " Solid Gold Premium Edition " . NIS America released the game in Europe on February 22 , 2013 .
= = = Persona 4 Arena = = =
A fighting game sequel , Persona 4 Arena , known in Japan as Persona 4 : The Ultimate in Mayonaka Arena , was developed by Arc System Works , the company known for creating the Guilty Gear and BlazBlue series , and released in 2012 for arcades , PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . As with the anime , the protagonist is named Yu Narukami . Aigis , Mitsuru , Elizabeth , and Akihiko from Persona 3 are also featured in the game . Set two months following the True Ending of the original game , the members of the Investigation Team are pulled back into the television and forced into a fighting tournament called the " P @-@ 1 Grand Prix " hosted by Teddie .
A sequel , Persona 4 Arena Ultimax , was released in Japanese arcades in November 2013 , and for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in late 2014 . Taking place a day after the events of Arena , the Investigation Team must defeat their Shadows in a new tournament , the " P @-@ 1 Climax " , in order to rescue the captive Shadow Operatives and stop the spread of a mysterious red fog engulfing Inaba . The game adds seven playable characters from Persona 3 and Persona 4 Golden , as well as a new playable antagonist , Sho Minazuki .
= = = Persona Q : Shadow of the Labyrinth = = =
Persona Q : Shadow of the Labyrinth is a dungeon @-@ crawler RPG developed for the Nintendo 3DS , which features characters from both Persona 3 and Persona 4 , as well as gameplay elements from the Etrian Odyssey series . Set midway through the events of Persona 4 , the Investigation Team is pulled into an alternate version of Yasogami High and must work with the members of SEES to find a means of escape . The game was released in Japan on June 5 , 2014 , North America on November 25 , 2014 and Europe on November 28 , 2014 .
= = = Persona 4 : Dancing All Night = = =
Persona 4 : Dancing All Night is a rhythm game developed by Atlus for the PlayStation Vita , featuring music from the Persona series . The game takes place half a year following the events of Persona 4 , as the Investigation Team look into a mysterious " Midnight Stage " , which is abducting girls from Rise 's idol group . The game was released in Japan on 25 June 2015 .
= = Other media = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
With the release of Persona 4 , Atlus has also produced a line of merchandise , including action figures , published materials , toys and clothes . Atlus collaborated with the Japanese publishing company Enterbrain to publish the game 's two strategy guides , an artbook detailing character and setting designs , as well a fan book called Persona Club P4 which included official artwork , fan art , as well as interviews with the design staff . Most items were only released in Japan , while other Japanese third @-@ party manufacturers also produced figurines and toys . The action figures include a 1 / 8 scale PVC figurine of Yukiko Amagi as well as Teddie and Rise Kujikawa , produced by Alter . Licensed Atlus merchandise sold by Cospa includes Persona 4 t @-@ shirts , tote bags , and the jacket and other accessories worn by the character Chie .
Udon recently announced that they will release an English edition of Enterbrain 's Persona 4 : Official Design Works artbook to be released May 8 , 2012 .
= = = Manga = = =
Persona 4 was also given a manga adaptation . It is written by Shūji Sogabe , the artist for Persona 3 's manga , and started serialization in ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Black Maoh Volume 5 in September 2008 . The first tankōbon volume was released on September 26 , 2009 , and six volumes have been released as of February 27 , 2012 .
Shiichi Kukura also authored Persona 4 The Magician ( ペルソナ4 The Magician ) , a manga that focuses on Yosuke Hanamura 's life in Inaba before the game 's start . Its only volume was released on August 27 , 2012 . A manga adaptation of the light novel Persona × Detective Naoto , illustrated by Satoshi Shiki , began serialization in Dengeki Maoh magazine from November 27 , 2012 .
= = = Light novel = = =
Mamiya Natsuki wrote a light novel titled Persona × Detective Naoto ( ペルソナ × 探偵NAOTO , Perusona × Tantei Naoto ) that focuses on the character of Naoto Shirogane a year after the events of Persona 4 . She is hired to investigate the disappearance of a childhood friend in Yagakoro City where she is partnered with Sousei Kurogami , a mechanized detective . With illustrations by Shigenori Soejima and Shuji Sogabe , the light novel was released by Dengeki Bunko on June 8 , 2012 in Japan .
= = = Anime = = =
A 25 @-@ episode television anime adaptation of the game , produced by AIC A.S.T.A. and directed by Seiji Kishi , aired on MBS between October 6 , 2011 and March 29 , 2012 . An additional 26th episode , featuring the story 's true ending , was released in the 10th volume of Persona 4 on August 22 , 2013 . The series features most of the returning cast from the video game , whilst voice recordings for Igor were taken from the game as his actor , Isamu Tanonaka , died in January 2010 . Aniplex released the series on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc between November 23 , 2011 and August 22 , 2012 , with the first volume containing a director 's cut of the first episode and a bonus CD single . Sentai Filmworks licensed the series in North America , simulcasting it on Anime Network as it aired and releasing the series on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in two collective volumes on September 18 , 2012 and January 15 , 2013 respectively . Like the Japanese version , the English dub retains many of the original voice actors from the English version of the game , although the Blu @-@ ray Disc release omits the Japanese audio option . Kazé and Manga Entertainment released the series in the United Kingdom in three BD / DVD combi boxsets released between December 24 , 2012 and July 22 , 2013 . A film recap of the series , titled Persona 4 The Animation -The Factor of Hope- , was released in Japanese theaters on June 9 , 2012 , featuring a condensed version of the story and new scenes of animation . A second anime adaptation based on Persona 4 Golden , titled Persona 4 : The Golden Animation , is being produced by A @-@ 1 Pictures and began airing on MBS ' Animeism block in July 2014 .
= = = Stage production = = =
A live stage production titled VisuaLive : Persona 4 ( VISUALIVE 『 ペルソナ4 』 , VisuaLive : Perusona Fo ) took place from March 15 – 20 , 2012 . Actors starring in the stage production include Toru Baba as the audience @-@ named protagonist , Takahisa Maeyama as Yosuke Hanamura , Minami Tsukui as Chie Satonaka , Risa Yoshiki as Yukiko Amagi , Jyōji Saotome as Daisuke Nagase , Motohiro Ota as Kou Ichijo , and Masashi Taniguchi as Ryotaro Dojima , and Masami Ito as Tohru Adachi . Kappei Yamaguchi reprised his role as Teddie in voice . Following the announcement , Youichiro Omi was cast as Kanji Tatsumi on December 1 , 2011 . VisuaLive : Persona 4 chronicled the events of the game up until Kanji 's inclusion into the party . A second stage production , titled VisuaLive : Persona 4 : The Evolution ( VISUALIVE 『 ペルソナ4 The Evolution 』 , VisuaLive : Perusona Fo The Evolution ) , chronicled the second half of the events of the story and took place from October 3 – 9 , 2012 . Additions to the cast include Yuriya Suzuki as Rise Kujikawa , Juria Kawakami as Naoto Shirogane , Yasuhiro Roppongi as Tarou Namatame , Shotaro Mamiya as Izanami and Arisa Nakajima as Margaret . Yumi Sugimoto replaced Yoshiki as Yukiko Amagi .
= = Release and reception = =
Persona 4 was highly acclaimed by critics within and outside Japan , and remained on top of sales charts on its initial release . In Japan , the game sold 193 @,@ 000 copies within a week of its release , while in North America , Persona 4 was the highest @-@ selling PlayStation 2 game on Amazon.com for two consecutive weeks . A soundtrack disc was included in the North American and European releases of Persona 4 , containing a selection of tracks from the full soundtrack released in Japan . Amazon.com exclusively sold the Persona 4 " Social Link Expansion Pack " , which included an additional soundtrack disc , a t @-@ shirt , a 2009 calendar , and a plush doll of the character Teddie .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Persona 4 received critical acclaim from game critics upon release . Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb described it as " one of the best times I 've had with video games , whether I was playing by myself or watching someone else play it . " Famitsu pointed out that while " there isn 't much new from the last game " , it favored the changes over the battle system , where the pacing " is quick so it doesn 't get to be a pain " , and the ability to control party members " makes play that much easier " . IGN on the other hand noted that " the pacing can be somewhat off " , and " some things feel repurposed or unaffected from previous games " , while praising the game as an " evolution of the RPG series , and an instant classic " . It also noted that the soundtrack can be " a bit repetitive " . RPGFan 's Ryan Mattich recommended Persona 4 as " one of the best RPG experiences of the year " , noting that " among the cookie @-@ cutter sequels and half @-@ hearted remakes " , the game is " a near flawless example of the perfect balance between ' falling back on what works ' and ' pushing the genre forward ' . " 1UP.com 's Andrew Fitch summarized Persona 4 as " some of this decade 's finest RPG epics " , although the reviewer criticized its " slight loading issues " and the time spent " waiting for the plot to advance " . GameTrailers gave the game a score of 9 @.@ 3 , stating it 's an exception to the rule of the Japanese role @-@ playing genre , and that it stands out of any other JRPG , including its predecessor , Persona 3 . Wired pointed out that while the graphics are not up to par with those of the Xbox 360 or PlayStation 3 , " the clever art style makes up for that " . It also praised the game 's soundtrack as " excellent , especially the battle music " .
The game 's setting garnered mixed reactions . IGN labeled Persona 4 as " a murder mystery set against the backdrop of familiar Persona 3 elements " , and while this element adds " an interesting twist " to the dungeon crawl and social simulation gameplay , it also causes the plot to " slow down or suffer " . Hyper 's Tim Henderson commended the game for " willfully embellish [ ing ] absurd urban legends and other ideas with such assured consistency that the resulting whole is unshakabl [ y ] coherent " . However , he criticized it for the narrative 's sluggish pace and for how he felt the game is " lacking in elaborate set @-@ pieces " . 1UP.com called Persona 4 a " stylish murder mystery " , the comparison given being a " small @-@ town Scooby @-@ Doo " adventure .
The game is also noted for its " significant portion of the story revolving around sexual themes " , as quoted from RPGFan 's Ryan Mattich . One of the playable characters given attention by reviewers is Kanji , who is considered to be one of the first characters in a mainstream video game to struggle with their sexual orientation , and Atlus has been commended for the inclusion of that character . Atlus USA has stated that they left Kanji 's sexual preferences ambiguous and up to the player ; however , there has been no word from developer Atlus Japan concerning the matter . According to Dr. Antonia Levi , author of Samurai from Outer Space : Understanding Japanese Animation , the questioning of Kanji 's sexuality in the script is a " comment on homosexuality in a greater Japanese social context " , in which " the notion of ' coming out ' is seen as undesirable ... as it necessarily involves adopting a confrontational stance against mainstream lifestyles and values " . Brenda Brathwaite , author of Sex in Video Games , thought it " would have been amazing if they would have made a concrete statement that [ Kanji ] is gay " , but was otherwise " thrilled " with the treatment of the character and the game 's representation of his " inner struggles and interactions with friends " .
= = = Awards = = =
Persona 4 was awarded the " PlayStation 2 Game Prize " in the Famitsu Awards 2008 , voted by readers of Famitsu . It was also recognized by the Computer Entertainment Supplier 's Association as one of the recipients for the " Games of the Year Award of Excellence " in the Japan Game Awards 2009 . The game was given the award for its " high quality of work " , " excellent story , automatically generated dungeons and impressive background music " . In 2013 , GamesRadar ranked it fifth " best videogame stories ever " , saying its " greatest strength comes from pacing " . In 2015 , GamesRadar named Persona 4 Golden the 53rd best game ever on its " The 100 best games ever " list . In that same year , USgamer placed the game fifth on its " The 15 Best Games Since 2000 " list .
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= Devika Rani =
Devika Rani Chaudhuri , usually known as Devika Rani ( 30 March 1908 – 9 March 1994 ) , was an actress in Indian films who was active during the 1930s and 1940s . Widely acknowledged as the first lady of Indian cinema , Devika Rani had a successful film career that spanned 10 years .
Devika Rani 's early years were mostly spent in London where she studied architecture , and started her career as a textile engineer . In 1928 , she met Himanshu Rai , an Indian film @-@ producer , who persuaded her to join his production crew . She assisted in costumes design and art direction for Rai 's film A Throw of Dice ( 1929 ) . The two married in 1929 , and went to Germany where Devika Rani learned different aspects of film @-@ making in the UFA Studios in Berlin . Rai then cast her in the 1933 talkie Karma in which her performance received critical acclaim . Returning to India , the couple established their production studio Bombay Talkies in 1934 . They produced many women @-@ centric films throughout the decade , with Devika Rani portraying lead roles in most of them . Her on @-@ screen pairing with Ashok Kumar became popular in India .
Following Rai 's death in 1940 , Devika Rani took over the control of the studio and produced several films . At the peak of her career she retired from films , and in 1945 she married Russian painter Svetoslav Roerich , leading thereafter life of a recluse . Her persona and roles in films were often considered socially unconventional . Her awards include the Padmashri ( 1958 ) , Dadasaheb Phalke Award ( 1970 ) and the Soviet Land Nehru Award ( 1990 ) .
= = Family and background = =
Devika Rani was born into a Bengali family in Waltair near Visakhapatnam in present @-@ day Andhra Pradesh . Her father , Col. Manmatha Nath Chaudhuri , was the first Indian Surgeon @-@ General of Madras Presidency . Her paternal uncles were Ashutosh Chaudhuri , Chief Justice of Calcutta High Court , the prominent Kolkata @-@ based barrister Jogesh Chandra Chaudhuri and the Bengali writer Pramatha Chaudhuri .
Devika Rani was related through both her parents to the poet and Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore.Devika 's mother , Leela Devi Chaudhuri , was the daughter of Indumati Devi Chattopadhyay , whose mother Saudamini Devi Gangopadhyay was the eldest sister of the Nobel laureate . In other words , Devika 's paternal and maternal grandmothers were first cousins to each other , being the daughters of two sisters of Rabindranath Tagore .
Devika Rani 's childhood was mostly spent in England ; at the age of nine she moved to the country where she was enrolled in a boarding school . After completing her schooling in the early 1920s , she got an admission from the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) and the Royal Academy of Music in London to study acting and music . She followed that with a course in architecture , textile and decor design , and apprenticed under Elizabeth Arden . Upon completion , Devika Rani started her career as textile engineer .
= = Himanshu Rai = =
In 1928 Devika Rani first met her future husband , Himanshu Rai . Rai , an Indian barrister @-@ turned @-@ film maker , was in London preparing to shoot his forthcoming film A Throw of Dice . Rai was impressed with Devika 's " exceptional skills " and invited her to join the production team of the film , although not as an actress . She readily agreed , and traveled to India with Himanshu Rai for this assignment , assisting him in areas such as costume designing and art direction . The two also traveled to Germany for the post @-@ production work , where she had occasion to observe the film @-@ making techniques of the German film industry , specifically of G. W. Pabst and Fritz Lang . Inspired by their methods of film @-@ making , she enrolled for a film @-@ making course at Universum Film AG studio in Berlin . Devika Rani learnt various aspects of film @-@ making and additionally also took a special course in film acting .
In 1929 , shortly after the release of A Throw of Dice , Devika Rani and Himanshu Rai were married . Around this time , they both acted in a play together , for which they received many accolades in Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries . During this time she was also trained in the production unit of Max Reinhardt , an Austrian theatre director .
= = = Film debut = = =
Devika and Himanshu Rai returned to India , where Himanshu produced a film titled Karma ( 1933 ) . The film was his first talkie , and like his previous films , it was a joint production between people from India , Germany and the United Kingdom . Rai , who played the lead role , decided to cast Devika Rani as the female lead , thus marking her acting debut . Karma is credited as having been the first English language talkie made by an Indian . It was one of the earliest Indian films to feature a kissing scene . The kissing scene , involving Himanshu Rai and Devika Rani , lasted for about four minutes , and eighty years later , this stands as the record for duration of a kissing scene in Indian cinema as of 2014 . Devika Rani also sang a song in the film , a bi @-@ lingual song in English and Hindi . This song is said to be Bollywood 's first English song .
Made simultaneously in both English and Hindi , Karma premiered in London in May 1933 . Alongside a special screening for the Royal family at Windsor , the film was well received throughout Europe . Devika Rani 's performance was internationally acclaimed as she won " rave reviews " in the London media . A critic from The Daily Telegraph noted Devika Rani for her " beauty " and " charm " while also crediting her to be a " potential star of the first magnitude " . Following the release of the film , she was invited by the B.B.C. to enact a role in their first ever television broadcast in Britain in 1933 . She also inaugurated the company 's first short wave radio transmission to India . In spite of its success in England , Karma did not interest Indian audiences and turned out be a failure in India when it was released in Hindi as Nagin Ki Ragini in early 1934 . However , the film received good critical response and helped Devika Rani establish herself as a leading actress in Indian cinema . Indian independence activist and poet Sarojini Naidu called her a " lovely and gifted little lady " .
= = = Bombay Talkies = = =
After the critical success of Karma , the couple returned to India in 1934 . Although the Hindi version of the film , released in India in 1934 , flopped without a trace , Himanshu Rai had established the required networks in Europe , and was able to start a film studio named Bombay Talkies , partnering with Niranjan Pal , a Bengali playwright and screenwriter who he had met previously in London , and Franz Osten , who directed several of Rai 's films .
Upon inception , Bombay Talkies was one of the " best @-@ equipped " film studios in the country . The studio would serve as a launch pad for future actors including Ashok Kumar , Leela Chitnis , Dilip Kumar , Raj Kapoor , Madhubala and Mumtaz . The studio 's first film Jawani Ki Hawa ( 1935 ) , a crime thriller , starring Devika Rani and Najm @-@ ul @-@ Hassan , was shot fully on a train .
= = = Elopement = = =
Najm @-@ ul @-@ Hassan was also Devika 's co @-@ star in the studio 's next venture , Jeevan Naiya . The two co @-@ stars developed a romantic relationship , and during the shooting schedule of Jeevan Naiya , Devika , a married Hindu woman , eloped with Hassan , a married Muslim man . Himanshu was both enraged and distraught . Since the leading pair were absent , production was stalled . A significant portion of the movie had been shot and a large sum of money , which had been taken as credit from financers , had been spent . The studio therefore suffered severe financial losses and a loss of credit among bankers in the city while the runaway couple made merry .
Sashadhar Mukherjee , an assistant sound @-@ engineer at the studio , had a brotherly bond with Devika Rani because both of them were Bengalis and spoke that language with each other . He established contact with the runaway couple and managed to convince Devika Rani to return to her husband . In the India of that era , divorce was legally almost impossible and women who eloped were regarded as no better than whores and were shunned by their own families . In her heart of hearts , Devika Rani knew that she could not secure a divorce or marry Hassan under any circumstances . She negotiated with her husband through the auspices of Sashadhar Mukherjee , seeking the separation of her finances from those of her husband as a condition for her return . Henceforth , she would be paid separately for working in his films , but he would be required to single @-@ handedly pay the household expenses for the home in which both of them would live . Himanshu agreed to this , in order to save face in society and to prevent his studio from going bankrupt . Devika Rani returned to her marital home . However , things would never be the same between husband and wife again , and it is said that thenceforth , their relationship was largely confined to work and little or no intimacy transpired between them after this episode .
Despite the additional expense involved in re @-@ shooting many portions of the film , Himanshu Rai replaced Najm @-@ ul @-@ Hassan with Ashok Kumar , who was the brother of Sashadhar Mukherjee 's wife , as the hero of Jeevan Naiya . This marked the debut , improbable as it may seem , of Ashok Kumar 's five @-@ decade @-@ long career in Hindi films . Najm @-@ ul @-@ Hassan was dismissed from his job at Bombay Talkies ( this was the period in which actors and actresses were paid regular monthly salaries by one specific film studio and could not work in any other studio ) . His reputation as a dangerous cad established , he could not find work in any other studio . His career was ruined and he sank into obscurity .
= = = Golden era of Bombay Talkies = = =
Achhut Kanya ( 1936 ) , the studio 's next production was a tragedy drama that had Devika Rani and Ashok Kumar portraying the roles of an untouchable girl and a Brahmin boy who fall in love . The film is considered a " landmark " in Indian cinema as it challenged the caste system in the country . The casting of Devika Rani was considered a mismatch as her looks did not match the role of a poor untouchable girl by virtue of her " upper @-@ class upbringing " . However , her pairing with Ashok Kumar became popular and they went on to star in as many as ten films together with most of them being Bombay Talkies productions .
In the 1930s , Bombay Talkies produced several women @-@ centric films with Devika Rani playing the lead role in all of them . In majority of the films produced by the studio , she was paired opposite Ashok Kumar , who was " overshadowed " by her . Jeevan Prabhat , released in 1937 , saw a role @-@ reversal between Devika Rani and Ashok Kumar — she played a higher @-@ caste Brahmin woman who is mistaken by society of having an extra @-@ marital affair with an untouchable man . Her next release Izzat ( 1937 ) , based on Romeo and Juliet , was set in the medieval period and depicted two lovers belonging to enemy clans of a Maratha empire . Nirmala , released in the following year , dealt with the plight of a child @-@ less woman who is told by an astrologer to abandon her husband to ensure successful pregnancy . In Vachan , her second release of the year , she played a Rajput princess . Durga , her only release in 1939 , was a romantic drama that told the story of an orphaned girl and a village doctor , played by Ashok Kumar .
= = = Widowhood and studio decline = = =
Following the death of Rai in 1940 , there was a rift between two parties of the Bombay Talkies led by Mukherjee and Amiya Chakravarty . Devika Rani assumed principal responsibility and took over the studio along with Mukherjee . In 1941 , she produced and acted in Anjaan co @-@ starring Ashok Kumar . In the subsequent years , she produced two successful films under the studio — Basant and Kismet — both starring Ashok Kumar . Kismet ( 1943 ) contained anti @-@ British messages ( India was under British rule at that time ) and turned out to be a " record @-@ breaking " film . Devika Rani made her last film appearance in Hamari Baat ( 1943 ) , which had Raj Kapoor playing a small role . She handpicked newcomer Dilip Kumar for a role in Jwar Bhata ( 1944 ) , produced by her on behalf of the studio . An internal politics that arose in the studio led prominent personalities including Mukherjee and Ashok Kumar to part ways with her and set up a new studio called Filmistan . Due to lack of support and interest , Devika Rani decided to quit the film industry . In an interview to journalist Raju Bharatan , she mentioned that her idea of not willing to compromise on " artistic values " of film @-@ making as one of the major reasons for her quitting the industry .
= = Roerich and retirement = =
Following her retirement from films , Devika Rani married Russian painter Svetoslav Roerich , son of Russian artist Nicholas Roerich , in 1945 . After marriage , the couple moved to Manali , Himachal Pradesh where they got acquainted with the Nehru family . During her stay in Manali , Devika Rani made a few documentaries on wildlife . After staying in Manali for some years , they moved to Bangalore , Karnataka , and settled there managing an export company . The couple bought a 450 acres ( 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 m2 ) estate on the outskirts of the city and led a solitary life for the rest of their lives . She died of bronchitis on 9 March 1994 — a year after Roerich died — in Bangalore . At her funeral , Devika Rani was given full state honors . Following her death , the estate was on litigation for many years as the couple had no legal claimants ; Devika Rani remained childless throughout her life . In August 2011 , the Government of Karnataka acquired the estate after the Supreme Court of India passed the verdict in favour of them .
= = Persona and legacy = =
Devika Rani was called the first lady of Indian cinema . She is credited for being one of the earliest personalities who took the position of Indian cinema to global standards . Her films were mostly tragic romantic dramas that contained social themes . The roles played by her in films of Bombay Talkies usually involved in romantic relationship with men who were unusual for the social norms prevailing in the society at that time , mainly for their caste background or community identity . Devika Rani was highly influenced by the German cinema by virtue of her training at the UFA Studios ; Although she was influenced by German actress Marlene Dietrich , her acting style was compared to Greta Garbo , thus leading to Devika Rani being named the " Indian Garbo " . Devika Rani 's attire , both in films and sometimes in real life , were considered " risque " at that time . In his book Bless You Bollywood ! : A tribute to Hindi Cinema on completing 100 years , Tilak Rishi mentions that Devika Rani was known as the " Dragon Lady " for her " smoking , drinking , cursing and hot temper " .
In 1958 , the Government of India honoured Devika Rani with a Padma Shri , the country 's fourth highest civilian honour . She became the first ever recipient of the Dadasaheb Phalke Award , the country 's highest award for films , when it was instituted in 1969 . In 1990 , Soviet Russia honoured her with the " Soviet Land Nehru Award " . A postage stamp commemorating her was released by the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology in February 2011 .
= = Filmography = =
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= Dark shyshark =
The dark shyshark or pretty Happy ( Haploblepharus pictus ) is a species of catshark , belonging to the family Scyliorhinidae , endemic to the temperate waters off southern Namibia and western South Africa . It is benthic in nature and inhabits shallow , inshore waters and favors rocky reefs and kelp forests . Growing to 60 cm ( 24 in ) long , this small , stocky shark has a wide , flattened head with a rounded snout and a large flap of skin extending from before the nostrils to the mouth . Its dorsal coloration is extremely variable and may feature black @-@ edged orange to blackish saddles and / or white spots on a light brown to nearly black background .
When threatened , the dark shyshark curls into a ring with its tail covering its eyes , hence the name " shyshark " . It preys mainly on small crustaceans , bony fishes , and molluscs . Reproduction is oviparous and proceeds throughout the year . Females lay two egg cases at a time , which hatch after 6 – 10 months . This harmless species is of little commercial significance due to its small size . It is frequently caught by recreational fishers and persecuted as a pest . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the dark shyshark under Least Concern , as it is common and does not appear to be substantially threatened by fishing or habitat degradation .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
German physicians and biologists Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle originally described the dark shyshark in their 1838 – 41 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen , based on five specimens caught off the Cape of Good Hope and deposited in the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie in Leiden , The Netherlands . Because of the shark 's ornate coloration , they gave it the specific epithet pictum from the Latin for " painted " . Originally placed in the now @-@ obsolete genus Scyllium , subsequent authors moved this species to the genus Haploblepharus , coined by American zoologist Samuel Garman in 1913 .
The dark shyshark was often regarded to be the same as the puffadder shyshark ( H. edwardsii ) until 1975 , with the publication of A.J. Bass , Jeanette D 'Aubrey , and Nat Kistnasamy 's review of southern African sharks . It continues to be confused for the other three shyshark species because of its extremely variable coloration . The common name " pretty Happy " ( " Happy " refers to the genus name Haploblepharus ) was recently introduced to the public as an easily remembered alternative to the colloquial names " shyshark " and " doughnut " , which can apply to several species and have confounded research efforts . Brett Human 's 2006 phylogenetic analysis , based on three mitochondrial DNA genes , found that the dark shyshark and the brown shyshark ( H. fuscus ) are sister species , and that the two make up the more derived clade within the genus .
= = Description = =
Reaching no more than 60 cm ( 24 in ) long , the dark shyshark differs from other shysharks in that it is slender @-@ bodied when juvenile and stocky @-@ bodied when adult . Its head is short , wide , and flattened , with a bluntly rounded snout and very large nostrils . The anterior rims of the nostrils bear greatly enlarged lobes of skin , which are fused into a single flap that reaches the mouth ; the flap conceals the nasal excurrent openings and a pair of grooves that run between them and the mouth . The large , horizontally oval eyes are equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) , and have strong ridges beneath . The mouth is short but wide and bears furrows at the corners extending onto both jaws . There are 45 – 83 upper and 47 – 75 lower tooth rows ; each tooth has a long central cusp flanked by a pair of smaller cusplets . The five pairs of gill slits are located fairly high on the body .
The two dorsal fins are of nearly equal size and placed far back on the body , with the first originating over the latter third of the pelvic fin bases and the second over the latter half of the anal fin base . The pectoral and pelvic fins are broad and rounded ; the males have stout claspers . The pelvic and anal fins are about as large as the dorsal fins . The broad caudal fin comprises about a fifth of the total body length and has a strong notch near the tip of the upper lobe and an indistinct lower lobe . The skin is thick and covered by well @-@ calcified arrowhead @-@ shaped dermal denticles . The coloration of the dark shyshark is highly variable , and particular individuals can resemble any of the other shyshark species . The background color ranges from light brown to reddish to grayish to almost black above , transitioning abruptly to white or cream below , sometimes with dark blotches beneath the paired fins . There may be 6 – 8 orange , brown , or blackish variably shaped saddles along the back and tail , edged more or less obviously in black . There may also be white spots within or within and between the saddles .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The range of the dark shyshark is restricted to the coastal waters of southern Africa , from north of Lüderitz in southern Namibia to east of the Storms River mouth in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa . It is abundant , particularly west of Cape Agulhas . This species is a bottom @-@ dweller found close inshore , from the intertidal zone to a depth of 35 m ( 115 ft ) . It prefers rocky reefs and kelp forests , but also presumably traverses sandy flats in between patches of more suitable habitat . As this shark is not known to travel long distances , there is likely subpopulation differentiation across parts of its range .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The dark shyshark is a generalist predator whose main food sources are , in descending order of importance , small benthic crustaceans , bony fishes , and molluscs . Larger sharks consume proportionately more crustaceans . Polychaete worms and echinoderms are also taken on occasion , and algae may be swallowed incidentally . This species is preyed upon by the broadnose sevengill shark ( Notorynchus cepedianus ) , and potentially also other large fishes and marine mammals . When threatened , it adopts a characteristic defense posture in which it curls into a ring with its tail over its eyes ; this behavior likely makes the shark harder to swallow and is the origin of the common names " shyshark " and " doughnut " . In captivity , the whelks Burnupena papyracea and B. lagenaria have been documented piercing the egg cases of this species and extracting the yolk . A known parasite of the dark shyshark is the trypanosome Trypanosoma haploblephari , which infests the blood .
Like other members of its genus , the dark shyshark is oviparous ; adult females have a single functional ovary and two functional oviducts . There appears to be no distinct breeding season and reproduction occurs year @-@ round . Females produce mature eggs two at a time , one per oviduct . The eggs are enclosed in purse @-@ shaped capsules measuring 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) long and 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) across ; each capsule is plain amber to dark brown in color and bears thin , coiled tendrils at the four corners . In one observation of an egg that hatched after 104 days , the developing embryo had external gill filaments until it was 50 days old , and completely absorbed its yolk sac shortly before hatching . Eggs in nature typically hatch in 6 – 10 months , with the newly hatched shark measuring 10 – 12 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) long . Both sexes grow at approximately the same rate , reaching sexual maturity at around 15 years of age . Mature males and females range from 40 – 57 cm ( 16 – 22 in ) and 36 – 60 cm ( 14 – 24 in ) long respectively . The maximum lifespan is 25 years .
= = Human interactions = =
The dark shyshark poses no danger to humans and is too small to be of commercial importance . Many are hooked by sport fishers casting from the shore , who regard the shark as a pest and often kill it . It may also be caught by subsistence fishers and in lobster traps and bottom trawls , though not in substantial quantities . This shark occasionally finds its way into the aquarium trade , though there is no direct fishing for this purpose . As the dark shyshark remains common and does not seem heavily threatened by human activity , it has been assessed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . Its small range does raise concerns that an increase in regional fishing pressure or habitat degradation could impact the entire population .
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= Battle of Apamea =
The Battle of Apamea was fought on 19 July 998 between the forces of the Byzantine Empire and the Fatimid Caliphate . The battle was part of a series of military confrontations between the two powers over control of northern Syria and the Hamdanid emirate of Aleppo . The Byzantine regional commander , Damian Dalassenos , had been besieging Apamea , until the arrival of the Fatimid relief army from Damascus , under Jaysh ibn Samsama . In the subsequent battle , the Byzantines were initially victorious , but a lone Kurdish rider managed to kill Dalassenos , throwing the Byzantine army into panic . The fleeing Byzantines were then pursued , with much loss of life , by the Fatimid troops . This defeat forced the Byzantine emperor Basil II to personally campaign in the region the next year , and was followed in 1001 by the conclusion of a ten @-@ year truce between the two states .
= = Background = =
In September 994 Michael Bourtzes , the Byzantine military governor ( doux ) of Antioch and northern Syria , suffered a heavy defeat at the Battle of the Orontes at the hands of the Fatimid general Manjutakin . This Fatimid victory shook the Byzantine position in Syria , and posed a grave threat to its Arab vassal , the Hamdanid Emirate of Aleppo . To prevent its fall , Emperor Basil II himself intervened in the region in 995 , forcing Manjutakin to retire to Damascus . After capturing Shayzar , Hims and Rafaniya , and building a new fortress at Antartus , the emperor withdrew , leaving Damian Dalassenos as the new doux of Antioch .
Dalassenos maintained an aggressive stance . In 996 his forces raided the environs of Tripoli and Arqa , while Manjutakin , again without success , laid siege to Aleppo and Antartus , but was forced to withdraw when Dalassenos with his army came to relieve the fortress . The next year , Dalassenos repeated his raids against Tripoli , Rafaniya , Awgh , and al @-@ Lakma , capturing the latter . At the same time , the inhabitants of Tyre , under the leadership of a sailor named Allaqa , rose up in revolt against the Fatimids and requested Byzantine assistance ; further south , in Palestine , the Bedouin leader Mufarrij ibn Daghfal ibn al @-@ Jarrah attacked Ramlah .
= = Siege of Apamea and the Fatimid relief expedition = =
In early summer 998 , Dalassenos learned that a catastrophic fire had broken out in Apamea and destroyed most of its provisions , so he marched towards the city . The Aleppines too endeavoured to seize Apamea and arrived there first , but withdrew at the approach of Dalassenos , who could not permit a vassal to grow too strong and intended to capture the town for the emperor . Although ostensibly allies with the Byzantines , the Aleppines left the provisions they had brought with them to be collected by the inhabitants of Apamea , aiding them in their resistance . Subsequent events are presented by several authors , including the brief narrative of John Skylitzes and the more extensive accounts of the Christian Arab Yahya of Antioch and the Armenian Stephen of Taron . Arab accounts also survive , all apparently drawing upon the work of the 11th @-@ century historian Hilal al @-@ Sabi ; the most detailed version is preserved by Ibn al @-@ Qalanisi .
The governor of Apamea , al @-@ Mala 'iti , called for aid upon the Fatimids . According to Ibn al @-@ Qalanisi , the eunuch regent Barjawan appointed Jaysh ibn Samsama to command the relief army , naming him governor of Damascus and giving him a thousand men . Before confronting the Byzantines , the Fatimids had to deal with the revolt of Tyre and the rebellion of Ibn al @-@ Jarrah . The Byzantines attempted to aid the besieged at Tyre by sending a fleet , but it was beaten off by the Fatimids , and the city captured in June 998 . Ibn al @-@ Jarrah 's revolt was also suppressed , and Jaysh ibn Samsama returned to Damascus , where he stayed for three days to gather his forces for the relief of Apamea . There he was joined by the troops and volunteers from Tripoli , assembling a force numbering 10 @,@ 000 men and 1 @,@ 000 Bedouin riders of the Banu Kilab tribe . According to Skylitzes , the Fatimid army comprised the forces of Tripoli , Beirut , Tyre , and Damascus . Meanwhile , Dalassenos was vigorously pursuing the siege , and the inhabitants of Apamea had been reduced to famine , being forced to eat cadavers and dogs , which they bought for the price of 25 silver dirhams ( according to Abu 'l @-@ Faraj , two gold dinars ) a piece .
= = Battle = =
The two armies met on the large plain of al @-@ Mudiq ( cf . Qalaat al @-@ Madiq ) , surrounded by mountains and located near the Lake of Apamea , on 19 July 998 . According to Ibn al @-@ Qalanisi , the Fatimid army 's left wing was commanded by Maysur the Slav , governor of Tripoli ; the centre , where the Daylamite infantry and the army baggage train were located , was under the command of Badr al @-@ Attar ; the right was commanded by Jaysh ibn Samsama and Wahid al @-@ Hilali . According to all accounts , the Byzantines charged the Fatimid army and drove it to flight , killing some 2 @,@ 000 and capturing the baggage train . Only 500 ghilman under Bishara the Ikhshidid remained steadfast and held firm against the assault , while the Banu Kilab simply abandoned the fight and began looting the battlefield . At that point , a Kurdish rider , named Abu 'l @-@ Hajar Ahmad ibn al @-@ Dahhak al @-@ Salil by Ibn al @-@ Athir and Ibn al @-@ Qalanisi and Bar Kefa by the Byzantine sources and Abu 'l @-@ Faraj , rode towards Dalassenos , who was near his battle standard on top of a height and was accompanied only by two of his sons and ten men of his retinue . Believing the battle won and that the Kurd wanted to surrender , Dalassenos took no precautions . As he approached the Byzantine general , Ibn al @-@ Dahhak suddenly charged . Dalassenos lifted his arm to shield himself , but the Kurd launched his spear at him . The general wore no cuirass , and the blow killed him .
Dalassenos ' death changed the tide of the battle : the Fatimids took heart and , shouting " the enemy of God is dead ! " , turned on the Byzantines , who fell into panic and fled . The garrison of Apamea too sallied forth , completing the Byzantine debacle . The sources give various numbers for the Byzantine dead : Maqrizi mentions 5 @,@ 000 , Yahya of Antioch 6 @,@ 000 , and Ibn al @-@ Qalanisi as many as 10 @,@ 000 dead . Most of the remaining Byzantines ( 2 @,@ 000 according to Ibn al @-@ Qalanisi ) were taken prisoner by the Fatimids . These included several senior officers , including the famed Georgian patrikios Tchortovanel , a nephew of Tornike Eristavi , as well as the two sons of Dalassenos , Constantine and Theophylact , who were bought by Jaysh ibn Samsama for 6 @,@ 000 dinars and spent the next ten years as captives in Cairo . Stephen of Taron gives a slightly different account of the battle , whereby the victorious Byzantines were surprised by an attack by the regrouped Fatimids on their camp and that one of Dalassenos 's brothers and one of his sons were killed , as well as the general himself . This version is commonly rejected by modern scholars .
= = Aftermath = =
Dalassenos ' defeat forced Basil II to personally lead yet another campaign in Syria the following year . Arriving in Syria in mid @-@ September , the emperor 's army buried their fallen in the field of Apamea and then captured Shayzar , sacked Hisn Masyat and Rafaniya , torched Arqa , and raided the environs of Baalbek , Beirut , Tripoli and Jubayl . In mid @-@ December , Basil returned to Antioch , where he installed Nikephoros Ouranos as doux , although according to his self @-@ description as the " ruler of the East " , his role seems to have been more extensive , with plenipotentiary military and civilian authority over the entire eastern frontier . In 1001 , Basil II concluded a ten @-@ year truce with the Fatimid Caliph al @-@ Hakim .
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= LS3 / 5A =
The LS3 / 5A ( each element pronounced separately , without the stroke ) is a small studio monitor loudspeaker originated by the BBC for use by outside broadcast vans to ensure quality of their broadcasts . The speaker concept set out transparent and natural sound as the goal , and the achievement of the end result is widely acknowledged .
The BBC granted licences to a small number of British firms , who first manufactured the product in 1975 . The product underwent a change in 1987 due to consistency issues in manufacturing , and again in around 2003 when original parts from KEF ran out . Upwards of 60 @,@ 000 pairs of the speaker have been sold . Reviewers have recognised its enormous importance as a bookshelf design .
= = History = =
The LS3 / 5A is a commercially produced loudspeaker driven by the need of the BBC to monitor and assess broadcast programme quality . It was derived from the LS3 / 5 , which was conceived and developed by the BBC Engineering Department in the early 1970s , when it was under the stewardship of Dudley Harwood . Having found no commercially produced small loudspeaker that met the requirement for naturalness and sonic neutrality , the BBC specifically set out to design a speaker to achieve natural overall sound quality and good dynamic range for monitoring broadcasts in tightly confined spaces .
As the BBC broadcasting unit was about to order another batch of the monitor , it was found that the supplier had modified the drive units , meaning the LS3 / 5 design had to be fundamentally revised . The BBC 's Designs Department was called upon to adapt the product in light of the supply changes . Modifications were made to adapt to the new drive units and deal with the altered resonance pattern , and the LS3 / 5 became the LS3 / 5A .
The BBC then licensed the product to a small number of private sector companies . Production began in 1975 . In 1987 , as a result of reassessment of the product due to consistency issues in the manufacture of the mid – bass driver , the drivers were modified and the crossover changed . The overall impedance of the crossover fell to 11 ohms from the original 15 ohms .
The various official versions of the LS3 / 5A from various licensees sold in significant numbers in its life of over a quarter of a century . Sales estimates range from 60 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 pairs .
In the tail end of the 1990s , due to the parts being discontinued , the 3 / 5 had technically reached the end of the road . Some licensees continued to make small numbers of speakers , for a while , using re @-@ manufactured parts . However , Stirling Broadcast , one of the last batch of licensees , completely redesigned the product based on the audio signature of the original , and launched the LS3 / 5A v2 with the full endorsement of the broadcaster in early 2006 .
In 2014 , production of the 15 ohm version of the LS3 / 5a with a full BBC Licence was re @-@ commenced by Falcon Acoustics [ 25 ] using re @-@ engineered versions of the original drive units and the original design BBC crossover [ 4 ] all produced in @-@ house .
= = Speaker = =
= = = Name = = =
The product name is derived from BBC naming convention : the " LS3 " designation meant it was a loudspeaker intended for outside broadcasting , as opposed to the " LS5 " loudspeaker , intended for studio monitoring . The number after the stroke is the model number , the LS3 / 5 is " number 5 " outside @-@ broadcasting loudspeaker . The letter that follows denotes alterations to the original specification , of which there was only one in this instance after the LS3 / 5 , thus the " A " .
= = = Design = = =
For its outside broadcasting monitoring , the BBC required a small studio monitor suitable for near @-@ field monitoring of the frequency range from 400 Hz to about 20 kHz . The principal constraints were space and situations where using headphones is unsatisfactory , such as in mobile broadcasting vans . There were no commercial constraints . The BBC Research Department , then situated at Kingswood Warren , were responsible for development work , and commenced scaling tests in 1968 . They were able to answer a request for a prototype in under a week because it resembled an experimental loudspeaker that the department had already developed for some preliminary acoustic scaling tests . The speaker had to be voiced by ear an octave at a time , because scale test results were inapplicable to a model of this size . Engineers took measurements ; comparisons were performed against the LS5 / 8 – a large " Grade I monitor " already in use at the time – and with live sources . In 1970 engineers came up with the LS3 / 5 , built using the KEF B110 ( A6362 ) and the KEF T27 ( A6340 ) drive units , and a 9 @-@ ohm crossover filter . Estimated development costs of the order of £ 100 @,@ 000 were said to have been incurred at the time . Approximately 20 units of the LS3 / 5 were produced in @-@ house .
The BBC had initiated tendering to have the LS3 / 5 made under license . As the broadcasting unit was about to order another batch of the monitor , it was found that KEF had discontinued the B110 ( A6362 ) and the T27 ( A6340 ) in favour of the B110 ( SP1003 ) and T27 ( SP1032 ) specification , and was already using them in the Coda , one of their own @-@ brand commercial loudspeakers . Thus the design had to be revised because these new units had different impedances , technical characteristics and altered resonance patterns . [ 2 ] [ 4 ] The tweeter was considered potentially fragile because it now had an exposed dome , so a suitable protection grille was found to cover and protect the dome . The tweeter was also surrounded by a thick felt rectangle to prevent interference pattern effects being created by the edge of the cabinet . The crossover also had to undergo change , and the LS3 / 5 became the LS3 / 5A in the early summer of 1974 .
The KEF B110 SP1003 is a 110mm speaker with a doped Bextrene ( a proprietary type of polystyrene copolymer ) cone and a neoprene surround . The KEF T27 SP1032 has a 19mm mylar dome fitted and is with a perforated protection grille . The loudspeaker has an internal volume of approximately 5 litres . The speaker cabinet ( loudspeaker enclosure ) measuring 31 by 19 by 16 centimetres ( 12 @.@ 2 in × 7 @.@ 5 in × 6 @.@ 3 in ) , is made using 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) birch plywood strengthened at every joint with beech braces , and heavily damped . Although there was no specification for the wood of the original LS3 / 5 cabinets , the BBC closely specified wood types in defining the LS3 / 5A due to concerns that other hard woods – specifically Parana pine , with which the BBC conducted tests – would cause noticeable colouration ( i.e. detract from sonic neutrality ) due to interaction with a resonance of the bass drivers .
Martin Colloms notes in Hi @-@ Fi Critic that : " Hardly any component in either enclosure or driver may be substituted without the blend suffering audible disturbance . This is because the 3 / 5A sets such a high standard for tonal balance that errors which would pass unnoticed in an ordinary speaker are readily exposed " . The BBC then licensed the product to a small number of private sector companies .
In a review in Stereophile , John Atkinson remarked on how it was " virtually unknown for a speaker to be still available , virtually unchanged , 14 years after [ its introduction ] " .
= = = Construction = = =
J. Gordon Holt indicates in Stereophile that most of the cost lay inside the case , having been spent on a complex equaliser and phase @-@ corrected crossover . However , Holt 's colleague , John Atkinson , notes that the cabinet alone " costs the manufacturer the same as the retail price of a typical massmarket [ sic ] speaker " . Only specific speaker drivers manufactured to strict tolerances may be used . There were other measures to control diffraction and ensure tonal neutrality .
The circuitry provides equalisation in both high and low frequency sections . The 13 @-@ element crossover includes an inductor for the treble section with seven positions that allows adjustment to match level of mid to treble sensitivities . The design also specifies high quality screened air @-@ gap inductors and film capacitors . David Prakel in Hi @-@ Fi Answers suggests it was a costlier speaker to build than imagined because tight specifications meant a high failure rate in production – the BBC had specified " the finest , most expensive ingredients and representing an investment of hours of skilled labour " .
= = = Signature sound = = =
Typical of sealed @-@ box speakers of similar size , the 3 / 5A has little or no low bass , but the design reinforced its lower register by a boost at around 160 Hz , giving the subjective impression that the speaker is more bass @-@ rich . It has a gently rising frequency response above 5kHz , leading reviewers to notice the sound being a little bright at the treble registers , or that the speakers " reproduce the high @-@ end roughness of solid @-@ state amplifiers mercilessly " thus suggested partnering with valve amplification would be advantageous . A slight nasal quality in the midrange has also been noted in the earlier versions . The accuracy and stability of its stereo imaging and its clean midrange reproduction are also appreciated qualities . J. Gordon Holt suggests that the quality was " comparable to that from Quad Electrostatics , at far lower cost and with added bonuses of slightly smoother high end , better stereo imaging , a broader listening area " . John Atkinson suggests in Stereophile that the LS3 / 5A is ideally suited to the reproduction of program having a limited dynamic @-@ range requirement , for example chamber music ; he said that the LS3 / 5A " has never boogied and never will ; it 's just too polite ever to cut the mustard on rock , or even straightahead jazz " .
= = = Constructors = = =
A total of 11 companies were ever granted licenses by the BBC to manufacture the model , a maximum of 3 at any given time . The product proved highly challenging to manufacture , if for no other reason than tight specifications and consistency of parts , and many of these companies would have a chequered corporate history . Audible differences could result from the mounting screws , grille fabric , or the origin of the wool .
Rogers Audio was the earliest licensee , but went out of business before producing a single unit . The Rogers name was bought by Swisstone , who started manufacturing the 3 / 5A under licence in 1975 . Rogers ' production accounted for the majority , of around 43 @,@ 000 pairs by 1988 , and 50 @,@ 000 pairs in total . Of the other main manufacturers , Spendor produced about 22 @,@ 000 pairs , and Audiomaster 10 @,@ 000 . Dudley Harwood , the BBC engineer instrumental in the creation of the 3 / 5A , started Harbeth and obtained a license in 1977 , but the company produced no LS3 / 5As for a decade . Eventually , Harbeth accounted for 7 @,@ 000 pairs . KEF , who obtained its licence in 1993 , claims approximately 4 @,@ 000 pairs made . Other licensees included Chartwell , RAM , Goodmans and Stirling Broadcast.A current licence for the 15 ohm LS3 / 5a is held by Falcon Acoustics
= = = Reception = = =
Despite not being a " commercial product " at the outset , the LS3 / 5A was commercially successful in its twenty @-@ something @-@ year life , from 1975 until approximately 2000 , when the availability of KEF drive units came to an end . The speaker has amassed an " enthusiastic , focused , and loyal [ ... ] following , and none so large or vocal " , according to Paul Seydor in The Absolute Sound .
Estimates of their sales differ , possibly due to scope and cut @-@ off : when it ceased production in 1998 , " some 100 @,@ 000 pairs were in circulation , with 3000 pairs sold in its last year alone " , according to Seydor ; in 2001 , Ken Kessler similarly estimated in Hi @-@ fi News that 100 @,@ 000 pairs had been produced . In 2007 , Martin Colloms reported " more than 60 @,@ 000 pairs of the original LS3 / 5As were made " . John Atkinson noted that it had sold in excess of 60 @,@ 000 up to 1988 , of which Rogers represented two @-@ thirds .
Atkinson notes in 2007 that the sound of the speaker had not dated whilst many other speakers of the 1960s and 70s had . He guessed that LS3 / 5A remained competitive due to the exhaustive considerations and top engineering talent that went into its design ; maybe some luck was involved . Art Dudley commented in Stereophile on the LS3 / 5A 's " towering significance " as a bookshelf design .
= = Product revisions = =
= = = 1987 – 1990 = = =
It had become apparent in around 1987 that a number of units already in the field were not up to specification . In particular , it was becoming increasingly difficult to obtain KEF drivers of acceptable tolerances , particular the woofer . Measurements of the 1 – 1 @.@ 5 kHz peak of some units produced at the time were up to 6dB higher . KEF underwent a program to improve consistency of both drive @-@ unit and the associated crossover , taking care not to alter frequency characteristics or tonal balances . KEF specially redesigned the B110 , creating the B110 SP1228 where the surround changed from neoprene to a vinyl compound . KEF also designed a new crossover , designated SP2128 . The crossover , also redesigned to accommodate the changes , saw its overall impedance fall to 11 ohms from the original 15 ohms . KEF also manufactured and supplied the crossover with the drive units in kits where the pairs have been electrically matched by computer to ensure balanced performance . Martin Colloms had implied in Hi @-@ fi News in August 1988 that the BBC had taken a pragmatic decision to a revise the design , to ensure that targeted production levels could be maintained .
In 1990 , the BBC authorised licensees to manufacture models capable of being bi @-@ wired , but stipulated that the performance in single @-@ wired mode must meet the original specification . KEF started making the bi @-@ wire crossover , designated SP2195 , available in 1991 .
= = = 2005 – birth of LS3 / 5A " V2 " = = =
Upon obtaining a BBC licence to produce legacy 11 @-@ ohm LS3 / 5A , Stirling Broadcast commissioned KEF to produce new T27 and B110 drive units . Stirling had to rethink the product when KEF finally ceased manufacturing the drive units in about 2000 . Working with drivers from SEAS and Scanspeak , Derek Hughes developed for Stirling a new crossover that enabled the new proprietary drivers to mimic the response of the original KEF drivers they replaced . Specifically , the T27 was replaced by a 19mm doped fabric dome tweeter . The mid – bass unit is a formed polypropylene co @-@ polymer cone to which a damping coating has been applied and given a synthetic rubber roll surround . The crossover has three settings of relative high frequency level , in steps of 0.5dB. Each crossover is tuned to the specific pairs of drive units . While Stirling 's revision deviates technically from the specification , the company took steps to research and test to ensure the LS3 / 5A sound was preserved , " warts and all " . Stirling added a " V2 " to the designation when the product was launched in 2005 in an act of transparency , even though the broadcaster has endorsed it .
= = = 2014 – 15 ohm LS3 / 5A back in production = = =
Falcon Acoustics was granted a licence by the BBC for the 15 ohm version of the LS3 / 5a in 2013 and commenced production in 2014 using drive units produced in @-@ house by Falcon Acoustics . The Falcon F B110 bass unit is a re @-@ engineered version using the same components of the original KEF B110 SP1003 with a doped Bextrene cone and a neoprene surround . The Falcon F T27 tweeter again uses the same components as the original KEF T27 SP1032 and has a 19mm mylar dome fitted . Both Falcon units were designed by Malcolm Jones who while employed at KEF between 1962 and 1974 was responsible for the design of the KEF B110 and T27 units originally used in the LS3 / 5 and LS3 / 5a . Both units are graded / selected to meet the BBC specification . Crossovers are close tolerance pair matched versions of the original BBC LS3 / 5a crossover design [ 4 ] using tapped transformers for high frequency adjustments . [ 25 ]
= = Contemporary clones = =
= = = Linn = = =
In 1979 , Linn Products created the Kan – a non @-@ BBC specification bookshelf speaker that used a LS3 / 5A @-@ sized cabinet and the same B110 driver from KEF . Linn acquired a hundred pairs of cabinets from the supplier of the bankrupt Chartwell , and used them for the very first Kans . The Kan , however , used a re @-@ badged OEM D20 @-@ LP @-@ 1 tweeter from Hiquphon . Linn installed a very simple crossover into the box that transformed it into " one of the fastest and most involving wall mount miniatures ever " , according to Martin Colloms .
= = = J R Loudspeakers = = =
Jim Rogers , who set up J R Loudspeakers Ltd after the collapse of Rogers Audio , released the JR149 in 1977 using the same drive units as the LS3 / 5A in a cylindrical aluminium cabinet . A review of the JR149 in the May 1977 Hi @-@ Fi News and Record Review found that the " general quality was very comparable " to the LS3 / 5A .
= = = KEF = = =
Preceding the 3 / 5A , KEF 's Cresta ( 1967 ) , KEFKIT4 ( 1969 ) , Cresta II ( 1970 ) , Coda ( 1971 ) were all 2 @-@ way loudspeakers that used the B110 / T27 combination . KEF released its CS1 constructor kit ( 1981 ) to tap the home @-@ build market . According to the product brochure , the kit includes " the same KEF drive units originally specified for the LS3 / 5A with a somewhat simplified dividing network giving a similar overall frequency response characteristic " .
In 1979 , KEF released the Reference 101 , a speaker that used the T27 ( SP1032 ) with the B110B ( SP1057 ) in a 6 @.@ 7 @-@ litre cabinet " with a crossover of similar complexity to the LS3 / 5A " . Martin Colloms said it possessed an almost perfectly flat frequency response , but that " it neither sounded as lifelike , nor did it really better the musical performance of the standard 3 / 5a " .
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= Bournemouth =
Bournemouth / ˈbɔːrnməθ / is a large coastal resort town on the south coast of England directly to the east of the Jurassic Coast , a 96 @-@ mile ( 155 km ) World Heritage Site . According to the 2011 census , the town has a population of 183 @,@ 491 making it the largest settlement in Dorset . With Poole to the west and Christchurch in the east , Bournemouth forms the South East Dorset conurbation , which has a total population of over 465 @,@ 000 .
Before it was founded in 1810 by Lewis Tregonwell , the area was a deserted heathland occasionally visited by fishermen and smugglers . Initially marketed as a health resort , the town received a boost when it appeared in Dr Granville 's book , The Spas of England . Bournemouth 's growth really accelerated with the arrival of the railway and it became a recognised town in 1870 . Historically part of Hampshire , it joined Dorset with the reorganisation of local government in 1974 . Since 1997 , the town has been administered by a unitary authority , giving it autonomy from Dorset County Council although it remains part of the ceremonial county . The local council is Bournemouth Borough Council .
The town centre has notable Victorian architecture and the 202 @-@ foot ( 62 m ) spire of St Peter 's Church , one of three Grade I listed churches in the borough , is a local landmark . Bournemouth 's location has made it a popular destination for tourists , attracting over five million visitors annually with its beaches and popular nightlife . The town is also a regional centre of business , home of the Bournemouth International Centre or BIC , and a financial sector that is worth more than £ 1 @,@ 000 million in Gross Value Added .
= = Toponymy = =
The first mention of Bournemouth comes in the Christchurch cartulary of 1406 , where a monk describes how a large fish ( " uni magno piscis " ) , 18 ft. long , was washed up at " La Bournemowthe " in October of that year and taken to the Manor of Wick ; six days later , a portion of the fish was collected by a canon from Christchurch Priory and taken away as tithe . " La Bournemowthe " , however , was purely a geographic reference to the uninhabited area around the mouth of the small river which , in turn , drained the heathland between the towns of Poole and Christchurch . The word bourne , meaning a small stream , is a derivative of burna , old English for a brook . From the latter half of the 16th century " Bourne Mouth " seems to be preferred , being recorded as such in surveys and reports of the period , but this appears to have been shortened to " Bourne " after the area had started to develop . A travel guide published in 1831 calls the place " Bourne Cliffe " or " Tregonwell 's Bourne " after its founder . The Spas of England , published ten years later , calls it simply " Bourne " as does an 1838 edition of the Hampshire Advertiser . In the late 19th century " Bournemouth " became predominant , although its two @-@ word form appears to have remained in use up until at least the early 20th century , turning up on a 1909 ordnance map .
= = History = =
In the 12th century the region around the mouth of the River Bourne was part of the Hundred of Holdenhurst . The hundred later became the Liberty of Westover when it was also extended to include the settlements of North Ashley , Muscliff , Muccleshell , Throop , Iford , Pokesdown , Tuckton and Wick , and incorporated into the Manor of Christchurch . Although the Dorset and Hampshire region surrounding it had been the site of human settlement for thousands of years , Westover was largely a remote and barren heathland before 1800 . In 1574 the Earl of Southampton noted that the area was " Devoid of all habitation " , and as late as 1795 the Duke of Rutland recorded that " ... on this barren and uncultivated heath there was not a human to direct us " .
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the Borough of Bournemouth would grow to encompass a number of ancient settlements along the River Stour , including Longham where a skull thought to be 5 @,@ 500 years old was found in 1932 . Bronze Age burials near Moordown , and the discovery of Iron Age pottery on the East Cliff in 1969 , suggest there may have been settlements there during that period . Hengistbury Head , added to the borough in 1932 , was the site of a much older Palaeolithic encampment . During the latter half of the 16th century James Blount , 6th Baron Mountjoy , began mining for alum in the area , and at one time part of the heath was used for hunting , although by the late 18th century little evidence of either event remained . No @-@ one lived at the mouth of the Bourne river and the only regular visitors to the area before the 19th century were a few fishermen , turf cutters and gangs of smugglers .
Prior to the Christchurch Inclosures Act 1802 , more than 70 % of the Westover area was common land . The act , together with the Inclosure Commissioners ' Award of 1805 , transferred five thousand acres into the hands of five private owners , including James Harris , 1st Earl of Malmesbury , and Sir George Ivison Tapps . In 1809 the Tapps Arms public house appeared on the heath . A few years later , in 1812 , the first official residents , retired army officer Lewis Tregonwell and his wife , moved into their new home built on land purchased from Tapps . The area was well known to Tregonwell who , during the Napoleonic wars , spent much of his time searching the heath and coastline for French invaders and smugglers .
Anticipating that people would come to the area to indulge in the newly fashionable pastime of sea @-@ bathing , an activity with perceived health benefits , Tregonwell built a series of villas on his land between 1816 and 1822 , which he hoped to let out . The common belief that pine @-@ scented air was good for lung conditions , and in particular tuberculosis , prompted Tregonwell and Tapps to plant hundreds of pine trees . These early attempts to promote the town as a health resort meant that by the time Tregonwell had died in 1832 , Bournemouth had grown into a small community with a scattering of houses , villas and cottages . The town would ultimately grow up around the scattered pines and tree @-@ lined walk to the beach , later to become known as the Invalids ' Walk .
After the death of Tapps in 1835 , his son Sir George William Tapps @-@ Gervis inherited his father 's estate . He hired the young local architect Benjamin Ferrey to develop the coastal area on the east side of the stream . Bournemouth 's first hotel , later to become part of the Royal Bath Hotel , opened in 1838 and is one of the few buildings designed by Ferrey still standing . Bournemouth started to grow at a faster rate as Tapps @-@ Gervis began developing the area similarly to the south coast resorts of Weymouth and Brighton . Despite enormous investment , the town 's share of the market remained modest . In 1841 Tapps @-@ Gervis invited the physician and writer Augustus Granville to stay . Granville was the author of The Spas of England , which described health resorts around the country , and as a result of his visit he included a chapter on Bournemouth in the second edition of his book . The publication of the book , and the increase in visitors seeking the medicinal use of seawater and the pine @-@ scented air , helped the town to grow and establish itself as an early tourist destination .
In the 1840s Benjamin Ferrey was replaced by Decimus Burton , whose plans for Bournemouth included the construction of a garden alongside the Bourne stream , an idea first mooted by Granville . The fields south of the road crossing ( later Bournemouth Square ) were drained and laid out with shrubberies and walks . Many of these paths , including the Invalids ' Walk , remain in the town today . A second suggestion of Granville 's , a sanatorium , was completed in 1855 and greatly raised Bournemouth 's profile as a place for recuperation .
At a time when the most convenient way to arrive in the town was by sea , a pier was considered to be a necessity . Holdenhurst Parish Council were reluctant to find the money , and an attempt to raise the money privately in 1847 had only succeeded in financing a small 100 feet ( 30 m ) jetty . The Bournemouth Improvement Act of 1856 granted greater financial autonomy to the town and a pier was approved that year . A number of wooden structures were built before an 838 feet ( 255 m ) cast iron design by Eugenius Birch was completed in 1880 . Under the Act , a board of 13 Commissioners was established to build and organise the expanding infrastructure of the town , such as paving , sewers , drainage , street lighting and street cleaning .
The arrival of the railways in 1870 precipitated a massive growth in seaside and summer visitors to the town , especially from the Midlands and London . In 1880 the town had a population of 17 @,@ 000 , but by 1900 , when railway connections to Bournemouth were at their most developed , the town 's population had risen to 60 @,@ 000 and it had become a favourite location for visiting artists and writers . The town was improved greatly during this period through the efforts of Sir Merton Russell @-@ Cotes , the town 's mayor and a local philanthropist , who helped to establish the town 's first library and museum . The Russell @-@ Cotes Art Gallery & Museum was housed in his mansion , and after his death it was given to the town . Bournemouth became a municipal borough in 1890 and a county borough in 1900 .
As Bournemouth 's growth increased in the early 20th century , the town centre spawned theatres , cafés , two art deco cinemas and more hotels . Other new buildings included the war memorial in 1921 and the Bournemouth Pavilion , the town 's concert hall and grand theatre , finished in 1925 .
The town escaped heavy bombing during the Second World War , but the sea front incurred great damage when it was fortified against invasion . The cast iron lampposts and benches along the front were removed and melted down for munitions , as was much of the superstructure from both Bournemouth and Boscombe piers before they were breached to prevent their use by enemy ships . The large amounts of barbed wire and anti @-@ tank obstacles along the beach , and the mines at the foot of the chines , took two years to remove when peace was finally achieved .
The Royal National Lifeboat Institution stationed an inshore lifeboat at Bournemouth between 1965 and 1972 . Coverage for the area has otherwise been provided from Poole Lifeboat Station . The Bournemouth International Centre ( BIC ) , a large conference and exhibition centre , was constructed near the seafront in 1984 , and in the following year Bournemouth became the first town in the United Kingdom to introduce and use CCTV cameras for public street @-@ based surveillance .
The Waterfront complex , which was intended to hold an IMAX cinema , was constructed on the seafront in 1998 . The 19 m ( 62 ft ) -high concrete and smoked glass building featured a wavy roof design , but was despised by residents and visitors alike because it blocked views of the bay and the Isle of Purbeck . In 2005 it was voted the most hated building in England in a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ person poll conducted by the Channel 4 programme Demolition , and was pulled down in spring 2013 . The site is to be used as an outdoor event arena . The council still plan a larger redevelopment of the site and adjoining council land in the long term .
In 2012 Bournemouth was unsuccessful in its bid for city status , losing out to Chelmsford in competition with 26 other towns to commemorate Queen Elizabeth II 's Diamond Jubilee .
= = Governance = =
Historically Bournemouth was part of Hampshire , with neighbouring Poole , just to the west of the border , in Dorset . At the time of the 1974 local government re @-@ organisation , it was considered desirable that the whole of the Poole / Bournemouth urban area should be part of the same county . Bournemouth therefore became part of the non @-@ metropolitan county of Dorset on 1 April 1974 . On 1 April 1997 , Bournemouth became a unitary authority , independent from Dorset County Council . For the purposes of the Lieutenancy it remains part of the ceremonial county of Dorset .
For local elections the district is divided into 18 wards , and the Bournemouth Borough Council is elected every four years . In the 2011 local elections the Conservatives held overall control , winning 45 of the available 51 seats . The Council elects a Mayor and Deputy Mayor annually . For 2014 – 15 the mayor is Chris Mayne .
Bournemouth is represented by two parliamentary constituencies in the House of Commons ; Bournemouth East and Bournemouth West . In the 2010 general election , the former was held for the Conservatives by Tobias Elwood with 48 @.@ 4 % of the vote , while the latter was also held for the Conservatives by Connor Burns with 45 @.@ 1 % .
= = Geography = =
Bournemouth is about 94 miles ( 151 km ) southwest of London at 50 ° 43 ′ 12 ″ N 1 ° 52 ′ 48 ″ W. The borough borders the neighbouring boroughs of Poole and Christchurch to the west and east respectively and the East Dorset District to the north . Poole Bay lies to the South . The River Stour forms a natural boundary to the north and east , terminating at Christchurch Harbour ; while the River Bourne rises in Poole and flows through the middle of Bournemouth town centre , into the English Channel . The towns of Poole , Bournemouth and Christchurch form the South East Dorset conurbation with a combined population of over 400 @,@ 000 . Bournemouth is both a retail and commercial centre . Areas within Bournemouth include : Boscombe , Kinson , Southbourne , Springbourne , Throop , Westbourne and Winton .
The area 's geology has little variety , comprising almost entirely of Eocene clays which , prior to urbanisation , supported a heathland environment . Patches of the original heath still remain , notably Turbary Common , a 36 @-@ hectare ( 89 @-@ acre ) site , much of which is designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest . This heathland habitat is home to all six species of native reptile , the Dartford warbler and some important flora such as sundew and bog asphodel . Small populations of Exmoor pony and Shetland cattle help to maintain the area . Bournemouth is directly north of Old Harry Rocks , the easternmost end of the Jurassic Coast , 96 miles ( 155 km ) of coastline designated a World Heritage Site in 2001 . Bournemouth 's own coastline stretches from Sandbanks to Christchurch Harbour and comprises mainly sandy beaches backed by gravel and sandy clay cliffs . These cliffs are cut by a number of chines which provide natural access to the shore . At the easternmost point lies Hengistbury Head , a narrow peninsula that forms the southern shore of Christchurch Harbour . It is a local nature reserve and the site of a Bronze Age settlement .
= = = Climate = = =
Like all of the UK , Bournemouth has a temperate oceanic climate with moderate variation in annual and daily temperatures , cool summers , and frequent overcast skies . From 1981 to 2010 the annual mean temperature was 10 to 11 ° C ( 50 to 52 ° F ) . The warmest months are July and August , which have an average temperature range of 12 to 22 ° C ( 54 to 72 ° F ) , while the coolest months are January and February , which have an average temperature range of 1 to 8 ° C ( 34 to 46 ° F ) . Average rainfall in Bournemouth is around 800 mm ( 31 in ) annually , well below the national average of 1 @,@ 126 millimetres . Since 1960 , temperature extremes as measured at Bournemouth Hurn Airport have ranged from 34 @.@ 1 ° C ( 93 @.@ 4 ° F ) in August 1990 , down to − 13 @.@ 4 ° C ( 7 @.@ 9 ° F ) in January 1963 . The lowest temperature recorded in recent years was − 10 @.@ 4 ° C ( 13 @.@ 3 ° F ) in December 2010 .
= = Demography = =
The 2011 census records the population of Bournemouth as 183 @,@ 491 , comprising 91 @,@ 386 males and 92 @,@ 105 females , which equates to 49 @.@ 8 % and 50 @.@ 2 % of the population respectively . The mean average age of all persons is 40 years . With 4 @,@ 000 residents per square kilometre , Bournemouth has the highest population density of any authority in the South @-@ West region , and is the eighth most populated .
Much of the population , 83 @.@ 8 % , describe their ethnicity as ' white British ' while other white groups account for a further 8 @.@ 1 % . Asian groups ; Indian , Pakistani , Bangladeshi , Chinese and other Asian , make up 3 @.@ 9 % . Black British , black African , black Caribbean and other black groups form 1 @.@ 0 % of the population , Those of a mixed race make up 2 @.@ 3 % of the population , and 0 @.@ 9 % are from other ethnic groups .
Christians made up 57 @.@ 1 % of the population but 30 % of residents said they had no religion and 7 @.@ 8 % refused to say whether they were religious or not . Muslims were 1 @.@ 8 % , Buddhists , Hindus and Jews each had a 0 @.@ 7 % share , Sikhs were 0 @.@ 1 % . and other religions made up 0 @.@ 7 % .
Of all Bournemouth residents aged 16 or over , 19 @.@ 1 % had no qualifications at all , although 35 % said they had between one and four O @-@ levels , CSEs , GCSEs or equivalent , and 36 @.@ 5 % have more than five O @-@ level equivalents ( grade C and above ) , an A @-@ level or two to three AS @-@ levels . Those with an NVQ level 1 comprise 8 @.@ 0 % of the population while 15 @.@ 2 % have a level 2 NVQ , a City and Guilds craft certificate , BTEC or general diploma . Just over 20 % of residents had two or more A @-@ levels , four or more AS @-@ Levels or an advanced diploma while 15 @.@ 8 % possessed a degree , such as a BA or BSc or a higher degree such as an MA or PhD . An NVQ level 4 or 5 , HNC , HND , higher BTEC or higher diploma , is held by 4 @.@ 2 % and a professional qualification is held by 13 @.@ 9 % of residents . An apprenticeship has been completed by 6 @.@ 3 % of the population while 16 @.@ 9 % have some other work related or vocational qualification and 8 @.@ 3 % hold a foreign qualification .
Historically Bournemouth has suffered from negative rates of natural increase and has relied on immigration to maintain population growth . In 2007 however , births exceeded deaths for the first time , and this trend has continued through to 2011 . This , coupled with a substantial increase in people moving into the area , has led to a sharp rise in the resident population since 2001 . Of the total population , 3 @.@ 3 % are 85 or over , compared to 2 @.@ 2 % nationally ; however the largest group of people moving into the area are students in the 16 @-@ 24 @-@ year age group , and 9 % of the current population are between 20 and 24 . In England this age group accounts for only 7 % .
= = Economy = =
Similarly to the rest of Dorset , Bournemouth 's economy is primarily in the service sector , which employed 95 % of the workforce in 2010 . This was 10 % higher than the average employment in the service sector for Great Britain and 11 % higher than the South West . Of particular importance are the financial and public service sectors which through 2011 continued to show sustained growth . Compared to the rest of the country , Bournemouth performed well in these two areas but under performed in transport and communications .
The smallest geographical region for which Gross Value Added information is available is the NUTS3 area , Bournemouth and Poole . The latest figures , as of 2012 , are for the year 2009 which showed that the Bournemouth and Poole area enjoyed the strongest annualised growth in the South @-@ West region . In 2009 the South West Regional Accounts showed that the Financial Services sector in Bournemouth was worth £ 1 @,@ 031 @.@ 8 million in Gross Value Added . Important employers in this sector include : JPMorgan , Nationwide Building Society , and the Liverpool Victoria , Tata Consultancy Services ( formerly Unisys ) , and RIAS insurance companies . The manufacturing sector is predominantly based in neighbouring Poole , but still employed 2 % of the workforce in 2010 and 2 @.@ 6 % in 2011 .
Tourism is also important to the local economy . In 2011 , domestic and overseas visitors made more than 5 @.@ 6 million trips to the town and spent over £ 460 million between them . The equivalent of 8 @,@ 531 full @-@ time jobs exist as a result which accounts for 15 % of all employment in the town . Bournemouth seafront is one of the UK 's biggest attractions with 4 @.@ 5 million visitors in 2011 . RNLI lifeguards provide seasonal coverage of Bournemouth 's beaches .
With a third of all town centre businesses in the leisure industry , Bournemouth has a booming nightlife economy and is a popular destination for stag and hen parties . These party @-@ goers contribute £ 125 million a year to the economy and support 4 @,@ 000 jobs . In 2010 the town was awarded a Purple Flag for providing a wide variety of night @-@ time activities while maintaining the safety of both residents and visitors . An independent report published in 2012 indicates there has been a rise in antisocial behaviour which it attributes to the increase in nightlife .
Those of working age make up approximately 65 % of Bournemouth 's population and of these , 74 @.@ 6 % are economically active although not necessarily employed within the Bournemouth area . Industry in Bournemouth employed more than 76 @,@ 400 people in 2011 but not all of these were Bournemouth residents . Of those employed in Bournemouth based industries , 29 @.@ 32 % were employed in the public administration , education and health sector . This compares favourably with Dorset , the South @-@ West region , and the country as a whole , as do the other large sectors ; distribution , hotels & restaurants ( 29 @.@ 06 % ) , and banking , finance and insurance ( 24 @.@ 48 % ) . 37 @.@ 2 % of Bournemouth 's resident population are employed full @-@ time while 13 @.@ 3 % are employed part @-@ time . An additional 7 @.@ 1 % full @-@ time workers are self @-@ employed , 3 @.@ 1 % are self @-@ employed part @-@ time . Full @-@ time students with jobs account for 5 @.@ 3 % and 3 @.@ 8 % are unemployed .
The shopping streets are mostly pedestrianised with modern shopping malls , Victorian arcades and a large selection of bars , clubs and cafés . North of the centre there is an out @-@ of @-@ town shopping complex called Castlepoint . The 41 acre site has 40 units and was the largest shopping centre in the UK when it opened it 2003 . Other major shopping areas are situated in the districts of Westbourne and Boscombe .
= = Culture = =
Bournemouth is a tourist and regional centre for leisure , entertainment , culture and recreation . Local author and former mayor , Keith Rawlings , suggests that Bournemouth has a thriving youth culture due to its large university population and many language school students . In recent years , Bournemouth has become a popular nightlife destination with UK visitors and many clubs , bars and restaurants are located within the town centre . In a 2007 survey by First Direct , Bournemouth was found to be the happiest place in the UK , with 82 % of people questioned saying they were happy with their lives .
Major venues for concerts include BIC , Pavilion Theatre and O2 Academy . Built in 1984 , the BIC is also a popular place for party political conferences and has been used by all three major political parties . Its four auditoria make it the largest venue on the south coast . The O2 and Pavilion are older and are both Grade II listed buildings . The O2 , which opened in 1895 as the Grand Pavilion Theatre , was initially used as a circus and later for music hall theatre . The Pavilion opened in 1929 as concert hall and tea room while also providing a venue for the municipal orchestra . It continues to provide traditional entertainment today , presenting West End stage shows , ballet and operas . Bournemouth has more than 200 listed buildings , mainly from the Victorian and Edwardian eras , including three grade I churches ; St Peter 's , St Clement 's and St Stephen 's .
The Russell @-@ Cotes Museum is a Grade II * listed , villa completed in 1901 . It houses artefacts and paintings collected by the Victorian philanthropist Merton Russell @-@ Cotes and his wife during their extensive travels around the world . The four art galleries display paintings by William Powell Frith , Edwin Landseer , Edwin Long , William Orchardson , Arthur Hughes , Albert Moore and Dante Gabriel Rossetti . It was Russell @-@ Cotes who successfully campaigned to have a promenade built ; it runs continuously along the Bournemouth and Poole shoreline .
The Lower , Central and Upper Gardens are Grade II * public parks , leading for several miles down the valley of the River Bourne through the centre of the town to the sea . Bournemouth has a further 425 acres ( 172 ha ) of parkland . Initially serving to compensate for the loss of common rights after common land was enclosed in 1802 , it was held in trust until 1889 when ownership passed to Bournemouth Corporation and the land became five public parks : King 's Park , Queen 's Park , Meyrick Park , Seafield Gardens and Redhill Common .
The detailed Land Use Survey by the Office for National Statistics in 2005 noted that the local authority area of Bournemouth had the third highest proportion of land taken up by domestic gardens , 34 @.@ 6 % , of the 326 districts in England ; narrowly less than the London Boroughs of Harrow and Sutton at the time with 34 @.@ 7 % and 35 @.@ 1 % .
One of Bournemouth 's most noted cultural institutions is Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra which was formed in 1893 under Dan Godfrey . It became the first municipal orchestra in the country when in 1896 , Bournemouth Borough Council took control and Godfrey was appointed musical director and head of the town 's entertainments . Originally playing three concerts a day during the summer season , in the great glass palm house known as the Winter Gardens ; the orchestra is now based in Poole and performs around 130 concerts a year across Southern England .
Bournemouth is currently host to a number of festivals . Bournemouth Food and Drink Festival is a ten @-@ day event which combines a market with live cookery demonstrations . The Arts by the Sea Festival is a mix of dance , film , theatre , literature , and music which was launched in 2012 by the local university , the Arts University Bournemouth , and is set to become an annual event . The Bourne Free carnival is held in the town each year during the summer . Initially a gay pride festival , it has become a celebration of diversity and inclusion . Since 2008 , Bournemouth has held its own air festival over four days in August . This has featured displays from the Red Arrows as well as appearances from the Yakovlevs , Blades , Team Guinot Wing @-@ Walkers , Battle of Britain Memorial Flight including Lancaster , Hurricane , Spitfire and also the last flying Vulcan . The festival has also seen appearances from modern aircraft such as the Eurofighter Typhoon . The air festival attracts up to a million people over the four @-@ day event .
The town was especially rich in literary associations during the late 19th century and earlier years of the 20th century . P. C. Wren author of Beau Geste , Frederick E. Smith , writer of the 633 Squadron books , and Beatrice Webb , later Potter , all lived in the town . Paul Verlaine taught at Bournemouth a preparatory school and the writer J. R. R. Tolkien , spent 30 years taking holidays in Bournemouth , staying in the same room at the Hotel Miramar . He eventually retired to the area in the 1960s with his wife Edith , where they lived close to Branksome Chine . Tolkien died in September 1973 at his home in Bournemouth but was buried in Oxfordshire . The house was demolished in 2008 .
Percy Florence Shelley lived at Boscombe Manor ; a house he had built for his mother , Mary Shelley , the writer and author of the Gothic horror novel , Frankenstein . Mary died before the house was completed but she was buried in Bournemouth , in accordance with her wishes . The family plot in St Peter 's churchyard also contains her parents William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft , and the heart of her husband , Percy Bysshe Shelley . Robert Louis Stevenson wrote The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and most of his novel Kidnapped from his house " Skerryvore " on the west cliff , Westbourne . Vladimir Chertkov established a Tolstoyan publishing house with other Russian exiles at Tuckton , and under the ' Free Age Press ' imprint , published the first edition of several works by Leo Tolstoy . Author Bill Bryson worked for a time with the Bournemouth Echo newspaper and wrote about the town in his 1995 work Notes from a Small Island .
= = Landmarks = =
Bournemouth has three Grade I listed churches , St Peter 's and St Stephen 's in the town centre and St Clement 's in Boscombe . St Peter 's was the town 's first church , completed in 1879 and designed by George Edmund Street . In his book , England 's Thousand Best Churches , Simon Jenkins describes the chancel as " one of the richest Gothic Revival interiors in England " , while the 202 feet ( 62 m ) spire dominates the surrounding skyline . When the architect , John Loughborough Pearson , designed St Stephen 's his aim was to , " bring people to their knees " . It has a high stone groined roof , twin aisles and a triforium gallery , although the tower lacks a spire .
The borough has two piers : Bournemouth Pier , close to the town centre , and the shorter but architecturally more important Boscombe Pier . Designed by the architect Archibald Smith , Boscombe Pier opened in 1889 as a 600 feet ( 180 m ) structure which was extended to 750 feet ( 230 m ) in 1927 when a new head was constructed . Added in 1958 , the boomerang @-@ shaped entrance kiosk and overhanging concrete roof is now a Grade II listed building . In 1961 a theatre was added but this was demolished in 2008 when the rest of the pier was renovated . In 2009 , fashion designer Wayne Hemingway described Boscombe Pier as " Britain 's coolest pier " . It was also voted Pier of the Year 2010 by the National Piers Society .
In 1856 , Bournemouth Pier was a simple , wooden jetty . This was replaced by a longer , wooden pier five years later , and a cast iron structure in 1880 . Two extensions to the pier in 1894 and 1905 , brought the total length to 305 metres ( 1000 feet ) . After World War II , the structure was strengthened to allow for the addition of a Pier Theatre , finally constructed in 1960 . Between 1979 and 1981 , a £ 1 @.@ 7 million redevelopment programme , saw a great deal of reconstruction work , and the addition of a large two @-@ storey , octagonal @-@ shaped entrance building .
Built as the Mont Dore Hotel in 1881 , Bournemouth Town Hall was designated a Grade II listed building in 2001 . Designed by Alfred Bedborough in the French , Italian and neo @-@ classical styles , the foundation stone was laid by King Oscar II of Sweden and Norway and the hotel opened in 1885 . The buff brick exterior features Bath stone dressings and terracotta friezes . The main entrance is sited within a projected façade that reaches to the eaves and is topped with a pediment , while above sits a belvedere with turrets and a pavilion roof . During the First World War the hotel was used as a hospital for British and Indian soldiers and after as a convalescent home . It never opened as a hotel again and was purchased by Bournemouth Borough Council in 1919 .
Built in the Art Deco style in 1929 , situated close to the seafront , the Pavilion Theatre was at the time considered to be the greatest ever municipal enterprise for the benefit of entertainment . Built from brick and stone , the frontage features square Corinthian columns . Still a popular venue , it is today a Grade II listed building .
The Bournemouth Eye is a helium @-@ filled balloon attached to a steel cable in the town 's lower gardens . The spherical balloon is 69 m ( 226 ft ) in circumference and carries an enclosed , steel gondola . Rising to a height of 150 m ( 492 ft ) , it provides a panoramic view of the surrounding area for up to 28 passengers .
= = Sport = =
The town has a professional football club , AFC Bournemouth , known as the Cherries , which was promoted to the Championship in 2013 and Premier League in 2015 . AFC Bournemouth play at Dean Court near Boscombe in Kings ' Park , 2 miles ( 3 km ) east of the town centre .
Bournemouth Rugby Club , which competes in the National League Division Two South , has its home at the Bournemouth Sports Club , next to Bournemouth Airport , where it hosts an annual Rugby sevens tournament and festival . Bournemouth Cricket Club also plays at Bournemouth Sports Club and is reported to be one of the biggest cricket clubs in the country . Its first team plays in the Southern Premier League . Dean Park is a former county cricket ground , once home to Hampshire County Cricket Club and later Dorset County Cricket Club . Today it is a venue for university cricket .
The BIC has become a venue for a round of the Premier League Darts Championship organised by the Professional Darts Corporation .
The Westover and Bournemouth Rowing Club , is the town 's coastal rowing club . Established in 1865 , it is reported to be the oldest sporting association in the county . The club regularly competes in regattas organised by the Hants and Dorset Amateur Rowing Association which take place on the South Coast of England between May and September .
Other watersports popular in Poole Bay include sailing and surfing , and there are a number of local schools for the beginner to learn either sport . Bournemouth has the third largest community of surfers in the UK and in 2009 an artificial surf reef , one of only four in the world , was constructed there . The reef failed to deliver the promised grade 5 wave , suffered a series of delays and ran over budget , finally costing £ 3 @.@ 2 million .
= = Transport = =
= = = Road = = =
The principal route to the town centre is the A338 spur road , a dual carriageway that connects to the A31 close to the Hampshire border . The A31 joins the M27 at Southampton and from there the M3 to London and the A34 to the Midlands and the North can be accessed . The main road west is the A35 to Honiton in Devon which runs through the South East Dorset Conurbation and continues east as far as Southampton , albeit as a non @-@ primary route . The A350 in the neighbouring borough of Poole provides the only northern route out of the conurbation . National Express coaches serve Bournemouth Travel Interchange & Bournemouth University . There are frequent departures to London Victoria Coach Station and Heathrow Airport and Gatwick Airports . Local buses are provided mainly by two companies , More Bus , the former National Bus Company subsidiary and now owned by the Go @-@ Ahead group , and Yellow Buses , the former Bournemouth Council @-@ owned company and successors to Bournemouth Corporation Transport , which began operating trams in 1902 . Other operators serving the town include Damory Coaches and the Shaftesbury & District bus company .
= = = Rail = = =
There are two stations in the town , Bournemouth railway station and Pokesdown railway station to the east . Parts of western Bournemouth can also be reached from Branksome station . All three stations lie on the South Western Main Line from Weymouth to London Waterloo . South West Trains operates a comprehensive service along this line , which also serves Southampton Central , Winchester and Basingstoke to the east , and Poole , Wareham , and Dorchester South to the west . Before its closure in 1966 , Bournemouth was also served by the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway which provided direct access to Somerset and the Midlands .
= = = Air = = =
Originally an RAF airfield , Bournemouth Airport was transferred to the Civil Aviation Authority in 1944 and was the UK 's only intercontinental airport before the opening of Heathrow in 1946 . Acquired by the Manchester Airports Group in 2001 , the airport underwent a £ 45 million phased expansion programme between 2007 and 2011 . Situated in the village of Hurn on the periphery of Bournemouth , the airport is 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from the town centre and serves around 600 @,@ 000 passengers annually . There are direct flights to 23 international destinations in nine countries : Cyprus , Finland , Greece ( 3 destinations ) , Italy ( 4 ) , Malta , Portugal , Spain ( 10 ) , Switzerland and Turkey .
= = Education = =
The Bournemouth local education authority was first set up in 1903 and remained in existence until local government was reorganised in 1974 when Bournemouth lost its County Borough status and became part of the county of Dorset . Under the later reforms of 1997 , Bournemouth became a unitary authority and the Bournemouth local education authority was re @-@ established .
The local council operates a two @-@ tier comprehensive system whereby pupils attend one of the 26 primary schools in the borough before completing their education at secondary school . Bournemouth is one of the minority of local authorities in England still to maintain selective education , with two grammar schools ( one for boys , one for girls ) and ten secondary modern / comprehensive schools . There are also a small number of independent schools in the town , and a further education college . Bournemouth has two universities : Bournemouth University and Arts University Bournemouth , both of which are located across the boundary in neighbouring Poole .
In 2012 , 60 @.@ 7 % of the borough 's school leavers gained 5 GCSEs of grade C or above . This was slightly better than the national average of 59 @.@ 4 % and above the average for the rest of Dorset , with 58 @.@ 8 % of pupils from the local authority of Poole , and 54 @.@ 1 % from the remainder of the county , managing to do likewise .
= = Religion = =
The 2011 census revealed that 57 @.@ 1 % of the borough 's population are Christian . With all other religions combined only totalling 4 @.@ 7 % , Christianity is by far the largest religious group . 40 % of the borough falls within the Church of England Diocese of Salisbury . The remainder , to the east , belongs to the Diocese of Winchester . The Roman Catholic Diocese of Portsmouth incorporates most of Bournemouth with the exception of two small parishes to the west which are covered by the Diocese of Plymouth .
The borough has several notable examples of Victorian church architecture including the previously mentioned St. Peter 's , the churchyard of which contains the grave of the author Mary Shelley ; St Stephen 's Church , completed in 1898 for services under the influence of the Oxford Movement and St Clement 's , one of the first churches to be designed by John Dando Sedding , built in Boscombe in 1871 . To serve a rapidly expanding population a third church was built in the town centre in 1891 . St Augustin 's church was commissioned by Henry Twells who was ' priest @-@ in @-@ charge ' there until 1900 . The largest church in the town is the Richmond Hill St Andrew 's Church , part of the United Reformed Church . Built in 1865 and enlarged in 1891 , it has a seating capacity of 1 @,@ 100 and is unusually ornate for a non @-@ conformist church .
Few purpose @-@ built places of worship exist in borough for faiths other than Christianity although with a higher proportion of Jewish residents than the national average , there are three synagogues . Chabad @-@ Lubavitch of Bournemouth is a branch of the worldwide movement . The Bournemouth Reform Synagogue , formerly known as Bournemouth New Synagogue , is a Reform Jewish synagogue with over 700 members . There is also the architecturally notable Bournemouth Hebrew Congregation synagogue built in 1911 with an Art Nouveau take on the Moorish Revival style .
The Bournemouth Islamic Centre provides information , support and a place of worship for the Islamic community . There is also a separate mosque in the town .
Those who are not religious , over 30 % of the population , are welcomed by the Dorset Humanists who hold bi @-@ monthly meetings in the borough and are affiliated to the British Humanist Association .
= = Naming conventions = =
The word ' Bournemouth ' is often used loosely to describe the South East Dorset conurbation , which also contains the neighbouring towns of Poole , Christchurch , Wimborne Minster , and Verwood . As a result , " Bournemouth " is used in the following terms :
Although it has a significant presence in Bournemouth town centre , Bournemouth University 's main campus is located in Poole , on the boundary with Bournemouth .
Bournemouth Airport is located near Hurn in the borough of Christchurch , and was originally named RAF Hurn .
" Bournemouth Bay " is sometimes used for Poole Bay
The Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra is now based in Poole .
= = Twin towns = =
Bournemouth is twinned with :
Netanya , Israel
Lucerne , Switzerland
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= Hurricane Alma ( 1966 ) =
Hurricane Alma was a rare June major hurricane in the 1966 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the earliest Atlantic hurricane in the calendar year in fifteen years , as well as the earliest continental U.S. hurricane strike since 1825 . Alma developed on June 4 over Central America , and while moving through Honduras , it dropped heavy rainfall that killed at least 73 people in the city of San Rafael . Offshore northern Honduras , the system produced heavy rainfall in Swan Island . Alma moved northeastward and intensified into a hurricane on June 6 . It crossed western Cuba , causing heavy crop damage and water shortages . Alma destroyed over 1 @,@ 000 houses , and damage was estimated around $ 200 million ( 1966 USD ) . The storm killed 12 people in the country .
After crossing Cuba , Alma intensified further to reach winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) in the Gulf of Mexico . The hurricane passed west of Key West , Florida , causing a power outage and flooding . Alma dropped heavy rainfall and produced winds across most of Florida , which damaged crops and caused scattered power outages . The hurricane weakened before moving ashore near Apalachee Bay . Damage in Florida was estimated at $ 10 million , and there were six deaths in the state . Alma crossed southeastern Georgia as a tropical storm , damaging a few houses and causing light damage . The storm re @-@ intensified into a hurricane over the western Atlantic Ocean , and its outer rainbands dropped heavy rainfall in Wilmington , North Carolina . Alma encountered colder water temperatures and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on June 13 . Its remnants dissipated a day later over Massachusetts .
= = Meteorological history = =
During June 1966 , low atmospheric pressure stretched across the western Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico — a pattern that is conducive for tropical cyclogenesis . During the first few days of the month , a dissipating trough extended from the southeastern United States into the western Caribbean . A mid @-@ level circulation developed along the trough near Cabo Gracias a Dios on June 3 . By the next day , the circulation had reached the surface , which marked the development of a tropical depression over eastern Nicaragua . On June 5 , the depression crossed Honduras and emerged into the western Caribbean , moving north @-@ northeastward through an area of warm sea surface temperatures . It had a good cyclonic circulation , convection , and moisture content , but most significantly , a passing trough to the north provided the depression with favorable outflow . On June 6 , the depression rapidly intensified into Tropical Storm and later Hurricane Alma . This made it the earliest hurricane in the basin since Hurricane Able in 1951 .
After attaining hurricane status , Alma continued moving slowly to the north @-@ northeast , although its intensification rate slowed . While over the western Caribbean , Alma was a large hurricane with gale force winds covering about 200 @,@ 000 sq mi ( 520 @,@ 000 km2 ) . The hurricane accelerated on June 8 , quickly moving across Isla de la Juventud and later mainland Cuba with winds of around 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Alma did not weaken over land and entered the Gulf of Mexico , where it turned northwestward and passed between Key West and the Dry Tortugas . Late on June 8 , a station in the Dry Tortugas reported winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) ; this would be Alma 's peak intensity . The hurricane began weakening as it paralleled the west coast of Florida , at which point a developing upper @-@ level low over the northern Gulf of Mexico began to influence its motion . While the hurricane moved northward through the Gulf of Mexico , it had a large , ragged eye that reached 75 mi ( 121 km ) in diameter . Initially , forecasters anticipated Alma would cross central Florida , although the hurricane turned to the north @-@ northwest . Cool water temperatures contributed to weakening , and Alma made landfall near Apalachee Bay with winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) on June 9 . This marked the earliest United States hurricane landfall since a hurricane in May and June of 1825 .
While turning northeastward over northern Florida , Alma quickly weakened to a tropical storm . It moved across Georgia and emerged into the Atlantic near Savannah late on June 10 . Its circulation remained near the coast , although by late on June 11 , Alma had moved far enough offshore that it was able to re @-@ intensify into a hurricane . It developed a large eye and maintained hurricane intensity for about 18 hours . Afterward , Alma turned to the north into an area of drier air and colder waters , and again weakened to a tropical storm on June 12 . The next day , Alma transitioned into an extratropical cyclone to the east of Maryland . The remnants continued to the northeast and dissipated on June 14 over Massachusetts .
= = Preparations = =
In Cuba , evacuations were ordered for Nueva Gerona on Isla de la Juventud , and for 113 @,@ 754 people on the mainland . Cattle were moved to a safe location for the storm 's passage . President Fidel Castro declared a state of emergency in four western provinces due to the threat to the local sugar industry .
Before Alma struck Florida , officials issued hurricane warnings from the Florida Keys through Apalachicola . A hurricane watch and gale warning were issued for the state 's eastern coastline , extending to Savannah , Georgia . In Key West , residents boarded up houses , and about 1 @,@ 000 people fled to the region 's 11 shelters . The MIM @-@ 23 Hawk antiaircraft missiles in the city were moved to higher ground , having been in place since the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis . Further north , officials ordered the evacuation of Captiva Island and Sanibel Island . The causeways to Sanibel Island were closed , isolating residents who had not evacuated . Ten emergency shelters were opened in Fort Myers and two in Naples . Overall , about 100 @,@ 000 people were advised to seek shelter , though many of them chose to stay in their homes . All Phantom jet fighters at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa were transported to Columbus Air Force Base in Mississippi , while aircraft were also evacuated from Homestead Air Reserve Base . Because Alma was initially forecast to cross the central portion of the state , residents along the Florida panhandle were not adequately prepared for the hurricane . Just hours before the storm moved ashore , officials ordered evacuations for residents in low @-@ lying areas around Apalachicola .
One week before a scheduled hurricane preparedness drill at Kennedy Space Center , Alma presented the facility with an actual storm threat . A full @-@ scale version of a Saturn V rocket was rolled back to the Vehicle Assembly Building on June 8 in less than 11 hours , which was within the anticipated time for such a move and before the expected arrival of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) wind gusts . Two other rockets were also removed from their pads .
= = Impact = =
During its formative stages , Alma produced heavy rainfall for several days across Central America , primarily in Nicaragua and Honduras . Overnight on June 5 , the city of San Rafael , Honduras recorded about 30 in ( 760 mm ) of precipitation , possibly in relation to a localized cloudburst . The extreme rainfall flooded the entire city and left most of it covered with about 3 ft ( 1 m ) of mud . Most of San Rafael was destroyed , and there were at 73 deaths in the city ; one news report indicated that 75 people died in the city . Many rivers in Honduras became swollen at the height of the storm . On Swan Island , offshore northern Honduras , the storm dropped 14 @.@ 28 in ( 363 mm ) of rain . There was little damage on the island .
Before affecting Cuba , Alma spawned a tornado in Cayman Brac that destroyed a few houses and power lines . On Isla de la Juventud , the combination of high winds and rains destroyed dairy facilities , chicken farms , and large areas of fruit crops . The storm also destroyed a large radio tower on the island . When Alma struck Cuba , it produced high tides in southern La Habana Province that destroyed many fishing boats and wharves . Several towns along the coastline were flooded during the storm . The hurricane crossed western Cuba while strengthening . The Havana Institute of Meteorology recorded winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 980 mbar ( 29 inHg ) . The strong winds knocked down trees and power lines , including in the capital city of Havana where hundreds of trees fell . The city had power outages and damage to its water systems . More than 1 @,@ 000 houses were damaged in Havana . Many of them were poorly constructed due to lack of government funding to repair the gradually deteriorating structures in the tropical climate . High winds sank a boat in Pinar del Río Province ; one of the occupants drowned , and the other two swam to shore .
Alma caused significant crop damage in western Cuba ; it destroyed 13 @,@ 400 acres ( 5 @,@ 400 hectares ) of bananas and 18 @,@ 090 acres ( 7 @,@ 320 hectares ) of corn fields . There were also heavy losses to fruit trees and to the sugar industry , after the storm destroyed sugar mills and the rail lines that carried the cane to the mills . The storm destroyed over 100 tobacco drying barns , including their contents . The destruction of the tobacco represented a $ 30 million loss for the country . High winds also destroyed 96 tobacco storage facilities , although the tobacco was removed beforehand . In Güines near Havana , Alma destroyed food crops , which further exacerbated Cuba 's existing food shortages . Alma 's passage also resulted in water shortages , prompting the government to urge residents to use less water . There was heavy structural damage across western Cuba , including in Havana , Matanzas , Camagüey , Pinar del Río , and Las Villas . The hurricane destroyed 1 @,@ 083 houses , and overall damage was estimated at $ 200 million . Alma killed 12 people in the country and injured 78 others . In the storm 's aftermath , Cuban officials sent about 100 @,@ 000 people from Havana to the cities around the capital to repair storm damage . Such forced labor was a complaint about the rule of Fidel Castro , after the food and supply shortages .
Hurricane Alma affected the entire state of Florida with strong winds and rainfall . While the hurricane passed east of the Dry Tortugas , a station recorded winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) , which were the highest winds on land . The station also recorded a pressure of 970 mbar ( 29 inHg ) , which was the lowest pressure recorded on land . Wind gusts reached 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) in Key West , causing a power outage . Rising tides flooded streets in the city , including A1A which sustained damage to an adjacent seawall . Damage in the lower Florida Keys was estimated at around $ 300 @,@ 000 . In southwestern Florida , the hurricane heavily damaged the mango crop . High rainfall totals occurred across the state , peaking at 9 @.@ 94 in ( 252 mm ) in Dania Beach near Miami . There were eight tornadoes or funnel clouds in the state , including one in Dade County that damaged a home . Along the west coast of Pinellas County , the storm damaged the grapefruit crop . High winds , including a gust of 93 mph ( 150 km / h ) , caused power outages in the Tampa Bay Area . A wind gust knocked a car off of a bridge between Tampa and St. Petersburg , although the occupants were able to escape safely . As it paralleled the coastline , Alma produced a storm tide of 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in New Port Richey . The high tides caused significant flooding in Cedar Key . In northern Florida where Alma moved ashore , wind gusts reached 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) in Crawfordville ; the high winds damaged the local tobacco crop . There were six deaths , of which two were electrocutions , two were drownings , and two were from heart attacks related to the storm . One of the deaths was a man who had a heart attack while preparing to evacuate . Damage throughout Florida was estimated at around $ 10 million . This was less than other storms of similar intensity , due to the sparse population of the affected area .
Further north , Alma produced 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) wind gusts and 2 @.@ 18 in ( 55 mm ) in Savannah , Georgia . High winds damaged a few houses and downed trees near Albany , Georgia . The winds overturned a bus at Fort Gordon , injuring 11 soldiers . The storm caused about $ 50 @,@ 000 in damage in the state . Effects were minor in South Carolina , although heavy rainfall totaled 7 @.@ 80 in ( 198 mm ) in Wilmington , North Carolina . Rainfall and increased storm tides extended into Virginia and New Jersey .
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= Bill Clinton =
William Jefferson Clinton ( born William Jefferson Blythe III ; August 19 , 1946 ) is an American politician who was the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001 . Clinton was previously Governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and 1983 to 1992 , and the Arkansas Attorney General from 1977 to 1979 . A member of the Democratic Party , ideologically Clinton was a New Democrat , and many of his policies reflected a centrist " Third Way " political philosophy .
Clinton was born and raised in Arkansas , and is an alumnus of Georgetown University , where he was a member of Kappa Kappa Psi and Phi Beta Kappa and earned a Rhodes Scholarship to attend the University of Oxford . Clinton is married to Hillary Clinton , who served as United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 , and who was a Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009 , and is the Democratic nominee for president in 2016 . Both Clintons earned law degrees from Yale Law School , where they met and began dating . As Governor of Arkansas , Clinton overhauled the state 's education system , and served as chairman of the National Governors Association .
Clinton was elected President in 1992 , defeating incumbent George H. W. Bush . At age 46 , Clinton was the third @-@ youngest president , and the first from the Baby Boomer Generation . Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history , and signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement . After failing to pass national health care reform , the Democratic House was ousted when the Republican Party won control of the Congress in 1994 , for the first time in 40 years . Two years later , Clinton became the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected President twice . Clinton passed Welfare Reform and the State Children 's Health Insurance Program , providing health coverage for millions of children . He was reelected to a second term in 1996 .
In 1998 , Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives for perjury before a grand jury and obstruction of justice during a lawsuit against him , both related to a scandal involving White House ( and later Department of Defense ) employee Monica Lewinsky . Clinton was acquitted by the U.S. Senate in 1999 , and served his complete term of office . The Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus between the years 1998 and 2000 , the last three years of Clinton 's presidency . In foreign policy , Clinton ordered U.S. military intervention in the Bosnia and Kosovo wars , signed the Iraq Liberation Act in opposition to Saddam Hussein , and participated in the 2000 Camp David Summit to advance the Israeli – Palestinian peace process .
Clinton left office with the highest end @-@ of @-@ office approval rating of any U.S. President since World War II . Since then , Clinton has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work . Clinton created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address international causes , such as the prevention of AIDS and global warming . In 2004 , Clinton published his autobiography My Life . Clinton has remained active in politics by campaigning for Democratic candidates , including his wife 's campaigns for the Democratic presidential nomination in 2008 and 2016 , and Barack Obama 's presidential campaigns in 2008 and 2012 .
In 2009 , Clinton was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti , and after the 2010 Haiti earthquake , Clinton teamed with George W. Bush to form the Clinton Bush Haiti Fund . Since leaving office , Clinton has been rated highly in public opinion polls of U.S. Presidents .
= = Early life and career = =
Clinton was born William Jefferson Blythe III on August 19 , 1946 , at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope , Arkansas . Clinton 's father , William Jefferson Blythe Jr . ( 1910 – 1946 ) , was a traveling salesman who died in an automobile accident three months before Clinton was born . His mother , Virginia Dell ( née Cassidy ; 1923 – 1994 ) , traveled to New Orleans to study nursing soon after he was born . She left Clinton in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy , who owned and ran a small grocery store . At a time when the Southern United States was segregated racially , Clinton 's grandparents sold goods on credit to people of all races . In 1950 , Bill 's mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr. , who owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs , Arkansas , with his brother and Earl T. Ricks . The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950 .
Although he immediately assumed use of his stepfather 's surname , it was not until Clinton turned fifteen that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward his stepfather . Clinton says he remembers his stepfather as a gambler and an alcoholic who regularly abused his mother and half @-@ brother , Roger Clinton Jr . , to the point where he intervened multiple times with the threat of violence to protect them .
In Hot Springs , Clinton attended St. John 's Catholic Elementary School , Ramble Elementary School , and Hot Springs High School — where he was an active student leader , avid reader , and musician . Clinton was in the chorus and played the tenor saxophone , winning first chair in the state band 's saxophone section . He briefly considered dedicating his life to music , but as he noted in his autobiography My Life :
Sometime in my sixteenth year , I decided I wanted to be in public life as an elected official . I loved music and thought I could be very good , but I knew I would never be John Coltrane or Stan Getz . I was interested in medicine and thought I could be a fine doctor , but I knew I would never be Michael DeBakey . But I knew I could be great in public service .
Clinton 's interest in law also began in Hot Springs High , when in his Latin class he took up the challenge to argue the defense of the ancient Roman Senator Catiline in a mock trial . After a vigorous defense that made use of his " budding rhetorical and political skills " , he told the Latin teacher Elizabeth Buck that it " made him realize that someday he would study law . "
Clinton has named two influential moments in his life that contributed to his decision to become a public figure , both occurring in 1963 . One was his visit as a Boys Nation senator to the White House to meet President John F. Kennedy . The other was watching Martin Luther King , Jr . ' s 1963 I Have a Dream speech on TV , which impressed him enough that he later memorized it .
= = College and law school years = =
= = = Georgetown University = = =
With the aid of scholarships , Clinton attended the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University in Washington , D.C. , receiving a Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service ( B.S. ) degree in 1968 . In 1964 and 1965 he won elections for class president . From 1964 to 1967 he was an intern and then a clerk in the office of Arkansas Senator J. William Fulbright . While in college , he became a brother of co @-@ ed service fraternity Alpha Phi Omega and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa . Clinton was also a member of the Order of DeMolay , a youth group affiliated with Freemasonry , but he never became a Freemason . He is a member of Kappa Kappa Psi honorary band fraternity .
= = = Rhodes Scholar = = =
Upon graduation , he won a Rhodes Scholarship to University College , Oxford where he studied Philosophy , Politics and Economics , though because he had switched programs and had left early for Yale University , he did not receive a degree there . He developed an interest in rugby union , playing at Oxford and later for the Little Rock Rugby club in Arkansas .
= = = Vietnam War opposition and draft controversy = = =
While at Oxford he also participated in Vietnam War protests and organized an October 1969 Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam event .
Clinton received Vietnam War draft deferments during 1968 and 1969 while he was in England . Planning to attend law school in the U.S , and aware that he might lose his draft deferment , he tried unsuccessfully to obtain positions in the National Guard or Air Force , and then made arrangements to join the Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( ROTC ) program at the University of Arkansas .
He subsequently decided not to join the ROTC , saying in a letter to the officer in charge of the program he had planned to join that he opposed the war , but did not think it was honorable to use ROTC , National Guard , or Reserve service to avoid serving in Vietnam . He further stated that because he opposed the war , he would not volunteer to serve in uniform , but would subject himself to the draft , and would serve if selected only as a way " to maintain my political viability within the system . " Clinton registered for the draft and received a high number ( 311 ) , meaning that those whose birthdays had been drawn as numbers 1 to 310 would have to be drafted before him , making it unlikely that he would be drafted . ( In fact , the highest number drafted was 195 . )
Colonel Eugene Holmes , the Army officer who had been involved with Clinton 's ROTC application , suspected that Clinton attempted to manipulate the situation to avoid the draft and avoid serving in uniform . He issued a notarized statement during the 1992 presidential campaign :
I was informed by the draft board that it was of interest to Senator Fulbright 's office that Bill Clinton , a Rhodes Scholar , should be admitted to the ROTC program ... I believe that he purposely deceived me , using the possibility of joining the ROTC as a ploy to work with the draft board to delay his induction and get a new draft classification .
During the 1992 campaign it was revealed that Clinton 's uncle had attempted to secure him a position in the Navy Reserve , which would have kept him from going to Vietnam . This effort was unsuccessful and Clinton said in 1992 that he had been unaware of it until then . Although legal , Clinton 's actions with respect to the draft and deciding whether to serve in the military were criticized by conservatives and some Vietnam veterans during his first presidential campaign , some of whom charged that he had used Fulbright 's influence to avoid military service . Clinton 's 1992 campaign manager , James Carville , successfully argued that Clinton 's letter in which he declined to join the ROTC should be made public , insisting that voters , many of whom had also opposed the Vietnam War , would understand and appreciate his position .
= = = Law school = = =
After Oxford , Clinton attended Yale Law School and earned a Juris Doctor ( J.D. ) degree in 1973 . In the Yale Law Library in 1971 he met fellow law student Hillary Rodham , who was a year ahead of him . They began dating and soon were inseparable . After only about a month , Clinton postponed his plans to be a coordinator for the George McGovern campaign for the 1972 United States presidential election in order to move in with her in California . They married on October 11 , 1975 , and their only child , Chelsea , was born on February 27 , 1980 .
Clinton did eventually move to Texas with Rodham to take a job leading George McGovern 's effort there in 1972 . He spent considerable time in Dallas , at the campaign 's local headquarters on Lemmon Avenue , where he had an office . Clinton worked with future two @-@ term mayor of Dallas , Ron Kirk , future governor of Texas , Ann Richards , and then unknown television director ( and future filmmaker ) Steven Spielberg .
= = Early political career = =
= = = Governor of Arkansas ( 1979 – 81 and 1983 – 92 ) = = =
After graduating from Yale Law School , Clinton returned to Arkansas and became a law professor at the University of Arkansas . In 1974 he ran for the House of Representatives . Running in a conservative district against incumbent Republican John Paul Hammerschmidt , Clinton 's campaign was bolstered by the anti @-@ Republican and anti @-@ incumbent mood resulting from the Watergate scandal . Hammerschmidt , who had received 77 percent of the vote in 1972 , defeated Clinton by only a 52 percent to 48 percent margin . In 1976 Clinton ran for Arkansas Attorney General . With only minor opposition in the primary and no opposition at all in the general election , Clinton was elected .
Clinton was elected Governor of Arkansas in 1978 , having defeated the Republican candidate Lynn Lowe , a farmer from Texarkana . He became the youngest governor in the country at 32 . Due to his youthful appearance , Clinton was often called the " Boy Governor " . He worked on educational reform and Arkansas 's roads , with wife Hillary leading a successful committee on urban health care reform . However , his term included an unpopular motor vehicle tax and citizens ' anger over the escape of Cuban refugees ( from the Mariel boatlift ) detained in Fort Chaffee in 1980 . Monroe Schwarzlose of Kingsland in Cleveland County , polled 31 percent of the vote against Clinton in the Democratic gubernatorial primary of 1980 . Some suggested Schwarzlose 's unexpected voter turnout foreshadowed Clinton 's defeat in the general election that year by Republican challenger Frank D. White . As Clinton once joked , he was the youngest ex @-@ governor in the nation 's history .
Clinton joined friend Bruce Lindsey 's Little Rock law firm of Wright , Lindsey and Jennings . In 1982 , he was again elected governor and kept the office for ten years ; beginning with the 1986 election , Arkansas had changed its gubernatorial term of office from two to four years . During his term he helped transform Arkansas 's economy and improved the state 's educational system . For senior citizens , he removed the sales tax from medications and increased the home property @-@ tax exemption . He became a leading figure among the New Democrats , a group of Democrats who advocated welfare reform , smaller government , and other policies not supported by liberals . Formally organized as the Democratic Leadership Council ( DLC ) , the New Democrats argued that in light of President Ronald Reagan 's landslide victory in 1984 , the Democratic Party needed to adopt a more centrist political stance in order to succeed at the national level . Clinton delivered the Democratic response to President Reagan 's 1985 State of the Union Address and served as Chair of the National Governors Association from 1986 to 1987 , bringing him to an audience beyond Arkansas .
In the early 1980s , Clinton made reform of the Arkansas education system a top priority . Chaired by Clinton 's wife Hillary Rodham Clinton , also an attorney and chair of the Legal Services Corporation , the Arkansas Education Standards Committee transformed Arkansas 's education system from the worst in the United States to one of the best . Proposed reforms included more spending for schools ( supported by a sales @-@ tax increase ) , better opportunities for gifted children , vocational education , higher teachers ' salaries , more course variety , and compulsory teacher competency exams . The reforms passed in September 1983 after Clinton called a special legislative session — the longest in Arkansas history . Many have considered this the greatest achievement of the Clinton governorship . He defeated four Republican candidates for governor : Lowe ( 1978 ) , White ( 1982 and 1986 ) , Jonesboro businessmen Woody Freeman ( 1984 ) , and Sheffield Nelson of Little Rock ( 1990 ) .
The Clintons ' personal and business affairs in the 1980s included transactions that became the basis of the Whitewater controversy investigation that later dogged his presidential administration . After extensive investigation over several years , no indictments were made against the Clintons related to the years in Arkansas .
According to some sources , Clinton was in his early years a death penalty opponent who switched positions . During Clinton 's term , Arkansas performed its first executions since 1964 ( the death penalty had been re @-@ enacted on March 23 , 1973 ) . As Governor , he oversaw four executions : one by electric chair and three by lethal injection . Later , as president , Clinton was the first President to pardon a death @-@ row inmate since the federal death penalty was reintroduced in 1988 .
= = = 1988 Democratic presidential primaries = = =
In 1987 , there was media speculation Clinton would enter the race after then @-@ New York Governor Mario Cuomo declined to run and Democratic front @-@ runner Gary Hart withdrew owing to revelations of marital infidelity . Clinton decided to remain as Arkansas governor ( following consideration for the potential candidacy of Hillary Rodham Clinton for governor , initially favored — but ultimately vetoed — by the First Lady ) . For the nomination , Clinton endorsed Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis . He gave the nationally televised opening night address at the 1988 Democratic National Convention , but his speech , which was 33 minutes long and twice as long as it was expected to be , was criticized for being too long and poorly delivered . Presenting himself as a moderate and a member of the New Democrat wing of the Democratic Party , he headed the moderate Democratic Leadership Council in 1990 and 1991 .
= = Presidency ( 1993 – 2001 ) = =
During his presidency , Clinton advocated for a wide variety of legislation and programs , much of which was enacted into law or was implemented by the executive branch . His policies , particularly the North American Free Trade Agreement and welfare reform , have been attributed to a centrist Third Way philosophy of governance . On budgetary matters his policy of fiscal conservatism helped to reduce deficits . Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history . The Congressional Budget Office reported budget surpluses of $ 69 billion in 1998 , $ 126 billion in 1999 , and $ 236 billion in 2000 , during the last three years of Clinton 's presidency . The U.S. treasury reported a debt of $ 5 @.@ 413 trillion in 1997 , and a debt of $ 5 @.@ 656 trillion in 1999 . At the end of his presidency , Clinton moved to New York and helped his wife win election to the U.S. Senate there .
= = = 1992 presidential campaign = = =
In the first primary contest , the Iowa Caucus , Clinton finished a distant third to Iowa Senator Tom Harkin . During the campaign for the New Hampshire primary , reports of an extramarital affair with Gennifer Flowers surfaced . As Clinton fell far behind former Massachusetts Senator Paul Tsongas in the New Hampshire polls , following Super Bowl XXVI , Clinton and his wife Hillary went on 60 Minutes to rebuff the charges . Their television appearance was a calculated risk , but Clinton regained several delegates . He finished second to Tsongas in the New Hampshire primary , but after trailing badly in the polls and coming within single digits of winning , the media viewed it as a victory . News outlets labeled him " The Comeback Kid " for earning a firm second @-@ place finish .
Winning the big prizes of Florida and Texas and many of the Southern primaries on Super Tuesday gave Clinton a sizable delegate lead . However , former California Governor Jerry Brown was scoring victories and Clinton had yet to win a significant contest outside his native South . With no major Southern state remaining , Clinton targeted New York , which had many delegates . He scored a resounding victory in New York City , shedding his image as a regional candidate . Having been transformed into the consensus candidate , he secured the Democratic Party nomination , finishing with a victory in Jerry Brown 's home state of California .
During the campaign , questions of conflict of interest regarding state business and the politically powerful Rose Law Firm , at which Hillary Rodham Clinton was a partner , arose . Clinton argued the questions were moot because all transactions with the state had been deducted before determining Hillary 's firm pay . Further concern arose when Bill Clinton announced that , with Hillary , voters would be getting two presidents " for the price of one " .
While campaigning for U.S. President , the then @-@ Governor Clinton returned to Arkansas to see that Ricky Ray Rector would be executed . After killing a police officer and a civilian , Rector shot himself in the head , leading to what his lawyers said was a state where he could still talk but did not understand the idea of death . According to Arkansas state and Federal law , a seriously mentally impaired inmate cannot be executed . The courts disagreed with the allegation of grave mental impairment and allowed the execution . Clinton 's return to Arkansas for the execution was framed in a The New York Times article as a possible political move to counter " soft on crime " accusations .
Because Bush 's approval ratings were around 80 percent during the Gulf War , he was described as unbeatable . However , when Bush compromised with Democrats to try to lower Federal deficits , he reneged on his promise not to raise taxes , hurting his approval rating . Clinton repeatedly condemned Bush for making a promise he failed to keep . By election time , the economy was souring and Bush saw his approval rating plummet to just slightly over 40 percent . Finally , conservatives were previously united by anti @-@ communism , but with the end of the Cold War , the party lacked a uniting issue . When Pat Buchanan and Pat Robertson addressed Christian themes at the Republican National Convention — with Bush criticizing Democrats for omitting God from their platform — many moderates were alienated . Clinton then pointed to his moderate , " New Democrat " record as governor of Arkansas , though some on the more liberal side of the party remained suspicious . Many Democrats who had supported Ronald Reagan and Bush in previous elections switched their support to Clinton . Clinton and his running mate , Al Gore , toured the country during the final weeks of the campaign , shoring up support and pledging a " new beginning " .
Clinton won the 1992 presidential election ( 43 @.@ 0 percent of the vote ) against Republican incumbent George H. W. Bush ( 37 @.@ 4 percent of the vote ) and billionaire populist Ross Perot , who ran as an independent ( 18 @.@ 9 percent of the vote ) on a platform focusing on domestic issues ; a significant part of Clinton 's success was Bush 's steep decline in public approval . Clinton 's election ended twelve years of Republican rule of the White House and twenty of the previous twenty @-@ four years . The election gave Democrats full control of the United States Congress , the first time one party controlled both the executive and legislative branches since Democrats held the 96th United States Congress during the presidency of Jimmy Carter .
= = = First term = = =
Clinton was inaugurated as the 42nd President of the United States on January 20 , 1993 . Shortly after taking office , Clinton signed the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 on February 5 , which required large employers to allow employees to take unpaid leave for pregnancy or a serious medical condition . This action had bipartisan support , and proved quite popular with the public .
Two days after taking office , on January 22 , 1993 — the 20th anniversary of the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade , Clinton reversed restrictions on domestic and international family planning programs that had been imposed by Clinton 's predecessors , Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush . Clinton said that abortion should be kept " safe , legal , and rare " — a slogan that had been suggested by University of California , San Diego political scientist Samuel L. Popkin and first used by Clinton in December 1991 , while campaigning . During the eight years of the Clinton administration , the U.S. abortion rate declined by about 18 @.@ 4 percent .
On February 15 , 1993 , Clinton made his first address to the nation , announcing his plan to raise taxes to cap the budget deficit . Two days later , in a nationally televised address to a joint session of Congress , Clinton unveiled his economic plan . The plan focused on reducing the deficit rather than on cutting taxes for the middle class , which had been high on his campaign agenda . Clinton 's advisers pressured him to raise taxes on the theory that a smaller federal budget deficit would reduce bond interest rates .
On May 19 , 1993 , Clinton fired seven employees of the White House Travel Office , causing the White House travel office controversy even though the Travel Office staff served at the pleasure of the president and could be dismissed without cause . The White House responded to the controversy by claiming the firings were done because of financial improprieties that had been revealed by a brief FBI investigation . Critics contended the firings had been done to allow friends of the Clintons to take over the travel business and that the involvement of the FBI was unwarranted .
Clinton signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993 in August of that year , which passed Congress without a Republican vote . It cut taxes for fifteen million low @-@ income families , made tax cuts available to 90 percent of small businesses , and raised taxes on the wealthiest 1 @.@ 2 percent of taxpayers . Additionally , through the implementation of spending restraints , it mandated the budget be balanced over a number of years .
Clinton made a major speech to Congress regarding a health care reform plan on September 22 , 1993 , aimed at achieving universal coverage through a national health care plan . This was one of the most prominent items on Clinton 's legislative agenda , and resulted from a task force headed by Hillary Clinton . Though at first well received in political circles , it was eventually doomed by well @-@ organized opposition from conservatives , the American Medical Association , and the health insurance industry . However , John F. Harris , a biographer of Clinton 's , states the program failed because of a lack of coordination within the White House . Despite the Democratic majority in Congress , the effort to create a national health care system ultimately died when compromise legislation by George J. Mitchell failed to gain a majority of support in August 1994 . It was the first major legislative defeat of Clinton 's administration .
In November 1993 , David Hale , the source of criminal allegations against Bill Clinton in the Whitewater controversy , alleged that Clinton , while governor of Arkansas , pressured him to provide an illegal $ 300 @,@ 000 loan to Susan McDougal , the partner of the Clintons in the Whitewater land deal . A U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission investigation did result in convictions against the McDougals for their role in the Whitewater project , but the Clintons themselves were never charged , and Clinton maintains innocence in the affair .
Clinton signed the Brady Bill into law on November 30 , 1993 , which mandated federal background checks on firearm purchasers in the United States , and imposed a five @-@ day waiting period on purchases , until the NICS system was implemented in 1998 .. He also expanded the Earned Income Tax Credit , a subsidy for low @-@ income workers .
In December of that year , allegations by Arkansas state troopers Larry Patterson and Roger Perry were first reported by David Brock in the American Spectator . Later known as Troopergate , the allegations by these men were that they arranged sexual liaisons for Bill Clinton back when he was governor of Arkansas . The story mentioned a woman named Paula , a reference to Paula Jones . Brock later apologized to Clinton , saying the article was politically motivated " bad journalism " and that " the troopers were greedy and had slimy motives . "
That month , Clinton implemented a Department of Defense directive known as " Don 't Ask , Don 't Tell " , which allowed gay men and women to serve in the armed services provided they kept their sexuality a secret , and forbade the military from inquiring about an individual 's sexual orientation . The policy was developed as a compromise after Clinton 's proposal to allow gays to serve openly in the military met staunch opposition from prominent Congressional Republicans and Democrats , including Senators John McCain ( R @-@ AZ ) and Sam Nunn ( D @-@ GA ) . According to David Mixner , Clinton 's support for the compromise led to a heated dispute with Vice President Al Gore , who felt that " the President should lift the ban ... even though [ his executive order ] was sure to be overridden by the Congress " . Some gay @-@ rights advocates criticized Clinton for not going far enough and accused him of making his campaign promise to get votes and contributions . Their position was that Clinton should have integrated the military by executive order , noting that President Harry S. Truman used executive order to racially desegregate the armed forces . Clinton 's defenders argue that an executive order might have prompted the Senate to write the exclusion of gays into law , potentially making it harder to integrate the military in the future . Later in his presidency , in 1999 , Clinton criticized the way the policy was implemented , saying he did not think any serious person could say it was not " out of whack " . The policy remained controversial , and was finally repealed in 2011 , removing open sexual preference as a reason for dismissal from the armed forces .
On January 1 , 1994 , Clinton signed the North American Free Trade Agreement into law . Throughout his first year in office , Clinton consistently supported ratification of the treaty by the U.S. Senate . Clinton and most of his allies in the Democratic Leadership Committee strongly supported free trade measures ; there remained , however , strong disagreement within the party . Opposition came chiefly from anti @-@ trade Republicans , protectionist Democrats and supporters of Ross Perot . The bill passed the house with 234 votes against 200 opposed ( 132 Republicans and 102 Democrats voting in favor ; 156 Democrats , 43 Republicans , and 1 independent against ) . The treaty was then ratified by the Senate and signed into law by the President .
The Omnibus Crime Bill , which Clinton signed into law in September 1994 , made many changes to U.S. crime and law enforcement legislation including the expansion of the death penalty to include crimes not resulting in death , such as running a large @-@ scale drug enterprise . During Clinton 's re @-@ election campaign he said , " My 1994 crime bill expanded the death penalty for drug kingpins , murderers of federal law enforcement officers , and nearly 60 additional categories of violent felons . " It also included a subsection of assault weapons ban for a ten @-@ year period .
The Clinton administration also launched the first official White House website , whitehouse.gov , on October 21 , 1994 . It was followed by three more versions , resulting in the final edition launched in 2000 . The White House website was part of a wider movement of the Clinton administration toward web @-@ based communication . According to Robert Longley , " Clinton and Gore were responsible for pressing almost all federal agencies , the U.S. court system and the U.S. military onto the Internet , thus opening up America 's government to more of America 's citizens than ever before . On July 17 , 1996 , Clinton issued Executive Order 13011 – Federal Information Technology , ordering the heads of all federal agencies to utilize information technology fully to make the information of the agency easily accessible to the public . "
After two years of Democratic Party control , the Democrats lost control of Congress in the mid @-@ term elections in 1994 , for the first time in forty years .
The White House FBI files controversy of June 1996 arose concerning improper access by the White House to FBI security @-@ clearance documents . Craig Livingstone , head of the White House Office of Personnel Security , improperly requested , and received from the FBI , background report files without asking permission of the subject individuals ; many of these were employees of former Republican administrations . In March 2000 , Independent Counsel Robert Ray determined that there was no credible evidence of any crime . Ray 's report further stated , " there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official was involved " in seeking the files .
On September 21 , 1996 , Clinton signed into law the Defense of Marriage Act ( DOMA ) , which defines marriage for federal purposes as the legal union of one man and one woman , allowing individual states to refuse to recognize gay marriages performed in other states . Paul Yandura , speaking for the White House gay and lesbian liaison office , said that Clinton 's signing of DOMA " was a political decision that they made at the time of a re @-@ election . " In defense of his actions , Clinton has said that DOMA was an attempt to " head off an attempt to send a constitutional amendment banning gay marriage to the states " , a possibility he described as highly likely in the context of a " very reactionary Congress . " Administration spokesman Richard Socarides said , " ... the alternatives we knew were going to be far worse , and it was time to move on and get the president re @-@ elected . " Clinton himself stated that DOMA was something " which the Republicans put on the ballot to try to get the base vote for President Bush up , I think it 's obvious that something had to be done to try to keep the Republican Congress from presenting that . " Others were more critical . The veteran gay rights and gay marriage activist Evan Wolfson has called these claims " historic revisionism " . In a July 2 , 2011 editorial The New York Times opined , " The Defense of Marriage Act was enacted in 1996 as an election @-@ year wedge issue , signed by President Bill Clinton in one of his worst policy moments . " . Ultimately , in United States v. Windsor , the U.S. Supreme Court struck down DOMA in June 2013 .
Despite DOMA , Clinton was the first President to select openly gay persons for Administration positions , and is generally credited as the first President to publicly champion gay rights . During his Presidency , Clinton controversially issued two substantial executive orders on behalf of gay rights , the first lifting the ban on security clearances for LGBT federal employees and the second outlawing discrimination based on sexual orientation in the federal civilian workforce . Under President Clinton 's leadership , federal funding for HIV / AIDS research , prevention and treatment more than doubled . And Clinton also pushed for passing hate crimes laws for gays and for the private sector Employment Non @-@ Discrimination Act , which , buoyed by his lobbying , failed to pass the Senate by a single vote in 1996 . Advocacy for these issues , paired with the politically unpopular nature of the gay rights movement at the time , led to enthusiastic support for Clinton 's election and reelection by the Human Rights Campaign . Clinton came out for gay marriage in July 2009 and urged the Supreme Court to overturn DOMA in 2013 . He was later honored by GLAAD for his prior pro @-@ gay stances and his reversal on DOMA .
The 1996 United States campaign finance controversy was an alleged effort by the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) to influence the domestic policies of the United States , before and during the Clinton administration , and involved the fundraising practices of the administration itself . The Chinese government denied all accusations .
As part of a 1996 initiative to curb illegal immigration , Clinton signed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act ( IIRIRA ) on September 30 , 1996 . Appointed by Clinton , the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform recommended reducing legal immigration from about 800 @,@ 000 people a year to about 550 @,@ 000 .
Ken Gormley , author of The Death of American Virtue : Clinton vs. Starr , reveals in his book that President Clinton narrowly escaped possible assassination in the Philippines in November 1996 . During his visit to the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation ( APEC ) forum in Manila , while he was on his way to meet with a senior member of the Philippine government , Clinton was saved from danger minutes before his motorcade was scheduled to drive over a bridge charged with a timed improvised explosive device ( IED ) . According to officials , the IED was large enough to " blow up the entire presidential motorcade " . Details of the plot were revealed to Gormley by Lewis C. Merletti , former member of the Presidential Protection Detail and Director of the Secret Service . Intelligence officers intercepted a radio transmission indicating that there was a wedding cake under a bridge . This alerted Merletti and others as Clinton 's motorcade was scheduled to drive over a major bridge in downtown Manila . Once more , the word " wedding " was the code name used by a terrorist group for a past assassination attempt . Merletti wanted to reroute the motorcade , but the alternate route would add forty @-@ five minutes to the drive time . Clinton was very angry , as he was already late for the meeting , but following the advice of the secret service possibly saved his life . Two other bombs had been discovered in Manila earlier in the week so the threat level that day was high . Security personnel at the Manila International Airport uncovered several grenades and a timing device in a travel bag . Officials also discovered a bomb near a major U.S. naval base . The President was scheduled to visit both of these locations later in the week . An intense investigation took place into the events in Manila and it was discovered that the group behind the bridge bomb was a Saudi terrorist group in Afghanistan known as al @-@ Qaeda and the plot was masterminded by Osama bin Laden . Until recently , this thwarted assassination attempt was never made public and remained top secret . Only top members of the U.S. intelligence community were aware of these events .
= = = 1996 presidential election = = =
In the 1996 presidential election , Clinton was re @-@ elected , receiving 49 @.@ 2 percent of the popular vote over Republican Bob Dole ( 40 @.@ 7 percent of the popular vote ) and Reform candidate Ross Perot ( 8 @.@ 4 percent of the popular vote ) , becoming the first Democratic incumbent since Lyndon Johnson to be elected to a second term and the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected President more than once . The Republicans lost three seats in the House and gained two in the Senate , but retained control of both houses of the 105th United States Congress . Clinton received 379 , or over 70 percent of the Electoral College votes , with Dole receiving 159 electoral votes .
= = = Second term = = =
In the January 1997 State of the Union address , Clinton proposed a new initiative to provide coverage to up to five million children . Senators Ted Kennedy — a Democrat — and Orrin Hatch — a Republican — teamed up with Hillary Rodham Clinton and her staff in 1997 , and succeeded in passing legislation forming the State Children 's Health Insurance Program ( SCHIP ) , the largest ( successful ) health care reform in the years of the Clinton Presidency . That year , Hillary Clinton shepherded through Congress the Adoption and Safe Families Act and two years later she succeeded in helping pass the Foster Care Independence Act . He negotiated the passage of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 by the Republican Congress . In October 1997 , he announced he was getting hearing aids , due to hearing loss attributed to his age , and his time spent as a musician in his youth . In 1999 Clinton signed into law the Financial Services Modernization Act also known as the Gramm – Leach – Bliley Act , which repealed the part of the Glass – Steagall Act that had prohibited a bank from offering a full range of investment , commercial banking , and insurance services since its enactment in 1933 .
= = = = Impeachment and acquittal = = = =
After the 1998 elections , the House impeached Clinton , alleging perjury and obstruction of justice related to the Lewinsky scandal . Clinton was only the second U.S. President to be impeached , after Andrew Johnson . Impeachment proceedings were based on allegations that Clinton had illegally lied about and covered up his relationship with 22 @-@ year @-@ old White House ( and later Department of Defense ) employee Monica Lewinsky . After the Starr Report was submitted to the House providing what it termed " substantial and credible information that President Clinton Committed Acts that May Constitute Grounds for an Impeachment " , the House began impeachment hearings against Clinton before the mid @-@ term elections . To hold impeachment proceedings , the Republican leadership called a lame @-@ duck session in December 1998 .
While the House Judiciary Committee hearings ended in a straight party @-@ line vote , there was lively debate on the House floor . The two charges passed in the House ( largely with Republican support , but with a handful of Democratic votes as well ) were for perjury and obstruction of justice . The perjury charge arose from Clinton 's testimony before a grand jury that had been convened to investigate perjury he may have committed in his sworn deposition during Paula Jones 's sexual harassment lawsuit . The obstruction charge was based on his actions to conceal his relationship with Lewinsky before and after that deposition .
The Senate later acquitted Clinton on both charges . The Senate refused to meet to hold an impeachment trial before the end of the old term , so the trial was held over until the next Congress . Clinton was represented by Washington law firm Williams & Connolly . The Senate finished a twenty @-@ one @-@ day trial on February 12 , 1999 , with the vote of 55 Not Guilty / 45 Guilty on the perjury charge and 50 Not Guilty / 50 Guilty on the obstruction of justice charge . Both votes fell short of the Constitutional two @-@ thirds majority requirement to convict and remove an officeholder . The final vote was generally along party lines , with no Democrats voting guilty , and only a handful of Republicans voting not guilty .
On January 19 , 2001 , Clinton 's law license was suspended for five years after he acknowledged to an Arkansas circuit court that he had engaged in conduct prejudicial to the administration of justice in the Jones case .
= = = = Pardons and commutations = = = =
Clinton controversially issued 141 pardons and 36 commutations on his last day in office on January 20 , 2001 . Most of the controversy surrounded Marc Rich and allegations that Hillary Clinton 's brother , Hugh Rodham , accepted payments in return for influencing the president 's decision @-@ making regarding the pardons . Federal prosecutor Mary Jo White was appointed to investigate the pardon of Rich . She was later replaced by then @-@ Republican James Comey , who found no wrongdoing on Clinton 's part . Some of Clinton 's pardons remain a point of controversy .
= = = Military and foreign events = = =
Many military events occurred during Clinton 's presidency . The Battle of Mogadishu occurred in Somalia in 1993 . During the operation , two U.S. helicopters were shot down by rocket @-@ propelled grenade attacks to their tail rotors , trapping soldiers behind enemy lines . This resulted in an urban battle that killed 18 American soldiers , wounded 73 others , and one was taken prisoner . There were many more Somali casualties . Some of the American bodies were dragged through the streets — a spectacle broadcast on television news programs . In response , U.S. forces were withdrawn from Somalia and later conflicts were approached with fewer soldiers on the ground . In 1995 , U.S. and NATO aircraft attacked Bosnian Serb targets to halt attacks on U.N. safe zones and to pressure them into a peace accord . Clinton deployed U.S. peacekeepers to Bosnia in late 1995 , to uphold the subsequent Dayton Agreement .
In February 1996 , the Clinton administration agreed to pay Iran US $ 131 @.@ 8 million in settlement to discontinue a case brought by Iran in 1989 against the U.S. in the International Court of Justice after the shooting down of Iran Air Flight 655 by the U.S. Navy guided missile cruiser .
Capturing Osama bin Laden had been an objective of the U.S. government during the presidency of Bill Clinton ( and continued to be until bin Laden 's death in 2011 ) . Despite claims by Mansoor Ijaz and Sudanese officials that the Sudanese government had offered to arrest and extradite bin Laden and that that U.S. authorities rejected each offer the 9 / 11 Commission Report stated that " we have not found any reliable evidence to support the Sudanese claim . "
In response to a 1996 State Department warning about bin Laden and the 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in East Africa by al @-@ Qaeda ( which killed 224 people , including 12 Americans ) , Clinton ordered several military missions to capture or kill bin Laden , both of which were unsuccessful . In August 1998 , Clinton ordered cruise missile strikes on terrorist targets in Afghanistan and Sudan , targeting the Al @-@ Shifa pharmaceutical factory in Sudan , which was suspected of assisting bin Laden in making chemical weapons , and bin Laden 's terrorist training camps in Afghanistan .
To stop the ethnic cleansing and genocide of Albanians by anti @-@ guerilla military units in the former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 's province of Kosovo , Clinton authorized the use of U.S. Armed Forces in a NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in 1999 , named Operation Allied Force . General Wesley Clark was Supreme Allied Commander of NATO and oversaw the mission . With United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244 , the bombing campaign ended on June 10 , 1999 . The resolution placed Kosovo under UN administration and authorized a peacekeeping force to be deployed to the region . NATO announced that its forces had suffered zero combat deaths , and two deaths from an Apache helicopter crash . Opinions in the popular press criticized pre @-@ war genocide statements by the Clinton administration as greatly exaggerated . In 2001 , the U.N.-supervised Supreme Court of Kosovo ruled that genocide did not take place , but recognized " a systematic campaign of terror , including murders , rapes , arsons and severe maltreatments . " The term " ethnic cleansing " was used as an alternative to " genocide " to denote not just ethnically motivated murder but also displacement , though critics charge there is no difference . Slobodan Milošević , the president of Yugoslavia at the time of the atrocities , was eventually brought to trial before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in the Hague on charges of crimes against humanity , genocide , and war crimes . Milošević died in 2006 , before the completion of the trial .
In Clinton 's 1998 State of the Union Address , he warned Congress that Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein was building an arsenal of chemical , biological and nuclear weapons :
Saddam Hussein has spent the better part of this decade , and much of his nation 's wealth , not on providing for the Iraqi people , but on developing nuclear , chemical and biological weapons and the missiles to deliver them . The United Nations weapons inspectors have done a truly remarkable job , finding and destroying more of Iraq 's arsenal than was destroyed during the entire gulf war . Now , Saddam Hussein wants to stop them from completing their mission . I know I speak for everyone in this chamber , Republicans and Democrats , when I say to Saddam Hussein , " You cannot defy the will of the world " , and when I say to him , " You have used weapons of mass destruction before ; we are determined to deny you the capacity to use them again .
Seeking to weaken Hussein 's grip on power , Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 into law on October 31 , 1998 , which instituted a policy of " regime change " against Iraq , though it explicitly stated it did not provide for direct intervention on the part of American military forces . The administration then launched a four @-@ day bombing campaign named Operation Desert Fox , lasting from December 16 to 19 , 1998 . At the end of this operation Clinton announced that " So long as Saddam remains in power , he will remain a threat to his people , his region , and the world . With our allies , we must pursue a strategy to contain him and to constrain his weapons of mass destruction program , while working toward the day Iraq has a government willing to live at peace with its people and with its neighbors . " American and British aircraft in the Iraq no @-@ fly zones attacked hostile Iraqi air defenses 166 times in 1999 and 78 times in 2000 .
Clinton 's November 2000 visit to Vietnam was the first by a U.S. president since the end of the Vietnam War . On October 10 , 2000 , Clinton signed into law the U.S. – China Relations Act of 2000 , which granted permanent normal trade relations ( PNTR ) trade status to People 's Republic of China . The president asserted that free trade would gradually open China to democratic reform . Clinton also oversaw a boom of the U.S. economy . Under Clinton , the United States had a projected federal budget surplus for the first time since 1969 .
After initial successes such as the Oslo Accords of the early 1990s , which also led to the Israel – Jordan peace treaty in 1994 and the Wye River Memorandum in October 1998 , Clinton attempted an effort to end the Israeli – Palestinian conflict . He brought Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat together at Camp David for the Camp David Summit in July 2000 , which lasted 14 days . Following the failures of the peace talks , Clinton stated Arafat " missed the opportunity " to facilitate a " just and lasting peace . " In his autobiography , Clinton blames Arafat for the collapse of the summit . Following another attempt in December 2000 at Bolling Air Force Base , in which the President offered the Clinton Parameters , the situation broke down completely after the end of the Taba Summit and with the start of the Second Intifada .
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
Clinton appointed two justices to the Supreme Court : Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993 and Stephen Breyer in 1994 .
Along with his two Supreme Court appointments , Clinton appointed 66 judges to the United States courts of appeals and 305 judges to the United States district courts . His 373 judicial appointments are the second most in American history behind those of Ronald Reagan . Clinton also experienced a number of judicial appointment controversies , as 69 nominees to federal judgeships did not receive a vote in the Republican @-@ controlled Senate Judiciary Committee . In all , 84 percent of his nominees were confirmed .
Among the judges appointed by Clinton to the courts of appeals was Sonia Sotomayor , who was nominated by Clinton in 1997 to the Second Circuit and confirmed in 1998 , following a delay of more than a year caused by Republican opposition .
Clinton was the first president in history to appoint more women and minority judges than white male judges to the federal courts . In his eight years in office , 11 @.@ 6 % of Clinton 's court of appeals nominees and 17 @.@ 4 % of his district court nominees were black ; 32 @.@ 8 % of his court of appeals nominees and 28 @.@ 5 % of his district court nominees were women . Clinton appointed the first African American judges to the Fourth Circuit ( Roger Gregory ) and the Seventh Circuit ( Ann Claire Williams ) . Clinton also appointed the nation 's first openly gay or lesbian federal judge when he named Deborah Batts to the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York . Batts was confirmed by the Senate in a voice vote in 1994 .
= = Public opinion = =
Clinton 's job approval rating fluctuated in the 40s and 50s throughout his first term . In his second term , his rating consistently ranged from the high @-@ 50s to the high @-@ 60s . After his impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999 , Clinton 's rating reached its highest point . According to a CBS News / New York Times poll , Clinton left office with an approval rating of 68 percent , which matched those of Ronald Reagan and Franklin D. Roosevelt as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era . Clinton 's average Gallup poll approval rating for his last quarter in office was 61 % , the highest final quarter rating any president has received for fifty years . Forty @-@ seven percent of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters .
As he was leaving office , a CNN / USA Today / Gallup poll revealed that 45 percent of Americans said they would miss him ; 55 percent thought he " would have something worthwhile to contribute and should remain active in public life " ; 68 percent thought he would be remembered more for his " involvement in personal scandal " than for " his accomplishments " ; and 58 percent answered " No " to the question " Do you generally think Bill Clinton is honest and trustworthy ? " The same percentage said he would be remembered as either " outstanding " or " above average " as a president , while 22 percent said he would be remembered as " below average " or " poor . " ABC News characterized public consensus on Clinton as , " You can 't trust him , he 's got weak morals and ethics – and he 's done a heck of a good job . "
In May 2006 , a CNN poll comparing Clinton 's job performance with that of his successor , George W. Bush , found that a strong majority of respondents said Clinton outperformed Bush in six different areas questioned . Gallup polls in 2007 and 2011 showed that Clinton was regarded by 13 % of Americans as the greatest president in U.S. history .
In 2014 , 18 % of respondents in a Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll of American voters regarded Clinton as the best president since World War II , making him the third most popular among postwar presidents , behind John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan . The same poll showed that just 3 % of American voters regarded Clinton as the worst president since World War II .
A 2015 poll by The Washington Post asked 162 scholars of the American Political Science Association to rank all the U.S. presidents in order of greatness . According to their findings , Clinton ranked eighth overall , with a rating of 70 percent .
= = Public image = =
As the first baby boomer president , Clinton was the first president in more than half a century not to have been alive during World War II . Authors Martin Walker and Bob Woodward state Clinton 's innovative use of sound bite @-@ ready dialogue , personal charisma , and public perception @-@ oriented campaigning was a major factor in his high public approval ratings . When Clinton played the saxophone on The Arsenio Hall Show , he was described by some religious conservatives as " the MTV president . " Opponents sometimes referred to him as " Slick Willie " , a nickname which was first applied to him in 1980 by Pine Bluff Commercial journalist Paul Greenberg ; Greenberg believed that Clinton was abandoning the progressive policies of previous Arkansas Governors such as Winthrop Rockefeller , Dale Bumpers and David Pryor . The claim " Slick Willie " would last throughout his presidency . Standing at a height of 6 ft 2 in ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) , Clinton is tied with five others as the fourth @-@ tallest president in the nation 's history . His folksy manner led him to be nicknamed Bubba , especially in the South . Since 2000 , he has frequently been referred to as " The Big Dog " or " Big Dog . " His prominent role in campaigning for President Obama during the 2012 presidential election and his widely publicized speech at the 2012 Democratic National Convention , where he officially nominated Obama and criticized Republican nominee Mitt Romney and Republican policies in detail , earned him the nickname " Explainer @-@ in @-@ Chief . "
Clinton drew strong support from the African American community and made improving race relations a major theme of his presidency . In 1998 , Nobel laureate Toni Morrison called Clinton " the first Black president " , saying , " Clinton displays almost every trope of blackness : single @-@ parent household , born poor , working @-@ class , saxophone @-@ playing , McDonald 's @-@ and @-@ junk @-@ food @-@ loving boy from Arkansas " . Noting that Clinton 's sex life was scrutinized more than his career accomplishments , Morrison compared this to the stereotyping and double standards that blacks typically endure .
Shortly after he took office , conservative newspaper owner Richard Mellon Scaife organized a fundraising campaign to smear Clinton 's image in the media . Leading the Arkansas Project , Scaife and other associates sought to find sources in Clinton 's home state of Arkansas who would be willing to dish out negative allegations against the President .
In 1994 , Paula Jones brought a sexual harassment lawsuit against Clinton , claiming he made unwanted advances in 1991 , which he denied . In April 1998 , the case was initially dismissed by Judge Susan Webber Wright as lacking legal merit . But Jones appealed Webber Wright 's ruling , and her suit gained traction following Clinton 's admission to having an affair with Monica Lewinsky in August 1998 . In 1998 , lawyers for Paula Jones released court documents contending a pattern of sexual harassment by Clinton when he was governor of Arkansas . Robert S. Bennett , Clinton 's main lawyer for the case , called the filing " a pack of lies " and " an organized campaign to smear the President of the United States " funded by Clinton 's political enemies . Clinton later agreed to an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement , paying $ 850 @,@ 000 . Bennett said that the President made the settlement only so he could end the lawsuit for good and move on with his life . During the deposition for the Jones lawsuit , which was held at the White House , Clinton denied having sexual relations with Monica Lewinsky – a denial that became the basis for an impeachment charge of perjury .
In 1992 , Gennifer Flowers stated that she had a relationship with Clinton that began in 1980 . Flowers at first denied that she had an affair with Clinton , but later changed her story . After Clinton at first denied having a relationship with Flowers on 60 Minutes , he later admitted that he had a sexual encounter with Flowers .
In 1998 , Kathleen Willey alleged that Clinton groped her in a hallway in 1993 . An independent counsel determined Willey gave " false information " to the FBI , inconsistent with sworn testimony related to the Jones allegation . On March 19 , 1998 , Julie Hiatt Steele , a friend of Willey , released an affidavit , accusing the former White House aide of asking her to lie to corroborate Ms. Willey 's account of being sexually groped by President Clinton in the Oval Office . An attempt by Kenneth Starr to prosecute Steele for making false statements and obstructing justice ended in a mistrial and Starr declined to seek a retrial after Steele sought an investigation against the former Independent Counsel for prosecutorial misconduct . Linda Tripp 's grand jury testimony also differed from Willey 's claims regarding inappropriate sexual advances .
Also in 1998 , Juanita Broaddrick alleged that Clinton had raped her in the spring of 1978 , although she stated she did not remember the exact date . In another 1998 event , Elizabeth Gracen recanted a six @-@ year @-@ old denial and stated she had a one @-@ night stand with Clinton in 1982 . Gracen later apologized to Hillary Clinton . Throughout the year , however , Gracen eluded a subpoena from Kenneth Starr to testify her claim in court .
= = Post @-@ presidency ( since 2001 ) = =
Bill Clinton continues to be active in public life , giving speeches , fundraising , and founding charitable organizations . Clinton has spoken in prime time at every Democratic National Convention since 1988 . Robert Reich has suggested that Clinton is in a state of " permanent election " , due to the impeachment proceedings during his presidency and his continuing support in the campaigns of his wife Hillary Clinton .
= = = Activities until 2008 campaign = = =
In 2002 , Clinton warned that pre @-@ emptive military action against Iraq would have unwelcome consequences , and later claimed to have opposed the Iraq War from the start ( though some dispute this ) . In 2005 , Clinton criticized the Bush administration for its handling of emissions control , while speaking at the United Nations Climate Change conference in Montreal .
The William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park in Little Rock , Arkansas was dedicated in 2004 . Clinton released a best @-@ selling autobiography , My Life in 2004 . In 2007 , he released Giving : How Each of Us Can Change the World , which also became a The New York Times Best Seller and garnered positive reviews .
In the aftermath of the 2004 Asian tsunami , U.N. Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan appointed Clinton to head a relief effort . After Hurricane Katrina , Clinton joined with fellow former President George H. W. Bush to establish the Bush @-@ Clinton Tsunami Fund in January 2005 , and the Bush @-@ Clinton Katrina Fund in October of that year . As part of the tsunami effort , these two ex @-@ presidents appeared in a Super Bowl XXXIX pre @-@ game show , and traveled to the affected areas . They also spoke together at the funeral of Boris Yeltsin in 2007 .
Based on his philanthropic worldview , Clinton created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address issues of global importance . This foundation includes the Clinton Foundation HIV and AIDS Initiative ( CHAI ) , which strives to combat that disease , and has worked with the Australian government toward that end . The Clinton Global Initiative ( CGI ) , begun by the Clinton Foundation in 2005 , attempts to address world problems such as global public health , poverty alleviation and religious and ethnic conflict . In 2005 , Clinton announced through his foundation an agreement with manufacturers to stop selling sugared drinks in schools . Clinton 's foundation joined with the Large Cities Climate Leadership Group in 2006 to improve cooperation among those cities , and he met with foreign leaders to promote this initiative . The foundation has received donations from a number of governments all over the world , including Asia and the Middle East . In 2008 , Foundation director Inder Singh announced deals to reduce the price of anti @-@ malaria drugs by 30 percent in developing nations . Clinton also spoke in favor of California Proposition 87 on alternative energy , which was voted down .
= = = 2008 presidential election = = =
During the 2008 Democratic presidential primary campaign , Clinton vigorously advocated on behalf of his wife , Hillary Clinton . Through speaking engagements and fundraisers , he was able to raise $ 10 million toward her campaign . Some worried that as an ex @-@ president , he was too active on the trail , too negative to Clinton rival Barack Obama , and alienating his supporters at home and abroad . Many were especially critical of him following his remarks in the South Carolina primary , which Obama won . Later in the 2008 primaries , there was some infighting between Bill and Hillary 's staffs , especially in Pennsylvania . Considering Bill 's remarks , many thought that he could not rally Hillary supporters behind Obama after Obama won the primary . Such remarks lead to apprehension that the party would be split to the detriment of Obama 's election . Fears were allayed August 27 , 2008 , when Clinton enthusiastically endorsed Obama at the 2008 Democratic National Convention , saying that all his experience as president assures him that Obama is " ready to lead . " After Hillary Clinton 's presidential campaign was over , Bill Clinton continued to raise funds to help pay off her campaign debt .
= = = After the 2008 election = = =
In 2009 , Clinton travelled to North Korea on behalf of two American journalists imprisoned in North Korea . Euna Lee and Laura Ling had been imprisoned for illegally entering the country from China . Jimmy Carter had made a similar visit in 1994 . After Clinton met with North Korean leader Kim Jong @-@ il , Kim issued a pardon .
Since then , Clinton has been assigned a number of other diplomatic missions . He was named United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti in 2009 . In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake , U.S. President Barack Obama announced that Clinton and George W. Bush would coordinate efforts to raise funds for Haiti 's recovery . Clinton continues to visit Haiti to witness the inauguration of refugee villages , and to raise funds for victims of the earthquake . In 2010 , Clinton announced support of , and delivered the keynote address for , the inauguration of NTR , Ireland 's first environmental foundation . At the 2012 Democratic National Convention , Clinton gave a widely praised speech nominating Barack Obama .
= = = Post @-@ presidential health concerns = = =
In September 2004 , Clinton received a quadruple bypass surgery . In March 2005 , he underwent surgery for a partially collapsed lung . On February 11 , 2010 , he was rushed to NewYork – Presbyterian Hospital in New York City after complaining of chest pains , and had two coronary stents implanted in his heart . After this experience , Clinton adopted the plant @-@ based whole foods ( vegan ) diet recommended by doctors Dean Ornish and Caldwell Esselstyn .
= = = Wealth = = =
The Clintons accrued several million dollars in legal bills during his presidency ; they were paid off four years after he left office . Both Bill and Hillary Clinton have received millions of dollars in book authorship fees . In February 2016 , CNN reported that documents show the Clintons combined to receive more than $ 153 million in paid speeches from 2001 until spring 2015 . In May 2015 , The Hill reported that Bill and Hillary Clinton have made more than $ 25 million in speaking fees since the start of 2014 , and that Hillary Clinton also made $ 5 million or more from her book , Hard Choices , during the same time period . In July 2014 , The Wall Street Journal reported that at the end of 2012 , the Clintons were worth between $ 5 million and $ 25 @.@ 5 million , and that in 2012 ( the last year they were required to disclose the information ) the Clintons made between $ 16 and $ 17 million , mostly from speaking fees earned by the former president . Clinton earned more than $ 104 million from paid speeches between 2001 and 2012 . In June 2014 , ABC News and The Washington Post reported that Bill Clinton has made more than $ 100 million giving paid speeches since leaving public office , and in 2008 , the New York Times reported that the Clintons ' income tax returns show they have made $ 109 million in the 8 years from January 1 , 2000 to December 31 , 2007 , including almost $ 92 million from his speaking and book @-@ writing .
Bill Clinton has given dozens of paid speeches each year , mostly to corporations and philanthropic groups in North America and Europe , often earning $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 300 @,@ 000 per speech . Hillary Clinton said that she and Bill came out of the White House financially " broke " and in debt , especially due to large legal fees incurred during their years in the White House . " We had no money when we got there , and we struggled to , you know , piece together the resources for mortgages , for houses , for Chelsea 's education . " She added , " Bill has worked really hard ... we had to pay off all our debts ... he had to make double the money because of , obviously , taxes ; and then pay off the debts , and get us houses , and take care of family members . "
= = Honors and recognition = =
Various colleges and universities have awarded Clinton honorary degrees , including Doctorate of Law degrees and Doctor of Humane Letters degrees . He is an Honorary Fellow of University College , Oxford , which he attended as a Rhodes Scholar . Schools have been named for Clinton , and statues have been built to pay him homage . U.S. states where he has been honored include Missouri , Arkansas , Kentucky , and New York . He was presented with the Medal for Distinguished Public Service by Secretary of Defense William Cohen in 2001 . The Clinton Presidential Center was opened in Little Rock , Arkansas in his honor on December 5 , 2001 .
He has been honored in various other ways , in countries that include the Czech Republic , Papua New Guinea , Germany , and Kosovo . The Republic of Kosovo , in gratitude for his help during the Kosovo War , renamed a major street in the capital city of Pristina as Bill Clinton Boulevard and added a monumental Clinton statue .
Clinton was selected as Time 's " Man of the Year " in 1992 , and again in 1998 , along with Ken Starr . From a poll conducted of the American people in December 1999 , Clinton was among eighteen included in Gallup 's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century . He was honored with a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children , a J. William Fulbright Prize for International Understanding , a TED Prize ( named for the confluence of technology , entertainment and design ) , and was named as an Honorary GLAAD Media Award recipient for his work as an advocate for the LGBT community .
In 2011 , President Michel Martelly of Haiti awarded Clinton with the National Order of Honour and Merit to the rank of Grand Cross " for his various initiatives in Haiti and especially his high contribution to the reconstruction of the country after the earthquake of January 12 , 2010 . " Clinton declared at the ceremony that " ... in the United States of America , I really don 't believe former American presidents need awards anymore , but I am very honored by this one , I love Haiti , and I believe in its promise . "
U.S. President Barack Obama awarded Clinton the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 20 , 2013 .
= = Authored books = =
Between Hope and History . New York : Times Books . 1996 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8129 @-@ 2913 @-@ 3 .
My Life ( 1st ed . ) . New York : Vintage Books . 2004 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4000 @-@ 3003 @-@ 3 .
Giving : How Each of Us Can Change the World ( 1st ed . ) . New York : Knopf . 2007 . ISBN 0 @-@ 307 @-@ 26674 @-@ 5 .
Back to Work : Why We Need Smart Government for a Strong Economy . Knopf . 2011 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 307 @-@ 95975 @-@ 1 .
= = Recordings = =
Bill Clinton is one of the narrators on a 2003 recording of Sergei Prokofiev 's Peter and the Wolf , on Pentatone , together with Mikhail Gorbachev and Sophia Loren .
= = = Popular books = = =
= = = Scholarly studies = = =
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= Old House of Keys =
The Old House of Keys ( Manx : Shenn @-@ thie y Chiare as Feed ) is the former meeting place of the House of Keys , the lower house of Tynwald , the Isle of Man 's parliament . It is located across the street from Castle Rushen in Castletown , the former capital of the Isle of Man , in the south of the island . The building was used as the House of Keys from 1821 until 1874 , when the parliament was moved to Douglas .
Prior to 1821 , the House of Keys had no official home , but met first at Castle Rushen , and later at the Bishop of Sodor and Man 's library in Castletown . After criticism from a Royal Commission , plans were drawn up for a new meeting house for the Keys in 1813 , but after concerns about the cost , they were redrawn and approved in 1819 . The building , designed by Thomas Brine , was completed in 1821 . It housed the House of Keys until 1874 , when the Keys followed the other primary functions of the island and moved to Douglas . After their move , the Old House became a branch of Dumbell 's Bank , and later Parr 's Bank . In 2000 , Manx National Heritage acquired the building and began restoring the house to how it appeared in 1866 . The building opened to the public as a museum in November 2001 .
= = Background = =
The parliament of the Isle of Man — Tynwald — is the oldest currently running parliament in the world . The first recorded meeting of Tynwald was in 979 , but could date back as far as the 8th century . Originally a 32 @-@ member Tynwald ruled over the Kingdom of the Isles , with half of its representatives coming from the Isle of Man . In the 12th century , this dropped to a 24 @-@ member Tynwald when the Isle of Mull and Islay were lost to Argyll . By the 16th century , Tynwald consisted of an upper and lower house ; the lower house being known as the 24 Keys . At this time , the members met irregularly at Castle Rushen , when called upon by either the Lord of Mann or one of his Deemsters to help with legal and taxation issues . The Keys continued to meet at Castle Rushen until 1710 , when they moved to Thomas Wilson 's ( the Bishop of Sodor and Man ) library in Castletown . Late in the 18th century they still met in the library , of which a Royal Commission reported that " ... the Keys assemble in a mean decayed building little more than sufficient to contain the number which they consist . "
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
Over twenty years after the Royal Commission 's damning report on the state of the library in which the Keys met , the Governor of the Isle of Man , John Murray , 4th Duke of Atholl , instructed Thomas Brine , the Clerk of Works for public buildings to cost and draw plans for a new House of Keys . These plans were rejected by the British Home Department and Treasury as too expensive , and despite repeated demands for a new meeting place , the proposal was put on hold . Brine carried out a survey of the library in 1817 at the request of the Keys , and condemned the building , resulting in the meetings of the Keys being held in a public house , the George Inn . Despite the comfort afforded by the building , it was criticised as being " ... highly improper for any Court of Justice and particularly so , for one of such importance in this Island as the House of Keys " as recorded in the Journal of the Keys in October 1817 .
Another design was requested of Brine , but this time for a smaller and less expensive building . In 1818 , the Keys purchased the building in which they had formerly met , moving the library to the Grammar School . The new plans were agreed upon by all concerned , but there continued to be disagreements between the British Treasury department and the Keys over how to fund the project . The Treasury believed that the cost should be covered by Manx taxes , but the Keys argued that this tax would be excessive . The two parties eventually agreed to pay some of the £ 1039 @-@ 10 @-@ 0d cost each , and the project was approved on 31 May 1819 , just under 30 years after the first discussions . The building was completed in less than two years , and the Keys started using the building in January 1821 .
= = = Operation = = =
Within a year of its completion , the House of Keys was heavily criticised in a letter to the Rising Sun newspaper . The external appearance of the building was described as bland and " more like that of a small country villa , or village jail , than a Senate House . " The interior was similarly lambasted , with particular attention being paid to the small space provided for the Speaker 's chair . During the Keys ' time in the building , they underwent one of their most significant changes . Until 1866 , the Keys were a self @-@ elected body , but following pressure from the public , most notably Isle of Man Times editor James Brown , the House agreed to be elected by popular vote . During the 1860s , Douglas became more prominent ; the Lieutenant Governor moved his residence there in 1861 , the Law Courts moved the following year , and by 1869 the town had replaced Castletown as the capital of the island . The House of Keys building in Castletown was described as too small , and " dilapidated with the wallpaper hanging off the wall . " In 1874 , the House of Keys moved to the Court House in Douglas , and five years later , into their current home , the Old Bank of Mona building also in Douglas .
= = = Later use = = =
After being vacated by the Keys , the building was purchased by Dumbell 's Bank . Not long after acquiring the building , the bank removed the ceiling from the chamber , and added a large skylight to create a grand banking hall . The building was repainted in an expensive shade of blue which was fashionable at the time . In 1900 , when Dumbell 's Bank collapsed , the building was taken over by Parr 's Bank . The render was stripped off the outside of the building sometime during the 1910s or 1920s , revealing the limestone underneath . In 1918 , the bank became part of Westminster Bank . In the 1960s , the upper floor of the chamber was replaced . The building was presented to the Castletown Commissioners in 1973 by the National Westminster Bank on the condition that it serve the town . It was used as the Town Hall until the opening of the Town Hall and Civic Centre in 1989 , and then as the Castletown Rural Library .
Manx National Heritage undertook the renovation of the building in 2000 and now run it as a museum . The building has been restored to its appearance in 1866 . That year was chosen as it was when the " House of Keys Election Bill " was passed , making the House of Keys a popularly elected body . In the absence of images depicting the interior , written descriptions were used , in conjunction with inventories .
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= Battle of Frenchman 's Creek =
The Battle of Frenchman ’ s Creek took place during the War of 1812 between Great Britain and the United States in the early hours of November 28 , 1812 , in the Crown Colony of Upper Canada , near the Niagara River . The operation was conceived as a raid to prepare the ground for a larger American invasion . The Americans succeeded in crossing the Niagara and landing at both of their points of attack . They achieved one of their two objectives before withdrawing but the invasion was subsequently called off , rendering useless what had been accomplished . The engagement was named , “ the Battle of Frenchman ’ s Creek ” by the Canadians , after the location of some of the severest fighting . To contemporary Americans , it was known as , “ the Affair opposite Black Rock ” .
The battle site was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1921 .
= = Background = =
After the American defeat at the Battle of Queenston Heights , command of the U.S. Army of the Centre on the Niagara Frontier passed from Major General Stephen Van Rensselaer of the New York Militia to his second @-@ in @-@ command , Brigadier General Alexander Smyth of the Regular U.S. Army . Smyth had deeply resented being subordinated to a militia officer and this was the opportunity for which he had been waiting . He immediately planned to invade Canada with 3 @,@ 000 troops . Assembling his forces at Buffalo , he directed a two @-@ pronged attack in advance of his main invasion . Captain William King , with 220 men , was to cross the Niagara and spike the batteries at the Red House , beside Fort Erie , in order to enable Smyth ’ s main invasion force to land without facing artillery fire . At the same time , Lieutenant Colonel Charles Boerstler , with 200 men , was to land in Canada between Fort Erie and Chippawa and destroy the bridge over Frenchman ’ s Creek in order to hinder the bringing @-@ up of British reinforcements to oppose Smyth 's landing .
The British commander @-@ in @-@ chief in North America , Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost , had forbidden any offensive action on the Niagara Frontier . This left the local British forces with no alternative but to wait for the Americans to make the first move and try to counter any attempt at invasion . The regular troops were distributed among the defensive outposts and supplemented with militia and Native American forces .
In a floridly worded proclamation , published on 10 November and addressed “ To The Men of New York ” , Smyth wrote that , “ in a few days the troops under my command will plant the American standard in Canada ” and he urged New Yorkers not to “ stand with your arms folded and look on in this interesting struggle ” but to “ advance … to our aid . I will wait for you a few days . ” Smyth ’ s statement of intent appears to have attracted no attention from his opponents across the border .
= = Opposing forces = =
Captain William King of the 13th U.S. Regiment of Infantry was detailed to attack the Red House with 150 troops and 70 U.S. Navy sailors under Lieutenant Samuel Angus . King ’ s soldiers came from Captain Willoughby Morgan ’ s company of the 12th U.S. Regiment of Infantry and Captains John Sproull and John E. Wool ’ s companies of the 13th Regiment .
Lieutenant Colonel Charles Boerstler was directed against Frenchman ’ s Creek with 200 men of his own 14th U.S. Regiment of Infantry . Colonel William H. Winder , commander of the 14th Regiment , was in reserve , with 350 of his own regiment .
The British local commander , Lieutenant Colonel Cecil Bisshopp , was stationed at Chippawa , with a company of the 1st Battalion , 41st Regiment of Foot , two infantry companies of the 5th Lincoln Militia and a small detachment of Lincoln Militia Artillery . More of the 5th Lincoln Militia under Major Richard Hatt were posted nearby . In the area that would face attack on December 26 , Bisshopp had several different detachments under his overall command . At Fort Erie were 80 of the 49th Regiment of Foot under Major Ormsby and 50 of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment under Captain Whelan . At Black Rock Ferry were two companies of Norfolk Militia under Captain John Bostwick . At the Red House , two @-@ and @-@ half miles from Fort Erie on the Chippawa Road , were 38 of the 49th Regiment under Lieutenant Thomas Lamont , some men of the Royal Regiment of Artillery under Lieutenant King , and some militia artillerymen . Lamont 's battery mounted two guns : an 18 @-@ pounder and a 24 @-@ pounder ; while King ’ s battery mounted a 6 @-@ pounder and a 3 @-@ pounder . Further along the Chippawa Road , about four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half miles from Fort Erie , lay the post at Frenchman ’ s Creek , garrisoned by 38 more men of the 49th Regiment under Lieutenant J. Bartley . Not far away were 70 of the light infantry company of the 41st Regiment under Lieutenant Angus McIntyre .
= = Battle = =
= = = King ’ s Attack = = =
Only part of Captain King ’ s force , including 35 of Lieutenant Angus 's 70 sailors , succeeded in making a landing at the Red House . Under fire from the defenders , the invaders charged Lieutenant Lamont ’ s detachment of the 49th Regiment . The sailors , armed with pikes and swords , closed in for hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . Lamont 's troops drove back the attackers three times but King made a fourth assault which hit the British left flank and overwhelmed them ; capturing Lamont and killing , taking or dispersing all of his men . The victorious Americans set fire to the post , spiked the guns and set off back to the landing @-@ point , where they expected their boats to have re @-@ landed in order to evacuate them . However , in the moonless darkness , King ’ s force became dispersed and split into two parties : one led by King and the other by Lieutenant Angus . Angus returned to the landing @-@ point and found only four of the party ’ s ten boats there . Unaware that the six missing boats had not in fact landed , Angus assumed that King had already departed , and he re @-@ crossed the river in the remaining boats . When King ’ s party reached the landing @-@ point , they found themselves stranded . A search downriver found two unattended British boats , in which King sent half of his men , and the prisoners that he had captured , over the Niagara while he waited with his 30 remaining men for more boats to come from Buffalo and pick him up .
= = = Boerstler ’ s Attack = = =
Lieutenant Colonel Boerstler made for Frenchman ’ s Creek but four of his eleven boats , “ misled by the darkness of the night or the inexperienced rowers being unable to force them across the current , fell below , near the bridge and were forced to return ” . Nevertheless , Boerstler ’ s seven remaining boats forced a landing , opposed by Lieutenant Bartley and his 37 men of the 49th Regiment . Boerstler led the attack , shooting with his pistol a British soldier who was about to bayonet him . Bartley 's outnumbered force retired , pursued to the Frenchman 's Creek Bridge by the Americans , who took two prisoners . Boerstler 's men were then attacked by Captain Bostwick ’ s two companies of Norfolk Militia , who had advanced from Black Rock Ferry . After an exchange of fire in which Bostwick ’ s force lost 3 killed , 15 wounded and 6 captured , the Canadians retreated . Boerstler now encountered another problem : many of the axes provided for the destruction of the Frenchman ’ s Creek bridge were in the four boats that had turned back and those that were in the seven remaining boats had been left behind when the Americans fought their way ashore . Boerstler dispatched eight men under Lieutenant John Waring to “ break up the bridge by any means which they could find ” . Waring had torn up about a third of the planking on the bridge when it was learned from a prisoner that “ the whole force from Fort Erie was coming down upon them ” . Boerstler quickly re @-@ embarked his command and rowed back to Buffalo , leaving behind Waring and his party at the bridge .
= = = British response = = =
In response to the attack , Major Ormsby advanced from Fort Erie to Frenchman ’ s Creek with his 80 men of the 49th Regiment , where he was joined by Lieutenant McIntyre ’ s 70 light infantrymen , Major Hatt ’ s Lincoln Militia and some British @-@ allied Native Americans under Major Givins . Finding that Boerstler ’ s invaders had already gone , and being unable to determine any other enemy presence in the pitch dark , Ormsby ’ s 300 men remained in position until daybreak , when Lieutenant Colonel Bisshopp arrived from Fort Erie . Bisshopp led the force to the Red House , where they found Captain King and his men still waiting to be evacuated . Outnumbered by ten @-@ to @-@ one , King surrendered .
= = = Winder ’ s reinforcement = = =
When the news arrived in Buffalo that King had spiked the Red House batteries , General Smyth was overjoyed . " Huzza ! " he exclaimed , " Canada is ours ! Canada is ours ! Canada is ours ! This will be a glorious day for the United States ! " and he dispatched Colonel Winder with his 350 men across the river to evacuate King and the rest of his force . Winder collected Lieutenant Waring and his party and then landed . However , he had only disembarked part of his force when Bisshopp 's 300 men appeared . Winder ordered his men back to their boats and cast off for Buffalo but his command came under a severe fire as they rowed away , costing him 28 casualties .
In spiking the guns at the Red House battery , the Americans had accomplished the more important of their two objectives : an invading force could now land between Chippawa and Fort Erie without facing artillery fire . However , subsequent events would render their service useless .
= = Casualties = =
The British official casualty return gave 15 killed , 46 wounded and 30 missing . As was often done in casualty returns with officers ( but not with enlisted men ) , Lieutenant King of Royal Artillery and Lieutenant Lamont of the 49th were included in the “ wounded ” category although they were also taken prisoner . The Americans took 34 prisoners , including Lamont and King , which would indicate that two of the enlisted men who were thought to have been killed were in fact captured . This gives a revised British loss ( with Lamont and King counted among the prisoners rather than the wounded ) of 13 killed , 44 wounded and 34 captured .
Eaton ’ s Compilation states that Captain King ’ s command had 8 killed and 9 wounded ; that Colonel Winder ’ s detachment had 6 killed and 22 wounded but that the losses of Lieutenant Colonel Boerstler ’ s detachment were unknown , being “ nowhere stated ” in the records . The New York Gazette of December 15 , 1812 , reported that , of Lieutenant Angus ’ s 35 sailors who assaulted the Red House , 28 were killed or wounded , 2 were captured and only 5 escaped unscathed . Captain King ( who was slightly wounded in the foot ) and 38 other prisoners were taken by the British , The British reported that King and Angus ’ s detachment left 12 killed behind them at the Red House ( 4 of whom were presumably from Angus 's naval detachment ) and that 18 American dead were recovered altogether . Since only 30 prisoners had surrendered along with King and since Winder ’ s detachment did not come under fire until they had re @-@ embarked and cast off for Buffalo , it would appear that 6 of the dead left on the battlefield and 8 of the prisoners belonged to Boerstler ’ s command . The known American casualties ( which include the killed and captured but not the wounded in Boerstler 's detachment ) therefore appear to have been 24 killed , 55 wounded and 39 captured .
= = Aftermath = =
With the Red House batteries out of action , Smyth immediately pressed on with his invasion plans . However , attempts to embark his 3 @,@ 000 men ended in chaos ; with only 1 @,@ 200 men managing to board because of a shortage of boats and the artillery taking up an unexpected amount of space on board . Amid torrential rain and freezing cold , a council of war headed by Smyth decided to postpone the invasion pending more thorough preparations that would enable the embarkation of whole force .
On November 31 , Smyth tried again , ordering his men to embark two hours before dawn in order to avoid enemy fire . This time , the embarkation was so slow that , two hours after daylight , only 1 @,@ 500 men were on board . Rather than attempt an amphibious landing in broad daylight , Smyth once again postponed the invasion . By this time , morale in Smyth ’ s command had plummeted : “ all discipline had dissolved ; the camp was a bedlam ” . This , and widespread illness among the troops , persuaded a second council of war called by Smyth to suspend all offensive operations until the army was reinforced .
The Army of the Centre went into winter quarters without attempting any further offensive operations and General Smyth requested leave to visit his family in Virginia . Three months later , without Smyth either resigning his commission or facing a court @-@ martial , his name was dropped from the U.S. Army rolls by President James Madison .
Unaware of the American intentions , the British and Canadians thought that King , Boerstler and Winder had been intended as the first wave of Smyth ’ s invasion rather than as a preparatory raid . The Canadian press praised the “ gallant achievement ” of the defenders in apparently repulsing the Americans and singled out Bisshopp for particular congratulation . In his dispatch to Prevost , Major General Sir Roger Hale Sheaffe , the British commander in Upper Canada , wrote that “ Lieut.-Colonel Bisshopp deserves high commendation for the spirit and activity he displayed , and great credit is due the officers and men who acted under his orders . ” Bisshopp was killed the following summer while leading the Raid on Black Rock .
Seven active infantry battalions of the Regular Army ( 1 @-@ 2 Inf , 2 @-@ 2 Inf , 1 @-@ 4 Inf , 2 @-@ 4 Inf , 3 @-@ 4 Inf , 1 @-@ 5 Inf and 2 @-@ 5 Inf ) perpetuate the lineages of several American infantry regiments ( the old 13th , 20th and 23rd Infantry Regiments ) that were at the Battle of Frenchman 's Creek .
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= Automated Tropical Cyclone Forecasting System =
The Automated Tropical Cyclone Forecasting System ( ATCF ) is a piece of software originally developed to run on a personal computer for the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) in 1988 , and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) in 1990 . ATCF remains the main piece of forecasting software used for the United States Government , including the JTWC , NHC , and Central Pacific Hurricane Center . Other tropical cyclone centers in Australia and Canada developed similar software in the 1990s . The data files with ATCF lie within three decks , known as the a- , b- , and f @-@ decks . The a @-@ decks include forecast information , the b @-@ decks contain a history of center fixes at synoptic hours , and the f @-@ decks include the various fixes made by various analysis center at various times . In the years since its introduction , it has been adapted to Unix and Linux platforms .
= = Reason for development = =
The need for a more modernized method for forecasting tropical cyclones had become apparent by the mid @-@ 1980s . At that time Department of Defense was using acetate , grease pencils , and disparate computer programs to forecast tropical cyclones . The ATCF software was developed by the Naval Research Laboratory for the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) beginning in 1986 , and used since 1988 . During 1990 the system was adapted by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) for use at the NHC , National Centers for Environmental Prediction and the Central Pacific Hurricane Center . This provided the NHC with a multitasking software environment which allowed them to improve efficiency and cut the time required to make a forecast by 25 % or 1 hour . ATCF was originally developed for use within DOS , before later being adapted to Unix and Linux .
= = Data decks used = =
An a @-@ deck is a data file that contains a listing of available forecast aid projections for a storm 's history . The real @-@ time guidance system uses a subset of the track and intensity information contained in these files to create the real @-@ time guidance plots . The a @-@ deck name comes from the fact that the filenames start with an " a " . Normally , all the model projections are included for the entire lifetime of the storm , so these files can increase to around 1 megabyte in size .
A b @-@ deck is a data file that contains the history of past storms ' center locations , intensity , and other parameters at the six hourly synoptic times : 0000 , 0600 , 1200 , and 1800 UTC . The files can contain information outside of synoptic hours , such as the time of landfall . During hurricane season , these files contain the best operational estimates of these parameters , and are known as the operational best tracks . Once the season has completed , the files are updated with revised information after the storm history undergone a careful review by forecasters and other experts . The post @-@ season files are known as the best tracks . The real @-@ time portion of this web site will always feature the operational best tracks ( the ones which have not undergone any review ) .
An f @-@ deck is a data file that contains a record of the fixes of a storm 's location and / or intensity . A location fix is any position estimate of the storm center . An intensity fix is any estimate of the storm 's intensity . Both location and intensity fixes can be obtained by aircraft flying low @-@ level penetrations through the storm center . Various methods that use satellite imagery or other remote sensing can also provide location and intensity fixes .
= = System identification = =
Systems within ATCF are identified with the basin prefix ( AL , CP , EP , IO , SH , SL , WP ) and then followed by two digit number between 00 and 49 for active tropical cyclones , which becomes incremented with each new system , and then the year associated with the system . Numbers from 50 through 79 after the basin acronym are used internally by the basin 's respective Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers and Regional Specialized Meteorological Center . Numbers in the 80s are used for training purposes and can be reused . Numbers in the 90s are used for areas of interest , sometimes referred to as invests or areas of disturbed weather , and are also reused within any particular year . Their status is listed the following ways within the associated data file : DB - disturbance , TD - tropical depression , TS - tropical storm , TY - typhoon , ST - super typhoon , TC - tropical cyclone , HU - hurricane , SD - subtropical depression , SS - subtropical storm , EX - extratropical systems , IN - inland , DS - dissipating , LO - low , WV - tropical wave , ET - extrapolated , and XX - unknown . Times used are in a four digit year , month , day , and hour format .
= = Similar software used elsewhere = =
In the 1990s , other countries developed similar tropical cyclone forecasting software . The Bureau of Meteorology in Australia developed the Australian Tropical Cyclone Workstation . The Canadian Hurricane Centre developed Canadian Hurricane Centre Forecaster 's Workstation .
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= The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the Niblungs =
The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the Niblungs ( 1876 ) is an epic poem of over 10 @,@ 000 lines by William Morris that tells the tragic story , drawn from the Volsunga Saga and the Elder Edda , of the Norse hero Sigmund , his son Sigurd ( the equivalent of Siegfried in the Nibelungenlied and Wagner 's Ring of the Nibelung ) and Sigurd 's wife Gudrun . It sprang from a fascination with the Volsung legend that extended back twenty years to the author 's youth , and had already resulted in several other literary and scholarly treatments of the story . It was Morris 's own favorite of his poems , and was enthusiastically praised both by contemporary critics and by such figures as T. E. Lawrence and George Bernard Shaw . In recent years it has been rated very highly by many William Morris scholars , but has never succeeded in finding a wide readership on account of its great length and archaic diction . It has been seen as an influence on such fantasy writers as Andrew Lang and J. R. R. Tolkien . The Story of Sigurd is available in modern reprints , both in its original form and in a cut @-@ down version , but there is no critical edition .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Book I : Sigmund = = =
The poem opens with the marriage of king Volsung 's daughter Signy to Siggeir , king of the Goths . The bridal feast is interrupted by the arrival of a stranger , the god Odin in disguise , who drives a sword into a tree @-@ trunk . Though everyone tries to draw the sword , Volsung 's son Sigmund is the only man who can do it . The disappointed Siggeir takes his new wife home , inviting Volsung to visit him . When Volsung does so he is killed by Siggeir , and his sons are taken prisoner . While in captivity they are all killed by a wolf , apart from Sigmund who escapes into the forest . Signy sends Sigmund her two sons to help him in avenging their family , but Sigmund only accepts Sinfjotli , the hardier of the two . Sigmund and Sinfjotli kill Siggeir and burn down his hall , then return to their ancestral home , the hall of the Volsungs . Sigmund marries Borghild , while Sinfjotli goes abroad with Borghild 's brother , quarrels with him , and kills him . On his return Sinfjotli is poisoned by Borghild , and she is turned out by Sigmund , who instead marries Hiordis . Sigmund is killed in battle , and the pregnant Hiordis is taken to live in the hall of King Elf in Denmark .
= = = Book II : Regin = = =
There she gives birth to Sigurd . Sigurd is raised by Regin , a cunning old man , and when he grows to manhood he asks for a horse from King Elf . Elf bids him choose the one he likes best , and Sigurd takes the best horse , and names it Grani . Sigurd is now urged by Regin to attack Fafnir , a dragon who guards a hoard of gold . This treasure is a curse to all who possess it . Fafnir , Regin says , was originally a human being ; indeed , the dragon was Regin 's brother and thus the gold rightfully belongs to Regin . He tries and fails to forge an adequate sword for Sigurd , but Sigurd produces the shattered fragments of Odin 's sword , which he has inherited from Sigmund , and from these fragments Regin forges a mighty sword , named " the Wrath " by Sigurd . Sigurd makes his way to Fafnir 's lair , kills him , drinks his blood , and roasts and eats his heart . This gives him the power to understand the voices of birds and to read the hearts of men . He now understands that Regin intends to kill him , and so he kills Regin and takes Fafnir 's treasure for himself . On his journey homeward Sigurd comes across an unearthly blaze on the slopes of Hindfell . He rides straight into it and comes unharmed to the heart of the fire , where he finds a beautiful sleeping woman clad in armour . He wakes her , and she tells him that she is Brynhild , a handmaiden of Odin whom he has left here as a punishment for disobedience . They pledge themselves to each other , Sigurd places a ring from Fafnir 's hoard on her finger , and he leaves .
= = = Book III : Brunhild = = =
The scene changes to the court of Giuki , the Niblung king . Giuki 's daughter Gudrun has a dream in which she encounters a beautiful but ominous falcon and takes it to her breast . Anxious to learn the meaning of the dream she rides to visit Brynhild , who tells her that she will marry a king , but that her life will be darkened by war and death . Gudrun returns home . Sigurd revisits Brynhild and they again declare their love for each other . He then rides to the Niblung court , where he joins them in making war on the Southland , winning great glory for himself . The witch Grimhild , Gudrun 's mother , gives Sigurd a potion that makes him fall in love with Gudrun . Completely under her spell , he marries her and sets out to win Brynhild for Gudrun 's brother Gunnar . Visiting Brynhild again , this time magically disguised as Gunnar , and again penetrating the fire that surrounds her , he reminds her that she is promised to whoever can overcome the supernatural fire , and so deceives her into reluctantly vowing to marry Gunnar . Brynhild goes to the Niblung land and carries out her promise . She is distraught at this tragic outcome , and doubly so when Gudrun spitefully tells her of the trick by which Sigurd deceived her into an unwanted wedding . Brynhild now urges Gunnar and his brothers Hogni and Guttorm to kill Sigurd . Guttorm murders Sigurd as he lies in bed , but the dying Sigurd throws his sword and kills Guttorm as he leaves . Brynhild , filled with remorse , commits suicide so that she and Sigurd can be burned on a single funeral pyre .
= = = Book IV : Gudrun = = =
The widowed Gudrun now marries Brynhild 's brother , king Atli , but as the years pass by her memories of Sigurd do not fade , and she longs for vengeance . She reminds Atli of Fafnir 's hoard and urges him to win it for himself . Atli invites the surviving Niblung brothers to a feast , and when they arrive he threatens them with death if they do not give him the treasure . Gunnar and Hogni defy him to do his worst , and a battle breaks out in Atli 's hall . The Niblung brothers are overwhelmed by superior force , tied up and killed . Atli holds a victory @-@ feast , at the end of which he and all his court lie sleeping drunkenly in the hall . Gudrun , having lost everyone she loves , burns down the hall , kills Atli with a sword @-@ thrust , and throws herself from a cliff to her death .
= = Genesis = =
Morris first came across the story of the Volsungs , " the grandest tale that ever was told " as he later called it , as a young man , when he read a summary of it in Benjamin Thorpe 's Northern Mythology , which became a favourite book of his . In his The Earthly Paradise ( 1868 – 70 ) he included a versification of the story of Sigurd 's daughter Aslaug , which he may have taken from Thorpe . In 1868 he began to learn Old Norse from the Icelandic scholar Eiríkr Magnússon , and embarked with him on a series of collaborative translations from the Icelandic classics . In 1870 they published Völsunga Saga : The Story of the Volsungs and Niblungs , with Certain Songs from the Elder Edda , claiming uncompromisingly in the preface that " This is the Great Story of the North , which should be to all our race what the Tale of Troy was to the Greeks " .
= = Composition = =
While still working on the prose translation Morris wrote to Charles Eliot Norton :
I had it in my head to write an epic of it , but though I still hanker after it , I see clearly it would be foolish , for no verse could render the best parts of it , and it would only be a flatter and tamer version of a thing already existing .
Morris visited Iceland in 1871 and 1873 . Also in 1873 he was aware that Richard Wagner was writing Der Ring des Nibelungen , and wrote :
I look upon it as nothing short of desecration to bring such a tremendous and world @-@ wide subject under the gaslights of an opera : the most rococo and degraded of all forms of art – the idea of a sandy @-@ haired German tenor tweedledeeing over the unspeakable woes of Sigurd , which even the simplest words are not typical enough to express !
Morris began work on Sigurd the Volsung in October 1875 , completing it the following year . In the end the poem extended to over 10 @,@ 000 lines . He took both the Volsunga Saga and the corresponding poems of the Poetic Edda | Elder Edda as his basic sources , but felt free to alter them as he thought necessary . The poem is in rhyming hexameter couplets , often with anapaestic movement and a feminine caesura . In keeping with the Germanic theme Morris used kennings , a good deal of alliteration , and wherever possible words of Anglo @-@ Saxon origin . This resulted in a difficult and archaic diction , involving such lines as :
The folk of the war @-@ wand 's forgers wrought never better steel
Since first the burg of heaven uprose for man @-@ folk 's weal .
and
So they make the yoke @-@ beasts ready , and dight the wains for the way .
= = Critical reception = =
According to Morris ' daughter May it was the work he " held most highly and wished to be remembered by " . Contemporary reviewers mostly agreed . In America The Atlantic Monthly compared it to Tennyson 's Idylls of the King , writing that
Sigurd , the Volsung is the second great English epic of our generation ... and it ranks after Tennyson 's " Arthuriad " in order of time only . It fully equals that monumental work in the force and pathos of the story told , while it surpasses it in unity and continuity of interest .
Edmund Gosse , in The Academy , enthused : " The style he has adopted is more exalted and less idyllic , more rapturous and less luxurious – in a word , more spirited and more virile than that of any of his earlier works . " The Literary World agreed that it was " the manliest and the loveliest work of Mr. Morris 's genius " , going on to predict that " Whatever its immediate reception may be , William Morris 's Sigurd is certain eventually to take its place among the few great epics of the English tongue . " The note of caution as to the reaction of the 19th century reading public was sounded more strongly by several other critics . Theodore Watts wrote in The Athenaeum , " That this is a noble poem there can be no doubt ; but whether it will meet with ready appreciation and sympathy in this country is a question not so easily disposed of . " He thought it " Mr. Morris 's greatest achievement " , but worried about the choice of metre , which he thought monotonous in effect . In an unfavourable review for Fraser 's Magazine , Henry Hewlett complained that " The narrative seldom rises above mediocrity ... the memory finds little to carry away , and the ear still less to haunt it . " He was particularly repulsed by the Dark Age outlook he believed Morris to have adopted :
A poem ... which , like Sigurd , reflects , with hard , uncompromising realism , an obsolete code of ethics , and a barbarous condition of society , finds itself irreconcilably at discord with the key of nineteenth @-@ century feeling . Deprived of its strongest claim to interest , a sympathetic response in the moral and religious sentiment of its readers , it can only appeal to the intellect as a work of art , or as a more or less successful attempt at antiquarian restoration . It may be admired and applauded by the lettered few ; but it will not be taken to the nation 's heart .
By contrast , the North American Review believed it to be Morris 's method " To reproduce the antique , not as the ancients felt it , but as we feel it , – to transfuse it with modern thought and emotion . "
After Morris 's death interest in his poems began to fade , but a few enthusiasts for Sigurd the Volsung continued to speak out in its favour . Arthur Symons wrote in 1896 that Sigurd the Volsung " remains his masterpiece of sustained power " , and in 1912 the young T. E. Lawrence called it " the best poem I know " According to the philologist E. V. Gordon Sigurd the Volsung is " incomparably the greatest poem – perhaps the only great poem – in English which has been inspired by Norse literature " , and George Bernard Shaw went so far as to call it " the greatest epic since Homer " . However the novelist Eric Linklater , while acknowledging that " Morris tells his story with endless invention , with a brilliant profusion of detail " , complained that the poem 's " Thames @-@ side heroism " conveyed too facile a sense of tragedy . It has never had a wide readership , and contemporary judgements on Sigurd tend to depend upon the judge 's opinion of Morris 's verse in general . Some find its length and archaic diction off @-@ putting , but many modern critics agree with Morris that it is his finest poem .
= = Editions = =
The poem was published by Ellis and White in November 1876 , although the date appeared on the imprint as 1877 . They issued a second edition in 1877 and a third in 1880 . The book was brought out again in 1887 by Reeves and Turner , and in 1896 by Longman . In 1898 , two years after Morris 's death , a revised text was published by the Kelmscott Press in an edition limited to 160 paper copies and 6 vellum copies , with wood cuts by Sir Edward Burne @-@ Jones . In 1910 Longman issued an edition in which some passages were replaced with prose summaries by Winifred Turner and Helen Scott . In 1911 the same firm reprinted the original version as volume 12 of The Collected Works of William Morris , with an introduction by May Morris ; in the absence of a critical edition this is the one generally cited by scholars . In recent years Sigurd the Volsung has been frequently reprinted , sometimes in the Turner and Scott abridged version .
= = Influence on later fantasy writers = =
Magnússon and Morris remained the only English translation of Volsunga saga until Margaret Schlauch 's version in 1930 . As such it influenced such writers as Andrew Lang , who adapted it in his Red Fairy Book , and J. R. R. Tolkien , who read it in his student days . In a letter , Tolkien mentions that he wished to imitate Morris 's romances , and indeed among his works is a version of the Sigurd story , The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun ( published posthumously in 2009 ) . Stefan Arvidsson compares Morris 's Sigurd and Tolkien 's Legend :
In contrast to Morris ’ work , written as it is in heavily archaic , difficult @-@ to @-@ penetrate prose , Tolkien 's recently @-@ published draft was closer in both style and content to the heroic sagas of The Poetic Edda .
Other authors have been inspired more or less directly by the Volsung cycle , following Morris ' lead . For example , Kevin Crossley @-@ Holland published his own translation of the myths , Axe @-@ age , Wolf @-@ age .
= = Fight for Right = =
In 1916 , during World War I , composer Edward Elgar set to music words taken from The Story of Sigurd , producing the song " Fight for Right " . It was dedicated to Members of the Fight for Right Movement , a pro @-@ war organisation dedicated to continuation of the war until victory . William Morris ' words were deemed fitting to express this idea .
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= Blacktip shark =
Not to be confused with the blacktip reef shark , Carcharhinus melanopterus .
The blacktip shark ( Carcharhinus limbatus ) is a species of requiem shark , and part of the family Carcharhinidae . It is common to coastal tropical and subtropical waters around the world , including brackish habitats . Genetic analyses have revealed substantial variation within this species , with populations from the western Atlantic Ocean isolated and distinct from those in the rest of its range . The blacktip shark has a stout , fusiform body with a pointed snout , long gill slits , and no ridge between the dorsal fins . Most individuals have black tips or edges on the pectoral , dorsal , pelvic , and caudal fins . It usually attains a length of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) .
Swift , energetic piscivores , blacktip sharks are known to make spinning leaps out of the water while attacking schools of small fish . Their demeanor has been described as " timid " compared to other large requiem sharks . Both juveniles and adults form groups of varying size . Like other members of its family , the blacktip shark is viviparous ; females bear one to 10 pups every other year . Young blacktip sharks spend the first months of their lives in shallow nurseries , and grown females return to the nurseries where they were born to give birth themselves . In the absence of males , females are also capable of asexual reproduction .
Normally wary of humans , blacktip sharks can become aggressive in the presence of food and have been responsible for a number of attacks on people . This species is of importance to both commercial and recreational fisheries across many parts of its range , with its meat , skin , fins , and liver oil used . It has been assessed as Near Threatened by the IUCN , on the basis of its low reproductive rate and high value to fishers .
= = Taxonomy = =
The blacktip shark was first described by French zoologist Achille Valenciennes as Carcharias ( Prionodon ) limbatus in Johannes Müller and Friedrich Henle 's 1839 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen . The type specimens were two individuals caught off Martinique , both of which have since been lost . Later authors moved this species to the genus Carcharhinus . The specific epithet limbatus is Latin for " bordered " , referring to the black edges of this shark 's fins . Other common names used for the blacktip shark include blackfin shark , blacktip whaler , common or small blacktip shark , grey shark , and spotfin ground shark .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
The closest relatives of the blacktip shark were originally thought to be the graceful shark ( C. amblyrhynchoides ) and the spinner shark ( C. brevipinna ) , due to similarities in morphology and behavior . However , this interpretation has not been borne out by studies of mitochondrial and ribosomal DNA , which instead suggest affinity with the blacknose shark ( C. acronotus ) . More work is required to fully resolve the relationship between the blacktip shark and other Carcharhinus species .
Analysis of mitochondrial DNA has also revealed two distinct lineages within this species , one occupying the western Atlantic and the other occupying the eastern Atlantic , Indian , and Pacific Oceans . This suggests that Indo @-@ Pacific blacktip sharks are descended from those in the eastern Atlantic , while the western Atlantic sharks became isolated by the widening Atlantic Ocean on one side and the formation of the Isthmus of Panama on the other . Blacktip sharks from these two regions differ in morphology , coloration , and life history characteristics , and the eastern Atlantic lineage may merit species status . Fossil teeth belonging to this species have been found in Early Miocene ( 23 – 16 Ma ) deposits in Delaware and Florida .
= = Description = =
The blacktip shark has a robust , streamlined body with a long , pointed snout and relatively small eyes . The five pairs of gill slits are longer than those of similar requiem shark species . The jaws contain 15 tooth rows on either side , with two symphysial teeth ( at the jaw midline ) in the upper jaw and one symphysial tooth in the lower jaw . The teeth are broad @-@ based with a high , narrow cusp and serrated edges . The first dorsal fin is tall and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) with a short free rear tip ; no ridge runs between the first and second dorsal fins . The large pectoral fins are falcate and pointed .
The coloration is gray to brown above and white below , with a conspicuous white stripe running along the sides . The pectoral fins , second dorsal fin , and the lower lobe of the caudal fin usually have black tips . The pelvic fins and rarely the anal fin may also be black @-@ tipped . The first dorsal fin and the upper lobe of the caudal fin typically have black edges . Some larger individuals have unmarked or nearly unmarked fins . Blacktip sharks can temporarily lose almost all their colors during blooms , or " whitings " , of coccolithophores . This species attains a maximum known length of 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 @.@ 2 ft ) , though 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) is more typical , and a maximum known weight of 123 kg ( 271 lb ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The blacktip shark has a worldwide distribution in tropical and subtropical waters . In the Atlantic , it is found from Massachusetts to Brazil , including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea , and from the Mediterranean Sea , Madeira , and the Canary Islands to the Democratic Republic of the Congo . It occurs all around the periphery of the Indian Ocean , from South Africa and Madagascar to the Arabian Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent , to Southeast Asia . In the western Pacific , it is found from southern China to northern Australia , including the Philippines and Indonesia . In the eastern Pacific , it occurs from Baja California to Peru . It has also been reported at a number of Pacific islands , including New Caledonia , Tahiti , the Marquesas , Hawaii , Revillagigedo , and the Galápagos .
Most blacktip sharks are found in water less than 30 m ( 98 ft ) deep over continental and insular shelves , though they may dive to 64 m ( 210 ft ) . Favored habitats are muddy bays , island lagoons , and the drop @-@ offs near coral reefs ; they are also tolerant of low salinity and enter estuaries and mangrove swamps . Although an individual may be found some distance offshore , blacktip sharks do not inhabit oceanic waters . Seasonal migration has been documented for the population off the east coast of the United States , moving north to North Carolina in the summer and south to Florida in the winter .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The blacktip shark is an extremely fast , energetic predator that is usually found in groups of varying size . Segregation by sex and age does not occur ; adult males and nonpregnant females are found apart from pregnant females , and both are separated from juveniles . In Terra Ceia Bay , Florida , a nursery area for this species , juvenile blacktips form aggregations during the day and disperse at night . They aggregate most strongly in the early summer when the sharks are youngest , suggesting that they are seeking refuge from predators ( mostly larger sharks ) in numbers . Predator avoidance may also be the reason why juvenile blacktips do not congregate in the areas of highest prey density in the bay . Adults have no known predators . Known parasites of the blacktip shark include the copepods Pandarus sinuatus and P. smithii , and the monogeneans Dermophthirius penneri and Dionchus spp . , which attach the shark 's skin . This species is also parasitized by nematodes in the family Philometridae , which infest the ovaries .
= = = Behavior = = =
Like the spinner shark , the blacktip shark is known to leap out of the water and spin three or four times about its axis before landing . Some of these jumps are the end product of feeding runs , in which the shark corkscrews vertically through schools of small fish and its momentum launches it into the air . Observations in the Bahamas suggest that blacktip sharks may also jump out of the water to dislodge attached sharksuckers ( Echeneis naucrates ) , which irritate the shark 's skin and compromise its hydrodynamic shape . The speed attained by the shark during these jumps has been estimated to average 6 @.@ 3 m / s ( 21 ft / s ) .
Blacktip sharks have a timid disposition and consistently lose out to Galapagos sharks ( C. galapagensis ) and silvertip sharks ( C. albimarginatus ) of equal size when competing for food . If threatened or challenged , they may perform an agonistic display : the shark swims towards the threat and then turns away , while rolling from side to side , lowering its pectoral fins , tilting its head and tail upwards , and making sideways biting motions . The entire sequence lasts around 25 seconds . This behavior is similar to the actions of a shark attempting to move a sharksucker ; one of these behaviors possibly is derived from the other .
= = = Feeding = = =
Fish make up some 90 % of the blacktip shark 's diet . A wide variety of fish have been recorded as prey for this species : sardines , herring , anchovies , ladyfish , sea catfish , cornetfish , flatfish , threadfins , mullet , mackerel , jacks , groupers , snook , porgies , mojarras , emperors , grunts , butterfish , tilapia , triggerfish , boxfish , and porcupinefish . They also feed on rays and skates , as well as smaller sharks such as smoothhounds and sharpnose sharks . Crustaceans and cephalopods are occasionally taken . In the Gulf of Mexico , the most important prey of the blacktip shark is the Gulf menhaden ( Brevoortia patronus ) , followed by the Atlantic croaker ( Micropogonias undulatus ) . Off South Africa , jacks and herring are the most important prey . Hunting peaks at dawn and dusk . The excitability and sociability of blacktip sharks makes them prone to feeding frenzies when large quantities of food are suddenly available , such as when fishing vessels dump their refuse overboard .
= = = Life history = = =
As with other requiem sharks , the blacktip shark exhibits vivipary . Females typically give birth to four to seven ( range one to 10 ) pups every other year , making use of shallow coastal nurseries that offer plentiful food and fewer predators . Known nurseries include Pine Island Sound , Terra Ceia Bay , and Yankeetown along the Gulf Coast of Florida , Bulls Bay on the coast of South Carolina , and Pontal do Paraná on the coast of Brazil . Although adult blacktip sharks are highly mobile and disperse over long distances , they are philopatric and return to their original nursery areas to give birth . This results in a series of genetically distinct breeding stocks that overlap in geographic range .
Mating occurs from spring to early summer , and the young are born around the same time the following year after a gestation period of 10 – 12 months . Females have one functional ovary and two functional uteri ; each uterus is separated into compartments with a single embryo inside each . The embryos are initially sustained by a yolk sac ; in the 10th or 11th week of gestation , when the embryo measures 18 – 19 cm long ( 7 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) , the supply of yolk is exhausted and the yolk sac develops into a placental connection that sustains the embryo until birth . The length at birth is 55 – 60 cm ( 22 – 24 in ) off the eastern United States and 61 – 65 cm ( 24 – 26 in ) off North Africa . The mortality rate in the first 15 months of life is 61 – 91 % , with major threats being predation and starvation . The young remain in the nurseries until their first fall , when they migrate to their wintering grounds .
The growth rate of this species slows with age : 25 – 30 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 – 11 @.@ 8 in ) in the first six months , then 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) a year until the second year , then 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) a year until maturation , then 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) a year for adults . The size at maturity varies geographically : males and females mature at 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 9 ft ) and 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) , respectively , in the northeastern Atlantic , 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 6 ft ) and 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 6 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 2 ft ) , respectively , in the Gulf of Mexico , 1 @.@ 5 and 1 @.@ 6 m ( 4 @.@ 9 and 5 @.@ 2 ft ) respectively off South Africa , and 1 @.@ 7 and 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 9 ft ) , respectively , off North Africa . The age at maturation is 4 – 5 years for males and 7 – 8 years for females . The lifespan is at least 12 years .
In 2007 , a 9 @-@ year @-@ old female blacktip shark at the Virginia Aquarium and Marine Science Center was found to be pregnant with a single near @-@ term female pup , despite having never mated with a male . Genetic analysis confirmed that her offspring was the product of automictic parthenogenesis , a form of asexual reproduction in which an ovum merges with a polar body to form a zygote without fertilization . Along with an earlier case of parthenogenesis in the bonnethead ( Sphyrna tiburo ) , this event suggests that asexual reproduction may be more widespread in sharks than previously thought .
= = Human interactions = =
Blacktip sharks showing curiosity towards divers has been reported , but they remain at a safe distance . Under most circumstances , these timid sharks are not regarded as highly dangerous to humans . However , they may become aggressive in the presence of food , and their size and speed invite respect . As of 2008 , the International Shark Attack File lists 28 unprovoked attacks ( one fatal ) and 13 provoked attacks by this species . Blacktip sharks are responsible annually for 16 % of the shark attacks around Florida . Most attacks by this species result in only minor wounds .
As one of the most common large sharks in coastal waters , the blacktip shark is caught in large numbers by commercial fisheries throughout the world , using longlines , fixed @-@ bottom nets , bottom trawls , and hook @-@ and @-@ line . The meat is of high quality and marketed fresh , frozen , or dried and salted . In addition , the fins are used for shark fin soup , the skin for leather , the liver oil for vitamins , and the carcasses for fishmeal . Blacktip sharks are one of the most important species to the northwestern Atlantic shark fishery , second only to the sandbar shark ( C. plumbeus ) . The flesh is considered superior to that of the sandbar shark , resulting in the sandbar and other requiem shark species being sold under the name " blacktip shark " in the United States . The blacktip shark is also very significant to Indian and Mexican fisheries , and is caught in varying numbers by fisheries in the Mediterranean and South China Seas , and off northern Australia .
The blacktip shark is popular with recreational anglers in Florida , the Caribbean , and South Africa . It is listed as a game fish by the International Game Fish Association . Once hooked , this species is a strong , steady fighter that sometimes jumps out of the water . Since 1995 , the number of blacktip sharks taken by recreational anglers in the United States has approached or surpassed the number taken by commercial fishing . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the blacktip shark as Near Threatened , as its low reproductive rate renders it vulnerable to overfishing . The United States and Australia are the only two countries that manage fisheries catching blacktip sharks . In both cases , regulation occurs under umbrella management schemes for multiple shark species , such as that for the large coastal sharks category of the US National Marine Fisheries Service Atlantic shark Fisheries Management Plan . No conservation plans specifically for this species have been implemented .
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= Al @-@ Rahba =
Al @-@ Rahba ( / ALA @-@ LC : ar @-@ Raḥbah , sometimes spelled Raḥabah ) , also known as Qal 'at ar @-@ Rahba , which translates as the " Citadel of al @-@ Rahba " , is a medieval Arab – Islamic fortress in Syria . It is located off the western banks of the Euphrates River , adjacent to the city of Mayadin and 42 kilometers ( 26 mi ) southeast of Dayr az @-@ Zawr . Situated atop a mound with an elevation of 244 meters ( 801 ft ) , al @-@ Rahba oversees the Syrian Desert steppe and historically guarded the Euphrates valley . It has been described as " a fortress within a fortress " ; it consists of an inner keep measuring 60 by 30 meters ( 197 ft × 98 ft ) , protected by an enclosure measuring 270 by 95 meters ( 886 ft × 312 ft ) . Al @-@ Rahba is largely in ruins today as a result of erosion .
The original site , which was known as " Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk " after its Abbasid namesake and founder , was located along the Euphrates . It was viewed by Muslim armies , caravans and travelers as the key to Syria from Iraq and sometimes vice versa . Bedouin tribes often took control of it and used it as a launching point for invasions of northern Syria . Because of its strategic location , al @-@ Rahba was frequently fought over by Muslim powers , including local lords , the Hamdanids , the Uqaylids , the Mirdasids and the Seljuks , among others . Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk was destroyed in an earthquake in 1157 .
A few years later , the current fortress was built close to the desert edge by the Zengid – Ayyubid lord Shirkuh . The latter 's descendants held al @-@ Rahba as a hereditary fief granted by Saladin until 1264 . One of them , Shirkuh II , oversaw a third major reconstruction in 1207 . Through the early Mamluk era ( late 13th – 14th centuries ) , the fortress was continuously restored and strengthened as a result of frequent sieges by the Ilkhanid Mongols of Iraq . Al @-@ Rahba was the most important Mamluk fortress along the Euphrates , an administrative center and the terminal stop on the sultanate 's postal route . It fell into disuse during Ottoman rule ( 1517 – 1918 ) and from then until the early 20th century , the fortress primarily served as a shelter for local shepherds and their flocks . Excavations were carried out at the site between 1976 and 1981 .
= = Location and etymology = =
Throughout Islamic history , al @-@ Rahba was considered , in the words of the 14th @-@ century traveler Ibn Batuta , " the end of Iraq and the beginning of al @-@ Sham [ Syria ] " . The fortress is located about 4 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) southwest of the Euphrates River , 1 kilometer ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) southwest of the modern Syrian city of Mayadin , and 42 kilometers ( 26 mi ) southeast of Dayr az @-@ Zawr , capital of the Dayr az @-@ Zawr Governorate , of which al @-@ Rahba is part . According to the 13th @-@ century geographer Yaqut al @-@ Hamawi , the site 's name , al @-@ rahba , translates from Arabic as the " flat part of a wadi , where the water collects " ; al @-@ Rahba 's original location was on the western bank of the Euphrates . The current fortress is situated on an artificial mound detached from the plateau of the Syrian Desert to its west . Its elevation is 244 meters ( 801 ft ) above sea level .
= = History = =
= = = Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk = = =
= = = = Founding = = = =
According to historian Thierry Bianquis , " Hardly anything definite is known about the history of the town [ al @-@ Rahba ] before the Muslim era . " Medieval Talmudic and Syriac writers ( such as Michael the Syrian and Bar Hebraeus ) identified it with the Biblical town of Rehobot han @-@ Nahar ( " Rehobot by the river [ Euphrates ] " ) . Some medieval Muslim historians , among them al @-@ Tabari , have written that it was a place called " Furda " or " Furdat Nu 'm " , named after a monastery that supposedly existed in its vicinity called " Dayr Nu 'm " . However , the 9th @-@ century Persian historian al @-@ Baladhuri asserts that there was " no trace that ar @-@ Rahba ... was an old city " , and that it was first founded by the Abbasid general Malik ibn Tawk during the reign of Caliph al @-@ Ma 'mun ( 813 – 833 CE ) . As such , the fortress town was often referred to " Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk " by Muslim historians . According to Syrian historian Suhayl Zakkar , al @-@ Rahba held significant strategic value as it was " the key to Syria and sometimes to Iraq " and it was the first stop for Syria @-@ bound caravans coming from Iraq . From al @-@ Rahba , travelers , caravans and armies could proceed northwestward along the Euphrates route to Aleppo or traverse the desert route to Damascus . Because of its strategic value , it was frequently fought over by rival Muslim powers . Bedouin tribes in particular used al @-@ Rahba as a main launch point for invasions of northern Syria , and as a safe haven and marketplace . Malik ibn Tawk served as its first lord , and after his death in 873 , he was succeeded by his son Ahmad . The latter was expelled following al @-@ Rahba 's capture in 883 by the Abbasid lord of al @-@ Anbar , Muhammad ibn Abi 'l @-@ Saj . By the 10th century , al @-@ Rahba had become a large town .
In 903 , the Qarmatian leader al @-@ Husayn ibn Zikrawayh was imprisoned in al @-@ Rahba before being transferred to Caliph al @-@ Mustakfi 's custody in al @-@ Raqqa . At the time , al @-@ Rahba was the center of the Euphrates province and headquarters of its governor , Ibn Sima . Al @-@ Husayn was executed , prompting his partisans from the Banu Ullays tribe to submit to Ibn Sima in al @-@ Rahba in early 904 . However , shortly after , they turned against Ibn Sima , whose forces routed them in an ambush in al @-@ Rahba 's environs in August . Following further battles , Ibn Sima received another round of surrenders by Qarmatian chieftains and da 'is ( Ismaili religious leaders ) . In March 928 , the Qarmatians under Abu Tahir al @-@ Jannabi conquered al @-@ Rahba and massacred scores of its inhabitants . Its residents faced hardships for several more years due to civil strife in the surrounding region . Peace was established in 942 with the arrival of a certain Abbasid commander named Adl who was dispatched by Bakjam , the strongman of the Baghdad @-@ based caliphate . Adl subsequently became governor of the Euphrates and Khabur valley regions .
= = = = Hamdanid period = = = =
Al @-@ Rahba came under Hamdanid rule a few years later , becoming part of the Euphrates district ( tariq al @-@ Furat ) of the Mosul @-@ based emirate . At the time , the town was described by the Persian geographer al @-@ Istakhri , as being larger than the ancient Circesium on the opposite side of the Euphrates . The lord of al @-@ Rahba , Jaman , rebelled against the Hamdanid emir of Mosul , Nasir al @-@ Dawla ( r . 929 – 967 ) . Jaman fled the town and drowned in the Euphrates but not before al @-@ Rahba was heavily damaged in the rebellion 's suppression . Nasir al @-@ Dawla granted his favored son , Abu 'l Muzzafar Hamdan , control of al @-@ Rahba , its district of Diyar Mudar , and the district 's revenues .
Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's sons contested control of al @-@ Rahba in the aftermath of their father 's deposition in 969 . It ultimately passed to his son Abu Taghlib when his brother and subordinate commander , Hibat @-@ Allah , captured it from Hamdan in a surprise attack . Abu Taghlib had al @-@ Rahba 's walls rebuilt . He restored al @-@ Rahba to Hamdan to preempt the possibility of his Buyid enemy , Izz al @-@ Dawla al @-@ Bakhtiyar , forming an alliance with Hamdan to undermine Abu Taghlib . The Hamdanids lost control of al @-@ Rahba in 978 , after which it was captured by the Buyid emir ' Adud al @-@ Dawla ( r . 949 – 983 ) . In 991 , al @-@ Rahba 's inhabitants requested and received a governor assigned by ' Adud 's son , Emir Baha ' al @-@ Dawla ( r . 988 – 1012 ) . The town was described by Jerusalemite geographer al @-@ Muqaddasi in the late 10th century as being the center of the Euphrates district , located on the edge of the desert , having a semi @-@ circular layout and being defended by a strong fortress . He also noted that the wider vicinity was characterized by highly irrigated and productive lands , with abundant date palms and quince groves .
= = = = Uqaylid and Mirdasid period = = = =
In the early 11th century , control of al @-@ Rahba was contested between the Uqaylids of Mosul and the Fatimids of Egypt . Preceding this conflict , the Fatimid caliph al @-@ Hakim appointed a member of the Al Khafajah tribe , Abu Ali ibn Thimal , as lord of al @-@ Rahba . Abu Ali was killed in 1008 / 09 during a battle with his Uqaylid rivals led by Isa ibn Khalat . The latter lost al @-@ Rahba to another Uqaylid emir , Badran ibn Muqallid . The latter 's victory was short @-@ lived as the Fatimid emir of Damascus , Lu 'lu , soon captured both al @-@ Rahba and al @-@ Raqqah , a fortified city to the northwest . He appointed a governor for al @-@ Rahba and returned to Damascus .
A wealthy resident of al @-@ Rahba , Ibn Mahkan , revolted against the Fatimids and took control of the town shortly after Lu 'lu departed . Though able to oust the Fatimid governor , Ibn Mahkan was unable to hold the town without outside support since al @-@ Rahba was located amid the crossroads of several regional powers who coveted the town . Thus , he gained the backing of the Mirdasid emir of the Banu Kilab tribe , Salih ibn Mirdas . Conflict arose between Ibn Mahkan and Salih leading the latter to besiege al @-@ Rahba . The two reconciled and then Ibn Mahkan and his men captured the fortified town of Anah in Anbar . However , when Ibn Mahkan sought Salih 's support in suppressing a revolt in Anah , the latter used the opportunity to kill Ibn Mahkan .
After eliminating Ibn Mahkan , Salih became the lord of al @-@ Rahba , and made his allegiance with the Fatimids . Al @-@ Rahba was the first major territory Salih held and was the touchstone of the emirate he would establish in Aleppo and much of northern Syria . His son Thimal later succeeded him as emir of Aleppo , and al @-@ Rahba became his principal power base from which many of his wazirs ( advisers or ministers ) originated . He was later compelled by the Fatimids to hand over al @-@ Rahba to their ally Arslan al @-@ Basasiri , a Turkish general who revolted against his Seljuk masters and the Abbasid Caliphate . The ceding of al @-@ Rahba to al @-@ Basasiri was the first step in Thimal 's loss of the Mirdasid emirate . Together with the loss of al @-@ Raqqah , it provoked dissension within the Banu Kilab , with Thimal 's brother Atiyya resolving to restore the Mirdasid emirate . Al @-@ Basasiri 's revolt ultimately failed and he was killed in 1059 , prompting Atiyya to capture al @-@ Rahba in April 1060 . Later , in August 1061 , Atiyya successfully defended al @-@ Rahba from Numayrid advances .
The Mirdasids lost al @-@ Rahba in 1067 to the Uqaylid emir , Sharaf ad @-@ Dawla , a vassal of the Abbasid @-@ affiliated Seljuks . Beforehand , Atiyya and part of his army had been in Homs , allowing Sharaf ad @-@ Dawla the opportunity to rout al @-@ Rahba 's Banu Kilab defenders . Afterward , the name of the Abbasid caliph was read in the town 's khutba ( Friday prayer sermons ) instead of the Fatimids , a formal recognition of al @-@ Rahba 's change of allegiance . In 1086 , the Seljuk sultan Malik @-@ Shah granted al @-@ Rahba and its Upper Mesopotamian dependencies , Harran , al @-@ Raqqa , Saruj and Khabur , to Sharaf ad @-@ Dawla 's son , Muhammad .
= = = = Seljuk period = = = =
At some point the Seljuks or their Arab allies lost al @-@ Rahba , but in 1093 the Seljuk ruler of Damascus , Tutush captured it along with several other Upper Mesopotamian towns . Following his death , possession of al @-@ Rahba reverted to the Uqaylids , but in 1096 , Karbuqa of al @-@ Hillah captured and looted the town . He held onto it until 1102 when Qaymaz , a former mamluk ( slave soldier ) of the Seljuk sultan Alp Arslan , took control of it . Tutush 's son Duqmaq and the latter 's deputy Tughtakin besieged the town , but failed to capture it . Qaymaz died in December 1102 and al @-@ Rahba passed to one of his Turkish mamluks named Hasan , who dismissed many of Qaymaz 's officers and arrested several of al @-@ Rahba 's notables due to suspicions of a coup against him . Duqaq renewed the siege , but this time was welcomed in by al @-@ Rahba 's townspeople , forcing Hasan to retreat into the citadel . Hasan surrendered after receiving guarantees of safe passage from Duqaq as well as an iqta ( fief ) elsewhere in Syria . According to the 12th @-@ century chronicler Ibn al @-@ Athir , al @-@ Rahba 's inhabitants were treated well by Duqaq , who reorganized the administration of the town , established a garrison there , and assigned to it a governor from the Banu Shayban tribe , Muhammad ibn Sabbak .
Jawali , a general of the Seljuk sultan Muhammad I , conquered al @-@ Rahba from Ibn Sabbak in May 1107 , after a month @-@ long siege . Ibn al @-@ Athir recorded that al @-@ Rahba 's inhabitants suffered greatly during the siege and that some townsmen informed Jawali of a weak point in the fortress 's defense in return for promises of safety . When Jawali entered the town and sacked it , Ibn Sabbak surrendered and joined Jawali 's service .
In 1127 , the Seljuk lord of Mosul , Izz ad @-@ Din Mas 'ud ibn al @-@ Bursuqi besieged and conquered al @-@ Rahba as part of an attempted invasion of Syria . However , he fell ill and died there shortly after . His lordship in Mosul was taken by Imad ad @-@ Din Zengi , while al @-@ Rahba was left under the control of al @-@ Bursuqi 's mamluk , al @-@ Jawali , who ruled it as a subordinate of Zengi . Zengi 's son Qutb ad @-@ Din captured al @-@ Rahba some years later . In 1149 , Qutb ad @-@ Din 's brother Nur ad @-@ Din received al @-@ Rahba in Seljuk @-@ sponsored negotiations between the Zengid lords .
= = = Al @-@ Rahba al @-@ Jadida = = =
= = = = Ayyubid period = = = =
Al @-@ Rahba was destroyed in an earthquake in 1157 . Four years later , Nur ad @-@ Din granted the territories of al @-@ Rahba and Homs as a fief to Shirkuh , who had a certain Yusuf ibn Mallah administer it on his behalf . According to the 14th @-@ century Ayyubid historian , Abu 'l Fida , Shirkuh rebuilt al @-@ Rahba . Abu 'l Fida 's assertion may have been incorrect or the fortress built by Shirkuh fell into a ruinous state at some point before the century 's end . In any case , the new fortress , which became known as " al @-@ Rahba al @-@ Jadida " , was relocated about five kilometers west of the Euphrates ' western bank where the original site , " Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk " , had been situated . When Shirkuh died , his territories reverted to Nur ad @-@ Din . However , Shirkuh 's nephew and the founder of the Ayyubid Sultanate , Saladin , conquered much of Muslim Syria from the Zengids ( the Syrian coast had been in Crusader hands since the early 12th century ) by 1182 and granted Homs and al @-@ Rahba to Shirkuh 's son , Nasir ad @-@ Din Muhammad , as a hereditary emirate .
According to the Ayyubid @-@ era chronicler and one @-@ time resident of al @-@ Rahba , Ibn Nazif , the fortress of al @-@ Rahba again rebuilt by Shirkuh 's grandson , al @-@ Mujahid Shirkuh II ( r . 1186 – 1240 ) , in 1207 . Al @-@ Rahba was the easternmost fortress of Shirkuh II 's Homs @-@ based emirate , and was one of the four principal centers of the emirate , the other three being Homs itself , Salamiya and Palmyra . He personally oversaw the demolition of al @-@ Rahba 's ruins and the construction of the new fortress . Al @-@ Rahba remained in the hands of Shirkuh 's descendants until a few years after the annexation of Ayyubid Syria by the Mamluk Sultanate in 1260 .
= = = = Mamluk period = = = =
In 1264 , the Mamluk sultan Baybars ( r . 1260 – 1277 ) replaced the Ayyubid governor of al @-@ Rahba with one of his mamluk officers from Egypt . Al @-@ Rahba 's garrison and its commander held a high place in the Mamluk military hierarchy . The fortress , along with and al @-@ Bira to the north , emerged as the principal Mamluk bulwark against Mongol invasions of Syria 's eastern frontier . It was the Mamluks ' most important fortress along the Euphrates , supplanting al @-@ Raqqa , which had been the traditional Muslim center in the Euphrates valley since the 10th century . A large population of refugees from areas ruled by the Mongols settled in al @-@ Rahba as did many people from the adjacent , unfortified town of Mashhad al @-@ Rahba ( former site of Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk , modern @-@ day Mayadin ) . It was also the terminal stop of the Mamluk barid ( postal route ) and an administrative center .
Throughout the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods , al @-@ Rahba was situated near the tribal territory of the Al Fadl . About four hundred Al Fadl tribesmen joined the small army of Caliph al @-@ Mustansir , the Egypt @-@ based Abbasid caliph dispatched by Baybars to recapture Baghdad from the Mongols , when he reached al @-@ Rahba . The latter was al @-@ Mustansir 's first stop after he rode out from Damascus , but his campaign ultimately failed and he was killed in a Mongol ambush in al @-@ Anbar . The Mongols of Ilkhanid Iraq inflicted significant damage on al @-@ Rahba during their wars with the Mamluks . The fortress was restored by Baybars at some point toward the end of his reign . In 1279 , the Mamluk viceroy of Syria , Sunqur al @-@ Ashqar , rebelled against Sultan Qalawun ( r . 1279 – 1290 ) and took refuge with the Al Fadl chieftain , Isa ibn Muhanna , at al @-@ Rahba , where he requested the intervention of the Mongol ruler Abaqa Khan . When the Mongols could not help him , Sunqur fled the incoming Mamluk army , while Isa barricaded himself in the fortress . The Mongols ' failure to capture al @-@ Rahba after a month @-@ long siege commanded by the Ilkhanid ruler Öljaitü in 1312 / 13 marked the Ilkhanate 's final attempt to invade Mamluk Syria . Isa 's son Muhanna rebelled against Sultan an @-@ Nasir Muhammad ( r . 1310 – 1341 ) in 1320 , and was pursued by the Mamluk army as far al @-@ Rahba . During the ensuing confrontation , the fortress may have been destroyed .
= = = = Ottoman era = = = =
Under the Ottomans , who conquered Syria and Iraq in the early 16th century , al @-@ Rahba 's military use apparently diminished . During the Middle Ages , the road between Palmyra and al @-@ Rahba was the most important Syrian desert route , but its importance declined during Ottoman rule . From then on , al @-@ Rahba was mostly used as a shelter for shepherds from nearby villages and their flocks . In 1588 , it was visited by the Venetian traveler Gasparo Balbi , who noted a dilapidated fortress and inhabitants known as " Rahabi " living below it . The French traveler , Jean @-@ Baptiste Tavernier , mentioned Mashhad Rahba , 9 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 0 mi ) southwest of the fortress , during his travels there in circa 1632 . In 1797 , French traveler Guillaume @-@ Antoine Olivier passed by al @-@ Rahba , mentioning that it was a fortress and a ruined site .
= = Excavations = =
The fortress has deteriorated considerably as a result of erosion . Excavations were carried out at al @-@ Rahba , including the presumed site of Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk along the Euphrates bank , between 1976 and 1981 under the auspices of Syria 's General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums , the Institut Français d 'Etudes Arabes de Damas and the University of Lyon II . In later years , surveys of the site and the surrounding desert and Euphrates and Khabur valleys were carried out by multi @-@ disciplinary teams of Syrian , American and European archaeologists . One of the French surveyors , J. L. Paillet , sketched the plans and elevations of the fortress , which are detailed in his 1983 dissertation , Le château de Rahba , étude d 'architecture militaire islamique médiévale .
Excavations at the foot of the fortress between 1976 and 1978 revealed a medieval settlement within a quadrangular enclosure , some of whose walls measured up to 30 meters ( 98 ft ) long and 4 meters ( 13 ft ) high . The walls generally have a thickness of 1 meter ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . Among the unearthed structures were the probable remains of a khan ( caravanserai ) , a congregational mosque with a small oratory , and a cavalry barracks . There was also a system of canals that brought in fresh water and emptied sewage . Among the artifacts found at the fortress and the former settlement beneath it were pottery sherds and coins ( mostly Mamluk and a few Ayyubid ) and numerous feather fletches belonging to arrows left over by Mongol besiegers . During the ongoing Syrian Civil War , looting and illegal digging for antiquities have occurred at al @-@ Rahba . Affected areas include the fortress 's storage rooms and courtyards , as well as the medieval settlement at its foot .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Specifications and components = = =
The citadel of al @-@ Rahba is described by historian Janusz Bylinski as " a fortress within a fortress " . Its core consists of a four @-@ story , pentagon @-@ shaped keep , roughly measuring 60 by 30 meters ( 197 ft × 98 ft ) . The keep is enclosed by a pentagon @-@ shaped wall , roughly measuring 270 by 95 meters ( 886 ft × 312 ft ) . The outer wall 's shape was described by Paillet as a triangle with its two parallel angles having been chamfered and substituted with short curtain walls . Around the artificial mound upon which the fortress sits is a moat with a depth of 22 meters ( 72 ft ) and a width of 80 meters ( 260 ft ) . Al @-@ Rahba 's moat is considerably deeper than the Ayyubid @-@ era desert fortresses of Palmyra and Shumaimis . A large cistern makes up the lowest floor of the keep .
Several bastions were built along the external walls of the fortress . The western and southeastern sides contained al @-@ Rahba 's four largest bastions , with the largest measuring 17 @.@ 2 by 15 @.@ 2 meters ( 56 ft × 50 ft ) and the smallest being 12 @.@ 4 by 12 @.@ 4 meters ( 41 ft × 41 ft ) . These bastions supported heavy defensive artillery . Their height surpassed the towers of Palmyra and Shumaimis probably because the latter forts ' locations on isolated hills did not necessitate " state of the art defensive artillery " , according to Bylinski . By contrast , at al @-@ Rahba , enemy siege engines could be placed at the close @-@ by plateaus , which were almost at level with the fortress . Al @-@ Rahba 's smallest bastion is on its northern , less vulnerable wall and measures 5 @.@ 2 by 4 @.@ 4 meters ( 17 ft × 14 ft ) .
Both the external walls and those around the keep were fitted with merlons and parapets , with the parapets of the keep positioned 6 @.@ 5 meters higher than their counterparts along the external wall . This was done to establish a secondary defensive line that enabled the building 's defenders to shoot arrows at attackers who breached the external walls . The core building was linked to the external fortifications by corridors and chambers .
= = = Construction phases = = =
Though large parts of the building are in ruins , excavations have determined that al @-@ Rahba went through at least eight undated construction phases probably starting from the early Ayyubid period . For the most part , each phase utilized different architectural techniques and fortification concepts , and none of the phases affected the entire extent of the building at one time . One common theme of the phases was the restoration or strengthening of al @-@ Rahba 's western and southeastern sides , which faced the desert plateau and were the most exposed areas of the fortress . In contrast , the northern side facing the population centers remained largely unchanged .
The first phase saw the walls built with mudbrick , a very common feature of Euphrates @-@ area structures . Although the shape of the building after its initial phase cannot be determined , Paillet presumes that its size likely corresponded to that of the current building . The small salient bastion that juts out of the northern wall dates to the first phase .
The second phase of construction added three salient bastions , each of which were over twice the size of the northern bastion . The new bastions were placed along the part of al @-@ Rahba 's citadel that faced the desert to the west . The builders in the second phase also reinforced al @-@ Rahba 's walls with roughly cut conglomerate blocks fixed together by high @-@ quality mortar . In the third phase , higher quality mudbrick was used , the western curtain wall was elevated and the southwestern curtain wall was replaced and decorated with bands of Arabic inscriptions . In addition , a large , brick dome was built atop the ground @-@ level chamber of the northwestern bastion . The external walls of the fortress reached their final form during the third phase , though there would be further restorations in later decades .
In the fourth phase , low @-@ lying casemates were added to the western and southwestern curtains to provide an additional platform for al @-@ Rahba 's defenders to use . The walls , particularly on the eastern side , were reinforced in the fifth phase , which Paillet attributes to the efforts of Shirkuh II and his Ayyubid contemporaries to strengthen the fortresses of Syria . The building technique used in this phase likely necessitated significant funds , equipment and technical expertise . Several changes were made including the southeastern tower being rebuilt and the northeastern tower being reinforced by an additional wall and a vaulted story . Moreover , the northern slope of the outer wall was further strengthened with a glacis built from large conglomerate blocks . A building in the center of al @-@ Rahba was erected during this phase , likely replacing an older structure or a courtyard .
The last major building phase was the sixth , which saw the restoration of the eastern and western external walls after they were severely damaged by Mongol besiegers . A northeastern salient bastion , much smaller than the eastern and western bastions , was also built . Masonry from the fifth phase was reused for the reconstruction along with new gypsum , limestone and other materials . The seventh and eighth phases both consisted of heightening al @-@ Rahba 's western external walls .
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= The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes =
The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes is a collection of twelve short stories by Arthur Conan Doyle , featuring his fictional detective Sherlock Holmes . It was first published on 14 October 1892 , though the individual stories had been serialised in The Strand Magazine between June 1891 and July 1892 . The stories are not in chronological order , and the only characters common to all twelve are Holmes and Dr. Watson . The stories are related in first @-@ person narrative from Watson 's point of view .
In general the stories in The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes identify , and try to correct , social injustices . Holmes is portrayed as offering a new , fairer sense of justice . The stories were well received , and boosted the subscriptions figures of The Strand Magazine , prompting Doyle to be able to demand more money for his next set of stories . The first story , " A Scandal in Bohemia " , includes the character of Irene Adler , who , despite being featured only within this one story by Doyle , is a prominent character in modern Sherlock Holmes adaptations , generally as a love interest for Holmes . Doyle included four of the twelve stories from this collection in his twelve favourite Sherlock Holmes stories , picking " The Adventure of the Speckled Band " as his overall favourite .
= = Context = =
Arthur Conan Doyle began writing while studying medicine at university in the late 1870s , and had his first short story , " The Mystery of Sasassa Valley " , published in September 1879 . Eight years later , A Study in Scarlet , Doyle 's first Sherlock Holmes story , was published by Ward Lock & Co . The novel was well received , but Doyle was paid little for it , and despite a sequel novel , The Sign of the Four , also being published by Ward Lock , he shifted his focus to short stories . In early 1891 , the first editor of The Strand Magazine , Herbert Greenhough Smith , received two submissions from Doyle for the newly established magazine . He later described his reaction ; " I at once realised that here was the greatest short story writer since Edgar Allan Poe . " The first of these , " A Scandal in Bohemia " was published near the back of The Strand Magazine in July 1891 . The stories proved popular , helping to boost the circulation of the magazine , and Doyle received 30 guineas for each short story in the initial run of twelve . These first twelve stories were published monthly from July 1891 until June 1892 , and then were collected together and published as a book , The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes on 14 October 1892 by George Newnes , the publisher of The Strand Magazine . The initial print run of the book was for 10 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom , and a further 4 @,@ 500 copies in the United States , which were published by Harper Brothers the following day .
= = Stories = =
= = = Summary = = =
All of the stories within The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes are told in a first @-@ person narrative from the point of view of Dr. Watson , as is the case for all but four of the Sherlock Holmes stories . The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography entry for Doyle suggests that the short stories contained in The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes tend to point out social injustices , such as " a king 's betrayal of an opera singer , a stepfather 's deception of his ward as a fictitious lover , an aristocratic crook 's exploitation of a failing pawnbroker , a beggar 's extensive estate in Kent . " It suggests that , in contrast , Holmes is portrayed as offering a fresh and fair approach in an unjust world of " official incompetence and aristocratic privilege " . The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes contains many of Doyle 's favourite Sherlock Holmes stories . In 1927 , he submitted a list of what he believed were his twelve best Sherlock Holmes stories to The Strand Magazine . Among those he listed were " The Adventure of the Speckled Band " ( as his favourite ) , " The Red @-@ Headed League " ( second ) , " A Scandal in Bohemia " ( fifth ) and " The Five Orange Pips " ( seventh ) . The book was banned in the Soviet Union in 1929 because of its alleged " occultism " , but the book gained popularity in a black market of similarly banned books , and the restriction was lifted in 1940 .
= = = Publication sequence = = =
= = Critical reception = =
The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes were well received upon their serialisation in The Strand Magazine . Following the publication of " A Scandal in Bohemia " in July 1891 , the Hull Daily Mail described the story as being " worthy of the inventive genius " of Doyle . Just over a year later , when Doyle took a break from publishing the short stories upon the completion of The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes , a piece in the Belfast News Letter reviewed a story by another author in The Strand Magazine saying that it " might have been read with a moderate amount of interest a year ago " , but that " the unique power " of Doyle 's writing was evident in the gulf in quality between the stories . The Leeds Mercury particularly praised the characterisation of Holmes , " with all his little foibles " , while in contrast the Cheltenham Looker @-@ On described Holmes as " rather a bore sometimes " , noting that descriptions of his foibles " grows wearisome " . The correspondent for Hampshire Telegraph lamented the fact that Doyle 's more thoughtful writing , such as Micah Clarke , was not so popular as the Holmes stories , concluding that an author " who wishes to make literature pay must write what his readers want " .
= = Adaptations = =
Sherlock Holmes has been adapted numerous times for both films and plays , and the character has been played by over 70 different actors in more than 200 films . A number of film and television series have borne the title " The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes " , but some of these are either original stories , combinations of a number of Doyle 's stories , or in one case , an adaptation of The Sign of the Four . Irene Adler , who is in the first short story , " A Scandal in Bohemia " , is prominent in many modern adaptations , despite only appearing in one story . Often in modern adaptations , she is portrayed as a love interest for Holmes , as in Robert Doherty 's Elementary and the BBC 's Sherlock , even though in the story itself , the narration claims : " It was not that he felt any emotion akin to love for Irene Adler . " Many of the stories from the collection were included as episodes in the Granada Television series , Sherlock Holmes which ran from 1984 until 1994 .
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= Betty ( Adventure Time ) =
" Betty " is the forty @-@ eighth episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . It was written and storyboarded by Ako Castuera and Jesse Moynihan , from a story by Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , Adam Muto , and Moynihan . It originally aired on Cartoon Network on February 24 , 2014 . The episode guest @-@ stars Lena Dunham as the eponymous character , Betty . The entry also saw the return of Miguel Ferrer , Steve Agee , Duncan Trussell , and Maurice LaMarche as various characters .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , the Ice King reverts to Simon ( both voiced by Tom Kenny ) after being exposed to an anti @-@ magic being named Bella Noche , and gets help from Finn , Jake , and Marceline in order to get Betty , his former fiancée , back . Once he succeeds in bringing her back , however , he begins to die , forcing Betty herself to defeat Belle Noche .
An episode centered on Betty had been promised by the crew at San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in 2012 . Due to the subject matter and length of the episode , several scenes had to be cut or trimmed for time , since so much was being placed in the episode . A review by Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club was complimentary towards the story , and Sava also applauded Dunham 's voice @-@ acting .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
In the context of the series , the Ice King is a recurring antagonist of the series , and frequently kidnaps princesses throughout Ooo ; although he is often at odds with Finn and Jake , he is generally not a serious threat . In the third season episode " Holly Jolly Secrets " , it is revealed that the Ice King was originally a human archaeologist named Simon Petrikov who , after placing a mysterious ice crown on his head , became crazed with magic and scared off the love of his life , Betty , whom he never saw again . In the fourth season episode " I Remember You " , it was revealed that the Ice King and 1000 @-@ year @-@ old Marceline the Vampire Queen had originally met following the events of the mysterious Mushroom War , a cataclysmic war that destroyed modern human society , and " Simon & Marcy " revealed that the two shared a father @-@ daughter bond .
= = = Events = = =
After Laser Wizard , Bufo , Forest Wizard , and — unwittingly — Ice King help a being named Bella Noche pass over into Wizard City , it reveals itself to be a creature of pure anti @-@ magic . As such , the jewels from Ice King 's crown are stripped of their magic , and Ice King reverts to his former self : Simon Petrikov ( both voiced by Tom Kenny ) . Simon , initially unaware of where he is , steals a magic carpet from Ash ( voiced by Steve Agee ) , flies to the Ice Kingdom , and enters a hidden sanctum wherein elements of his previous life — such as books , artifacts , and his clothing — have been preserved . He phones Marceline , telling her to rush over and bring her stuffed teddy bear Hambo .
Marceline arrives with Finn and Jake , and the trio learn that Simon is dying since he is over a thousand years old . As such , he wants to create a portal to the past and apologize to his fiancée Betty for making her leave him . Hambo , filled with sentimentality , is the key to the portal . Marceline , realizing that Hambo will be destroyed but that she will enable her former protector to see the love of his life for one last time , agrees . The portal is opened just moments after Simon had first put on the ice crown and scared Betty . Simon from the future appears to her , explains the situation , and apologizes . Betty , realizing what has happened jumps through the portal and kisses Simon , only for the portal to close and Simon to collapse .
Betty instantaneously realizes that Simon needs magic in order to survive , so she places him on the magic carpet and flies it to Wizard City . On the way , Death ( voiced by Miguel Ferrer ) appears to Simon in a vision , offering his one and only chance of escaping the curse of the crown . Simon refuses , and Betty attacks and eventually destroys Bella Noche . Simon reverts to Ice King , unaware of what happened . Later , he recounts the events to a captured Muscle Princess , while Betty — who survived the struggle with Bella Noche — watches sadly from a window and flies off on the magic carpet .
= = Production = =
" Betty " was written and storyboarded by Ako Castuera and Jesse Moynihan , from a story by Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , Adam Muto , and Moynihan . Art direction was handled by Nick Jennings , whereas supervising direction was co @-@ helmed by Nate Cash and Muto . An episode centered on Betty had been promised by the crew at San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in 2012 . Moynihan had originally submitted an idea to the outline writers , who in turn worked with him and rewrote it to produce the final episode . Moynihan later noted that his personal intention for the episode was to " convey the idea that for Simon , death was preferable to life as Ice King , but that love and sacrifice to another person could provide hope for a future . " Huntress Wizard , a character popular with the Adventure Time fanbase , was originally supposed to be featured in the episode . Because " Betty " was already " jam packed " , everything " non @-@ essential " had to be cut out of the storyboard , which left Moynihan " heartbroken " . He later used the " deleted scene " for the episode 's promotional artwork .
" Betty " stars comedian and Girls creator Lena Dunham as Betty . Dunham and Adventure Time head writer Kent Osborne were Facebook friends , and knew each other from the independent film scene . When the crew approached her , she was excited and interested because she had a goddaughter who was a fan . She recorded her lines while she was in production for Girls in New York . The episode also marks the return of several guest stars . Miguel Ferrer reprises his role as Death , and Steve Agee returns as Ash . Ferrer had last appeared in the fourth season episode " Sons of Mars " , whereas Agee had appeared in the third season episode " Memory of a Memory " . Comedian Duncan Trussell reprises his role as Ron James ; he had previous appeared in the fifth season episode " Wizards Only , Fools " . Maurice LaMarche reprises his recurring role voicing the Grand Master Wizard ; he also voices Belle Noche in the series .
= = Reception = =
" Betty " aired on February 24 , 2014 on Cartoon Network . The episode was watched by 1 @.@ 713 million viewers , and received a Nielsen household rating of 1 @.@ 2 . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , which means that the episode was seen by 1 @.@ 2 percent of all households at the time of the broadcast . The episode was the 4th most @-@ watched episode aired by Cartoon Network for the week of February 24 to March 2 , 2014 .
Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded it an " A " and called it a " huge episode for the Ice King " , because it marked " a major shift in the character 's future by reconnecting with his past lover " , Betty . Sava noted that it was designed to " jump @-@ start the momentum by introducing new characters and storylines for future episodes " , and that its premise opens up various storytelling avenues for the future of the series . He also applauded the casting of Dunham as Betty , noting that she " finds the emotional truth underneath the absurd situation to balance the drama and comedy of the script . " Nexi Pandell of Wired magazine named the episode one of " Episodes You Can ’ t Skip " .
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= The Uplift Mofo Party Plan =
The Uplift Mofo Party Plan is the third studio album by American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers , released on September 29 , 1987 on EMI Records . Due to prior obligations resulting in temporary personnel changes following the band 's formation in 1983 , The Uplift Mofo Party Plan is the only studio album to feature all four founding members of the band on every single track : vocalist Anthony Kiedis , bassist Flea , guitarist Hillel Slovak , and drummer Jack Irons .
The record features the band 's signature funk rock musical style , but also is influenced by reggae and heavy metal . For the album , the Red Hot Chili Peppers recruited new producer Michael Beinhorn , who encouraged the members to expand their musical horizons in order to create a more diverse work . The recording process was difficult due to Kiedis ' drug addiction ; however , the band was ultimately content with its work on Uplift . Flea later referred to the album as " the ' rockingest ' record " the band has ever made .
The album was more successful than its predecessors both critically and commercially , and was the band 's first album to enter the Billboard 200 , where it charted at number 148 . Although Uplift 's follow @-@ up Mother 's Milk would reach Gold first , The Uplift Mofo Party Plan would go on to become the band 's earliest effort to do so . Following the tour to promote the album , Slovak died of a heroin overdose and shortly after , Irons decided to quit the band , unable to cope with his friend 's death .
= = Background = =
After Red Hot Chili Peppers signed a record deal with EMI in 1983 , founding members Hillel Slovak and Jack Irons left the group to focus on their group What Is This ? , which had also signed a record deal . Vocalist Anthony Kiedis and bassist Flea hired Jack Sherman as guitarist and Cliff Martinez as drummer , and established themselves as a prominent funk rock band with their 1984 debut album The Red Hot Chili Peppers . Disappointed with the results of the production , Kiedis and Flea replaced Sherman with Slovak , who had quit his band , What Is This ? , several weeks earlier . The group 's George Clinton @-@ produced second album , Freaky Styley ( 1985 ) , was Slovak 's first studio album with the band . In early 1986 , the band began work on their upcoming album , and EMI gave the Chili Peppers a budget of $ 5 @,@ 000 to record a demo tape . The band chose to work with producer and former Public Image Ltd. guitarist Keith Levene , because he shared the members ' interest in drugs . Levene and Slovak put aside $ 2 @,@ 000 of the budget to spend on drugs without telling the rest of the group , which created tension between the members . Martinez ' " heart was no longer in the band " , but he did not quit , so Kiedis and Flea fired him . After the firing of Martinez , original drummer Jack Irons rejoined the band , which marked the first time all four founding members were together since 1983 .
Both Kiedis and Slovak struggled with debilitating heroin addictions , which grew worse as the band was preparing to record Uplift . Due to his addiction , Kiedis lacked the motivation to contribute to the band musically , and appeared at rehearsal " literally asleep " . He was asked to leave the band in order to undergo drug rehabilitation . During that time , the band won the LA Weekly Band of the Year award which prompted Kiedis to quit using heroin cold turkey . He visited his mother in Michigan for guidance , who drove him to drug rehabilitation immediately after picking him up from the airport upon seeing his unhealthy appearance . He checked into Salvation Army rehabilitation clinic in Grand Rapids , an experience which he initially detested until he noted that the other people in the clinic were understanding of his struggles and were trying to help him . He moved in with his mother after twenty days at the clinic , a time which marked the first time he was completely abstinent from drugs since he was eleven years old . After Kiedis completed his stint in rehabilitation , he felt a " whole new wave of enthusiasm " due to his sobriety and wrote the lyrics to a new song entitled " Fight Like a Brave " on the flight home . He rejoined the Red Hot Chili Peppers in Los Angeles to record the group 's next album .
= = Recording and production = =
While Kiedis was in rehab , the band sought a new producer for their next album . Aspiring producer Michael Beinhorn was looking for work at EMI Records after several unsuccessful projects on other labels , when a man working at EMI approached Beinhorn and suggested that he work with the Red Hot Chili Peppers , as " no one [ knew ] what to do with them " . Beinhorn recalled of the situation : " Though their music all seemed kind of abstract , there was definitely an excitement to it . I thought they needed a lot of arrangement help ... I also quickly learned that [ executives ] at the record label actually hated the Chili Peppers , like openly reviled them so bad that they didn 't even want them to succeed . It was the weirdest thing . " He contacted the band to meet up , and instead of arranging a formal meeting , the band proposed to meet him at a club in New Orleans called Tipitina 's . Beinhorn was impressed by the band 's originality and non @-@ conformist attitude and decided to work with the band . Kiedis then sat down with Beinhorn to discuss the recording of the album ; Kiedis planned to record the album in ten days and write the songs during the recording sessions .
The album was recorded in the basement of the Capitol Records Building in Hollywood . Although Kiedis had recently become clean , his withdrawal symptoms increased and affected his musical contributions to the group . After fifty days of sobriety , Kiedis decided to take drugs again as a one @-@ time attempt to celebrate his new music , which led to his resumed addiction . The recording process for the album became difficult as Kiedis would often disappear to seek drugs . Beinhorn recalled that " There were points in pre @-@ production where I really thought the record wasn 't gonna get made . " Kiedis felt " excruciating pain and guilt and shame " when he would miss a recording session so he would try to write lyrics while searching for drugs ; although the band was upset by his drug use and frequent disappearances , they were impressed with his musical output at the time .
Although Kiedis ' drug use disrupted the early recording process , the Chili Peppers still had an enjoyable time recording the album . The band was musically inspired by the rejoining of their original drummer Jack Irons , which added " such an important and different element to our chemistry . " Beinhorn encouraged the band to expand their musical horizons on the album , and although the band were initially uncomfortable stepping out of their comfort zone , the members began to feel that Beinhorn was helping them produce their best work . Slovak helped Kiedis record his vocals on the album . In between takes , Slovak would run around the studio out of excitement and say " This is the most beautiful thing we 've ever done . " Slovak reflected on his deep connection to the album in his diary ; " It was so fun . I 'm so extremely proud of everybody 's work — it is at times genius . " During a jam session , the guitarist created a melodic riff which differed greatly in style from the band 's previous work . While Slovak nearly abandoned the riff out of fear that it was too much of a departure stylistically , Beinhorn saw potential in the new melody @-@ based style and encouraged Slovak to turn the short tune into a full song . While the band was skeptical at first , each member began writing their own musical parts and the song became one of the album 's three singles , " Behind the Sun " .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
In the book Give It Away : The Stories Behind Every Song , author Rob Fitzpatrick writes " As far as sheer power goes , The Uplift Mofo Party Plan is the Chili Peppers at their most virile , most chest @-@ beating , most unabashedly macho . " However , Kiedis recalls that during the composition of the album , Beinhorn encouraged him to step away from his improvisational speed @-@ rap style in favor of slower , crooning vocals . At the time , Kiedis was very uncomfortable with his singing voice , and felt that the new style was " sappy " . Kiedis also observed that guitarist Hillel Slovak 's playing evolved during his time away from the group in What Is This ? , and that Slovak had adopted a more fluid style featuring " sultry " elements as opposed to his original hard rock techniques .
On The Uplift Mofo Party Plan , Slovak experimented with genres outside of traditional funk music including reggae and speed metal . His melodic riff featured in the song " Behind the Sun " inspired the group to create " pretty " songs with an emphasis on melody . Kiedis describes the song as " pure Hillel inspiration " . Slovak also used a talk box on the song " Funky Crime " , in which he would sing into a tube while playing to create psychedelic effects . Flea incorporated a " slap " bass style on the album , which would become a staple of the band 's early work . " Backwoods " features a " loose , swinging groove " and a " sky @-@ scraping " guitar solo . " Skinny Sweaty Man " contains a rapid tempo and has been described as " hardcore garage psychedelic funkabilly " , while " No Chump Love Sucker " displays punk rock and thrash influences . The album also features a cover of Bob Dylan 's " Subterranean Homesick Blues " , which abandons nearly all of the original song 's folk stylistics in favor of the band 's signature funk @-@ rock leanings .
= = = Lyrics = = =
The majority of the lyrics in the album focus on friendships between the band members , sex , and life in Los Angeles . The reunion of the four original members of the group had a great influence over the lyrics ; Kiedis explained that " a lot of the jubilation in the lyrics of that record are about being united . " Kiedis was also inspired by personal experiences of himself and rest of the band members . During the recording of Freaky Styley , Kiedis and Slovak indulged in heavy cocaine use . When Slovak was under the influence , he would often wear brightly colored clothing and dance in a " shuffling " fashion , which became the inspiration for the song " Skinny Sweaty Man " from Uplift . The song " No Chump Love Sucker " was also inspired by Slovak ; during the recording of the album , Slovak had been " left high and dry " by a girlfriend who left him for someone who had " more money and more drugs " . The song served as a revenge song against " that type of evil , materialistic woman . "
" Funky Crime " was reflective of a conversation between the band and George Clinton while writing and recording Freaky Styley . Kiedis described the song as a lyrical description of the conversation , about how music itself is " color @-@ blind " but is " segregated by the media and radio based on their perceptions of the artists . " Kiedis wrote " Me and My Friends " , a song which " came together nicely " , while driving home from San Francisco with his childhood friend Joe Walters . " Backwoods " details the history of rock and roll . Kiedis said that " Love Trilogy " became one of the group 's all time favorite songs ; it is about " loving the things that aren 't necessarily perfect or always lovable " . He explained that " For years , whenever someone would question our lyrics , Flea would say , ' Read ' Love Trilogy ' and you 'll know what real lyrics are all about . ' "
= = Release and reception = =
EMI originally refused to release the album unless the Chili Peppers changed the name of the song " Party on Your Pussy " ; the band subsequently renamed the song " Special Secret Song Inside " . The Uplift Mofo Party Plan was released on September 29 , 1987 and peaked at number 148 on the Billboard 200 , which was far more successful than any of the band 's previous releases . It was the band 's first album to enter the Billboard 200 , and has since been certified Gold in the United States . The band filmed a music video for the album 's lead single , " Fight Like a Brave " , but the song failed to make an impact on any Billboard charts . " Behind the Sun " was not released as a single until 1992 , after the band had released two subsequent albums , Mother 's Milk and Blood Sugar Sex Magik . The single , which was released to promote the Chili Peppers ' What Hits ! ? compilation album , peaked at number 7 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart .
The album also helped the Red Hot Chili Peppers earn a dedicated cult fanbase in Los Angeles . One of these fans was John Frusciante , who would later join the band as guitarist after Slovak 's death . Frusciante recalled : " The first time I saw the Red Hot Chili Peppers live was at the Variety Arts Center , and that was really amazing ... They were going for this real hard sound . Hillel was doing all this awesome feedback and stuff . It was the most magical experience I ever had in the experience of a show . " Frusciante based a lot of his playing style on Slovak 's work , and explained , " I learned everything I needed to know about how to sound good with Flea by studying Hillel 's playing and I just took it sideways from there . "
The album received mixed reviews from critics upon its release . Duncan Strauss of the Los Angeles Times described the album as " hit @-@ and @-@ miss " ; while he praised the " tender tunefulness " of " Behind the Sun " , he felt that the majority of the songs " wear pretty thin pretty fast , further suggesting that this is a band that 's in command on stage — but in trouble in the studio . " Bill Meredith of Allmusic gave the album four out of five stars , observing that " The energy of having these four friends from Los Angeles back together jumps out of the opening anthem ' Fight Like a Brave ' and the experimental ' Funky Crime ' ... Slovak and Irons brought things to the Chili Peppers that no one else ever has . " Blaine Sayers of Consequence of Sound praised Slovak 's guitar work on the album , saying that " Slovak proves with these tracks that he was not just a funk guitarist , but he could rock with the best thrash metal bands of the 80s as well . " However , in The New Rolling Stone Record Guide , 4th Edition , author Nathan Brackett was highly critical of The Uplift Mofo Party Plan , giving it two out of five stars . He felt that the album was a minor improvement over the band 's last two efforts , but felt that the group 's offbeat humor detracted from the album : " The California quartet brings a modicum of structure to The Uplift Mofo Party Plan , but their humor — as their famous ' party on your pussy ' chorus demonstrates — wouldn 't merit an audience in a high @-@ school locker room . "
= = Tour and Slovak 's death = =
The band embarked on an extensive international tour to promote the album . The Chili Peppers noted that during the tour , their fan base had rapidly increased both in size and enthusiasm . Kiedis recalled " During the Uplift tour I remember actually feeling a change taking place not just in the amount of people showing up at the gigs but the intensity of the fan base . " Flea added that " We were in love with those songs and how much fun we were having playing them . "
Despite the band 's new enthusiasm , Kiedis and Slovak continued to struggle with their worsening drug addictions . Both Kiedis and Slovak stopped using heroin prior to the tour and decided to help each other " steer clear " of the drug . During the tour both experienced intense heroin withdrawal , with Slovak much more unstable than Kiedis . His withdrawal symptoms took a toll on his ability to play his instrument ; at one point Slovak had a mental breakdown and was unable to play a show , leaving the rest of the band to play an entire set with no guitar . He recovered a few days later , but his bandmates felt he was not healthy enough to perform and replaced Slovak with DeWayne McKnight for a few shows . After a few days with McKnight , the band decided to give Slovak another chance , and he rejoined for the European leg of the tour . Kiedis attempted to take Slovak to drug addiction counseling , but Slovak had difficulty admitting that his addiction was serious enough to require medical help .
Upon returning home , Slovak isolated himself from the rest of his bandmates , and struggled to resist the drug without the mutual support provided by his friends , Kiedis in particular . A few weeks after the band returned from the tour , the members attempted to get in contact with Slovak , but were unable to find him for several days . Slovak was found dead by police in his Hollywood apartment on June 27 , 1988 . During his autopsy , authorities determined that he had died on June 25 , 1988 due to a heroin overdose . Irons subsequently left the group , saying that he did not want to be part of a group where his friends were dying . Kiedis and Flea debated whether they should continue making music , but ultimately decided to move ahead , hoping to continue what Slovak " helped build " . The two recruited eighteen @-@ year @-@ old guitarist John Frusciante , who was a fan of the group and idolized Slovak . To replace Irons , the group held a lengthy open audition process , and eventually chose drummer Chad Smith .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Anthony Kiedis , Flea , Hillel Slovak , Jack Irons except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Red Hot Chili Peppers
Anthony Kiedis – lead vocals
Hillel Slovak – guitar , sitar ( on " Behind the Sun " ) , vocoder , backing vocals
Flea - bass guitar , backing vocals
Jack Irons – drums , backing vocals
Additional musicians
Michael Beinhorn – background vocals
John Norwood Fisher – background vocals
David Kendly – background vocals
Angelo Moore – background vocals
Annie Newman – background vocals
Recording personnel
Michael Beinhorn – production
Russell Bracher – mixing assistant
Judy Clapp – recording engineer
Stan Katayama – mixing assistant
John Potoker – mixing
Howie Weinberg – mastering engineer
Additional personnel
Nels Israelson – photography
Henry Marquez – art direction
Gary Panter – cover illustration
|
= Fort Ticonderoga =
Fort Ticonderoga , formerly Fort Carillon , is a large 18th @-@ century star fort built by the French at a narrows near the south end of Lake Champlain in northern New York in the United States . It was constructed by Canadian @-@ born French military engineer Michel Chartier de Lotbinière , Marquis de Lotbinière between October 1755 and 1757 during the Seven Years ' War , often referred to as the French and Indian War in the US . It was of strategic importance during the 18th @-@ century colonial conflicts between Great Britain and France , and again played an important role during the American Revolutionary War .
The site controlled a river portage alongside the mouth of the rapids @-@ infested La Chute River in the 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) between Lake Champlain and Lake George and was strategically placed in conflicts over trade routes between the British @-@ controlled Hudson River Valley and the French @-@ controlled Saint Lawrence River Valley . The terrain amplified the importance of the site . Both lakes were long and narrow , oriented north – south , as were the many ridge lines of the Appalachian Mountains extending as far south as Georgia , creating the near @-@ impassable mountainous terrains to the east and west of the Great Appalachian Valley that the site commanded . The name " Ticonderoga " comes from the Iroquois word tekontaró : ken , meaning " it is at the junction of two waterways " .
During the 1758 Battle of Carillon , 4 @,@ 000 French defenders were able to repel an attack by 16 @,@ 000 British troops near the fort . In 1759 , the British returned and drove a token French garrison from the fort . During the American Revolutionary War , the fort again saw action in May 1775 when the Green Mountain Boys and other state militia under the command of Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold captured it from the British in a surprise attack . Cannons captured were transported to Boston where their deployment forced the British to abandon the city in March 1776 . The Americans held the fort until June 1777 , when British forces under General John Burgoyne occupied high ground above it and threatened the Continental Army troops , leading them to withdraw from the fort and its surrounding defenses . The only direct attack on the fort took place in September 1777 , when John Brown led 500 Americans in an unsuccessful attempt to capture the fort from about 100 British defenders .
The British abandoned the fort after the failure of the Saratoga campaign , and it ceased to be of military value after 1781 . It fell into ruin , leading people to strip it of some of its usable stone , metal , and woodwork . It became a stop on tourist routes of the area in the 19th century . Its private owners restored the fort early in the 20th century . A foundation now operates the fort as a tourist attraction , museum , and research center .
= = Geography and early history = =
Lake Champlain , which forms part of the border between New York and Vermont , and the Hudson River together formed an important travel route that was used by Indians before the arrival of European colonists . The route was relatively free of obstacles to navigation , with only a few portages . One strategically important place on the route lies at a narrows near the southern end of Lake Champlain , where Ticonderoga Creek , known in Colonial times as the La Chute River , enters the lake , carrying water from Lake George . Although the site provides commanding views of the southern extent of Lake Champlain , Mount Defiance , at 853 ft ( 260 m ) , and two other hills ( Mount Hope and Mount Independence ) overlook the area .
Indians had occupied the area for centuries before French explorer Samuel de Champlain first arrived there in 1609 . Champlain recounted that the Algonquins , with whom he was traveling , battled a group of Iroquois nearby . In 1642 , French missionary Isaac Jogues was the first white man to traverse the portage at Ticonderoga while escaping a battle between the Iroquois and members of the Huron tribe .
The French , who had colonized the Saint Lawrence River valley to the north , and the English , who had taken over the Dutch settlements that became the Province of New York to the south , began contesting the area as early as 1691 , when Pieter Schuyler built a small wooden fort at the Ticonderoga point on the western shore of the lake . These colonial conflicts reached their height in the French and Indian War , which began in 1754 .
= = Construction = =
In 1755 , following the Battle of Lake George , the Marquis de Vaudreuil , the governor of the French Province of Canada , sent his cousin Michel Chartier de Lotbinière to design and construct a fortification at this militarily important site , which the French called Fort Carillon . The name " Carillon " has variously been attributed to the name of a former French officer , Philippe de Carrion du Fresnoy , who established a trading post at the site in the late 17th century , or ( more commonly ) to the sounds made by the La Chute River , which were said to resemble the chiming bells of a carillon . Construction on the star @-@ shaped fort , which Lotbinière based on designs of the renowned French military engineer Vauban , began in October 1755 and then proceeded slowly during the warmer @-@ weather months of 1756 and 1757 , using troops stationed at nearby Fort St. Frédéric and from Canada .
The work in 1755 consisted primarily of beginning construction on the main walls and on the Lotbinière redoubt , an outwork to the west of the site that provided additional coverage of the La Chute River . The next year saw the building of the four main bastions and a sawmill on the La Chute . Work slowed in 1757 , when many of the troops prepared for and participated in the attack on Fort William Henry . The barracks and demi @-@ lunes were not completed until spring 1758 .
= = = Walls and bastions = = =
The French built the fort to control the south end of Lake Champlain and prevent the British from gaining military access to the lake . Consequently , its most important defenses , the Reine and Germaine bastions , were directed to the northeast and northwest , away from the lake , with two demi @-@ lunes further extending the works on the land side . The Joannes and Languedoc bastions overlooked the lake to the south , providing cover for the landing area outside the fort . The walls were seven feet ( 2 @.@ 1 meters ) high and fourteen feet ( 4 @.@ 3 meters ) thick , and the whole works was surrounded by a glacis and a dry moat five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 meters ) deep and 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide . When the walls were first erected in 1756 , they were made of squared wooden timbers , with earth filling the gap . The French then began to dress the walls with stone from a quarry about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away , although this work was never fully completed . When the main defenses became ready for use , the fort was armed with cannons hauled from Montreal and Fort St. Frédéric .
= = = Inside and outside = = =
The fort contained three barracks and four storehouses . One bastion held a bakery capable of producing 60 loaves of bread a day . A powder magazine was hacked out of the bedrock beneath the Joannes bastion . All the construction within the fort was of stone .
A wooden palisade protected an area outside the fort between the southern wall and the lake shore . This area contained the main landing for the fort and additional storage facilities and other works necessary for maintenance of the fort . When it became apparent in 1756 that the fort was too far to the west of the lake , the French constructed an additional redoubt to the east to enable cannon to cover the lake 's narrows .
= = Analysis = =
By 1758 , the fort was largely complete ; the only ongoing work thereafter consisted of dressing the walls with stone . Still , General Montcalm and two of his military engineers surveyed the works in 1758 and found something to criticize in almost every aspect of the fort 's construction ; the buildings were too tall and thus easier for attackers ' cannon fire to hit , the powder magazine leaked , and the masonry was of poor quality . The critics apparently failed to notice the fort 's significant strategic weakness : several nearby hills commanded the fort . Lotbinière , who may have won the job of building the fort only because he was related to Governor Vaudreuil , had lost a bid to become Canada 's chief engineer to Nicolas Sarrebource de Pontleroy , one of the two surveying engineers , in 1756 , all of which may explain the highly negative report . Lotbinière 's career suffered for years afterwards .
William Nester , in his exhaustive analysis of the Battle of Carillon , notes additional problems with the fort 's construction . The fort was small for a Vauban @-@ style fort , about 500 feet ( 150 m ) wide , with a barracks capable of holding only 400 soldiers . Storage space inside the fort was similarly limited , requiring the storage of provisions outside the fort 's walls in exposed places . Its cistern was small , and the water quality was supposedly poor .
= = Military history = =
= = = French and Indian War = = =
In August 1757 , the French captured Fort William Henry in an action launched from Fort Carillon . This , and a string of other French victories in 1757 , prompted the British to organize a large @-@ scale attack on the fort as part of a multi @-@ campaign strategy against French Canada . In June 1758 , British General James Abercromby began amassing a large force at Fort William Henry in preparation for the military campaign directed up the Champlain Valley . These forces landed at the north end of Lake George , only four miles from the fort , on July 6 . The French general Louis @-@ Joseph de Montcalm , who had only arrived at Carillon in late June , engaged his troops in a flurry of work to improve the fort 's outer defenses . They built , over two days , entrenchments around a rise between the fort and Mount Hope , about three @-@ quarters of a mile ( one kilometer ) northwest of the fort , and then constructed an abatis ( felled trees with sharpened branches pointing out ) below these entrenchments . Abercromby 's failure to advance directly to the fort on July 7 made much of this defensive work possible . Abercromby 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Brigadier General George Howe , had been killed when his column encountered a French reconnaissance troop . Abercromby " felt [ Howe 's death ] most heavily " and may have been unwilling to act immediately .
On July 8 , 1758 , Abercromby ordered a frontal attack against the hastily assembled French works . Abercromby tried to move rapidly against the few French defenders , opting to forgo field cannon and relying instead on the numerical superiority of his 16 @,@ 000 troops . In the Battle of Carillon , the British were soundly defeated by the 4 @,@ 000 French defenders . The battle took place far enough away from the fort that its guns were rarely used . The battle gave the fort a reputation for impregnability , which affected future military operations in the area , notably during the American Revolutionary War . Following the French victory , Montcalm , anticipating further British attacks , ordered additional work on the defenses , including the construction of the Germain and Pontleroy redoubts ( named for the engineers under whose direction they were constructed ) to the northeast of the fort . However , the British did not attack again in 1758 , so the French withdrew all but a small garrison of men for the winter in November .
The fort was captured the following year by the British under General Jeffrey Amherst in the 1759 Battle of Ticonderoga . In this confrontation 11 @,@ 000 British troops , using emplaced artillery , drove off a token garrison of 400 Frenchmen . The French , in withdrawing , used explosives to destroy what they could of the fort and spiked or dumped cannons that they did not take with them . Although the British worked in 1759 and 1760 to repair and improve the fort , the fort saw no more significant action in the war . After the war , the British garrisoned it with a small numbers of troops and allowed it to fall into disrepair . Colonel Frederick Haldimand , in command of the fort in 1773 , wrote that it was in " ruinous condition " .
= = = Early Revolutionary War = = =
In 1775 , Fort Ticonderoga , in disrepair , was still manned by a token force . Fort Ticonderoga was still extremely useful to the British as a supply and communication link between Canada and New York . On May 10 , 1775 , less than one month after the American Revolutionary War was ignited with the battles of Lexington and Concord , the British garrison of 48 soldiers was surprised by a small force of Green Mountain Boys , along with militia volunteers from Massachusetts and Connecticut , led by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold . Allen claims to have said , " Come out you old Rat ! " to the fort 's commander , Captain William Delaplace . He also later said that he demanded that the British commander surrender the fort " In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress ! " ; however , his surrender demand was made to Lieutenant Jocelyn Feltham and not the fort 's commander , who did later appear and surrender his sword .
With the capture of the fort , the Patriot forces obtained a large supply of cannons and other armaments , much of which Henry Knox transported to Boston during the winter of 1775 – 1776 . Ticonderoga 's cannons were instrumental in ending the Siege of Boston when they were used to fortify Dorchester Heights . With Dorchester Heights secured the British were forced to evacuate Boston in March of 1776 . The capture of Fort Ticonderoga made communication between the British Canadian and American commands much more difficult .
Benedict Arnold remained in control of the fort until 1 @,@ 000 Connecticut troops under the command of Benjamin Hinman arrived in June 1775 . Because of a series of political maneuvers and miscommunications , Arnold was never notified that Hinman was to take command . After a delegation from Massachusetts ( which had issued Arnold 's commission ) arrived to clarify the matter , Arnold resigned his commission and departed , leaving the fort in Hinman 's hands .
Beginning in July 1775 , Ticonderoga was used as a staging area for the invasion of Quebec to begin in September . Under the leadership of generals Philip Schuyler and Richard Montgomery , men and materiel for the invasion accumulated there through July and August . On August 28 , after receiving word that British forces at Fort Saint @-@ Jean , not far from the New York – Quebec border , were nearing completion of boats to launch onto Lake Champlain , Montgomery launched the invasion , leading 1 @,@ 200 troops down the lake . Ticonderoga continued to serve as a staging base for the action in Quebec until the battle and siege at Quebec City that resulted in Montgomery 's death .
In May 1776 , British troops began to arrive at Quebec City , where they broke the Continental Army 's siege . The British chased the American forces back to Ticonderoga in June , and , after several months of shipbuilding , moved down Lake Champlain under Guy Carleton in October . The British destroyed a small fleet of American gunboats in the Battle of Valcour Island in mid @-@ October , but snow was already falling , so the British retreated to winter quarters in Quebec . About 1 @,@ 700 troops from the Continental Army , under the command of Colonel Anthony Wayne , wintered at Ticonderoga . The British offensive resumed the next year in the Saratoga campaign under General John Burgoyne .
= = = Saratoga campaign = = =
During the summer of 1776 , the Americans , under the direction of General Schuyler , and later under General Horatio Gates , added substantial defensive works to the area . Mount Independence , which is almost completely surrounded by water , was fortified with trenches near the water , a horseshoe battery part way up the side , a citadel at the summit , and redoubts armed with cannons surrounding the summit area . These defenses were linked to Ticonderoga with a pontoon bridge that was protected by land batteries on both sides . The works on Mount Hope , the heights above the site of Montcalm 's victory , were improved to include a star @-@ shaped fort . Mount Defiance remained unfortified .
In March 1777 , American generals were strategizing about possible British military movements and considered an attempt on the Hudson River corridor a likely possibility . General Schuyler , heading the forces stationed at Ticonderoga , requested 10 @,@ 000 troops to guard Ticonderoga and 2 @,@ 000 to guard the Mohawk River valley against British invasion from the north . George Washington , who had never been to Ticonderoga ( his only visit was to be in 1783 ) , believed that an overland attack from the north was unlikely , because of the alleged impregnability of Ticonderoga . This , combined with continuing incursions up the Hudson River valley by British forces occupying New York City , led Washington to believe that any attack on the Albany area would be from the south , which , as it was part of the supply line to Ticonderoga , would necessitate a withdrawal from the fort . As a result , no significant actions were taken to further fortify Ticonderoga or significantly increase its garrison . The garrison , about 2 @,@ 000 men under General Arthur St. Clair , was too small to man all the defenses .
General Gates , who oversaw the northern defenses , was aware that Mount Defiance threatened the fort . John Trumbull had pointed this out as early as 1776 , when a shot fired from the fort was able to reach Defiance 's summit , and several officers inspecting the hill noted that there were approaches to its summit where gun carriages could be pulled up the sides . As the garrison was too small to properly defend all the existing works in area , Mount Defiance was left undefended . Anthony Wayne left Ticonderoga in April 1777 to join Washington 's army ; he reported to Washington that " all was well " , and that the fort " can never be carried , without much loss of blood " .
General Burgoyne led 7 @,@ 800 British and Hessian forces south from Quebec in June 1777 . After occupying nearby Fort Crown Point without opposition on June 30 , he prepared to besiege Ticonderoga . Burgoyne realized the tactical advantage of the high ground , and had his troops haul cannons to the top of Mount Defiance . Faced with bombardment from the heights ( even before any shots had been fired from those cannons ) , General St. Clair ordered Ticonderoga abandoned on July 5 , 1777 . Burgoyne 's troops moved in the next day , with advance guards pursuing the retreating Americans . Washington , on hearing of Burgoyne 's advance and the retreat from Ticonderoga , stated that the event was " not apprehended , nor within the compass of my reasoning " . News of the abandonment of the " Impregnable Bastion " without a fight , caused " the greatest surprise and alarm " throughout the colonies . After public outcry over his actions , General St. Clair was court @-@ martialed in 1778 . He was cleared on all charges .
= = = One last attack = = =
Following the British capture of Ticonderoga , it and the surrounding defenses were garrisoned by 700 British and Hessian troops under the command of Brigadier General Henry Watson Powell . Most of these forces were on Mount Independence , with only 100 each at Fort Ticonderoga and a blockhouse they were constructing on top of Mount Defiance . George Washington sent General Benjamin Lincoln into Vermont to " divide and distract the enemy " . Aware that the British were housing American prisoners in the area , Lincoln decided to test the British defenses . On September 13 , he sent 500 men to Skenesboro , which they found the British had abandoned , and 500 each against the defenses on either side of the lake at Ticonderoga . Colonel John Brown led the troops on the west side , with instructions to release prisoners if possible , and attack the fort if it seemed feasible .
Early on September 18 , Brown 's troops surprised a British contingent holding some prisoners near the Lake George landing , while a detachment of his troops sneaked up Mount Defiance , and captured most of the sleeping construction crew . Brown and his men then moved down the portage trail toward the fort , surprising more troops and releasing prisoners along the way . The fort 's occupants were unaware of the action until Brown 's men and British troops occupying the old French lines skirmished . At this point Brown 's men dragged two captured six @-@ pound guns up to the lines , and began firing on the fort . The men who had captured Mount Defiance began firing a twelve @-@ pounder from that site . The column that was to attack Mount Independence was delayed , and its numerous defenders were alerted to the action at the fort below before the attack on their position began . Their musket fire , as well as grapeshot fired from ships anchored nearby , intimidated the Americans sufficiently that they never launched an assault on the defensive positions on Mount Independence . A stalemate persisted , with regular exchanges of cannon fire , until September 21 , when 100 Hessians , returning from the Mohawk Valley to support Burgoyne , arrived on the scene to provide reinforcement to the besieged fort . Brown eventually sent a truce party to the fort to open negotiations ; the party was fired on , and three of its five members were killed . Brown , realizing that the weaponry they had was insufficient to take the fort , decided to withdraw . Destroying many bateaux and seizing a ship on Lake George , he set off to annoy British positions on that lake . His action resulted in the freeing of 118 Americans and the capture of 293 British troops , while suffering fewer than ten casualties .
= = = Abandonment = = =
Following Burgoyne 's defeat at Saratoga , the fort at Ticonderoga became increasingly irrelevant . The British abandoned it and nearby Fort Crown Point in November 1777 , destroying both as best they could prior to their withdrawal . The fort was occasionally reoccupied by British raiding parties in the following years , but it no longer held a prominent strategic role in the war . It was finally abandoned by the British for good in 1781 , following the surrender at Yorktown . Area residents began stripping the fort of usable building materials , even melting some of the cannons down for their metal in the years following the war .
= = Tourist attraction = =
In 1785 , the fort 's lands became the property of the state of New York . The state donated the property to Columbia and Union colleges in 1803 , which sold it to William Ferris Pell in 1820 . Pell first used the property as a summer retreat , but the completion of railroads and canals connecting the area to New York City brought tourists to the area , so he converted his summer house , known as The Pavilion , into a hotel to serve the tourist trade . In 1848 , the Hudson River School artist Russell Smith painted Ruins of Fort Ticonderoga , depicting the condition of the fort .
The Pell family , a politically important clan with influence throughout American history ( from William C. C. Claiborne , the first Governor of Louisiana , to a Senator from Rhode Island , Claiborne Pell ) , restored the fort in 1909 and formally opened it to the public . The ceremonies , which commemorated the 300th anniversary of the discovery of Lake Champlain by European explorers , were attended by President William Howard Taft . Stephen Hyatt Pell , who spearheaded the restoration effort , founded the Fort Ticonderoga Association in 1931 , which is now responsible for the fort . Funding for the restoration also came from Robert M. Thompson , father of Steven 's wife Sarah Gibbs Thompson . Between 1900 and 1950 , the historically important lands around the fort , including Mount Defiance , Mount Independence , and much of Mount Hope , were also acquired by the foundation . The fort was rearmed with fourteen 24 @-@ pound cannons provided by the British government . These cannons had been cast in England for use during the Revolution , but the war ended before they were shipped over .
The fort is now a tourist attraction , early American military museum , and research center . The fort opens around May 10 , the anniversary of the 1775 capture , every year , closing in late October . It has been on a watchlist of National Historic Landmarks since 1998 , because of the poor condition of some of the walls and the 19th @-@ century pavilion constructed by William Ferris Pell . The pavilion is , as of early 2009 , undergoing restoration . In 2008 , the powder magazine destroyed by the French in 1759 was reconstructed by Tonetti Associates Architects , based in part on the original 1755 plans . Also in 2008 , the withdrawal of a major backer 's financial support forced the museum , facing significant budget deficits , to consider selling one of its major art works , Thomas Cole 's Gelyna , View near Ticonderoga . However , fundraising activities succeeded in making this unnecessary .
The not @-@ for @-@ profit Living History Education Foundation has teacher programs at Fort Ticonderoga that run in the summer and last approximately one week . The program trains teachers in how to teach Living History techniques , and to understand and interpret the importance of Fort Ticonderoga during the French and Indian War and the American Revolution .
The Pell 's estate is located north of the fort . In 1921 , Sarah Pell undertook reconstruction of the gardens , known now as King 's gardens , and hired for this work Marian Cruger Coffin , one of the most famous American landscape architects . In 1995 , the gardens were restored and later opened for public .
= = Memorials = =
The name Ticonderoga has been given to five different U.S. Navy vessels and entire classes of cruisers and aircraft carriers . The fort was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1960 . Included in the landmarked area are the fort itself , as well as Mount Independence and Mount Defiance . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966 . The Ticonderoga pencil , manufactured by the Dixon Ticonderoga Corporation , is named for the fort .
= = = Fort history sources = = =
= = = Battle history sources = = =
= = = Other sources = = =
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= Kingdom of Hungary ( 1000 – 1301 ) =
The Kingdom of Hungary came into existence in Central Europe when Stephen I , Grand Prince of the Hungarians , was crowned king in 1000 or 1001 . He reinforced central authority and forced his subjects to accept Christianity . Although written sources emphasize the role played by German and Italian knights and clerics in the process , a significant part of the Hungarian vocabulary for agriculture , religion and state was taken from Slavic languages . Civil wars and pagan uprisings , along with attempts by the Holy Roman Emperors to expand their authority over Hungary , jeopardized the new monarchy . The monarchy stabilized during the reigns of Ladislaus I ( 1077 – 1095 ) and Coloman ( 1095 – 1116 ) . These rulers occupied Croatia and Dalmatia , but both realms retained their autonomous position . Their successors — especially Béla II ( 1131 – 1141 ) , Béla III ( 1176 – 1196 ) , Andrew II ( 1205 – 1235 ) , and Béla IV ( 1235 – 1270 ) — continued this policy of expansion towards the Balkan Peninsula and the lands east of the Carpathian Mountains , transforming their kingdom into one of the major powers of medieval Europe .
Rich in uncultivated lands , silver , gold , and salt deposits , Hungary became the preferred destination of mainly German , Italian and French colonists . These immigrants were mostly peasants who settled in villages , but craftsmen and merchants also came . Their arrival had a key role in the shaping of an urban lifestyle , habits and culture in medieval Hungary . The location of the kingdom at the crossroads of international trade routes favored the coexistence of several cultures . Romanesque , Gothic and Renaissance buildings and literary works written in Latin prove the predominantly Roman Catholic character of the culture , but Orthodox , and even non @-@ Christian ethnic minority communities also existed . Latin was the language of legislation , administration and judiciary , but " linguistic pluralism " contributed to the survival of many tongues , including a great variety of Slavic dialects .
The predominance of royal estates initially assured the sovereign 's preeminent position , but the alienation of royal lands gave rise to the emergence of a self @-@ conscious group of lesser landholders , known as " royal servants " . They forced Andrew II to issue his Golden Bull of 1222 , " one of first examples of constitutional limits being placed on the powers of a European monarch " ( Francis Fukuyama ) . The kingdom received a major blow from the Mongol invasion of 1241 – 42 . Thereafter , Cuman and Jassic groups settled in the central lowlands , and colonists arrived from Moravia , Poland and other nearby countries . The erection of fortresses by landlords , promoted by the monarchs after the withdrawal of the Mongols , led to the development of semi @-@ autonomous " provinces " dominated by powerful magnates . Some of these magnates even challenged the authority of Andrew III ( 1290 – 1301 ) , the last male descendant of the native Árpád dynasty . His death was followed by a period of interregnum and anarchy . Central power was re @-@ established only in the early 1320s .
= = Background = =
The Hungarians , or Magyars , conquered the Carpathian Basin at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries . Here they found a predominantly Slavic @-@ speaking population . From their new homeland , they launched plundering raids against East Francia , Italy and other regions of Europe . Their raids were halted by Otto I , future Holy Roman Emperor , who defeated them at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 .
Hungarians lived in patrilineal families , which were organized into clans that formed tribes . The tribal confederation was headed by the grand prince , always a member of the family descending from Árpád , the Hungarians ' leader around the time of their " land @-@ taking " . Contemporary authors described the Hungarians as nomads , but Ibn Rusta and others added that they also cultivated arable land . The great number of borrowings from Slavic languages prove that the Hungarians adopted new techniques and a more settled lifestyle in Central Europe . The cohabitation of Hungarians and local ethnic groups is also reflected in the assemblages of the " Bijelo Brdo culture " , which emerged in the mid @-@ 10th century .
Although they were pagan , the Hungarians demonstrated a tolerant attitude towards Christians , Jews , and Muslims . The Byzantine Church was the first to successfully proselytize among their leaders : in 948 the horka , and around 952 the gyula , were baptized in Constantinople . In contrast , the grand prince Géza ( c . 970 – 997 ) received baptism according to the Latin rite . He erected fortresses and invited foreign warriors to develop a new army based on heavy cavalry . Géza also arranged the marriage of his son , Stephen , with Giselle of Bavaria , a princess from the family of the Holy Roman Emperors .
When Géza died in 997 , his son had to fight for his succession with Koppány , the eldest member of the House of Árpád . Assisted by German heavy cavalry , Stephen emerged the victor in the decisive battle in 998 . He applied for a royal crown to Pope Sylvester II , who granted his request with the consent of Emperor Otto III .
= = " Patrimonial " kingdom = =
= = = King St Stephen ( 1000 – 1038 ) = = =
Stephen was crowned the first king of Hungary on either December 25 , 1000 , or January 1 , 1001 . He consolidated his rule through a series of wars against semi @-@ independent local rulers , including his maternal uncle , Gyula . He proved his kingdom 's military strength when he repelled an invasion by Conrad II , Holy Roman Emperor , in 1030 . Marshlands , other natural obstacles , and barricades made of stone , earth or timber provided defense at the kingdom 's borders . A wide zone known as gyepü was intentionally left uninhabited for defensive purposes along the frontiers . Most of the early medieval fortresses in Hungary were made of earth and timber .
Stephen I 's views on state administration were summarized around 1015 in a work known as Admonitions . Stating that " the country that has only one language and one custom is weak and fragile " , he emphasized the advantages of the arrival of foreigners , or " guests " . Stephen I developed a state similar to the monarchies of contemporary Western Europe . Counties , the basic units of administration , were districts organized around fortresses and headed by royal officials known as ispáns , or counts . Stephen I founded dioceses and at least one archbishopric , and established Benedictine monasteries . He prescribed that every tenth village was to build a parish church . The earliest churches of the 10th century were simple wood constructions , but the royal basilica at Székesfehérvár was built in Romanesque style . Stephen I 's laws were aimed at the adoption , even by force , of a Christian way of life . He especially protected Christian marriage against polygamy and other traditional customs . Decorated belts and other items of pagan fashion also disappeared . Commoners started to wear long woolen coats , but wealthy men persisted with their silk kaftans decorated with furs .
If any warrior debased by lewdness abducts a girl to be his wife without the consent of her parents , we decreed that the girl should be returned to her parents , even if he did anything by force to her , and the abductor shall pay ten steers for the abduction , although he may afterwards have made peace with the girl 's parents .
From a legal perspective , Hungarian society was divided into freemen and serfs , but intermediate groups also existed . All freemen had the legal capacity to own property , to sue and to be sued . However , most of them were bound to the monarch or to a wealthier landlord , and only " guests " could freely move . Among freemen living in lands attached to a fortress , the " castle warriors " served in the army , and the " castle folk " cultivated the lands , forged weapons or rendered other services . All freemen were to pay a special tax , the " pennies of freemen " to the monarchs . With a transitory status between freemen and serfs , peasants known as udvornici were exempt from it . Serfs theoretically lacked legal personality , but in practice they had their own property : they cultivated their masters ' land with their own tools , and kept 50 – 66 percent of the harvest for themselves . Stephen I 's laws and charters suggest that most commoners lived in sedentary communities which formed villages . An average village was made up of no more than 40 semi @-@ sunken timber huts with a corner hearth . Many of the villages were named after a profession , implying that the villagers were required to render a specific service to their lords .
= = = Pagan revolts , wars and consolidation ( 1038 – 1116 ) = = =
Stephen I survived his son , Emeric , which caused a four @-@ decade crisis . Stephen considered his cousin , Vazul , unsuitable for the throne and named his own sister 's son , the Venetian Peter Orseolo , as his heir . Vazul was blinded and his three sons were expelled , thus Peter succeeded his uncle without opposition in 1038 . However , Peter 's preference for his foreign courtiers led to a rebellion , which ended with his deposition in favor of a native lord , Samuel Aba , who was related to the royal family . Supported by Emperor Henry III , Peter Orseolo returned and expelled Samuel Aba in 1044 . During his second rule , he accepted the emperor 's suzerainty . His rule ended with a new rebellion , on this occasion aimed at the restoration of paganism . However , there were many lords who opposed the destruction of the Christian monarchy . They proposed the crown to Andrew , one of Vazul 's sons , who returned to Hungary , defeated Peter and suppressed the pagans in 1046 . His cooperation with his brother , Béla , a talented military commander , ensured the Hungarians ' victory over Emperor Henry III , who attempted to conquer the kingdom two times : in 1050 and 1053 .
A new civil war broke out when Duke Béla claimed the crown for himself in 1059 , but his three sons accepted the rule of Solomon , Andrew I 's son , in 1063 . Initially , the young king and his cousins cooperated ; for instance , they jointly defeated the Pechenegs plundering Transylvania in 1068 . The power conflict in the royal family caused a new civil war in 1071 . It lasted up to Solomon 's abdication in favor of one of his cousins , Ladislaus in the early 1080s .
King Ladislaus promulgated laws that prescribed draconian punishments against criminals . His laws also regulated the payment of customs duties , tolls payable at fairs and fords , and of the tithes . He forbade Jews from holding Christian serfs , and introduced laws aiming at the conversion of local Muslims , who were known as Böszörménys .
No one shall buy or sell except in the market . If , in violation of this anyone buys stolen property , everyone shall perish : the buyer , the seller , and the witnesses . If , however , they agreed to sell something of their own , they shall lose that thing and its price , and the witnesses shall lose as much too . But if the deal was made in the market , and agreement shall be concluded in front of a judge , a toll @-@ gatherer , and witnesses , and if the purchased goods later appear to be stolen , the buyer shall escape penalty ...
The death of Ladislaus ' brother @-@ in @-@ law , King Zvonimir of Croatia , in 1089 or 1090 created an opportunity for him to claim Croatia for himself . His troops soon occupied most of Croatia ; only a native claimant , Petar Svačić , resisted in the Petrova Mounts . Nevertheless , hereafter Croatia and Hungary remained closely connected for more than nine centuries . Ladislaus I appointed his nephew , Álmos , to administer Croatia . Although a younger son , Álmos was also favored against his brother , Coloman , when the king was thinking of his succession . Even so , Coloman succeeded his uncle in 1095 , while Álmos received a separate duchy under his brother 's suzerainty . Throughout Coloman 's reign , the brothers ' relationship remained tense , which finally led to the blinding of Álmos and his infant son .
Coloman routed two bands of crusaders who were plundering the Western borderlands and defeated Petar Svačić in Croatia . The late 14th @-@ century Pacta conventa states that Coloman was crowned king of Croatia after concluding an agreement with twelve local noblemen . Although most probably a forgery , the document reflects the actual status of Croatia proper , which was never incorporated into Hungary . In contrast , the region known as Slavonia , between the Petrova Mounts and the river Dráva , became closely connected to Hungary . Here many Hungarian noblemen received land grants from the monarchs . Zadar , Split and other Dalmatian towns also accepted Coloman 's suzerainty in 1105 , but their right to elect their own bishops and leaders remained unchained . In Croatia and Slavonia , the sovereign was represented by governors bearing the title ban . Likewise , a royal official , the voivode , administered Transylvania , the eastern borderland of the kingdom .
Like Ladislaus I , Coloman proved to be a great legislator , but he prescribed less severe punishments than his uncle had done . He ordered that transactions between Christians and Jews were to be put into writing . His laws concerning his Muslim subjects aimed at their conversion , for instance , by obliging them to marry their daughters to Christians . The presence of Jewish and Muslim merchants in the kingdom was due to its role as a crossroad of trading routes leading towards Constantinople , Regensburg and Kiev . Local trade also existed , which enabled Coloman to collect the marturina , the traditional in @-@ kind tax of Slavonia , in cash .
The kingdom , with its average population density of four or five people per 1 square kilometre ( 0 @.@ 39 sq mi ) , was sparsely populated . The Olaszi streets or districts in Eger , Pécs and Nagyvárad ( Oradea , Romania ) point at the presence of " guests " speaking a Western Romance language , while the Németi and Szászi place names refer to German @-@ speaking colonists throughout the entire kingdom . Most subjects of the early medieval Hungarian monarchs were peasants . They only cultivated the most fertile lands , and moved further when the lands became exhausted . Wheat was the most widely produced crop , but barley , the raw material for home brew , was also grown . Animal husbandry remained an important sector of agriculture , thus millet and oats were produced for fodder . Fishing and hunting also contributed to nourishing , since even peasants were allowed to hunt in the royal forests that covered large territories in the kingdom .
= = = Colonisation and expansion ( 1116 – 1196 ) = = =
Unsuccessful wars with the Republic of Venice , the Byzantine Empire and other neighboring states characterized the reign of Coloman 's son , Stephen II , who succeeded his father in 1116 . The earliest mention of the Székelys is in connection with the young king 's first war against the Duchy of Bohemia . The Hungarian @-@ speaking Székelys lived in scattered communities along the borders , but their groups were moved to the easternmost regions of Transylvania in the 12th century . Stephen II died childless in 1131 . During the reign of the blind Béla II , the kingdom was administered by his wife , Helena of Rascia , who ordered the massacre of the lords who had opposed her husband 's rule . Boris Kalamanos , an alleged son of King Coloman , who attempted to seize the throne from Béla II , received no internal support .
Béla II 's son , Géza II , who ascended the throne in 1141 , adopted an active foreign policy . He supported Uroš II of Rascia against Emperor Manuel I Komnenos . He promoted the colonization of the border zones . Flemish , German , Italian , and Walloon " guests " arrived in great numbers and settled in the Szepesség region ( Spiš , Slovakia ) and in southern Transylvania . Géza even recruited Muslim warriors in the Pontic steppes to serve in his army . Abu Hamid , a Muslim traveler from Al @-@ Andaluz refers to mountains that " contain lots of silver and gold " , which points at the importance of mining and gold panning already around 1150 .
If anyone of the rank of count has even in a trivial matter offended against the king or , as sometimes happens , has been unjustly accused of this , an emissary from the court , though he be of very lowly station and unattended , seizes him in the midst of his retinue , puts him in chains , and drags him off to various forms of punishment . No formal sentence is asked of the prince through his peers , ... no opportunity of defending himself is granted the accused , but the will of the prince alone is held by all as sufficient .
Géza II was succeeded in 1162 by his eldest son , Stephen III . However , his uncles , Ladislaus II and Stephen IV , claimed the crown for themselves . Emperor Manuel I Komnenos took advantage of the internal conflicts and forced the young king to cede Dalmatia and the Szerémség region ( Srem , Serbia ) to the Byzantines in 1165 . Stephen III set an example for the development of towns by granting liberties to the Walloon " guests " in Székesfehérvár , including their immunity of the jurisdiction of the local ispán .
When Stephen III died childless in 1172 , his brother , Béla III , ascended the throne . He reconquered Dalmatia and the Szerémség in the 1180s . A contemporary list shows that more than 50 percent of his revenues derived from the annual renewal of the silver currency , and from tolls , ferries and markets . According to the list , his total income was the equivalent of 32 tonnes of silver per year , but this number is clearly exaggerated . Béla III emphasized the importance of making records on judicial proceedings , which substantiates reports in later Hungarian chronicles ' of his order regarding the obligatory use of written petitions . Landowners also started to put their transactions into writing , which led to the appearance of the so @-@ called " places of authentication " , such as cathedral chapters and monasteries authorized to issue deeds . Their emergence also evidences the employment of an educated staff . Indeed , students from the kingdom studied at the universities of Paris , Oxford , Bologna and Padua from the 1150s .
Aspects of 12th @-@ century French culture could also be detected in Béla III 's kingdom . His palace at Esztergom was built in the early Gothic style . Achilles and other names known from the Legend of Troy and the Romance of Alexander ( two emblematic works of chivalric culture ) were also popular among Hungarian aristocrats . According to a scholarly view , " Master P " , the author of the Gesta Hungarorum , a chronicle on the Hungarian " land @-@ taking " , was Béla III 's notary .
= = Development of the Estates of the realm = =
= = = Age of Golden Bulls ( 1196 – 1241 ) = = =
Béla III 's son and successor , Emeric , had to face revolts stirred up by his younger brother , Andrew . Furthermore , incited by Enrico Dandolo , Doge of Venice , the armies of the Fourth Crusade took Zadar in 1202 . Emeric was succeeded in 1204 by his infant son , Ladislaus III . When the young king died in a year , his uncle , Andrew , mounted the throne . Stating that " the best measure of a royal grant is its being immeasurable " , he distributed large parcels of royal lands among his partisans . Freemen living in former royal lands lost their direct contact to the sovereign , which threatened their legal status . Royal revenues decreased , which led to the introduction of new taxes and their farming out to Muslims and Jews .
Andrew II was strongly influenced by his wife , Gertrude of Merania . She openly expressed her preference for her German compatriots , which caused her assassination by a group of local lords in 1213 . A new uprising broke out while the king was in the Holy Land on his crusade in 1217 and 1218 . Finally , a movement of the royal servants , who were actually free landholders directly subordinated to the sovereign , obliged Andrew II to issue his Golden Bull in 1222 . It summarized the royal servants ' liberties , including their tax exemption . Its last provision authorized the secular and spiritual lords to " resist and speak against " the sovereign " without the charge of high treason " . The Golden Bull also prohibited the employment of Muslims and Jews in royal administration . This ban was confirmed when Andrew II , urged by the prelates , issued the Golden Bull 's new variant in 1231 , which authorized the archbishop of Esztergom to excommunicate him in case of his departure from its provisions . For non @-@ Christians who continued to be employed in the royal household , Archbishop Robert of Esztergom placed the kingdom under interdict in 1232 . Andrew II was forced to take an oath , which included his promise to respect the privileged position of clergymen and to dismiss all his Jewish and Muslim officials . A growing intolerance against non @-@ Catholics is also demonstrated by the transfer of the Orthodox monastery of Visegrád to the Benedictines in 1221 .
Andrew II made several attempts to occupy the neighboring Principality of Halych . His son , Béla , persuaded a group of Cumans to accept Andrew II 's suzerainty in 1228 and established a new march in Oltenia ( known as the Banate of Szörény ) in 1231 . Béla IV succeeded his father in 1235 . His attempt to reacquire crown lands alienated by his predecessors created a deep rift between the monarch and the lords just as the Mongols were sweeping westward across the Eurasian steppes .
The king was first informed of the Mongol threat by Friar Julian , a Dominican monk who had visited a Hungarian @-@ speaking population in Magna Hungaria , in 1235 . In the next years , the Mongols routed the Cumans who dominated the western parts of the Eurasian steppes . A Cuman chieftain , Kuthen , agreed to accept Béla IV 's supremacy ; thus he and his people were allowed to settle in the Great Hungarian Plain . However , the Cumans ' nomadic lifestyle caused many conflicts with local communities . The locals even considered them as the Mongols ' allies .
= = = Mongol invasion ( 1241 – 1242 ) = = =
Batu Khan , who was the commander of the Mongol armies invading Eastern Europe , demanded Béla IV 's surrender without a fight in 1240 . The king refused , and ordered his barons to assemble with their retinue in his camp at Pest . Here , a riot broke out against the Cumans and the mob massacred the Cuman leader , Kuthen . The Cumans soon departed and pillaged the central parts of the kingdom . The main Mongol army arrived through the northeastern passes of the Carpathian Mountains in March 1241 . Royal troops met the enemy forces at the river Sajó , where the Mongols won a decisive victory in the battle of Mohi on April 11 , 1241 . From the battlefield , Béla IV fled first to Austria , where Duke Frederick II held him for ransom . Thereafter , the king and his family found refuge in Klis Fortress in Dalmatia . The Mongols first occupied and thoroughly plundered the territories east of the river Danube . They crossed the river when it was frozen in early 1242 . A contemporary account by Abbot Hermann of Niederalteich stated that " the Kingdom of Hungary , which had existed for 350 years , was destroyed " .
[ The Mongols ] " burnt the church " [ in Nagyvárad ( Oradea , Romania ) ] " , together with the women and whatever there was in the church . In other churches they perpetrated such crimes to the women that it is better to keep silent ... Then they ruthlessly beheaded the nobles , citizens , soldiers and canons on a field outside the city . ... After they had destroyed everything , and an intolerable stench arose from the corpses , they left the place empty . People hiding in the nearby forests came back to find some food . And while they were searching among the stones and the corpses , the " [ Mongols ] " suddenly returned and of those living whom they found there , none was left alive .
However , the kingdom did not cease to exist . Batu Khan withdrew his entire army when he was informed of the death of the Great Khan , Ögödei in March 1242 . Nevertheless , the invasion and the famine that followed it had catastrophic demographic consequences . At least 15 percent of the population died or disappeared . Transcontinental trading routes disintegrated , causing the decline of Bács ( Bač , Serbia ) , Ungvár ( Uzhhorod , Ukraine ) and other traditional centers of commerce . Local Muslim communities also disappeared , indicating they had suffered especially heavy losses during the invasion .
= = = Last Árpáds ( 1242 – 1301 ) = = =
After the Mongol withdrawal , Béla IV abandoned his policy of recovering former crown lands . Instead , he granted large estates to his supporters , and urged them to construct stone @-@ and @-@ mortar castles . He initiated a new wave of colonization that resulted in the arrival of a number of Germans , Moravians , Poles , and Romanians . The king re @-@ invited the Cumans and settled them in the plains along the Danube and the Tisza . A group of Alans , the ancestors of the Jassic people , seems to have settled in the kingdom around the same time .
New villages appeared , consisting of timber houses built side by side in equal parcels of land . For instance , the settlement network of the so far scarcely inhabited forests of the Western Carpathians ( in present @-@ day Slovakia ) began to develop under Béla IV . Huts disappeared , and new rural houses consisting of a living room , a kitchen and a pantry were built . The most advanced agricultural techniques , including asymmetric heavy ploughs , also spread throughout the kingdom .
Internal migration was likewise instrumental in the development of the new domains emerging in former royal lands . The new landholders granted personal freedom and more favorable financial conditions to those who arrived in their estates , which also enabled the peasants who decided not to move to improve their position . Béla IV granted privileges to more than a dozen towns , including Nagyszombat ( Trnava , Slovakia ) and Pest .
Although threatening letters sent to Béla IV by the khans of the Golden Horde proved that the danger of a new Mongol invasion still existed , he adopted an expansionist foreign policy . Frederick II of Austria died fighting against Hungarian troops in 1246 , and Béla IV 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Rostislav Mikhailovich , annexed large territories along the kingdom 's southern frontiers . However , conflicts between the elderly monarch and his heir , Stephen , caused a civil war in the 1260s .
Béla IV and his son jointly confirmed the liberties of the royal servants , hereafter known as noblemen in 1267 . By that time , " true noblemen " were legally differentiated from other landholders . They held their estates free from any obligation , but everybody else ( even the ecclesiastic nobles , Romanian cneazes and other " conditional nobles " ) owed services to their lords in exchange for the lands they held . In a growing number of counties , local nobility acquired the right to elect four or two " judges of the nobles " to represent them in official procedures . The idea of equating the Hungarian " nation " with the community of noblemen also emerged in this period . It was first expressed in Simon of Kéza 's Gesta Hungarorum , a chronicle written in the 1280s .
The wealthiest landholders forced the lesser nobles to join their retinue , which increased their power . One of the barons , Joachim of the Gutkeled clan , even captured Stephen V 's heir , the infant Ladislaus , in 1272 . Stephen V died some months later , causing a new civil war between the Csák , Kőszegi , and other leading families who attempted to control the central government in the name of the young Ladislaus IV . He was declared to be of age in 1277 at an assembly of the spiritual and temporal lords and of the noblemen 's and Cumans ' representatives , but he could not strengthen royal authority . Ladislaus IV , whose mother , Elisabeth , was a Cuman chieftain 's daughter , preferred his Cuman kin , which made him unpopular . He was even accused of initiating a second Mongol invasion in 1285 , although the invaders were routed by the royal troops .
When Ladislaus IV was murdered in 1290 , the Holy See declared the kingdom a vacant fief and granted it to his sister 's son , Charles Martel , crown prince of the Kingdom of Naples . However , the majority of the Hungarian lords chose Andrew , the grandson of Andrew II , even though his father 's legitimacy was dubious . Andrew became the first monarch to take an oath on respecting the liberties of the Church and the nobility before his coronation . He regularly convoked the prelates , the lords and the noblemen 's representatives to assemblies known as Diets , which started to develop into a legislative body . However , the kingdom disintegrated into autonomous provinces , each ruled by powerful noblemen ( including Matthew Csák , Ladislaus Kán , and Amadeus Aba ) who ignored the king 's authority . The powerful Croatian lord , Paul I Šubić of Bribir , even dared to invite the late Charles Martel 's son , the twelve @-@ year @-@ old Charles Robert , to Hungary in 1300 . The young pretender was marching from Croatia towards Buda when Andrew III unexpectedly died on January 14 , 1301 .
= = Aftermath = =
With Andrew III 's death , the male line of the House of Árpád became extinct , and a period of anarchy began . Charles Robert was crowned king with a provisional crown , but most lords and bishops refused to yield to him because they regarded him as a symbol of the Holy See 's attempts to control Hungary . They elected king the twelve @-@ year @-@ old Wenceslaus of Bohemia , who was descended from Béla IV of Hungary in the female line . However , the young king could not consolidate his position because many lords , especially those who held domains in the southern region of the kingdom , continued to support Charles Robert . Wenceslaus left Hungary for Bohemia in the summer of 1304 . After he inherited Bohemia in 1305 , he abandoned his claim to Hungary in favor of Otto III , Duke of Bavaria .
Otto , who was a grandson of Béla IV of Hungary , was crowned king , but only the Kőszegis and the Transylvanian Saxons regarded him as the lawful monarch . He was captured in Transylvania by Ladislaus Kán , who forced him to leave Hungary . The majority of the lords and prelates elected Charles Robert king at a Diet on October 10 , 1307 . He was crowned king with the Holy Crown of Hungary in Székesfehérvár by the Archbishop of Esztergom , as it was required by customary law , on August 27 , 1310 . During the next decade , he launched a series of military campaigns against the oligarchs to restore royal authority . Charles Robert reunited the kingdom after the death of the most powerful lord , Mattheus Csák , which enabled him to conquer Csák 's large province in the northeast of Hungary in 1321 .
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= Third Perso @-@ Turkic War =
The Third Perso @-@ Turkic War was the third and final conflict between the Sassanian Empire and the Western Turkic Khaganate . Unlike the previous two wars , it was not fought in Central Asia , but in Transcaucasia . Hostilities were initiated in 627 AD by Khagan Tong Yabghu of the Western Göktürks and Emperor Heraclius of the Eastern Roman Empire . Opposing them were the Sassanid Persians , allied with the Pannonian Avars . The war was fought against the background of the last Byzantine @-@ Sassanid War and served as a prelude to the dramatic events that changed the balance of powers in the Middle East for centuries to come ( Battle of Nineveh , Islamic conquest of Persia ) .
= = Background = =
Following the First Siege of Constantinople by the Avars and Persians , the beleaguered Byzantine Emperor Heraclius found himself politically isolated . He could not rely on the Christian Armenian potentates of Transcaucasia , since they were branded as heretics by the Orthodox Church , and even the king of Iberia preferred to befriend the religiously tolerant Persians . Against this dismal background , he found a natural ally in Tong Yabghu . Earlier in 568 , the Turks under Istämi had turned to Byzantium when their relations with Persia soured over commerce issues .
In 625 , Heraclius dispatched to the steppes his emissary , named Andrew , who promised to the Khagan some " staggering riches " in return for military aid . The khagan , on his part , was anxious to secure the Chinese @-@ Byzantine trade along the Silk Route , which had been disrupted by the Persians in the aftermath of the Second Perso @-@ Turkic War . He sent word to the Emperor that " I shall take revenge on your enemies and will come with my valiant troops to your help " . A unit of 1 @,@ 000 horsemen fought their way through Persian Transcaucasia and delivered the Khagan 's message to the Byzantine camp in Anatolia .
= = Siege of Derbent = =
Early in 627 , the Göktürks and their Khazar allies approached the Caspian Gates at Derbent . This newly built stronghold was the only gate to the fertile land of Aghvania ( modern @-@ day Azerbaijan ) . Lev Gumilev observes that the lightly armed militia of Aghvania was no match against the hordes of heavy cavalry led by Tong Yabghu . His troops stormed Derbent and swarmed over Aghvania , plundering it thoroughly . The fall and sack of Derbent was described in detail by the Armenian historian Movses Kagankatvatsi , thought to have been an eyewitness to the event :
The fall of the fortress that had been considered impregnable sparked panic all over the country . Aghvanian forces withdrew to their capital , Partav , from whence they made for the Caucasus Mountains . The Göktürks and Khazars overtook them near the village of Kalankatuyk , where they were either slain or taken prisoner . The conquerors imposed upon Aghvania a heavy system of taxation , as reported by Movses :
= = Siege of Tbilisi = =
The next objective of the Turkic @-@ Byzantine offensive was the Kingdom of Iberia , whose ruler Stephanus was a tributary to Khosrau II of Persia . In the words of Movses Kagankatvatsi , the Khazars " encircled and besieged the famous and great sybaritic trade city of Tbilisi , " whereupon they were joined by Emperor Heraclius with his mighty army .
Heraclius and Tong Yabghu ( called Ziebel in the Byzantine sources ) met under the walls of Narikala . The yabgu rode up to the emperor , kissed his shoulder and made a bow . In return , Heraclius hugged the barbarian ruler , called him his son , and crowned him with his own diadem . During the ensuing feast the Khazar leaders received ample gifts in the shape of earrings and clothes , while the yabghu was promised the hand of the emperor 's daughter , Eudoxia Epiphania .
The siege dragged on without much progress , punctuated by frequent sallies on the part of the besieged ; one of these claimed the life of their king . After two months the Khazars retreated to the steppe , promising to return by the autumn . Tong Yabghu left young Böri Shad , either his son or nephew , in charge of the remaining forty thousand which were to assist Heraclius during the siege . Before long these departed as well , leaving the Byzantines to continue the siege alone and prompting jeers from the besieged .
When the Georgians ironically referred to the Emperor as " the goat , " hinting at his incestuous marriage , Heraclius recalled a passage from the Book of Daniel about the two @-@ horned ram overthrown by the one @-@ horned goat . He interpreted this as a good sign and struck southward against Persia . On 12 December 627 he appeared on the bank of the Tigris and clashed with Persian forces near the ruins of Nineveh . In January he ravaged the environs of the Persian capital Ctesiphon , signalling a sea @-@ change in the Persian @-@ Byzantine relations .
= = Conclusion = =
After the triumph of Heraclius , Tong Yabghu hastened to resume the siege of Tiflis and successfully stormed the city in winter . " With their swords raised , they advanced on the walls , and all this multitude , climbing upon each other 's shoulders , rose up the walls . A black shadow fell upon the wobegone citizens ; they were vanquished and lost their ground , " Movses narrates . Although the Georgians surrendered without further resistance , the city was looted and its citizens were massacred . The Persian governor and the Georgian prince were tortured to death in the presence of Tong Yabghu .
The Gokturks , renowned for their expertise in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , never excelled in siegecraft . For this reason Gumilev attributes the taking of Tiflis to the Khazars . There are good reasons for believing that this success encouraged Tong Yabghu to grander designs . This time he planned to incorporate Aghvania into his khaganate , rather than to wield a usual campaign of plunder . Before returning to Suyab he instructed Böri Shad and his generals to " spare the lives of the rulers and nobles of that land , in as much as they come out to meet my son , surrender to my rule , concede their towns , castles , and trade to my troops " .
These words indicate that Tong Yabghu was eager to retain control of the westernmost portion of the Silk Route , as he tightened his grip of its other segments all the way east to China . In April 630 Böri Shad determined to expand his control of Transcaucasia and sent his general Chorpan Tarkhan with as little as 30 @,@ 000 cavalry to invade Armenia . Using a characteristic ploy of nomadic warriors , Chorpan Tarkhan ambushed and annihilated a Persian force of 10 @,@ 000 dispatched by Shahrbaraz to counter the invasion . Turks knew the Sassanid respond would be harsh , they plundered cities and withdrew their forces back to the steppes .
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= 2008 attacks on Christians in southern Karnataka =
The 2008 attacks on Christians in southern Karnataka refer to the wave of attacks directed against Christian churches and prayer halls in the Indian city of Mangalore and the surrounding area of southern Karnataka in September and October 2008 by Hindu extrimist organisations , Bajrang Dal and the Sri Ram Sena . The attacks were widely perceived by Christians in southern Karnataka to be punishment from right @-@ wing Hindu nationalist organisations because they had been outspoken about Christian persecution in Orissa , after the assassination of Hindu monk Swami Lakshmanananda Saraswati allegedly by local christian community and also because the New Life Fellowship Trust ( NLFT ) , a non @-@ denominational Christian Church , was alleged by Bajrang Dal to be responsible for forced conversions of Hindus to Christianity .
Several isolated incidents against Christians were reported from 17 August onwards , and on 29 August some 45 @,@ 000 institutions across India participated in a " prayer for peace and communal harmony " in response to the ongoing anti @-@ Christian violence in Orissa . St. Aloysius College , a Jesuit institution in Mangalore , and some other 2000 Christian schools in Karnataka went on strike for varying periods between 29 August and 5 September prior to the attacks , protesting against the events in Orissa , in defiance of the orders of the government who stated that it was to be a regular work day . This led to government denouncement of the Christian institutions in the state for disobeying orders and led to a Bajrang Dal demonstration outside the St. Aloysius College , two weeks prior to the main attacks . The attacks began on 14 September , when a group of youths from the Bajrang Dal went inside the chapel of Adoration Monastery of the Sisters of St @-@ Clare near the Milagres Church in Hampankatta and desecrated it . Some 20 churches or prayer halls , including Catholic and Protestant churches and temples belonging to the Jehovah 's Witnesses and other evangelical sects , and colleges were damaged in towns and villages in the Mangalore taluk and other parts of Dakshina Kannada district , Udupi district and Chikkamagaluru district . A few Christian institutions were later attacked in Bangalore and Kasaragod district . Out of frustration and anger , the Christian community responded to the attacks within hours and began protesting . In Karkala , the Catholics of Karkala deanery staged a protest on 15 September and organised a 3 kilometre silent protest march . The protestors blocked arterial city roads in their masses , especially in places such as Hampankatta , Kulshekar , Bejai , Derebail and Thokottu and rang bells in almost all the churches of Mangalore , calling parishioners to their churches . The protests led to strong police suppression with lathi charges and tear gas , making around 150 arrests and injuring 30 to 40 people . The incident marked the first time that Catholics had ever resorted to violence in Mangalore when provoked . Between 15 September and 10 October , a new wave of anti @-@ minority attacks began against Christian communities in the Indian states of Kerala , Madhya Pradesh , Uttar Pradesh , Andhra Pradesh , Bihar , Chhattisgarh , Jharkhand , New Delhi , Punjab , Tamil Nadu and Uttarakhand , as well as Muslim communities in Gujarat and Maharashtra .
The September 2008 attacks had political significance , given that the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) Karnataka state government , led by B. S. Yeddyurappa , were also accused of involvement and backing the anti @-@ Christian campaigns and that the police were reported to have had knowledge of the imminent attacks but failed to prevent them . The police were criticised for their reaction to the protests and a report by a committee of human rights activists set up in the aftermath to examine the causes of the attacks claimed that they had used the event as a pretext to assault the community , rather than defend it . Justice B. K. Somasekhara of Karnataka , however , concluded that the police and government helped maintain order and were not responsible for the attacks . In response to the alleged forcible conversions of involvement , the Vishwa Hindu Parishad ( VHP ) gave a three @-@ month deadline for New Life Fellowship Trust ( NLFT ) to stop all conversion activities in Mangalore . The Roman Catholic Diocese of Mangalore declared that it would distance itself from the New Life Fellowship Trust .
In February 2011 , retired Justice M. F. Saldanha , formerly of the Bombay High Court , was outspoken against the protests and published a report in which he described the attacks as " state @-@ sponsored terrorism " and that the attacks were part of " communal forces " at work attacking Christian institutions on the coastal belt of India . The report and continued denial by the state government of being implicated in the attacks led to more than 100 @,@ 000 Christians representing some 45 Christian denominations and secular organisations leading a silent march in Mangalore on 21 February . Following the publications of the reports and subsequent protests , the government of Karnataka announced that it would drop 338 cases against Christians who had protested in the attack , and in December 2011 a further 23 cases against Christians were dropped .
= = Background and cause = =
Mangalore has long been a major Christian centre in India . In 1526 , under the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio , the Portuguese took possession of Mangalore and Christianity began to spread . Many Christians migrated to South Canara from Goa . The Mangalorean Catholics were persecuted by Tipu Sultan during his reign between 1782 to 1799 and many were forcibly converted to Islam . On 24 February 1784 , Tipu rounded up 60 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 Mangalorean Catholics and transported them to Seringapatam . They were held there in captivity for 15 years , until Tipu was killed by the British at the Battle of Seringapatam on 4 May 1799 . Only 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 of those Catholics taken captive in 1784 survived . In the latter half of the 19th century , Protestant missionaries began working in Mangalore and surrounding communities , and the Vicariate of Mangalore was established in 1853 . Mangalore , noted for its many churches and the strong representation of Catholics , was at one time known as the " Rome of the East " . However it is also noted as a pilgrimage centre for Hindus , given its numerous Hindu temples and shrines . Between 1991 and 2011 , the percentage of Christians living in India reportedly dropped from 2 @.@ 7 per cent to 2 @.@ 2 per cent , a declining figure which has been linked to ongoing difficulties facing Christians in a predominantly Hindu nation . In 2008 , an estimated 320 @,@ 300 Christians were living in the Dakshina Kannada district .
Several explanations of the cause of the September 2008 attacks have been postulated . Many Christians believe that the attacks were a direct response from right @-@ wing Hindu organisations who were targeting the people of Mangalore and the surrounding area because they had been outspoken about persecution of Christians in Orissa . St. Aloysius College , a Jesuit institution in Mangalore , and some other 2000 Christian schools in Karnataka , went on strike for varying periods between 29 August and 5 September prior to the attacks , protesting against anti @-@ Christian persecution in Orissa , contrary to the orders of the government who stated that they were to be regular work days . Primary and secondary education minister Vishweshwar Hegde Kageri , responding to the shutting down of the Christian educational institutions in Karnataka , had directed the public education department to issue show @-@ cause notices to schools that had objected to the violence against Christians in Orissa . A Christian institution in Shimoga had reportedly received a notice from the education ministry of Karnataka during the strike saying , " The VHP and Bajrang Dal have conducted a protest against the closure of schools and criticised your action . They have submitted letters requesting action against you for this . In this context , you are asked to show cause as to why action should not be initiated against you for using religion as an excuse to announce a holiday and as to why permission to run your institution should not be withdrawn . " State Home Minister V. S. Acharya explained the reason for the notices , " All Christian institutions are grant @-@ in @-@ aid institutions of the government and they should have had the courtesy to inform us before declaring a holiday . Their decision to act unilaterally cannot be tolerated . " The education minister was backed by the State President D. V. Sadananda Gowda , who issued a statement in which he stated that Christian education institutions had committed a crime by declaring holiday without obtaining the state government 's permission . However , the Indian National Congress ( INC ) condemned Hegde 's statement to take action against Christian education institutions and the leader of the Opposition in the Legislative Assembly , Mallikarjun Kharge , stated that " The minister 's statement is not proper . It may lead to law and order problem in the State . " Bajrang Dal proponents protested with banners outside the St. Aloysius College gates and across Mangalore on Saturday 31 August , the day after the college had closed for a holiday , chanting slogans such as , " Jai Mata Di " ( Hail to the Mother ) and " Bharat Mata ki jai " ( Hail Mother India ) . It should be noted , however , that the closure of the schools in Mangalore were not alone ; some 45 @,@ 000 institutions across India had participated on 29 August in a " prayer for peace and communal harmony " in response to the events in Orissa .
Another explanation is that the attacks were an angry response by Bajrang Dal over the allegations that the New Life Fellowship Trust were indulging in forceful religious conversion of Hindus and distribution of vulgar literature slandering Hindu gods and goddesses . Bajrang Dal claimed that nearly 15 @,@ 000 people had been forced to adopt Christianity as their religion in Mangalore alone in the past year after monitoring the situation . In the book Satyadarshini , written by Andhra Pradesh Pastor Paravastu Suryanarayana Rao , it was also reported that the New Life Fellowship Trust had denigrated and defamed Hindu gods , causing anger amongst the Bajrang Dal . Hindu activists also alleged that excerpts from Rao 's book had been published in pamphlets to spread its influence . Mahila Parishat leader Asha Jagadish believed that the attacks were solely motivated by religious conversion by New Life and claimed that her neighbour was forcefully converted into Christianity to marry a Christian girl , further stating , " The Holy Saint School in Bangalore , where I studied up to fifth standard , did not allow me to wear kumkum or bangles according to Hindu tradition . " Fr . Francis Serrao , rector of St. Aloysius College , stated that he believed the attacks were not due to conversion , but was rather a reflection of the struggle between Christianity and Brahmanism and theorised that Christian ideology and Brahmin ideology can never coexist as " Christianity propagates love and Brahmanism propagates hate . "
= = Attacks = =
Incidences of violence against Christians had been reported during the month prior to the main attacks . On 17 August 2008 , demonstrators performed a dharna ( hunger strike ) outside the DHM church in Jayanagar , Davangere and again on 24 August at Nitya Jeeva Devalaya church , burning Christian literature in both events . No complaints or arrests were made in either of the events . Three days later , on 27 August , a Christian prayer hall and its pastor in Uchangidurga , Harpanahalli taluk of the Davanagere district , were attacked , leading to eight arrests . Then on 7 September , a group of about 300 individuals attacked the Yesu Kripalaya Church in Bada , Davangere district , vandalising it and burning the Bibles . Ten people were arrested at the scene in Bada . The multiple premeditated attacks started on 14 September 2008 , with some 20 churches attacked in Karnataka ; of which 14 were attacked within one hour . These included Catholic and Protestant churches as well as temples belonging to the Jehovah 's Witnesses and the New Life Fellowship Trust . The attacks began when a group of some 15 youths on motorbikes from the Bajrang Dal , a Hindu nationalist organisation which aims to achieve the " reversing of the invasions by Muslim conquerors and British imperialism " , arrived at the chapel of Adoration Monastery of the Sisters of St @-@ Clare in Hampankatta around 10 @.@ 15 am , shouting a pro @-@ Bajrang Dal slogan . They entered the monastery and attacked it with lathis , desecrating the tabernacle and the Eucharist , the 15 feet ( 5 m ) high golden coloured monstrance ( regarded by the nuns as the most sacred object in the church ) , a crucifix , the oil lamps , the vases on the altar , and a few statues of saints . A couple praying in the chapel at the time were also beaten by the intruders . Two nuns were also reportedly injured . Around the same time , a group of 30 to 35 people on motorbikes wearing masks attacked the empty Church of South India building at Kodaikal , armed with iron pipes , cricket stumps and sticks , shouting pro @-@ Bajrang Dal slogans . Aside from damage to the buildings , windows and religious iconography , furniture , Bibles , and other Christian literature were damaged in various churches . A gang of about 30 youths had made an attempt to ransack a prayer hall of the New Life Fellowship Trust , but their efforts were thwarted by the police .
Around 8 @.@ 30 pm on 14 September , miscreants pelted stones at the chapel of Padua Pre @-@ university College , a Christian college located at Nanthoor , badly damaging its windows . Around 9 @.@ 30 pm , miscreants badly damaged a statue located in front of Carmelites ' house in Katkere , near Koteshwar . The Church of St. Sebastian in Permannur was badly damaged , including its windows and furniture . The Holy Cross Church at Kulshekar and St. Joseph , The Worker Church at Vamanjoor were also damaged . Police reports confirmed that Our Lady 's Grotto at Vijayamarie Technical Institute and properties at the Infant Jesus Higher Primary School and Mary Hill Convent were also damaged by the miscreants on the night of 14 September . K. A. Abraham , pastor of Divine Deliverance Prayer Centre at Neerugadde in Shiroor , claimed that over 25 miscreants had attacked his prayer hall , and they were reported to have smashed the window panes , ransacked equipment and set a motorcycle and car on fire . Later , in the early hours of 15 September , individuals broke into the St. George Church belonging to the Syro Malabar Catholic Rite of the Belthangady Diocese in Ujire , Dakshina Kannada district , 70 km from Mangalore and burned the Bible , the carpet , prayer books and desecrated holy icons . Miscreants also ransacked the St. Thomas Church in Gorigandi in Chikkamagaluru district . Seven or eight masked men arriving on scooters were reported to have desecrated the large statue of St. Antony at St. Ann 's Friary on Jail Road in Bejai , throwing flower pots to smash its glass covering . The official report into the attacks later claimed that the Bajrang Dal were the likely suspects for the attacks on churches in Chikkamagaluru district , including the Christian Believers ' Prayer Hall , Jagadeshwara Church in Mudigere and Carmel Mathe Devalaya in Kudremukh , and had also harassed people gathered at Kapitanio High School in Mangalore . Several people also reportedly invaded the house and prayer meeting of a neo @-@ convert in Singatagere of Kadur taluk . Other areas affected by the attacks include Kalkanady , Falnir , Madyanthar , Makodu , Singatagere , Jayapura , Shaktinagar , Thokottu , Bantwal , Belthangady , Udupi , Kulur , Kundapura , Karkala , Koppa , Balehanoor and Moodbidri . Individuals were also targeted during the event ; in Kulur , two men and two children were attacked by a Hindu mob near Gurupur Bridge while on their way to their hometown in a private car , and in Kalladka , the Souza Textile owner and his wife were attacked by unidentified people . Two separate stabbing incidents were also reported in Kalladka , and the two men affected were admitted to hospital with serious injuries .
On 16 September , a 100 @-@ year @-@ old statue of Mary at the St. Mary 's Church in Kolar was damaged by vandals , St. George Church in Ernody was desecrated and attempted to be burned by vandals , and over 20 vandals desecrated the Rima Worship Centre at Adyar . On 18 September , vandals shattered the glass encasing of the Mother Mary statue of the Presentation Girls School in Dharwad and on 19 September , a gang of vandals on motorbikes pelted stones at the St. Xavier 's Church in Padu Kody in Mangalore taluk and destroyed the idols . On 21 September , a further four attacks were reported , including Brethren Christa Aaradhanalaya prayer hall near Nellihudikeri in Kodagu district , the Believers ' Church in Yedapadavu , Mangalore taluk , and two churches in Bangalore ; St. James Church in Mariyannapalya near Hebbal and Lumbini Gardens , which had two gold plated crowns and cash from the offering box stolen and the main sacrament vandalised ; and the Holy Church in the Name of Jesus at Rajarajeshwarinagar had the casing around the Infant Jesus smashed and the statue damaged . In Banaswadi , a group were reported to have pelted stones at a church and fled . A Catholic school was also attacked in Kasaragod district in Kerala . Between 15 September and 10 October , Hindu nationalists directed a wave of attacks targetting Christian communities in Kerala , Madhya Pradesh , Uttar Pradesh , Andhra Pradesh , Bihar , Chhattisgarh , Jharkhand , New Delhi , Punjab , Tamil Nadu and Uttarakhand , and Muslim communities in Gujarat and Maharashtra .
= = = Christian protests = = =
In response to the attacks in areas such as Hampankatta , Shaktinagar , Vamanjoor , Thokottu and Bantwal , the Christian community began protesting . The protestors blocked arterial city roads in their masses , especially in places such as Hampankatta , Kulshekar , Bejai , Derebail and Thokottu and rang bells in almost all the churches of the city , calling parishioners to their churches . In Hampankatta , over 4 @,@ 000 Christians united to defend the Milagres Church and protest . Violence broke out at the Adoration monastery as police began caning the protestors with sticks and bursting teargas shells to disperse them , while they pelted stones at police vans and police . The police were reported to have caused further damage to the Adoration monastery by throwing back stones and glass bottles to restrain the protestors . Union Minister of Labour and Employment Oscar Fernandes and MLA B. Ramanath Rai arrived at the Hampankatta scene at 6 pm . In Karkala , the Catholics of Karkala deanery staged a protest on 15 September condemning the attacks and the desecration of the crucifix and sacrament at Adoration Monastery in particular and organised a 3 kilometre silent protest march from the bus stand to the taluk headquarters and submitted a memorandum to tehsildar Laxman Singh . The protests involved over 2 @,@ 500 people and among those present were incumbent parish priest John Barboza , Valerian Fernandes , Ajekar parish priest Valerian Fernandes , Attur parish priest Arthur Pereira , Miyar parish priest Ronald Miranda , Paschal Menezes , Parappady parish priest Alex Aranha , Michael D 'Silva , Hirgan parish priest Michael Lobo , Kanajar parish priest Alwyn D 'Cunha and many other priests and nuns in the area . The Christian protestors also clashed with police at St. Sebastian Church in the Permannur area of Ullal on the outskirts of Mangalore , shouting slogans and throwing stones at the police for their failure to arrest the perpetrators of the attacks . The police arrested several Christians after firing into the air and being involved in a lathi charge . A witness in Permannur claimed that Christians attacked the houses of Hindus in retaliation , shouting slogans against the BJP government . Four people of pro @-@ Hindu organisations were reportedly injured at Kalladka and Attavar on the outskirts of the Mangalore when their vehicles were attacked and were pelted with stones . Ten people , including one of the Sri Ram Sena activists , were reportedly stabbed during the protests and according to the police , the situation was used by some to settle personal scores and not all stabbing incidents were related to attack on churches and the subsequent violence in the city . The Sri Ram Sena protested against the stabbing of one of their activists by organising a shutdown of educational institutions and shops . The district administration responded by declaring a holiday for all educational institutions in Mangalore taluk , and extended prohibitory orders under the Section 144 Criminal Procedure Code for two more days in the wake of the attacks and protests as a precaution .
Over 25 Christians were initially arrested by the police during the Adoration incident , in comparison to seven young members of the Bajrang Dal who had initiated the attacks . Chief Minister B. S. Yeddyurappa later stated in a press conference that a total of 153 people had been arrested during the attacks and resultant protests within a two @-@ day period and that some had been charged with looting , arson and rioting , saying that they would be " punished in accordance with the provisions of the law under they were charged . " The BBC reported that over 170 people had been arrested during the events . However , Superintendent of Police in Mangalore , N. Satheesh Kumar , claimed to have made just 89 arrests in total . Four policemen , half a dozen people and journalist Anil Jogi were reportedly injured in the Adoration incident , and three police vehicles damaged . The police stated that over 30 people were injured and eight police vehicles had been damaged in the overall attacks , and that nearly 40 people and 20 police were injured in the attacks in total . Several of the injured were taken to Father Muller Medical College and Wenlock District Hospital . Although three churches were attacked in neighbouring Udupi district , it remained peaceful during the aftermath .
Many congregations gathered in their churches upon hearing news of the attacks , volunteering to spend the night there to protect them from further attacks . The local Catholic leaders demanded a peaceful bandh on 15 September in and around the city of Mangalore , and as a response Catholic traders and transport owners closed their shops and stopped their vehicles . A memorandum was submitted to the district council at 10 @.@ 30 am , seeking protection for the lives and property of Christians . Prayers were to be held in all the 48 churches of the district on Wednesday , 17 September . On 6 October 2008 , some 10 @,@ 000 people from civil society and religious organisations organised a march to protest against the anti @-@ Christian perpetrators of the attacks .
= = = Reports of state and police misconduct = = =
The Christian community of Mangalore accused the police of doing nothing to prevent attacks by Hindu radicals . Mangalore Police Superintendent N. Satheesh Kumar himself admitted that the police did have information that pro @-@ Hindu organisations were planning to attack Christian places of worship in the district , but failed to do anything about it . The Christian community accused the Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) government under B. S. Yeddyurappa of involvement in the attacks and backing the anti @-@ Christian campaigns . In response to the report that the police had information , Fr . Henry Sequeira , chancellor of the Mangalore Diocese said , " If the police knew about this in advance and still could not prevent the attacks , then we have no hope . " However , Superintendent Kumar had made security arrangements near the New Life Prayer Centre in Kankanady and had successfully barred the miscreants from entering and vandalising the centre at that particular location , leading to a violent conflict with the police . The police were also criticised by Christians for using excessive force in suppressing the protests and aggressively subduing Christian protesters whilst failing to punish the offending Hindu nationalist perpetrators ; photographs and video footage has emerged of the beating of some of the protestors with canes . Caning by the police was also reported at Panemangalore and Farangipet .
Phelix D 'Souza , a resident of Permannur , alleged that the police took him into custody and tortured him and opened a baseless case against him , sending him to jail for 11 days . Lance Rego , a Mangalore resident , claimed that " many of the police personnel who entered the premises of Holy Cross Church at Kulshekar were wearing helmets usually worn by two @-@ wheeler drivers and not the ones meant for police personnel . Hence , I wonder whether they were police personnel or cadres of the Bajrang Dal . " Another resident , Marcel Henry Ferao , alleged that " prohibitory orders were imposed on those who were inside the church compound and not on the Bajrang Dal cadres who were outside the church compound and were pelting stones " . Dinal Saldanha of Kulshekar alleged that the police used tear @-@ gas shells which were past their expiry date on the premises , and that exposure to the gas resulted in problems with her eyesight . Many Catholic women reported incidents of police violence to the Deputy Commissioner M. Maheshwar Rao and other government officials , revealing their bruises , and demanding that action be taken against them .
Girija Vyas , President of the National Commission for Women ( NCW ) , met with the affected women of Mangalore and visited various hospitals , schools and parishes in the area , and expressed concern at the way in which the police had handled the event . Two police constables , Nandakumar and Shivaram , were suspended following a stone throwing incident within Siddapura police jurisdiction , in which windows of a church had been smashed . Chief Minister of State Yeddyurappa stated that senior civil and police officials of the districts would be held responsible if attacks on churches and prayer halls occurred in areas under their jurisdiction , further stating : " Strict action will be taken against you [ the police ] without fear or favour " . In Dakshina Kanada district , community members reported that the administration had attempted to have Superintendent of Police N. Satish Kumar transferred . However , the official report into the attacks initiated by the government , released on January 2011 , contradicted this and stated " the impression and allegations that the top police officers and the district administration had colluded with the attackers in attacking the churches or places of worship has no merit . The concerned police in all districts did their best and have been successful in nabbing most of such miscreants and large number of charge @-@ sheets have been filed in various courts which have to finally adjudicate their identity . "
Mahendra Kumar , the former state convener of the Bajrang Dal , claimed that he was incarcerated for 42 days in Mangalore before being released on conditional bail by Karnataka High Court Justice Ashok B. Hinchigeri on 25 October 2008 , and was used as a scapegoat by the BJP regime to " save the government from further embarrassment after the church attacks and on instructions from the Sangh Parivar leaders . The police had originally protested against his being released on bail , a week after the attacks . Kumar stated that the BJP government in permitting the attacks had " fallen low on values and is engrossed in corruption . "
= = Reactions = =
= = = Political response = = =
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh spoke to Karnataka Governor Rameshwar Thakur and Chief Minister B. S. Yeddyurappa by phone from his Delhi residence in the aftermath of the attacks on churches and Christians , and expressed shock at the attacks . He directed the chief minister to take immediate steps to provide ample protection to religious institutions and maintain communal harmony . The Udupi district Congress committee submitted a memorandum to Deputy Commissioner P. Hemalatha , demanding that the state government initiate legal action and punish the culprits of the attacks . The Congress party opposition leader Mallikarjun Kharge said , " The BJP is responsible for the attacks . It is creating social disharmony " further adding that they were " actively inciting further violence " against Christians in the state . Special Home Secretary M. L. Kumawat visited some of the areas affected by the attacks and said that the state government " needs to do more and arrest all those responsible for the attacks . "
Yeddyurappa strongly denied any involvement of his government in the attacks , but admitted that the police were to blame for not taking precautionary measures , describing it as a " dereliction of duty " . He believed the attacks were a response from " some vested interest trying to tarnish the secular image of his government " . He said at the press conference , " My government is committed to maintaining peace and harmony in the state ; law and order has been top priority by my government .... Nobody is above law , irrespective of caste and creed the culprits will be punished " . The state government ensured that special security was given to important places of worship throughout the state in the aftermath of the attacks and Yeddyurappa set up a corps of detectives to investigate . He promised the Christian community leaders that all churches and shrines vandalised in the districts of Dakshina Kannada , Udupi , and Chikkamagaluru during the attacks would be restored and paid a visit to all of the areas affected by communal riots and attacks . Some politicians such as former Prime Minister and Janata Dal ( Secular ) ( JDS ) national president H.D. Deve Gowda and M. P. Prakash also visited the Christian institutions in the aftermath . In February 2010 , Yeddyurappa allocated ₹ 500 millions for Christian development projects in Karnataka in his state budget , the first time he had ever done so .
The Home Ministry advised the Karnataka government to do all it could in its power to prevent the recurrence of the attacks and to restore faith in the authorities in the region , asking for them to strongly suppress violence and vandalism and to punish the offenders . Senior BJP leader L. K. Advani , during his two @-@ day visit to Assam and Meghalaya , denounced the attacks in Orissa and Karnataka , saying , " I strongly condemn these acts of violence and vandalism . The law must take its course and the culprits must be brought to justice . " Former defence minister George Fernandes wrote to Yeddyurappa urging him to restore peace and challenging radicals to prove alleged conversions . Deve Gowda wrote a letter to Prime Minister Manmohan Singh asking for him to impose a " blanket ban " on the Bajrang Dal and Sri Ram Sena in the wake of the attacks , remarking that it " would send a categorical message across the world that secular India will not tolerate fascism , fanaticism and fundamentalism of any colour or kind . " He described the attacks as nothing but " state sponsored rowdism " , and accused the Karnataka government of trying to turn the state into a " Hindutva laboratory " .
= = = Religious response = = =
The Bishop of Mangalore Diocese Aloysius Paul D 'Souza stated that Christians were " deeply hurt " over the desecration of the Holy Cross and Sacred Sacrament in the Adoration monastery . The Archbishop of Bangalore Archdiocese , Bernard Moras , who met with Yeddyurappa in the aftermath of the attacks said , " I want to tell you , Mr. Yeddyurappa we are wounded ! " Fr . William Menezes , the public relations officer of the Mangalore Diocese , said : " After consulting various leaders and based on the assurance given by Chief Minister B. S. Yeddyurappa , district in @-@ charge Minister J. Krishna Palemar , the police and district administration , we hereby appeal to our community to stop agitation immediately to maintain peace . " Fr . Prashant Madtha , former principal of St. Aloysius College said in response to the attacks and resultant protests , " The retaliation from the Christian community you saw was happening for the very first time in the history of the state . It was not the correct response , I condemn it , but then our youth have started imitating the enemy . There is a lot of fear . We don 't know when the stones will rain on our roofs . We are even scared to talk . " Fr . Joseph Valiaparambil , Bishop of Belthangady , also said that Christian community of Belthangady was deeply hurt and shocked at the attacks , saying that " We strongly condemn the act . We are not violent and do not believe in violence . We respect the administration and the law of the country . We respect all religions . We , the Christian minority community , need protection from kinds of anti @-@ social , anti @-@ religious activities " . The community leaders in a press conference also appealed internationally , stating " we want to bring to the notice of the world and human right commissions and authorities in Canada to use their diplomatic channels about the total collapse of law and order in Mangalore and other parts of India , and the failure of the state to protect the lives of the clergy and the minority community " .
Joseph Dias , General Secretary of the Mumbai @-@ based Catholic Secular Forum ( CSF ) , visited most of the churches attacked in Karnataka during the event and said :
" The vested political and economic interests are hitting back with vengeance . Christians are sitting ducks , where no or negligible retaliation expected . The Church works in areas , where even the government dares not to go because it is not profitable . The Church 's education , healthcare and social services in these backward areas has empowered the weak , poor and deprived vested interests of vote banks and cheap labour . The emancipation through education , healthcare , awareness of alternatives and provision of opportunities have set the oppressed classes free from the clutches of the upper caste or rich Hindus and slavery of their political masters . These interests are therefore hitting back at the Christians to maintain their hold on those , whom they have been exploiting since ages ... We condemn those indulging in conversion by force or inducement . Catholics do not accept a conversion , unless it comes from the heart . But the saffron brigade raises this bogey , since in believes in Geobbels 's ( Nazi Propaganda Chief Joseph Goebbels ) [ sic ] principle of repeating a lie umpteen times , so that it will stick . Another ploy is to divide us into Catholics and Protestants , so that they can divide and rule . This makes it easy for Hindutva radicals to take the remaining Christian population . Those who criticise groups that convert by inducement , must realise that an individual , who converts , will do so only if he finds his previous religion with limitations and Christianity a better faith . "
Indian Christian expatriates in the Middle East united to condemn the attacks . In Kuwait City , Indian Catholics met in Kuwait Cathedral under Reverend Fr . Melwyn D 'Cunha on 15 September to voice their support to the Catholic community in Mangalore . They held a special " Prayer Service for Peace & Solidarity " on 18 September at the Cathedral auditorium . In Doha , Qatar , advisory and executive committee members of the Mangalore Cultural Association met on 17 September at the residence of Felix Lobo and denounced the attacks . In the United States on 17 September , many Christian leaders from various organisations met at the residence of Bishop , Rt. Rev. Dr. Jacob Angadiath of Syro Malabar Catholic Mission ( SMCC ) and announced a day of prayer vigil , fasting and a peace rally at the Syro Malabar Cathedral in Bellwood , Illinois on 28 September . Fr . George Madathiprambil , Vicar General of the Diocese , urged all Christians to " unite under one umbrella " , and Jos Anthony Puthenveetil , the Regional Vice @-@ President of FIACONA , urged the communities to unite , regardless of religions . Rev. M. J. Thomas of the Church of South India said " since many Indian Churches and American local Churches are expected to join in the peace seeking rally , this will be a history making event . " Various Hindu leaders , including those from Ayodhya , also denounced the attacks .
Mahendra Kumar , one of the leaders of the Hindu militant youth organisation , denied that any Catholic churches were attacked by his group but reportedly accepted responsibility for the attacks on prayer halls belonging to the New Life Fellowship Trust . He stated that the Bajrang Dal were not against Christianity in the region , but were offended by the alleged forced conversions . Kumar had initially denied any involvement in the attacks before being arrested on 20 September . When asked again at a later date however if he had accepted responsibility for the attacks , he denied it . Kumar resigned from Bajrang Dal on 1 October 2008 after witnessing a Hindu woman who had decided to commit suicide with her three children but was saved by Christian missionaries . He stated " That was the time I realised that life is more important than dharma ( religion ) . A lot needs to be done for the betterment of life . My dream is to build a society that values life more than religion . In jail I read several literary works . I joined Bajrang Dal so that we could mobilise the youth for a good cause , but at the end of the day all our concepts were politically motivated . " In February 2011 , after the commission reports into the attacks were published , Kumar formally apologised to the public for the attacks and accused the BJP Government of corruption . On 21 February 2011 he joined the JDS , declaring , " I am today shedding the shackles of communalism to strive for communal harmony , for which the JDS is working . " His successor Suryanarayana also denied any involvement in the attacks . Some pro @-@ Hindu elements believed that the attacks were politically motivated by the main opposition parties in the state rather than being purely based upon religious indifference , especially the Milagres Church attack .
In response to the alleged forced conversions , the VHP gave a 3 @-@ month deadline for New Life Fellowship Trust to stop all conversion activities in Mangalore . Bishop Aloysius Paul D 'Souza declared that the Mangalore Diocese would distance itself from the New Life Fellowship Trust , stating that the " Catholic Church does not believe in forceful religious conversion " . However , this was opposed by Margaret Alva , General Secretary of the All India Congress Committee ( AICC ) . She stated , " Christians were a microscopic minority in India . We must put aside the differences between our various sects and come together to fight fascist forces . " She further described the stance taken by the diocese as " improper " . Alva also objected to the peace agreement between the local Catholic leadership and the VHP in which the latter had allegedly laid down a code of ethics for the Christians to follow , and remarked that " the Indian Constitution is the only code of ethics for all Indians " . An investigation in the Udupi district headed by Mohammad Shafi Qureshi , Chairman of the National Commission for Minorities ( NCM ) , failed to discover any evidence of forced conversion . Qureshi stated that his commission had not received any report of forced conversion from the district administration of Udupi district and said , " Every Indian had the right to profess and propagate any religion . Conversion by force is not permitted " .
= = Investigations = =
An initial report by a committee , composed of some 17 human rights activists from Orissa , Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu , Puducherry , Karnataka and Maharashtra , which formed to look into the violence in Mangalore , stated that the attacks were carried out by the Bajrang Dal and the Sri Ram Sena . They asserted that the event was a " pretext by the police to let loose a savage assault on the community and its sacred institutions " , and that the police " conducted themselves as activists of the Bajrang Dal and not as officers of the law , under the benign gaze of the friendly state government . " The police were reported to be " more interested in interrogating the nuns than in investigating the assaults . " The National Commission for Minorities asked for a ban on the Bajrang Dal , after conducting reports into events in Orissa and Karnataka .
Retired Justice M. F. Saldanha , formerly of the Bombay High Court , was outspoken against the protests and published a report in 2011 investigating the attacks on Christian institutions and people , written up after he visited 413 locations , examined 673 witnesses and 2 @,@ 114 victims of the attacks . He described the attacks as " state @-@ sponsored terrorism " , and concluded that " the attacks and incidents which took place were instigated and pre @-@ planned . They were not only supported by the state , but were also covered up for by the state . " The report also stated , " The responsibility for this devolves squarely on Home Minister V. S. Acharya and the Chief Minister B S Yediyurappa " . Saldanha believes that the " communal forces " at work attacking Christian institutions are also part of an anti @-@ Islam movement on the coastal belt of India . This was later backed by Joseph Dias of the Catholic Secular Forum who said that the Karnataka riots were " part of a wider plan of radical Hindutva elements targeting the Christian community after the Muslim community " , which had manifested in all of the BJP @-@ ruled states of India . Saldanha further stated , " There is 100 per cent evidence of two things : the state machinery and the police had a role in attacks on churches . There is videographic and photographic evidence of police entering places of worship . "
The official commission enquiring into the attacks on Christians , originally constituted on 19 September 2009 for a period of three months , had been extended ten times , causing dismay amongst local Christians . Yeddyurappa initially stated that a judicial inquiry into the attacks was unnecessary , as he believed that the state police were competent enough to investigate and bring the perpetrators to justice themselves . Jesuit priest Fr . M. K. George remarked that " The government does not seem to be serious about the early release of the commission report ... the government is lacking the political will to act " . Revd . Manohar Chandra Prasad criticised the government for " soft pedaling " and believed that the extension was an indication of the government 's " step @-@ motherly " attitude toward Christians . The official report of Justice B. K. Somasekhara , initiated by Yeddyurappa 's BJP @-@ led state government was eventually made public in January 2011 , in which it stated that the attacks were suspected to have been initiated by the Bajrang Dal , denying any involvement of the state government and the police , " true Hindus " , or any cover @-@ up in the attacks after collecting 2 @,@ 204 exhibits and 30 materials related to the attacks , 25 spot inspections and examining attacks on 57 churches in Karnataka . The report stated , " There is no basis to apprehension of Christian petitioners that politicians , BJP , mainstream Sangh Parivar and State Government directly or indirectly are involved in the attacks . No politicians or representative of any political party in the state who politicised the incidents of attack for their benefits immediately did not come before the commission with their affidavits or to give evidence or opinion in the matter . " The report — which cost around ₹ 30 million and took over 28 months , 300 sittings , and 800 pieces of recorded evidence to be realised — concluded that the district authorities and the police had , in most cases , taken the " appropriate steps regarding the Church and the people including the required protection . " Somasekhara concluded that the attacks were " carried out by ' misguided elements ' following circulation of literature insulting Hindu gods and reports of conversion activity by some Christian groups " and that " the Roman Catholic church and its leaders were not involved in conversion . " In the case of Chikkamagaluru district , Somasekhara noted that " the Government may enquire and withdraw the privileges to every people who is indulging or getting converted in such illegal activities of conversions commercially . " The report was widely criticised by the Christian community for being " biased " and activists belonging to the Religious Christian Minority Wing of the JDS burnt a copy of the Somasekhara report . Archbishop of Bangalore Archdiocese Bernard Moras rejected the Somasekhara report , stating , " It has failed to address the terms of reference of the Commission and has failed to do justice to the Christian community . " He demanded that the state government launch a Central Bureau of Investigation probe into the attacks , also saying that " we will make a representation to the government putting forth our demand . We will make a representation to the chief minister , the governor , various organisations including the Human Rights and the Central government " . Bajrang Dal State convener Suryanarayana also disputed the veracity of the Somasekhara report in its statements about the Bajrang Dal involvement and former Bajrang Dal state convener Mahendra Kumar . He issued a statement saying that " Bajrang Dal had no role to play in the incidents of attacks on churches and the statement given by Mr. Kumar during the attacks in 2008 were his personal views and the organisation had clarified this aspect then . However , Uday Kumar Shetty , the president of the district unit of the BJP , approved of the report , believing that the report was correct in its assertion that the Sangh Parivar were not involved in the attacks .
= = 2011 protest = =
On 20 February 2011 , following the publication of Saldanha 's and Somasekhara 's contradictory reports on the attacks on churches , more than 100 @,@ 000 Christians representing some 45 Christian denominations and secular organisations gathered in Mangalore to protest . Present was Bishop Aloysius Paul D 'Souza of Mangalore Diocese , Bishop Emeritus C. L. Furtado and Bishop John S. Sadananda of the CSI Karnataka Southern Diocese , AICC general secretary Oscar Fernandes , Bishop Lawrence Mukkuzhy of the Catholic Syro @-@ Malabar Diocese of Belthangady , Geevarghese Mar Divannasious of the Syro @-@ Malankara Diocese of Puttur , Diocesan Vicar @-@ General Msgr Denis M. Prabhu ; and some 24 new @-@ generation churches united under the Karnataka Missions Network ( KMN ) including the Campus Crusade for Christ ( CCC ) , Operation Mobilization Bookstall ( OMB ) , Good News Book Centre ( GNBC ) , All India Catholic Union ( AICU ) , Catholic Association of South Kanara ( CASK ) , and International Federation of Karnataka Christian Associations ( IFKCA ) . Secular organisations participating in the protest included Udupi Jilla Alpasankhyatara Vedike ( UJAV ) , the People 's Union for Civil Liberties ( PUCL ) , the DK District Committee , the local unit of the Democratic Youth Federation of India ( DYFI ) , and the Muslim Vartakara Sangha ( VS ) and Muslim Okkoota groups . The protest rally was " organised against a backdrop of an apparent whitewash by the B. K. Somasekhara Commission concerning Hindu radicals and government agencies . " The protesters tied black cloths over their mouths and carried black flags as they walked silently for about a kilometre in one of the strongest Christian areas of the city . George Castelino , a Catholic lay leader who guided the march , stated that the black " symbolised that the action of the government and its commission have silenced Christians . " Rev. Alwyn Culaso of the Full Gospel Church said that " This is a sea of Christianity that is wounded by the attacks on the churches by the fundamental groups . The government should look at the faith and patience of these people and give justice . " On 17 February 2011 , Ronald Colaco , Chairman of IFKCA and Higher Education Minister V. S. Acharya submitted a memorandum to Yeddyurappa , demanding that the cases filed against Christian youths be dropped . Following the publications of the reports and subsequent protests , the government of Karnataka announced that it would drop 338 cases against Christians who had protested in the attacks . In December 2011 , 23 cases against Christians were dropped upon request by the Karnataka Christians International and the Mangalore Diocese .
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= Minority Treaties =
Minority Treaties refer to the treaties , League of Nations Mandates , and unilateral declarations made by countries applying for membership in the League of Nations and United Nations . Most of the treaties entered into force as a result of the Paris Peace Conference .
The treaties conferred basic rights on all the inhabitants of the country without distinction of birth , nationality , language , race or religion and protected the rights of all nationals of the country who differed in race , religion , or language from the majority of the inhabitants of the country . The country concerned had to acknowledge the clauses of the treaty : as fundamental laws of state ; and as obligations of international concern placed under the guarantee of the League of Nations , or United Nations .
= = Background = =
The protection of religious and minority rights had been a matter of international concern and the subject of protections ever since the days of the Peace of Westphalia . The concept of granting title to a territory on the basis of minority rights treaties started in the 1870s with Serbia , Montenegro , and Romania .
At the Versailles Peace Conference the Supreme Council established ' The Committee on New States and for The Protection of Minorities ' . All the new successor states were compelled to sign minority rights treaties as a precondition of diplomatic recognition . It was agreed that although the new States had been recognized , they had not been ' created ' before the signatures of the final Peace Treaties . Clemenceau noted in an aide @-@ memoire attached to the Polish treaty that the minority protections were consistent with diplomatic precedent :
This treaty does not constitute any fresh departure . It has for long been the established procedure of the public law of Europe that when a State is created , or when large accessions of territory are made to an established State , the joint and formal recognition of the Great Powers should be accompanied by the requirement that such States should , in the form of a binding International convention undertake to comply with certain principles of Government . In this regard I must recall for your consideration the fact that it is to the endeavors and sacrifices of the Powers in whose name I am addressing you that the Polish nation owes the recovery of its independence . It is by their decision that Polish sovereignty is being restored over the territories in question , and that the inhabitants of these territories are being incorporated into the Polish nation .... ... There rests , therefore , upon these Powers an obligation , which they cannot evade , to secure in the most permanent and solemn form guarantees for certain essential rights which will afford to the inhabitants the necessary protection , whatever changes may take place in the internal constitution of the Polish State .
The new treaties gave minorities the right to appeal directly to the League or UN General Assembly . In the case of the Mandates and the UN Partition Plan for Palestine compromissory clauses provide for the International Court 's jurisdiction . The victorious powers attempted to ensure the stable development of the region between defeated Germany and Soviet Russia , a region characterized by the existence of many ethnic groups and the emergence of new nations . The idea behind the Minority Treaties was that by subjecting those countries to the scrutiny of others and to the threat of sanction and intervention from the newly created international body , the League of Nations , the rights of minorities would be safeguarded .
As with most of the principals adopted by the League , the Minorities Treaties were a part of the Wilsonian idealist approach to international relations , and as with the League itself , the Minority Treaties were increasingly ignored by the respective governments , with the entire system mostly collapsing in the late 1930s . Despite the political failure they remained the basis of international law . After World War II the legal principles were incorporated in the UN Charter and a host of international human rights treaties .
Many international law norms and customary practices developed in the inter @-@ war years by the League of Nations are still in use today . The procedures for managing intrastate and inter @-@ ethnic issues include international supervision , regional economic unions , minority protection , plebiscites , and territorial partition . The Palestine and Bosnian Partition Plans and European Union practice are modern examples of conditioning recognition of statehood on human rights , democracy , and minority protection guarantees .
= = Bilateral treaties = =
There were several bilateral Minority Treaties , each signed between one of the countries in question and the League . The treaties were signed between the League and some of the newly established nations : Poland , Yugoslavia ( also known then as the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ) , Czechoslovakia . Similar treaties were also imposed on Greece and Entente @-@ allied Romania in exchange for their territorial enlargement , and on some of the nations defeated in the First World War ( Hungary , Austria , Bulgaria , Turkey ) . At the same time , Albania , Lithuania , Estonia , Latvia and , outside of Europe , Iraq were persuaded to accept minority obligations as part of the terms of their admission to the League of Nations .
The Polish treaty ( signed in June 1919 , as the first of the Minority Treaties , and serving as the template for the subsequent ones ) is often referred to as either the Little Treaty of Versailles or the Polish Minority Treaty ; the Austrian , Czechoslovak and Yugoslavian treaties are referred to as Treaty of St Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye ( 1919 ) ; the Romanian treaty as the Treaty of Paris ( 1919 ) , the Greek as the Treaty of Sèvres ( 1920 ) ; the Hungarian as the Treaty of Trianon ( 1920 ) , the Bulgarian as the Treaty of Neuilly @-@ sur @-@ Seine ( 1919 ) , and the Turkish as the Treaty of Lausanne ( 1923 ) . In most of the above cases the minority treaties were only one of many articles of the aforementioned treaties .
= = = List of unilateral declarations = = =
Declaration by the government of Albania , issued 2 October 1921 .
Declaration by the government of Latvia , issued 19 July 1923 , heard by the Council of the League on 11 September 1923 .
Declaration by the government of Lithuania , issued 12 May 1922 .
Declaration by the government of Bulgaria , issued 29 September 1924 .
Declaration by the government of Greece , issued 29 September 1924 .
= = = List of bilateral treaties = = =
Austrian – Czechoslovak treaty , concluded 7 June 1920 . Ratifications exchanged in Vienna , March 10 , 1921 . Registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 29 March 1921 . Supplemented by additional protocol relating to Carlsbad on 23 August 1920 .
= = = List of multilateral treaties = = =
Treaty between the Principal Allied and Associated Powers and Poland ( June 28 , 1919 ) ;
Treaty between the Principal Allied and Associated Powers and Czechoslovakia ( September 10 , 1919 )
Treaty between the Principal Allied and Associated Powers and the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( September 10 , 1919 )
Treaty between the Principal Allied and Associated Powers and Greece ( August 10 , 1920 )
Treaty between the Principal Allied and Associated Powers and Roumania , signed at Paris on 9 December 1919 and went into effect on 16 July 1920 . Ratified by the British government on 12 January 1921 , by the Japanese government on 25 January 1921 and by the Italian government on 3 March 1921 . Registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 21 July 1921 .
= = System = =
The Minority Treaties were the basis of the League 's system of minorities . Their aim was to protect the minorities without alienating the majority of the countries ' population . The procedure was centered on the Council of the League ( rather than the more encompassing Assembly ) which had the right and obligation to raise complaints of treaty violations . Individual Council members had the unique privilege of placing complaints on the agenda , even through the petitions for that could be sent from any source . The majority of cases , however , has never been handled by the council . Before reaching the Council , the petition passed through : the minority section of the Secretariat which selected the petitions according to some criteria ( prohibition of violent language , integrity of the state , complaints about specific violations ... ) , tried a first mediation and asked for supplementary information ; the special committee of three that was appointed by the council and had the faculty of :
dismissing the petition ;
trying a second stage of mediation
submitting the question to the Council , which had the opportunity to seek a final agreement between the parties . If the accused government and the League could not reach a satisfactory compromise , the final decision was referred to the Permanent Court of International Justice ( most cases were solved by negotiations between affected governments before the International Court intervention ) .
= = Importance = =
The Minority Treaties , recognized as history 's first minority treaties , were an important step in protection of minorities and recognition of human rights , bringing the subject to an international forum . In them , for the first time , states and international communities recognized that there are people living outside normal legal protection and who required an additional guarantee of their elementary rights from an external body , as protection within individual states itself may not be sufficient . Among issues successfully resolved by the Minority Treaties was the Åland crisis .
Nonetheless , the treaties were also subject to past and present criticism . The countries subject to the treaties saw it as limiting their sovereignty and infringing their right for self @-@ determination , as the League was allowed to influence national , religious and educational policy in those countries , and suggesting that they were not competent enough to deal with their internal matters . Further criticism centered on the treaties not being obligatory for the established countries ( like France , Germany , United Kingdom or Russia ) . The Western countries , who dictated the treaties in the aftermath of the First World War , saw minority safeguards as unnecessary for themselves , and trusted that they could fulfill the " standard of civilization " . It was the new Central and Eastern European countries that were not trusted to respect those rights , and , of course , Bolshevik Russia , still in the throes of the Russian Revolution , was a separate case .
This inequality further offended the smaller countries . Finally , this inequality also meant that the minority rights were not seen as a universal right ; it was exclusively a foreign policy issue , and thus populations that had no state to back up their claims were relatively disadvantaged when compared to ones backed up by a powerful state or group of interests .
With the decline of League of Nations in the 1930s , the treaties were increasingly considered unenforceable and useless . The League Council , charged with enforcing the various minority treaties , often failed to act upon complaints from minorities . There was an unwritten rule that state policies aimed at the cultural assimilation of minorities should be ignored as the " minor evil " with regard to the rights enshrined in the Minority Treaties when those policies were seen as guaranteeing the internal stability of the state concerned .
When the Council did review cases , the reviews were commonly dominated by the countries whose ethnic groups were affected and that tried not only to resolve the problem of mistreatment of their minorities but also score other political goals on the international scene , sometimes even sacrificing the very minority in question ( German and Hungarian governments are recognized as having abused the system the most ) . Also , of course , the League , lacking its own army , could not coerce any state to adhere to its recommendations .
Even before Adolf Hitler seized control of Germany in 1933 , the problems with the Minority Treaties were evident . Various European governments continued to abuse minorities , the latter loudly protested , their complaints were exploited by interested parties with ulterior motives , and the League interfered as little as possible . The system suffered an apparent death blow with Poland 's rejection of its treaty in 1934 .
= = = Renewed interest = = =
Judge Sir Hersch Lauterpacht explained the legal effectiveness of the operation of this system of minority protection treaties . He pointed out the Court 's determination to discourage the evasion of these international obligations , and its repeated affirmation of
the self @-@ evident principle of international law that a State cannot invoke its municipal law as the reason for the non @-@ fulfillment of its international obligations .
The United Nations established a formal minority rights protection system as an integral part of the Plan for the Future Government of Palestine .
The status of the treaties was questioned by the United Nations Secretariat in 1950 , but a modern @-@ day Chairman @-@ Rapporteur of the UN Working Group on Minorities subsequently advised that no competent UN organ had made any decision which that extinguish the obligations under those instruments . He added that it was doubtful whether that could even be done by the United Nations . The provision that ' No discrimination of any kind shall be made between the inhabitants on the ground of race , religion , language or sex . ' is enshrined in a multitude of international human rights conventions and the UN Charter itself .
Li @-@ ann Thio , a professor of international and human rights law at the National University of Singapore noted that many international law norms and customary practices developed in the inter @-@ war years by the League of Nations are still in use today . She specifically addressed the procedures for managing intrastate and inter @-@ ethnic issues through ( 1 ) international supervision , ( 2 ) supranational integration , ( 3 ) minority protection , ( 4 ) plebiscites , and ( 5 ) partitions . She cited the Palestine and Bosnian Partition Plans and 1990s European practice as examples of conditioning recognition of statehood on human rights , democracy , and minority protection guarantees .
The International Court of Justice performed a legal analysis of the status of the territory of Palestine in order to determine the applicable law , before seeking to establish whether that law had been breached . The Court said that in addition to the general guarantees of freedom of movement under Article 12 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , account had to be taken of specific guarantees of access to the Christian , Jewish and Islamic Holy Places . It noted that minority and religious rights had been placed under international guarantee by Article 62 of the Treaty of Berlin , 13 July 1878 , and observed that those " existing rights " had been preserved in accordance with the safeguarding provisions of Article 13 of the League of Nations Mandate and a chapter of General Assembly resolution 181 ( II ) on the future government of Palestine .
The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples recognized the urgent need to respect and promote the rights of indigenous peoples affirmed in treaties , agreements and other constructive arrangements with States . It also noted that the rights affirmed in treaties , agreements and other constructive arrangements between States and indigenous peoples are , in some situations , matters of international concern , interest , responsibility and character . In many instances the minority rights treaties provided for arbitration and granted the International Court of Justice jurisdiction to resolve disputes .
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= Over There ( Fringe ) =
" Over There " is the two @-@ part second season finale of the Fox science fiction drama series Fringe . They are the 22nd and 23rd episodes of the season , and the 42nd and 43rd episodes of the series overall . Both parts were written by Academy Award @-@ winning screenwriter Akiva Goldsman , together with showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman . Goldsman also served as director , his first such credit since the season premiere .
Fringe 's premise is based on the idea of two parallel universes , our own and the Other Side , each of which contains historical idiosyncrasies . The two universes began to clash in 1985 , after Dr. Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) stole the parallel universe version of his son , Peter , following his own son 's death . The finale 's narrative recounts what happens when Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) is taken back to the Other Side by his real father , dubbed " Walternate " ( Noble ) . FBI agent Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) and Walter lead a team of former Cortexiphan test subjects to retrieve him , after discovering that Peter is an unwitting part of Walternate 's plans to bring about the destruction of our universe using an ancient doomsday device .
In the finale , the main characters spend the longest amount of time in the parallel universe to date . The writers sought to emphasize the differences between the two worlds : Anna Torv created a unique personality and physical demeanor for her character 's doppelgänger , Fauxlivia ; DC Comics designed special covers based upon some of their classic editions to display in the Other Side . These and other popular culture differences were noted and appreciated by critics , persuading the writers to add more in the third season . The episodes mark the first appearance of recurring character Lincoln Lee ( Seth Gabel ) , as well as the return of actors Leonard Nimoy and Kirk Acevedo as William Bell and Agent Charlie Francis , respectively .
Although originally intended to air on the same night , the two parts were broadcast in the United States a week apart . On its initial airing on May 13 , 2010 , an estimated 5 @.@ 99 million viewers watched part one . Part two aired on May 20 , and was viewed by an estimated audience of 5 @.@ 68 million . Both episodes received overwhelmingly positive reviews , and the season was chosen for a significant number of " best of " lists by various media outlets ; many critics praised the second episode 's cliffhanger in particular . The finale was included in most of the categories at Entertainment Weekly 's voter @-@ driven TV Season Finale Awards , placing first in two . Pinkner , Wyman , and Goldsman submitted both episodes for the drama writing and directing categories for the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards , and Nimoy submitted his work from the second episode for consideration in the Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series category ; none received a nomination .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part one = = =
Dr. Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) and FBI agent Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) discover that Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) has agreed to return with his real father , dubbed " Walternate " ( Noble ) , to his own universe called the Other Side , which runs parallel to ours . One of the mysterious Observers ( Michael Cerveris ) leaves Olivia a note indicating that Peter is named in a prophecy as the one responsible for the end of the world . To warn Peter of his impending role , the Fringe Division work with biotechnology corporation Massive Dynamic to come up with a way to cross over . They form a plan that takes advantage of Olivia 's universe @-@ hopping ability , and recruit three other Cortexiphan test subjects who have unique abilities : Nick Lane ( David Call ) , Sally Clark ( Pascale Hutton ) , and James Heath ( Omar Metwally ) , two of whom appeared in previous episodes . The team — composed of Walter , Olivia , Nick , Sally , and James — successfully arrives on the Other Side . James dies shortly after arrival , but the rest manage to escape the alternate reality 's Fringe Division , who had used their special technology to detect their arrival . It is revealed that Walternate is the Secretary of Defense on the Other Side .
Peter reunites with his real mother , Elizabeth ( Orla Brady ) , while Walter 's team journeys to meet with William Bell ( Leonard Nimoy ) at Central Park . But instead of Bell the alternate Fringe Division appears , and attacks Walter 's team . Nick is shot and Sally stays with him ; she produces a suicidal fireball that torches both her and Nick to ashes and severely burns the Other Side Fringe Division 's principal investigator Lincoln Lee ( Seth Gabel ) . Walter is shot and walks to the hospital . Olivia follows her alternate counterpart and encounters Bell , who insists he did not betray their location to the Fringe Division and tells her that Walter is in trouble . Walternate is seen in the room housing the doomsday device Peter will be a part of , and leaves with its final component .
= = = Part two = = =
Walternate learns of Walter 's presence in the hospital and dispatches " Fauxlivia " ( Torv ) and " Alt @-@ Charlie " ( Kirk Acevedo ) to apprehend him , but before their arrival Bell and Olivia liberate Walter and escape . Fauxlivia sees a surveillance shot of Olivia and Walter and decides to confer with Walternate about the doppelgängers . During a discussion in his office , Walternate lies to Peter about the doomsday machine 's real purpose , claiming it can help to heal both worlds . Fauxlivia meets Peter in Walternate 's office and subsequently drives him to his new apartment . Walter and Bell travel to Harvard to collect some equipment necessary for the journey back to their own universe , and Walter reveals his intense dislike for Bell , whom he considers to have been a selfish war profiteer while he himself was locked away for seventeen years . Bell tells Walter that the parallel universe equivalent of himself died in a car accident as a young man . Olivia confronts Fauxlivia , who recognizes that Olivia has feelings for Peter . The women fight , and after rendering Fauxlivia unconscious Olivia dyes her hair to assume Fauxlivia 's identity . Meanwhile , Peter discovers that the machine is symbiotic and needs a particular human to control it — him .
Olivia and an oblivious alt @-@ Charlie visit Peter to take him to a safe location . Olivia knocks out alt @-@ Charlie and reveals herself to Peter , informing him of the machine 's real purpose and Walternate 's intentions . Peter tells her that he does not belong in either reality , following which Olivia admits her romantic feelings for him and convinces him to leave with her . The couple race to meet Walter and Bell at the Opera House , where Fauxlivia and a team of Fringe Commandos catch up with them . Bell and Olivia hold off the assault while Peter and Walter set up the dimensional device to enable their return home . Lacking a fuel source for the device , Bell sacrifices himself to create a nuclear reaction , using his body 's unstable molecular state . Close to death , Bell reveals that he removed Walter 's memories at his own request , and he and Walter are reconciled . Olivia , Walter , and Peter return home . Peter tells Walter he will never understand him , but because Walter traveled to another universe twice to save him — which has " gotta count for something " — he forgives him . Olivia is revealed to be Fauxlivia , infiltrating Our Side , when she arrives at a typewriter communication station to await orders . The Olivia from our world is then seen in a military detention center on the Other Side . Walternate visits and stares at Olivia without speaking before leaving her in the dark , in solitary confinement .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and filming = = =
" Over There " was written by Academy Award @-@ winning screenwriter and frequent Fringe collaborator Akiva Goldsman , together with showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman . Goldsman directed the episodes , his first such credit since the season premiere . He explained the finale in a January 2010 interview with Entertainment Weekly : " We 're trying to do the last two episodes as a singular event , a little bit more movie @-@ like . It 's really one big story . We 're approaching it like a mini @-@ feature . It 'll have a singular narrative drive . " They originally intended for the two parts to air on the same night , but Fox told them it would be shown on two nights , a week apart . The episodes first aired in the United States on May 13 and May 20 , 2010 . The writers , finding the script to be easily divisible , ended the first episode with William Bell and Olivia meeting outside Fauxlivia 's apartment , and began the second with Bell helping Walter escape from the hospital .
Pinkner and Wyman brought back the " Cortexiphan kids " , introduced in the first two seasons , because they felt that part of the storyline was really interesting . They wanted the end of the season to be a " beautiful culmination of everything " while traveling to the Other Side . The show had been developing a parallel universe storyline since its conception , but " Over There " marked the longest time spent in that world thus far . Pinker explained the idea of two worlds : " One of the big themes of the show is how small choices that you make define you as a person and can change your life in large ways down the line . " Wyman said that the parallel universe " is a reminder to our viewers that your life is what your choices are . " The two began discussing details about the Other Side early on , especially what the differences between the two universes would be . Pinkner commented in an interview with the Los Angeles Times that " a lot of them are ideas that we jokingly threw out . Some of them , like the notion of zeppelins or the Statue of Liberty if we didn 't let it oxidize or the Grand Central Hotel , we 're not making up . Had the Hindenburg not blown up , zeppelins would be passenger air ships docking at the Empire State Building . That was the plan . We opened ourselves to the standard that it had to be possible . " Pinkner later elaborated , " We 're interested in world building and all that stuff is the texture that actually makes it a world . The richness of detail is what makes it feel real . " They used comic books as one way to subtly differentiate the two worlds . Goldsman , Wyman , and actor Joshua Jackson are longstanding comic book fans and decided to make the character of Peter a fan as well . Goldsman called on his friend Geoff Johns , Chief Creative Officer at DC Comics . He arranged for DC to specially design ten alternate covers for some of their most iconic editions , which were displayed in Peter 's apartment on the Other Side . Visual effects company Eden FX created Peter 's apartment and the alternate New York skyline visible outside his window . When fans reacted positively to these detailed characteristics written into the parallel universe , the producers stated their intention to show a lot more similar details in the third season .
The finale introduces parallel @-@ universe versions of familiar characters , including the Fauxlivia version of Olivia Dunham , both played by actress Anna Torv . One topic of conversation among fans , journalists , and those working on the show was what to call the alternate Olivia to differentiate the two . Names varied , with many using " Fauxlivia " , " Bolivia " , and / or " Altlivia " . The writers chose Fauxlivia because a character in a season three episode referred to her as such . Torv and Akiva Goldsman discussed various ways to differentiate the two depictions of Olivia ; ultimately two different physical demeanors were created . Torv wanted to make the new character " completely different " , but she and Goldsman recognized that the two share some major similarities , as they both are in the same profession and are " fundamentally , genetically really the same person . " According to Torv , Fauxlivia holds herself differently and has " a different silhouette . She 's got a little firefighter , a little military in her . " Torv further explained , " Olivia wants to be the best , but [ Fauxlivia ] just wants to win ; " " There 's just a front @-@ footedness I think to [ her ] , simply because she just doesn 't carry the weight of the world on her shoulders like Olivia does . Olivia 's mum died when she was really little , and [ Fauxlivia ] ' s mum is still around . There 's lots of little , subtle differences . " The producers discussed cutting her hair , but ultimately decided on the auburn hair color to differentiate her . They also made her " a little bit more playful " . Pinkner describes shooting the Fauxlivia scenes in the DVD audio commentary : " When [ Torv ] first showed up on set in this different guise , she had really embodied this other character in a very playful and sexy way . She turned a lot of heads . " Goldsman remarked that Torv 's depiction of Fauxlivia was actually much closer to the actress ' real personality than her performance as Olivia . The producers were so pleased with her Fauxlivia depiction that they thought " it really opened up a bunch of possibilities ... it went from ' let 's see if this experiment works ' to ' how can we get more of this ? ' "
" Over There " marks the first time Olivia meets Fauxlivia . Their meeting was one of the first scenes to be shot ; this caused Anna Torv to be anxious about her new character 's traits " coming across " , as she had not yet developed all her mannerisms for Fauxlivia . While filming the conversation between the two , they did not use a double ; Torv memorized the timing and where she should be looking and pointing her gun , and the characters were filmed one at a time . Torv commented about the scene , " You 're talking to air . Learning both sides ... was tough . " For the fight scene that followed , Torv had to block and aim her gun carefully while being mindful of her movements and the camera 's location — though she was aided by stunt doubles . Torv credits the crew for successfully completing the scene : " I give them all the credit in the world . It took a while . They had to change the makeup , change the clothes , change the hair , change every little thing , every time they [ moved ] the camera . "
A later scene depicts Walter in a hospital recovering from a gunshot wound . Olivia and William Bell try to smuggle him out . As it was a real emergency room in a Vancouver hospital , the crew had only one day of shooting . One of the scenes included " monitor acting " , in which Torv had to react to a blank computer screen , because the writers had not yet chosen what images they wanted to display . The scene between Olivia , Walter , and Bell was originally set in a coffee shop , but the producers changed their minds when they realized they needed more funding for the finale . Consequently , they began " hawking " the scene in the hopes of gaining a sponsor . KFC responded , agreeing to pay them for shooting the scene at one of their locations . Walternate 's office scenes were shot in a mortuary overlooking a cemetery . Goldsman had Joshua Jackson react in different ways during his first meeting with Fauxlivia , including showing " anger and testiness " . He ultimately decided he would be " quite taken with her " . For the second episode 's cliffhanger , the producers worried about making it as " provocative " as the first season 's . They were originally going to have Olivia sacrifice herself to allow Peter and Walter 's return to Our Side , but changed their minds when Wyman suggested she be secretly swapped with Fauxlivia instead . Wyman commented , " We were ecstatic when we figured [ the cliffhanger ] out . " Co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams and other cast members were also pleased with it , with Abrams calling it " different , but I think equally impactful . " They wrote the cliffhanger before they knew whether the series had been renewed — they would have had to make an " eleventh @-@ hour redraft " had the show been canceled by Fox .
= = = Casting = = =
On April 5 , 2010 , Entertainment Weekly reported that Dirty Sexy Money actor Seth Gabel had been cast as the lead Fringe investigator in the parallel universe , and would be making his first appearance in the finale as a possible recurring character . Jeff Pinkner described the character as " the scientist @-@ cop @-@ leader of the team on the Other Side . " In an interview with TV Guide , Gabel commented that during shooting he felt that he looked " like such a doofus holding a gun , " but changed his mind when he saw the finished production . Gabel elaborated , " I was so scared that I wouldn 't pull it off . Once I saw myself being a scientist @-@ slash @-@ FBI hero , I felt more confident and relaxed . " His character is caught in a large explosion in the finale , but Gabel confirmed , in a Chicago Tribune interview , that his character would be returning for the third season . He states that the parallel universe has " special technology than can heal burns " .
The finale marked the return of actor Kirk Acevedo as the Other Side FBI agent Charlie Francis . In the DVD audio commentary , the producers admit they " faced a bit of hatred " when they killed off Acevedo 's character near the beginning of the season . They were aware the entire time that Charlie exists in the parallel universe , and that " nobody ever dies on Fringe " . Acevedo describes the parallel universe version of his character as someone who is " so much more fun . " He is subtly different , with a lighter personality ; he jokes around more , and is less " doom and gloom " than the original character . Some viewers refer to the new character as " alt @-@ Charlie " to differentiate the two . The actor , the producers , and some fans have called the new character " Scarlie " in reference to a scar on his cheek , which takes ten minutes to apply before shooting , according to Acevedo . Previous guest actors Orla Brady , Lily Pilblad , Ari Graynor , Omar Metwally , Ryan McDonald , and David Call appear in the finale , as well as new guest stars Philip Winchester and Pascale Hutton .
Some cast members portray alternate versions of their characters , including John Noble , Lance Reddick , and Jasika Nicole . Noble described his doppelgänger — nicknamed " Walternate " by Walter — as " [ physically ] the same man and the same actor . " He continued , " I think of [ Walternate ] as a soldier . He 's like a general in the army . He 's very upright , he 's very strong . " Reddick called alt @-@ Broyles " a great patriot and a great mind , " but " a bit of a maverick , so I guess we 'll see just how that loyalty and relationship plays out . " Nicole based " alterna @-@ Astrid " ' s characteristics on her sister , who has Asperger syndrome , partly by avoiding eye contact with the other characters when relaying information to them and by focusing solely on the data in front of her .
Though guest actor Leonard Nimoy was reluctant to return after completing his three @-@ episode commitment on the show that had ended with the season 's tenth episode , he returned for the season finale when the producers " essentially called him up and pleaded " . They discussed their plans for the character , and " told him it was a story we couldn 't tell without him . " He " graciously agreed . " " Over There " marked Nimoy 's longest appearance on Fringe , a longer and " much more involv [ ed ] " shoot of roughly seven days was required . Despite Leonard Nimoy 's planned exit from the show , the show 's producers have said that nothing is final in the Fringe world . Pinkner commented that Nimoy 's retirement from acting obviously hinders his character 's possible return but , " if Leonard chooses to come back , there is a story in place that we 'd love to tell . " Wyman elaborated that " I think it 's fair to say that you have not experienced the last of William Bell " . When the producers told Nimoy their ideas for Bell 's storyline in the third season , he returned for some brief voice and animation work in the episode " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " .
= = Cultural references = =
A number of popular culture references are used to subtly differentiate the two universes . The American drama series The West Wing is beginning its 11th season in the parallel universe , and US politicians Barack Obama and Sarah Palin are in one of the show 's advertisements . The parallel universe 's Statue of Liberty is still its original shiny copper . " We imagined that Over There , they really liked copper and they cleaned it all the time , " one of the creators says . Liberty Island is the location of Fringe Division and the Department of Defense on the Other Side . The Hotel Attraction project by Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí was built in 1908 in the parallel universe , whereas in our world it never went past initial planning . Former president Richard Nixon is shown on a dollar coin in the parallel universe , rather than Dwight Eisenhower . Fauxlivia finds a twenty @-@ dollar bill from Our Side and questions who Andrew Jackson is , implying that he was either never president or is far less known in their universe . Civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr. is shown on their version of the bill , which has been nicknamed a " junior " .
Aviator Charles Lindbergh is less well known in the parallel universe , and the famous kidnapping of his son presumably did not occur , as Fauxlivia expresses confusion when his name is brought up . When Walter , Bell , and Olivia are on the Other Side eating at KFC , Walter puts on a Brooklyn Dodgers baseball cap . Unlike in Our Side , the team never moved to Los Angeles . The parallel universe has a number of famous comic book issues from DC Comics , similar to Our Side , but with notable differences . For instance , the Red Arrow and Red Lantern exist on the Other Side , rather than the green versions of both characters in our universe , and there are different members in the Justice League . Fauxlivia 's cellphone ringtone is taken from the 1975 film The Rocky Horror Picture Show . Other films , both real and invented , are also shown in the parallel universe , such as Superman vs. Batman 2 , Indiana Jones and the Hex of the Hydra , Star Wars : Legion of Droids , Splash 7 , Smokey and the Bandit : The Final Lap and Mask vs. Joker .
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcast and ratings = = =
Fox renewed Fringe for a third season in early March 2010 . The episodes aired on May 13 and May 20 , 2010 , in the United States and Canada . On May 17 Fox announced that the show would remain in its Thursday timeslot for the new season . A deleted scene cut from the finale featured Walternate and Peter discussing the fictional band " Violet Sedan Chair " while driving a Ford Taurus ; the scene 's reference to a " Ford exclusive " , as well as the perceived " loving shots " of the car , caused it to be noted as a prime example of product placement by some critics . The scene was advertised during the second episode 's commercial breaks in the US , advising viewers to view the clip at Fox 's official website . As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released two science lesson plans for grade school children focusing on the science seen in both parts of " Over There " ; the first part 's intention was to have " students learn about how the various forms of energy can be converted into other forms of energy and how these conversions can be used to either disperse or concentrate energy . " The second part 's purpose was for " students [ to ] learn about how various types of sensors can be used to remotely collect information about a geographical area , which allows for unique scientific analyses and discoveries . "
According to the Nielsen ratings system , upon its original US broadcast , part one garnered an estimated 5 @.@ 99 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 6 / 6 ratings share among all households . It received a 2 @.@ 3 / 7 ratings share among adults 18 – 49 . In keeping with the rest of its second season , Fringe 's ratings suffered due to tough competition from episodes of CBS 's CSI : Crime Scene Investigation and ABC 's Grey 's Anatomy , as these programs were also broadcast in the same time slot . Fringe and its lead @-@ in , Bones , helped Fox place third for the night , behind CBS and ABC . The second part was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 68 million viewers , with a 2 @.@ 0 ratings share among adults 18 – 49 . This was a 13 percent fall in the 18 – 49 ratings share from the previous week , as the second episode faced competition from the season finale of CSI : Crime Scene Investigation and the two @-@ part season finale of Grey 's Anatomy . " Over There 's " second part helped Fox place third for total viewers that night , behind CBS and ABC , and tie with NBC for third place among viewers 18 – 49 .
The finale aired on two separate nights in the United Kingdom . The first part was scheduled to air on May 25 , 2010 , on the UK 's Sky1 , but was put back a week to make room for the series finale of Lost . The first part aired on June 1 in the UK , with an estimated 195 @,@ 000 viewers tuning in . The second part aired on June 8 to an estimated 246 @,@ 000 viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
The first part of the finale received critical acclaim . Ramsey Isler of IGN thought it " fantastic , " because it was " a great story that leads us into one hell of a conclusion to the season , " and that it " right away [ gave ] us the deepest , most exciting look into the alternate universe we 've seen so far . " He rated it 9 @.@ 0 / 10 . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly and MTV 's Josh Wigler agreed on this last point , with Tucker noting the first part " was a complete success and a blast at giving us a fully lived @-@ in alternate universe . " Noel Murray of The Onion 's A.V. Club graded the first part with an A − , calling it " a fun , exciting episode that nicely set up next week 's finale " . Isler , Wigler , and Murray loved the return of the Cortexifan subjects ; Murray docked the episode a half point , explaining " I love the idea of Olivia & The Cortexifanatics so much that I 'm bummed Fringe burned through the group so quickly . " Critic Andrew Hanson , writing for the Los Angeles Times , noted that because of the parallel universe focus , the first part felt like the following season 's premiere . He praised the opening scene , and believed the scenes between Peter and his mother helped " ground the episode . They might be out of pace with the action and drama pouring out of every other moment , but there was weight and emotion . Bravo Joshua Jackson and Orla Brady . Bravo . " Ken Tucker noted that the scenes with Peter and his true mother indicated " a great , humantistic use of a sci @-@ fi trope " . MTV 's Josh Wigler praised Torv 's performance , but wished the two @-@ part finale was not broken up , explaining " I could have easily tuned in for another several hours . Heck , I could watch an entire parallel series focused solely on the alternate universe ! "
Like part one , the second part premiered to critical acclaim . IGN 's Ramsey Isler wrote that it " changed the whole landscape of the show 's main plot arc . Although there were some rough spots in the execution of this story , overall it 's one hell of a way to end the season . " He rated the episode 8 @.@ 6 / 10 . While praising Noble 's performance , Isler criticized some plot aspects . He was " kind of torn " on the Peter @-@ Olivia kiss , wished Peter and the doomsday device had been set up more for the third season , and believed the Olivia @-@ Fauxlivia interaction to be " a little strange , " as the two went from discussing their respective families to " ass kicking " . Isler did praise the fight itself . Ken Tucker praised the acting and the writers , noting " The fact that the series can accommodate a fan like me only confirms what a well @-@ wrought piece of pop culture Fringe has become . " Tucker included the second part of the season in his mid @-@ year " Top 10 " list for 2010 , partly attributing this ranking to Fringe " offer [ ing ] the season 's best cliffhanger " , alongside Breaking Bad . Noel Murray declared that he enjoyed part two slightly more , grading it an A. He praised Torv and Noble 's performances for " inhabiting their respective worlds so well " , and Goldsman for " [ shooting ] this episode with an emphasis on the characters more than the setting " .
Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times felt the second part fulfilled all of the criteria for an incredible season finale : the season 's arc had a " pay @-@ off " he " didn 't see coming " in the aftermath of Walternate crossing universes to take back Peter ; the entire episode was an " event " because it spent more time in the parallel universe than ever before , and it had an " A + cliffhanger " . MTV 's Fringe reviewer Josh Wigler enjoyed the ending , calling it " one heck of a cliffhanger ! " James Poniewozik from Time Magazine positively compared both parts of the finale to The X @-@ Files , writing that , unlike that series , Fringe 's standalone episodes contribute to the overall mythology of the show . To him the finale " demonstrates how well the show now manages to balance its far @-@ fetched sci @-@ fi with grounded character storylines . " Poniewozik concluded his review by expressing that it was not as strong as " Peter " , but " ' Over There ' was a season @-@ ender that did what it should — left me wanting more " .
Many critics praised the many subtle differences between the two universes , while others lauded Leonard Nimoy 's appearance as William Bell and his scenes with Walter . Website blogger io9 listed both parts of " Over There " as one of the select few " crucial " episodes new viewers must watch to understand the show , referring to it as " one of the most epic season finales ever " . Another io9 reviewer called the ending one of the " best SF / fantasy cliffhangers ever shown on television " in a September 2010 list . The finale helped propel Fringe onto a number of 2010 " best of television " lists , including Digital Spy , Entertainment Weekly , the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , The Daily Beast , The New York Times , TV Squad , the New York Post , and IGN ; the last of these named Fringe the best sci @-@ fi series of 2010 , beating fellow nominees Lost , Caprica , and Stargate Universe . Some critics predicted that , because of the increased focus on looking into the alternate universe and advancing its mythology , Fringe 's " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episodes would become less frequent . This could make it more difficult for casual viewers to follow the show in its third season .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Writers J.H. Wyman , Jeff Pinkner , and Akiva Goldsman submitted both parts of " Over There " for consideration in the Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series category at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards , and director Goldsman made a submission of both parts for the Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series category . None of the three secured a nomination . Leonard Nimoy submitted part two for consideration in the Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series category . He and fellow guest actor Peter Weller ( who appeared in " White Tulip " ) were not chosen for nominations . At Entertainment Weekly 's June 2010 voter @-@ driven TV Season Finale Awards , Fringe was nominated for multiple awards , and won in several categories . The Olivia @-@ Fauxlivia swap was named the " Best Non @-@ Romantic Cliff @-@ hanger " of the season and placed third for the " Single Most Clever Twist " , but it also came in third place for " Single Weakest Twist " . The ending scene with Walternate and Olivia was voted the winner of the " Spookiest Image " category . Olivia 's kiss with Peter finished in fifth place for the " Best Kiss " category , and her fight with Fauxlivia placed second in the " Best Fight " category . In the " Biggest Regret That I Didn 't See the Finale , I Just Read About It " category Fringe won third place .
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= Grim Fandango =
Grim Fandango is an adventure game developed and published by LucasArts in 1998 for Microsoft Windows , with Tim Schafer as the game 's project leader . It is the first adventure game by LucasArts to use 3D computer graphics overlaid on pre @-@ rendered , static backgrounds . As with other LucasArts adventure games , the player must converse with other characters and examine , collect , and use objects correctly to solve puzzles in order to progress .
Grim Fandango 's world combines elements of the Aztec belief of afterlife with style aspects of film noir , including The Maltese Falcon , On the Waterfront and Casablanca , to create the Land of the Dead , through which recently departed souls , represented in the game as calaca @-@ like figures , must travel before they reach their final destination , the Ninth Underworld . The story follows travel agent Manuel " Manny " Calavera as he attempts to save Mercedes " Meche " Colomar , a newly arrived but virtuous soul , during her long journey .
The game received universal acclaim from critics , who praised its artistic design and overall game direction in particular . Grim Fandango was selected for several gaming awards at the time of release , and is often listed as one of the greatest video games of all time . However , the game was considered a commercial failure and factored into LucasArts ' termination of their adventure game development , contributing to the decline of the adventure game genre .
A remastered version of Grim Fandango was announced during Sony 's press conference at E3 2014 , and was developed by Schafer 's current studio Double Fine Productions with help from Sony to secure the property after Disney 's acquisition and closure of the LucasArts studio . The remastered title , featuring improved character graphics and textures , an orchestrated score , and directors ' commentary , was released on January 27 , 2015 for the PlayStation 4 , PlayStation Vita , Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux platforms . Android and iOS versions were released on May 5 , 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Grim Fandango is an adventure game , in which the player controls Manuel " Manny " Calavera ( calavera being Spanish for ' skull ' ) as he follows Mercedes " Meche " Colomar in the Underworld . The game uses the GrimE engine , pre @-@ rendering static backgrounds from 3D models , while the main objects and characters are animated in 3D . The player controls Manny 's movements and actions with a keyboard , a joystick , or a gamepad . Manny must collect objects that can be used with either other collectible objects , parts of the scenery , or with other people in the Land of the Dead in order to solve puzzles and progress in the game . The game lacks any type of HUD . Unlike the earlier 2D LucasArts games , the player is informed of objects or persons of interest not by text floating on the screen when the player passes a cursor over them , but instead by the fact that Manny will turn his head towards that object or person as he walks by . The player reviews the inventory of items that Manny has collected by watching him pull each item in and out of his coat jacket . Manny can engage in dialogue with other characters through conversation trees to gain hints of what needs to be done to solve the puzzles or to progress the plot . As in most LucasArts adventure games , the player can never die or otherwise get into a no @-@ win situation ( that prevents completion of the game ) .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Grim Fandango takes place in the Land of the Dead ( the Eighth Underworld ) , where recently departed souls aim to make their way to the Land of Eternal Rest ( the Ninth Underworld ) . Good deeds in life are rewarded by access to better travel packages to assist in making the journey of the soul , the best of which is the Number Nine , a train that takes four minutes to reach the gate to the Ninth Underworld . Souls who did not lead a kind life are left to travel through the Land of the Dead on foot , which would take around four years . Such souls often lose faith in the existence of the Ninth Underworld and instead find jobs in the Land of the Dead . The travel agents of the Department of Death act as the Grim Reaper to escort the souls from the mortal world to the Land of the Dead , and then determine which mode of transport the soul has merited . Each year on the Day of the Dead , these souls are allowed to visit their families in the Land of the Living .
The souls in the Land of the Dead appear as skeletal calaca figures . Alongside them are demons that have been summoned to help with the more mundane tasks of day @-@ to @-@ day life , such as vehicle maintenance . The souls themselves can suffer death @-@ within @-@ death by being " sprouted " , the result of being shot with " sproutella " -filled darts that cause flowers to grow out through the bones . Many of the characters are Mexican and occasional Spanish words are interspersed into the English dialog , resulting in Spanglish . Many of the characters smoke , following a film noir tradition ; the manual asks players to consider that every smoker in the game is dead .
= = = Plot = = =
The game is divided into four acts , each taking place on November 2 on four consecutive years . Manuel " Manny " Calavera is a travel agent at the Department of Death in the city of El Marrow , forced into his job to work off a debt " to the powers that be " . Manny is frustrated with being assigned clients that must take the four @-@ year journey and is threatened to be fired by his boss , Don Copal , if he does not come up with better clients . Manny steals a client , Mercedes " Meche " Colomar , from his co @-@ worker Domino Hurley . The Department computers assign Meche to the four @-@ year journey even though Manny believes she should have a guaranteed spot on the " Number Nine " luxury express train due to her pureness of heart in her life . After setting Meche on her way , Manny investigates further and finds that Domino and Don have been rigging the system to deny many clients Double N tickets , hoarding them for the boss of the criminal underworld , Hector LeMans . LeMans then sells the tickets at an exorbitant price to those that can afford it . Manny recognizes that he cannot stop Hector at present and instead , with the help of his driver and speed demon Glottis , he tries to find Meche on her journey in the nearby Petrified Forest . During the trip Manny encounters Salvador " Sal " Limones , the leader of the small underground organization Lost Souls Alliance ( LSA ) , who is aware of Hector 's plans and recruits Manny to help . Manny arrives at the small port city of Rubacava and finds that he has beaten Meche there , and waits for her to show up .
A year passes , and the city of Rubacava has grown . Manny now runs his own nightclub off a converted automat near the edge of the Forest . Manny learns from Olivia Ofrenda that Don has been " sprouted " for letting the scandal be known and that Meche was recently seen with Domino leaving the port . Manny gives chase and a year later tracks them to a coral mining plant on the Edge of the World . Domino has been holding Meche there as a trap to lure Manny . All of Domino 's clients who had their tickets stolen are also being held there and used as slave labor , both to make a profit with the coral mining and as a way to keep Hector 's scandal quiet . Domino tries to convince Manny to take over his position in the plant seeing as he has no alternative and can spend the rest of eternity with Meche but he refuses . After rescuing Meche , Manny defeats Domino by causing him to fall into a rock crusher . Manny , along with Meche , Glottis and all the souls being held at the plant then escape from the Edge of the World .
The three travel for another year until they reach the terminus for the Number Nine train before the Ninth Underworld . Unfortunately , the Gate Keeper to the Ninth Underworld won 't let the souls progress without their tickets , mistakenly believing they have sold them . Meanwhile , Glottis has fallen deathly ill . Manny learns from demons stationed at the terminus that the only way to revive Glottis is to travel at high speeds to restore Glottis ' purpose for being summoned . Manny and the others devise a makeshift fuel source to create a " rocket " train cart , quickly taking Manny and Meche back to Rubacava and saving Glottis ' life . The three return to El Marrow , now found to be fully in Hector 's control and renamed as Nuevo Marrow . Manny regroups with Sal and his expanded LSA and with the help of Olivia , who volunteered to join the gang earlier in Rubacava , and is able to learn about Hector 's current activities . Further investigation reveals that Hector not only has been hoarding the Number Nine tickets , but has created counterfeit versions that he has sold to others . Manny tries to confront Hector but is lured into another trap by Olivia , who has also captured Sal , and is taken to Hector 's greenhouse to be sprouted . Manny is able to defeat Hector after Sal sacrifices himself to prevent Olivia from interfering . Manny and Meche are able to find the real Double N tickets , including the one that Meche should have received . Manny makes sure the rest of the tickets are given to their rightful owners ; in turn , he is granted his own for his good deeds . Together , Manny and Meche board the Number Nine for their happy journey to the Ninth Underworld while Glottis who can 't join them waves tearfully goodbye .
= = Development = =
= = = Background and project inception = = =
Grim Fandango 's development was led by project leader Tim Schafer , co @-@ designer of Day of the Tentacle and creator of Full Throttle and the more recent Psychonauts and Brütal Legend . Schafer had begun work on the game soon after completing Full Throttle in June 1995 , though he conceived the idea of a Day of the Dead @-@ themed adventure before production on the latter began . Grim Fandango was an attempt by LucasArts to rejuvenate the graphic adventure genre , in decline by 1998 . According to Schafer , the game was developed on a $ 3 million budget . It was the first LucasArts adventure since Labyrinth not to use the SCUMM engine , instead using the Sith engine , pioneered by Jedi Knight : Dark Forces II , as the basis of the new GrimE engine . The GrimE engine was built using the scripting language Lua . This design decision was due to LucasArts programmer Bret Mogilefsky 's interest in the language , and is considered one of the first uses of Lua in gaming applications . The game 's success led to the language 's use in many other games and applications , including Escape from Monkey Island and Baldur 's Gate .
= = = 3D design = = =
Grim Fandango mixed static pre @-@ rendered background images with 3D characters and objects . Part of this decision was based on how the calaca figures would appear in three dimensions . There were more than 90 sets and 50 characters in the game to be created and rendered ; Manny 's character alone comprised 250 polygons . The development team found that by utilizing three @-@ dimensional models to pre @-@ render the backgrounds , they could alter the camera shot to achieve more effective or dramatic angles for certain scenes simply by re @-@ rendering the background , instead of having to have an artist redraw the background for a traditional 2D adventure game . The team adapted the engine to allow Manny 's head to move separately from his body to make the player aware of important objects nearby . The 3D engine also aided in the choreography between the spoken dialog and body and arm movements of the characters . Additionally , full @-@ motion video cutscenes were incorporated to advance the plot , using the same in @-@ game style for the characters and backgrounds to make them nearly indistinguishable from the actual game .
= = = Themes and influences = = =
The game combines several Aztec beliefs of the afterlife and underworld with 1930s Art Deco design motifs and a dark plot reminiscent of the film noir genre . The Aztec motifs of the game were influenced by Schafer 's decade @-@ long fascination with folklore , stemming from an anthropology class he took at University of California Berkeley , and talks with folklorist Alan Dundes , with Schafer recognizing that the four @-@ year journey of the soul in the afterlife would set the stage for an adventure game . Schafer stated that once he had set on the Afterlife setting : " Then I thought , what role would a person want to play in a Day of the Dead scenario ? You 'd want to be the grim reaper himself . That 's how Manny got his job . Then I imagined him picking up people in the land of the living and bringing them to the land of the dead , like he 's really just a glorified limo or taxi driver . So the idea came of Manny having this really mundane job that looks glamorous because he has the robe and the scythe , but really , he 's just punching the clock . " Schafer recounted a Mexican folklore about how the dead were buried with two bags of gold to be used in the afterlife , one on their chest and one hidden in their coffin , such that if the spirits in the afterlife stole the one on the chest , they would still have the hidden bag of gold ; this idea of a criminal element in the afterlife led to the idea of a crime @-@ ridden , film noir style to the world , triggered too many ideas that they had to then trim down . The division of the game into four years was a way of breaking the game 's overall puzzle into four discrete sections . Each year was divided into several non @-@ linear branches of puzzles that all had to be solved before the player could progress to the next year .
Schafer opted to give the conversation @-@ heavy game the flavor of film noir set in the 1930s and 1940s , stating that " there 's something that I feel is really honest about the way people talked that 's different than modern movies " . He was partially inspired by novels written by Raymond Chandler and Dashiell Hammett . Several film noir movies were also inspiration for much of the game 's plot and characters . Tim Schafer stated that the true inspiration was drawn from films like Double Indemnity , in which a weak and undistinguished insurance salesman finds himself entangled in a murder plot . The design and early plot are fashioned after films such as Chinatown and Glengarry Glen Ross . Several scenes in Grim Fandango are directly inspired by the genre 's films such as The Maltese Falcon , The Third Man , Key Largo , and most notably Casablanca : two characters in the game 's second act are directly modeled after the roles played by Peter Lorre and Claude Rains in the film . The main villain , Hector LeMans , was designed to resemble Sydney Greenstreet 's character of Signor Ferrari from Casablanca . His voice was also modeled after Greenstreet , complete with his trademark chuckle .
Visually , the game drew inspiration from various sources : the skeletal character designs were based largely on the calaca figures used in Mexican Day of the Dead festivities , while the architecture ranged from Art Deco skyscrapers to an Aztec temple . The team turned to LucasArts artist Peter Chan to create the calaca figures . The art of Ed " Big Daddy " Roth was used as inspiration for the designs of the hot rods and the demon characters like Glottis .
Originally , Schafer had come up with the name " Deeds of the Dead " for the game 's title , as he had originally planned Manny to be a real estate agent in the Land of the Dead . Other potential titles included " The Long Siesta " and " Dirt Nap " , before he came up with the title Grim Fandango .
= = = Dialogue and music = = =
The game featured a large cast for voice acting in the game 's dialog and cutscenes , employing many Latino actors to help with the Spanish slang . Voice actors included Tony Plana as Manny , María Canals as Meche , Alan Blumenfeld as Glottis , and Jim Ward as Hector . Schafer credits Plana for helping to deepen the character of Manny , as the voice actor was a native Spanish speaker and suggested alternate dialog for the game that was more natural for casual Spanish conversations . The game 's music , a mix of an orchestral score , South American folk music , jazz , swing and big band sounds , was composed at LucasArts by Peter McConnell and inspired by the likes of Duke Ellington and Benny Goodman as well as film composers Max Steiner and Adolph Deutsch . The score featured live musicians that McConnell knew or made contact with in San Francisco 's Mission District , including a mariachi band . The soundtrack was released as a CD in 1998 .
= = = Original release = = =
Originally , the game was to be shipped in the first half of 1998 but was delayed ; as a result , the game was released on October 30 , 1998 , the Friday before November 2 , the actual date of the Day of the Dead celebration . Even with the delay , the team had to drop several of the puzzles and characters from the game , including a climactic five @-@ step puzzle against Hector LeMans at the conclusion of the game ; Schafer later noted that they would have needed one to two more years to implement their original designs .
= = = Remastered version = = =
= = = = Acquisition of rights and announcement = = = =
A remastered release of Grim Fandango was announced in June 2014 during Sony Computer Entertainment 's press event of the 2014 Electronic Entertainment Expo , with a simultaneous release for the PlayStation 4 , PlayStation Vita , Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux platforms on January 27 , 2015 . It was later released for Android and iOS on May 5 , 2015 .
The remastered version was predicated on the transition of LucasArts from a developer and publisher into a licensor and publisher in 2013 shortly after its acquisition by Disney . Under new management , LucasArts licensed several of its intellectual properties ( IP ) , including Grim Fandango , to outside developers . Schafer was able to acquire the rights to the game with financial assistance from Sony , and started the process of building out the remaster within Double Fine Productions . Schafer said that the sale of LucasArts to Disney had reminded them of the past efforts of former LucasArts president Darrell Rodrigeuz to release the older LucasArts titles as Legacy Properties , such as the 2009 rerelease of The Secret of Monkey Island . Schafer also noted that they had tried to acquire the property from Lucasarts in the years prior , but the frequent change in management stalled progress . When they began to inquire about the rights with Disney and LucasArts following its acquisition , they found that Sony , through their vice president of publisher and developer relations Adam Boyes , was also looking to acquire the rights . Boyes stated that Sony had been interested in working with a wide array of developers for the PlayStation 4 , and was also inspired to seek Grim Fandango 's after seeing developers like Capcom and Midway Games revive older properties . Boyes ' determination was supported by John Vignocchi , VP of Production for Disney Interactive , who also shared memories of the game , and was able to bring in contacts to track down the game 's assets . After discovering they were vying for the same property , Schafer and Boyes agreed to work together to acquire the IP and subsequent funding , planning to make the re @-@ release a remastered version . Sony did not ask for any of IP rights for the game , instead only asking Double Fine to give the PlayStation platforms console exclusivity in exchange for funding support , similar to their Pub Fund scheme they use to support independent developers .
= = = = Challenges = = = =
A major complication in remastering the original work was having many of the critical game files go missing or on archaic formats . A large number of backup files were made on Digital Linear Tape ( DLT ) which Disney / LucasArts had been able to recover for Double Fine , but the company had no drives to read the tapes . Former LucasArts sound engineer Jory Prum had managed to save a DLT drive and was able to extract all of the game 's audio development data from the tapes .
Schafer noted at the time of Grim Fandango 's original development , retention of code was not as rigorous as present day standards , and in some cases , Schafer believes the only copies of some files were unintentionally taken by employees when they had left LucasArts . As such , Schafer and his team have been going back through past employee records to try to trace down any of them and ask for any files they may have saved . In other cases , they have had difficulty in identifying elements on the low @-@ resolution artwork of the original game , such as an emblem on one character 's hat , and have had to go looking for original concept art to figure out the design .
Once original assets were identified , as to be used to present the " classic " look of the game in the Remastered editor , Double Fine worked to improve the overall look for modern computers . The textures and lighting models for the characters were improved , in particular for Manny . Schafer has likened the remastering approach to The Criterion Collection film releases in providing a high @-@ fidelity version of the game without changing the story or the characters .
In addition to his own developers , Schafer reached out to players who had created unofficial patches and graphical improvements on the original game , and modifications needed to keep it running in ResidualVM , and gained their help to improve the game 's assets for the remastered version . One such feature was a modified control scheme that converted the game 's movement controls from the tank @-@ style controls to a point and click @-@ style interface . Schafer noted they created the game with tank @-@ style control as it was popular with other games like Resident Evil at the time , but recognized it did not work well within the adventure game genre . Schafer contacted Tobias Pfaff who created the point @-@ and @-@ click modification to obtain access to his code to incorporate into the remastered version .
= = = = Later development and new features = = = =
Double Fine demonstrated an in @-@ progress version of the remastered game at the 2014 IndieCade event in October 2014 ; new features included higher @-@ resolution textures and improved resolution for the character models as well as having real @-@ time lighting models , and the ability to switch back and forth between this presentation and the original graphics at the touch of a control . The remastered game runs in 4 : 3 aspect ratio but has an option to stretch this to a 16 : 9 ratio rather than render in a native 16 : 9 ratio . The remaster includes improvements to the control scheme developed by Pfaff 's patch and other alternate control schemes in addition to the original tank @-@ like controls , including analogue controls for console versions and point @-@ and @-@ click controls for computer versions . The game 's soundtrack was fully orchestrated through performances of the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra ( who also performed the soundtrack for Double Fine 's Broken Age ) . The remastered version also includes developer commentary , which can be activated via the options menu and listened to at various points in the game . The PlayStation version also features cloud saving between the PS4 and Vita versions .
= = Soundtrack = =
= = = Original soundtrack = = =
Grim Fandango has an original soundtrack that combines orchestral score , South American folk music , jazz , bebop , swing , and big band music . It also has various influences from traditional Russian , Celtic , Mexican , Spanish , and Indian strings culture . It was composed and produced by Peter McConnell at LucasArts . Others credited are Jeff Kliment ( Engineer , Mixed By , Mastered ) , and Hans Christian Reumschüssel ( Additional Music Production ) .
The soundtrack was released in 1998 as a CD album with 32 tracks and sold at the LucasArts company store .
The soundtrack was very well received . IGN called it a " beautiful soundtrack that you 'll find yourself listening to even after you 're done with the game " . SEMO said " the compositions and performances are so good that listening to this album on a stand @-@ alone basis can make people feel like they 're in a bar back then " . RPGFan said " the pieces are beautifully composed , wonderfully played ( ... ) . has a stellar soundtrack with music that easily stands alone outside the context of the game . This CD was an absolute pleasure to listen to and comes highly recommended . " Game Revolution in its game review praised as one of the " most memorable soundtracks ever to grace the inside of a cranial cavity where an ear drum used to be . " PC Gamer in its 2014 list of Top 100 Games , acclaimed Grim Fandango for including " one of the best soundtracks in PC gaming history " .
In 1999 's Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Annual Interactive Achievement Awards , the soundtrack was nominated in the category of " Outstanding Achievement in Sound and Music " . It was also lauded by GameSpot , which awarded it the " Best PC Music awards " , and included it in the " Ten Best PC Game Soundtracks " list in 1999 .
= = = Remastered soundtrack = = =
Peter McConnell announced that the game 's soundtrack will be fully orchestrated through performances of the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra for the remastered version of the game being released in 2015 . After the original Pro Tools sound files were recovered , McConnell found that some of the samples he had used originally did not sound good , and the team opted to re @-@ orchestrate the score .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
Grim Fandango gained critical acclaim upon its release . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the game scores of 93 % and 94 / 100 . Critics lauded the art direction in particular , with GameSpot rating the visual design as " consistently great " . PC Zone emphasized the production as a whole calling the direction , costumes , characters , music , and atmosphere expertly done . They also commented the game would make a " superb film " . The San Francisco Chronicle stated " Grim Fandango feels like a wild dance through a cartoonish film @-@ noir adventure . Its wacky characters , seductive puzzle @-@ filled plot and a nearly invisible interface allow players to lose themselves in the game just as cinemagoers might get lost in a movie . " The Houston Chronicle , in naming Grim Fandango the best game of 1998 along with Half @-@ Life , complimented the graphics calling them " jaw @-@ dropping " and commented that the game " is full of both dark and light humor . " IGN summed its review up by saying the game was the " best adventure game " it had ever seen .
The game also received criticisms from the media . Several reviewers noted that there were difficulties experienced with the interface , requiring a certain learning curve to get used to , and selected camera angles for some puzzles were poorly chosen . The use of elevators in the game was particularly noted as troublesome . The review from Adventure Gamers expressed dislike of the soundtrack , and , at times , " found it too heavy and not well suited to the game 's theme " . A Computer and Video Games review also noted that the game had continuous and long data loading from the CD @-@ ROM that interrupted the game and " spoils the fluidity of some sequences and causes niggling delays " .
= = = Awards = = =
Grim Fandango won several awards after its release in 1998 . PC Gamer selected the game as the 1998 " Adventure Game of the Year " . The game won IGN 's " Best Adventure Game of the Year " in 1998 , while GameSpot awarded it their " Best of E3 1998 " , " PC Adventure Game of the Year " , " PC Game of the Year " , " Best PC Graphics for Artistic Design " , and " Best PC Music awards " . GameSpot named Grim Fandango its Game of the Year for 1998 , and in the following year included the game in their " Ten Best PC Game Soundtracks " and was selected as the 10th " Best PC Ending " by their readership . In 1999 , Grim Fandango won " Computer Adventure Game of the Year " for the 1999 Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Annual Interactive Achievement Awards . It was also nominated for " Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Achievement in Art / Graphics " , " Outstanding Achievement in Character or Story Development " and " Outstanding Achievement in Sound and Music " that same year .
Grim Fandango has been included in several publishers ' " Top Games " lists well after its release . GameSpot inducted the game into their " Greatest Games of All Time " in 2003 citing , " Ask just about anyone who has played Grim Fandango , and he or she will agree that it 's one of the greatest games of all time . " GameSpy also added the game to their Hall of Fame in 2004 , further describing it as the seventh " Most Underrated Game of All Time " as of 2003 . Adventure Gamers listed Grim Fandango as the seventh " Top Adventure Game of All Time " in 2004 ; in their 2011 list of " Top 100 All @-@ Time Adventures " it was listed as # 1 . In 2007 , IGN included the game in the " Top 25 PC Games " ( as 15th ) and " Top 100 Games of All Time " ( at 36th ) , citing that " LucasArts ' second @-@ to @-@ last stab at the classic adventure genre may very well be the most original and brilliant one ever made . " Grim Fandango remained as the 20th in the Top 25 PC Games in IGN 's 2009 list .
= = = = Lists of awards and rankings = = = =
= = = Sales and aftermath = = =
Grim Fandango sales were poor despite the positive reception given to the game . Initial estimates suggested that the game sold well during the 1998 holiday season . Total cumulative worldwide sales are estimated between 100 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 units . The game is commonly considered a commercial failure , even though LucasArts stated that " Grim Fandango met domestic expectations and exceeded them worldwide " . Tim Schafer has affirmed that the game was profitable .
While LucasArts proceeded to produce Escape from Monkey Island in 2000 , they canceled development of sequels to Sam & Max Hit the Road and Full Throttle stating that " After careful evaluation of current market place realities and underlying economic considerations , we 've decided that this was not the appropriate time to launch a graphic adventure on the PC . " Subsequently , the studio dismissed many of the people involved with their adventure games , some of whom went on to set up Telltale Games , creating an episodic series of Sam & Max games . These events , along with other changes in the video game market towards action @-@ based games , are seen as primary causes in the decline of the adventure game genre . Grim Fandango 's underperformance was seen as a sign that the genre was commercially " dead " to rival Sierra , as well . LucasArts stated in 2006 that they do not plan on returning to adventure games until the " next decade " . Ultimately the studio stopped developing video games in 2013 after The Walt Disney Company acquisition of Lucasfilm , and was dissolved shortly thereafter .
Tim Schafer left LucasArts shortly after Grim Fandango 's release , and created his own company , Double Fine Productions , in 2000 along with many of those involved in the development of Grim Fandango . The company has found similar critical success with their first title , Psychonauts . Schafer stated that while there is strong interest from fans and that he " would love to go back and spend time with the characters from any game [ he 's ] worked on " , a sequel to Grim Fandango or his other previous games is unlikely as " I always want to make something new . " With the help of developers such as Double Fine and Telltale Games , adventure games saw a resurgence in the 2010s , with financially successful titles such as Broken Age , The Walking Dead , and The Wolf Among Us .
= = = Remastered version = = =
Grim Fandango Remastered has received similar positive reception as the original release , with many critics continuing to praise the game 's story , characters , and soundtrack . They also found the developer 's commentary to be very insightful to the history of the game . Reviewers were disappointed at the lack of an auto @-@ save system , as well as the game not receiving a full high @-@ definition upgrade , leaving the higher @-@ resolution characters somewhat out of place with the original 3D backgrounds . Many reviewers also noted that the puzzles , though a staple of the day when Grim Fandango was first released , remain somewhat obtuse with solutions that are not clear even after the player solves them , and that a hint system , as was added to the Monkey Island remake , would have been very helpful . The game 's pacing , also unchanged from the original version , was also found harder to grasp considering the direction taken in modern games , in both the pacing within the game 's four acts , and the time taken to move around and between rooms . In his review for Eurogamer , Richard Cobbett warned players to " be careful of rose @-@ tinted memories " , that while the remastered version is faithful to the original , it does show aspects of the original game that have become outdated in more modern video game development . Wired 's Laura Hudson considered the remastered version highlighted how the original game was " an artifact of its time , an exceptional piece of interactive art wrapped inextricably around the technology and conventions of its time in a way that reveals both their limitations and the brilliance they were capable of producing " .
= = Legacy = =
In 2005 The Guardian characterized the game as " The last genuine classic to come from LucasArts , the company that helped define adventure games , Tim Schafer 's noir @-@ pastiche follows skull @-@ faced Manny Calavera through a bureaucratic parody of the Land of the Dead . With a look that takes from both Mexican mythology and art deco , Grim Fandango is as unique an artistic statement as mainstream gaming has managed to offer . While loved by devotees , its limited sales prompted LucasArts to back away from original adventures to simply exploit franchises . "
Eurogamer 's Jeffrey Matulef , in a 2012 retrospective look , believed that Grim Fandango 's combination of film noir and the adventure game genre was the first of its kind and a natural fit due to the script @-@ heavy nature of both , and would later help influence games with similar themes like the Ace Attorney series and L.A. Noire .
Grim Fandango has been considered a representative title demonstrating video games as an art form ; the game was selected in 2012 as a candidate for public voting for inclusion within the Smithsonian Institution 's " The Art of Video Games " exhibit , while the Museum of Modern Art seeks to install the game as an exhibit as part of its permanent collection within the Department of Architecture and Design .
The game was included in the " Game Masters " exhibition , organized in 2012 by the Australian Centre for the Moving Image ( ACMI ) ; an event devoted to explore the faces and the history behind computer games . Tim Schafer was featured as the creative force behind Grim Fandango , within the exhibition section called " Game Changers " , crediting him along a few other visionary game designers for having " pushed the boundaries of game design and storytelling , introducing new genres , creating our best @-@ loved characters and revolutionising the way we understand and play games "
Grim Fandango has been the centerpiece of a large fan community for the game that has continued to be active more than 10 years after the game 's release . Such fan communities include the Grim Fandango Network and the Department of Death , both of which include fan art and fiction in addition to other original content .
In an interview with Kotaku after the announcement of the remake , Schafer stated that he has long considered the aspect of a Grim Fandango sequel to further expand on the setting that was created for the game . He felt the story would be a difficult component , as either they would have to figure a means to bring Manny back from his final reward , or otherwise build the story around a new character . However , one option he has considered to alleviate the issue is by creating an adventure game using an open @-@ world mechanic similar to the Grand Theft Auto series .
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= Peter de Maulay =
Peter de Maulay or Peter de Mauley ( died 1241 ) was a nobleman and administrator who was one of King John of England 's " evil counsellors " . First appearing in the historical record in 1202 , Maulay was in England by 1204 and serving as an official of John . During the rebellions of the end of John 's reign , Maulay supported the king and was given custody of the king 's younger son as well as important prisoners . Maulay continued to serve the new king after 1216 but ran into difficulties with the regents for the young King Henry III and was accused of treason in 1221 . Although cleared of the treason accusation , Maulay retired to his lands in late 1221 . In 1223 Maulay 's lands at Upavon were confiscated by the king but were returned within a few months . Upavon was again confiscated in 1229 and given to another noble , but in 1233 King Henry regranted the manor to Maulay , an event which led to a revolt by Richard Marshal , the Earl of Pembroke , against the king . In 1241 Maulay went on crusade and died in late 1241 , probably in the Holy Land while on crusade .
= = Early life = =
Maulay 's parentage is unknown , but he originated from the Maulay region in Poitou . He appears to have had a younger brother named Aimery , who possibly was the same as an Aimery de Maulay who owned lands in Quinçay and La Rochelle between 1218 and 1259 . In a monastic chronicle , Peter is said to have relinquished his lands in France to Aimery in 1204 , after the overlordship of the lands passed from King John of England to King Philip II of France . Peter 's first appearance in the historical record was in 1202 , when he received land around Loudun in exchange for Moncontour . Under John , he was appointed an usher in the king 's household , where he soon became a close advisor of the king . He was considered one of the " evil counsellors " of John by the chronicler Roger of Wendover .
After John 's loss of Normandy , Maulay went to England and was given the manor of Upavon in Wiltshire . His grant of the manor was at the king 's pleasure , because the manor , which had been held by a noble who forfeited his land in England by staying in Normandy after its loss , would need to be restored to its rightful holder if John recovered Normandy . He served as an envoy to Rome in 1213 and in 1214 was in command of royal forces at La Rochelle in France . In 1214 he married Isabella , the daughter and heiress of Robert of Thornham . Robert had died in 1211 , so through his wife , Maulay acquired the Barony of Mulgrave in Yorkshire . Maulay paid the king 7000 marks as a fine for the right to marry Isabella , one of the highest fines paid for the right to marry under John . According to the medieval chronicler Ralph of Coggeshall , Maulay was the murderer of John 's nephew Arthur of Brittany .
When the barons of England revolted against John in 1215 , Maulay was given command of Corfe Castle by John . Along with Corfe , Maulay was also given custody of John 's younger son , Richard of Cornwall . He was also given Gomshall in Surrey . In 1216 he was given the office of Sheriff of Dorset and Somerset , where he made a name for himself with his exactions and heavy profiteering . Besides the custody of Richard of Cornwall , Maulay was also responsible for supervising the confinement of John 's niece , Eleanor of Brittany , who , as the daughter of Geoffrey II , Duke of Brittany , elder brother of King John , had a strong claim to the English throne and had been held captive since 1202 . At times , he was also responsible for keeping John 's wife , Isabella of Angouleme and his heir , Prince Henry , safe from rebels , as long as they were at Corfe .
= = Under Henry III = =
Maulay remained in office under the new king , Henry III , who succeeded to the throne in late 1216 . While at Corfe , he had custody of William of Lancaster , who had been captured by the royalist side at Rochester in 1215 . Ranulf de Blondeville , the Earl of Chester , attempted to secure William 's freedom but was rebuffed by Maulay , leading the earl to threaten to depart England and the king 's cause and go on crusade . In early 1217 Maulay was ordered by the regent , William Marshal , to surrender control of Sherborne Castle and Somerset to William Longespee , the Earl of Salisbury , to help secure the return of Longespee to the royal cause . But Maulay refused to do so . In October 1217 , Maulay was summoned to the royal court to answer charges that he had waged a private war against the earl over control of Somerset , and that he had broken a truce that had held between the two men . The dispute was finally solved in February 1218 when Maulay was confirmed by the regent as custodian of Sherborne Castle and in the office of Sheriff of Somerset . Maulay compensated Longespee for his loss with a payment of 500 pounds , and a further payment of 1000 pounds by the government and custody of a royal ward .
Maulay received a total of 6561 marks by 1221 from ransoms paid by 16 prisoners he held at Corfe . He also paid nothing into the Exchequer from Somerset or Dorset for the period from 1218 to 1220 , with the total owed to the government amounting to a bit over 1500 pounds . Maulay 's extortions , however , led to him losing custody of Richard of Cornwall in 1220 .
Maulay brought Richard of Cornwall to London to attend his brother 's second coronation , which occurred on 17 May 1220 .
= = Treason accusations = =
On 20 May 1221 Maulay was accused of treason by Richard Mucegros and Hubert de Burgh before the king . The specific crime was alleged to be a plot to hand over Eleanor of Brittany , then held at Corfe Castle , to King Louis IX of France . Maulay was imprisoned for a short time , but on 4 June was released after surrendering Corfe to the king . He was allowed to retain his sheriffdom . The accusation may have owed more to the fact that Maulay had recently taken Mucegros ' lands into custody because Mucegros had failed to make a payment due for a royal fine . The event may also have been used by de Burgh as an opportunity to weaken Maulay 's patron and de Burgh 's rival for power , Peter des Roches , while des Roches was out of England . The loss of Corfe by one of des Roches ' primary supporters would have weakened des Roches ' standing and power . In July Peter des Roches returned to England and in late July was instrumental in the clearing of Maulay from the charges of treason . Maulay was not given back custody of Corfe , but on 29 July the royal government discharged the 7000 marks that Maulay still owed for his marriage fine . The stated reason for the release of this debt was to compensate Maulay for his expenses while controlling Corfe , but the real reason appears to have been to compensate for the loss of Corfe . In late 1221 Maulay agreed to go on crusade with Peter des Roches and Falkes de Breauté , another of des Roches supporters . The loss of Damietta in September meant that the three men postponed their departure , and in November 1221 Maulay was replaced as sheriff . In return for Maulay 's agreement to the ouster , the Exchequer wrote off more debts that Maulay owed the government , this time over 8800 marks . Maulay retired to his lands in Yorkshire .
= = Upavon case = =
In February 1223 , Maulay forfeited Upavon to the king . This was part of a string of confiscations that struck at supporters of des Roches , including William de Cantilupe , Breauté , and Robert de Vieuxpont , by taking back grants that had been made earlier and which were held at the king 's will . The seizures were made to teach the nobles a lesson and curb their dissension from the royal government , which was in the hands of Roches ' rival de Burgh . Most of the manors , including Upavon , were returned to their previous holders in April after a settlement between de Burgh and those who resented his government . Around this time Maulay began work on the castle of Mulgrave Castle , in Yorkshire , which was part of his wife 's inheritance . In June and July 1224 , Maulay was present at on the royal side at the siege of Bedford Castle , which was held by de Breauté against the government . In 1225 Maulay claimed that he had sworn to King John that he would not give up custody of the royal castles until after John 's son came of age . Maulay lost Upavon to the king again in 1229 , with the king regranting Upavon to Gilbert Basset . This grant to Basset was by charter , with the lands to be held in fee . Maulay claimed that he only gave up his tenure because of threats by de Burgh .
Maulay returned to royal service in 1230 when he joined the royal expedition to Brittany and was once more at the royal court in 1232 as a follower of Peter des Roches . Maulay regained Upavon in 1233 , after the king reopened the case . Henry justified his action as being exercised " per voluntatem nostrum " , or through his own will . Henry opened a case of quo warranto , and then declined to recognize his own charter as valid , thus granting the manor to Maulay . Although the case could be made that Maulay 's right to the manor was better than Basset 's , it is more probable that the dispute over Upavon and its ownership was the opening move in an effort to curtail the influence of Richard Marshall , the Earl of Pembroke . It was also an attempt to turn back grants made by the king to de Burgh 's supporters , now that de Burgh had fallen from power . The royal actions led to conflict between Henry III and the barons , because of Henry 's grant of the manor to Basset . The restoration to Maulay and Basset 's deprivation were considered illegal by many of the nobles , and led to a revolt by Basset and Marshal , who was Basset 's overlord . Maulay was seen as a non @-@ Englishman who was profiting over a popular English noble , Basset . Maulay was briefly in disgrace but managed to return to favour , and was named constable of Devizes in January 1234 , his first royal appointment since 1221 . He was granted the office of Sheriff of Northamptonshire in 1236 , perhaps owing these offices more to his former ward , Richard of Cornwall , than to his patron des Roches , who fell from power in 1234 . Des Roches ' loss of power did not adversely affect Maulay 's royal service . Maulay was present at the baptism of Prince Edward , and was one of the nobles who raised the infant from the baptismal font .
= = Last years and legacy = =
Maulay had vowed to go on crusade in 1220 , and in 1241 he finally set out for the Holy Land , along with Richard of Cornwall . He died later in 1241 , probably while still in the Holy Land . His wife died before him and his heir was his son Peter de Maulay . Besides his heir , Maulay had two other sons – Robert and Stephen , and a daughter , Hilary , who married Piers de Brus , son and heir of Piers de Brus , the Lord of Skelton . Maulay had endowed a chantry at Meaux Abbey in Yorkshire in memory of his wife . He also confirmed grants of lands to Eskdale Priory , a Grandmontine house founded by Isabella 's father , and to Nostell Priory . Maulay was also a benefactor of the Knights of Saint Thomas , a military religious order for Englishmen .
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= Henry Wells ( general ) =
Lieutenant General Sir Henry Wells , KBE , CB , DSO ( 22 March 1898 – 20 October 1973 ) was a senior officer in the Australian Army . Serving as Chief of the General Staff from 1954 to 1958 , Wells ' career culminated with his appointment as the first Chairman , Chiefs of Staff Committee , a position marking him as the professional head of the Australian Military . He served in this capacity from March 1958 until March 1959 , when he retired from the army .
Born in Victoria , Wells began his career in the Australian Army in 1916 when he entered the Royal Military College , Duntroon . Graduating as a lieutenant three years later , he served in a variety of staff and instructional positions before the outbreak of the Second World War . Initially posted to the 7th Division as a staff officer in 1940 , Wells was promoted to lieutenant colonel and made senior liaison officer to I Corps . Serving in Greece and North Africa , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his leadership at El Alamein . Transferred to the South West Pacific theatre in 1943 as a brigadier , he served in the New Guinea Campaign with the headquarters of II Corps and later in the Borneo campaign with I Corps .
Wells was promoted to major general in 1946 and appointed Deputy Chief of the General Staff . Following promotion to lieutenant general , he was made Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , British Commonwealth Forces Korea from 1953 to 1954 , serving during the last days of the war . In retirement , Wells was a director of several companies . Aged 75 , he died in 1973 .
= = Early life and career = =
Wells was born in the Victorian town of Kyneton on 22 March 1898 , the youngest of seven children to Arthur Wells , a draper , and his wife Elizabeth ( née Carter ) . Educated at Kyneton High School , Wells entered the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in February 1916 , where he was a keen sportsman . Graduating from the college in December 1919 , he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Australian Army , and posted to England for further training .
On his return to Australia , Wells was appointed as adjutant and quartermaster of the 8th Light Horse Regiment in 1921 . The following year , he was allocated to the 9th Light Horse Regiment . In February 1926 , Wells was briefly appointed brigade major of the 6th Cavalry Brigade , before becoming an instructor at the Small Arms School , Sydney , during July . On 14 December that year , Wells married Lorna Irene Skippen in a ceremony at St John 's Church of England , Cessnock ; the couple would later have two sons .
During 1927 , Wells was assigned to the Royal Military College , Duntroon as a company commander and promoted to captain that December . Returning to the Small Arms School as an instructor in 1931 , he was dispatched to England and attended the Staff College , Camberley between 1935 and 1936 . Arriving back in Australia , Wells was made adjutant and quartermaster of the 4th / 3rd Battalion , and later brigade major of the 1st Infantry Brigade . During 1938 , he was reposted to Royal Military College , Duntroon as a lecturer on tactics .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Greece and North Africa = = =
On 15 May 1940 , Wells transferred to the Second Australian Imperial Force for active service during the Second World War . Promoted to major , he was posted to the headquarters of the 7th Division . Wells proceeded with the division to the Middle East , where , on arriving in December , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and posted as senior liaison officer to I Corps . During this time , the Australian 6th Division and I Corps Headquarters were diverted for service in the Greek Campaign .
Wells arrived in Greece on 7 March 1941 , with an advance party of Lieutenant General Sir Thomas Blamey 's I Corps staff . On 10 April , a plan was formulated to withdraw Greek and Commonwealth troops from their positions in the Verria pass of the Vermion Mountains to the River Aliakmon . To carry this out , Blamey despatched Wells to coordinate the movement of the 12th Greek Division west to its new position . The withdrawal began on 12 April , but the force 's movement was hampered because of lack of vehicles and the division did not arrive until late evening the following day . During this time , Wells travelled between I Corps Headquarters and the 12th Greek Division , organising and coordinating the division 's movement , despite frequent air attacks on the roads .
On 24 April 1941 , Wells embarked from Greece along with the remainder of the I Corps Headquarters during the British and Commonwealth withdrawal . Commended for his " conspicuous skill , ability and energy " and fostering " mutual confidence and goodwill between the Allied forces " , Wells was recommended for the Distinguished Service Order , but was subsequently appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his services in Greece . The announcement of the award was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 30 December 1941 . Then Brigadier Stanley Savige later wrote of Wells during the campaign : " Tireless in his long journeys , helpful in every possible way , and courageous in all circumstances " . For his " gallant and distinguished services " during this time , Wells was additionally Mentioned in Despatches .
Following Greece , the headquarters of I Corps returned to Palestine . Wells was made General Staff Officer , 2nd Grade ( GSO2 ) , the deputy chief of staff in charge of planning operations . I Corps was alerted to take part in the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign , in spite of the fact that since Blamey had been promoted to Deputy Commander in Chief Middle East Command , the corps lacked a commanding officer . General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson — the British commander in Palestine and Transjordan — believed that I Corps ' loss of transport and signal equipment precluded it from participating in the campaign from the outset . Instead , Wilson attempted to exercise command from the King David Hotel . This proved to be a serious error , as his staff were preoccupied with political and administrative issues , and were too remote from the battlefields to exercise the close command required . Following a series of reverses , I Corps headquarters was sent for on 18 June , and Lieutenant General John Lavarack assumed command that day . The headquarters was confronted by a difficult situation , with almost all reserves committed . Lavarack began regrouping his force , concentrating the 7th Division for a decisive thrust towards Beirut . Hard fighting was required before the campaign was brought to a successful conclusion .
Promoted to colonel , Wells became General Staff Officer , 1st Grade ( GSO1 ) , to the 9th Division in November 1941 . As such , he was the 9th Division 's chief of staff , responsible for the full range of staff activities . On 28 June 1942 , Wells accompanied Lieutenant General Sir Leslie Morshead — Commander of the 9th Division — to Cairo , where they received orders tasking the 9th Division with the defence of Cairo . The pair spent that night and the following day organising plans for the move , before Morshead received further orders on 30 June cancelling his previous instructions and directing the division instead be dispatched to Alexandria ; the move took place on 1 July . Two days later , it was decided that the 24th Infantry Brigade would be sent forward to reinforce the position at El Alamein . The brigade was lacking in equipment , and Wells spent that day arranging equipment for the unit as well as overseeing its preparation ; the brigade moved forward the next day . The divisional headquarters proceeded to El Alamein on 7 July , and was posted to the northern flank of the British front line . The unit then spent the remainder of the month in action against Axis forces in the area . For his " distinguished services " during this period , Wells was Mentioned in Despatches a second time .
On 23 October 1942 , the British and Commonwealth forces under Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery launched an offensive against Axis forces at El Alamein . The 9th Division took part in the battle , and was initially tasked with the seizure of a section of the Oxalic Line . Over the proceeding twelve days , the Australians heavily contributed to the assault , with Morshead and his staff coordinating the 9th Division 's operations ; success was claimed on 4 November . Praised for his " ability of high order " , Wells was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his efforts in training and preparing the division before the battle , in addition to his labours during the engagement . The notification for the decoration was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 11 February 1943 .
In late November 1942 , the members of the 9th Division returned to Palestine . In January , the unit embarked from North Africa and sailed home to Australia in preparation for service against the Japanese in the South West Pacific .
= = = South West Pacific = = =
Wells arrived back in Australia during February 1943 . On 15 March , Morshead was appointed to command II Corps , and Wells was transferred along with him to the unit 's headquarters as Brigadier , General Staff . He was promoted to temporary brigadier in April . During this time , the combat forces of the corps undertook training in both jungle and amphibious warfare in preparation for its planned deployment to New Guinea . Wells took an active hand in organising these exercises , before he moved with the corps headquarters to New Guinea during October .
The movement of II Corps coincided with the vicious fighting around the Huon Peninsula and Finisterre Range . Wells assisted in the planning and coordination of operations over the subsequent months , which culminated in the seizure of Madang during April 1944 . Wells was awarded his third Mention in Despatches during this time for his " exceptional services in the field " .
In April 1944 , II Corps was redesignated as I Corps and returned to Australia , where it established itself on the Atherton Tableland in Queensland . The following month , Wells proceeded to Land Command Headquarters in Sydney , where he attended a conference on staff appointments . He returned to the corps eleven days later . During this period , Wells was once again active in organising the unit 's training off the Queensland coast , before he was granted a period of leave during August ; he returned to duty on 26 September . On 19 July 1945 , Wells was upgraded to a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his " exceptional ability and outstanding devotion to duty " in conjunction with the " valuable assistance " given throughout the New Guinea campaign to the General Officer Commanding New Guinea Force .
During March 1945 , Wells acted as one of the eight pallbearers for Major General George Alan Vasey at the latter 's funeral . Vasey had been killed in a plane crash just off the coast of Cairns , while en route to assume command of the 6th Division in New Guinea . That same month , it was decided that I Corps would lead an assault against the island of Borneo . As a consequence , headquarters of I Corps moved to Morotai , where it opened on 24 April . The initial Borneo landings took place on 1 May , with the Australian force in action at Tarakan . Over the proceeding engagements , Wells assisted in the organisation and implementation of the operations in Borneo . As the war drew to a close in September 1945 , Wells returned to Australia and was posted to Army Headquarters in Melbourne .
= = Senior command = =
In March 1946 , Wells was briefly posted as director of military operations at Army Headquarters , before being promoted to temporary major general and appointed Deputy Chief of the General Staff . The following year , he embarked for the United Kingdom where he attended the Imperial Defence College in London . During this time , Wells attended an investiture ceremony at Buckingham Palace , where he was presented with his Commander of the Order of the British Empire by King George VI . On his return to Australia in 1949 , Wells was made Commandant of the Royal Military College , Duntroon . He served in this position until February 1951 , when he was appointed General Officer Commanding Southern Command with the rank of temporary lieutenant general . In June of that year , Wells acted as one of the ten pallbearers to Field Marshal Sir Thomas Blamey at his state funeral in Melbourne .
Wells was appointed Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , British Commonwealth Forces Korea , in 1953 . Assuming the role on 11 February , he led the Commonwealth contingent for the next twenty @-@ one months as the Korean War was coming to an end . Like his predecessors in the position , Wells exercised administrative command only , and had no direct control over battlefield operations . Though its incumbents were considered to have performed well , the role garnered little credit for helping facilitate combat success but was a soft target for criticism when operations did not run smoothly . Wells had been sent to Korea with no instructions regarding the withdrawal of troops and — as armistice talks appeared on the verge of success — he was closely involved in liaison with the heads of Commonwealth governments regarding General Mark Clark 's requests for their commitment to retain forces in the theatre for some period following the end of hostilities .
Raised to substantive lieutenant general on 12 April 1954 , Wells was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the Queen 's Birthday Honours that June . He was commended for his " exceptional meritorious service " in Korea , and awarded the United States ' Legion of Merit in the degree of Commander . Presented with the decoration by General John E. Hull on 19 October , Wells returned to Australia three days later . In December , he was made Chief of the General Staff ; the professional head of the Australian Army . Wells ' appointment coincided with the commitment of Australian forces to the Malayan Emergency , and as such he presided over the deployment of soldiers to the engagement as well as the formation of the first regular brigade group . He was upgraded to a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1956 New Years Honours .
On 23 March 1958 , Wells was appointed the first Chairman , Chiefs of Staff Committee ( COSC ) ; the professional head of the Australian Military . The position had previously existed as an extension to the responsibilities of the senior service chief — either the Chief of Naval Staff , Chief of the General Staff or Chief of the Air Staff — but Wells was the first to occupy the position as a separate post . The chairmanship of COSC was created as part of the Australian government 's response to a review of the Defence group of departments conducted by Lieutenant General Sir Leslie Morshead in 1957 , which recommended greater centralisation of the armed forces . Although the Chairman was the Government 's principal military advisor and reported directly to the Minister for Defence , Wells was not promoted and remained at the same rank as the heads of the Navy , Army and Air Force . He was also hampered by being given only a small staff . The role of the Chairman , COSC was not strengthened until 1965 , when Air Marshal Sir Frederick Scherger — who had been appointed to the position in 1961 — was promoted to air chief marshal so that he out @-@ ranked the service heads . Wells served in this capacity until his retirement from the Australian military on 22 March 1959 .
= = Retirement = =
In retirement , Wells was appointed as a director to several companies , including Broken Hill South Ltd , Metal Manufactures Ltd , Navcot Australia Pty Ltd and Sitmar Line ( Australia ) Pty Ltd . During April 1961 , Wells was appointed honorary colonel of the Royal Victoria Regiment . Described as " somewhat reserved and taciturn " during his life , Wells died at Yarrawonga , Victoria , on 20 October 1973 , and was survived by his wife and their two sons . His funeral service took place with full military honours at Toorak Presbyterian Church , after which he was cremated . In his will , Wells bequeathed a sizable proportion of his estate to Junior Legacy , Melbourne . Wells Road , a street in Duntroon , Australian Capital Territory , is named in his honour .
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= C. D. Howe =
Clarence Decatur " C. D. " Howe , PC ( 15 January 1886 – 31 December 1960 ) was a powerful Canadian Cabinet minister , representing the Liberal Party . Howe served in the governments of Prime Ministers William Lyon Mackenzie King and Louis St. Laurent continuously from 1935 to 1957 . He is credited with transforming the Canadian economy from agriculture @-@ based to industrial . During the Second World War , his involvement in the war effort was so extensive that he was nicknamed the " Minister of Everything . "
Born in Massachusetts , Howe moved to Nova Scotia as a young adult to take up a professorship at Dalhousie University . After working for the Canadian government as an engineer , he began his own firm , and became a wealthy man . In 1935 , he was recruited as a Liberal candidate for the Canadian House of Commons by then Opposition leader Mackenzie King . The Liberals won the election in a landslide , and Howe won his seat . Mackenzie King appointed him to the Cabinet . There , he took major parts in many new enterprises , including the founding of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC ) and Trans @-@ Canada Air Lines ( today Air Canada ) . When World War II began in 1939 , Howe played a crucial role in Canada 's war effort , and recruited many corporate executives ( as " dollar @-@ a @-@ year @-@ men " ) to serve as executives in wartime enterprises .
Howe 's impatience with the necessity for parliamentary debate of his proposals won him few friends , and he was often accused of dictatorial conduct by the Opposition . As the Liberal government entered its third decade , it and Howe came to be seen as arrogant . The Government 's attempt to impose closure in the 1956 Pipeline Debate led to major controversy in the House of Commons . In the 1957 election , Howe 's actions and policies were made an issue by Opposition leader John Diefenbaker . Howe faced a serious challenge in his riding , but was expected to make speeches elsewhere as a major Liberal leader . Howe lost his seat in the election , and Diefenbaker became Prime Minister , ending almost 22 years of Liberal rule . Howe returned to the private sector , accepting a number of corporate directorships . The former minister died suddenly of a heart attack in December 1960 .
= = Early years and academic career = =
Howe was born and raised in Waltham , Massachusetts , in the United States . The Howes were well @-@ regarded in the local community , and William Howe , Clarence 's father , was involved in local politics . When not doing political work , William Howe was a carpenter and house builder . Clarence 's mother , the former Mary Emma Hastings , was a teacher and the daughter of a prosperous farmer on whose farm Clarence spent his childhood summers .
Clarence did well in school , and upon his graduation from Waltham High School in 1903 , he took the entrance examinations for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He passed , and after taking basic courses at the school , did advanced work in engineering . During the summers , he worked for J.B. Worcester & Co . , a firm which had constructed much of the Boston subway system . While at school , he became a favourite pupil of Professor George Swain ; after Howe graduated in 1907 , Swain offered Howe a job as his teaching assistant . Howe accepted , although the young engineer felt that he should leave the Boston area to begin his career . Soon afterwards , Howe was offered an opportunity to become an engineering professor at Dalhousie University in Halifax , Nova Scotia . A popular story about Howe was that Swain had Howe and fellow engineer James Barker toss a coin to see who would get the job . Barker denied the tale later in life , stating he had no interest in the position and no one who knew Howe would be foolish enough to gamble with him , as Howe had shown himself to be uncommonly lucky . In any event , Howe had no better prospects in sight ; unemployment among his classmates was high due to the Panic of 1907 .
At the time , Dalhousie was a small University , with only 400 students , and members of the teaching staff had a heavy workload . Howe , at age 23 , was little older than some of his students . He had little experience in the field , and on trips outside Halifax , he and his students would solve problems together . Howe 's view was that any problem could be solved through common sense and hard work . Howe took his students to the countryside , where they camped , surveying and planning imaginary railroads . His student Denis Stairs , who would go on to lead the Montreal Engineering Company , said of Howe that by the time the camp ended , his students had great respect for him . Student C. J. Mackenzie , who Howe would later appoint to the National Research Council presidency , stated that Howe was not a brilliant lecturer , but that his presentations were always extremely clear . Howe later said of university education , " The worker at college continues to work , and becomes a successful engineer . The shirker continues to shirk , and gets nowhere . " In addition to his own work , Howe found time for an active social life in Halifax , and considered marrying the sister of one of his students , but she had another husband in mind .
After Howe 's first year in Halifax , engineering instruction of upperclassmen was taken away from Dalhousie and other universities in the province , and placed in a separate technical institute in which Howe had no role . Howe later stated that he liked Dalhousie , and had this change not occurred , he might have remained there as a professor . In 1913 , however , a former colleague at Dalhousie , Robert Magill , who had recently been appointed chairman of the Board of Grain Commissioners , offered Howe the post of chief engineer , with responsibility for supervising the construction of grain elevators . Howe stated , " I 've never seen one of those things in my life , but I 'll take the job . " The same year , he applied to become a British subject , as Canadians then were .
= = Engineer and businessman = =
In mid @-@ 1913 , Howe journeyed to Northwestern Ontario to take up his new post . The Board was headquartered in Fort William , Ontario , where Canadian wheat was transferred from rail to ship . The Board sought to build a series of large terminal grain elevators , which could process as well as store grain . The project would increase both capacity and competition — grain elevator companies had been accused by farmers ' interests of charging excessive prices . The first such elevator for the Board was raised in nearby Port Arthur , Ontario , and was acclaimed as one of the best grain elevators ever built in Canada , and one of the cheapest . Over the next two years , Howe traveled the West , supervising the construction of terminal elevators near major cities and ports . The capacity would be needed , as Canadian farmers increased production during the First World War .
In late 1915 , Howe traveled back to Massachusetts to court Alice Worcester , daughter of the head of the company he had worked for in the summer at MIT . After some surprise at the attention from a man she barely knew , Worcester eventually accepted him , and the two were married in mid @-@ 1916 . The same year , he resigned from government service to go into business with partners as C. D. Howe and Company , whose major business was initially the construction of grain elevators . Both the company headquarters and the marital home were in Port Arthur . Howe 's first contract was to build a grain elevator in Port Arthur . In December 1916 , a massive storm destroyed the half @-@ built elevator , wiping out Howe 's assets . Had his bank not come to his assistance with additional funds , he would have been ruined . When Howe turned over the completed elevator to the owner , the Saskatchewan Grain Growers Association , he was asked how badly he had done on the contract , and stated , " I lost my shirt . " The Association voted him a bonus to make up his loss .
Over the next several years , Howe 's business expanded into engineering consulting and , much more profitably , general contracting . His firm came to dominate the construction of grain elevators in the West , as the Saskatchewan and Alberta wheat pools gave him much of their construction business . This made him unpopular among private wheat companies : his firm did not receive any contracts to build terminal elevators for private corporations in the 1920s , but exceeded the number built by all other contractors combined , thanks to business from those cooperatives . Howe 's elevators were built more quickly , were better designed , and were cheaper to construct than those of his competitors . He worked to add to their efficiency ; the Dominion @-@ Howe unloader he helped design emptied a grain car in eight minutes , needing only two operators ; the same operation had previously taken an hour for a crew of 20 men .
In the early 1920s , Howe turned down several requests that he stand for alderman in Port Arthur . He did agree to seek election to the school board in 1921 , and headed the polls at his first attempt . He served two 2 @-@ year terms on the board , spending the final year as its chairman . Early in their marriage , Clarence and Alice Howe had decided to separate their roles , with Alice Howe having full responsibility for their domestic lives . Howe took no interest in his home life ; as an often @-@ absent father he had only a small role in the upbringing of his five children . In the same manner he did not involve his wife in his business ( or , later public ) life . During his ministerial career , he replied in response to an opposition question hinting at nepotism , " I don 't like to discuss my family in public . Members may have noticed that my wife never appears on political platforms . "
In October 1929 , the firm completed a huge grain elevator , with capacity of 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 bushels ( 246 @,@ 670 cubic meters ) , at Port Arthur . The Depression , however , devastated the grain industry , with falling prices and little demand for exported grain . There was no demand for more grain elevators , as the existing elevators contained unsold grain , further driving prices down . Howe 's company managed to survive on pre @-@ existing government contracts , but these eventually expired and the staff of 175 had decreased to five by 1933 . On the first business day of 1934 , Howe 's sole remaining partner resigned from the firm . Although Howe remained a wealthy man , his business prospects were few , and he decided to seek another line of work .
= = Politics = =
= = = Election and prewar = = =
As early as 1933 , the Liberal Party had considered Howe as a potential candidate for the House of Commons . The Liberals were then in opposition . The public was angry over the inability of Prime Minister R. B. Bennett and his Conservative ( or Tory ) government to deal with the Depression , and the Liberals were considered likely to return to office at the next election , due by 1935 . Howe , feeling political activism was bad for business , had not publicly expressed political views . Norman Platt Lambert , a Liberal Party official and friend of Howe , brought him to a meeting with Liberal Party leader and former Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King on 20 January 1934 . The two men were impressed with each other , but each felt the other should make the next move . According to Lambert in his diary , Howe wanted a guaranteed Cabinet position were he to run in the new riding of Port Arthur .
Howe was also interested in an offer to build a huge new grain shipment complex in Argentina . While considering this proposition , and still waiting to hear from Mackenzie King , in late 1934 Howe agreed to be the Liberal candidate in Port Arthur . He finally received a promise of a Cabinet position , should he and the Liberals be elected ; Howe would not have stood without such an undertaking . On 14 October 1935 , Howe was comfortably elected to the Commons from Port Arthur , amassing a majority of 3 @,@ 784 . Across the country the Liberals won a landslide victory , with 173 seats in the House of Commons to the Conservatives 's 40 .
Mackenzie King appointed Howe to two portfolios , as Minister of Railways and Canals and the first Minister of Marine . Howe was the only engineer in Cabinet , which was dominated by lawyers , and was the first engineer to serve in a Liberal government . As there was at that moment no governor general , on 23 October 1935 , Howe and his Cabinet colleagues were sworn in by Sir Lyman Duff , Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada , serving as Administrator .
After Parliament assembled in early 1936 , Howe sought to have it pass legislation to reform local port authorities . Individual ports were run by Boards of Harbour Commissioners , appointments to which were often politically influenced . A Royal Commission in 1932 had recommended the positions be abolished , and Howe 's bill was to establish a National Harbours Board . The debate in the House went smoothly until Howe angered the opposition by declaring that , during Bennett 's government , the Conservatives had been corrupt . Despite what became a much more bitter debate , Howe 's bill carried . According to Leslie Roberts in his biography of Howe , " This was the Howe the country would soon come to know much better , the Howe on the rampage , the Howe who is impatient of criticism and deplores the debates and delays inherent in the parliamentary system . "
Howe worked to place the government @-@ dominated Canadian National Railways ( CNR ) on a sound financial basis . He introduced legislation to form the CNR into a crown corporation . Although the opposition complained that Howe was becoming power mad , they had little quarrel with the proposed reorganization itself , and it was passed into law . In June 1936 , Howe brought in legislation to establish another crown corporation , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation , which passed into law with little debate or opposition .
In 1936 , Canada had almost no airline coverage ; many Canadians wishing to fly long distances by air would journey through the United States . The Liberals proposed legislation to establish a government @-@ financed corporation , with half the stock to be owned by the CNR and half by the privately owned Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) . The CPR balked at the deal , and the remaining stock was taken up by the CNR . In May 1937 , Trans @-@ Canada Air Lines was founded with its inaugural flight , a perilous transcontinental proving flight on 30 July 1937 . Howe , along with other dignitaries , was on board , urging the pilots on , even through dangerous weather conditions . For the rest of his political career , Howe kept Trans @-@ Canada Air Lines in his ministerial portfolio , considering it his " progeny and generally promoted its interests . "
= = = Second World War = = =
With almost four years gone in his government 's five @-@ year term , in mid @-@ 1939 Mackenzie King considered an election and asked British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain in early August if he thought anything was likely to happen on the international scene . Chamberlain warned of unsettled conditions on the German — Polish border ; Britain had promised to assist Polish independence in the event of war . Mackenzie King decided to wait to hold an election . On 1 September , Germany invaded Poland . Mackenzie King recalled Parliament into session beginning 7 September , and Canada declared war on Germany . Before adjourning on 13 September , Parliament passed legislation creating a Department of Munitions and Supply .
It was some months before the department was established ; in the meantime Howe supervised the War Purchasing Board . Howe worked to persuade many of his business contacts to work for him , or for other government departments . Roberts suggests that no " political minister " could have done that , as many of Howe 's recruits were Conservatives . According to historian and author Michael Bliss , " [ f ] or Howe and other entrepreneurial spirits interested in the creative uses of government power , the war was a kind of ultimate megaproject , a great development job . Money didn 't matter , production did . "
Mackenzie King had promised the Leader of the Opposition Robert Manion , that he would not call an election without reconvening Parliament . On 25 January 1940 , Mackenzie King convened Parliament and promptly announced that it would immediately be prorogued , much to Manion 's anger . In the ensuing election , Howe had little trouble being re @-@ elected , and 184 Liberals were returned to Ottawa , the greatest total by any party to that point . Manion , however , lost his seat . Two weeks after the election , Germany invaded Norway and Denmark . Mackenzie King , in his diaries , noted his relief that the invasion had not taken place during the campaign , and appointed Howe as Minister of Munitions and Supply . Liking his job at Transport , Howe was reluctant to move , but the Prime Minister persuaded him . The function of the new department was the complete mobilization of all Canadian resources to support the war effort . Howe initially retained the Transport portfolio as well ; on 8 July 1940 , he turned over responsibility for that portfolio to Arthur Cardin , although Howe retained control of the CBC and Trans @-@ Canada Air Lines .
Howe 's department , in which he was assisted by his " dollar @-@ a @-@ year men " , top managers in Canadian business , loaned to the government by their companies for a token payment of one dollar a year — their firms maintained them on their payrolls . Even before the department was formally established , Howe 's representatives were surveying the country for essential war needs , with the department soon accumulating huge reserves of strategic materials . During the Second World War , Howe established 28 Crown Corporations , which did everything from managing secret projects to manufacturing the machine tools the rest of Canadian industry needed to keep going . These corporations were not responsible to Parliament , but to Howe himself . Parliament received no word of their activities unless Howe mentioned them .
With Canadian industry reorganized to supply the British war effort , Howe decided he needed to journey to Britain to discuss matters with the customers . He embarked on the S.S. Western Prince in December 1940 . This was an intensely dangerous trip ; Germany was attempting to blockade Britain and there were many German submarines in the North Atlantic . One of those submarines sank the Western Prince on 14 December . Howe survived the sinking and eight hours in a lifeboat . Gordon Scott , his aide , was killed trying to climb from the lifeboat to the rescuing ship . Howe professed coolness in the incident , but later told the Manchester Guardian that he considered every hour that he lived from that day onwards to be borrowed time .
While on tour of British industrial plants , Howe was shown the Avro Lancaster four @-@ engined heavy bomber , which he subsequently championed for Canadian production . On his return , Howe expropriated the troubled National Steel Car Ltd. plant which was beset with management problems , setting up Victory Aircraft Limited as a Crown Corporation , removing the executives and installing J.P. Bickell , one of Howe 's " dollar @-@ a @-@ year club " as the new president and chairman of the board . Victory Aircraft recovered its momentum and went on to become one of Howe 's greatest industrial successes , producing Avro aircraft under licence , including the Lancaster , and developing the passenger variant , the Avro Lancastrian . After the war the company was sold and became the nucleus of Avro Canada .
In mid @-@ 1943 the District Engineer of the Manhattan Engineer District , Lt @-@ Col Kenneth Nichols had several queries from Canada relating to contracts Canadian firms Eldorado Gold Mines and Consolidated Mining and Smelting ( CMS of Cominco ) had for the secret atomic bomb project ; CMS was building a heavy water plant and Eldorado was mining and processing uranium ore . He phoned a C. D. Howe in Ottawa and arranged to travel on the overnight train to Ottawa and see Howe the next day ( June 14 ) . On arriving at the address given Nichols was surprised to find that Howe was the minister of munitions and supply , and found him most friendly . Howe was told about the Manhattan Project , and Nichols was told that Eldorado was now a Crown company .
According to Roberts , " What Howe started in 1940 was an Industrial Revolution , so widespread that most Canadians were unaware of its extent or of its penetration into the country 's economy . " Although there had been increases in production throughout the first three years of the war , the minister 's efforts truly bore fruit in 1943 , in which Canada had the fourth @-@ highest industrial production among the Allies , trailing only the US , USSR , and Britain . By 1944 , Canada had produced over 600 ships for the war effort , 1 @,@ 100 aircraft , and over half a million cars and trucks , of which 31 @,@ 000 were armoured . According to Roberts , Howe 's actions swung Canada 's economy from agriculture @-@ based to industrial , a change which would prove permanent . Howe stated in 1943 , " Never again will there be any doubt that Canada can manufacture anything that can be manufactured elsewhere . "
= = = = " What 's a million ? " = = = =
During the debate on Howe 's war spending estimates in 1945 ( which totalled $ 1 @.@ 365 billion ) , Howe answered an Opposition question on whether such a large sum could be reduced : " I dare say my honourable friend could cut a million dollars from that amount , but a million dollars from the War Appropriations Bill would not be a very important matter . " Saskatchewan Tory MP John Diefenbaker spoke the following day , and alleged that Howe had said , " We may save a million dollars , but what of it ? " Howe angrily denied the quote , accusing Diefenbaker of being " a past master of distortion " — language he was forced to withdraw as unparliamentary . Diefenbaker sharpened the anecdote over time , and it emerged in its final form as Howe saying , " What 's a million ? " Even Liberals who knew that Howe had made no such statement agreed that it was just the sort of thing he could have said . In the years to come , " What 's a million ? " would be a mocking Tory attack on the Liberals , most often directed at Howe .
In 1942 Canada requested and was given a place on the Combined Production and Resources Board alongside the U.S. and Britain . Howe served as the Chief Executive Officer for Canada .
= = = Postwar = = =
= = = = Mackenzie King years = = = =
In October 1944 , Mackenzie King appointed Howe Minister of Reconstruction . Howe had an excellent reputation , even in the Soviet Union , for his successful overhaul of the Canadian economy , and Mackenzie King feared he would return to the private sector to make another fortune in business . Among those who urged Howe to remain was the Minister of Justice , Louis St. Laurent , with whom Howe forged a strong relationship . The Prime Minister obtained a dissolution of Parliament in April 1945 . In the ensuing election , the Liberals obtained a bare majority over the Conservatives ( renamed the Progressive Conservatives ) and the other parties . Howe was intensively involved in Liberal fundraising , and campaigned nationally for its candidates . He was easily returned in Port Arthur , taking just over half of all votes cast , with the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation ( the predecessor of today 's New Democratic Party ) a distant second . Mackenzie King himself was defeated in his Saskatchewan riding but was returned in an Ontario by @-@ election within months . The Prime Minister was now past 70 years of age and tired .
Howe favoured as quick a transition to a peacetime economy as possible . Most industries in which there were not shortages were released from government controls in late 1945 . Labour leaders , fearing unemployment , wanted to keep wartime government plants in production ; Howe opposed such proposals . When union members who were laid off from the Research Enterprises Limited ( R.E.L. ) confronted Howe on a golf course , the minister stated , " R.E.L. was a war @-@ time plant . The war is through , the plant is through , and your union ... what happens to your union is up to you . Get the hell off of the course . " In disposing of redundant government property , Howe found that saddles and harnesses had been stored since the end of the Boer War and men had been employed to safeguard and polish them for over 40 years . He strove to eliminate such anachronisms . However , Howe was slower to release economic controls . According to Roberts , " although he worked to return the country 's economic power to private hands , he often seemed as loath to surrender his own dictatorial powers over it as he was to submit to Parliament " . In November 1945 , Howe 's wartime portfolio was merged into his new responsibility to form the Department of Reconstruction and Supply .
Howe was determined to support technologically advanced industries , and saw no reason why Canada should not continue to produce aircraft after the war . His Director @-@ General for Aircraft Production , Ralph Bell , disagreed with him , noting that Canada had no aircraft engine manufacturer , and that despite the presence of manufacturing plants and skilled workers , there was no guarantee that they could sell their products . Nevertheless , Howe took steps to keep aircraft manufacturers in business , allowing the British Hawker Siddeley Group to take over Victory Aircraft as A.V. Roe Canada ( Avro Canada ) , while Canadair was sold to the US @-@ based Electric Boat Company ( later General Dynamics ) .
After the war , Mackenzie King was asked by the British Government which prominent Canadians should be appointed to the Imperial Privy Council , entitling them to proceed their names with " The Right Honourable " . Mackenzie King recommended two Cabinet members , but not Howe . After the honours were announced on New Year 's Day 1946 , Howe demanded a meeting with Mackenzie King , told the Prime Minister that he felt his war service was being slighted and threatened his resignation . Mackenzie King calmed Howe down , and arranged for Howe to receive the honour in June . This created additional ill feeling among other members of the Cabinet ; two more were elevated in the 1947 New Year 's Honours , after which the Prime Minister refused to consider any more .
In February 1947 , Mackenzie King fell ill with pneumonia and , after recovering , spent a month on vacation in the United States , with St. Laurent ( by then Secretary of State for External Affairs ) as Acting Prime Minister . In July , Minister of National Defence Brooke Claxton warned Mackenzie King that the issue of the Prime Minister 's age and the uncertainty of the succession was causing political difficulties for the Liberals . Mackenzie King consulted Howe , who bluntly stated that it was best that Mackenzie King go out while still retaining his full faculties and before a crisis erupted . After the talk , the Prime Minister decided that he should retire within a year , and that St. Laurent , who had recently threatened to leave Cabinet and return home to Quebec , should be the successor . Howe was among those who persuaded St. Laurent not to resign . He also helped persuade St. Laurent to stand for the leadership , offering to remain in Cabinet to assist the Quebecer .
= = = = St. Laurent government = = = =
On 20 January 1948 , Mackenzie King announced his intent to resign . He also announced a Cabinet reshuffle ; both St. Laurent and Howe had urged the Prime Minister to move Howe , who had not enjoyed his work at the Ministry of Reconstruction and Supply . Mackenzie King finally yielded , moving James Angus MacKinnon , the Minister of Trade and Commerce to open his place for Howe ( the Albertan became Minister of Fisheries ) . Howe publicly announced that he was " not available " to stand for the leadership , and that he was supporting St. Laurent . The Quebecer was elected Leader of the Liberal Party in August , and Mackenzie King finally resigned on 15 November . At age 66 , St. Laurent was only seven years younger than Mackenzie King , but was nevertheless seen as a breath of fresh air — except at Cabinet meetings , where he reversed Mackenzie King 's smoking ban .
In October 1948 , the Progressive Conservatives also elected a new leader , Ontario Premier George A. Drew . Drew had won three consecutive provincial elections , taking even francophone ridings , and the Tories , perennially weak in Quebec , hoped that Drew could repeat his success on a national scale . Drew defeated Diefenbaker for the leadership . St. Laurent called an election for June 1949 , and Howe again was successful in fundraising from corporate backers . Major corporations from the CPR to Eaton 's contributed to the well financed Liberal campaign . The Liberals won a huge victory , taking 190 seats to 40 for the Tories , and Howe again won Port Arthur easily . Drew had used Howe 's record as an election issue , accusing him of being power mad and of selling off Crown Corporations for bargain prices , but the allegations got little traction . According to Howe , the only result of Drew 's attacks " was to give me a record majority in Port Arthur ! "
In early 1950 , St. Laurent considered recommending the appointment of Howe as governor general . The governor general had always been a British peer ; many nationalists wanted a Canadian to hold the post , and St. Laurent agreed with them . The governor general , The Viscount Alexander , was due to retire by 1953 , by which time Howe would be 68 . St. Laurent saw this as a way of allowing his friend and colleague to step away from politics for a quieter life . The minister was willing to take the post , but the position unexpectedly opened early when Alexander was appointed to the British Cabinet . Howe decided he still had work to do as a minister . He was also reluctant to exchange real power for the nominal power of the governor generalship . St. Laurent recommended the appointment of Canadian @-@ born Vincent Massey , who was duly appointed by King George VI .
Mackenzie King died in 1950 , by which time Canada was again going to war , this time in Korea ; on the train returning from the former prime minister 's funeral , St. Laurent and his External Relations minister , Lester Pearson , began planning troop movements . Howe saw it as the wrong war in the wrong place , and thought that Canadian troops should not be sent . Nevertheless , he spent the summer of 1950 at his desk , making plans to implement government controls on the booming economy . In September 1950 , Howe tabled a bill allowing him to reallocate scarce materials such as steel from the civilian sector to military use . The bill passed , but not before the Opposition had charged that Howe had " an enormous appetite for power " . Late in the year , the Government decided on a massive rearmament program . As the Canadian Commercial Corporation , the Crown Corporation which handled government purchases , was felt to be inadequate for the task , the Cabinet decided on a new department to handle procurement . St. Laurent introduced a bill in February 1951 creating a Department of Defence Production , and announced that on passage , Howe would add that responsibility to his portfolio . The opposition parties objected to the Defence Production Act , stating that there was no emergency justifying the powers Howe wanted . According to Roberts , Howe sought to implement rearmament by getting " full power for himself and running rights over everyone and everything to get an urgent job done " . Backed by the overwhelming Liberal majority , the bill passed and the Department was established on 1 April 1951 .
The early 1950s saw an era of prosperity in Canada ; in most years there was a government surplus . In 1951 , the Government introduced an old age pension for Canadians to receive from the age of 70 . With little unemployment and thus a surplus in the unemployment insurance fund , coverage was extended to seasonal workers , such as fishermen . St. Laurent 's supervision of his ministers was minimal at the start of his tenure , and decreased as the years passed . With the Opposition few in numbers , ministers did as they wanted , and when Howe was accused by British Columbia Tory MP Howard Green in 1951 of being willing to end tariffs if the people would let him , Howe replied , " Who would stop us ? Don 't take yourself too seriously . If we wanted to get away with it , who would stop us ? "
Despite Avro Canada 's success in producing the CF @-@ 100 , Canada 's first jet fighter for the Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) , aircraft development had proven to be a time @-@ consuming and expensive process . The projected next generation aircraft , Canada 's first supersonic jet interceptor , the CF @-@ 105 Arrow , was a more daunting project in terms of financial commitment and a leap in technological prowess . Howe wrote in a letter to Defence Minister Claxton in 1952 that " I am frightened for the first time in my defence production experience . "
The government spent much of early 1953 in enacting the remainder of its legislative program . St. Laurent did not wish to call an election until after Queen Elizabeth 's Coronation on 2 June and eventually scheduled it for 10 August . Drew made large numbers of promises to the voters , and attempted to exploit a Defence Ministry scandal which had broken earlier in the year ( at the Petawawa , Ontario army base , an investigation had found frauds which included placing horses on the payroll ) , but the Liberals were not seriously challenged . The Liberals lost 20 seats from their 1949 high @-@ water mark , but still constituted almost two @-@ thirds of the House of Commons , and no minister was defeated . Howe was again easily elected for Port Arthur .
= = = = Pipeline debate = = = =
Beginning in 1954 , Howe planned for pipelines to take Alberta 's natural gas to market . There were US @-@ backed proposals to build pipelines directly to the United States ; Howe wanted a route passing north of the Great Lakes which could supply Toronto and Montreal . Two rival groups contended for the approval which Howe had the power to grant ; Howe forced the groups to work together on the route he wanted .
In March 1955 , St. Laurent tabled legislation to make the Department of Defence Production permanent . This would also extend the extraordinary powers of the Minister . Fearful of another damaging confrontation between Howe and the Opposition , the Cabinet agreed that St. Laurent would guide the bill through , but after the first day of debate St. Laurent , who was prone to depression , absented himself . Tory frontbencher Donald Fleming contended that the extension could make the minister " the virtual dictator of the economy " . With St. Laurent absent ( or when present , silent ) , Howe took charge of the bill , and according to his biographers , Robert Bothwell and William Kilbourn , " utterly failed to perceive that the bill and his manner of defending it were a godsend to the opposition " . When Howe alluded to the Avro Arrow project and that he " was out on a limb for $ 30 million " , which gave him " the shudders " , the Opposition met the statement with jeers and cries of " What 's a million ? " The Tories were supported by the Social Credit MPs , while the Government gained the support of the CCF on this issue . Interrupted by a lengthy governmental trip by Howe to Australia and New Zealand , the debate stretched on until midyear . In early July , Howe left town for a long weekend , after asking St. Laurent and Minister of Finance Walter Harris to maintain his stand while he was gone , although he gave Harris the authority to do as he saw fit . Without informing Howe , St. Laurent contacted Drew , and the two men agreed that the minister 's powers would expire in 1959 unless sooner renewed . The amended bill passed the Commons in Howe 's absence , and when he returned , he furiously accused Harris of making a deal behind his back . However , when Howe was told that it had been the Prime Minister 's decision , he accepted it . Howe had earlier turned down an Opposition offer to agree to a three @-@ year extension of his ministerial powers , saying " That would mean coming back to Parliament in three years , and I 've more to do with my time than amusing Parliament . " The extension was allowed to expire in 1959 , although by then , Howe had left office .
The pipeline project was wracked with financing difficulties . The pipeline company wanted the Government to guarantee the loans needed to build what would become known as the Trans @-@ Canada Pipeline , but Cabinet refused , fearful of the political implications of giving a large sum of government money to a US @-@ dominated corporation . Howe was embittered by this decision , and grumbled that he was now part of " a government which has fallen into the hands of children " . A solution was proposed by Howe 's deputy minister , Mitchell Sharp : the Government and the province of Ontario would themselves build the most expensive part of the route , in Northern Ontario , to be reimbursed by Trans @-@ Canada once the pipeline was open for business . This was approved by both governments . By 1956 , however , further difficulties had arisen : until the US government granted formal approval for a part of the route which connected to US pipelines , Trans @-@ Canada could not raise enough money to build its portion . The approval was a matter of routine , but the delay would mean that construction on the pipeline could not begin until the spring of 1957 .
Howe was determined that the pipeline not be delayed , and proposed that the government advance money to the pipeline company to ensure construction in 1956 . He emotionally pleaded with his Cabinet colleagues , who agreed both to the proposal and to the use of rarely used closure to limit the debate . Closure had not been applied in the House since 1932 . The issue was attractive to the Tories and CCF with an election due within two years ; it would allow them to portray Howe as an arrogant dictator , and play to those citizens who disliked the American involvement in the pipeline project . If the bill did not receive Royal Assent by 7 June 1956 , options that Trans @-@ Canada held for steel pipe would expire .
Bothwell and Kilbourn describe Howe 's speech opening the Pipeline Debate as " probably the best of his career " . He told the Commons that waiting a year would be imprudent , given the worldwide shortage of steel pipe , and unfair to those who owned natural gas wells in western Canada , which were presently capped . Howe told the House he believed this to be a great project , " of truly national scope , which we must either launch now or see languish for years to come . " He completed his address by giving notice that the following day , the Government intended to invoke closure . Social Credit , with many members from Alberta , supported the bill , while the Tories and CCF engaged in weeks of bitter debate and parliamentary wrangling . This culminated on 1 June , dubbed by the Tories " Black Friday " , when Speaker René Beaudoin reversed a ruling he had made the previous evening which would have allowed the Opposition to continue the debate past the deadline . The Opposition accused the Speaker of yielding to Government pressure . The bill passed within the deadline , and construction on the pipeline began immediately . Howe wrote , " I should not like to face a general election at this moment . Fortunately we do not have to . "
In mid @-@ 1956 , Drew fell ill and soon resigned as Tory party leader . The leadership convention 's choice of Diefenbaker as Drew 's replacement prompted delight in some Liberal circles . Diefenbaker had long been a maverick even within his party , was little known in eastern Canada , and many deemed him unelectable . Although Defence Minister Claxton and the RCAF remained firm supporters of the Arrow program as costs continued to rise , in 1957 the Cabinet 's defence committee proposed elimination of the Arrow , a decision that was to be reviewed after the forthcoming election and which was supported by Howe .
= = = = 1957 election = = = =
After the election was called in April 1957 for 10 June , Howe raised sufficient money to enable the Liberals to heavily outspend their opponents . As there were few Liberal ministers from western Canada , Howe was called upon to make appearances throughout the region . He found that the Manitoba Farmers Union was organizing opposition to the Liberals ; at some meetings Howe had difficulty getting heard at all . At other meetings , Howe engaged in well publicised conflicts with audience members . On 19 May in Morris , Manitoba , Howe told one man demanding to speak that when his own party held a meeting , he could ask all the questions he wanted . The man , Bruce Mackenzie , proved to be the head of a local Liberal association . As Howe left , another man asked why he had not answered his question , posed earlier . Howe replied , " Look here , my good man , when the election comes , why don 't you go away and vote for the party you support ? In fact , why don 't you just go away ? " At another meeting a few days later , Howe was asked why he did not care about the farmers 's economic plight . " Looks like you 've been eating pretty well under a Liberal government " , Howe replied , poking the questioner in the midsection .
Diefenbaker used the Pipeline Debate as a major theme in the campaign , one which he mentioned more than any other issue . In Vancouver , he told the largest political crowd in the province since 1935 , " I give this assurance to Canadians — that the government shall be the servant and not the master of the people ... The road of the Liberal party , unless it is stopped — and Howe has said , ' Who 's going to stop us ? ' — will lead to the virtual extinction of parliamentary government . You will have the form , but the substance will be gone . "
Howe was opposed in his riding by CCF candidate Doug Fisher , a local high school teacher . Fisher 's campaign was well financed , with support from his party , the unions , and a number of corporate enemies Howe had made over the years . Fisher was able to buy up the key time on the local television station — Howe initially scheduled no television appearances . The voters of Port Arthur saw Fisher on television every night , explaining why the Liberals had gone wrong in his view , and what his party proposed to do to correct matters . Called back to his riding after the remainder of his disastrous Prairie tour was canceled , Howe found that Fisher 's appeals had caused defections among Liberals . Howe managed to get TV time just before the election and according to Bothwell and Kilbourn " treated his viewers to the sight of a tired , harsh old man , telling them that the nice young fellow that they had been seeing on television for the last couple of months was , if not a communist himself , then associated with the communists . No one believed him . " Fisher defeated Howe by over a thousand votes . Howe was gracious in defeat , shaking Fisher 's hand at the television station , and assuring the member @-@ elect 's mother , long a Howe admirer , that there were many things for him to do . Howe 's defeat came as the Liberals still led narrowly in the reported returns . The Tories forged ahead , and took the greater number of seats , 112 to 105 . St. Laurent could have remained in office until Diefenbaker and the Tories defeated him in the House , but chose not to — a course with which Howe agreed . The Liberals left office on 21 June 1957 , with Howe the only remaining minister of those sworn in with Mackenzie King in 1935 .
= = Later life , death , and legacy = =
Howe returned to Ottawa after his defeat , cleared his office , and soon sold his house there , moving to Montreal . He said of the new Diefenbaker government , " I don 't trust this new bunch very much . " Howe determined to leave politics entirely , but St. Laurent asked for his continued help , and Howe replied that he would help the party any way he could . After St. Laurent announced his retirement in September , Howe wrote to the former Prime Minister , " The young men of the party must take on the job of reorganising and rebuilding , and perhaps the sooner they get at it the better . "
While publicly taking no position , Howe privately supported former External Affairs Minister Pearson for the Liberal leadership , and Pearson won the contest in January 1958 . Howe advised Pearson not to take any action that might provoke an election . Pearson did not heed Howe and challenged Diefenbaker as soon as Parliament met . The election on 31 March returned the Progressive Conservatives in a record landslide , which left the Liberals with 48 seats . Howe , who took no part in the campaign , had already left for Europe with his wife , Alice , on an extended holiday . On his return , he did what he could to help rebuild the Liberal Party after the disaster , assisting with fundraising and seeking to unite factions within the party .
After some hesitancy that was likely caused by fears the newly empowered Tories would resent any approach to their longtime enemy , major corporations began to approach Howe and ask for him to serve on their boards of directors . Although outspoken against the Tory Government , Howe refused to join the criticism when Diefenbaker 's Cabinet cancelled the Avro Arrow in February 1959 .
In 1958 , Howe was made chancellor of Dalhousie University . On investigating the university 's finances , he found that a professor 's salary in 1958 had less buying power than when he had worked there . Howe urged increased salaries and building improvements to attract first @-@ rate scholars to the university . He also accepted a number of honorary degrees from other universities .
Howe had a longtime heart condition , and friends urged him to give up all boards that did not meet in Montreal . Before he could act on this suggestion , Howe suffered a heart attack and died at his home on 31 December 1960 .
Prime Minister Diefenbaker said after Howe died , " We often had strong differences but our personal relations remained most friendly at all times .... He gave his great ability , indomitable courage and energy to his country in a manner that has earned for him and will assure him of a large place in the history of Canada 's war effort . "
Opposition Leader Pearson stated , " He was a man who shirked no duty , faltered in no task , was daunted by no obstacle . He got things done , and they were good things for the country he served so well and so long . "
At his memorial service , enemies and friend alike gathered . Among the eulogies delivered by friends and colleagues at Christ Church Cathedral in Montreal , it was remarked that Howe often stated proudly that he was " an American by birth but Canadian by choice " .
After Howe 's death , the C. D. Howe Memorial Foundation was created in his memory ; the C. D. Howe Institute , a Canadian economic policy think tank was at one time associated with the Memorial Foundation . The Canadian Aeronautics and Space Institute ( CASI ) introduced the C. D. Howe Award for achievements in the fields of planning and policy making , and overall leadership in the field . In 1976 , Howe was inducted into Canada 's Aviation Hall of Fame , in honour of his contribution to creating a national airline and efforts to create and sustain a viable aviation industry . The C. D. Howe Building , located at Bank and Sparks Street in Ottawa , is the home of Industry Canada and is named for the former minister .
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= Sexual Healing ( South Park ) =
" Sexual Healing " is the fourteenth season premiere of the American animated television series South Park , and the 196th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on March 17 , 2010 , and on Comedy Central UK on March 19 , 2010 . The title of the episode is derived from the song of the same name by soul singer Marvin Gaye . In the episode , the sex scandal of golf pro Tiger Woods has the media and public frantic to determine why rich and successful men would suddenly crave sex with multiple partners . Meanwhile , schools are screened for the condition and Kyle , Kenny and Butters are diagnosed with sexual addiction .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . " Sexual Healing " parodies several elements of the Woods scandal , including alleged fights with his wife Elin Nordegren , which are portrayed as part of a new Tiger Woods PGA Tour video game played by Cartman , Stan , and Kenny . In addition to mocking Woods himself , the script parodied the large amount of media attention surrounding the scandal , and suggested because it is natural for men to crave sex , Woods 's actions can be understood , although not condoned .
Cartoon parodies of several celebrities who have experienced real @-@ life sexual scandals were featured in the episode , including Bill Clinton , David Letterman , Charlie Sheen , David Duchovny and Ben Roethlisberger . The treatment these celebrities received is portrayed as ineffective and ridiculous , suggesting celebrities should not have to undergo insincere acts of public apology for their sexual transgressions . " Sexual Healing " received generally mixed reviews from critics .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Sexual Healing " was seen by 3 @.@ 7 million households , making it the most watched South Park premiere since " Rainforest Shmainforest " in 1999 , and helping make March 17 the most @-@ watched night of the year for Comedy Central to that point . Shortly after the episode aired , Internet rumors spread that EA Sports planned to sue South Park creators Parker and Matt Stone over their portrayal in the episode . EA Sports specifically denied the claims .
= = Plot = =
The new edition of the Tiger Woods PGA Tour series of video games incorporates elements of the alleged physical altercations Woods had with his wife regarding his extramarital affairs , and resembles a fighting game more than a golf simulation . Cartman , Stan , Kyle and Kenny become big fans of the game . Meanwhile , scientists at the Center for Disease Control determine that sex addiction is a disease reaching epidemic proportions . They decide to screen schoolchildren for the disease , and Kenny , Kyle , and Butters are diagnosed as sex addicts . Kenny is killed after attempting autoerotic asphyxiation while in a Batman suit , while Kyle and Butters are sent to attend a therapy session for sex addicts consisting of Michael Douglas , Michael Jordan , Ben Roethlisberger , David Duchovny , Charlie Sheen , David Letterman , Bill Clinton , Billy Bob Thornton , Kobe Bryant , Eliot Spitzer , and Tiger Woods .
When performing an experiment on chimpanzees , the CDC determines that money is somehow responsible for infecting males with sexual addiction . Because an image of Independence Hall appears on the back of a $ 100 bill , they believe the origins of the disorder can somehow be traced there . They submit their findings to President Barack Obama , who believes that a virus for sex addiction had previously been brought to Earth by extraterrestrials . He accompanies a SWAT team on their raid on Independence Hall in search of the " wizard alien " that is responsible for the sex addiction epidemic . When one member of the team suggests that the mission is irrational and that sex addiction is simply an inherent part of the male ego , he is ordered by Obama to be hauled away .
Because Kyle also feels sex addiction is not a disease , but rather a natural male desire that can be kept under control with the proper discipline , others suggest he is somehow immune from the " spell " of the wizard alien . He is brought to Independence Hall along with Butters and both are given rifles by the SWAT team . The hauled @-@ off SWAT member , gagged and bound in an alien wizard costume , stumbles into the room . On orders from the SWAT team , Kyle and Butters shoot the costumed officer dead and the " spell " is suddenly lifted . Woods announces he is cured of his sex addiction , and the next incarnation of his video game once again focuses on golf . Cartman and Stan reject the new game , with Stan proclaiming that " golf is stupid again . "
= = Production and themes = =
" Sexual Healing " , the South Park fourteenth season premiere , was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on March 17 , 2010 , and in the United Kingdom on March 19 . A teaser clip of the episode called " All the Temptations " featuring a parody of Woods 's February 2010 televised public apology was featured on the official South Park website , South Park Studios , and drew 62 @,@ 000 viewers on the first day . Before the episode aired , several news outlets incorrectly reported the episode 's title was " All the Temptations " due to the clip .
The episode satirized the sex scandal surrounding golf pro Tiger Woods , who had admitted to cheating on his wife Elin Nordegren with multiple partners . The Woods scandal had been one of the biggest media stories in the months since South Park 's thirteenth season ended in November 2009 . Series co @-@ creator Matt Stone said the scandal provided so much material for satire that an entire season could have been dedicated to it , and the media storm surrounding Woods meant they had even less to worry about the delicacy of their parody . Stone said he was simultaneously fascinated and disgusted by Woods 's public apology , so the writers were sure to include it in the episode . The script to " Sexual Healing " was not finished until after March 12 , five days before the episode aired . This was in keeping with a continued practice from previous South Park seasons , in which Parker and Stone write and produce their episodes within the week before their broadcast dates in order to harness energy for the final product and keep the material fresh . In an early image of the episode released to the press , Woods is seen at his apology press conference , with Cartman standing beside him . During the production of the episode , the writers decided to incorporate the Tiger Woods scenes as part of the video game that the boys , including Cartman , are playing .
" Sexual Healing " parodied several real @-@ life elements of the scandal , including Nordegren 's discovery of Woods 's infidelity by reading text messages on his cellular phone , and Woods 's loss of commercial endorsements as a result of his infidelity . The episode also parodies the alleged fight that was reported between Woods and Nordegren on Thanksgiving in which Nordegren attacked Woods 's car with a golf club and caused him to crash into a fire hydrant . " Sexual Healing " also included a version of the public apology Woods delivered on February 2010 , which was closely covered and examined by the mainstream media . The episode aired only a few days after Woods publicly announced he would return to golf at the 2010 Masters Tournament in April .
The shock and confusion with which the male characters in " Sexual Healing " react to the Woods scandal , and the extreme measures they undertake to learn why rich and successful men crave sex , served as a parody to the wide media attention and analysis the scandal received . The episode puts forward a pragmatic explanation that it is natural for men to crave sex , so although Woods 's actions cannot be condoned , they can at least be understood for what they are . This point of view particularly conveyed in the speech of one SWAT team member near the end of the episode , who is ostracized , imprisoned and unknowingly shot to death by Kyle and Butters after expressing his common sense views . The episode suggests men of normal financial means would likely be tempted by infidelity and sexual affairs if they had enough fame and money to obtain them easily .
" Sexual Healing " suggests celebrities involved in sexual scandals should not be forced to undergo rehabilitation and public acts of contrition . The scene in which the celebrities start shaking and dancing , proclaiming " Look , the sex addiction is leaving my body ! " , demonstrates the insincerity and ridiculousness of these public steps . The episode also mocked the measures used to diagnose and treat sexual addiction in the United States . This is particularly prevalent when Kenny , Kyle and Butters are misdiagnosed with sexual addiction based on an inaccurate test of simply presenting an image of a naked woman to them and testing whether they could identify a handkerchief in the woman 's hand and specify its color . The rehabilitation courses themselves are also mocked as ineffective and unnecessary , particularly because the most important lesson taught in them is how to avoid getting caught .
= = Current affairs references = =
Several celebrities who had experienced well publicized sexual scandals or affairs were featured in a sexual addiction rehabilitation class " Sexual Healing " . Among them were former U.S. President Bill Clinton , night talk show host David Letterman , NFL quarterback Ben Roethlisberger , former New York governor Eliot Spitzer , basketball players Michael Jordan and Kobe Bryant , and actors Charlie Sheen , David Duchovny , Michael Douglas and Billy Bob Thornton . While discussing how to avoid getting caught , Roethlisberger says , " Don 't screw girls in the public bathrooms " , a reference to his March 2010 sex scandal in Milledgeville , Georgia . Clinton suggests not putting cigars into any woman 's vagina , a reference to his alleged sexual act with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky during the Lewinsky scandal . David Letterman says , " When they ask you for money , pay them " , a reference to the October 2009 scandal in which CBS producer Joe Halderman attempted to blackmail Letterman with information about his sexual affairs .
When a doctor explains auto @-@ erotic asphyxiation to Kenny , Kyle and Butters , he refers to the deaths of actor David Carradine and INXS singer Michael Hutchence . Michael Hutchence is referred to a second time later in the episode at Kenny 's funeral where Butters exclaims " There ! It was like that " , a reference to serial pest Peter Hore 's interrupting of Hutchence 's funeral . After it is explained to Kenny that auto @-@ erotic asphyxiation often involves wearing a costume of some type , he dons a costume of Batman , the DC Comics fictional superhero , and subsequently dies in the outfit . The title of the episode is derived from the song of the same name by soul singer Marvin Gaye . A version of the song , sung by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , is featured at the end of the episode , when the celebrities claim the sexual addiction has left their bodies . The angry and violent confrontations between Woods and Nordegren are portrayed not as reality within the episode , but as simulated elements of the newest Tiger Woods PGA Tour video game installment by EA Sports . Scientists from the Center for Disease Control , a federal agency under the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services , conduct experiments on chimpanzees in " Sexual Healing " to discover why celebrities crave sex with multiple women . The ending where President Obama is addressing a crowd at the United States Capitol is a reference to the ending of Deep Impact .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on March 17 , 2010 , " Sexual Healing " was watched by 3 @.@ 7 million viewers , according to the Nielsen Media Research , making it the most watched South Park debut since the third season premiere " Rainforest Shmainforest " in 1999 . The day it aired , " Sexual Healing " was the highest @-@ rated show in all of television among men between ages 18 and 34 , and was the highest rated cable show among adults between ages 18 and 49 . March 17 ranked as the most @-@ watched night of the year for Comedy Central . " Sexual Healing " drew a 2 @.@ 6 overall rating , a 2 @.@ 4 rating among adults between ages 18 and 49 , a 5 @.@ 2 rating among men between ages 18 and 34 , and a 6 @.@ 9 rating among men between ages 18 and 24 . " Sexual Healing " aired before the series premiere of the animated comedy series Ugly Americans , which drew 2 @.@ 1 million viewers . The network was also the highest @-@ rated and most @-@ watched overall television network among men between ages 18 and 24 , and the highest @-@ rated and most @-@ watched cable network among adults between ages 18 and 49 and men between ages 18 and 34 .
" Sexual Healing " received generally mixed reviews . Bill Harris of the Toronto Sun praised the timeliness of the episode , which he said has kept South Park relevant throughout its 14 seasons . Harris complimented the episode for addressing the larger issue of how sexual acts among celebrities are dissected and analyzed by the media and public . MTV News praised the Woods parody , which they said was particularly timely because of the golf pro 's recent announcement to return to golf . It said , " It was on @-@ the @-@ nose while still being clever , which is a balance that the makers of " South Park " have mastered brilliantly . " Bill Brownstein , from the Canwest News Service , called it " an absolutely blistering and timely satire " on Woods and sexual addiction . A CNN review called the Woods satire " brilliant " and a strong improvement over the previous season 's " Dead Celebrities " , which also included several cameos of celebrity parodies . The review also found the ending of the episode , with Stan and Cartman growing bored with their video game once it focused on golf rather than sex scandals and fighting , to be a " pretty hilarious gag " . Ryan Waxon , of The Cowl , said " Sexual Healing " stood out from other Woods jokes and proved Parker and Stone " can do satire like nobody else " . He particularly praised the Woods video game and the subplot with Butters trying to learn about women 's pubic hair , claiming , " Butters ’ low intelligence and complete innocence make for some the greatest moments that the show has to offer . "
Entertainment Weekly television reviewer Ken Tucker said the episode was " rather short on laugh @-@ out @-@ loud funniness " , but included several clever ideas , including the Tiger Woods video game , the satire of the media attention to the Woods scandal , and " one of the best Kenny death scenes ever " . Newsweek writer Joshua Alston said the Woods parody " didn 't manage to be terribly funny or insightful " , and suggested the speed at which South Park writers can produce a topical episode just days before its broadcast is actually a detriment to the show . Alston said , " Whereas once the show 's creators swiftly turned around topical episodes because they could , now the South Park team is expected to seize on the news . " Ramsey Isler of IGN found much of the episode 's humor mediocre , in particular the rehabilitation of the celebrities and the CDC studies of the chimpanzees . Isler said he enjoyed Kenny 's death and Butters ' obsession with " bush " , but felt the theme of the episode was too obvious and less clever than previous South Park episodes . The A.V. Club writer Zack Handlen appreciated the timeliness and relevancy of the subject matter , but felt " the satirical target here wasn 't meaty enough to warrant a full episode , and the developing plot just felt too half @-@ assed " . Handlen said some individual jokes were funny , but the episode as a whole was too one @-@ note and redundant . Carlos Delgado of iF Magazine said the Woods scandal was several months old , so the episode felt stale and old news . Delgado felt the alien infection theory was too random and lazy , and the idea that men would cheat on their wives if they had more money and opportunity was offensive , but not entirely untrue .
Within days of the episode 's original broadcast , rumors began to spread throughout the Internet that EA Sports planned to sue Parker and Stone over their portrayal of the Tiger Woods PGA Tour video game in " Sexual Healing " . The rumor began with a March 21 post on the blog Daily Informer , which quoted an unnamed EA Sports source who said the episode had " a few copyright infringements in there that I ’ m sure will be dealt with accordingly " . The claims quickly spread to other blogs and websites , but EA Sports specifically denied the rumor , claiming , " The reports that EA Sports is planning to sue the creators of ' South Park ' are completely false . "
= = Home release = =
" Sexual Healing " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's fourteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on April 26 , 2011 .
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= Siege of Vicksburg =
The Siege of Vicksburg ( May 18 – July 4 , 1863 ) was the final major military action in the Vicksburg Campaign of the American Civil War . In a series of maneuvers , Union Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant and his Army of the Tennessee crossed the Mississippi River and drove the Confederate Army of Mississippi led by Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton into the defensive lines surrounding the fortress city of Vicksburg , Mississippi .
Vicksburg was the last major Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River ; therefore , capturing it completed the second part of the Northern strategy , the Anaconda Plan . When two major assaults ( May 19 and 22 , 1863 ) against the Confederate fortifications were repulsed with heavy casualties , Grant decided to besiege the city beginning on May 25 . With no reinforcement , supplies nearly gone , and after holding out for more than forty days , the garrison finally surrendered on July 4 .
The successful ending of the Vicksburg Campaign significantly degraded the ability of the Confederacy to maintain its war effort , as described in the Aftermath section of the campaign article . Some historians — e.g. , Ballard , p . 308 — suggest that the decisive battle in the campaign was actually the Battle of Champion Hill , which , once won by Grant , made victory in the subsequent siege a foregone conclusion . This action ( combined with the surrender of Port Hudson to Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks on July 9 ) yielded command of the Mississippi River to the Union forces , who would hold it for the rest of the conflict .
The Confederate surrender on July 4 , 1863 , following the siege at Vicksburg , is sometimes considered , when combined with Gen. Robert E. Lee 's defeat at Gettysburg by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade and retreat beginning the same day , the turning point of the war . It cut off the states of Arkansas , Louisiana , and Texas from the rest of the Confederacy , as well as communication with Confederate forces in the Trans @-@ Mississippi Department for the remainder of the war .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
After crossing the Mississippi River south of Vicksburg at Bruinsburg and driving northeast , Grant won battles at Port Gibson and Raymond and captured Jackson , the Mississippi state capital on May 14 , 1863 , forcing Pemberton to withdraw westward . Attempts to stop the Union advance at Champion Hill and Big Black River Bridge were unsuccessful . Pemberton knew that the corps under Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman was preparing to flank him from the north ; he had no choice but to withdraw or be outflanked . Pemberton burned the bridges over the Big Black River and took everything edible in his path , both animal and plant , as he retreated to the well @-@ fortified city of Vicksburg .
The Confederates evacuated Hayne 's Bluff , which was occupied by Sherman 's cavalry on May 19 , and Union steamboats no longer had to run the guns of Vicksburg , now being able to dock by the dozens up the Yazoo River . Grant could now receive supplies more directly than by the previous route , which ran through Louisiana , over the river crossing at Grand Gulf and Bruinsburg , then back up north .
Over three quarters of Pemberton 's army had been lost in the two preceding battles and many in Vicksburg expected General Joseph E. Johnston , in command of the Confederate Department of the West , to relieve the city — which he never did . Large masses of Union troops were on the march to invest the city , repairing the burnt bridges over the Big Black River ; which Grant 's forces crossed on May 18 . Johnston sent a note to his general , Pemberton , asking him to sacrifice the city and save his troops , something Pemberton would not do . ( Pemberton , a Northerner by birth , was probably influenced by his fear of public condemnation if he abandoned Vicksburg . )
Pemberton , trying to please Jefferson Davis , who insisted that Vicksburg and Port Hudson must be held , and to please Johnston , who thought both places worthless militarily , had been caught in the middle , a victim of a convoluted command system and his own indecisiveness . Too dispirited to think clearly , he chose to back his bedraggled army into Vicksburg rather than evacuate the city and head north where he might have escaped to campaign again . When he chose to take his army into Vicksburg , Pemberton sealed the fate of his troops and the city he had been determined to defend .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Union = = =
Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant 's Union Army of the Tennessee brought five corps to the siege :
IX Corps , under Maj. Gen. John Parke ;
XIII Corps , under Maj. Gen. John A. McClernand ;
XV Corps , under Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman ;
XVI Corps ( detachment ) , under Maj. Gen. Cadwallader C. Washburn ;
XVII Corps , under Maj. Gen. James B. McPherson .
= = = Confederate = = =
Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton 's Confederate Army of Mississippi inside the Vicksburg line consisted of four divisions , under Maj. Gens . :
Carter L. Stevenson ;
John H. Forney ;
Martin L. Smith ;
John S. Bowen ;
= = The defenses of Vicksburg = =
As the Confederate forces approached Vicksburg , Pemberton could put only 18 @,@ 500 troops in his lines . Grant had over 35 @,@ 000 , with more on the way . However , Pemberton had the advantage of terrain and fortifications that made his defense nearly impregnable . The defensive line around Vicksburg ran approximately 6 @.@ 5 miles , based on terrain of varying elevations that included hills and knobs with steep angles for an attacker to ascend under fire . The perimeter included many gun pits , forts , trenches , redoubts , and lunettes . The major fortifications of the line included Fort Hill , on a high bluff north of the city ; the Stockade Redan , dominating the approach to the city on Graveyard Road from the northeast ; the 3rd Louisiana Redan ; the Great Redoubt ; the Railroad Redoubt , protecting the gap for the railroad line entering the city ; the Square Fort ( Fort Garrott ) ; a salient along the Hall 's Ferry Road ; and the South Fort .
= = Assaults = =
Grant wanted to overwhelm the Confederates before they could fully organize their defenses and ordered an immediate assault against Stockade Redan for May 19 . Troops from Sherman 's corps had a difficult time approaching the position under rifle and artillery fire from the 36th Mississippi Infantry , Brig. Gen. Louis Hébert 's brigade — they had to negotiate a steep ravine protected by abatis and cross a 6 @-@ foot @-@ deep ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , 8 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) ditch before attacking the 17 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) walls of the redan . This first attempt was easily repulsed . Grant ordered an artillery bombardment to soften the defenses and at about 2 p.m. , Sherman 's division under Maj. Gen. Francis P. Blair tried again , but only a small number of men were able to advance even as far as the ditch below the redan . The assault collapsed in a melee of rifle fire and hand grenades lobbing back and forth .
The failed Federal assaults of May 19 damaged Union morale , deflating the confidence the soldiers felt after their string of victories across Mississippi . They were also costly , with casualties of 157 killed , 777 wounded , and 8 missing , versus Confederate casualties of 8 killed and 62 wounded . The Confederates , assumed to be demoralized , had regained their fighting edge .
Grant planned another assault for May 22 , but this time with greater care ; they would first reconnoiter thoroughly and soften up the defenses with artillery and naval gunfire . The lead units were supplied with ladders to ascend the fortification walls . Grant did not want a long siege , and this attack was to be by the entire army across a wide front .
Despite their bloody repulse on May 19 , Union troops were in high spirits , now well @-@ fed with provisions they had foraged . On seeing Grant pass by , a soldier commented , " Hardtack " . Soon all Union troops in the vicinity were yelling , " Hardtack ! Hardtack ! " The Union served hardtack , beans , and coffee the night of May 21 . Everyone expected that Vicksburg would fall the next day .
Union forces bombarded the city all night , from 220 artillery pieces and naval gunfire from Rear Adm. David D. Porter 's fleet in the river , and while causing little property damage , they damaged Confederate civilian morale . On the morning of May 22 , the defenders were bombarded again for four hours before the Union attacked once more along a three @-@ mile front at 10 a.m.
Sherman attacked once again down the Graveyard Road , with 150 volunteers ( nicknamed the Forlorn Hope detachment ) leading the way with ladders and planks , followed by the divisions of Blair and Brig. Gen. James M. Tuttle , arranged in a long column of regiments , hoping to achieve a breakthrough by concentrating their mass on a narrow front . They were driven back in the face of heavy rifle fire . Blair 's brigades under Cols . Giles A. Smith and T. Kilby Smith made it as far as a ridge 100 yards from Green 's Redan , the southern edge of the Stockade Redan , from where they poured heavy fire into the Confederate position , but to no avail . Tuttle 's division , waiting its turn to advance , did not have an opportunity to move forward . On Sherman 's far right , the division of Brig. Gen. Frederick Steele spent the morning attempting to get into position through a ravine of the Mint Spring Bayou .
McPherson 's corps was assigned to attack the center along the Jackson Road . On their right flank , the brigade of Brig. Gen. Thomas E. G. Ransom advanced to within 100 yards of the Confederate line , but halted to avoid dangerous flanking fire from Green 's Redan . On McPherson 's left flank , the division of Maj. Gen. John A. Logan was assigned to assault the 3rd Louisiana Redan and the Great Redoubt . The brigade of Brig. Gen. John E. Smith made it as far as the slope of the redan , but huddled there , dodging grenades until dark before they were recalled . Brig. Gen. John D. Stevenson 's brigade advanced well in two columns against the redoubt , but their attack also failed when they found their ladders were too short to scale the fortification . Brig. Gen. Isaac F. Quinby 's division advanced a few hundred yards , but halted for hours while its generals engaged in confused discussions .
On the Union left , McClernand 's corps moved along the Baldwin Ferry Road and astride the Southern Railroad of Mississippi . The division of Brig. Gen. Eugene A. Carr was assigned to capture the Railroad Redoubt and the 2nd Texas Lunette ; the division of Brig. Gen. Peter J. Osterhaus was assigned the Square Fort . Carr 's men achieved a small breakthrough at the 2nd Texas Lunette and requested reinforcements .
By 11 a.m. , it was clear that a breakthrough was not forthcoming and the advances by Sherman and McPherson were failures . Just then , Grant received a message from McClernand , which stated that he was heavily engaged , the Confederates were being reinforced , and he requested a diversion on his right from McPherson 's corps . Grant initially refused the request , telling McClernand to use his own reserve forces for assistance ; Grant was mistakenly under the impression that McClernand had been lightly engaged and McPherson heavily , although the reverse was true . McClernand followed up with a message that was partially misleading , implying that he had captured two forts — " The Stars and Stripes are flying over them . " — and that another push along the line would achieve victory for the Union Army . Although Grant once again demurred , he showed the dispatch to Sherman , who ordered his own corps to advance again . Grant , reconsidering , then ordered McPherson to send Quinby 's division to aid McClernand .
Sherman ordered two more assaults . At 2 : 15 p.m. , Giles Smith and Ransom moved out and were repulsed immediately . At 3 p.m. , Tuttle 's division suffered so many casualties in their aborted advance that Sherman told Tuttle , " This is murder ; order those troops back . " By this time , Steele 's division had finally maneuvered into position on Sherman 's right , and at 4 p.m. , Steele gave the order to charge against the 26th Louisiana Redoubt . They had no more success than any of Sherman 's other assaults .
In McPherson 's sector , Logan 's division made another thrust down the Jackson Road at about 2 p.m. , but met with heavy losses and the attack was called off . McClernand attacked again , reinforced by Quinby 's division , but with no success . Union casualties were 502 killed , 2 @,@ 550 wounded , and 147 missing , about evenly divided across the three corps . Confederate casualties were not reported directly , but are estimated to be under 500 . Grant blamed McClernand 's misleading dispatches for part of the poor results of the day , storing up another grievance against the political general who had caused him so many aggravations during the campaign .
= = Siege = =
Historian Shelby Foote wrote that Grant " did not regret having made the assaults ; he only regretted that they had failed . " Grant reluctantly settled into a siege . On May 25 , Lt. Col. John A. Rawlins issued Special Orders No. 140 for Grant : " Corps Commanders will immediately commence the work of reducing the enemy by regular approaches . It is desirable that no more loss of life shall be sustained in the reduction of Vicksburg , and the capture of the Garrison . Every advantage will be taken of the natural inequalities of the ground to gain positions from which to start mines , trenches , or advance batteries . ... " Grant wrote in his memoirs , " I now determined upon a regular siege — to ' out @-@ camp the enemy , ' as it were , and to incur no more losses . "
Federal troops began to dig in , constructing elaborate entrenchments ( the soldiers of the time referred to them as " ditches " ) that surrounded the city and moved closer and closer to the Confederate fortifications . With their backs against the Mississippi and Union gunboats firing from the river , Confederate soldiers and citizens alike were trapped . Pemberton was determined to hold his few miles of the Mississippi as long as possible , hoping for relief from Johnston or elsewhere .
A new problem confronted the Confederates . The dead and wounded of Grant 's army lay in the heat of Mississippi summer , the odor of the deceased men and horses fouling the air , the wounded crying for medical help and water . Grant first refused a request of truce , thinking it a show of weakness . Finally he relented , and the Confederates held their fire while the Union recovered the wounded and dead , soldiers from both sides mingling and trading as if no hostilities existed for the moment .
After this truce , Grant 's army began to fill the 12 @-@ mile ring around Vicksburg . In short time it became clear that even 50 @,@ 000 Union soldiers would not be able to effect a complete encirclement of the Confederate defenses . Pemberton 's outlook on escape was pessimistic , but there were still roads leading south out of Vicksburg unguarded by Federal troops . Grant found help from Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck , the Union general @-@ in @-@ chief . Halleck quickly began to shift Union troops in the West to meet Grant 's needs . The first of these reinforcements to arrive along the siege lines was a 5 @,@ 000 man division from the Department of the Missouri under Maj. Gen. Francis J. Herron on June 11 . Herron 's troops , remnants of the Army of the Frontier , were attached to McPherson 's corps and took up position on the far south . Next came a three division detachment from the XVI Corps led by Brig. Gen. Cadwallader C. Washburn on June 12 , assembled from troops at nearby posts of Corinth , Memphis , and LaGrange . The final significant group of reinforcements to join was the 8 @,@ 000 man strong IX Corps from the Department of the Ohio , led by Maj. Gen. John G. Parke , arriving on June 14 . With the arrival of Parke , Grant had 77 @,@ 000 men around Vicksburg .
In an effort to cut Grant 's supply line , Confederates in Louisiana under Major General John G. Walker attacked Milliken 's Bend up the Mississippi on June 7 . This was mainly defended by untrained colored troops , who fought bravely with inferior weaponry and finally fought off the rebels with help from gunboats , although at horrible cost ; the defenders lost 652 to the Confederate 185 . The loss at Milliken 's Bend left the Confederates with no hope for relief but from the cautious Johnston .
Pemberton was boxed in with lots of inedible munitions and little food . The poor diet was showing on the Confederate soldiers . By the end of June , half were out sick or hospitalized . Scurvy , malaria , dysentery , diarrhea , and other diseases cut their ranks . At least one city resident had to stay up at night to keep starving soldiers out of his vegetable garden . The constant shelling did not bother him as much as the loss of his food . As the siege wore on , fewer and fewer horses , mules , and dogs were seen wandering about Vicksburg . Shoe leather became a last resort of sustenance for many adults .
During the siege , Union gunboats lobbed over 22 @,@ 000 shells into the town and army artillery fire was even heavier . As the barrages continued , suitable housing in Vicksburg was reduced to a minimum . A ridge , located between the main town and the rebel defense line , provided a diverse citizenry with lodging for the duration . Over 500 caves , known locally as " bombproofs , " were dug into the yellow clay hills of Vicksburg . Whether houses were structurally sound or not , it was deemed safer to occupy these dugouts . People did their best to make them comfortable , with rugs , furniture , and pictures . They tried to time their movements and foraging with the rhythm of the cannonade , sometimes unsuccessfully . Because of the citizens ' burrowing , the Union soldiers gave the town the nickname of " Prairie Dog Village . " Despite the ferocity of the Union fire against the town , fewer than a dozen civilians were known to have been killed during the entire siege .
= = = Command changes = = =
One of Grant 's actions during the siege was to settle a lingering rivalry . On May 30 , General McClernand wrote a self @-@ adulatory note to his troops , claiming much of the credit for the soon @-@ to @-@ be victory . Grant had been waiting six months for him to slip , ever since they clashed early in the campaign , around the Battle of Arkansas Post . He had received permission to relieve McClernand in January 1863 but waited for an unequivocal provocation . Grant finally relieved McClernand on June 18 . He so diligently prepared his action that McClernand was left without recourse . McClernand 's XIII Corps was turned over to Maj. Gen. Edward Ord , recovered from a wound sustained at Hatchie 's Bridge . In May 1864 , McClernand was restored to a command in remote Texas .
Another command change occurred on June 22 . In addition to Pemberton at his front , Grant had to be concerned with Confederate forces in his rear under the command of Joseph E. Johnston . He stationed one division in the vicinity of the Big Black River Bridge and another reconnoitered as far north as Mechanicsburg , both to act as a covering force . By June 10 , the IX Corps , under Maj. Gen. John G. Parke , was transferred to Grant 's command . This corps became the nucleus of a special task force whose mission was to prevent Johnston , gathering his forces at Canton , from interfering with the siege . Sherman was given command of this task force and Brig. Gen. Frederick Steele replaced him at the XV Corps . Johnston eventually began moving to relieve Pemberton and reached the Big Black River on July 1 , but he delayed a potentially difficult encounter with Sherman until it was too late for the Vicksburg garrison , and then fell back to Jackson . Sherman would eventually pursue Johnston and ( re ) capture Jackson on July 17 .
= = = Louisiana operations = = =
Throughout the siege Union and Confederate forces kept busy in a supporting role on the Louisiana side of the Mississippi River . Lt. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith , commander of the Trans @-@ Mississippi Department , received a telegraph from Pemberton on May 9 requesting a movement against Grant 's communication lines along the Mississippi River . Grant had established important supply depots at Milliken 's Bend , Young 's Point , and Lake Providence within Smith 's jurisdiction , but Smith failed to recognize the importance of Pemberton 's situation . It was not until June when Smith finally decided to take action on Pemberton 's request , directing Maj. Gen. Richard Taylor to " do something " in favor of the Vicksburg garrison . Taylor commanded the District of Western Louisiana and developed a three @-@ pronged campaign against Grant 's three supply depots . All three of Taylor 's assaults were defeated ( see Battle of Milliken 's Bend , Battle of Young 's Point and Battle of Lake Providence ) .
In response to the growing Confederate activity in the area , Grant decided to dispatch troops from the Vicksburg trenches across the river . The presence of Maj. Gen. John G. Walker 's Confederate division on the Louisiana side was of particular concern ; its presence could possibly aid a Confederate escape from Vicksburg . Therefore , Brig. Gen. Alfred W. Ellet 's Mississippi Marine Brigade and Joseph A. Mower 's brigade from Sherman 's corps were ordered to the vicinity of Milliken 's Bend . Mower and Ellet were to cooperate against Walker 's division , which was stationed in the vicinity of Richmond , Louisiana . Richmond also happened to be an important supply line providing Vicksburg with food from Louisiana . On June 15 , Ellet and Mower defeated Walker and destroyed Richmond , Louisiana .
Ellet 's men returned to De Soto Point and constructed an artillery battery targeting an iron foundry recasting spent Union artillery shells . Construction was begun on June 19 , which placed a 10 @-@ pounder Parrott rifle in a casemate of railroad iron . The targeted foundry was destroyed on June 25 and the next day a second Parrott gun was added to the battery , which continued to harass the defenders until the garrison 's surrender .
Additional Confederate activity in Louisiana occurred on June 29 at Goodrich 's Landing . Confederates attacked a plantation and army training center run by former slaves . The Confederates destroyed the plantations and captured over a hundred former slaves before disengaging in the face of Ellet 's Marines . Confederate raids such as these were disruptive and caused damage , but they were only minor setbacks and showed the Confederates could cause only momentary disturbances in the area .
= = = Crater at the 3rd Louisiana Redan = = =
Late in the siege , Union troops tunneled under the 3rd Louisiana Redan and packed the mine with 2 @,@ 200 pounds of gunpowder . The explosion blew apart the Confederate lines on June 25 , while an infantry attack made by troops from Logan 's XVII Corps division , followed the blast . The 45th Illinois Regiment ( known as the " Lead Mine Regiment " ) , under Col. Jasper A. Maltby , charged into the 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) diameter , 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) deep crater with ease , but were stopped by recovering Confederate infantry . The Union soldiers became pinned down while the defenders also rolled artillery shells with short fuses into the pit with deadly results . Union engineers worked to set up a casemate in the crater in order to extricate the infantry , and soon the soldiers fell back to a new defensive line . From the crater left by the explosion on June 25 , Union miners worked to dig a new mine to the south . On July 1 , this mine was detonated but no infantry attack followed . Pioneers worked throughout July 2 and 3 to widen the initial crater large enough for an infantry column of four to pass through for future anticipated assaults . However , events the following day negated the need for any further assaults .
= = Surrender and aftermath = =
On July 3 , Pemberton sent a note to Grant , who , as at Fort Donelson , first demanded unconditional surrender . But Grant reconsidered , not wanting to feed 30 @,@ 000 hungry Confederates in Union prison camps , and offered to parole all prisoners . Considering their destitute state , dejected and starving , he never expected them to fight again ; he hoped they would carry home the stigma of defeat to the rest of the Confederacy . In any event , it would have occupied his army and taken months to ship that many prisoners north . Most of the men who were paroled on July 6 were exchanged and received back into the Confederate Army on August 4 , 1863 , at Mobile Harbor , Alabama . They were back in Chattanooga , Tennessee , by September and some fought in the Battles for Chattanooga in November and against Sherman 's invasion of Georgia in May 1864 . The Confederate government protested the validity of the paroles on technical grounds and the issue was referred to Grant who , in April 1864 , was general in chief of the Army . The dispute effectively ended all further prisoner exchanges during the war except for hardship cases .
Surrender was formalized by an old oak tree , " made historical by the event . " In his Personal Memoirs , Grant described the fate of this luckless tree :
It was but a short time before the last vestige of its body , root and limb had disappeared , the fragments taken as trophies . Since then the same tree has furnished as many cords of wood , in the shape of trophies , as the ' True Cross ' .
The surrender was finalized on July 4 , Independence Day , a day Pemberton had hoped would bring more sympathetic terms from the United States . Although the Vicksburg Campaign continued with some minor actions , the fortress city had fallen and , with the surrender of Port Hudson on July 9 , the Mississippi River was firmly in Union hands and the Confederacy split in two . President Lincoln famously announced , " The Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea . "
Union casualties for the battle and siege of Vicksburg were 4 @,@ 835 ; Confederate were 32 @,@ 697 ( 29 @,@ 495 surrendered ) . The full campaign , since March 29 , claimed 10 @,@ 142 Union and 9 @,@ 091 Confederate killed and wounded . In addition to his surrendered men , Pemberton turned over to Grant 172 cannons and 50 @,@ 000 rifles .
= = Legacy = =
Folk tradition holds that the Fourth of July ( Independence Day ) holiday was not celebrated by Vicksburg until World War II . This claim is false , for large Independence Day celebrations were held as early as 1907 .
= = Battlefield preservation = =
The works around Vicksburg are now maintained by the National Park Service as part of Vicksburg National Military Park . The park , located in Vicksburg , Mississippi , and Delta , Louisiana ( flanking the Mississippi River ) , also commemorates the greater Vicksburg Campaign which led up to the battle . Reconstructed forts and trenches evoke memories of the 47 @-@ day siege that ended in the surrender of the city . Victory here and at Port Hudson , farther south in Louisiana , gave the Union control of the Mississippi River . The park includes 1 @,@ 325 historic monuments and markers , 20 miles ( 32 km ) of historic trenches and earthworks , a 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) tour road , a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 20 @.@ 1 km ) walking trail , two antebellum homes , 144 emplaced cannons , the restored gunboat USS Cairo ( sunk on December 12 , 1862 , on the Yazoo River ) , and the Grant 's Canal site , where the Union Army attempted to build a canal to let their ships bypass Confederate artillery fire .
= = = Memoirs and primary sources = = =
Grant , Ulysses S. Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant . 2 vols . Charles L. Webster & Company , 1885 – 86 . ISBN 0 @-@ 914427 @-@ 67 @-@ 9 .
U.S. War Department , The War of the Rebellion : a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies . Washington , DC : U.S. Government Printing Office , 1880 – 1901 .
Various resources from the University Libraries Division of Special Collections , The University of Alabama .
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= Unusual You =
" Unusual You " is a song by American recording artist Britney Spears , from her sixth studio album Circus . It was written and produced by Christian Karlsson and Pontus Winnberg from Bloodshy & Avant , with additional writing by Kasia Livingston and Henrik Jonback . " Unusual You " is an electropop love song reminiscent of the music of Janet Jackson and Gwen Stefani , with sung lyrics that address an experienced woman finding unexpected love . " Unusual You " received mostly positive reviews from critics , who commended it for being a departure of the rest of the album . Following the release of Circus , the song charted at number eighty on the U.S. Billboard Pop 100 due to strong digital sales .
= = Background = =
" Unusual You " was written and produced by Christian Karlsson and Pontus Winnberg from Bloodshy & Avant , with additional writing by Kasia Livingston and Henrik Jonback . Main instrumentation was recorded by Bloodshy & Avant at Robotberget in Stockholm , Sweden . Spears recorded her vocals at Conway Studios in Los Angeles , California , while audio mixing was done by Anders Hvenare and Bloodshy & Avant at Robotberget . Background vocals were provided by Livingston . " Unusual You " appeared on a six @-@ song mix of Circus that was released on November 13 , 2008 . In August 2009 , it was reported by NRJ Radio that " Unusual You " was going to be released as the fifth single from the album in France and the United States .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Unusual You " is a midtempo electropop song , that has been described by Nekesa Mumbi Moody of the Associated Press as " synth @-@ centric " . The song has been noted by John Murphy of musicOMH to be reminiscent of " Gwen Stefani 's quieter moments . " Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times commented that " Unusual You " " goes for that shimmering waterfall mood first popularized by Janet Jackson rather than strict Madonna @-@ style workouts . " According to Chris Richards of The Washington Post , Spears 's vocals in the song are transformed into " a spectral coo . " Lyrically , " Unusual You " talks about an experienced woman finding unexpected love , with Spears voicing the lines , " Didn 't anyone tell you you 're supposed to break my heart ? / I expect you to / So why haven 't you ? . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Unusual You " received positive reviews from critics . Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times noted that the song stood out on Circus because it did not paint " Britney as mannequin , sex object , paparazzi victim and leather @-@ clad mistress " like the other tracks on the album . Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone deemed it as " melodic [ and ] glowing " . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly named " Unusual You " as a standout track from Circus and added , " Spears still presents herself as fantasy object , but here might be her own fantasy — of real acceptance . Next time , Britney , flash us more of that . " Chris Richards of The Washington Post selected it as one of the " gems " of the album , along with " Womanizer " . John Murphy of musicOMH said that the lyrics make Spears " sound extraordinarily world @-@ weary for a 27 year old " and added that it " gives a pointer to an interesting new direction . " Jim Farber of the Daily News called the song " perhaps the first truly pretty melody Spears has ever sung . " Brad Wheeler of The Globe and Mail said " Unusual You " was entertaining , but not as remarkable as other tracks on Circus and dismissed the song as merely a " strobe @-@ lit , heart @-@ shaped testimonial . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times commented that " Unusual You " and the two other ballads in the album , were Circus 's " only attempts at warmth . "
Poppy Cosyns of The Sun criticized the backing track of " Unusual You " as leaving " it sounding like the discovered dregs of a would @-@ be late Nineties hit . " Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun called " Unusual You " " a surprisingly subtle and effective moment " and speculated that it was " surely a future single . " Steve Jones of USA Today described " Unusual You " as " saccharin " , adding that " she sounds much better in the dance tracks . " Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star called it the album 's one " moment of pathos " . Jim DeRogatis of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times criticized " Unusual You " as " shamelessly Madonna @-@ aping . " Nekesa Mumbi Moody of the Associated Press commented that Spears 's most personal and emotional moments of Circus are in the slower tracks , most notably in " Unusual You " . Moody continued , " Though she didn 't write the song , it 's hard not to wince in empathy when you think about the string of users who have filtered in and out of her life . " Pete Paphides of The Times said " Unusual You " would " find a home with anyone whose love of melancholy Europop is fatal enough to take in Limahl 's ' Never Ending Story . ' " In 2015 , Gregory Hicks of MTV named " Unusual You " Spears 's best song that was not released as a single .
Following the release of Circus in December 2008 , " Unusual You " managed to peak at number eighty on the US Billboard Pop 100 due to strong digital sales . In 2008 when Circus album came out , popstar Lady Gaga was asked about which songs she was listening and Unusual You was on her playlist , she said : " It is really a good song . I listened to the Circus on the plane , and when I came to this song , I stopped and listened to it again and again . It is so beautiful and so sad , and I love the way it has a mysterious quality . As if the music was put into a mirror from a funhouse . Go girl . Good pop . "
= = Credits and Personnel = =
Britney Spears – lead vocals and background vocals
Christian Karlsson - songwriting
Bloodshy & Avant – songwriting , mixing , programming , keyboards , bass and guitar
Henrik Jonback – songwriting and guitar
Pontus Winnberg - songwriting
Kasia Livingston – songwriting and background vocals
Credits adapted from Circus liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= HMS Speedy ( 1782 ) =
HMS Speedy was a 14 @-@ gun Speedy @-@ class brig of the British Royal Navy . Built during the last years of the American War of Independence , she served with distinction during the French Revolutionary Wars .
Built at Dover , Kent , Speedy spent most of the interwar years serving off the British coast . Transferred to the Mediterranean after the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars , she spent the rest of her career there under a number of notable commanders , winning fame for herself in various engagements and often against heavy odds . Her first commander in the Mediterranean , Charles Cunningham , served with distinction with several squadrons , assisting in the capture of several war prizes , such as the French frigates Modeste and Impérieuse . His successor , George Cockburn , impressed his superiors with his dogged devotion to duty . Speedy 's next commander , George Eyre , had the misfortune to lose her to a superior French force on 9 June 1794 .
She was soon retaken , and re @-@ entered service under Hugh Downman , who captured a number of privateers between 1795 and 1799 and fought off an attack by the large French privateer Papillon on 3 February 1798 . His successor , Jahleel Brenton , fought a number of actions against Spanish forces off Gibraltar . Her last captain , Lord Cochrane , forced the surrender of a much larger Spanish warship , the Gamo . Speedy was finally captured by a powerful French squadron in 1801 and donated to the Papal Navy by Napoleon the following year . She spent five years with them under the name San Paulo , but was struck around 1806 .
= = Design and construction = =
Speedy was one of two brig @-@ sloops built to the same design by Thomas King of Dover , Kent . She and her sister ship HMS Flirt were constructed to provide small , fast escort vessels with hulls shaped like a cutter , rather than the more seaworthy but slower ship @-@ sloop . King had for some time specialised in these types of vessels , and the design capitalised on that experience . Speedy was so named to symbolise this new approach , and measured 207 21 ⁄ 94 tons bm with a total length of 78 feet 3 inches ( 23 @.@ 85 m ) . She was armed with fourteen four @-@ pounder and twelve half @-@ pounder swivel guns , and carried a complement of 90 men . Ordered on 23 March 1781 , she was laid down at King 's yard in June that year and launched on 29 June 1782 . She moved to Deptford , Kent , to be fitted @-@ out and have her hull covered with copper plates between 16 July and 25 October 1782 ; at her completion she had cost £ 4 @,@ 200 7s 3d to build .
= = Early career = =
Speedy was commissioned under Commander Josias Rogers in May 1783 and was assigned to serve in the North Sea , operating out of the Humber estuary . After four years on this station she was paid off ( placed in reserve ) in January 1787 and began a refit at Woolwich in April that year . This work was completed by July at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 801 , and she was recommissioned in May that year under Commander John Maude , still on the Humber station .
From November 1790 she was under Commander Richard Lane , who was her captain until she was paid off in October 1791 . Speedy then underwent another refit , this time at Deptford between June and December 1792 , at a cost of £ 3 @,@ 000 , and was recommissioned in November 1792 under Commander Charles Cunningham .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
Cunningham had previously been serving in the East Indies in command of the 16 @-@ gun sloop HMS Ariel . By the time he returned to take up his new command the French Revolutionary Wars had broken out and he was sent to join Lord Hood 's fleet in the Mediterranean , arriving there in April 1793 . He was largely employed in carrying despatches and maintaining communications with other ships scattered throughout the Mediterranean ports . On 5 October 1793 Speedy accompanied HMS Bedford and HMS Captain into Genoa , where they captured a French frigate , Modeste , and two armed tartanes in the Raid on Genoa . In this action , Speedy sent two boats to board the tartanes while Bedford bombarded Modeste . The French crews of the tartanes attempted to resist and two of their crewmembers were wounded , but the British did not suffer any casualties . Captain and Speedy then sailed to the Gulf of Spezia where they caught another French frigate , Imperieuse , at anchor . Imperieuse was scuttled by her crew , but was subsequently salvaged and recommissioned as HMS Imperieuse . Cunningham was promoted to captain and given command of the prize , with his commission backdated to the day of the capture , 12 October 1793 .
Cunningham was replaced by Commander George Cockburn in the command of Speedy , which remained in the Mediterranean . His first duties were limited to carrying despatches and passengers between Toulon and Genoa , after which he was ordered to join Captain Sutherland of HMS Diadem , who was commanding a squadron blockading Genoa . The small fleet was caught in winter storms and several ships were badly damaged , forcing Sutherland and his squadron to seek shelter in nearby ports and to make repairs , with the exception of Speedy , which remained on station . Sutherland put into Hyères Bay and reported the dispersal of his squadron to Lord Hood , also noting that nothing had been heard of Speedy since the gales . Once Diadem had been repaired Sutherland returned to Genoa , and was surprised to discover Speedy still there patrolling the port , not once having left her task . While single @-@ handedly maintaining the blockade , she had managed to capture several vessels . Sutherland ordered Speedy , which was by now running desperately short of water , to Hyères to refit . At the same time , Sutherland sent a complimentary report of Cockburn to Lord Hood . On 20 January 1794 , Cockburn was rewarded with an acting commission as post @-@ captain of the frigate HMS Inconstant , followed a month later by a permanent command of the frigate HMS Meleager .
Commander George Eyre took over command of Speedy in February 1794 . Speedy supported the siege and capture of Bastia , after which Eyre was ordered to join Diadem off Nice . While making his way there on 9 June , he ran into a French fleet under Rear @-@ Admiral Pierre Martin , which had sailed from Toulon several days earlier . Eyre attempted to escape , but the wind and sea favoured the larger vessels , and Speedy was chased down and captured . Eyre was brought aboard Admiral Martin 's flagship and was told that the National Convention had recently ordered that no quarter should be given to the English or Hanoverians , and that had Martin 's ship been first alongside , he would have sunk Speedy . The sudden appearance of a British fleet curtailed the interview , and the French hurried back to Gourjean roadstead outside Toulon , taking Speedy and the captured British crew with them .
= = Recapture = =
Speedy spent only a brief time sailing under the French flag . On 25 March 1795 her captain mistook Captain Thomas Fremantle 's Inconstant for a French ship and she was recaptured and taken back into British service .
In early March the following year , Speedy , under the command of Thomas Elphinstone , joined a squadron cruising off Oneglia , Italy , under Commodore Horatio Nelson , consisting of the 64 @-@ gun ships HMS Agamemnon and HMS Diadem , the 32 @-@ gun frigates HMS Meleager and HMS Blanche and the ship @-@ sloop HMS Peterel . On 25 April the squadron steered for Laöna bay , the commodore having received intelligence that a large convoy , laden with stores for the French army , had anchored off the town of Finale . When the squadron arrived , however , they found only four vessels moored under the guns of some batteries . The shore batteries opened fire on Peterel as led the boats of the squadron to the attack . Despite the fire , the British were able to capture the four vessels and suffered only three men wounded .
In an action on 31 May the squadron chased the French ketch Genie , a gunboat of one gun , and five merchant ships , which took refuge near the guns of a shore battery . At 3 p.m. Agamemnon , Blanche , Peterel and Speedy approached them and anchored in 4 fathoms ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) of water . The four British ships fired their cannons , which disabled the shore battery , and then sent in several boats under heavy fire from the guns of Genie and the gunboat ; the British successfully boarded and captured both ships . In the meantime , the merchant ships had beached themselves to avoid capture . Under heavy musket fire from the beach , the British captured and re @-@ floated the four merchant vessels , and destroyed one . Among the British , one man was killed and three were wounded in the operation .
= = Downman and Brenton = =
Elphinstone was succeeded in August 1797 by Commander Hugh Downman , who made several cruises with Speedy . On 3 February 1798 she encountered the large privateer Papillon , mounting 18 guns and carrying 160 men , while sailing off Vigo . The Papillon attacked Speedy , which had a reduced crew ; her master Mr Marshall and 12 men were aboard a Spanish prize Speedy had taken earlier . The two ships fought each other for two days ; by the second day Downman had exhausted his supply of shot , and resorted to firing nails and pieces of iron hoop at his opponent . Having observed his captain 's predicament , Marshall secured the Spanish crew below deck and took the prize crew off in a small boat to go to Downman 's assistance . After a fierce fight the Papillon was driven off ; Speedy suffered losses of five killed and four wounded . Downman then recaptured his prize and returned to Lisbon to carry out repairs . During his time in command of Speedy , Downman captured five privateers , altogether mounting 17 guns and 28 swivels , and carrying 162 men . For his efforts in protecting British trade out of Oporto , the merchants presented him with a letter of thanks , and a piece of plate valued at £ 50 . As a reward for his good service , Downman was advanced to post @-@ captain on 26 December 1798 and appointed commander of the 32 @-@ gun HMS Santa Dorothea , a frigate that had recently been captured from the Spanish in the Action of 15 July 1798 .
Downman was succeeded in January of the following year by Commander Jahleel Brenton , who was based at Gibraltar . While sailing off Gibraltar in company with the British privateer Defender on 9 August 1799 , Brenton came across three small Spanish warships , mounting twenty 6 @-@ pounders in total . The Spanish ran into a small sandy bay and anchored in a line so as to bring their guns to bear simultaneously on the British ships . Speedy and Defender sailed up and down for two hours firing broadsides , but without much effect . Defender only had 22 men on board and decided to sail further out to sea to meet one of her boats . Brenton thought the effort of keeping under sail was aiding the enemy , and anchored Speedy within 30 yards ( 27 m ) of the middle ship . The two exchanged a fierce cannonade for three quarters of an hour , after which the Spanish abandoned their ships and made for the shore . Two of the ships ran ashore and the third was immediately captured . Speedy launched her boats to recover the other two , coming under musket fire from the Spanish on the hillside as they did so . The British got both vessels off and took them into Gibraltar , along with two men wounded during the operation .
On 3 October Speedy , while sailing once again off Gibraltar , spotted ten small ships coming out of Algeciras , gunboats apparently attempting to attack a British convoy that was then passing . Brenton identified the ships as merchantmen , attempting to evade the British at Gibraltar in the bad weather . On Speedy 's approach , they scattered , four sheltering under a fort . Speedy approached and fired on them , causing their crews to abandon their ships . They were driven ashore by the wind , and despite sending boats out , it was impossible to get them off , so they were left to be reduced to wrecks . Three days later , Speedy was standing off Europa Point when twelve gunboats were sighted coming out of Algeciras to attack two merchant ships making their way past Gibraltar . One , the Unity , was carrying wine and spirits for the fleet . Their combined firepower far outweighed that of Speedy , but Brenton turned his ship towards them , covering the escape of one of the merchantmen with his fire . The gunboats were attempting to catch the Unity when Brenton took his ship through the flotilla , close enough to break many of their oars , maintaining a constant fire from his guns and with every spare member of the crew firing muskets . The Spanish flotilla broke and fled . Speedy suffered two men killed and one wounded , and sustained considerable damage to her rigging and below her waterline . She was unable to return to Gibraltar in the rising wind , and was forced to run along the coast to Tétouan Bay , where her shot @-@ holes were plugged to allow her to make her way back . During the engagement with the gunboats , the guns in the fortress of Gibraltar had not fired in support of Speedy . When Brenton asked why , the Governor of Gibraltar , General Charles O 'Hara , replied that he had arranged with the Governor of Algeciras for the guns never to be fired at the gunboats so as not to annoy the inhabitants of the town .
= = Cochrane = =
Brenton was promoted to post @-@ captain , and in March 1800 Commander Lord Cochrane took over . Cochrane was less than impressed with his new command , declaring that Speedy was " little more than a burlesque of a vessel of war " . His cabin had only 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of headroom ; when Cochrane wished to shave he had to open a skylight and set his shaving equipment out on the quarterdeck . On another occasion he walked the quarterdeck with Speedy 's entire broadside , seven pieces of four @-@ pounder shot , in his pockets . In an attempt to increase the firepower of his new command he asked for and was given two 12 @-@ pounder long guns to use as bow and stern chasers , but the scantlings could not support them and they had to be removed . He then requested his 4 @-@ pounders be upgraded to 6 @-@ pounders , but his gunports were not big enough . He had better luck with his mast , taking a spar from HMS Genereux that was considered too large for Speedy , but which Cochrane felt improved her speed .
In early May Cochrane was escorting a convoy from Cagliari to Leghorn . On 11 May a ship which turned out to be the 6 @-@ gun privateer Intrépide was spotted capturing one of the merchant ships in the convoy , at which point Cochrane chased the Intrépide and forced her to surrender . Three days later , as the convoy passed the island of Montecristo , five rowing boats emerged from one of the island 's coves and captured two of the rearmost merchant ships . Cochrane immediately gave chase , and recaptured them early the next morning . He was then given a free hand to raid enemy shipping in the area , and captured seven or eight vessels that June and July , including the 10 @-@ gun privateer Asuncion off Bastia on 25 June and the privateer Constitution off Caprea on 19 July . On 22 September he captured a large Neapolitan vessel and , on bringing her into Port Mahon , discovered that the Spanish had taken notice of his depredations and were preparing a frigate to capture Speedy .
Cochrane prepared for an encounter with this Spanish vessel by painting Speedy to resemble a Danish brig then in the Mediterranean , the Clomer . He also appointed a Dane as quartermaster and found him a Danish naval officer 's uniform . While cruising off Alicante on 21 December , Speedy encountered an enemy frigate , but tricked her into thinking she was a neutral vessel . Cochrane again used this false flag technique to his advantage ; on 22 January he was sailing with a convoy of Danish merchantmen under a Danish flag , pretending to escort them . When a 10 @-@ gun French ship and 8 @-@ gun Spanish brig approached , Cochrane hoisted British colours and attacked , capturing both of them .
Then on 24 February Cochrane captured the French naval brig Caroline , of four guns , which had been carrying ordnance stores from Genoa to Alexandria .
= = = Speedy and Gamo = = =
Speedy was cruising off Barcelona at dawn on 6 May 1801 when she sighted a large enemy frigate . The frigate , a xebec @-@ rigged vessel named Gamo , carrying 319 men , was armed with 8- and 12 @-@ pounder guns and 24 @-@ pounder carronades . This amounted to a total broadside of 190 pounds , more than seven times that of Speedy . Furthermore , Cochrane had only 54 men on board ; the rest were serving as prize crews . Instead of evading the frigate , Cochrane closed on her , and at 9 : 30 a.m. Gamo fired a gun and hoisted Spanish colours . In return Cochrane hoisted American colours . The Spanish hesitated , allowing Cochrane to get closer , hoist British colours , and evade the first broadside . Gamo fired another , which Cochrane again evaded , holding fire until Speedy ran alongside and locked her yards in Gamo 's rigging . Gamo attempted to fire upon her smaller opponent , but her guns were mounted too high and could not be depressed sufficiently , causing their shot to pass through Speedy 's sails and rigging . Cochrane then opened fire with his 4 @-@ pounders double- and treble @-@ shotted , their shots passing up through the sides and decks , killing the Spanish captain and boatswain with the first broadside .
Seeing their disadvantage the Spanish second @-@ in @-@ command assembled a boarding party , at which Cochrane drew off and pounded their massed ranks with shot and musket fire before drawing in close again . After having their attempts to board frustrated three times , the Spanish returned to their guns . Cochrane then decided to board the Gamo , and assembled his entire crew into two parties , leaving only the ship 's doctor aboard . The British rushed the Gamo , some boarding from the bow with faces blackened to look like pirates , the rest boarding from the waist . There was a hard @-@ fought battle between the two crews , until Cochrane called down to the doctor , at the time the only person on Speedy , ordering him to send another 50 men over . At the same time he ordered the Spanish colours to be torn down . Thinking that their officers had surrendered the ship , the remaining Spanish seamen stopped fighting . The British had lost three men killed and nine wounded , while the Spanish had lost 14 killed and 41 wounded , a casualty list exceeding Speedy 's entire complement . The British then secured the Spanish prisoners below deck and made their way back to Port Mahon . Stung that he had been beaten by such an inferior foe , the Spanish second @-@ in @-@ command asked Cochrane for a certificate assuring him that he had done all he could to defend his ship . Cochrane obliged , with the equivocal wording that he had " conducted himself like a true Spaniard " . Cochrane was amused to learn that this certificate had later secured the Spanish officer further advancement . In 1847 the Admiralty awarded the Naval General Service Medal with clasp " Speedy 6 May 1801 " to all surviving claimants from the action .
= = = Later actions and capture = = =
Cochrane returned to the coast off Barcelona in June 1801 , and joined the 16 @-@ gun HMS Kangaroo in attacking a Spanish convoy of 12 merchant ships and 5 armed vessels anchored under the guns of a large tower . After a sharp action fought between the afternoon of 9 June and the morning of 10 June , the two ships sank or drove ashore all of the ships with the exception of three brigs , which they captured . Three weeks later he was cruising off Alicante when he encountered several merchant vessels , which ran ashore . Rather than wasting time trying to get them off , he burnt them , but in doing so attracted the attention of a foe vastly more powerful than the Gamo .
A formidable French squadron under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Léon Durand Linois had left Toulon bound for Cadiz to collect reinforcements for Napoleon 's army in Egypt . On 3 July they sighted and chased Speedy , and Cochrane ordered the guns , boats , and provisions thrown overboard to lighten the ship . The French caught up nonetheless , and after narrowly avoiding the broadside of Desaix , Cochrane struck his colours . He was taken aboard Desaix , where her captain , Christy @-@ Pallière , recognised Cochrane 's accomplishments by refusing to accept his sword . Cochrane was taken along with the fleet and watched the Battle of Algeciras Bay from Desaix . He and the crew of Speedy were later exchanged after the battle . On returning to Gibraltar he was court @-@ martialled for the loss of his ship , and honourably acquitted .
= = French and Papal career = =
The French took Speedy to Toulon with the fleet , where she became a pawn in Napoleon 's efforts at diplomacy with Pope Pius VII , whose presence he wanted at his coronation as emperor . Speedy , by now named Saint Paul and inscribed with the words " Donné par le premier consul Bonaparte au Pape Pie VII " ( " Given by the First Consul Bonaparte to Pope Pius VII " ) in gilt letters on her poop cabin , sailed with an escort from Toulon on 14 December 1802 bound for Civitavecchia as a present to the Pope . She arrived there on 16 December where the Papal Navy took her into service under the name San Paulo . She remained there until being struck c.1806.
= = HMS Sophie = =
Some of Speedy 's later exploits under Cochrane were used in the plot of the novel Master and Commander , part of Patrick O 'Brian 's Aubrey – Maturin series , though the ship described by O 'Brian matches only Speedy 's spar dimensions and armament , and is named HMS Sophie . Cochrane is replaced in the book by the fictional Jack Aubrey , who repeats many of Cochrane 's real @-@ life exploits including the defence of a convoy and the recapture of one of its merchants from a privateer , and the capture of a large Spanish frigate , based on the Gamo , but renamed Cacafuego for the novel .
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= Senedd =
The Senedd ( Senate or Parliament ; Welsh pronunciation : [ ˈsɛnɛð ] ) , also known as the National Assembly building , houses the debating chamber and three committee rooms for the National Assembly for Wales in Cardiff . The 5 @,@ 308 square metres ( 57 @,@ 100 sq ft ) Senedd building was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 1 March 2006 and the total cost was £ 69 @.@ 6 million , which included £ 49.7M in construction costs . The Senedd is part of the National Assembly estate that includes Tŷ Hywel and the Pierhead Building .
After two selection processes , the decision was taken that the debating chamber would be on a new site , called Site 1E , at Capital Waterside in Cardiff Bay . The Pritzker Prize @-@ winning architect Richard Rogers won an international architectural design competition , managed by RIBA Competitions , to design the building . It was designed to be sustainable with use of renewable technologies and be energy efficient . The building was awarded an " Excellent " certification by the Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method ( BREEAM ) , the highest ever awarded in Wales , and was nominated for the 2006 Stirling Prize .
The Senedd was constructed in two phases , the first in 2001 and the second from August 2003 until it was handed over to the National Assembly in February 2006 . Between phases , the National Assembly changed contractors and the project 's management structure , but retained Rogers as the scheme architect . The building was nearly six times over budget and four years and 10 months late , compared to the original estimates of the project in 1997 . Total costs rose due to unforeseen security measures after the 11 September attacks , and because the National Assembly did not have an independent cost appraisal of the project until December 2000 , three years after the original estimate . Phase 2 costs rose by less than 6 % over budget , and that phase was six months late , due to information and communication technology ( ICT ) problems .
= = Architecture = =
The Senedd building is in the former Cardiff Docks , about 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Cardiff Castle . Cardiff Docks had been the largest coal @-@ exporting port in the world , but by the 1980s with the decline of the south Wales coalfield , the area had gradually become derelict . By the 1990s the area was being transformed with the construction of the Cardiff Bay Barrage and had been renamed Cardiff Bay .
The building faces south west over Cardiff Bay , it has a glass façade around the entire building and is dominated by a steel roof and wood ceiling . It has three floors , the first and second floors are accessible to the public and the ground floor is a private area for officials . The building was designed to be as open and accessible as possible , the architects , the Richard Rogers Partnership ( RRP ) said " The building was not to be an insular , closed edifice . Rather it would be a transparent envelope , looking outwards to Cardiff Bay and beyond , making visible the inner workings of the Assembly and encouraging public participation in the democratic process . " The main area in the building is the debating chamber , called the Siambr , including a public viewing gallery . Other areas of the building are the Neuadd , which is the main reception area on the first floor and the Oriel on the second floor . The three committee rooms and the Cwrt are on the ground floor .
= = = Environmental features = = =
The design criteria required sustainability , including a design life of 100 years , the use of local Welsh materials , minimal energy consumption and waste , the use of renewable technologies and for it to be an exemplar in terms of sustainability .
In total , 36 % of all materials and labour costs were spent in Wales , with approximately 1 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 157 @,@ 500 stone ) of Welsh slate used . The environmental features of the building have allowed energy savings of between 30 % and 50 % compared to buildings without these features . The features include 27 pipes that were drilled 100m below ground , so that during cold spells , water is pumped through the pipes and heated to 14 ° C by geothermal energy . The hot water is then pumped back up to the slate floor to warm the building to a constant temperature . In warm spells , the same system helps to keep the building cool . A biomass boiler was installed to use wood chips from recycled waste wood to heat the building , and rainwater is collected from the roof to flush the toilets in the building .
= = = Interior and contents = = =
Y Siambr ( Chamber ; Welsh pronunciation : [ / ˈʃambr / ] ) is a 610 m2 ( 6 @,@ 600 sq ft ) debating chamber , which holds all 60 Assembly Members ( AMs ) in a circular configuration under the cowl . The Siambr can be increased to accommodate 80 AMs in the future , by removing temporary walls . On the level above , is the public viewing gallery , which looks down on the debating chamber and is separated by security glass . The public gallery holds 128 people on two rows of seats . The AM 's desks and public gallery seating are made of Welsh oak in a circular configuration so that all AMs can see each other , which , it is claimed , makes debating less confrontational .
In front of the Presiding Officer 's desk is the 1 @.@ 3 metres ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) ceremonial mace . Melbourne goldsmith Fortunato Rocca was commissioned by the Parliament of New South Wales in 2002 to design it . The mace took 300 hours to craft and is made from gold , silver and brass . In 2006 , it was worth around £ 10 @,@ 500 ( A $ 25 @,@ 000 ) and was handed over to the National Assembly during the opening ceremony .
All committee meetings are held in three committee rooms . Each can accommodate 24 people although committee rooms 1 and 2 can both hold 34 when fully opened . Members of the public can access the committee room viewing galleries from the Neuadd , which holds 31 people .
Members of the public enter the building through Y Neuadd ( Hall ; Welsh pronunciation : [ / ˈnəiað / ] ) . This first floor level houses the public reception and information area . The reception desk features a large slate and glass desk and a canopy . Stairs to the left of the desk lead to the Oriel on the second floor .
Yr Oriel ( Gallery from Old French : Oriol ; Welsh pronunciation : [ / ɔrjɛl / ] ) is a public sitting and exhibition area with views down to y Siambr and committee rooms . The glass flooring , which surrounds a large funnel feature , enables visitors to look down into the Siambr two floors below . The Swan chairs selected for the Neuadd and Oriel areas were from Fritz Hansen , a Danish company , and originally designed by Arne Jacobsen in 1958 . Y Cwrt ( Courtyard ; Welsh pronunciation : [ / ˈkʊrt / ] ) is an area on the ground floor with a members ' tea room , a media briefing room , and access to the Siambr and committee rooms . It is accessible only to AMs , officials of the National Assembly and members of the press .
An undulating ceiling made of Canadian @-@ sourced Western Redcedar timber spans across the various sections of the building . It was manufactured and installed by BCL Timber Projects ( sub @-@ contracted by Taylor Woodrow ) .
= = = Artwork = = =
Four pieces of art were commissioned by the National Assembly to be both decorative and functional ; they cost £ 300 @,@ 000 in total . The Swansea based artist Alexander Beleschenko designed and created the circular and domed Heart of Wales for the centre of the Siambr . It is 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide , made out of blue and gold glass , and lit from beneath . Martin Richman designed and created 270 fabric @-@ covered acoustic absorption panels , which were dyed and painted . American sculptor Danny Lane designed and created the wind hedge , Assembly Field . It has five parallel rows of 32 glass plates and was designed to have the practical use of protecting the public from high winds coming off Cardiff Bay . Devon born sculptor Richard Harris created The Meeting Place on the Plinth , which is 45 tonnes of slate machine @-@ cut into 39 slate slabs ; the slate was from Cwt y Bugail Quarry in north Wales . It is an informal seating area south of the building . Harris said of the work , " I wanted to create a space that was to the side of the building , that related closely to the building but was very inviting for people to use – somewhere quieter that people could sit and spend some time . "
= = Background and construction = =
= = = First site selection process = = =
Under the Laws in Wales Act 1536 Wales was fully incorporated into England and administered as a single sovereign state ( the Kingdom of England ) and legal system ( English law ) . It was not until 1964 that a Cabinet post of the Secretary of State for Wales was created , which gave some powers to Wales . After the general election of 1997 , the Labour Government published a white paper in July 1997 , called A Voice for Wales ; in it , the UK Government proposed that , " ( the Welsh Assembly ) headquarters will be in Cardiff ... ( the ) setting up ( of ) the Assembly is likely to cost between £ 12M and £ 17M . Additional running costs should be between £ 15M and £ 20M a year . " On 18 September 1997 , Wales voted in favour of a National Assembly for Wales in the Welsh devolution referendum . The Government of Wales Act 1998 was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom , and was granted Royal Assent on 31 July 1998 .
Before the referendum took place , the Welsh Office asked Symonds Facilities Management ( later known as Capita Symonds ) to investigate possible sites for a new Welsh Assembly . The study was carried out in June 1997 , and it considered 20 sites . By August 1997 , the Welsh Office and the Property Advisors to the Civil Estate ( now part of the Office of Government Commerce ) , produced a shortlist of five sites for selection ; the Cathays Park Building ( the existing Welsh Office buildings ) , the Coal Exchange in Cardiff Bay , a site next to County Hall in Cardiff Bay , the former Glamorgan County Hall , Cathays Park and Cardiff City Hall , Cathays Park , owned by Cardiff Council . In making their decision they considered the need for a space of 80 @,@ 000 square feet ( 7 @,@ 400 m2 ) that would be ready to use by May 1999 . The building was to be of appropriate stature , location and quality , and provide good access for the disabled and good staff accommodation that would avoid disruption to existing staff .
From the five on the shortlist , two sites were considered , the Cathays Park Building and Cardiff City Hall . Cardiff City Hall was favoured because the executive and legislative functions would be separated , Cardiff City Hall was more widely recognised by the Welsh public and was a more prestigious building compared with the Cathays Park Building . The move to Cardiff City Hall would have also avoided a disruptive move for Welsh Office staff at the Cathays Park Building . The Welsh Office concluded that Cardiff City Hall would only remain an option if the initial costs were £ 17M or less , which was the top end of the estimate figure given in the white paper . This would only be possible if essential works were carried out immediately and the remainder of the work carried out later . Cardiff Council would need to agree a selling price of £ 5M or less for this to be possible .
Discussions took place between the leader of Cardiff Council , Russell Goodway , and the Secretary of State for Wales , Ron Davies , Member of Parliament ( MP ) . The two disagreed on the valuation of the site , Davies offered what was believed to be the market price of GB £ 3.5M , Goodway demanded £ 14M for the relocation of Council staff . In October 1997 , both the Welsh Office and Cardiff Council agreed to the District Valuer providing an independent assessment of the market value of Cardiff City Hall and the cost of staff relocating to an equivalent standard of accommodation . The District Valuer advised that the open market value of Cardiff City Hall was £ 3.5M. There was not enough information available for the District Valuer to make a decision . A bid of £ 2.5M was made by the Welsh Office on 14 November 1997 , which was rejected on 21 November 1997 . A final offer of £ 3.5M was made on 24 November and this too was rejected by Cardiff County Council . Davies later announced his decision not to go ahead with the Cardiff City Hall site for the National Assembly .
= = = Second site selection process = = =
In December 1997 , the Welsh Office invited proposals from Wales for the National Assembly building . 24 proposals were received , 14 came from the private sector and government @-@ owned corporations including HTV Group , Grosvenor Waterside ( owned by Associated British Ports ) , Tarmac Developments , Cardiff Bay Development Corporation and Cardiff Airport . Nine local authorities in Wales made proposals including the Guildhall proposed by Swansea Council , Cardiff City Hall by Cardiff Council , Margam Castle by Neath Port Talbot Council , Cyfarthfa Castle by Merthyr Tydfil Council , proposals also came from Wrexham Council , Flintshire County Council who proposed two sites at Ewloe and Mold , Rhondda Cynon Taf Council , Powys County Council and five sites from Bridgend Council The Grosvenor Waterside proposal , known as Capital Waterside , included the Pierhead Building , Crickhowell House and Site 1E , which would become the site of the new debating chamber .
All the proposals were reviewed by the Welsh Office , who rejected sites due to poor location , accommodation or cost . A shortlist of ten sites were further reviewed , they were ; Capital Waterside ( now known as Cardiff Waterside ) , Cardiff City Hall , a site next to County Hall , Bute Square ( now known as Callaghan Square ) , Prospect Place , Cardiff Gate Business Park , Kingsway and the Coal Exchange all in Cardiff , with the HTV site at Culverhouse Cross , and the Guildhall in Swansea .
Davies announced on 13 March 1998 that the new National Assembly building would be in Cardiff . He said that the Cardiff proposals were " too compelling to resist " , because " in making this decision , I am mindful that Wales has invested 40 years in promoting Cardiff as our capital city . " The National Assembly building would be either in Bute Square or Capital Waterside . The Welsh Office decided that the Capital Waterside proposal carried less risk and would cost less than the Bute Square proposal . Capital Waterside would cost £ 43.9M , while Bute Square would cost £ 52.5M. On 28 April 1998 , Davies announced that the site of the National Assembly building would be Capital Waterside . The site was acquired by the National Assembly from Grosvenor Waterside Investments Ltd , which was owned by Associated British Ports . The agreement covered extending the lease of Crickhowell House , later known as Tŷ Hywel , until 2023 , renting the Pierhead Building for 15 years and purchasing Site 1E for £ 1 , which would be where the Senedd was built .
= = = Design selection process = = =
Before deciding on Capital Waterside as the site of the National Assembly , Davies announced on 13 March 1998 , that an international competition would be held to select the design of the building for the debating chamber . Royal Institute of British Architects ( RIBA ) Competitions would oversee the competition and a design panel would recommend a design to the Secretary of State for Wales . The Design Competition Advisory Panel was made up of seven members and was chaired by Lord Callaghan of Cardiff , the former MP for Cardiff South and Penarth and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . The chair and four members were appointed by Davies and the remaining two members were appointed by the RIBA . The competition was advertised in the Official Journal of the European Communities on 13 June 1998 .
Davies wanted a building " to capture the imagination of the Welsh people . " The criteria of the competition was that the building should have a functional specification and a price tag of no more than £ 12M including fees . In total , 55 architects had shown interest in the project , nine came from Wales , 38 coming from the rest of the UK and the remaining eight from the rest of the world . The Design Competition Advisory Panel selected 12 architects for interview in August 1998 , from those a shortlist of six architects were chosen to submit concept designs , they were : Benson & Forsyth , Eric Parry Associates , Niels Torp and Stride Treglown Davies , Richard Rogers Partnership ( now known as Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners ) , Itsuko Hasegawa Atelier and Kajima Design Europe , and MacCormac Jamieson Prichard .
Each architect submitted designs by 5 October 1998 , 10 days later the Design Competition Advisory Panel met and unanimously recommended that the Richard Rogers Partnership ( RRP ) design should be selected . Davies announced RRP as the scheme architects on 16 October 1998 . Richard Rogers said " The idea was that steps rise out of the water and there is a whole public domain where people meet each other and look down on the Assembly Members . " Richard Rogers had previously designed the Lloyd 's building in London and the Pompidou Centre in Paris with Renzo Piano . 11 days later , Davies resigned as Secretary of State for Wales .
It was planned that the outline design would be completed by June 1999 , and have a detailed design completed by February 2000 . Construction of the building was due to begin in November 2000 and be completed in April 2001 . On 1 July 1999 , The National Assembly for Wales ( Transfer of Functions ) Order 1999 came into effect , this transferred all powers from the Secretary of State for Wales to the National Assembly for Wales , responsibility for the construction of the debating chamber transferred at the same time . Cardiff Council granted planning permission for the building on 8 November 1999 and by 26 January 2000 the National Assembly voted in favour of progressing the project onto the next stage .
= = = First phase of construction = = =
Rhodri Morgan , Assembly Member ( AM ) replaced Alun Michael AM , to become the First Secretary ( now known as the First Minister ) of the National Assembly on 15 February 2000 . On 22 March , Morgan stopped all work on the project to carry out a complete review . The decision to stop the project was supported by a vote in the National Assembly on 6 April 2000 . The review included the costs and construction risks of the new building , the timetable for the completion of the project and consideration of possible alternatives to the new building .
The review was carried out by the Assembly 's Management Services Division , the Property Advisors to the Civil Estate and Symonds Group Ltd . They considered the following options , cancel the project , continue with the existing design , design a building on Site 1E , improve the existing debating chamber , construct a small one in the courtyard of Crickhowell House , and relocate to Cardiff City Hall . On 21 June 2000 it was agreed that the original proposal using the RRP design should proceed .
An international competition was held to select the main contractor . It was advertised in the Official Journal of the European Community , and in December 2000 Skanska Ltd was selected as the main contractor . Edwina Hart AM , the Minister for Finance , Local Government and Communities , approved the final project design on 18 January 2001 and by 1 March 2001 , the groundbreaking ceremony took place to mark the beginning of construction .
Six months after construction had begun and with only the piling and a temporary road around the site having been completed , Hart announced on 17 July 2001 that the National Assembly had terminated the contract of RRP . She said that despite the termination of the contract , the debating chamber should still be built to RRP 's design . RRP said of the project that " From the outset , RRP has advised that the project could not be built within a construction budget of £ 13.1M due to client changes , the political requirement to use indigenous materials at any cost and exceptional contractor changes . RRP 's advice was consistently ignored . It is plainly untrue for the Finance Minister to assert that RRP underestimated the costs . " Hart said she stopped the project because of the " significant underestimates in the cost plan prepared by RRP " , and that RRP " had hidden costs from the Assembly " .
A legal dispute then arose between RRP claiming £ 529 @,@ 000 in fees , and the National Assembly claiming £ 6.85M in damages . On 10 December 2001 RRP requested an appointment of an adjudicator from the Construction Industry Council to resolve the issue . The adjudication took place in February 2002 , and ruled that RRP was entitled to £ 448 @,@ 000 of its claim , while the National Assembly was not entitled to any of the damages they had claimed .
= = = Second phase of construction = = =
In August 2001 , the National Assembly appointed Francis Graves Ltd as the project managers , to review the whole project up until the termination of the RRP contract and to propose how the project should progress in the future . They reported that the " lines of accountability were complex and insufficiently clear " , that no project costs were obtained by the National Assembly , independent of RRP , until December 2000 , and that the project " was highly susceptible to cost over runs " . The report recommended that the National Assembly appoint project managers , which they did when they appointed Schal International Management Ltd ( part of Carillion ) in May 2002 . Northcroft Group Ltd were appointed as a subcontractor , responsible for cost management and they reported directly to Schal . Schal had full responsibility to manage the main contractor and subcontractors . Schal reported to a Project Board , who reported to the Minister for Finance , Local Government and Communities . The Project Board was made up of National Assembly and Welsh Government officials and a representative from Schal .
The Welsh Government decided that a design and build fixed @-@ price contract would be used for the second phase of construction , while phase one of construction made time the important factor over cost certainty . The overall aim was to " deliver a landmark building … to time , to an appropriate quality and within budget " . On 23 October 2002 an invitation to tender was issued through the Official Journal of the European Community . Eight companies submitted an interest in the tender process , including Taylor Woodrow , David McLean , Laing and Skanska , of these only David McLean and the Taylor Woodrow Strategic Alliance Partnership with RRP as a subcontractor , submitted tenders . David McLean 's tender did not comply with the tender requirements , so the Assembly Government negotiated a fixed @-@ price contract with Taylor Woodrow for £ 48.2M. The contract was signed between Taylor Woodrow and the First Minister on 1 July 2003 and construction began for a second time on 4 August 2003 .
The topping out ceremony took place on 25 November 2004 by the Presiding Officer , Dafydd Elis @-@ Thomas , Privy Counsellor ( PC ) , AM , which included the lifting into place of the world 's largest free rotating wind driven cowl , which was the tallest point of the building . The cowl sits 6 metres ( 20 ft ) above the roof line and rotates when the wind changes direction to ventilate the debating chamber . Construction of the Senedd ended on 7 February 2006 when the National Assembly took control of the building . The project was six months late , due to the National Assembly not producing a detailed specification on time . The 10 @-@ year ICT contract , known as Merlin , was between the National Assembly and Siemens Business Services Ltd , now known as Siemens IT Solutions and Services . Other subcontractors on the project included Arup ( structural engineers ) , BDSP Partnership and MJN Colston ( services engineers ) , and BCL Timber Projects ( timber ceiling ) .
The 5 @,@ 308 m2 ( 57 @,@ 130 sq ft ) Senedd building was opened by Queen Elizabeth II , the Duke of Edinburgh , the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall on 1 March 2006 ( St. David 's Day ) . After an address by the Queen , the Parliament of New South Wales presented a ceremonial mace to the National Assembly to recognise the links between Wales and New South Wales . Addresses were later given by John Price MP , the Deputy Speaker of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly , Morgan and Elis @-@ Thomas . A set of commemorative envelopes and postmarks were issued by the Royal Mail to mark the opening of the Senedd , in the form of a souvenir sheet .
Two years after the opening ceremony in 2008 , Taylor Woodrow Construction were fined £ 200 @,@ 000 and ordered to pay costs of £ 71 @,@ 400 , after being prosecuted by the Health and Safety Executive for breaching the Health and Safety at Work etc . Act 1974 at Cardiff Crown Court . The breach contributed to the death of John Walsh , a foreman working for Ferson Construction Services Ltd , a subcontractor of Taylor Woodrow . The accident occurred on 14 March 2004 and was due to a cavity wall that Mr Walsh was filling , collapsing on him , even though Taylor Woodrow Construction had recognised the risks before the contract had begun . Judge Neil Bidder QC said " No @-@ one seriously disputes it was an unsafe construction and Ferson ( Construction Services ) must share blame for that construction . "
= = Timeline of cost increases and time delays = =
The cost of the Senedd increased from £ 12M in 1997 to £ 69.6M in 2006 , an increase of 580 % . In a report published in March 2008 by the Wales Audit Office , the reason for the difference between the two costs were that the original estimate of £ 12M was not based on any detailed design of the final requirements of the building . Extra costs of the building were due to unforeseen security measures after the 11 September attacks in the United States .
After the project was stopped in 2001 , the contract for the construction of the second phase of the building used a fixed @-@ price design and build contract , which meant that the National Assembly had a much tighter control of costs than they had in the first phase .
In 2008 , two years after the Senedd was opened , the cost of repairs to the building had reached £ 97 @,@ 709 . Repairs have been for windows , doors , plumbing and electrics . A spokesman for the National Assembly said , " The repair figures are not excessive for a public building that has hundreds of thousands of visitors each year . The costs are within estimated levels and covered by existing budgets . "
= = National Assembly estate in Cardiff Bay = =
The Senedd is part of the National Assembly estate in Cardiff Bay , along with Tŷ Hywel ( Howell House ) and the Grade 1 listed Pierhead Building in Cardiff Bay . Tŷ Hywel houses staff of the Assembly Commission , AMs , the First Minister and other ministers . Tŷ Hywel is named after Hywel Dda ( Howell the Good ) , King of Deheubarth in South West Wales . On 26 June 2008 , the Prince of Wales officially opened Siambr Hywel , the National Assembly 's youth debating chamber and education centre . It is based in the debating chamber that was used by the National Assembly between 1999 and 2006 , while the Senedd was being constructed . Two covered link bridges connect the Senedd to Tŷ Hywel . Construction of the link bridges began in September 2004 and they were completed by December 2005 .
The Pierhead Building was opened in 1897 and designed by William Frame . It was originally the headquarters of the Bute Dock Company and by 1947 it was the administrative office for the Port of Cardiff . The building was reopened in May 2001 as ' The Assembly at the Pierhead ' , which was a visitor and education centre for the National Assembly . The exhibition provided visitors with information on the National Assembly . On 1 March 2010 , the building was again reopened to the public as a Welsh history museum and exhibition . In 2008 , Elis @-@ Thomas announced that the Pierhead Building would display the history of the black community in Butetown , Cardiff Docks and Welsh devolution .
= = Nominations and awards = =
Nominated for the 2006 Stirling Prize awarded by the Royal Institute of British Architects . The award was won by Terminal 4 , Barajas Airport , Madrid , also an RRP design .
Nominated for the 2006 Prime Minister 's Better Public Building Award .
Listed as Architects ' Journal 's top 50 favourite buildings .
Awarded " Excellent " certification by BREEAM , the highest ever awarded in Wales .
Awarded Major Project of the Year in the 2006 Building Services Awards , organised by Building Sustainable Design and Electrical and Mechanical Contractor magazines .
Awarded the 2006 Gold Medal winner from the National Eisteddfod of Wales .
Awarded the Slate Award in the 2006 Natural Stone Awards .
Awarded the 2006 Structural Steel Design Award .
Awarded the 2006 Excellence on the Waterfront from the Waterfront Center , in the category Commercial and Mixed Use .
Civic Trust Award winner in 2008 .
Awarded a Chicago Athenaeum 2007 International Architecture Awards .
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= Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich DIS =
The Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich DIS ( Russian : Дальний истребитель сопровождения / Dalnij Istrebitel ' Soprovozhdenya - " long @-@ range escort fighter " ) was a prototype Soviet fighter aircraft of World War II . The service designation MiG @-@ 5 was reserved for the production version of the aircraft . It was also intended to develop reconnaissance and bomber versions , but these plans were disrupted by the German invasion in June 1941 . The project was stymied by the failure of its intended inline engine , the Mikulin AM @-@ 37 , and its performance was disappointing when a second prototype was built later with M @-@ 82 radial engines . It was cancelled in 1943 after at least two prototypes were built .
= = Design and development = =
The NKAP ( Narodnyy komissariat aviatsionnoy promyshlennosti — People 's Ministry of the Aircraft Industry ) requested on 7 October 1940 that the OKO ( opytno @-@ konstrooktorskiy otdel — Experimental Design Department ) of Factory ( Zavod ) No. 1 , which would later become the Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich design bureau ( OKB ) begin work on a twin @-@ engined long @-@ range , single @-@ seat escort fighter intended to use the AM @-@ 37 engine , then under development by Mikulin . It also requested that specifications , along with a model , be ready to be discussed on 12 November of that year . Three days later Mikoyan and Gurevich were ordered to produce three prototypes to undergo State acceptance trials on 1 August , 1 September and 1 November 1941 . After the meeting the NKAP broadened its roles to include bombing , torpedo attack , reconnaissance and interdiction .
The DIS was a low @-@ wing , twin @-@ engined , twin @-@ tailed monoplane of mixed construction . The front section was built from duralumin , the middle section was a wooden monocoque and the rear section was steel tubes covered with a duralumin skin . The twin tails were wooden and had an electrically operated variable @-@ incidence horizontal stabilizer . The elevators had duralumin frames , but were covered by fabric . The two @-@ spar wing was made in a three pieces . The center section was metal , but the outer panels were wooden with fabric @-@ covered ailerons and veneer @-@ covered Schrenk flaps . The wing had leading edge slats along two @-@ thirds of its length . The main undercarriage retracted rearwards into the rear of the engine nacelles and the tailwheel retracted into the rear fuselage . The Mikulin AM @-@ 37 inline engines were slung underneath the wings with the engine oil coolers mounted in the outer wing panels . The air intakes for the engine superchargers was located in the wing leading edge . The pilot was provided with a glass panel on the underside of the nose to improve his downward visibility , and he was protected by armor up to 9 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 35 in ) thick at the front , rear , sides and underside of his seat . The fuel capacity was 1 @,@ 920 litres ( 422 imp gal ; 507 US gal ) in two protected tanks behind the pilot and another four in the wings .
The DIS was intended to be armed with a 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) VYa cannon with 200 rounds in a pod beneath the nose , but the VVS preferred the Taubin MP @-@ 6 . The DIS was to carry two of them with 120 rounds per gun , but they proved to be a failure and the aircraft reverted to the original VYa cannon . Each wing root was to have a synchronized 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) Berezin UBS machine gun with 300 rounds mounted below a pair of 7 @.@ 62 mm ( 0 @.@ 300 in ) ShKAS machine guns with 1000 rounds per gun . The gun pod could be removed and bombs up to 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) or a torpedo could be carried instead .
= = = Flight testing = = =
The first prototype , with the internal designation of T , made its first flight on 11 June 1941 . Its initial flight tests , conducted by the manufacturer between 1 July and 5 October , were a disappointment as it could only reach a speed of 560 km / h ( 348 mph ) at 7 @,@ 500 metres ( 24 @,@ 606 ft ) , 104 km / h ( 65 mph ) slower than estimated . The three @-@ bladed 3 @.@ 1 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) AV @-@ 5L @-@ 114 propellers were exchanged for four @-@ bladed 3 @.@ 1 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) AV @-@ 9B @-@ L @-@ 149 propellers and the engine installation was redesigned after wind tunnel tests by TsAGI ( Central Aero and Hydrodynamics Institute ) revealed that the poorly designed engine accessories were the major cause of the excess drag . After modifications the aircraft reached 610 km / h ( 380 mph ) at an altitude of 6 @,@ 800 metres ( 22 @,@ 310 ft ) . Its time to 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 404 ft ) was 5 @.@ 5 minutes . Even with the improvements the LII ( Lyotno @-@ Issledovatel 'skiy Institoot — Flight Research Institute ) did not recommend production , but recommended that development and testing should continue . The German advance on Moscow in October 1941 forced the Institute and the DIS to evacuate to Kazan while the OKO and its factory went to Kuibyshev . The failure of the AM @-@ 37 to enter production doomed the project , albeit temporarily .
The OKO , along with all other aircraft designers , had been directed to use the Shvetsov ASh @-@ 82 radial engine as a backup engine for their products in May 1941 , but the evacuation disrupted the production of this version , known internally as the IT and it was not built until the autumn of 1942 . Aside from the engines it differed from the T in small respects . Its tailcone was split vertically to use as an air brake and the armament was revised to consist of two VYa cannon in the undernose pod with 150 rounds each and four Berezin UBK machine guns mounted in the wing roots . It made its first flight on 28 January 1943 and demonstrated a top speed of 604 km / h ( 375 mph ) and a time to 5 @,@ 000 meters of 6 @.@ 3 minutes . Flight testing was stopped on 10 February when the floatless carburetors had to be sent to TsIAM ( Tsentrahl 'nyy Institoot Aviatsionnovo Motorostroyeniya — Central Institute of Aviation Motors ) for adjustment . There were continuous problems with these and they delayed the entire project until it was cancelled in October 1943 .
The service designation MiG @-@ 5 was reserved for the production version of this aircraft , as demonstrated in the NKAP order of 2 October 1941 that instructed Zavod No. 1 to begin manufacture of the MiG @-@ 5 after the completion of its State acceptance tests . Other known designations for the aircraft include the DIS @-@ 200 and Idzeliye 71 , its factory designation . The bomber version , if it had entered production , might have been known as the MiG @-@ 2 .
Two prototypes are known to have been built , but some records suggest that others were built as well . The original order called for three aircraft and was amended later for two additional aircraft with M @-@ 82 engines . Some sources quote dates for the latter version 's first flight of January 1942 and 15 October 1941 , which could be an indication that two of the latter version were completed , or they could simply be clerical errors .
= = Specifications ( T ) = =
Data from Gordon and Komissarov , OKB Mikoyan : A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 11 @.@ 2 m ( 36 ft 9 in )
Wingspan : 15 @.@ 3 m ( 50 ft 2 in )
Height : 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft 2 in )
Wing area : 38 @.@ 9 m2 ( 419 sq ft )
Airfoil : Clark YH
Gross weight : 8 @,@ 060 kg ( 17 @,@ 769 lb )
Fuel capacity : 1 @,@ 920 kg ( 4 @,@ 230 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × Mikulin AM @-@ 37 supercharged , liquid @-@ cooled , V12 engines , 1 @,@ 044 kW ( 1 @,@ 400 hp ) each
Propellers : 4 @-@ bladed AV @-@ 9B @-@ L @-@ 149 , 3 m ( 9 ft 10 in ) diameter
Performance
Maximum speed : 610 km / h ( 379 mph ; 329 kn ) at 6 @,@ 800 m ( 22 @,@ 310 ft )
Range : 2 @,@ 280 km ( 1 @,@ 417 mi ; 1 @,@ 231 nmi )
Service ceiling : 10 @,@ 900 m ( 35 @,@ 761 ft )
Time to altitude : 5 @.@ 5 minutes to 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 404 ft )
Wing loading : 207 @.@ 2 kg / m2 ( 42 @.@ 4 lb / sq ft )
Armament
Guns : 1 × 23 mm VYa cannon
2 × 12 @.@ 7 mm BS machine guns
4 × 7 @.@ 62 mm ShKAS machine guns
= = Comparable aircraft = =
de Havilland Mosquito
Tupolev Tu @-@ 2
Petlyakov Pe @-@ 2
Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 187
Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning
Messerschmitt Bf 110
Nakajima J5N
Westland Whirlwind
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= History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic =
The history of the Constitution of the Roman Republic is a study of the ancient Roman Republic that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the Roman Republic in 509 BC until the founding of the Roman Empire in 27 BC . The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases . The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Kingdom in 510 BC , and the final phase ended with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Republic , and thus created the Roman Empire , in 27 BC . Throughout the history of the republic , the constitutional evolution was driven by the struggle between the aristocracy and the ordinary citizens .
The Roman aristocracy was composed of a class of citizens called Patricians ( Latin : patricii ) , while all other citizens were called Plebeians ( Latin : plebs ) . During the first phase of political development , the Patrician aristocracy dominated the state , and the Plebeians began seeking political rights . During the second phase , the Plebeians completely overthrew the Patrician aristocracy , and since the aristocracy was overthrown simply through alterations to the Roman law , this revolution was not violent . The third phase saw the emergence of a joint Patricio @-@ Plebeian aristocracy , along with a dangerous military situation that helped to maintain internal stability within the republic . The fourth phase began shortly after Rome 's wars of expansion had ended , because without these wars , the factor that had ensured internal stability was removed . While the Plebeians sought to address their economic misfortune through the enactment of laws , the underlying problems were ultimately caused by the organization of society . The final phase began when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon river , and ended with the complete overthrow of the republic . This final revolution triggered a wholesale reorganization of the constitution , and with it , the emergence of the Roman Empire .
= = The Patrician era ( 509 – 367 BC ) = =
According to legend , the Roman Kingdom was founded in 753 BC , and was ruled by a succession of seven kings . The last king , Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , ruled in a tyrannical manner and , in 510 BC , his son Sextus Tarquinius raped a noblewoman named Lucretia . Lucretia , the wife of a senator named Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus , committed suicide because of the rape , and this led to a conspiracy which drove Tarquin from the city . With Tarquin 's expulsion , the Roman Republic was founded , and the chief conspirators , Collatinus and the senator Lucius Junius Brutus , were elected as the first Roman Consul ( chief @-@ executive ) . While this story may be nothing more than a legend which later Romans created in order to explain their past , it is likely that Rome had been ruled by a series of kings , who probably were , as the legends suggest , overthrown quickly .
= = = The executive magistrates = = =
The constitutional changes which occurred immediately after the revolution were probably not as extensive as the legends suggest , as the most important constitutional change probably concerned the chief executive . Before the revolution , a king ( rex ) was elected by the senators ( patres or " fathers " ) for a life term , but now two Praetores ( " leaders " ) were elected by the citizens for an annual term . These magistrates were eventually called " Consuls " ( Latin for those who walk together ) , and each Consul checked his colleague , while their limited term in office opened them up to prosecution if they abused the powers of their office . The chief executive was still vested with the same grade of imperium ( " command " ) powers as was the old king , and the powers of each of the two Consuls , when exercised together , were no different than were those of the old king . In the immediate aftermath of the revolution , the Roman Senate and the Roman assemblies were nearly as powerless as they had been under the monarchy .
During the years of the monarchy , only Patricians ( patres or " fathers " ) were admitted to the Roman Senate . The revolution of 510 BC so depleted the ranks of the senate , however , that a group of Plebeians were drafted ( conscripti ) to fill the vacancies . The old senate of Patricians ( patres ) transitioned into a senate of patres et conscripti ( " fathers and conscripted men " ) . These new Plebeian senators , however , could neither vote on an auctoritas patrum ( " authority of the fathers " or " authority of the Patrician senators " ) , nor be elected interrex . In the year 494 BC , the city was at war , but the Plebeian soldiers refused to march against the enemy , and instead seceded to the Aventine Hill . The Patricians quickly became desperate to end what was , in effect , a labor strike , and thus they quickly agreed to the demands of the Plebeians , that they be given the right to elect their own officials . The Plebeians named these new officials Plebeian Tribunes ( tribuni plebis ) , and gave them two assistants , the Plebeian Aediles ( aediles plebi ) .
During the early years of the republic , the Plebeians were not allowed to hold ordinary political office . In 445 BC , the Plebeians demanded the right to stand for election to the Consulship , but the senate refused to grant them this right . After a long resistance to the new demands , the Senate ( 454 ) sent a commission of three patricians to Greece to study and report on the legislation of Solon and other lawmakers . When they returned , the Assembly ( 451 ) chose ten men -decemviri- formulate a new code , and gave them supreme governmental power in Rome for two years . This commission , under the presidency of a resolute reactionary , Appius Claudius , transformed the old customary law of Rome into the famous Twelve Tables , submitted them to the Assembly ( which passed them with some changes ) , and displayed them in the Forum for all who would and could to read . The Twelve Tables recognised certain rights and gave the plebs their own representatives , the tribunes . However the Consulship remained closed to the Plebeians , Consular command authority ( imperium ) was granted to a select number of Military Tribunes . These individuals , the so @-@ called Consular Tribunes were elected by the Centuriate Assembly , and the senate had the power to veto any such election . This was the first of many attempts by the Plebeians to achieve political equality with the Patricians . Starting around the year 400 BC , a series of wars were fought , and while the Patrician aristocracy enjoyed the fruits of the resulting conquests , the Plebeians in the army became exhausted and bitter . They demanded real concessions , and so in 367 BC a law was passed ( the " Licinio @-@ Sextian law " ) which dealt with the economic plight of the Plebeians . However , the law also required the election of at least one Plebeian Consul each year . The opening of the Consulship to the Plebeians was probably the cause behind the concession of 366 BC , in which the Praetorship and Curule Aedileship were both created , but opened only to Patricians .
= = = The senate and legislative assemblies = = =
Shortly after the founding of the republic , the Centuriate Assembly became the principle Roman assembly in which magistrates were elected , laws were passed , and trials occurred . During his Consulship in 509 BC , Publius Valerius Publicola enacted a law ( the lex Valeria ) which guaranteed due process rights to every Roman citizen . Any condemned citizen could evoke his right of Provocatio , which appealed any condemnation to the Centuriate Assembly , and which was a precursor to habeas corpus . Also around this time , the Plebeians assembled into an informal Plebeian Curiate Assembly , which was the original Plebeian Council . Since they were organized on the basis of the Curia ( and thus by clan ) , they remained dependent on their Patrician patrons . In 471 BC , a law was passed due to the efforts of the Tribune Volero Publilius , which allowed the Plebeians to organize by Tribe , rather than by Curia . Thus , the Plebeian Curiate Assembly became the Plebeian Tribal Assembly , and the Plebeians became politically independent .
During the regal period , the king nominated two Quaestors to serve as his assistants , and after the overthrow of the monarchy , the Consuls retained this authority . However , in 447 BC , Cicero recorded that the Quaestors began to be elected by a tribal assembly that was presided over by a magistrate . It seems as though this was the first instance of a joint Patricio @-@ Plebeian Tribal Assembly , and thus was probably an enormous gain for the Plebeians . While Patricians were able to vote in a joint assembly , there were never very many Patricians in Rome . Thus , most of the electors were Plebeians , and yet any magistrate elected by a joint assembly had jurisdiction over both Plebeians and Patricians . Therefore , for the first time , the Plebeians seemed to have indirectly acquired authority over Patricians . During the 4th century BC , a series of reforms were passed ( the leges Valeriae Horatiae ) , which ultimately required that any law passed by the Plebeian Council have the full force of law over both Plebeians and Patricians . This gave the Plebeian Tribunes , who presided over the Plebeian Council , a positive character for the first time . Before these laws were passed , Tribunes could only interpose the sacrosanctity of their person ( intercessio ) to veto acts of the senate , assemblies , or magistrates . It was a modification to the Valerian law in 449 BC which first allowed acts of the Plebeian Council to have the full force of law , but eventually the final law in the series was passed ( the " Hortensian Law " ) , which removed the last check that the Patricians in the senate had over this power .
= = The Conflict of the Orders ( 367 – 287 BC ) = =
In the decades following the passage of the Licinio @-@ Sextian law of 367 BC , which required the election of at least one Plebeian Consul each year , a series of laws were passed which ultimately granted Plebeians political equality with Patricians . The Patrician era came to a complete end in 287 BC , with the passage of the Hortensian law . This era was also marked with significant external developments . Up until 295 BC , the Samnites and the Kelts had been Rome 's chief rivals , but that year , at the Battle of Sentinum , the Romans defeated the combined armies of the Samnites and the Kelts . This battle was followed by the complete submission of both the Samnites and the Kelts to the Romans , and the emergence of Rome as the unchallenged mistress of Italy .
= = = The Plebeians and the magistrates = = =
When the Curule Aedileship had been created , it had only been opened to Patricians . Eventually , however , Plebeians won full admission to the Curule Aedileship . In addition , after the Consulship had been opened to the Plebeians , the Plebeians acquired a de facto right to hold both the Roman Dictatorship and the Roman Censorship ( which had been created in 443 BC ) since only former Consuls could hold either office . 356 BC saw the appointment of the first Plebeian Dictator , and in 339 BC the Plebeians facilitated the passage of a law ( the lex Publilia ) , which required the election of at least one Plebeian Censor for each five @-@ year term . In 337 BC , the first Plebeian Praetor was elected .
In 342 BC , two significant laws were passed . One of these two laws made it illegal to hold more than one office at any given point in time , and the other law required an interval of ten years to pass before any magistrate could seek reelection to any office . As a result of these two laws , the military situation quickly became unmanageable . During this time period , Rome was expanding within Italy and beginning to take steps beyond Italy , and thus it became necessary for military commanders to hold office for several years at a time . This problem was resolved with the creation of the pro @-@ magisterial offices , so that when an individual 's term in office ended , his command might be prorogued ( prorogatio imperii ) . In effect , when a magistrate 's term ended , his imperium was extended , and he usually held the title of either Proconsul or Propraetor . This constitutional device was not in harmony with the underlying genius of the Roman constitution , and its frequent usage eventually paved the way for the empire . In addition , during these years , the Plebeian Tribunes and the senators grew increasingly close . The senate realized the need to use Plebeian officials to accomplish desired goals , and so to win over the Tribunes , the senators gave the Tribunes a great deal of power , and unsurprisingly , the Tribunes began to feel obligated to the senate . As the Tribunes and the senators grew closer , Plebeian senators were often able to secure the Tribunate for members of their own families . In time , the Tribunate became a stepping stone to higher office .
= = = The Ovinian law and the new aristocracy = = =
During the era of the kingdom , the Roman King appointed new senators , but after the overthrow of the kingdom , the Consuls acquired this power . Around the middle of the 4th century BC , however , the Plebeian Council enacted the " Ovinian Plebiscite " ( plebiscitum Ovinium ) , which gave the power to appoint new senators to the Roman Censors . It also codified a commonplace practice , which all but required the Censor to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the senate . By this point , Plebeians were already holding a significant number of magisterial offices , and so the number of Plebeian senators probably increased quickly . It was , in all likelihood , simply a matter of time before the Plebeians came to dominate the senate .
Under the new system , newly elected magistrates were awarded with automatic membership in the senate , although it remained difficult for a Plebeian from an unknown family to enter the senate . Several factors made it difficult for individuals from unknown families to be elected to high office , in particular the very presence of a long @-@ standing nobility , as this appealed to the deeply rooted Roman respect for the past . Ultimately , a new Patricio @-@ Plebeian aristocracy emerged , which replaced the old Patrician nobility . It was the dominance of the long @-@ standing Patrician nobility which ultimately forced the Plebeians to wage their long struggle for political power . The new nobility , however , was fundamentally different from the old nobility . The old nobility existed through the force of law , because only Patricians were allowed to stand for high office , and it was ultimately overthrown after those laws were changed . Now , however , the new nobility existed due to the organization of society , and as such , it could only be overthrown through a revolution .
= = = The failure of the Conflict of the Orders = = =
The Conflict of the Orders was finally coming to an end , since the Plebeians had achieved political equality with the Patricians . A small number of Plebeian families had achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic Patrician families had always had , but these new Plebeian aristocrats were as uninterested in the plight of the average Plebeian as the old Patrician aristocrats had always been . During this time period , the Plebeian plight had been mitigated due to the constant state of war that Rome was in . These wars provided employment , income , and glory for the average Plebeian , and the sense of patriotism that resulted from these wars also eliminated any real threat of Plebeian unrest . The lex Publilia , which had required the election of at least one Plebeian Censor every five years , contained another provision . Before this time , any bill passed by an assembly ( either by the Plebeian Council , the Tribal Assembly , or the Centuriate Assembly ) could only become a law after the Patrician senators gave their approval . This approval came in the form of an auctoritas patrum ( " authority of the fathers " or " authority of the Patrician senators " ) . The lex Publilia modified this process , requiring the auctoritas patrum to be passed before a law could be voted on by one of the assemblies , rather than after the law had already been voted on . It is not known why , but this modification seems to have made the auctoritas patrum irrelevant .
By 287 BC , the economic condition of the average Plebeian had become poor , and the result was the final Plebeian secession . The Plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill , and to end the secession , a Dictator named Quintus Hortensius was appointed . Hortensius , a Plebeian , passed a law called the " Hortensian Law " ( Lex Hortensia ) , which ended the requirement that an auctoritas patrum be passed before any bill could be considered by either the Plebeian Council or the Tribal Assembly . The requirement was not changed for the Centuriate Assembly . The importance of the Hortensian Law was in that it removed from the senate its final check over the Plebeian Council ( the principal popular assembly ) . It should therefore not be viewed as the final triumph of democracy over aristocracy , since , through the Tribunes , the senate could still control the Plebeian Council . Thus , the ultimate significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the Patricians of their final weapon over the Plebeians . The result was that the ultimate control over the state fell , not onto the shoulders of democracy , but onto the shoulders of the new Patricio @-@ Plebeian aristocracy .
= = The supremacy of the new nobility ( 287 – 133 BC ) = =
The great accomplishment of the Hortensian Law was in that it deprived the Patricians of their final weapon over the Plebeians . Therefore , the new Patricio @-@ Plebeian aristocracy replaced the old Patrician aristocracy , and the last great political question of the earlier era had been resolved . As such , no important political changes occurred between 287 BC and 133 BC . This entire era was dominated by foreign wars , which eliminated the need to address the flaws in the current political system , since the patriotism of the Plebeians suppressed their desire for further reforms . However , this era created new problems , which began to be realized near the end of the 2nd century BC . For example , the nature of Rome 's military commanders changed . Roman soldiers of earlier eras fought short wars , and then returned to their farms . Since their generals did the same thing , the soldiers came to view their generals as being nothing more than fellow citizen @-@ soldiers . Now , however , wars were becoming longer and of a larger scale . Thus , this period saw a growing affinity between the average citizen and his general , while the generals acquired more power than they had ever held before .
= = = The Senate = = =
When the lex Hortensia was enacted into law , Rome theoretically became a democracy ( insofar as the landowners were concerned , anyway ) . In reality , however , Rome remained an oligarchy , since the critical laws were still enacted by the Roman Senate . In effect , democracy was satisfied with the possession of power , but did not care to actually use it . The senate was supreme during this era because the era was dominated by foreign policy . While upwards of 300 @,@ 000 citizens were eligible to vote , many of these individuals lived a great distance from Rome , and so calling them all together in a short period of time was impossible . The foreign affairs questions often required quick answers , and three @-@ hundred senators were more capable of quick action than were thousands of electors . The questions were also more complex than were the questions of the earlier era , and the average citizen was not adequately informed as to these issues . The senators , in contrast , were usually quite experienced , and the fact that they had income sources that were independent of their political roles made it easier for them to involve themselves in policy questions over extended periods of time .
Since most senators were former magistrates , the senate became bound together by a strong sense of collegiality . At any given point in time , many of the senate 's most senior members were ex @-@ Consuls , which facilitated the creation of a bond between the presiding Consul and those senior members . In addition , the Consul was always chosen from senate , and as such he usually held similar ideals as did his fellow senators . When his annual term ended , he returned to their ranks , and so he was unlikely to stand against his fellow senators . Before the enactment of the Ovinian Law , Consuls appointed new senators , but after the enactment of this law , Censors appointed new senators , which caused the senate to become even more independent of the presiding Consul . In addition , the Ovinian Law all but required that ex @-@ magistrates be appointed to the senate , and as such , the process by which Censors appointed new members to the senate became quite objective . This further enhanced the competence , and thus the prestige , of the senate .
= = = The Plebeians and the aristocracy = = =
The final decades of this era saw a worsening economic situation for many Plebeians . The long military campaigns had forced citizens to leave their farms , which often caused those farms to fall into a state of disrepair . This situation was made worse during the Second Punic War , when Hannibal fought the Romans throughout Italy , and the Romans adopted a strategy of attrition and guerrilla warfare in response . When the soldiers returned from the battlefield , they often had to sell their farms to pay their debts , and the landed aristocracy quickly bought these farms at discounted prices . The wars had also brought to Rome a great surplus of inexpensive slave labor , which the landed aristocrats used to staff their new farms . Soon the masses of unemployed Plebeians began to flood into Rome , and into the ranks of the legislative assemblies .
At the same time , the aristocracy was becoming extremely rich . Several Italian towns had sided with Hannibal during the Second Punic War , and these towns were ultimately punished for their disloyalty , which opened up even more cheap farmland for the aristocrats . With the destruction of Rome 's great commercial rival of Carthage , even more opportunities for profit became available . With so many new territories , tax collection ( which had always been outsourced to private individuals ) also became extremely profitable . While the aristocrats spent their time exploiting new opportunities for profit , Rome was conquering new civilizations in the east . These civilizations were often highly developed , and as such they opened up a world of luxury to the Romans . Up until this point , most Romans had only known a simple life , but as both wealth and eastern luxuries became available at the same time , an era of ruinous decadence followed . The sums that were spent on these luxuries had no precedent in prior Roman history . Several laws were enacted to stem this tide of decadence , but these laws had no effect , and attempts by the Censors to mitigate this decadence were equally futile .
By the end of this era , Rome had become full of unemployed Plebeians . They then began filling the ranks of the assemblies , and the fact that they were no longer away from Rome made it easier for them to vote . In the principle legislative assembly , the Plebeian Council , any individual voted in the Tribe that his ancestors had belonged to . Thus , most of these newly unemployed Plebeians belonged to one of the thirty @-@ one rural Tribes , rather than one of the four urban Tribes , and the unemployed Plebeians soon acquired so much political power that the Plebeian Council became highly populist . These Plebeians were often angry with the aristocracy , which further exacerbated the class tensions . Their economic state usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered the most for them , or at least for the candidate whose games or whose bribes were the most magnificent . The fact that they were usually uninformed as to the issues before them didn 't matter , because they usually sold their votes to the highest bidder anyway . Bribery became such a problem that major reforms were ultimately passed , in particular the requirement that all votes be by secret ballot . A new culture of dependency was emerging , which would look to any populist leader for relief .
= = From the Gracchi to Caesar ( 133 – 49 BC ) = =
The prior era saw great military successes , and great economic failures , while the patriotism of the Plebeians had kept them from seeking any new reforms . Now , however , the military situation had stabilized , and fewer soldiers were needed . This , in conjunction with the new slaves that were being imported from abroad , inflamed the unemployment situation further . The flood of unemployed citizens to Rome had made the assemblies quite populist , and thus had created an increasingly aggressive democracy . This new era began with the Tribunate of Gaius Gracchus , and ended when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon river .
= = = Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus = = =
Tiberius Gracchus was elected Plebeian Tribune in 133 BC , and as Tribune , he attempted to enact a law that would have distributed land amongst Rome 's landless citizens . The aristocrats , who stood to lose an enormous amount of money , were bitterly opposed to this proposal . Tiberius submitted this law to the Plebeian Council , but the law was vetoed by a Tribune named Marcus Octavius , and so Tiberius used the Plebeian Council to impeach Octavius . The theory , that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people , was repugnant to the genius of Roman constitutional theory . If carried to its logical end , this theory removed all constitutional restraints on the popular will , and put the state under the absolute control of a temporary popular majority . This theory ultimately found its logical end under the future democratic empire of the military populist Julius Caesar . The law was enacted , but Tiberius was murdered when he stood for reelection to the Tribunate . The ten years that followed his death were politically inactive . The only important development was in the growing strength of the democratic opposition to the aristocracy .
Tiberius ' brother Gaius was elected Plebeian Tribune in 123 BC . Gaius Gracchus ' ultimate goal was to weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces , so he first enacted a law which put the knights ( equites , or upper @-@ middle class citizens ) on the jury courts instead of the senators . He then passed a grain law which greatly disadvantaged the provincial governors , most of whom were senators . The knights , on the other hand , stood to profit greatly from these grain reforms , and so the result was that Gaius managed to turn the most powerful class of non @-@ senators against the senate . In the past , the senate eliminated political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a senatus consultum ultimum ( " ultimate decree of the senate ) . Both devices allowed the senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had . Gaius outlawed the judicial commissions , and declared the senatus consultum ultimum to be unconstitutional . Gaius then proposed a law which granted citizenship rights to Rome 's Italian allies , but the selfish democracy in Rome , which jealously guarded its privileged status , deserted him over this proposal . He stood for reelection to a third term in 121 BC , but was defeated and then murdered . The democracy , however , had finally realized how weak the senate had become .
= = = Sulla 's Constitutional Reforms = = =
Several years later , a new power had emerged in Asia . In 88 BC , a Roman army was sent to put down that power , king Mithridates VI of Pontus , but was defeated . Over the objections of the former Consul Gaius Marius , the Consul for the year , Lucius Cornelius Sulla was ordered by the senate to assume command of the war against Mithridates . Marius , a member of the democratic ( " populare " ) party , had a Tribune revoke Sulla 's command of the war against Mithridates , so Sulla , a member of the aristocratic ( " optimate " ) party , brought his army back to Italy and marched on Rome . Marius fled , and his supporters either fled or were murdered by Sulla . Sulla had become so angry at Marius ' Tribune that he passed a law that was intended to permanently weaken the Tribunate . He then returned to his war against Mithridates , and with Sulla gone , the populares under Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna soon took control of the city . The populare record was not one to be proud of , as they had reelected Marius Consul several times without observing the required ten @-@ year interval . They also transgressed democracy by advancing un @-@ elected individuals to magisterial office , and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation . Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates , and in 83 BC , he returned to Rome , overcame all resistance , and captured the city again . Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius ' supporters , although one such supporter , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old populare ( and the son @-@ in @-@ law of Cinna ) named Julius Caesar , was ultimately spared .
Sulla , who had observed the violent results of radical populare reforms ( in particular those under Marius and Cinna ) , was naturally conservative , and so his conservatism was more reactionary than it was visionary . As such , he sought to strengthen the aristocracy , and thus the senate . After being appointed Roman Dictator in 82 BC , he enacted a series of constitutional reforms . He resigned the Dictatorship in 80 BC , retired in 79 BC , and died a year later . While he thought that he had firmly established aristocratic rule , his own career had illustrated the fatal weaknesses in the constitution . Ultimately , it was the army , and not the senate , which dictated the fortunes of the state .
In 77 BC , the senate sent one of Sulla 's former lieutenants , Gnaeus Pompey Magnus , to put down an uprising in Spain . By 71 BC , Pompey returned to Rome after having completed his mission , and around the same time , another of Sulla 's former lieutenants , Marcus Licinius Crassus , had just put down a slave revolt in Italy . Upon their return , Pompey and Crassus found the populare party fiercely attacking Sulla 's constitution , and so they attempted to forge an agreement with the populare party . If both Pompey and Crassus were elected Consul in 70 BC , they would dismantle the more obnoxious components of Sulla 's constitution . The promise of both Pompey and Crassus , aided by the presence of both of their armies outside of the gates of Rome , helped to ' persuade ' the populares to elect the two to the Consulship . As soon as they were elected , they dismantled most of Sulla 's constitution .
= = = The First Triumvirate = = =
In 62 BC , Pompey returned victorious from Asia , but the senate refused to ratify the arrangements that he had made with his soldiers . Pompey , in effect , became powerless , and thus when Julius Caesar returned from his governorship in Spain in 61 BC , he found it easy to make an arrangement with Pompey . Caesar and Pompey , along with Crassus , established a private agreement , known as the First Triumvirate . Under the agreement , Pompey 's arrangements in Asia were to be ratified , and his soldiers were to be given land . Caesar was to be elected Consul in 59 BC , and then serve as governor of Gaul for five years . Crassus was to be promised a future Consulship .
Caesar became Consul in 59 BC , but his colleague , Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus , was an extreme aristocrat . Caesar submitted the laws that he had promised Pompey to the Roman Senate , but the senate rejected these laws , and so he then submitted them to the assemblies . Bibulus attempted to obstruct the enactment of these laws , and so Caesar used violent ( and thus illegal ) means to ensure their passage . Caesar was then given command of four legions , and promised the governorship of three provinces ( Cisalpine Gaul , Transalpine Gaul , and Illyricum ) . This appointment was to begin on March 1 , 59 BC , while he was still Consul . Caesar did not wish to leave the senate in the hands of such unskillful politicians as Pompey and Crassus before he had crushed the spirit of the senate and deprived it of its two most dangerous leaders , Cato and Cicero . Therefore , he sent Cato on a mission to Cyprus , which was likely to ruin his reputation , and then facilitated the election of the former Patrician Clodius to the Tribunate for 58 BC . Clodius , a dangerous demagogue , secured the passage of several laws for his coming attack on Cicero . One law banned the use of omens ( auspices ) as an obstructive device in the Plebeian Council , while the second law made certain " clubs " of a " semi @-@ political nature " ( i.e. armed gangs ) lawful . Clodius then passed two laws which banished Cicero , on the grounds that he had deprived several of Catiline 's conspirators of their due process ( provocatio ) rights when he had them executed upon a mere decree of the senate .
Pompey and Crassus proved themselves to be as incompetent as Caesar had hoped . Clodius terrorized the city with his armed gangs , and agitated Pompey to such a degree that Pompey was able to secure the passage of a law in 57 BC which recalled Cicero from his exile . This was more of a triumph for the senate than it was for Pompey , however , since Pompey was allied with Caesar . Pompey was so inept that the senate decided to override him , and rescind the land laws that Caesar had passed in 59 BC for Pompey 's veterans . This forced a renewal of the triumvirate : Pompey and Crassus were promised the Consulship in 55 BC and Caesar 's term as governor was extended for five years . Caesar 's daughter , and Pompey 's wife , Julia , soon died in childbirth , and a year later , Crassus was killed during his invasion of the Parthian Empire . These two events severed the last remaining bond between Pompey and Caesar .
Beginning in the summer of 54 BC , a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome . This chaos reached a climax in January 52 BC , when Clodius was murdered in a gang war . In addition , the civil unrest had caused the calendar to become neglected . The calendar required annual adjustments to prevent its drift relative to any Spring Equinox , and so to correct the misalignment of the calendar , an intercalary month was inserted at the end of February 52 BC , and Pompey was elected sole Consul for that month . This elevation to extraordinary power was the last straw for Caesar , and with Crassus dead , Pompey was looking for any excuse with which to crush Caesar , and establish himself as the master of the state . On January 1 of 49 BC , an agent of Caesar named Gaius Scribonius Curio presented an ultimatum to the senate , but the ultimatum was rejected , and the senate then passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year , that he would be acting adversus rem publicam ( in effect , declaring him to be an enemy of the republic ) . On January 7 of 49 BC ) , the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum , which suspended civil government and declared something analogous to martial law . Pompey , in effect , was vested with Dictatorial powers , but his army was composed largely of untested conscripts . Caesar then crossed the Rubicon river with his veteran army , and marched towards Rome . Caesar 's rapid advance forced Pompey , the Consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece , and Caesar entered the city unopposed .
= = The period of transition ( 49 – 27 BC ) = =
The era that began when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC , and ended when Octavian returned to Rome after the Battle of Actium in 29 BC , can be divided into two distinct units . The dividing line between these two units is the assassination of Caesar in March 44 BC , although from a constitutional standpoint , there was no clear dividing line between these two periods . The forces which had supported Pompey during the early part of the first period were allied against Mark Antony and Octavian in 43 BC and 42 BC , and the constitutional means through which Caesar had held power before his assassination were used by Antony and Octavian to hold power after Caesar 's assassination . From a constitutional standpoint , it makes no difference whether an autocrat holds the title of Roman Dictator , as Caesar had done , or of Triumvir , as Antony and Octavian had done . From a constitutional perspective , these twenty years formed a single unit , through which the constitutional evolution of the prior century accelerated at a rapid pace . By 27 BC , Rome had completed its transition from being a city @-@ state with a network of dependencies , to being the capital of a world empire .
= = = Julius Caesar 's constitutional reforms = = =
During his early career , Caesar had seen how chaotic and dysfunctional the Roman Republic had become . The republican machinery had broken down under the weight of imperialism , the central government had become powerless , the provinces had been transformed into independent principalities under the absolute control of their governors , and the army had replaced the constitution as the means of accomplishing political goals . Between his crossing of the Rubicon river in 49 BC , and his assassination in 44 BC , Caesar established a new constitution , which was intended to accomplish three separate goals . First , he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces , and thus bring order back to the empire . Second , he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome . And finally , he wanted to knit together the entire empire into a single cohesive unit .
Caesar held both the Dictatorship and the Plebeian Tribunate , but alternated between the Consulship and the Proconsulship . His powers within the state seem to have rested upon these magistracies . The Dictatorship of Caesar was fundamentally different from the Dictatorship of the early and middle republic , as he held the office for life , rather than for six months , and he also held certain judicial powers which the ordinary Dictators had not held . In 48 BC , Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers , which made his person sacrosanct , allowed him to veto the Roman Senate , and allowed him to dominate the Plebeian Council . Since Tribunes were always elected by the Plebeian Council , Caesar had hoped to prevent the election of Tribunes who might oppose him . In 46 BC , Caesar gave himself the title of " Prefect of the Morals " ( praefectura morum ) , which was an office that was new only in name , as its powers were identical to those of the Censors . Thus , he could hold Censorial powers , while technically not subjecting himself to the same checks that the ordinary Censors were subject to , and he used these powers to fill the senate with his own partisans . He also set the precedent , which his imperial successors followed , of requiring the senate to bestow various titles and honors upon him . Coins bore his likeness , and he was given the right to speak first during senate meetings .
Caesar then increased the number of magistrates who were elected each year , which created a large pool of experienced magistrates , and allowed Caesar to reward his supporters . Caesar even took steps to transform Italy into a province , and to more tightly link the other provinces of the empire into a single , cohesive unit . This process , of ossifying the entire Roman Empire into a single unit , rather than maintaining it as a network of unequal principalities , would ultimately be completed by Caesar 's successor , the emperor Augustus . When Caesar returned to Rome in 47 BC , he raised the senate 's membership to 900 . While the Roman assemblies continued to meet , Caesar submitted all candidates to the assemblies for election , and all bills to the assemblies for enactment , which caused the assemblies to become powerless and unable to oppose him . To minimize the risk that another general might attempt to challenge him , Caesar passed a law which subjected governors to term limits . Near the end of his life , Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire . Since his absence from Rome might limit his ability to install his own Consuls , he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC , and all Consuls and Tribunes in 42 BC . This , in effect , transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people to being representatives of the Dictator , and robbed the popular assemblies of much of their remaining influence .
= = = Caesar 's assassination and the Second Triumvirate = = =
Caesar was assassinated in March 44 BC . The motives of the conspirators were both personal , as well as political . Many of Caesar 's ultimate assassins were envious of him , and dissatisfied with the recognition that they had received from him . Most of the conspirators were senators , and many of them were angry about the fact that he had deprived the senate of much of its power and prestige . They were also angry that , while they had received few honors , Caesar had been given many honors . There were also rumors that he was going to make himself king , and transfer the seat of government to Alexandria . The grievances that they held against him were vague , and as such , their plan against him was vague . The fact that their motives were vague , and that they had no idea of what to do after his assassination , both were plainly obvious by the subsequent course of events .
After Caesar 's assassination , Mark Antony , who had been Caesar 's Master of the Horse , formed an alliance with Caesar 's adopted son and great @-@ nephew , Gaius Octavian . Along with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , they formed an alliance known as the Second Triumvirate . They held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution , and as such , the senate and assemblies remained powerless . The conspirators were defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC . Lepidus became powerless , and Antony went to Egypt to seek glory in the east , while Octavian remained in Rome . Eventually , however , Antony and Octavian fought against each other in one last battle . Antony was defeated in the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC , and committed suicide in 30 BC . In 29 BC , Octavian returned to Rome , as the unchallenged master of the state . In 27 BC , Octavian offered to give up the Dictatorial powers which he had held since 42 BC , but the senate refused , and thus ratified his status as master of the state . He became the first Roman Emperor , Augustus , and the transition from Roman Republic to Roman Empire was complete .
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= Claudia Cardinale =
Claudia Cardinale ( born 15 April 1938 ) is a Tunisian @-@ born Italian film actress . She appeared in some of the most acclaimed European films of the 1960s and 1970s , mainly Italian or French , but also in several English films .
Born and raised in La Goulette , Tunis , Tunisia , Cardinale won the " Most Beautiful Italian Girl in Tunisia " competition in 1957 , the prize being a trip to Italy which quickly led to film contracts , thanks above all to the involvement of Franco Cristaldi , who acted as her mentor for a number of years and later married her . After making her debut in a minor role with Omar Sharif in Goha ( 1958 ) , Cardinale became one of the best known actresses in Italy after roles in films such as Rocco and His Brothers ( 1960 ) , Girl with a Suitcase ( 1961 ) , The Leopard ( 1963 ) , Cartouche ( 1963 ) and Federico Fellini 's 8 ½ ( 1963 ) . From 1963 , Cardinale became known in the United States and Britain following her role in The Pink Panther opposite David Niven . For several years she appeared in Hollywood films such as Blindfold ( 1965 ) opposite Rock Hudson , Lost Command ( 1966 ) , The Professionals ( 1966 ) , The Hell with Heroes ( 1968 ) and the Sergio Leone epic western Once Upon a Time in the West ( 1968 ) , a joint US @-@ Italian production , in which she was praised for her role as a former prostitute opposite Jason Robards , Charles Bronson and Henry Fonda .
Jaded with the Hollywood film industry and not wanting to become a cliché , Cardinale returned to Italian and French cinema , and garnered the David di Donatello for Best Actress award for her roles in Il giorno della civetta ( 1968 ) and as a prostitute alongside Alberto Sordi in A Girl in Australia ( 1971 ) . In 1974 , Cardinale met director Pasquale Squitieri , who would become her husband , and she frequently featured in his films , including I guappi ( 1974 ) , Corleone ( 1978 ) and Claretta ( 1984 ) , the latter of which won her the Nastro d 'Argento Award for Best Actress . In 1982 she played the love interest of Klaus Kinski in Werner Herzog 's Fitzcarraldo , who raises the funds to buy a steamship in South America . In 2010 , Cardinale received the Actress Award at the 47th Antalya " Golden Orange " International Film Festival for her performance as an elderly Italian woman who takes in a young Turkish exchange student in Signora Enrica .
Outspoken on women 's rights causes over the years , Cardinale has been a UNESCO goodwill ambassador for the Defense of Women 's Rights since March 2000 . In February 2011 the Los Angeles Times Magazine named Cardinale among the 50 most beautiful women in film history .
= = Early life = =
Claudia Cardinale was born Claude Joséphine Rose Cardinale in La Goulette , a neighborhood of Tunis , French protectorate of Tunisia on 15 April 1938 . Her mother , Yolande Greco , was born in Tunisia to Sicilian emigrants from Trapani . Her maternal grandparents had a small shipbuilding firm in Trapani but later settled in La Goulette , where there was a large Italian community . Her father , Francesco Cardinale , was a railway worker , born in Gela . Her native languages were French , Tunisian Arabic , and the Sicilian language of her parents . She did not learn to speak Italian until she had already begun to be cast for Italian films .
Cardinale was educated at the Saint @-@ Joseph @-@ de @-@ l 'Apparition school of Carthage which she attended along with her younger sister Blanche . She then studied at the Paul Cambon School , where she graduated with the intention of becoming a teacher . As a teenager she was described as " silent , weird , and wild " , and like other girls of her generation was fascinated by Brigitte Bardot who came to prominence in the 1956 film And God Created Woman , directed by Roger Vadim .
= = Career = =
= = = 1950s = = =
Cardinale 's first film work was participating , along with classmates , in a short film by French director René Vautier , Anneaux d 'or , successfully presented at the Berlin Film Festival . The film made her a minor local celebrity , and led to her being spotted by Jacques Baratier who offered her a minor role in Goha . She accepted it reluctantly after Baratier explained he wanted a Tunisian actress rather than an Italian to star in the main role opposite the Egyptian actor Omar Sharif . The appearance nonetheless marked her feature film debut . The turning point came in 1957 during the Italian Cinema Week in Tunis when she won a competition for the " Most Beautiful Italian Girl in Tunisia " , with a trip to the Venice Film Festival as first prize . After being spotted by several film producers at the event , she was invited to study at the Experimental Cinematography Center in Rome under Tina Lattanzi . She attended briefly as , despite her extremely photogenic looks , she had trouble with her acting assignments ( partly owing to her difficulties with the Italian language ) . She left at the end of her first term and decided to return home , earning herself a cover story in the popular weekly Epoca triggered by her unexpected decision to turn her back on a career as a film star .
Back in Tunis , however , Cardinale discovered unexpectedly that she was pregnant , the result of what she later described as a " terrible " relationship with a Frenchman , some ten years her senior , which began when she was only 17 and lasted for about a year . On this discovery , he wanted her to have an abortion but she decided to keep the child . She solved her problems by signing a seven @-@ year exclusive contract with Franco Cristaldi 's production company Vides . Cristaldi largely managed her early career , and she was married to him from 1966 until 1975 .
Under the new contract , in 1958 Cardinale was given a minor role with leading Italian actors Vittorio Gassman , Totò , Marcello Mastroianni and Renato Salvatori in Mario Monicelli 's internationally successful criminal comedy Big Deal on Madonna Street ( I soliti ignoti ) . She portrayed Carmelita , a Sicilian girl virtually imprisoned in her home by her overpowering brother . The comedy was a huge success , making Cardinale instantly recognizable . Some newspapers were already referring to her as " la fidanzata d 'Italia " ( Italy 's sweetheart ) . Later that year she had a leading role opposite Yvonne Monlaur in Claudio Gora 's romantic comedy Three Strangers in Rome .
Although she worked well into her seventh month , Cardinale 's pregnancy was kept a tight secret . Tormented by thoughts of suicide , she fell into a state of depression . When she thought she could no longer hide her condition , she asked Cristaldi to terminate her contract . Understanding her predicament , he sent her to London for the birth , far away from the press . He simply explained that she had gone to England to learn English for a film . Cristaldi told Cardinale not to reveal her condition as she would be betraying the public and it would put an end to her career . So as to maintain the secret , he drew up a detailed American @-@ style contract covering every little detail of her life , depriving her of any possibility of acting on her own behalf . Cardinale explained : " I was no longer master of my own body or thoughts . Even talking with a friend about anything that could make me look different from my public image was risky , as if it had been publicized , I would have been in trouble . Everything was in the hands of Vides " . For seven years Cardinale kept her secret , not only from the public but also from her own son , Patrick , who grew up in the family with her parents and sister more or less as a brother until the day Enzo Biagi , a journalist , discovered the truth . After Cardinale decided to tell him everything , he published her story in Oggi and L 'Europeo .
In 1959 she appeared opposite Salvatori in the mafia film Vento del sud , and played the wife of Maurizio Arena in Luigi Zampa 's Il magistrato . Cardinale also starred opposite Pietro Germi in his crime film Un maledetto imbroglio , an important assignment for her in mastering the craft of acting while learning to feel at ease in front of the camera . Cardinale considered it to have been her first real test as an actress . She then played the role of Maria in Ralph Thomas 's British film Upstairs and Downstairs , which starred Michael Craig and Anne Heywood . In her early roles she was usually dubbed , as producers considered her voice too hoarse .
= = = 1960s = = =
In 1960 Cardinale starred opposite Marcello Mastroianni in Mauro Bolognini 's Golden Leopard @-@ winning drama film Il bell 'Antonio . The film marked the start of a fruitful partnership between the two . Cardinale stated that her films with Bolognini were among the most joyful of her career , considering him to be " a great director , a man of rare professional capability , great taste and culture . Beyond that , for me personally , a sensitive and sincere friend . " In Bolognini 's films , thanks to her aesthetic femininity , Cardinale took roles of manipulative women who lead men to perdition . During the filming of Il bell 'Antonio , her co @-@ star Marcello Mastroianni fell in love with her , but she rejected him as she did not take his love seriously , considering him to be one of those actors who cannot help but fall in love with their co @-@ stars . Mastroianni insisted that his feelings were genuine , even after many years . The genuine empathy between the two actors proved to be ideal for reproducing the tension between the characters in the film . Cardinale next portrayed Pauline Bonaparte in Abel Gance 's French film Napoleone ad Austerlitz , and after appearing opposite Gassman and Salvatori in the sequel to Big Deal on Madonna Street , Audace colpo dei soliti ignoti , she portrayed Ginetta , the fiancée of Spiros Focás , alongside Salvatori and Alain Delon in Luchino Visconti 's critically acclaimed Rocco and His Brothers . However , it was her leading performance in Francesco Maselli 's Silver Spoon Set which gained her most attention during this period . Francesco Freda felt the film paved her way " to great success " , noting the " sweetness of her smile " which struck a chord with the public .
In 1961 , Cardinale portrayed a sultry nightclub singer and young mother in Valerio Zurlini 's Girl with a Suitcase . As a result of her own experience of early motherhood , Cardinale naturally conveyed the concerns of a teenage mother , identifying fully with the character of Aida . Such was her psychological involvement that she needed several months to overcome her apprehensions and prepare for the part . Zurlini chose her for such a difficult role against everyone 's advice , as she was not yet considered a " real " actress , nor was she ( yet ) one of the most celebrated Italian beauties . However , he was very close and supportive of Cardinale during the production , and a true friendship developed between the two , based on a deep mutual understanding . Cardinale remarked : " Zurlini was one of those who really love women : he had an almost feminine sensitivity . He could understand me at a glance . He taught me everything , without ever making demands on me . ... He was really very fond of me . " Cardinale was warmly praised by the critics for her performance in Girl with a Suitcase , Dennis Schwartz considering her to have been at her " charming best " . Later in 1961 , Cardinale starred as a brothel owner opposite Jean @-@ Paul Belmondo in Bolognini 's La Viaccia . Both Girl with a Suitcase and La Viaccia were presented at the 1961 Cannes Film Festival . At the time , Cardinale was not considered comparable to the two divas of Italian cinema , Sophia Loren and Gina Lollobrigida , but several newspapers and magazines including Paris Match began to consider her to be a credible young rival to Brigitte Bardot . Cardinale 's 1961 appearances also included Henri Verneuil 's French comedy Les Lions sont lâchés , and Auguste in which she had a cameo role .
The following year , Cardinale starred opposite Jean @-@ Paul Belmondo as Vénus in the 18th @-@ century set adventure Cartouche , which made her a major star in France . She also played Angiolina , the romantic interest of Anthony Franciosa in Bolognini 's Senilità , a character which film writer Jacek Klinowski describes as " a spirited and strikingly beautiful twenty @-@ year @-@ old " . In 1962 , Cardinale was interviewed by the writer Alberto Moravia , who focused exclusively on her sexuality and body image in film , treating her as an object . Cardinale remarked to him : " I used my body as a mask , as a representation of myself " . The interview was published in Esquire under the title The Next Goddess of Love . Cardinale was amused to discover that the interview had inspired the writer to publish La dea dell 'amore ( Goddess of Love ) the following year , in which one of the characters , with her fine physical appearance and natural curves , closely resembled Cardinale . Just a few years later she would play a similar character in a film based on another novel by Moravia , Time of Indifference .
The finest and most prolific year of her career was 1963 , when she appeared in a number of leading productions . She starred alongside Burt Lancaster in Visconti 's The Leopard ( Il Gattopardo ) , portraying a village girl who married a progressive young aristocrat ( Alain Delon ) , and played a film actress cast by a director ( Marcello Mastroianni ) in Federico Fellini 's 8 ½ . Both films were critically acclaimed and are often cited by critics and scholars as among the greatest films ever made . She participated in the two films during exactly the same period , frequently moving from one to the other and experiencing the strictly planned approach of Visconti which contrasted strongly with Fellini 's much more relaxed style and his almost total reliance on improvisation . Cardinale remembered Visconti 's set as having an almost religious atmosphere , everything focused on the film , far removed the outside world . Visconti needed silence for his work while Fellini preferred noise and confusion .
Until now , Cardinale 's own voice had not been used in her Italian films as it was considered too hoarse and , owing to her French accent , insufficiently Italian . Not until 8 ½ was she allowed to use her own voice . Cardinale explained : " When I arrived for my first movie , I couldn 't speak a word . I thought I was on the moon . I couldn 't understand what they were talking about . And I was speaking in French ; in fact I was dubbed . And Federico Fellini was the first one who used my voice . I think I had a very strange voice . " With her portrayal of Angelica in The Leopard and her brief appearance as herself in 8 ½ , Cardinale achieved the definitive status of a top @-@ ranking star .
The same year , Cardinale portrayed a prostitute in La ragazza di Bube or Bebo 's Girl , in which she also used her own voice . For her performance in the film , she received her first Nastro d 'Argento for Best Actress in 1965 . Cardinale acted in her first American film ( although it was produced in Italy ) when she played Princess Dala , a wealthy aristocratic woman who is the love and jewellery interest of David Niven in the Cortina d 'Ampezzo @-@ set The Pink Panther . Cardinale 's voice in the film was dubbed by Gale Garnett who went uncredited . Niven raved about working with the actress , telling her , " After spaghetti , you 're Italy 's happiest invention . "
In 1964 , Cardinale starred alongside Rod Steiger and Shelley Winters in Francesco Maselli 's Italian @-@ made Gli indifferenti . Thereafter , she spent three years in the United States where starred in several Hollywood films . She told of how she benefited from the arrangement , explaining it was an American initiative at a time when they invited all the successful European actresses to perform in their pictures , hoping to create a monopoly . Many suffered from the experience but she was able to hold her own : " I took care of my own interests , blankly refusing to sign an exclusive contract with Universal Studios . I only signed for individual films . In the end , everything worked out fine for me .
She first starred in the Henry Hathaway 's Hollywood picture Circus World ( 1964 ) opposite John Wayne and Rita Hayworth , playing the daughter of Hayworth who performs with her as a mother @-@ daughter circus act . By the end of the decade , she had returned to making films primarily in Italy , accepting a pay cut , turning her back on Hollywood stardom . Cardinale has further said , " I don 't like the star system . I 'm a normal person . I like to live in Europe . I mean , I 've been going to Hollywood many , many times , but I didn 't want to sign a contract . " Film writer David Simpson notes that as a result " Cardinale never achieved the same level of fame as Loren and Gina Lollobrigida " , although she appeared in a higher number of decent films .
In 1964 , she also played the lead role in The Magnificent Cuckold , based on the Belgian play Le Cocu magnifique . She was at the height of her sensuality at the time but later the film only brought back unpleasant memories for her as she experienced little empathy with the producer Antonio Pietrangeli while the male star Ugo Tognazzi tried to seduce her . In 1965 Cardinale appeared in Visconti 's Vaghe stelle dell 'Orsa , known as Sandra ( Of a Thousand Delights ) in the USA and Of These Thousand Pleasures in the UK , playing a Holocaust survivor who may have had an incestuous relationship with her brother . Later that year she starred opposite Rock Hudson in Universal Pictures 's Blindfold , the last film to be directed by Philip Dunne . Filming began on 22 February 1965 on location in Ocala , Florida . Diane Bond doubled for Cardinale in the film . Cardinale became good friends with Hudson , who proved to be very protective of her , knowing her discomfort outside of Italy . While in Hollywood , Cardinale also became friends with Barbra Streisand , Elliott Gould and Steve McQueen but she never managed to feel at home there .
By 1966 , Cardinale was being cited as the most popular film star in Italy , even more than Mastroianni and Loren . Life stated that " the Cardinale appeal is a blend of solid simplicity and radiant sensuality . It moves men all over the world to imagine her both as an exciting mistress and wife . " However , following her success in Hollywood , she began to express concerns about the direction of her career . In a July 1966 interview with Life , she confessed her fear of being over @-@ glamourized and exploited , like Sophia Loren , and although she had several further U.S. films lined up , stated : " If I have to give up the money , I give it up . I do not want to become a cliché . "
In 1966 a photograph of Cardinale was featured in the original gatefold artwork to Bob Dylan 's album Blonde on Blonde ( 1966 ) , but it was used without Cardinale 's permission and removed from later pressings . That year she starred in Mark Robson 's war picture Lost Command for Columbia Pictures opposite Anthony Quinn , Alain Delon and George Segal . Quinn expressed his love of working with Cardinale , stating that although he adored Cardinale and Loren equally , " I relate easier to Claudia , Sophia creates an impression of something larger than life , something unobtainable . But Claudia – she 's not easy , still she 's within reach " . She also played a Mexican marquessa in Richard Brooks ' western The Professionals , uniting her on screen once again with Burt Lancaster in what she considered to be her best American film . The following year she appeared in Una rosa per tutti ( A Rose for Everyone ) and in Alexander Mackendrick 's sex farce Don 't Make Waves opposite Tony Curtis . Although occasional funny moments were noted , Don 't Make Waves was generally panned by the critics and the lack of chemistry with co @-@ star Curtis was highlighted . Leonard Maltin , on the other hand , described the film as " a gem " .
At the beginning of 1967 , Cristaldi joined her in the United States . While the two were staying in Atlanta , he surprised her by taking her to their wedding ceremony which he had arranged without her knowledge . She went ahead with the ceremony but was concerned about sacrificing the rights she had to her child Patrick . She also realized she was increasingly unable to make decisions about her own life . The marriage was never officialized in Italy .
In 1968 , Cardinale featured opposite Franco Nero in Il giorno della civetta , in a David di Donatello for Best Actress @-@ winning performance . She reunited with Rock Hudson in the Italian @-@ made criminal comedy Ruba al prossimo tuo under director Francesco Maselli . She also appeared alongside Rod Taylor in The Hell with Heroes and starred in one of her best known roles as former prostitute Jill McBain in Sergio Leone 's epic western Once Upon a Time in the West . Such was the power of her performance as the whore that Leone 's biographer Robert C. Cumbow described her as " permanently engraved in cinematic history " and noted how suited to the role she was : " Her sex @-@ goddess appearance combines with her more mystical iconographic associations to ease the progress of Jill from tart to town builder , from harlot to earth mother , from sinner to symbol of America — the apotheosis of the harlot with a heart of gold " . In 1969 Cardinale starred opposite Nino Manfredi in Luigi Magni 's Nell 'anno del Signore , based on the actual story of the capital execution of two Carbonari in papal Rome . This was followed by a role as a telephone operator in Certo certissimo ... anzi probabile , and as a nurse opposite Sean Connery and Peter Finch in Mikhail Kalatozov 's The Red Tent , based on the story of the mission to rescue Umberto Nobile and the other survivors of the crash of the Airship Italia .
= = = 1970s = = =
In 1970 , Cardinale starred opposite Peter McEnery and Eli Wallach in Jerzy Skolimowski 's comedy film The Adventures of Gerard , based on The Exploits of Brigadier Gerard by Arthur Conan Doyle . In 1971 , she formed a duo with Brigitte Bardot in the French western @-@ comedy The Legend of Frenchie King , and appeared as a prostitute opposite Alberto Sordi in Luigi Zampa 's comedy A Girl in Australia . The film , shot on location in February and March 1971 , earned Cardinale a Best Actress award at the David di Donatello Awards the following year . In 1972 , Cardinale appeared in Marco Ferreri 's L 'udienza , which was screened at the 22nd Berlin International Film Festival . She also featured in La Scoumoune with Jean @-@ Paul Belmondo and Michel Constantin . After a role as a Russian aristocrat opposite Oliver Reed in One Russian Summer ( 1973 ) , set in pre revolutionary Russia , Cardinale starred opposite Franco Nero in I guappi ( 1974 ) , a historical drama film with " poliziotteschi " and " noir " elements . Cardinale and the director Pasquale Squitieri met for the first time on set , and he would soon become her husband .
In 1975 , Cardinale played the daughter of a political exile ( Adolfo Celi ) in Mauro Bolognini Libera , My Love , a character who becomes " increasingly incensed by the fascist government of Italy and makes a number of bold and very personal gestures against it " . Later that year she appeared in the comedies The Immortal Bachelor with Vittorio Gassman and Qui comincia l 'avventura with Monica Vitti . Vitti 's biographer noted how Cardinale and Vitti stood out as the female duo in a predominantly masculine cast .
In 1976 , Cardinale appeared in the sex comedy Il comune senso del pudore , which was directed and written by Alberto Sordi , who also co @-@ starred . The following year , she had a biblical role as the Adulteress in the Jesus of Nazareth miniseries , which featured Robert Powell as Jesus , Anne Bancroft as Mary Magdalene , and Ernest Borgnine as Cornelius the Centurion . Cardinale starred in her husband 's Il prefetto di ferro , which tells the story of Cesare Mori ( Giuliano Gemma ) , an Italian prefect that before and during the Fascist period was best known as " the Iron Prefect " . The film shared the 1978 David di Donatello for Best Film with In nome del Papa Re . In 1978 , Cardinale appeared in Damiano Damiani 's political thriller , Goodbye & Amen – L 'uomo della CIA , and again featured alongside Gemma in her husband 's gangster picture , Corleone , set in 1950s Sicily . After a role in another Squitieri film in 1978 , L 'arma , Cardinale portrayed Eleana , a Greek " gutsy brothel madame " and the girlfriend of Telly Savalas in George P. Cosmatos 's adventure war film , Escape to Athena ( 1979 ) . The film , shot on location in Rhodes , was poorly received ; it holds a 32 % " rotten " rating on Rotten Tomatoes as of July 2015 .
= = = 1980s = = =
After a role in Si salvi chi vuole ( 1980 ) , and a smaller part in Peter Zinner 's The Salamander opposite Franco Nero , Anthony Quinn and Christopher Lee , Cardinale played the love interest of Marcello Mastroianni in Liliana Cavani 's war picture The Skin , a film which also reunited her with Burt Lancaster . The Skin was entered into the 1981 Cannes Film Festival . In 1982 , Cardinale appeared in Werner Herzog 's Fitzcarraldo , playing a successful brothel owner who funds Klaus Kinski 's purchase of an old steamship in South America . The film , inspired by the story of Peruvian rubber baron Carlos Fermín Fitzcarrald was shot on location in Brazil and Peru . The film was critically acclaimed , with Vincent Canby of The New York Times calling it " a fine , quirky , fascinating movie " and a " stunning spectacle " , comparing the dynamic between Kinski and Cardinale to Katharine Hepburn and Humphrey Bogart in John Huston 's The African Queen . He pointed out that although Cardinale 's screen time in the film was unfortunately not substantial , she set its comic tone ; he praised the way she managed to turn Kinski , renowned for his volatile temperament and portrayals of megalomaniacs and criminals into a " genuinely charming screen presence " , adding a new dimension to his acting career . Later that year , Cardinale played opposite Pierre Mondy in the sex farce Le Cadeau , a role which biographers Lancia and Minelli claim was played with a " mature charm and expressiveness " .
In 1983 , Cardinale had a role in the Waris Hussein miniseries Princess Daisy , and featured alongside Lino Ventura and Bernard Giraudeau in the French @-@ Canadian film Le Ruffian . In 1984 , she played the love interest of Marcello Mastroianni in a Marco Bellocchio production of Henry IV , based on the Luigi Pirandello play of the same name . It was entered into the 1984 Cannes Film Festival . Squitieri 's Claretta ( 1984 ) , featuring Cardinale and Gemma , was entered into the competition at the 41st Venice International Film Festival . Cardinale 's powerful performance as Claretta Petacci garnered her the Nastro d 'Argento for Best Actress . In 1985 , Cardinale starred opposite Ben Gazzara and Lina Sastri in Alberto Bevilacqua 's La donna delle meraviglie . It entered the competition at the 1985 Venice International Film Festival .
In 1986 , Cardinale was involved in the making of two films for television . In Comencini 's La storia ( from Elsa Morante 's novel ) , Cardinale portrayed a widow raising a son during World War II . In her husband 's Naso di Cane , a miniseries , Enrico Lancia and Roberto Poppi praised her for her " light comic touch " . In 1987 , Cardinale starred opposite Peter Coyote , Greta Scacchi and Jamie Lee Curtis in Diane Kurys 's film A Man in Love ( Un homme amoureux ) , Kurys 's first English language feature . It was entered into the 1987 Cannes Film Festival . Cardinale 's performance as Scacchi 's cancer @-@ stricken mother was praised by critics , with Desson Howe of The Washington Post highlighting the " warm and radiant " elements that she brought to the role , and Hal Hinson , also of The Post , comparing Scacchi to having " the same kind of sensuality that Cardinale brought to her earlier roles " . After a role in the comedy , Blu elettrico ( 1988 ) , in 1989 Cardinale portrayed Yolande de Polastron , a favourite of Marie Antionette 's , in the two @-@ part film La Révolution française . Made to celebrate the bicentennial anniversary of the French Revolution , the 360 @-@ minute Robert Enrico and Richard T. Heffron film was an international production boasting a cast which included Klaus Maria Brandauer , Jane Seymour and Peter Ustinov .
= = = 1990s = = =
In 1990 , Cardinale starred opposite Bruno Cremer in her husband 's Atto di dolore , and appeared in the Morocco @-@ set Soviet @-@ Italian production , La battaglia dei tre tamburi di fuoco . In 1991 , Cardinale featured alongside Richard Berry and Omar Sharif in Henri Verneuil 's Mayrig ( meaning " mother " ) , a film about the struggles of an Armenian family that emigrates to Marseilles in France from Turkey after the Armenian Genocide of 1915 . Such was the success of the film that Verneuil made a sequel the following year , 588 , rue Paradis , also featuring the cast . Cardinale was praised by critics for her role as the mother ; the Armenian General Benevolent Union of America noted the " flawless performance of these intrepid actors , especially of Claudia Cardinale " . In 1993 , Cardinale won the Leone d 'oro alla carriera award at the Venice Film Festival , in which she was honoured along with Roman Polanski , Robert De Niro , and Steven Spielberg . Cardinale agreed to reunite with Blake Edwards , Herbert Lom and Burt Kwouk to celebrate the 30th anniversary of The Pink Panther by making Son of the Pink Panther . It was Edward 's last film , but was a critical and commercial failure , with critics despairing at the " painfully unfunny script " and the performance of Roberto Benigni as Clouseau , which earned him the Razzie Award for Worst New Star . As of July 2015 it has a rating of just 6 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 34 reviews . In 1994 , Cardinale had a role in Charlotte Dubreuil 's Elles ne pensent qu 'à ça ... , and the following year appeared in the French TV serial 10 @-@ 07 : L 'affaire Zeus .
In 1997 , Cardinale featured in the British @-@ Italian television drama miniseries Nostromo , directed by Alastair Reid and produced by Fernando Ghia of Pixit Productions , a co @-@ production with Radiotelevisione Italiana , Televisión Española , and WGBH Boston . It is described as " an adaptation of Joseph Conrad 's epic story Nostromo of political upheaval , greed and romance in turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ 20th @-@ century South America . " Cardinale and the cast were nominated for an ALMA Award for Outstanding Latino / a Cast in a Made @-@ for @-@ Television Movie or Mini @-@ Series . Later in 1997 , Cardinale appeared in the films Sous les pieds des femmes and her husband 's Stupor Mundi , in which she portrayed Constance of Aragon . In 1998 , Cardinale portrayed the mother of Lola Naymark in the French picture Riches , belles , etc . , a wealthy baroness who leaves her hotel to her daughter to care for during her absence . The following year , Cardinale played the peasant mother of two children who are members of Carmine Crocco 's ( Enrico Lo Verso 's ) army during the Garibaldi era , in her husband 's historical film Li chiamarono ... briganti ! . Poorly received , the film was boycotted , and the producers have since refused to assign the broadcasting rights .
= = = 2000 – present = = =
In 2000 , Cardinale embarked on her stage career , starring in Maurizio Scaparro 's stage production of La Venexiana , adapted by René de Ceccatty , at the Théâtre du Rond @-@ Point in Paris . She also appeared in her husband 's television film , Élisabeth - Ils sont tous nos enfants . Two years later , Cardinale went on a theatrical tour of Italy , performing in Luigi Pirandello 's Come tu mi vuoi , which Squitieri directed . She appeared as what Roger Ebert described as a " faded countess " opposite Jeremy Irons in Claude Lelouch 's thriller film And Now ... Ladies and Gentlemen , portraying a character who spends her time in Fez , Morocco with handsome gigolos . The film was screened out of competition at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival . And Now ... Ladies and Gentlemen received mixed reviews ; A. O. Scott of The New York Times dismissed it as " sublimely silly " , but praised the " impeccable CinemaScope compositions " and the " lush , suave score " by Michel Legrand .
In 2005 , Cardinale appeared in a Philippe Adrien stage production of Tennessee Williams 's Sweet Bird of Youth , and in the 2006 / 2007 season also featured in another Williams play , The Glass Menagerie , directed by Andrea Liberovici , in which she played the character of Amanda . In 2007 , Cardinale appeared in the Aline Issermann comedy film Cherche fiancé tous frais payés , opposite Alexandra Lamy and Bruno Salomone , in a role which Patrick Besson described as " atrocious " . After a role in the TV movie Hold @-@ up à l 'italienne ( 2008 ) , the following year Cardinale starred in the critically acclaimed The String , playing a Tunisian mother who has a tempestuous relationship with her French @-@ educated gay son . Michael D. Klemm of cinemaqueer.com reflected on how the film broke many of the taboos with interracial sexuality and homosexuality . He praised Cardinale 's " terrific " acting and portrayal of the " overbearing " mother , likening one scene , where she " brings home a nice girl for Malik ( Antonin Stahly ) to meet " , to Harold and Maude ( 1971 ) . In 2010 , Cardinale received the Golden Orange Best Actress Award at the 47th Antalya " Golden Orange " International Film Festival for her performance as an elderly Italian woman who takes in a young Turkish exchange student in Signora Enrica . The Turkish @-@ Italian co @-@ production was shot in location in Istanbul and Rimini .
In 2012 , Cardinale featured opposite Jeanne Moreau and Michael Lonsdale in the final feature film to be directed by Portuguese director Manoel de Oliveira , Gebo and the Shadow . Critically acclaimed , it has a rare 100 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes , and was shown at the 69th Venice International Film Festival . The Hollywood Reporter described it as the " ensemble of superb older performers who comprise the remainder of the dramatis personae " . In 2013 , Cardinale starred alongside supporting actresses Patricia Black and Chloé Cunha in Nadia Szold 's Joy de V. , and had a role in Ernst Gossner 's war drama The Silent Mountain , a love story set in the Dolomite Mountains at the outbreak of World War I between Italy and Austria @-@ Hungary in 1915 . Gossner described her as " a terrific spirit on the set " , and noted that Cardinale told the production team " legendary stories " about Marcello Mastroianni . In 2014 , Cardinale portrayed a " sympathetic Italian chaperone " viscountess in the British period drama film Effie Gray , which was penned by Emma Thompson and featured Dakota Fanning in the lead role . While promoting Effie Gray , in an interview Cardinale said : " I still continue to work , it 's 142 movies now . Usually when you are old you don 't work any more , but I still work , which is good .... I 've been very lucky because I 've had many fantastic directors with me , Fellini , Visconti , Blake Edwards , lots and lots ... " .
= = Personal life = =
Claudia Cardinale met Italian film producer Franco Cristaldi in 1958 . She married him in Atlanta in 1966 but they divorced in 1975 . The couple had become increasingly detached and he wanted to remarry without any ties . Although Cardinale did not believe the Atlanta marriage had any status in Italy , she consented to his request . As a result , Cristaldi married Zeudi Araya and had no further contractual relationships with Cardinale .
Cardinale has lived with Pasquale Squitieri , an Italian film director , since 1975 . She has two children : Patrick , who was born illegitimately when she was 19 and later adopted by Cristaldi , and Claudia , whom she had with Squitieri . She is fluent in Sicilian , Arabic , French , Italian , English , and Spanish . Her niece Francesca is also an actress .
Cardinale is a political liberal who has supported feminist causes over the years . She has frequently stated her pride in her Tunisian background and has great roots in Arabic culture – as evidenced by her book Ma Tunisie and her appearance as herself in the Tunisian film Un été à La Goulette ( " A Summer in La Goulette " ) . She has been a UNESCO goodwill ambassador for the Defense of Women 's Rights since March 2000 , and was a goodwill ambassador for the UNESCO World Water Day for 2006 .
Cardinale published an autobiography , with Anne Mori , Io Claudia , Tu Claudia in 1995 . She has been a regular attendee of the Academy Awards . Her awards have included an honorary Golden Lion at the 1993 Venice Film Festival , and an honorary Golden Bear at the 2002 Berlin Film Festival . The Los Angeles Times Magazine , in a February 2011 online feature , named Cardinale among the 50 most beautiful women in film history . Cardinale said of her acting , " I never felt scandal and confession were necessary to be an actress . I 've never revealed my self or even my body in films . Mystery is very important . " In a 2014 interview , she revealed her secret of success : " If you want to practise this craft , you have to have inner strength . Otherwise , you ’ ll lose your idea of who you are . Every film I make entails becoming a different woman . And in front of a camera , no less ! But when I ’ m finished , I ’ m me again . "
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= Typhoon Angela ( 1989 ) =
Super Typhoon Angela , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Rubing , was an intense tropical cyclone that formed in late September 1989 . The storm developed from a tropical disturbance in the monsoon trough and moved generally westward throughout its duration . The storm ultimately peaked in intensity as a super typhoon and struck northern Luzon in the Philippines . After weakening and traversing the South China Sea , Angela bypassed Hainan to the south and struck Vietnam before dissipating . The storm caused severe damage and 119 fatalities in the Philippines . Thousands of houses were damaged , and hundreds of thousands of residents were impacted by the typhoon . Monetary damage is placed at $ 8 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Angela trace back to a tropical disturbance in the monsoon trough that became very active after a lull in convection . The disturbance developed over the western Caroline Islands , and persisted for two days until it was noted in a Significant Tropical Weather Advisory issued by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . It rapidly matured , and prompted a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert shortly thereafter . Enhanced upper @-@ level outflow assisted the storm 's intensification . At 0600 UTC on September 28 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) recognized the storm as a tropical depression . The JTWC issued their first advisory on the depression , designated 34W , at 0600 UTC on September 29 . However , at the same time , the JMA upgraded it to a tropical storm .
At 1800 UTC on September 29 , the JTWC classified the depression as Tropical Storm Angela . The system initially tracking northwestward , Angela turned westward along the southern periphery of a subtropical ridge to the north . The tropical storm began to rapidly intensify , and the JMA upgraded it to a severe tropical storm at 1800 UTC on September 30 , while the JTWC estimated that it had attained typhoon intensity . The JMA then upgraded Angela to a typhoon shortly thereafter , and assessed it as having reached peak intensity on October 2 , with 10 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 925 millibars . Continuing westward , the typhoon attained super typhoon status four days later , and the JWTC reported that Angela peaked in strength on October 5 . Between October 5 and October 6 , Angela crossed the northern coast of Luzon in the Philippines .
The storm weakened after interacting with land , and the JTWC downgraded it to a typhoon on October 6 as it emerged into the South China Sea . An area of high pressure built over China , pushing Angela towards the southwest . Wind shear over the area weakened somewhat , and the typhoon re @-@ intensified . However , as it passed south of Hainan , the cyclone again weakened due to the interaction with land . At 0600 UTC on October 10 , Angela struck the coast of Vietnam and moved ashore . The JTWC issued their final advisory on the system at 1200 UTC , at which time the JMA downgraded it to a severe tropical storm , to a tropical storm six hours later , and to a tropical depression early on October 11 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On October 6 , Angela prompted the issuance of the Stand By Signal No. 1 in Hong Kong . It was replaced by a Strong Wind Signal No. 3 the next day , and after the typhoon 's closest approach to the region on October 8 , a Strong Monsoon Signal was hoisted . One @-@ hour sustained winds reached 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , out of the east , at Waglan Island . Gusts at Tate 's Cairn peaked at 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) from the north @-@ northeast .
Angela caused severe damage in the Philippines . It is estimated that 119 people perished , and 192 more were injured . Additionally , 28 remained missing following the storm . In total , 219 @,@ 178 people , or 39 @,@ 095 families , were affected by the cyclone . About 33 @,@ 309 homes sustained some degree of damage . The typhoon 's intense winds and heavy rainfall triggered flooding and damaged crops . The hardest @-@ hit areas were in the Cagayan province . Overall , the storm left approximately $ 8 million ( 1989 USD ) in damage across the region . The same area was impacted by Typhoon Sarah in September . Angela forced thousands of residents to seek shelter in evacuation centers .
The JTWC issued 46 warnings on the storm over the course of 12 days , the longest of any storm during the season . Angela was among the five storms to attain super typhoon status in 1989 , and was deemed the most severe typhoon of the year , at the time , in the Philippines .
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= The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay =
The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay is a first @-@ person action and stealth video game developed by Starbreeze Studios and published by Vivendi Games . Released for the Xbox and Windows in 2004 , the game is a tie @-@ in prequel to the futuristic science fiction film The Chronicles of Riddick . Actor Vin Diesel — who was involved in the game 's development — reprises his role as that film 's protagonist , Richard B. Riddick .
The game follows Riddick , the anti @-@ hero of the two films Pitch Black and The Chronicles of Riddick , as he attempts to escape from a maximum @-@ security prison called Butcher Bay . Escape from Butcher Bay 's designers focused on exploring Riddick 's character in a prison break setting to differentiate the game from the film . The game 's influences include the film Escape from Alcatraz , and video games such as Half @-@ Life and Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell .
Escape from Butcher Bay was praised by critics , who lauded its graphics and its implementation of stealth , action and adventure elements . However , they commonly lamented its brevity and lack of multiplayer components . The game went on to win several accolades , including the Golden Joystick Award for Unsung Hero Game of the Year and the Spike Video Game Award for Best Game Based on a Movie . An enhanced remake of the game , included in The Chronicles of Riddick : Assault on Dark Athena , was released in 2009 .
= = Gameplay = =
In Escape from Butcher Bay , the player takes the role of Richard B. Riddick and attempts to break out of Butcher Bay prison . The game incorporates elements from video game genres such as first @-@ person shooter , adventure and stealth , and is played primarily from a first @-@ person perspective , though the camera switches to a third @-@ person perspective during certain scenes . Unlike many first @-@ person shooters , the game contains no head @-@ up display ; on @-@ screen cues are limited to flashes when a new weapon is selected , and small , white boxes that display the player character 's health when damage is taken . Health can be replenished in designated areas throughout the game . By finding cigarette packs hidden in levels , the player can unlock concept art and video files .
The player may interact with and receive quests from the prison 's residents , and earns information , tools and other rewards by completing quests . Violent conflict often occurs between the player , inmates and prison guards . The player attacks with Riddick 's bare hands , or with improvised weapons such as shivs and clubs . Combos are created by stringing together punches . A DNA @-@ scanning security system initially prevents Riddick from using firearms , but a limited arsenal later becomes available .
A " stealth mode " is activated when the player character crouches , allowing the player to move silently and tinting the edges of the screen blue when the player is hidden . While in stealth mode , the player can drag bodies out of sight and hide from enemies . The mode grants attacks that quickly kill enemies ; the player may drop on enemies from above , or execute them from behind . During the game , Riddick acquires eyeshine , allowing him to see in the dark but temporarily blinding him if used in brightly lit areas .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Escape from Butcher Bay is set in the futuristic science fiction universe of the Chronicles of Riddick franchise , and is a prequel to the film Pitch Black . The game takes place inside Butcher Bay , a maximum @-@ security prison from which no prisoner has escaped . The facility — constructed on a barren planet — contains three increasingly secure holding areas , and a subterranean mining operation .
The game 's protagonist is Richard B. Riddick ( reprised by Vin Diesel ) , a murderer recently confined in Butcher Bay . Riddick is resourceful , and seeks to break out of the prison by any means necessary . His capturer is the bounty hunter William J. Johns ( Cole Hauser ) ; the two have had previous encounters . Butcher Bay 's warden is a man named Hoxie ( Dwight Schultz ) , while Abbott ( Xzibit ) is a prison guard disliked by the inmates . The inmate Pope Joe ( Willis Burks II ) is an insane old man , who lives in the sewer tunnels beneath the prison .
= = = Story = = =
The opening cinematic shows Riddick in hiding , having grown out his hair and beard , before the opening scene of the Chronicles of Riddick movie . He hunts an animal and after killing it , a disembodied voice starts talking to him asking him where he got his eyes . He states that he received them from a " slam preacher " and this causes him to remember his time at Butcher Bay . The game takes place in a flashback .
Another opening cinematic takes place in which Riddick is being transported for collection on the bounty . He and Johns have a brief conversation in which Riddick tells Johns that there is no way he is going to get the price he wants . Riddick wakes up as they land and stands out front of Butcher Bay waiting for the warden . He sneaks up behind Johns and breaks his neck and proceeds to escape . After getting his hands on a gun , he goes through the ventilation ducts and seemingly escapes into the desert . Everything fades to white as Riddick hears Johns saying " Rise and shine , Riddick . " It turns out this escape was simply a dream .
Riddick wakes up and Johns escorts him off the ship . Johns meets with Hoxie to negotiate his pay , while Abbott escorts Riddick to his cell in the " single @-@ max " security area . After making enemies with and killing a gang leader named Rust , Riddick familiarizes himself with the facility , and soon instigates a riot ; during the confusion , he escapes into the prison 's sewer system . Armed with a shotgun and a dying flashlight , Riddick discovers he is not alone in the sewers . Fighting through the sewers against mutant " dwellers " , Riddick eventually meets Pope Joe , for whom he retrieves a lost radio , which Joe calls a blessed voicebox . A woman named Shirah ( Kristin Lehman ) tells Riddick that he " has been blind too long " , and he gains his trademark " eyeshine " night vision . Afterwards , he accuses Pope Joe of tampering with his eyes ; Joe says that he merely treated Riddick 's injured arm . Riddick then continues his escape , while using the eyeshine to his advantage .
After emerging from a manhole in the showers of the guard living quarters , Riddick uses a guard uniform to blend in as he makes his way to the space port and his chance at escape . Realizing he requires a guard to get through the retinal scanner that locks the doors to the space port , Riddick decides to go after Abbott and take his eyes . He gains access to Abbott 's apartment by telling him there is a delivery for him . A fire fight ensues and after that , as Abbott bleeds out on the floor , Riddick moves in for the kill but is stopped by Johns .
Riddick is captured and transferred to the " double @-@ max " security area . Gaining the trust of the inmates by participating in fighting matches , Riddick eventually kills the champion of the fighting matches , a guard named Bam . This leads him to be taken to a room where no surveillance is seen and several guards await to kill Riddick . Abbott walks into the room , fully healed , holding a baseball bat . Shirah returns to him and tells him that the fury of all of his kind is within him , and he can release it if he chooses . A blast of energy called the ' Rage of Furya ' kills all the guards around him except Abbott , who hides and then panics and attacks Riddick . Riddick kills Abbott and proceeds to find another way to escape . Using a secret entrance to an elevator , he infiltrates a mining facility . He meets an inmate of great influence in the area named Jagger Valance ( Ron Perlman ) , who wishes to escape with him . He makes a bomb and plants it in a mining site with a massive gas leak . However , Riddick is discovered and caught by the guards . During his transfer to another section , the prison is disrupted by an outbreak of creatures called " Xeno " , due to the bomb Riddick planted , in order to create the confusion necessary for his escape , and Riddick attempts to escape with Valance . His plans are foiled again by Johns . After a fist fight , Riddick and Johns are both shot by Valance ( who only meant to hit Johns ) and Valance is killed by the guards . After meeting again with the warden , and telling him that he is just getting started , Riddick is placed in the " triple @-@ max " area , where inmates are kept in cryonic sleep . They are awakened daily for two minutes of exercise ; during this time , Riddick discovers a flaw in the system and escapes . He then hijacks a large robot and fights his way through Butcher Bay to reach Hoxie .
Tired of dealing with the prison officials , Johns helps Riddick to elude the guards . Riddick knocks Johns out and flies the ship into the warden 's office . The warden calls in two robot guards with cloaking abilities and Riddick defeats them . After Hoxie surrenders , Riddick receives the codes to Hoxie 's ship and Riddick and Johns escape disguised as a guard and prisoner . Two guards enter Hoxie 's room , where Hoxie is bound and covered in Riddick 's former attire . They mistake him for Riddick and kill him . Riddick and Johns take off in Hoxie 's ship , ending the game .
= = Development = =
Escape from Butcher Bay was developed by Swedish company Starbreeze Studios , and published by Vivendi Games and the Vin Diesel @-@ founded Tigon Studios . Universal Studios Consumer Products Group granted the The Chronicles of Riddick license to Vivendi Games ; both companies were owned by Vivendi Universal . The game was announced in March 2004 as an Xbox title . Tigon Studios ' Cos Lazouras said , " [ The game ] features an original storyline that provides insight into how Riddick evolved into such a complex character " .
In contrast to other film tie @-@ in games , which often closely follow the events of their source material , the development team of Escape from Butcher Bay focused on differentiating the game from The Chronicles of Riddick . They sought to explore Riddick 's character in a prison break setting , and took inspiration from films such as Escape from Alcatraz . Starbreeze was also inspired by video games such as GoldenEye 007 and the Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell series . The opening sequence , in which Riddick is escorted into Butcher Bay , is a tribute to Half @-@ Life , and the game 's hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat was inspired by Punch @-@ Out ! ! . Starbreeze focused solely on developing the game 's single @-@ player mode , and did not include multiplayer ; the company believed that such a mode would require a design team twice as large and another year of development .
Vin Diesel , the lead actor of The Chronicles of Riddick , provided his voice and likeness for Riddick . He and director David Twohy also contributed to the game 's plot and character design ; the game 's story was developed in conjunction with the film 's . Per the filmmakers ' instructions , the designers made the origin of Riddick 's " eyeshine " vague . Diesel offered guidance to the game 's lead writer during voice recording sessions ; this included dialogue rewrites to reduce Riddick 's lines , as Diesel believed the character spoke too often .
Starbreeze intended for Escape from Butcher Bay to feature more complex role @-@ playing game systems , but feedback from Diesel and game testers dissuaded them . Starbreeze senior producer Peter Wanat said , " We tried to limit the number of really hard or really intricate RPG elements , and that was a choice because we wanted the game to be playable . " Other removed features include an electric bullwhip for the guard Abbott , and a 25 @-@ minute final boss fight . A PlayStation 2 version that was in development was cancelled so the company could focus on the Xbox version .
The game uses normal mapping , which allows detailed textures to be drawn on models with lower polygon counts ; this increases visual fidelity , without sacrificing higher frame rates . It also featured dynamic lighting with per @-@ pixel stencil shadowing and self @-@ shadowing
Escape from Butcher Bay was completed in 18 months . Vin Diesel promoted the game and the accompanying movie at the May 2004 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) video game convention . The game was released in North America on June 1 , 2004 , shortly before The Chronicles of Riddick . North American pre @-@ orders of the game included a DVD of promotional content , such as a partial interactive walkthrough and footage from the film . The game 's soundtrack , composed by Gustaf Grefberg , was released by Vivendi as a free download on June 24 , 2004 .
Following rumors , Vivendi confirmed in July 2004 that a Windows port of Escape from Butcher Bay was in development , entitled " The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Director 's Cut " . The game features a higher display resolution , additional cigarette packs , and new scenes where Riddick steals mechanized riot armor . It includes developer commentary which details the game 's creation and design decisions . The game was released on December 8 in North America .
= = = Expanded remake = = =
In May 2007 , Vivendi announced that Escape From Butcher Bay was being remade by Starbreeze Studios for PC , Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . Entitled The Chronicles of Riddick : Assault on Dark Athena , the game was referred to by Vivendi as a " reinvention " of Escape from Butcher Bay ; it would include a multiplayer mode and new single @-@ player content . It was planned that Vivendi @-@ subsidiary Sierra Entertainment would publish the game in late 2007 .
In December 2007 , Activision and Vivendi Games merged to become Activision Blizzard ; the new company announced the dismissal of Assault on Dark Athena , Brütal Legend , Ghostbusters : The Video Game and others from its roster in July 2008 . The titles were put up for sale to other publishers . In September 2008 , Starbreeze Studios confirmed that the game was still in development , and that it was nearing completion . The following month , Atari reportedly paid a flat fee for the publishing rights to Assault on Dark Athena and Ghostbusters : The Video Game ; Atari later confirmed that it had picked up both titles . The company also stated that it had struck a deal with Universal Studios to develop more Chronicles of Riddick games . Assault on Dark Athena was released in April 2009 in North America , Europe , and Australia .
= = Reception = =
Escape From Butcher Bay received critical acclaim . Certain reviewers preferred the game over its film counterpart , and considered it an exception to the general mediocrity of film tie @-@ in games . The Xbox version of the game sold 159 @,@ 000 copies in August 2004 , and was among the best @-@ selling games on any platform during June 2004 ; it was later re @-@ released as a Platinum Hits title . Conversely , the PC version sold 32 @,@ 500 after six months on shelves .
Escape from Butcher Bay 's gameplay was compared to first @-@ person shooters like Far Cry and Half @-@ Life , and to stealth game series like Splinter Cell , Metal Gear , and Thief . Reviewers enjoyed the variety of gameplay elements : Game Informer 's Jeremy Zoss noted that " every aspect of play is expertly implemented " , and GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin believed that the game " effectively and innovatively combines excellent shooting , hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , stealth , and adventure elements " . While the game 's stealth mechanics were praised , certain critics received its first @-@ person shooter elements with less enthusiasm . Reviewers applauded the control scheme , such as the Xbox version 's analog stick @-@ based hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . The implementation of Riddick 's eyeshine ability was also generally praised , but Computer and Video Games believed that it was no different from night vision goggles in other first @-@ person shooters , and said that it " could 've been developed into so much more . "
The game 's visuals — particularly the Xbox version 's — were acclaimed , and compared to those of Doom 3 and Half @-@ Life 2 . GameZone 's Michael Lafferty said that the game 's graphics " [ take ] the genre to the next level " . The textures and lighting were cited as high points , particularly because of the gameplay role of shadows . Character models and facial animations were considered highly realistic ; much praise was given to those of Riddick . GameSpot appreciated the developers ' attention to graphical detail ; they noted that recent bullet @-@ holes glow red and smoke , but gradually cool and darken . Certain reviewers complained about graphical glitches , such as " seams " and " clipping " , and gave as an example the visibility of bullet tracers through walls . The portrayal of Butcher Bay was considered convincing , and 1UP 's Shawn Elliott compared it to the settings of the Alien franchise .
" You can almost smell the thick stink of Butcher Bay and its inhabitants from the grime on the walls , dirty clothes of the inmates , and environmental textures . This place oozes with style and creates sense of reality in which it 's easy to become immersed . "
The audio of Escape from Butcher Bay was generally well received , and critics praised its voice acting ; the performances of Vin Diesel and Cole Hauser were given special commendation . In regard to the music , FiringSquad 's Jakub Wojnarowicz stated , " It 's not good enough to sweep you away [ , ] but it 's also not bad enough to stick out like a sore thumb " . IGN said , " The music isn 't memorable , but it 's not bad " . The Sunday Herald Sun called the voice acting " Surprisingly good " . The game 's length was commonly criticized . Reviewers noted that it could be completed in eight to fifteen hours , and IGN said , " If you consider around 12 hours of gameplay short , then Riddick is just that . " Several reviewers were displeased by the game 's lack of multiplayer components ; Computer and Video Games referred to it as a " missed opportunity " . Game Informer said , " Since the main quest is short [ ... ] and there is no multiplayer , it ’ s not a ton of game for your money . "
Professor James Paul Gee , a researcher of video games , has used Escape from Butcher Bay in his studies . He discussed the relation of Garrett from Thief and the nameless soldier from Full Spectrum Warrior with the character of Riddick , saying that the games " allow players to take a projective stance to the ( virtual ) world , but a stance that is rooted in the knowledge , values , and ways of seeing and being in the world of an authentic professional , an ' expert ' . "
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Both versions of the game were given editor ’ s choice awards from IGN , GameSpot , and GameSpy . The PC version was IGN 's PC Game of the Month for December 2004 . IGN later ranked it 12th on its list of the 25 greatest Xbox games of all time . Game Informer placed Escape from Butcher Bay as the 8th best on their list of 25 greatest Xbox games of all time . Escape from Butcher Bay was nominated for GameSpot 's Game of the Year award for 2004 , but it lost to World of Warcraft . Computer and Video Games called the PC version the 98th best PC game of all time . Billboard 's Digital Entertainment Conference nominated Riddick as its Best Character in a Game and a Golden Joystick Award for " Unsung Hero Game of the Year " . GamesRadar placed Escape from Butcher Bay in their " Top 7 movie games that don 't suck " list , and said that " Escape from Butcher Bay was a triumph on almost every level . " In 2013 , IGN ranked Escape from Butcher Bay as the 27th greatest first @-@ person shooter of all time .
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= At Fillmore East =
At Fillmore East is the first live album by American rock band the Allman Brothers Band , and their third release overall . Produced by Tom Dowd , the album was released in July 1971 in the United States by Capricorn Records . As the title indicates , the recording took place at the New York City music venue Fillmore East , which was run by concert promoter Bill Graham . It was recorded over the course of three nights in March 1971 and features the band performing extended jam versions of songs such as " Whipping Post " and " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed . " When first commercially released , it was issued as a double LP with just seven songs comprising four vinyl sides .
At Fillmore East was the band 's artistic and commercial breakthrough , and has been considered by some critics to be one of the greatest live albums in rock music . It has also been ranked among the best overall albums by artists and continues to be a top seller in the band 's catalog , becoming their first album to go platinum . In 2004 , the album was selected for preservation in the Library of Congress , deemed to be " culturally , historically , or aesthetically important " by the National Recording Registry .
= = Background = =
Shortly after completing recording of their second album , Idlewild South ( 1970 ) , band leader Duane Allman was contacted by guitarist Eric Clapton to contribute to his new project , Derek and the Dominos . Allman was a huge fan of his work with Cream , and Clapton had been blown away by Allman 's session work on Wilson Pickett 's " Hey Jude " some years prior . They met after a show one night in Miami and jammed together until the next afternoon , with the two guitarists regarding one another as " instant soulmates . " Clapton invited Duane to join Derek and the Dominos , and according to band biographer Alan Paul he considered it ; in the end , he declined and rejoined the Allman Brothers Band , returning after missing a string of several shows . The sessions were collected on Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs , issued that November .
In the interim , Idlewild South had yet to achieve strong commercial success , but the band 's popularity and reputation began to increase due to their live performances . The band played continuously in 1970 , performing over 300 dates on the road traveling in a Ford Econoline van and later , a Winnebago , nicknamed the Wind Bag . During this time , the group began struggling with drug addictions . All in the group , with the exception of the brothers , were struggling also to make a living ( Gregg received more money from royalty payments and Duane more from session work ) . In one incident , tour manager Twiggs Lyndon stabbed and killed a promoter for not paying the band ; he later claimed temporary insanity . Their fortunes began to change over the course of 1971 , where the band 's average earnings doubled . Duane eventually died in the fall of 1971 due to injuries from a motorcycle accident .
The Allman Brothers Band had first played Fillmore East in December 1969 , opening for Blood , Sweat & Tears for three nights . Promoter Bill Graham enjoyed the band and promised to have them back soon . In January 1970 , the band opened for Buddy Guy and B.B. King at San Francisco 's Fillmore West , and one month later at Fillmore East supporting the Grateful Dead . According to biographer Alan Paul , " these shows were crucial in establishing the band and exposing them to a wider , sympathetic audience on both coasts . " Drummer Butch Trucks considered their performances at the Fillmore East to be the launching pad for their success . In 1970 , Duane Allman told disc jockey Ed Shane , " You know , we get kind of frustrated doing the [ studio ] records , and I think , consequently , our next album will be ... a live recording , to get some of that natural fire on it . " " We were not intentionally trying to buck the system , but keeping each song down to 3 : 14 just didn 't work for us , " remembered vocalist Gregg Allman . " And we realized that the audience was a big part of what we did , which couldn 't be duplicated in a studio . A lightbulb finally went off ; we needed to make a live album . "
= = Recording and production = =
At Fillmore East was recorded over two nights — March 12 and 13 , 1971 — for which the band was paid $ 1250 each show . The shows were typical performances for the band , and regarded as slightly above average by drummer Jai Johanny Johanson . Ads for the shows read : " Bill Graham Presents in New York — Johnny Winter And , Elvin Bishop Group , Extra Added Attraction : Allman Brothers . " While Winter was billed as headliner , by the third night the Allman Brothers were closing the show .
Tom Dowd produced At Fillmore East ; he had previously worked on their second studio album , Idlewild South . He had recently returned from Africa from working on Soul to Soul , and stayed in New York several days to oversee the live recording . " It was a good truck , with a 16 @-@ track machine and a great , tough @-@ as @-@ nails staff who took care of business , " recalled Dowd . He gave the staff suggestions and noted the band had two lead guitarists and two drummers , " which was unusual , and it took some foresight to properly capture the dynamics . " Things went smoothly until the band unexpectedly brought out saxophonist Rudolph " Juicy " Carter , an unknown horn player , and Thom Doucette on harmonica . " I was just hoping we could isolate them , so we could wipe them and use the songs , but they started playing and the horns were leaking all over everything , rendering the songs unusable , " said Dowd . He rushed to Duane during the break to tell him to cut the horn players ; while Duane loved the players , he put up no fight with Dowd . The final show was delayed because of a bomb scare , and did not end until 6 am .
Each night following the shows , the musicians and Dowd would " grab some beers and sandwiches " and head to Manhattan 's Atlantic Studios to go over the performances . Set lists for following shows were crafted by listening to the recordings and going over what they could keep and what they would need to capture once more . " We wanted to give ourselves plenty of times to do it because we didn 't want to go back and overdub anything , because then it wouldn 't have been a real live album , " said Gregg Allman , and in the end , the band only edited out Doucette 's harmonica when it didn 't fit . " That was our pinnacle , " said Dickey Betts later . " The Fillmore days are definitely the most cherished memories that I have . If you asked everybody in the band , they would probably say that . "
On June 27 , the Fillmore East closed , and the band were invited to play a final , invitation @-@ only concert , along with Edgar Winter , the Beach Boys and Country Joe McDonald . The Beach Boys initially refused to perform unless they headlined the event , but Graham refused , telling them that the Allman Brothers would be closing the show , and they were free to leave if they disagreed . The Allman Brothers ' performance was used for additional tracks when an expanded version of At Fillmore East , The Fillmore Concerts , was reissued on CD .
= = Composition = =
At Fillmore East showcases the band 's eclectic mixture of blues , Rock , country , and jazz . " Fusion is a term that came later , but if you wanted to look at a fusion album , it would be Fillmore East . Here was a rock ' n ' roll band playing blues in the jazz vernacular . And they tore the place up , " said Dowd .
Announcer Michael Ahern opens At Fillmore East with a simple introduction : " Okay , the Allman Brothers Band . " Duane Allman biographer Randy Poe describes it as " the only low @-@ key moment over the course of the [ show ] . " The cover of Blind Willie McTell 's " Statesboro Blues " which opens the set showcases Duane Allman 's slide guitar work in open E tuning . " Statesboro Blues " bears close resemblance to Taj Mahal 's 1968 rendition , which had inspired Duane to pick up slide guitar playing . " Done Somebody Wrong " follows , and is introduced by Duane as " an old Elmore James song ... This is an old true story ... " Thom Doucette takes a solo on blues harp , and by the end of the song , the band breaks out of the shuffle and " builds up to a dual @-@ lead guitar , triplet @-@ based crescendo . "
" Stormy Monday " echoes the band 's blues roots , and many guitar parts come from the version cut by Bobby " Blue " Bland in the early 1960s . Allman and Betts trade solos , as does Gregg Allman on the organ as the tempo shifts into a " swinging " beat . " You Don 't Love Me " kicks off the first of the jazz @-@ inspired jams and features a solo from Duane Allman in which the entire group stops , leaving it just him and his guitar . The song 's conclusion also contains elements of " Joy to the World . " " Hot ' Lanta " is an instrumental , which has elements in common with jazz rock and progressive rock , and is a showcase for Berry Oakley 's bass @-@ playing . " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " , with its harmonized melody , Latin feel , and burning drive invited comparisons with jazz saxophonist John Coltrane ( especially Duane 's solo @-@ ending pull @-@ offs , a direct nod to the musician ) . The performance begins with a " long , laconic intro " by Betts employing volume swells , reminiscent of the " dreamy trumpet " used to open songs on Miles Davis ' Kind of Blue ( 1959 ) .
" Whipping Post " ( opening in 11 / 4 time , unusual territory for a rock band ) by this point had become one of the longest jams in the band 's set ; the original album version runs five minutes , while the At Fillmore East version exceeds 23 . Aside from the opening bassline and lyrics , the two versions are completely unalike . Again , Betts and Allman trade long guitar solos , with one of Betts ' solos quoting what would later become the main theme for the song " Les Brers in A Minor , " as featured on the band 's 1972 album Eat a Peach . The song closes with " long , sustained notes " from Allman opposite Trucks ' kettledrum . Applause concludes the album and the song fades out . During the fadeout , Trucks begins playing the tympani intro to " Mountain Jam " which would not be released in its entirety until its inclusion on Eat a Peach .
= = Artwork = =
The band devised the cover idea for At Fillmore East rather than leaving it in the hands of Atlantic executives ( Allman was particularly disgusted with the artwork for Sam & Dave 's Hold On , I 'm Comin ' album ) . Initially , the album cover was to be shots of the band taken in front of the Fillmore East with their names on the marquee above them , but no one was satisfied with the results . The band 's main purpose for the cover was that it be as " meat and potatoes " as the band 's ethos and performing , and someone suggested the band make it a photograph of the band in an alley waiting with their gear to go onstage .
The image was shot by photographer Jim Marshall one morning in the band 's home of Macon , Georgia . The group were not very happy about being woken up early to shoot ( " we figured it didn 't make a damn bit of difference what the cover was or what time we took it , " said guitarist Dickey Betts ) . Normally the band hated being photographed ; the cover of later retrospective release The Fillmore Concerts shows them displaying terminal boredom . However , during the session , Duane spotted a dealer friend , raced over and grabbed a bag of contraband , then returned to his seat , discreetly clutching the stash in his lap . This made the whole band laugh , resulting in a memorable image . Marshall stenciled the album title on one of the road cases , which were stacked in front of the wall .
The back cover shows their road crew gathered in the same spot with 16 oz cans of Pabst Blue Ribbon beer provided by the photographer as a reward to the roadies for lugging out and stacking the band 's heavy equipment for the shoot . Among the crew on the back cover are Joseph " Red Dog " Campbell , Kim Payne , Mike Callahan , Joe Dan Petty and Willie Perkins ( the last two the newest additions to the crew at the time ) . The idea to have the crew on the back cover was Duane Allman 's idea , as all involved viewed them the " unsung heroes " in the operation . A photo of Lyndon , then in jail awaiting his trial , was superimposed to the wall behind the crew .
= = Release and critical reception = =
At Fillmore East was released in July 1971 by Capricorn Records as a double album , but reduced to the cost of a single LP . Atlantic and Atco initially rejected the idea of issuing a double album , with Jerry Wexler feeling it " ridiculous to preserve all these jams . " Manager Phil Walden explained to executives that the band were less of a studio band and that live performances were most important to them . In all , the album featured seven songs spread over four vinyl sides . The album received strong initial sales . While previous albums by the band had taken months to hit the charts ( often near the bottom of the top 200 ) , the record started to climb the charts after a matter of days . At Fillmore East peaked at number thirteen on Billboard 's Top Pop Albums chart , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America that October . The album was later certified platinum on August 25 , 1992 .
In a contemporary review , George Kimball of Rolling Stone magazine said that " The Allman Brothers had many fine moments at the Fillmores , and this live double album ( recorded March 12th and 13th of this year ) must surely epitomize all of them . " Kimball cited the band as " the best damn rock and roll band this country has produced in the past five years " and said of comparisons to the Grateful Dead at the time , " The range of their material and the more tenuous fact that they also use two drummers have led to what I suppose are inevitable comparisons to the Dead in its better days . " In a less enthusiastic review for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau gave At Fillmore East a " B – " grade and said the songs " sure do boogie " , but ultimately found it musically aimless : " even if Duane Allman plus Dickey Betts does equal Jerry Garcia , the Dead know roads are for getting somewhere . That is , Garcia ( not to bring in John Coltrane ) always takes you someplace unexpected on a long solo . I guess the appeal here is the inevitability of it all . "
In a retrospective review , AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album five out of five stars and stated , " [ it ] remains the pinnacle of the Allmans and Southern rock at its most elastic , bluesy , and jazzy " . Mark Kemp of Rolling Stone gave it five stars in a 2002 review and commented that " these shows [ ... ] remain the finest live rock performance ever committed to vinyl " , and the album " captures America 's best blues @-@ rock band at its peak " .
At Fillmore East was one of 50 recordings chosen in 2004 by the Library of Congress to be added to the National Recording Registry . Rolling Stone included at number 49 in their 2003 list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , describing it as " rock 's greatest live double LP . " The album was also included in the books 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die ( 2005 ) and 1 @,@ 000 Recordings To Hear Before You Die ( 2008 ) . In the latter , author Tom Moon noted that , nearly forty years after its release , " [ the album ] remains one of the best live albums in rock history . Ornery and loud , it 's perfect driving music for the road that goes on forever . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Expanded editions = =
Over the years several expanded editions of At Fillmore East have been released .
= = = The Fillmore Concerts = = =
On October 10 , 1992 , The Fillmore Concerts , an expanded version of At Fillmore East , was released as a two @-@ disc CD . It includes all the songs from the original album , plus the live songs from Eat a Peach — " One Way Out " , " Trouble No More " , and " Mountain Jam " — which were recorded at the same concerts , and two additional tracks , " Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " and " Drunken Hearted Boy " . All the music was remixed from the concert recordings , and a few of the songs are alternate takes , so the same songs sound somewhat different than on the original album .
Disc one
" Statesboro Blues " ( Willie McTell ) ( March 13 First show ) – 4 : 15
" Trouble No More " ( McKinley Morganfield aka Muddy Waters ) ( March 12 second show ) – 3 : 46
" Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " ( Gregg Allman ) ( March 13 first show ) – 3 : 20
" In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " ( Dickey Betts ) ( March 13 first show ) – 12 : 59
" One Way Out " ( Elmore James , Marshall Sehorn , Sonny Boy Williamson ) ( June 27 ) – 4 : 55
" Done Somebody Wrong " ( Elmore James , Clarence Lewis , Bobby Robinson ) ( March 12 second show ) – 4 : 11
" Stormy Monday " ( T @-@ Bone Walker ) ( March 13 second show ) – 10 : 19
" You Don 't Love Me " ( Willie Cobbs ) ( March 13 first show / March 12 second show ) – 19 : 24
Disc two
" Hot ' Lanta " ( Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johanny Johanson ) ( March 12 second show ) – 5 : 11
" Whipping Post " ( Gregg Allman ) ( March 13 second show ) – 22 : 37
" Mountain Jam " ( Donovan Leitch , Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johnny Johanson ) ( March 13 second show ) – 33 : 41
" Drunken Hearted Boy " ( with Elvin Bishop ) ( Elvin Bishop ) ( March 13 second show ) – 7 : 33
= = = At Fillmore East Deluxe Edition = = =
The Deluxe Edition was released as a two @-@ disc CD on September 23 , 2003 . It contains the same songs , in a slightly different order , as The Fillmore Concerts , and one additional track , " Midnight Rider " . The Deluxe Edition is based on the master recordings for At Fillmore East and Eat a Peach , and so it sounds more similar to those albums than The Fillmore Concerts does .
Disc one
" Statesboro Blues " ( Blind Willie McTell ) – 4 : 17
" Trouble No More " ( McKinley Morganfield aka Muddy Waters ) – 3 : 43
" Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " ( Gregg Allman ) – 3 : 27
" Done Somebody Wrong " ( Elmore James , Clarence Lewis , Bobby Robinson ) – 4 : 33
" Stormy Monday " ( T @-@ Bone Walker ) – 8 : 48
" One Way Out " ( Elmore James , Marshall Sehorn , Sonny Boy Williamson II ) ( June 27 ) – 4 : 56
" In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " ( Dickey Betts ) – 13 : 04
" You Don 't Love Me " ( Willie Cobbs ) – 19 : 24
" Midnight Rider " ( Gregg Allman , Robert Payne ) ( June 27 ) – 2 : 55
Disc two
" Hot ' Lanta " ( Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johanny Johanson ) – 5 : 20
" Whipping Post " ( Gregg Allman ) – 22 : 53
" Mountain Jam " ( Donovan Leitch , Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johnny Johnson ) - 33 : 41
" Drunken Hearted Boy " ( with Elvin Bishop ) ( Elvin Bishop ) - 6 : 54
= = = The 1971 Fillmore East Recordings = = =
The 1971 Fillmore East Recordings was released on July 29 , 2014 . This six @-@ CD boxed set contains the four complete concerts — the early and late shows from March 12 and March 13 , 1971 — from which the songs included on At Fillmore East were selected , plus the Allman Brothers ' performance at the Fillmore East closing show on June 27 , 1971 . A three Blu @-@ ray edition was also released which contains a multi @-@ channel mix .
Disc one
March 12 , 1971 - first show
" Statesboro Blues " ( Blind Willie McTell ) – 4 : 08 *
" Trouble No More " ( McKinley Morganfield aka Muddy Waters ) – 3 : 48 *
" Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " ( Gregg Allman ) – 3 : 19 *
" Done Somebody Wrong " ( Elmore James , Clarence Lewis , Bobby Robinson ) – 4 : 01 *
" In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " ( Dickey Betts ) – 17 : 05 *
" You Don 't Love Me " ( Willie Cobbs ) - 14 : 58 *
Disc two
March 12 , 1971 – second show
" Statesboro Blues " ( Blind Willie McTell ) – 4 : 12 *
" Trouble No More " ( McKinley Morganfield aka Muddy Waters ) – 3 : 50
" Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " ( Gregg Allman ) – 3 : 28 *
" Done Somebody Wrong " ( Elmore James , Clarence Lewis , Bobby Robinson ) – 4 : 30
" In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " ( Dickey Betts ) – 19 : 50 *
" You Don 't Love Me " ( Willie Cobbs ) – 19 : 10
" Whipping Post " ( Gregg Allman ) – 20 : 00 *
" Hot ' Lanta " ( Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johanny Johanson ) – 5 : 09
Disc three
March 13 , 1971 – first show
" Statesboro Blues " ( Blind Willie McTell ) – 4 : 20
" Trouble No More " ( McKinley Morganfield aka Muddy Waters ) – 3 : 48
" Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " ( Gregg Allman ) – 3 : 47
" Done Somebody Wrong " ( Elmore James , Clarence Lewis , Bobby Robinson ) – 3 : 55 *
" In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " ( Dickey Betts ) – 13 : 00
" You Don 't Love Me " ( Willie Cobbs ) – 19 : 10
" Whipping Post " ( Gregg Allman ) – 17 : 15 *
Disc four
March 13 , 1971 – second show - part 1
" Statesboro Blues " ( Blind Willie McTell ) – 4 : 19 *
" One Way Out " ( Elmore James , Marshall Sehorn , Sonny Boy Williamson II ) – 4 : 30 *
" Stormy Monday " ( T @-@ Bone Walker ) – 10 : 14
" Hot ' Lanta " ( Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johnny Johanson ) – 5 : 00
" Whipping Post " ( Gregg Allman ) – 22 : 00
Disc five
March 13 , 1971 – second show - part 2
" Mountain Jam " ( Donovan Leitch , Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johnny Johanson ) – 33 : 00
" Drunken Hearted Boy " ( with Elvin Bishop ) ( Elvin Bishop ) – 7 : 30
Disc six
June 27 , 1971 – Fillmore East closing show
Introduction by Bill Graham * / " Statesboro Blues " ( Blind Willie McTell ) – 5 : 52
" Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " ( Gregg Allman ) – 3 : 34
" Done Somebody Wrong " ( Elmore James , Clarence Lewis , Bobby Robinson ) – 3 : 37
" One Way Out " ( Elmore James , Marshall Sehorn , Sonny Boy Williamson II ) – 5 : 01
" In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " ( Dickey Betts ) – 12 : 44
" Midnight Rider " ( Gregg Allman , Robert Payne ) – 3 : 01
" Hot ' Lanta " ( Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johnny Johanson ) – 5 : 41
" Whipping Post " ( Gregg Allman ) – 19 : 17
" You Don 't Love Me " ( Willie Cobbs ) – 17 : 56
* Previously unreleased track
= = Other Fillmore East recordings = =
Eat a Peach – contains " Trouble No More " from March 13 , 1971 ( Show 1 ) and " Mountain Jam " from March 13 , 1971 ( Show 2 ) and " One Way Out " from June 27 , 1971
Duane Allman : An Anthology contains " Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " from March 13 , 1971 ( Show 1 )
Duane Allman Anthology , Vol . 2 contains " Midnight Rider " from June 27 , 1971
Dreams contains " Drunken Hearted Boy " from March 13 , 1971 ( Show 2 )
Eat a Peach , Deluxe Edition – second CD ( the final Fillmore East concert ) also contains " Statesboro Blues " , " Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " , " Done Somebody Wrong " , " One Way Out " , " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " , " Midnight Rider " , " Hot ' Lanta " , " Whipping Post " , and " You Don 't Love Me " from June 27 , 1971
The Road Goes On Forever contains " Statesboro Blues " from March 12 , 1971 ( Disc 1 ) .
= = Credits = =
The Allman Brothers Band
Duane Allman – lead guitar , slide guitar
Gregg Allman – organ , piano , vocals
Dickey Betts – lead guitar
Berry Oakley – bass guitar
Jai Johanny Johanson – drums , congas , timbales
Butch Trucks – drums , tympani
Guest musicians
Thom Doucette – Harmonica on " Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " , " Done Somebody Wrong " , " Stormy Monday " and " You Don 't Love Me "
Jim Santi – Tambourine
Guest musicians ( The Fillmore Concerts and The 1971 Fillmore East Recordings )
Bobby Caldwell – Percussion on " Drunken Hearted Boy " and on March 12 shows starting with " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed "
Rudolph ( Juicy ) Carter – Soprano saxophone on ( only ) both March 12 shows , starting with " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed "
Elvin Bishop – Vocals on " Drunken Hearted Boy "
Steve Miller – Piano on " Drunken Hearted Boy "
Production ( At Fillmore East )
Tom Dowd – Producer , Liner Notes
Bruce Malamut – Assistant Producer
Aaron Baron – Engineer
Larry Dahlstrom – Assistant Engineer
Dennis M. Drake – Mastering
Jim Marshall – Photography
Production ( The Fillmore Concerts )
Tom Dowd – Producer
Jay Mark – Mixer
Dan Kincaid – Digital Mastering
Bill Levenson – Executive Producer
Kirk West – Associate Producer
Terri Tierney – Project Coordination
Richard Bauer – Art Direction
Jim Marshall – Graphic Concept
Jimmy Guterman – Liner Notes
John Perkins – Best Boy
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= Hurricane Flora =
Hurricane Flora is among the deadliest Atlantic hurricanes in recorded history , with a death total of over 7 @,@ 000 . The seventh tropical storm and sixth hurricane of the 1963 Atlantic hurricane season , Flora developed from a disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone on September 26 while located 755 miles ( 1 @,@ 215 km ) southwest of the Cape Verde islands . After remaining a weak depression for several days , it rapidly organized on September 29 to attain tropical storm status . Flora continued to quickly strengthen to reach Category 3 hurricane status before moving through the Windward Islands and passing over Tobago , and it reached maximum sustained winds of 145 miles per hour ( 233 km / h ) in the Caribbean .
The storm struck southwestern Haiti near peak intensity , turned to the west , and drifted over Cuba for four days before turning to the northeast . Flora passed over the Bahamas and accelerated northeastward , becoming an extratropical cyclone on October 12 . Due to its slow movement across Cuba , Flora is the wettest known tropical cyclone for Cuba , Haiti , and the Dominican Republic . The significant casualties caused by Flora were the most for a tropical cyclone in the Atlantic Basin since the 1900 Galveston Hurricane .
= = Meteorological history = =
A disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone organized into a tropical depression on September 26 while located about 755 miles ( 1 @,@ 215 km ) southwest of the island of Fogo in the Cape Verde Islands . Upon forming , the depression had a poorly organized circulation with banding features to its north and east . The depression moved west @-@ northwestward , and the system failed to organize significantly by a day after developing . On September 27 , the banding features dissipated , though the area of convection around the center increased . Satellite imagery was unavailable until September 30 , during which there were not sufficient ship reports to indicate the presence of a low @-@ level circulation . The depression continued west @-@ northwestward , and it is estimated it intensified into Tropical Storm Flora on September 29 while located about 560 miles ( 900 km ) east @-@ southeast of Trinidad , or about 350 miles ( 560 km ) north of Cayenne , French Guiana . Operationally , advisories were not initiated until a day later .
Flora quickly intensified after it became a tropical storm , and early on September 30 it attained hurricane status . Later that day , Reconnaissance Aircraft confirmed the existence of the hurricane , with the flight reporting a well @-@ defined , circular 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) wide eye . One observer noted Flora to be the best organized tropical cyclone over the previous two years . After attaining major hurricane status , Flora passed directly over the island of Tobago late on the 30th with winds of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) . The hurricane continued west @-@ northwestward as it entered the Caribbean , and early on October 2 its winds reached 140 miles per hour ( 230 km / h ) . Thirty hours later , Flora intensified slightly further and attained peak winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) while located about 105 miles ( 169 km ) south of the border of Haiti and the Dominican Republic .
After turning to the northwest , Hurricane Flora maintained its peak strength , and made landfall in the Sud Department of Haiti late on October 3 as a 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Scale with gusts from 180 to 200 miles per hour ( 290 to 320 km / h ) . The calm of the eye lasted for up to 70 minutes in one location . After quickly weakening to a 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) hurricane , Flora turned more to the west in the Windward Passage , and restrengthened slightly to strike southeastern Cuba about 30 miles ( 48 km ) east of Guantanamo Bay with winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) . A high pressure system to its north turned the motion of the hurricane to a westward drift , causing it to weaken quickly over land . Flora neared the north coast of Cuba on October 4 before turning to the south . It executed a cyclonic loop and entered the coastal waters off Granma Province . An anticyclone to the west of Flora turned the hurricane to the north , bringing it ashore near Santa Cruz del Sur on October 7 with winds of around 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Flora initially turned southeastward over central Cuba , and late on October 8 a short @-@ wave trough turned the hurricane northeastward , bringing it into the coastal waters of the Holguín Province . Flora remained a hurricane while drifting over land due to abundant moisture and a favorable upper level environment .
After passing over the southeastern Bahamas early on October 9 , Flora began to restrengthen , and on October 10 it again reached major hurricane status while located 290 miles ( 470 km ) south of Bermuda . The hurricane gradually weakened as it continued northeastward , and weakened to a Category 1 hurricane on October 11 . Flora gradually lost its convection over the north Atlantic Ocean , and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 12 while located 270 miles ( 430 km ) east @-@ southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . The extratropical remnant dissipated the next day .
= = Preparations = =
The Weather Bureau in San Juan , Puerto Rico issued a hurricane warning for Trinidad , Tobago , and the Grenadines south of Saint Vincent in the cyclone 's first advisory on Hurricane Flora . Gale warnings were later issued for islands off northern Venezuela and from Saint Vincent northward to Martinique . Advisories on Flora emphasized the danger of the hurricane and advised preparations to be rushed to completion . The advisories also recommended small craft throughout the Windward Islands to remain at harbor and for shipping in the path of the hurricane to advise extreme caution . People in low @-@ lying areas and near beaches were advised to evacuate to higher grounds , as well . Lead time was short , especially in Tobago which received news of the approaching hurricane just two hours before it struck .
On October 2 , two days before it made landfall on southwestern Hispaniola , the San Juan Weather Bureau issued a gale warning from Barahona in the Dominican Republic to the Sud @-@ Est Department of Haiti . Advisories recommended small craft in the southern portions of the countries to remain at port . Later that day , the gale warning was upgraded to a hurricane warning in southwestern Haiti . On the day of when Flora made landfall , advisories recommended all citizens on beaches and in low @-@ lying areas west of Santo Domingo to evacuate . Carmelo Di Franco , the provisional Director of Civic Defense for the Dominican Republic , organized safety procedures and the dissemination of tropical cyclone bulletins from the San Juan Weather Bureau . Di Franco also organized for the transmission of hurricane emergency information to citizens , believed to reduce the loss of life . On the afternoon before the hurricane struck , the head of the Haitian Red Cross prohibited radio broadcasts of tropical cyclone advisories for fear of panic among citizens . As a result , many thought the hurricane would miss the country .
Officials at the Cuban National Observatory issued radio bulletins on the hurricane , which included the position of Flora , its intensity , direction of motion , and necessary warnings . By the time the hurricane left the island , more than 40 @,@ 000 had been evacuated to safer areas .
The Weather Bureau predicted Flora to turn to the northwest after entering the Windward Passage and affect the Bahamas . Forecasters advised those in The Bahamas to quickly complete preparations , though the eye of the hurricane did not pass over the archipelago until four days later . When Flora turned to the northeast out to sea , forecasters again advised Bahamian citizens to prepare for the hurricane , and on October 9 , weather advisories advised the southeastern Bahamas to prepare for gale @-@ force winds and strong tides . One advisory considered there to be less than a 50 % chance of the hurricane reaching southeastern Florida , though weather bulletins advised Florida citizens to monitor the hurricane . At its closest approach to Florida , the hurricane remained 330 miles ( 530 km ) away , though gale warnings were issued from Stuart to Key West due to the hurricane 's large size .
= = Impact = =
Throughout its path , Hurricane Flora resulted in more than 7 @,@ 000 deaths and over $ 525 million in damage ( 1963 USD , $ 4 @.@ 06 billion 2016 USD ) . It is estimated that , if a hurricane like Flora had struck in 1998 , it would have caused over 12 @,@ 000 casualties .
= = = East Caribbean = = =
Hurricane Flora passed Barbados a few days after Hurricane Edith moved through the area . The two hurricanes resulted in about $ 65 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1963 USD ) , primarily to fishing interests .
About four hours before the eye of Hurricane Flora moved over Tobago , the large hurricane began producing heavy rainfall throughout the island . Two hours later , strong winds began affecting the island , and while moving across the island Flora produced winds of up to 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) . While moving past Tobago , the hurricane produced rough surf and tides 5 to 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 1 m ) above normal . The hurricane sunk six ships between 4 and 9 tons in Scarborough harbour . One crew member drowned while attempting to save his vessel . Heavy rainfall caused a large mudslide from Mount Dillon onto a road leading to Castara . This was considered the most well @-@ known mudslide on the island . The strong winds caused severe damage to coconut , banana , and cocoa plantations , with 50 % of the coconut trees being destroyed and another 11 % being severely damaged . 75 % of forest trees fell , and most of the remaining were greatly damaged . The passage of Hurricane Flora destroyed 2 @,@ 750 of Tobago 's 7 @,@ 500 houses , and damaged 3 @,@ 500 others . The hurricane killed 18 on the island and resulted in $ 30 million in crop and property damage ( 1963 USD ) .
Winds on Trinidad reached 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) with much higher gusts of over 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Heavy rainfall and strong winds in the northern mountainous region lowered the visibility to zero . Due to the mountain range on its northern coast , damage on the island was minimal , totaling to $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1963 USD ) . Two people on the island died due to drowning . When Flora passed the island and the winds turned to the southwest , many small boats in the westward facing harbor were sunk . Near Chaguaramas , nine boats were destroyed and eight were damaged . Additionally , several large vessels sustained damage and resulted in them being intentionally sunk . Damage in Grenada was minor , around $ 25 @,@ 000 ( 1963 USD ) , though six people died due to drowning . Rough seas and higher than normal tides were reported along the south coast of Puerto Rico , though no damage or deaths were reported there .
= = = Dominican Republic and Haiti = = =
Flora produced heavy rainfall and moderately strong winds in the Dominican Republic . The highest rainfall amount reported was 39 @.@ 43 inches ( 1 @,@ 002 mm ) at Polo Barahona . Flooding from the hurricane , considered to be the most extensive on record , greatly damaged bridges and roads , with many roads left unpassable for several months after the hurricane struck . Over 3 @,@ 800 sq. miles ( 10 @,@ 000 km ² ) in the western portion of the country were flooded . The hurricane caused about $ 60 million in damage ( 1963 USD ) and over 400 deaths .
While moving across southwestern Haiti , Hurricane Flora produced winds of up to 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) near Derez , while the capital city of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince reported peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Intense rainbands dropped torrential precipitation estimated at over 75 inches ( 1 @,@ 900 mm ) in Miragoâne , with one location recording over 57 inches ( 1 @,@ 400 mm ) in three days . One location in the southwestern peninsula recorded 16 inches ( 410 mm ) of precipitation in 12 hours . The storm surge on the southern coast is unknown , but estimated to exceed 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . Flash floods from the hurricane washed out large sections of several towns , while mudslides buried some entire towns , resulting in many deaths . Heavy rainfall led to river flooding along the Grisse River , which crested at 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) above normal . The flood waters created new channels and washed away entire banana plantations .
In most areas , crops were entirely destroyed . The coffee crop was harvested prior to the arrival of the hurricane , though heavy rainfall and severe flooding ruined the crop for later years . Additionally , strong winds downed shading trees for the coffee crop on the southern peninsula . One official estimated it would require three years for the coffee crop to be replanted and regrown .
Strong winds in southwestern Haiti from the hurricane damaged or destroyed hundreds of trees . The path of Flora over the area was best determined by the trajectory of fallen trees across the peninsula . The strong winds left entire villages roofless , with many buildings entirely destroyed . The combination of rough waves and strong winds destroyed three entire communities . Many of those who died in southwestern Haiti suffered from intense burns from strong winds .
About 3 @,@ 500 people were confirmed dead , with several thousands missing at one report five months after the hurricane . It is estimated the passage of Hurricane Flora killed around 5 @,@ 000 people and caused between $ 125 million and $ 180 million in damage in Haiti ( 1963 USD ) .
= = = Cuba , Jamaica , the Bahamas , and Florida = = =
Strong northerly winds from Flora eroded the northern beaches in the Cuban province of Camagüey by up to 1 kilometre ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . Santa Cruz del Sur reported strong southerly winds and rough seas . Winds in Cuba reached 125 miles per hour ( 201 km / h ) . Nearly all crops in southeastern Cuba were affected by strong winds and flooding . Many citizens were left stranded at the tops of their houses . Several entire houses were swept away by the flooding , and many roads and bridges were destroyed , resulting in major disruptions to communications . Isolated locations in Cuba received over 80 inches ( 2 @,@ 000 mm ) of rain , with Santiago de Cuba recording 100 @.@ 39 inches ( 2 @,@ 550 mm ) , which is the highest rainfall total measured on Cuba from any rainfall event on record .
Heavy rainfall fell across the island of Jamaica due to southwest flow into the mountains on Flora 's southern periphery over several days . The maximum amount recorded was 60 inches ( 1 @,@ 500 mm ) at Spring Hill persistent , which led to numerous landslides across the eastern portion of the island . Damage to the island totaled $ 11 @.@ 9 million ( 1963 dollars ) . Rough seas from Flora affected the Bahamas and the southeastern Florida coast on October 5 as the hurricane stalled over Cuba , keeping small craft in port , and hurricane @-@ force winds affected Ragged Island later that day . Rainfall amounts peaked at 17 @.@ 19 inches ( 437 mm ) at Duncan Town , in the Bahamas . Damage to the island archipelago reached $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1963 dollars ) .
= = Aftermath = =
In Tobago , the great agricultural damage from Flora caused the crop plantations to be abandoned . As a result , the economy of the island changed towards tourism . The destruction of the Tobagonian rainforests resulted in a continual decline of agriculture on the island due to animals previously in the forest eating the crops for food . The passage of the hurricane reduced the height of the rainforest canopy above 800 feet ( 240 m ) by half . Twenty @-@ five years passed before the canopy reached its previous height .
In the Dominican Republic , damage reports were largely unknown by a month after the hurricane passed the island , primarily in the western provinces . There , roads were still impassable , large areas remained without electricity , and helicopters could not land in remote areas due to mud , silt , and up to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water in all landing fields . One official estimated several months would pass before survey teams could obtain information on loss of life and overall damages .
Due to its impact on the Caribbean nations , the name Flora was retired after this year and was replaced by Fern .
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= Quneitra =
Quneitra ( also Al Qunaytirah , Qunaitira , or Kuneitra ; Arabic : القنيطرة al @-@ Qunayṭrah ) is the largely destroyed and abandoned capital of the Quneitra Governorate in south @-@ western Syria . It is situated in a high valley in the Golan Heights at an elevation of 1 @,@ 010 metres ( 3 @,@ 313 feet ) above sea level . Its name is Arabic for " the little bridge " .
Quneitra was founded in the Ottoman era as a way station on the caravan route to Damascus and subsequently became a garrison town of some 20 @,@ 000 people . In 1946 , it became part of the independent Syrian Republic within the Riff Dimashq Governorate and in 1964 became the capital of the split Quneitra Governorate . On 10 June 1967 , the last day of the Six @-@ Day War , Quneitra came under Israeli control . It was briefly recaptured by Syria during the 1973 Yom Kippur War , but Israel regained control in its subsequent counter @-@ offensive . The city was almost completely destroyed before the Israeli withdrawal in June 1974 . Syria had refused to rebuild the city and actively discouraged resettlement in the area . Israel was heavily criticized by the United Nations for the city 's destruction , while Israel has also criticized Syria for not rebuilding Quneitra . During the Syrian civil war , Quneitra became a clash point between rebel forces and Syrian Arab Army . As of 2014 , it became controlled by the Syrian opposition .
In 2004 , its population was estimated at 153 persons , with some 4 @,@ 000 more living in the surrounding areas of the former city . Quneitra now lies in the formerly demilitarized United Nations Disengagement Observer Force Zone ( between Syrian territory and the Israeli @-@ occupied Golan Heights ) , de @-@ facto controlled by the Syrian opposition , a short distance from the Quneitra border crossing , and is populated by only a handful of families .
= = Political status = =
Quneitra is the capital of the Quneitra Governorate , a district of southwestern Syria that incorporates the whole of the Golan Heights . The city of Quneitra is within the portion of the Golan Heights controlled by Syria . Madinat al @-@ Baath ( Baath City ) , also known as New Quneitra , replaced Quneitra as the administrative centre of Quneitra Governorate .
= = Geography and demographics = =
Quneitra is situated in a high valley in the Golan Heights at an altitude of 942 m ( 3 @,@ 091 ft ) above sea level . It is overshadowed to the west by the Israeli @-@ held portion of the Golan Heights and the peak of Har Bental . The surrounding area is dominated by ancient volcanic lava flows interspersed by a number of dormant volcanic cones which rise some 150 – 200 m ( 500 – 700 ft ) above the surrounding plain . The volcanic hills of the region have played a key role as observation points and natural firing positions in the conflicts over the region , most notably in the Yom Kippur War . In more peaceful times , the fertile volcanic soil has supported agricultural activities such as wheat growing and pastoralism .
Writing during the inter @-@ war period , the American traveller Harriet @-@ Louise H. Patterson recorded that Quneitra was
charmingly set in a grove of eucalyptus trees . Its chief claim to charm or the few moments of a traveller 's time beyond passport formalities is the beautiful vista which it offers of Jordan as it flows down from Hermon through banks of tangled bush and flowering pink and white oleanders . Kuneitra is pleasant as a stopping @-@ place for lunch . It is cool under the spreading trees , usually quiet and restful .
The city 's position on an important trade route gave it a varied population for much of its history . By the start of the 20th century it was dominated by Muslim Circassians from the Caucasus , accompanied by Turkmen and Arabs . Its population grew to some 21 @,@ 000 people , mostly Arabs , following Syrian independence from France in 1946 . After its abandonment in 1967 and subsequent destruction , its population was dispersed to other parts of Syria . The city remains abandoned apart from a residual Syrian security presence . Due to frequent and large population movements within Syria and across borders caused by war , there are no reliable population estimates available post @-@ 2011 . The impact of the crisis has led to massive displacements and a gradual deterioration of access to basic services . Quneitra has also been the destination for many internally displaced persons ( IDPs ) from neighbouring Daraa and Rif Dimashq governorates . In August 2013 , many of the estimated 75 @,@ 000 IDPs from Nawa and Al @-@ Harra in Daraa Governorate reportedly fled to Quneitra . There are also people resident in Quneitra being displaced by conflict . Approximately 21 @,@ 000 Israelis also live in dozens of state @-@ subsidised settlements dotted throughout the mountainous terrain .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The surrounding area has been inhabited for millennia . Palaeolithic hunter @-@ gatherers are thought to have lived there , as evidenced by the discovery of Levallois and Mousterian flint tools in the vicinity . A settlement was established at least as early as the late Hellenistic period , and continued through the Roman and Byzantine times ; it was known by the name " Sarisai " . The settlement served as a stop on the road from Damascus to western Palestine . Saint Paul is said to have passed through the settlement on his way from Jerusalem to Damascus . The site of the Conversion of Paul was traditionally identified with the small village of Kokab , north @-@ east of Quneitra , on the road to Damascus .
For much of the 18th and 19th centuries Quneitra was abandoned . In 1868 a travel handbook reported that the site was a " ruined village of about 80 or 100 houses " and that a large caravanserai also stood in ruins . Semi @-@ nomadic pastoral groups such as the Arab Al Fadl and Banu Nu 'aym tribes and several Turkmen tribes grazed their flocks in Quneitra 's rocky lands .
In 1873 , a group of Circassians from Sivas in Anatolia settled in Quneitra . This initial group did not cultivate the area for a number of years . A second wave of Circassians , numbering about 2 @,@ 000 , arrived in the Golan in 1878 via Acre after fleeing Bulgaria due to the Russo @-@ Turkish War . Along with Quneitra , they settled or built number of other villages in the vicinity . The Circassians began farming the area and each family was given title to 70 to 130 dunams of land by the government depending on the family 's size . The Ottomans encouraged Circassian settlement in the Golan as a means to drive a wedge between the frequently rebellious Druze villages of Mount Hermon and those in Jabal Hauran . The Circassians of Quneitra engaged in sustained conflicts with the Druze and the Al Fadl through the remainder of the 19th century .
Modern Quneitra grew around the nucleus of the old Ottoman caravanserai , which had been built using the stones of a ruined ancient settlement . By the mid @-@ 1880s , Quneitra had become the main city and seat of government of the Golan . Gottlieb Schumacher wrote in 1888 that it " consists of 260 buildings , which are mostly well and carefully constructed of basalt stones , and contains , excluding the soldiers and officials , 1 @,@ 300 inhabitants , principally Circassians . "
During World War I , the Australian Mounted Division and 5th Cavalry Division defeated the Ottoman Turks at Quneitra on 29 September 1918 , before they took Damascus ( see also Battle of Megiddo ( 1918 ) ) . Quneitra saw several battles during the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign of the Second World War , including the Battle of Damascus and Battle of Kissoué .
= = = Arab @-@ Israeli conflict = = =
When the modern states of Syria and Israel gained their independence from France and Britain respectively after the Second World War , Quneitra gained a new strategic significance as a key road junction some 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) from the border . It became a prosperous market town and military garrison , with its population tripling to over 20 @,@ 000 people , predominately Arabs .
= = = = Six @-@ Day War = = = =
Quneitra was the Syrian headquarters for the Golan Heights . The Israeli capture of the city occurred in chaotic circumstances on 10 June 1967 , the last day of the Six @-@ Day War . Israeli forces advancing towards Quneitra from the north @-@ west prompted Syrian troops to deploy north of the city , under heavy bombardment , to defend the road to Damascus . At 8 : 45 a.m. , Syrian radio broadcast an announcement that the city had fallen , though it actually had not . Alarmed , the Syrian Army 's redeployment turned into a chaotic retreat along the Damascus road .
According to 8th Brigade Commander Ibrahim Isma 'il Khahya :
We received orders to block the roads leading to Quneitra . But then the fall of the city was announced and that caused many of my soldiers to leave the front and run back to Syria while the roads were still open . They piled onto vehicles . It further crushed our morale . I retreated before I ever saw an enemy soldier .
Although a correction was broadcast two hours later , the Israelis took advantage of the confusion to seize Quneitra . An armoured brigade under Colonel Albert Mandler entered Quneitra at 2 : 30 p.m. and found the city deserted and strewn with abandoned military equipment . One of the Israeli commanders later commented :
We arrived almost without hindrance to the gates of Quneitra ... All around us there were huge quantities of booty . Everything was in working order . Tanks with their engines still running , communication equipment still in operation had been abandoned . We captured Quneitra without a fight .
Time magazine reported : " In an effort to pressure the United Nations into enforcing a ceasefire , Damascus Radio undercut its own army by broadcasting the fall of the city of El Quneitra three hours before it actually capitulated . That premature report of the surrender of their headquarters destroyed the morale of the Syrian troops left in the Golan area . "
A ceasefire was agreed later in the afternoon , leaving Quneitra under Israeli control . In June 1967 , Time magazine wrote that : " The city of El Quneitra was a ghost town , its shops shuttered , its deserted streets patrolled by Israelis on house @-@ to @-@ house searches for caches of arms and ammunition . The hills echoed with explosions as Israeli sappers systematically destroyed the miniature Maginot line from which the Syrians had shelled kibbutzim across the Sea of Galilee . "
The United Nations Special Representative , Nils @-@ Göran Gussing , visited it in July and reported that " nearly every shop and every house seemed to have been broken into and looted " and that some buildings had been set on fire after they had been stripped . Although Israeli spokesmen told Gussing that Quneitra had actually been looted by the withdrawing Syrians , the UN representative viewed this as unlikely given the extremely short space of time between the erroneous radio announcement and the fall of the city a few hours later . He concluded that " responsibility for this extensive looting of the town of Quneitra lay to a great extent with the Israeli forces . "
= = = = Israeli occupation = = = =
The deserted city remained in Israeli hands for the next six years . However , Israel and Syria remained in a state of war throughout this period ( and , indeed , to the present day ) . The town gained a fresh symbolic value ; it was seen by the Syrians as " the badge of Syria 's defeat , an emblem of hatred between Syria and Israel and a cross [ Syrian President Hafez al @-@ Assad ] had to bear . " Syria shelled the city several times during the early 1970s ; in June 1970 a Syrian armored unit launched an attack , and in November 1972 , Damascus radio announced that Syrian artillery had again shelled Quneitra .
= = = = Yom Kippur War = = = =
During the first few days of the Yom Kippur War in 1973 , Quneitra was briefly recaptured by the Syrian Army before it was repulsed in an Israeli counter @-@ offensive . In the middle of October 1973 the Israeli counter @-@ offensive started . The Syrians had massed nearly 1 @,@ 000 tanks along a 100 km ( 60 mi ) front . With a massive concentration of tanks , the Israelis lashed into the Syrian forces . The Syrians at first fell back , but then managed to counterattack and drive back into occupied territory . Quneitra changed hands several times . Finally , Israeli armored units , closely supported by Phantoms and Skyhawks performing close air support with napalm strikes against the forward Syrian units , halted the Syrian drive and turned the Syrian Army back .
= = = = Destruction of Quneitra and return to Syrian control = = = =
Israel continued to control the city until early June 1974 , when it was returned to Syrian civilian control following the signature of a United States @-@ brokered disengagement agreement signed on 31 May 1974 . The surrender of Quneitra was controversial , with Israeli settlers and the Likud and National Religious Party opposing it . According to Michael Mandelbaum , the agreement provided that the city was to be repopulated to serve as evidence of peaceful Syrian intentions , by doing so it would encourage the Israelis to pull back further .
In an attempt to block the withdrawal , a group of settlers from Merom Golan – a settlement established in 1967 – took over an abandoned bunker in Quneitra and declared it to be a new settlement called Keshet ( Quneitra in Hebrew ) . The settlers also set about razing the existing town to the ground . The leader of Merom Golan , Yehuda Harel , and another Merom Golan member , Shimshon Wollner , initiated the destruction of Quneitra , which was carried out by the Land Development Administration of the Jewish National Fund . Harel later described what happened :
Shimshon and I walked around Quneitra all day and tried decide what to do . And then these two strange ideas came up . One was to establish a settlement in Quneitra and the second was to destroy Quneitra .
Wollner and Harel asked the Jewish National Fund to carry out the work , ostensibly to prepare an area for agricultural cultivation , but were refused as they did not have permission from the Israeli army . They then approached the Assistant to the Head of Northern Command and asked him to mark on a map which buildings the army needed . According to Harel ,
So he took a felt pen and marked the hospital and a few other places – he wrote " not for destruction " and on other places he wrote " for destruction " and he signed . He thought he was signing about what not to destroy but he was actually writing to destroy . . . The tractors of the Jewish National Fund did the destroying . They weren 't our tractors . . . I can tell you that even the tractor drivers were Arabs .
The buildings were systematically stripped , with anything movable being removed and sold to Israeli contractors , before they were pulled apart with tractors and bulldozers .
The disengagement went into force on 6 June . On 26 June , the Syrian president Hafez al @-@ Assad travelled to Quneitra where he pledged to return the rest of the occupied territories to Syrian control . Western reporters accompanied Syrian refugees returning to the city in early July 1974 and described what they saw on the ground . Time magazine 's correspondent reported that " Most of its buildings are knocked flat , as though by dynamite , or pockmarked by shellfire . " Le Monde 's Syria correspondent , in a report for The Times , gave a detailed eyewitness description of the destruction :
Today the city is unrecognisable . The houses with their roofs lying on the ground look like gravestones . Parts of the rubble are covered with fresh earth furrowed by bulldozer tracks . Everywhere there are fragments of furniture , discarded kitchen utensils , Hebrew newspapers dating from the first week of June ; here a ripped @-@ up mattress , there the springs of an old sofa . On the few sections of wall still standing , Hebrew inscriptions proclaim : " There 'll be another round " ; " You want Quneitra , you 'll have it destroyed . "
Israel asserted that most of the damage had been caused in the two wars and during the artillery duels in between . Several reports from before the withdrawal did refer to the city as " ruined " and " shell @-@ scarred " . The Times ' correspondent saw the city for himself on 6 May , a month before the Israeli withdrawal , and described it as being " in ruins and deserted after seven years of war and dereliction . It looks like a wild west city struck by an earthquake and if the Syrians get it back they will face a major feat of reconstruction . Nearly every building is heavily damaged and scores have collapsed . "
Direct evidence of the city 's condition was provided when it was filmed on 12 May 1974 by a British television news team which included the veteran journalist Peter Snow , who was reporting for Independent Television News on the disengagement negotiations . His report was broadcast on ITN 's News at Ten programme . According to The Times ' correspondent Edward Mortimer , " viewers were thus afforded a panoramic view of the city , which had stood almost completely empty since the Syrian army evacuated it in 1967 . It could be seen that many of the buildings were damaged , but most of them were still standing . " After it was handed over , " very few buildings were left standing . Most of those destroyed did not present the jagged outline and random heaps of rubble usually produced by artillery or aerial bombardment . The roofs lay flat on the ground , ' pancaked ' in a manner which I am told can only be achieved by systematic dynamiting of the support walls inside . " Mortimer concluded that the footage " establishes beyond reasonable doubt that much of the destruction took place after 12 May — at a time when there was no fighting anywhere near Kuneitra . "
The United Nations established a Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices Affecting the Human Rights of the Population of the Occupied Territories , which concluded that Israeli forces had deliberately destroyed the city prior to their withdrawal . The report 's conclusions were subsequently adopted by the United Nations General Assembly . It passed a resolution on 29 November 1974 describing the destruction of Quneitra as " a grave breach of the [ Fourth ] Geneva Convention " and " condemn [ ing ] Israel for such acts , " by a margin of 93 votes to 8 , with 74 abstentions . The United Nations Commission on Human Rights also voted to condemn the " deliberate destruction and devastation " of Quneitra in a resolution of 22 February 1975 , by a margin of 22 votes to one ( the United States ) with nine abstentions .
The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants , a non @-@ governmental organization , has reported that : " Before leaving , however , the Israelis leveled the city with bulldozers and dynamite . "
= = = = As a city ruin = = = =
The city remains in a destroyed condition . Syria has left the ruins in place and built a museum to memorialize its destruction . It maintains billboards at the ruins of many buildings and effectively preserves it in the condition that the Israeli army left it in . The former residents of the town have not returned and Syria discourages the re @-@ population of the area . However , in the 2004 census by the Central Bureau of Statistics , a small population of 153 people living in 28 households was recorded , all living in the neighborhood of Rasm al @-@ Rawabi . The Rough Guide to Syria describes the current appearance of the city : " The first sight of the flattened houses on Quneitra 's outskirts is the most dramatic ; many of the unscathed roofs simply lie on top of a mass of rubble , leaving the impression of a building that has imploded . "
The city has often been used as a stop for foreign VIPs , ranging from the Soviet foreign minister Alexei Kosygin in June 1976 to Pope John Paul II in May 2001 . Only a handful of families now live in the town , making a living by providing services for the United Nations troops patrolling the demilitarized zone . According to The Times , " the carefully preserved ruined city has become a pilgrimage site for a generation of Syrians . "
The city can be visited by tourists , but a permit from the Syrian Ministry of the Interior is required , and sight @-@ seeing is supervised by a military guide . The principal sights on the standard tour are the remains of Quneitra 's hospital , mosque and Greek Orthodox church . A " Liberated Quneitra Museum " , displaying artifacts from the city 's ancient and medieval past , is housed in the former Ottoman caravanserai in the city centre . The western edge of the city marks the start of " no @-@ man 's land " beyond which lies Israeli @-@ controlled territory . Because the border is closed , it is not possible to visit Quneitra from Israel .
= = = Syrian Civil War = = =
On 13 November 2012 , during the ongoing Syrian Civil War that began in March 2011 , President Bashar al @-@ Assad issued a decree to establish a branch of the University of Damascus in Quneitra . On 6 June 2013 , the nearby Quneitra border crossing was attacked by Opposition forces and temporarily occupied , with Syrian army later retaking the crossing ; Opposition forces again captured the crossing in August 2014 . A Filipino peacekeeper of the UNDOF was wounded during the fighting . As a result the Austrian government announced the withdrawal of its troops from the UN mission . In July 2013 , Opposition forces attacked a military checkpoint in Quneitra , and by the next day were attacking several Syrian Arab Army positions in Quneitra .
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= Cockatoo =
A cockatoo is a parrot that is any of the 21 species belonging to the bird family Cacatuidae , the only family in the superfamily Cacatuoidea . Along with the Psittacoidea ( true parrots ) and the Strigopoidea ( large New Zealand parrots ) , they make up the order Psittaciformes ( parrots ) . The family has a mainly Australasian distribution , ranging from the Philippines and the eastern Indonesian islands of Wallacea to New Guinea , the Solomon Islands and Australia .
Cockatoos are recognisable by the showy crests and curved bills . Their plumage is generally less colourful than that of other parrots , being mainly white , grey or black and often with coloured features in the crest , cheeks or tail . On average they are larger than other parrots ; however , the cockatiel , the smallest cockatoo species , is a small bird . The phylogenetic position of the cockatiel remains unresolved , other than that it is one of the earliest offshoots of the cockatoo lineage . The remaining species are in two main clades . The five large black coloured cockatoos of the genus Calyptorhynchus form one branch . The second and larger branch is formed by the genus Cacatua , comprising 11 species of white @-@ plumaged cockatoos and four monotypic genera that branched off earlier ; namely the pink and white Major Mitchell 's cockatoo , the pink and grey galah , the mainly grey gang @-@ gang cockatoo and the large black @-@ plumaged palm cockatoo .
Cockatoos prefer to eat seeds , tubers , corms , fruit , flowers and insects . They often feed in large flocks , particularly when ground @-@ feeding . Cockatoos are monogamous and nest in tree hollows . Some cockatoo species have been adversely affected by habitat loss , particularly from a shortage of suitable nesting hollows after large mature trees are cleared ; conversely , some species have adapted well to human changes and are considered agricultural pests .
Cockatoos are popular birds in aviculture , but their needs are difficult to meet . The cockatiel is the easiest cockatoo species to maintain and is by far the most frequently kept in captivity . White cockatoos are more commonly found in captivity than black cockatoos . Illegal trade in wild @-@ caught birds contributes to the decline of some cockatoo species in the wild .
= = Etymology = =
The word cockatoo dates from the 17th century and is a derivation from the Indonesian name for these birds , " kakak tua " ( meaning " older sibling " ) or from the call of the white cockatoo itself . Seventeenth @-@ century variants include cacato , cockatoon and crockadore , and cokato , cocatore and cocatoo were used in the eighteenth century . The derivation has also been used for the family and generic names Cacatuidae and Cacatua respectively .
In Australian slang or vernacular speech , a person who is assigned to keep watch while others undertake clandestine or illegal activities , particularly gambling , may be referred to as a " cockatoo " . Proprietors of small agricultural undertakings are often jocularly or slightly disparagingly referred to as " cocky farmers . "
= = Taxonomy = =
The cockatoos were first defined as a subfamily Cacatuinae within the parrot family Psittacidae by the English naturalist George Robert Gray in 1840 , with Cacatua the first listed and type genus . This group has alternately been considered as either a full or subfamily by different authorities . The American ornithologist James Lee Peters in his 1937 Check @-@ list of Birds of the World , Sibley and Monroe in 1990 maintained it as a subfamily , while parrot expert Joseph Forshaw classified it as a family in 1973 . Subsequent molecular studies indicate that the earliest offshoot from the original parrot ancestors were the New Zealand parrots of the superfamily Strigopoidea , and following this the cockatoos , now a well @-@ defined group or clade , split off from the remaining parrots , which then radiated across the Southern Hemisphere and diversified into the many species of parrots , parakeets , macaws , lories , lorikeets , lovebirds and other true parrots of the superfamily Psittacoidea .
The relationships among various cockatoo genera are largely resolved , although the placement of the cockatiel ( Nymphicus hollandicus ) at the base of the cockatoos remains uncertain . The cockatiel is alternatively placed basal to all other cockatoo species , as the sister taxon to the black cockatoo species of the genus Calyptorhynchus or as the sister taxon to a clade consisting of the white and pink cockatoo genera as well as the palm cockatoo . The remaining species are within two main clades , one consisting of the black species of the genus Calyptorhynchus while the other contains the remaining species . According to most authorities , the second clade includes the black palm cockatoo ( Probosciger ) , the gray and reddish galah ( Eolophus ) , the gang @-@ gang cockatoo ( Callocephalon ) and the pinkish Major Mitchell 's cockatoo ( Lophochroa ) , although Probosciger is sometimes placed basal to all other species . The remaining species are mainly white or slightly pinkish and all belong to the genus Cacatua . The genera Eolophus , Lophochroa and Cacatua are hypomelanistic . The genus Cacatua is further subdivided into the subgenera Licmetis , commonly known as corellas , and Cacatua , referred to as white cockatoos . Confusingly , the term " white cockatoo " has also been applied to the whole genus . The five cockatoo species of the genus Calyptorhynchus are commonly known as black cockatoos , and are divided into two subgenera — Calyptorhynchus and Zanda . The former group are sexually dichromatic , with the females having prominently barred plumage . The two are also distinguished by differences in the food begging calls of juveniles .
The fossil record of cockatoos is even more limited than that of parrots in general , with only one truly ancient cockatoo fossil known : a species of Cacatua , most probably subgenus Licmetis , found in Early Miocene ( 16 – 23 million years ago ) deposits of Riversleigh , Australia . Although fragmentary , the remains are similar to the western corella and the galah . In Melanesia , subfossil bones of Cacatua species which apparently did not survive early human settlement have been found on New Caledonia and New Ireland . The bearing of these fossils on cockatoo evolution and phylogeny is fairly limited , although the Riversleigh fossil does allow tentative dating of the divergence of subfamilies .
= = = Genera and species = = =
There are about 44 different birds in the cockatoo family Cacatuidae including recognized subspecies . The current subdivision of this family is as follows :
Subfamily Nymphicinae
Genus Nymphicus
Cockatiel , Nymphicus hollandicus ( Kerr , 1792 )
Subfamily Calyptorhynchinae : The black cockatoos
Genus Calyptorhynchus ( 5 species )
Subgenus Calyptorhynchus – black @-@ and @-@ red cockatoos
Red @-@ tailed black cockatoo , Calyptorhynchus banksii ( Latham , 1790 ) ( 5 subspecies )
Glossy black cockatoo , Calyptorhynchus lathami ( Temminck , 1807 ) ( 3 subspecies )
Subgenus Zanda – black @-@ and @-@ yellow / white cockatoos
Yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo , Calyptorhynchus funereus ( Shaw , 1794 ) ( 2 – 3 subspecies )
Carnaby 's black cockatoo , Calyptorhynchus latirostris Carnaby , 1948
Baudin 's black cockatoo , Calyptorhynchus baudinii Lear , 1832
Subfamily Cacatuinae
Tribe Microglossini : One genus with one species , the black palm cockatoo .
Genus Probosciger
Palm cockatoo , Probosciger aterrimus ( Gmelin , 1788 ) ( 4 subspecies )
Tribe Cacatuini : Four genera of white , pink and grey species .
Genus Callocephalon
Gang @-@ gang cockatoo , Callocephalon fimbriatum ( Grant , 1803 )
Genus Eolophus
Galah , Eolophus roseicapilla ( Vieillot , 1817 ) ( 3 subspecies )
Genus Lophochroa
Major Mitchell 's cockatoo ( also Leadbeater 's cockatoo ) , Lophochroa leadbeateri ( Vigors , 1831 ) ( 2 subspecies )
Genus Cacatua ( 11 species )
Subgenus Cacatua – true white cockatoos
Yellow @-@ crested cockatoo ( also lesser sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo ) , Cacatua sulphurea ( Gmelin , 1788 ) ( 4 subspecies )
Sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo , Cacatua galerita ( Latham , 1790 ) ( 4 subspecies )
Blue @-@ eyed cockatoo , Cacatua ophthalmica Sclater , 1864
White cockatoo , Cacatua alba ( Müller , 1776 )
Salmon @-@ crested cockatoo , Cacatua moluccensis ( Gmelin , 1788 )
Subgenus Licmetis – corellas
Long @-@ billed corella , Cacatua tenuirostris ( Kuhl , 1820 )
Western corella , Cacatua pastinator ( Gould , 1841 ) ( 2 subspecies )
Little corella ( also bare @-@ eyed cockatoo ) , Cacatua sanguinea Gould , 1843 ( 4 subspecies )
Tanimbar corella ( also Goffin 's cockatoo ) , Cacatua goffiniana Roselaar and Michels , 2004
Solomons cockatoo , Cacatua ducorpsii Pucheran , 1853
Red @-@ vented cockatoo , Cacatua haematuropygia ( Müller , 1776 )
= = Morphology = =
The cockatoos are generally medium to large parrots of stocky build , which range from 30 – 60 cm ( 12 – 24 in ) in length and 300 – 1 @,@ 200 g ( 0 @.@ 66 – 2 @.@ 65 lb ) in weight ; however , one species , the cockatiel , is considerably smaller and slimmer than the other species , being 32 cm ( 13 in ) long ( including its long pointed tail feathers ) and 80 – 100 g ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 5 oz ) in weight . The movable headcrest , which is present in all cockatoos , is spectacular in many species ; it is raised when the bird lands from flying or when it is aroused . Cockatoos share many features with other parrots , including the characteristic curved beak shape and a zygodactyl foot , with the two middle toes forward and the two outer toes backward . They differ in the presence of an erectile crest and their lack of the Dyck texture feather composition which causes the bright blues and greens seen in true parrots .
Like other parrots , cockatoos have short legs , strong claws , a waddling gait and often use their strong bill as a third limb when climbing through branches . They generally have long broad wings used in rapid flight , with speeds up to 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) being recorded for galahs . The members of the genus Calyptorhynchus and larger white cockatoos , such as the sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo and Major Mitchell 's cockatoo , have shorter , rounder wings and a more leisurely flight .
Cockatoos have a large bill , which is kept sharp by rasping the two mandibles together when resting . The bill is complemented by a large muscular tongue which helps manipulate seeds inside the bill so that they can be de @-@ husked before eating . During the de @-@ husking , the lower mandible applies the pressure , the tongue holds the seed in place and the upper mandible acts as an anvil . The eye region of the skull is reinforced to support muscles which move the mandibles sideways . The bills of male cockatoos are generally slightly larger than those of their female counterparts , but this size difference is quite marked in the palm cockatoo .
The plumage of the cockatoos is less brightly coloured than that of the other parrots , with species generally being either black , grey or white . Many species have smaller areas of colour on their plumage , often yellow , pink and red , usually on the crest or tail . The galah and Major Mitchell 's cockatoo are more broadly coloured in pink tones . Several species have a brightly coloured bare area around the eye and face known as a periophthalmic ring ; the large red patch of bare skin of the palm cockatoo is the most extensive and covers some of the face , while it is more restricted in some other species of white cockatoo , notably the corellas and blue @-@ eyed cockatoo . The plumage of males and females is similar in most species . The plumage of the female cockatiel is duller than the male , but the most marked sexual dimorphism occurs in the gang @-@ gang cockatoo and the two species of black cockatoos in the subgenus Calyptorhynchus , namely the red @-@ tailed and glossy black cockatoos . The iris colour differs in a few species , being pink or red in the female galah and Major Mitchell 's cockatoo and red @-@ brown in some other female white cockatoo species . The males all have dark brown irises .
Cockatoos maintain their plumage with frequent preening throughout the day . They remove dirt and oil and realign feather barbs by nibbling their feathers . They also preen other birds ' feathers that are otherwise hard to get at . Cockatoos produce preen @-@ oil from a gland on their lower back and apply it by wiping their plumage with their heads or already oiled feathers . Powder @-@ down is produced by specialised feathers in the lumbar region and distributed by the preening cockatoo all over the plumage .
Moulting is very slow and complex . Black cockatoos appear to replace their flight feathers one at a time , their moult taking two years to complete . This process is much shorter in other species , such as the galah and long @-@ billed corella , which each take around six months to replace all their flight feathers .
= = = Voice = = =
The vocalisations of cockatoos are loud and harsh . They serve a number of functions , including allowing individuals to recognize one another , alerting others of predators , indicating individual moods , maintaining the cohesion of a flock and as warnings when defending nests . The use of calls and number of specific calls varies by species ; the Carnaby 's black cockatoo has as many as 15 different calls , whereas others , such as Major Mitchell 's cockatoo , have fewer . Some , like the gang @-@ gang cockatoo , are comparatively quiet but do have softer growling calls when feeding . In addition to vocalisations , palm cockatoos communicate over large distances by drumming on a dead branch with a stick . Cockatoo species also make a characteristic hissing sound when threatened .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Cockatoos have a much more restricted range than the true parrots , occurring naturally only in Australasia , Indonesia and the Phillippines . Eleven of the 21 species exist in the wild only in Australia , while seven species occur only in the islands of the Philippines , Indonesia , Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands . Interestingly , no cockatoo species are found in Borneo ( despite their presence on nearby Palawan and Sulawesi ) or many Pacific islands , although fossil remains have been recorded from New Caledonia .
Three species occur in both New Guinea and Australia . Some species have widespread distributions , with the galah , for example , occurring over most of Australia , whereas other species have tiny distributions , confined to a small part of the continent , such as the Baudin 's black cockatoo of Western Australia or to a small island group , such as the Tanimbar corella , which is restricted to the Tanimbar Islands of Indonesia . Some cockatoos have been introduced accidentally to areas outside their natural range such as New Zealand , Singapore , and Palau , while two Australian corella species have been introduced to parts of the continent where they are not native .
Cockatoos occupy a wide range of habitats from forests in subalpine regions to mangroves . However , no species is found in all types of habitat . The most widespread species , such as the galah and cockatiel , are open @-@ country specialists that feed on grass seeds . They are often highly mobile fast flyers and are nomadic . Flocks of birds move across large areas of the inland , locating and feeding on seed and other food sources . Drought may force flocks from more arid areas to move further into farming areas . Other cockatoo species , such as the glossy black cockatoo , inhabit woodlands , rainforests , shrublands and even alpine forests . The red @-@ vented cockatoo inhabits mangroves and its absence from northern Luzon may be related to the lack of mangrove forests there . Forest @-@ dwelling cockatoos are generally sedentary , as the food supply is more stable and predictable . Several species have adapted well to human modified habitats and are found in agricultural areas and even busy cities .
= = Behaviour = =
Cockatoos are diurnal and require daylight to find their food . They are not early risers , instead waiting until the sun has warmed their roosting sites before feeding . All species are generally highly social and roost , forage and travel in colourful and noisy flocks . These vary in size depending on availability of food ; in times of plenty , flocks are small and number a hundred birds or less , while in droughts or other times of adversity , they may swell up to contain thousands or even tens of thousands of birds ; one record from the Kimberley noted a flock of 32 @,@ 000 little corellas . Species that inhabit open country form larger flocks than those of forested areas .
Some species require roosting sites that are located near drinking sites ; other species travel great distances between the roosting and feeding sites . Cockatoos have several characteristic methods of bathing ; they may hang upside down or fly about in the rain or flutter in wet leaves in the canopy . Cockatoos have a preferred " footedness " analogous to human handedness . Most species are left @-@ footed with 87 @-@ 100 % of individuals using their left feet to eat , but a few species favor their right foot .
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
Cockatoos are versatile feeders and consume a range of mainly vegetable food items . Seeds form a large part of the diet of all species ; these are opened with their large and powerful bills . The galahs , corellas and some of the black cockatoos feed primarily on the ground ; others feed mostly in trees . The ground @-@ feeding species tend to forage in flocks , which form tight , squabbling groups where seeds are concentrated and dispersed lines where food is more sparsely distributed ; they also prefer open areas where visibility is good . The western and long @-@ billed corellas have elongated bills to excavate tubers and roots and the Major Mitchell 's cockatoo walks in a circle around the doublegree ( Emex australis ) to twist out and remove the underground parts .
Many species forage for food in the canopy of trees , taking advantage of serotiny ( the storage of a large supply of seed in cones or gumnuts by plant genera such as Eucalyptus , Banksia and Hakea ) , a natural feature of the Australian landscape in dryer regions . These woody fruiting bodies are inaccessible to many species and harvested in the main by parrots , cockatoos and rodents in more tropical regions . The larger cones can be opened by the large bills of cockatoos but are too strong for smaller animals . Many nuts and fruits lie on the end of small branches which are unable to support the weight of the foraging cockatoo , which instead bends the branch towards itself and holds it with its foot .
While some cockatoos are generalists taking a wide range of foods , others are specialists . The glossy black cockatoo specialises in the cones of trees of the genus Allocasuarina , preferring a single species , A. verticillata . It holds the cones in its foot and shreds them with its powerful bill before removing the seeds with its tongue . Some species take large numbers of insects , particularly when breeding ; in fact the bulk of the yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo 's diet is made up of insects . The large bill is used in order to extract grubs and larvae from rotting wood . The amount of time cockatoos have to spend foraging varies with the season . During times of plenty they may need to feed for only a few hours in the day , in the morning and evening , then spend the rest of the day roosting or preening in trees , but during the winter most of the day may be spent foraging . The birds have increased nutritional requirements during the breeding season , so they spend more time foraging for food during this time . Cockatoos have large crops , which allow them to store and digest food for some time after retiring to a tree . During hard times , the cockatoos also display versatility in their diet , travelling widely in order to find food , feeding on more green plant material and in some species using their large bills to dig up corms .
= = = Breeding = = =
Cockatoos are monogamous breeders , with pair bonds that can last many years . Many birds pair up in flocks before they reach sexual maturity and delay breeding for a year at least . Females breed for the first time anywhere from three to seven years of age and males are often older . Sexual maturity is delayed so birds can develop the skills for raising and parenting young , which is prolonged compared with other birds ; the young of some species remain with their parents for up to a year . Cockatoos may also display site fidelity , returning to the same nesting sites in consecutive years . Courtship is generally simple , particularly for established pairs , with the black cockatoos alone engaging in courtship feeding . Established pairs do engage in preening each other , but all forms of courtship drop off after incubation begins , possibly due to the strength of the pair @-@ bond .
Like most parrots , the cockatoos are cavity nesters , nesting in holes in trees , which they are unable to excavate themselves . These hollows are formed from decay or destruction of wood by branches breaking off , fungi or insects such as termites or even woodpeckers where their ranges overlap . In many places these holes are scarce and the source of competition , both with other members of the same species and with other species and types of animal . In general , cockatoos choose hollows only a little larger than themselves , hence different @-@ sized species nest in holes of corresponding ( and different ) sizes . If given the opportunity , cockatoos prefer nesting over 7 or 8 metres ( 20 – 25 ft ) above the ground and close to water and food .
The nesting hollows are lined with sticks , wood chips and branches with leaves . The eggs of cockatoos are oval and initially white , as their location makes camouflage unnecessary . However , they do become discoloured over the course of incubation . They range in size from 55 mm × 37 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in × 1 @.@ 5 in ) in the palm and red @-@ tailed black cockatoos , to 26 mm × 19 mm ( 1 @.@ 02 in × 0 @.@ 75 in ) in the cockatiel . Clutch size varies within the family , with the palm cockatoo and some other larger cockatoos laying only a single egg and the smaller species laying anywhere between two and eight eggs . Food supply also plays a role in clutch size . Some species can lay a second clutch if the first fails . Around 20 % of eggs laid are infertile . The cockatoos ' incubation and brooding responsibilities may either be undertaken by the female alone in the case of the black cockatoos or shared amongst the sexes as happens in the other species . In the case of the black cockatoos , the female is provisioned by the male several times a day . The young of all species are born covered in yellowish down , bar the palm cockatoo , whose young are born naked . Cockatoo incubation times are dependent on species size , with the smaller cockatiels having a period of around 20 days and the larger Carnaby 's black cockatoo incubating its eggs for up to 29 days .
The nestling period also varies by species size , with larger species having longer nestling periods . It is also affected by season and environmental factors and by competition with siblings in species with clutch sizes greater than one . Much of what is known about the nestling period of some species is dependent on aviary studies – aviary cockatiels can fledge after 5 weeks and the large palm cockatoos after 11 weeks . During this period , the young become covered in juvenile plumage while remaining in the hollow . Wings and tail feathers are slow to grow initially but more rapid as the primary feathers appear . Nestlings quickly reach about 80 – 90 % of adult weight about two thirds of the time through this period , plateauing before they leave the hollow ; they fledge at this weight with wing and tail feathers still to grow a little before reaching adult dimensions . Growth rate of the young , as well as numbers fledged , are adversely impacted by reduced food supply and poor weather conditions .
= = = Predators and threats = = =
The peregrine falcon and little eagle have been reported taking galahs and the wedge @-@ tailed eagle has been observed killing a sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo . Eggs and nestlings are vulnerable to many hazards . Various species of monitor lizard ( Varanus ) are able to climb trees and enter hollows . Other predators recorded include the spotted wood owl on Rasa Island in the Philippines ; the amethystine python , black butcherbird and rodents including the giant white @-@ tailed rat in Cape York ; and brushtail possum on Kangaroo Island . Furthermore , galahs and little corellas competing for nesting space with the glossy black cockatoo on Kangaroo Island have been recorded killing nestlings of the latter species there . Severe storms may also flood hollows drowning the young and termite or borer activity may lead to the internal collapse of nests .
Like other parrots , cockatoos can be afflicted by psittacine beak and feather disease ( PBFD ) . The viral infection causes feather loss and beak malformation and reduces the bird 's overall immunity . Particularly prevalent in sulphur @-@ crested cockatoos , little corellas and galahs , it has been recorded in 14 species of cockatoo to date . Although unlikely to significantly impact on large , healthy populations of birds in the wild , PBFD may pose a high risk to smaller stressed populations .
A white cockatoo and a sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo were found to be infected with the protozoon Haemoproteus and another sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo had the malaria parasite Plasmodium on analysis of faecal samples at Almuñecar ornithological garden in Granada in Spain . Like amazon parrots and macaws , cockatoos frequently develop cloacal papillomas . The relationship with malignancy is unknown , as is the cause , although a parrot papilloma virus has been isolated from an African grey parrot with the condition .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Human activities have had positive effects on some species of cockatoo and negative effects on others . Many species of open country have benefited greatly from anthropogenic changes to the landscape , with the great increase in reliable seed food sources , available water and have also adapted well to a diet including foreign foodstuffs . This benefit appears to be restricted to Australian species , as cockatoos favouring open country outside Australia have not become more abundant . Predominantly forest @-@ dwelling species have suffered greatly from habitat destruction ; in the main , they appear to have a more specialised diet and have not been able to incorporate exotic food into their diet . A notable exception is the yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo in eastern Australia .
= = = Pests = = =
Several species of cockatoo can be serious agricultural pests . They are sometimes controlled by shooting , poisoning or capture followed by gassing . Non @-@ lethal damage mitigation methods used include scaring , habitat manipulation and the provision of decoy food dumps or sacrifice crops to distract them from the main crop . They can be a nuisance in urban areas due to destruction of property . They maintain their bills in the wild by chewing on wood but , in suburbia , they may chew outdoor furniture , door and window frames ; soft decorative timbers such as western red cedar are readily demolished . Birds may also target external wiring and fixtures such as solar water heaters , television antennae and satellite dishes . A business in central Melbourne suffered as sulphur @-@ crested cockatoos repeatedly stripped the silicone sealant from the plate glass windows . Galahs and red @-@ tailed black cockatoos have stripped electrical cabling in rural areas and tarpaulin is targeted elsewhere . Outside Australia , the Tanimbar corella is a pest on Yamdena Island where it raids maize crops .
In 1995 the Government of the state of Victoria published a report on problems caused by long @-@ billed corellas , sulphur @-@ crested cockatoos and galahs , three species which , along with the little corella , have large and growing populations , having benefited from anthropogenic changes to the landscape . Subsequent to the findings and publication of the report , these three species were declared unprotected by a Governor in Council Order under certain conditions and are allowed to be destroyed where serious damage is being caused by them to trees , vineyards , orchards , recreational reserves and commercial crops . Damage covered by the report included not only that to cereal crops , fruit and nut orchards and some kinds of vegetable crops but also to houses and communications equipment . The little corella is a declared pest of agriculture in Western Australia , where it is an aviculturally introduced species . The birds damage sorghum , maize , sunflower , chickpeas and other crops . They also defoliate amenity trees in parks and gardens , dig for edible roots and corms on sports grounds and race tracks , as well as chew wiring and household fittings . In South Australia , where flocks can number several thousand birds and the species is listed as unprotected , they are accused of defoliating red gums and other native or ornamental trees used for roosting , damaging tarpaulins on grain bunkers , wiring and flashing on buildings , taking grain from newly seeded paddocks and creating a noise nuisance .
Several rare species and subspecies , too , have been recorded as causing problems . The Carnaby 's black cockatoo , a threatened Western Australian endemic , has been considered a pest in pine plantations where the birds chew off the leading shoots of growing pine trees , resulting in bent trunks and reduced timber value . They are also known to damage nut and fruit crops , and have learnt to exploit canola crops . The Baudin 's black cockatoo , also endemic to the south @-@ west of Western Australia , can be a pest in apple and pear orchards where it destroys the fruit to extract the seeds . Muir 's corella , the nominate subspecies of the western corella , is also a declared pest of agriculture in Western Australia , as well as being nationally vulnerable and listed under state legislation as being " rare or likely to become extinct " .
= = = Status and conservation = = =
According to the IUCN and BirdLife International , seven species of cockatoo are considered to be vulnerable or worse and one is considered to be near threatened . Of these , two species — the red @-@ vented cockatoo and the yellow @-@ crested cockatoo — are considered to be critically endangered .
The principal threats to cockatoos are habitat loss and the wildlife trade . All cockatoos are dependent on trees for nesting and are vulnerable to their loss ; in addition many species have specialised habitat requirements or live on small islands and have naturally small ranges , making them vulnerable to the loss of these habitats . Cockatoos are popular as pets and the capture and trade has threatened some species ; between 1983 and 1990 , 66 @,@ 654 recorded salmon @-@ crested cockatoos were exported from Indonesia , a figure that does not include the number of birds caught for the domestic trade or that were exported illegally . The capture of many species has subsequently been banned but the trade continues illegally . Birds are put in crates or bamboo tubing and conveyed on boats out of Indonesia and the Philippines . Not only are the rare species smuggled out of Indonesia but also common and rare cockatoos alike are smuggled out of Australia ; birds are sedated , covered in nylon stockings and packed into PVC tubing which is then placed in unaccompanied luggage on international flights . Mortality is significant ( 30 % ) and eggs , more easily hidden on the bodies of smugglers on flights , are increasingly smuggled instead . Trafficking is thought to be run by organised gangs , who also trade Australian species for overseas species such as macaws coming the other way .
All species of cockatoo except the cockatiel are protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) , which restricts import and export of wild @-@ caught parrots to special licensed purposes . Five cockatoo species ( including all subspecies ) — the Tanimbar corella ( Cacatua goffiniana ) , red @-@ vented cockatoo ( Cacatua haematuropygia ) , Moluccan cockatoo ( Cacatua moluccensis ) , yellow @-@ crested cockatoo ( Cacatua sulphurea ) and palm cockatoo ( Probosciger aterrimus ) — are protected on the CITES Appendix I list . With the exception of the cockatiel , all remaining cockatoo species are protected on the CITES Appendix II list .
= = = Aviculture = = =
Kept for their appearance , their intelligence and engaging personalities , cockatoos can nonetheless be problematic pets or companion parrots . Generally , they are not good at mimicking human speech , although the little corella is a renowned talker . As social animals , wild cockatoos have been known to learn human speech from ex @-@ captive birds that have integrated into a flock . Their care is best provided by those experienced in keeping parrots . Cockatoos are social animals and their social needs are difficult to cater for , and they can suffer if kept in a cage on their own for long periods of time .
The cockatiel is by far the cockatoo species most frequently kept in captivity . Among U.S. bird keepers that participated in a survey by APPMA in 2003 / 04 , 39 % had cockatiels , as opposed to only 3 % that had ( other ) cockatoo species . The white cockatoos are more often encountered in aviculture than the black cockatoos . Black cockatoos are rarely seen in European zoos due to export restrictions on Australian wildlife but birds seized by governments have been loaned .
Cockatoos are often very affectionate with their owner and at times other people but can demand a great deal of attention . Furthermore , their intense curiosity means they must be given a steady supply of objects to tinker with , chew , dismantle and destroy . Parrots in captivity may suffer from boredom , which can lead to stereotypic behaviour patterns , such as feather @-@ plucking . Feather plucking is likely to stem from psychological rather than physical causes . Other major drawbacks include their painful bites , and their piercing screeches . The salmon @-@ crested and white cockatoo species are particular offenders . All cockatoos have a fine powder on their feathers , which may induce allergies in certain people . In general , the smaller cockatoo species such as Goffin 's and quieter Galah 's cockatoos are much easier to keep as pets . The cockatiel is one of the most popular and easiest parrots to keep as a pet , and many colour mutations are available in aviculture .
The larger cockatoos can live 30 – 70 years depending on the species or occasionally longer and cockatiels can live for about 20 years . As pets they require a long @-@ term commitment from their owners . Their longevity is considered a positive trait as it reduces instances of the loss of a pet . The oldest cockatoo in captivity is a Major Mitchell 's cockatoo named ' Cookie ' , residing at Brookfield Zoo in Chicago , which celebrated its 82nd birthday in June 2015 . A salmon @-@ crested cockatoo named ' King Tut ' who resided at San Diego Zoo was nearly 69 when he died in 1990 and a palm cockatoo reached 56 in London Zoo in 2000 . However , anecdotal reports describe birds of much greater ages . ' Cocky Bennett ' of Tom Ugly 's Point in Sydney was a celebrated sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo who was reported to have reached an age of 100 years or more . He had lost his feathers and was naked for much of his life . A palm cockatoo was reported to have reached 80 or 90 years of age in an Australian zoo , and a little corella that was removed from a nest in central Australia in 1904 was reported still alive in the late 1970s . In February 2010 , a white cockatoo named ' Arthur ' was claimed to be 90 years old ; he had lived with a family for generations in Dalaguete , Cebu , before being taken to Cebu City Zoo .
Trained cockatoos are sometimes seen in bird shows in zoos . They are generally less motivated by food than other birds ; some may more respond to petting or praise than food . Cockatoos can often be taught to wear a parrot harness , enabling their owners to take them outdoors . Cockatoos have been used in animal @-@ assisted therapy , generally in nursing homes .
Cockatoos often have pronounced responses to musical sounds and numerous videos exist showing the birds dancing to popular music . Research conducted in 2008 with an Eleonora cockatoo named Snowball had indicated that this particular individual is indeed capable of beat induction — perceiving human @-@ created music and synchronizing his body movements to the beat .
= = = Culture = = =
An early European depiction of a cockatoo is present in the 1496 painting by Andrea Mantegna titled Madonna della Vittoria . Later examples were painted by Hungarian artist Jakob Bogdani ( 1660 – 1724 ) , who resided in Amsterdam from 1683 and then England , and appeared with numerous other birds in the bird pieces of the Dutch painter Melchior d 'Hondecoeter ( 1636 – 1695 ) . A cockatoo is the unlucky subject in An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump by English artist Joseph Wright of Derby , its fate unclear in the painting . Cockatoos were among the many Australian plants and animals which featured in decorative motifs in Federation architecture of the early 20th century . A visit to a Camden Town pet shop in 1958 inspired English painter William Roberts to paint The Cockatoos , in the collection of the Tate Gallery . American artist and sculptor Joseph Cornell was known for placing cutout paper cockatoos in his works .
The ACT Government adopted the gang @-@ gang cockatoo as its official faunal emblem on 27 February 1997 . The short @-@ lived budget airline Impulse Airlines featured a sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo on its corporate livery ( and aeroplanes ) . The palm cockatoo , which has a unique beak and face colouration , is used as a symbol by the World Parrot Trust .
Two 1970s police dramas featured protagonists with pet cockatoos . In the 1973 film Serpico , Al Pacino 's character had a pet white cockatoo and the television show Baretta saw Robert Blake 's character with Fred the Triton cockatoo . The popularity of the latter show saw a corresponding rise in popularity of cockatoos as pets in the late 1970s . Cockatoos have been used frequently in advertising ; a cockatoo appeared in a ' cheeky ' ( and later toned down ) 2008 advertising campaign for Cockatoo Ridge Wineries .
= = = Intelligence = = =
A team of scientists from Oxford University , the University of Vienna and the Max Planck Institute conducted tests on ten untrained Tanimbar corellas ( Cacatua goffini ) , and found that they were able to solve complex mechanical puzzles .
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= Duke University =
Duke University is a private research university located in Durham , North Carolina , United States . Founded by Methodists and Quakers in the present @-@ day town of Trinity in 1838 , the school moved to Durham in 1892 . In 1924 , tobacco and electric power industrialist James Buchanan Duke established the Duke Endowment , at which time the institution changed its name to honor his deceased father , Washington Duke .
The university 's campus spans over 8 @,@ 600 acres ( 3 @,@ 500 hectares ) on three contiguous campuses in Durham as well as a marine lab in Beaufort . Duke 's main campus — designed largely by architect Julian Abele — incorporates Gothic architecture with the 210 @-@ foot ( 64 @-@ meter ) Duke Chapel at the campus ' center and highest point of elevation . The first @-@ year @-@ populated East Campus contains Georgian @-@ style architecture , while the main Gothic @-@ style West Campus 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 kilometers ) away is adjacent to the Medical Center . Duke is the 7th wealthiest private university in America with $ 11 @.@ 4 billion in cash and investments in fiscal year 2014 .
Duke 's research expenditures in the 2014 fiscal year were $ 1 @.@ 037 billion , the seventh largest in the nation . In 2014 , Thomson Reuters named 32 Duke professors to its list of Highly Cited Researchers , making it fourth globally in terms of primary affiliations . Duke also ranks 5th among national universities to have produced Rhodes , Marshall , Truman , Goldwater , and Udall Scholars . Ten Nobel laureates and three Turing Award winners are affiliated with the university . Duke 's sports teams compete in the Atlantic Coast Conference and the basketball team is renowned for having won five NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championships , the most recent in 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
Duke started in 1838 as Brown 's Schoolhouse , a private subscription school founded in Randolph County in the present @-@ day town of Trinity . Organized by the Union Institute Society , a group of Methodists and Quakers , Brown 's Schoolhouse became the Union Institute Academy in 1841 when North Carolina issued a charter . The academy was renamed Normal College in 1851 and then Trinity College in 1859 because of support from the Methodist Church . In 1892 , Trinity College moved to Durham , largely due to generosity from Julian S. Carr and Washington Duke , powerful and respected Methodists who had grown wealthy through the tobacco and electrical industries . Carr donated land in 1892 for the original Durham campus , which is now known as East Campus . At the same time , Washington Duke gave the school $ 85 @,@ 000 for an initial endowment and construction costs — later augmenting his generosity with three separate $ 100 @,@ 000 contributions in 1896 , 1899 , and 1900 — with the stipulation that the college " open its doors to women , placing them on an equal footing with men . "
In 1924 Washington Duke 's son , James B. Duke , established The Duke Endowment with a $ 40 million trust fund . Income from the fund was to be distributed to hospitals , orphanages , the Methodist Church , and four colleges ( including Trinity College ) . William Preston Few , the president of Trinity at the time , insisted that the institution be renamed Duke University to honor the family 's generosity and to distinguish it from the myriad other colleges and universities carrying the " Trinity " name . At first , James B. Duke thought the name change would come off as self @-@ serving , but eventually he accepted Few 's proposal as a memorial to his father . Money from the endowment allowed the University to grow quickly . Duke 's original campus , East Campus , was rebuilt from 1925 to 1927 with Georgian @-@ style buildings . By 1930 , the majority of the Collegiate Gothic @-@ style buildings on the campus one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west were completed , and construction on West Campus culminated with the completion of Duke Chapel in 1935 .
In 1878 , Trinity ( in Randolph County ) awarded A.B. degrees to three sisters — Mary , Persis , and Theresa Giles — who had studied both with private tutors and in classes with men . With the relocation of the college in 1892 , the Board of Trustees voted to again allow women to be formally admitted to classes as day students . At the time of Washington Duke 's donation in 1896 , which carried the requirement that women be placed " on an equal footing with men " at the college , four women were enrolled ; three of the four were faculty members ' children . In 1903 Washington Duke wrote to the Board of Trustees withdrawing the provision , noting that it had been the only limitation he had ever put on a donation to the college . A woman 's residential dormitory was built in 1897 and named the Mary Duke Building , after Washington Duke 's daughter . By 1904 , fifty @-@ four women were enrolled in the college . In 1930 , the Woman 's College was established as a coordinate to the men 's undergraduate college , which had been established and named Trinity College in 1924 .
= = = Expansion and growth = = =
Engineering , which had been taught since 1903 , became a separate school in 1939 . In athletics , Duke hosted and competed in the only Rose Bowl ever played outside California in Wallace Wade Stadium in 1942 . During World War II , Duke was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V @-@ 12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission . In 1963 the Board of Trustees officially desegregated the undergraduate college . Increased activism on campus during the 1960s prompted Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr. to speak at the University in November 1964 on the progress of the civil rights movement . Following Douglas Knight 's resignation from the office of university president , Terry Sanford , the former governor of North Carolina , was elected president of the university in 1969 , propelling the Fuqua School of Business 's opening , the William R. Perkins library completion , and the founding of the Institute of Policy Sciences and Public Affairs ( now the Sanford School of Public Policy ) . The separate Woman 's College merged back with Trinity as the liberal arts college for both men and women in 1972 . Beginning in the 1970s , Duke administrators began a long @-@ term effort to strengthen Duke 's reputation both nationally and internationally . Interdisciplinary work was emphasized , as was recruiting minority faculty and students . During this time it also became the birthplace of the first Physician Assistant degree program in the United States . Duke University Hospital was finished in 1980 and the student union building was fully constructed two years later . In 1986 the men 's soccer team captured Duke 's first National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) championship , and the men 's basketball team followed shortly thereafter with championships in 1991 and 1992 , then again in 2001 , 2010 , and 2015 .
The university 's campus spans 8 @,@ 547 acres ( 34 @.@ 59 km2 ) on three contiguous campuses in Durham as well as a marine lab in Beaufort . Duke 's main campus — designed largely by African American architect Julian Abele — incorporates Gothic architecture with the 210 @-@ foot ( 64 m ) Duke Chapel at the campus ' center and highest point of elevation . The forest environs surrounding parts of the campus belie the University 's proximity to downtown Durham . Construction projects have updated both the freshmen @-@ populated Georgian @-@ style East Campus and the main Gothic @-@ style West Campus , as well as the adjacent Medical Center over the past five years .
= = = Recent history = = =
Duke 's growth and academic focus have contributed to continuing the university 's reputation as an academic and research powerhouse .
In summer 2014 , Duke Kunshan University ( DKU ) opened in Kunshan , China . DKU blends liberal education with Chinese tradition in a new approach to elite higher education in China . The DKU will conduct research projects on climate change , health @-@ care policy and tuberculosis prevention and control .
In August 2005 , Duke established a partnership with the National University of Singapore to develop a joint medical program , which had its first entering class in 2007 .
The university is part way through Duke Forward , a seven @-@ year fundraising campaign that aims to raise $ 3 @.@ 25 billion by June 30 , 2017 , to enrich the student experience in and out of the classroom , invest in faculty and support research and initiatives . Every dollar donated to Duke 's ten schools and units , Duke Medicine or university programs and initiatives counts toward the campaign 's goal .
Among academic achievements at Duke , three students were named Rhodes Scholars in both 2002 and 2006 , a number surpassed only by Harvard in 2002 and the United States Military Academy in 2006 . Overall , Duke has produced 45 Rhodes Scholars through 2015 , including 24 between 1990 and 2015 .
Also , the first working demonstration of an invisibility cloak was unveiled by Duke researchers in October 2006 . In 2006 , three men 's lacrosse team members were falsely accused of rape , which garnered significant media attention . On April 11 , 2007 , North Carolina Attorney General Roy Cooper dropped all charges and declared the three players innocent . Cooper stated that the charged players were victims of a " tragic rush to accuse . "
The university has " historical , formal , on @-@ going , and symbolic ties " with the United Methodist Church , but is a nonsectarian and independent institution .
= = Campus = =
Duke University owns 254 buildings on 8 @,@ 547 acres ( 34 @.@ 59 km2 ) of land , which includes the 7 @,@ 044 acres ( 28 @.@ 51 km2 ) Duke Forest . The campus is divided into four main areas : West , East , and Central campuses and the Medical Center , which are all connected via a free bus service . On the Atlantic coast in Beaufort , Duke owns 15 acres ( 61 @,@ 000 m2 ) as part of its marine lab . One of the major public attractions on the main campus is the 54 @-@ acre ( 220 @,@ 000 m2 ) Sarah P. Duke Gardens , established in the 1930s .
Duke students often refer to the campus as " the Gothic Wonderland , " a nickname referring to the Collegiate Gothic architecture of West Campus . Much of the campus was designed by Julian Abele , one of the first prominent African @-@ American architects and the chief designer in the offices of architect Horace Trumbauer . The residential quadrangles are of an early and somewhat unadorned design , while the buildings in the academic quadrangles show influences of the more elaborate late French and Italian styles . The freshmen campus ( East Campus ) is composed of buildings in the Georgian architecture style . In 2011 , Travel + Leisure listed Duke among the most beautiful college campuses in the United States .
The stone used for West Campus has seven primary colors and seventeen shades of color . The university supervisor of planning and construction wrote that the stone has " an older , more attractive antique effect " and a " warmer and softer coloring than the Princeton stone " that gave the university an " artistic look . " James B. Duke initially suggested the use of stone from a quarry in Princeton , New Jersey , but later amended the plans to purchase a local quarry in Hillsborough to reduce costs . Duke Chapel stands at the center of West Campus on the highest ridge . Constructed from 1930 to 1935 , the chapel seats 1 @,@ 600 people and , at 210 feet ( 64 m ) is one of the tallest buildings in Durham County .
A number of construction projects were in progress during 2015 , including renovations to Duke Chapel , Wallace Wade Stadium ( football ) and Cameron Indoor Stadium ( basketball ) .
In early 2014 , the Nicholas School of the Environment opened a new home , Environmental Hall , a five @-@ story , glass @-@ and @-@ concrete building that incorporates the highest sustainable features and technologies , and meets or exceeds the criteria for LEED platinum certification . The School of Nursing in April 2014 opened a new 45 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot addition to the Christine Siegler Pearson Building . In summer 2014 , a number of construction projects were completed or else in full swing , including renovations to the David M. Rubenstein David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library , housed in Duke 's original West Campus library building . The project is part of the final phase of renovations to Duke 's West Campus libraries that will transform one of the university 's oldest and most recognizable buildings into a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art research facility . Renovation work began in late 2012 ; opening is scheduled for 2015 .
In 2013 construction projects included transforming buildings like Gross Hall and Baldwin Auditorium , plus new construction such as the Events Pavilion . About 125 @,@ 000 square feet was updated at Gross Hall , including new lighting and windows and a skylight . Baldwin 's upgrades include a larger stage , more efficient air conditioning for performers and audience and enhanced acoustics that will allow for the space to be " tuned " to each individual performance . The 25 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot Events Pavilion opened to students in 2013 and serves as temporary dining space while the West Campus Union undergoes major renovations , expected to be completed in the spring of 2016 . From February 2001 to November 2005 , Duke spent $ 835 million on 34 major construction projects as part of a five @-@ year strategic plan , " Building on Excellence . " Completed projects since 2002 include major additions to the business , law , nursing , and divinity schools , a new library , the Nasher Museum of Art , a football training facility , two residential buildings , an engineering complex , a public policy building , an eye institute , two genetic research buildings , a student plaza , the French Family Science Center , and two new medical @-@ research buildings .
In early 2012 , the Duke Cancer Center opened next to Duke Hospital in Durham , N.C. The patient care facility consolidates nearly all of Duke 's outpatient clinical care services .
= = = West , East , and Central Campuses = = =
West Campus , considered the main campus of the University , houses the majority of the sophomores , along with some juniors and seniors . Most of the academic and administrative centers are located there . Main West Campus , with Duke Chapel at its center , contains the majority of residential quads to the south , while the main academic quad , library , and Medical Center are to the north . The campus , spanning 720 acres ( 2 @.@ 9 km2 ) , includes Science Drive , which is the location of science and engineering buildings . The residential quads on West Campus are Craven Quad , Crowell Quad , Edens Quad , Few Quad , Keohane Quad , Kilgo Quad , and Wannamaker Quad . Most of the campus eateries and sports facilities — including the historic basketball stadium , Cameron Indoor Stadium — are on West Campus .
East Campus , the original location of Duke after it moved to Durham , functions as a first @-@ year campus as well as the home of several academic departments . Since the 1995 – 96 academic year , all freshmen — and only freshmen , except for upperclassmen serving as Resident Assistants — have lived on East Campus , an effort to build class unity . The campus encompasses 97 acres ( 390 @,@ 000 m2 ) and is 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from West Campus . The Art History , History , Cultural Anthropology , Literature , Music , Philosophy , and Women 's Studies Departments are housed on East . Programs such as dance , drama , education , film , and the University Writing Program reside on East . The self @-@ sufficient East Campus contains the freshman residence halls , a dining hall , coffee shop , post office , Lilly Library , Baldwin Auditorium , a theater , Brodie Gym , tennis courts , several disc golf baskets , and a walking track as well as several academic buildings . The East Campus dorms are Alspaugh , Basset , Bell Tower , Blackwell , Brown , East House ( formerly known as Aycock ) , Epworth , Gilbert @-@ Addoms , Giles , Jarvis , Pegram , Randolph , Southgate , and Wilson . Separated from downtown by a short walk , the area was the site of the Women 's College from 1930 to 1972 .
Central Campus , consisting of 122 acres ( 0 @.@ 49 km2 ) between East and West campuses , houses around 1 @,@ 000 sophomores , juniors , and seniors , as well as around 200 professional students in double or quadruple apartments . There are 26 specific houses , accommodating 22 selective living groups ( sororities and fraternities ) , 3 independent houses and 1 administrative house . Central Campus is home to the Nasher Museum of Art , the Freeman Center for Jewish Life , the Center for Muslim Life , the Duke Police Department , the Duke Office of Disability Management , a Ronald McDonald House , and administrative departments such as Duke Residence Life and Housing Services . Central Campus has several recreation and social facilities such as basketball courts , a sand volleyball court , a turf field , barbecue grills and picnic shelters , a general gathering building called " Devil 's Den " , a restaurant known as " Devil 's Bistro " , a convenience store called Uncle Harry 's , and the Mill Village . The Mill Village consists of a gym and group study rooms .
Since 2005 , there has been a long @-@ term plan in place to restructure Central Campus over the subsequent 20 to 50 years . The idea is to develop an " academic village " as a key center for the Duke community . This academic village will provide living arrangements for undergraduate , graduate , and professional students and some faculty , plus dining , recreation , and academic support spaces while serving as a living laboratory for sustainability .
= = = Key places = = =
Duke Forest , established in 1931 , consists of 7 @,@ 044 acres ( 28 @.@ 51 km2 ) in six divisions , just west of West Campus . The largest private research forest in North Carolina and one of the largest in the nation , the Duke Forest demonstrates a variety of forest stand types and silvicultural treatments . Duke Forest is used extensively for research and includes the Aquatic Research Facility , Forest Carbon Transfer and Storage ( FACTS @-@ I ) research facility , two permanent towers suitable for micrometerological studies , and other areas designated for animal behavior and ecosystem study . More than 30 miles ( 48 km ) of trails are open to the public for hiking , cycling , and horseback riding .
The Duke Lemur Center , located inside the Duke Forest , is the world 's largest sanctuary for rare and endangered strepsirrhine primates . Founded in 1966 , the Duke Lemur Center spans 85 acres ( 34 ha ) and contains nearly 300 animals of 25 different species of lemurs , galagos and lorises .
The Sarah P. Duke Gardens , established in the early 1930s , is situated between West Campus and the apartments of Central Campus . The gardens occupy 55 acres ( 22 ha ) , divided into four major sections : the original Terraces and their surroundings ; the H.L. Blomquist Garden of Native Plants , devoted to flora of the Southeastern United States ; the W.L. Culberson Asiatic Arboretum , housing plants of Eastern Asia , as well as disjunct species found in Eastern Asia and Eastern North America ; and the Doris Duke Center Gardens . There are five miles ( 8 km ) of allées and paths throughout the gardens .
Duke University Medical Center , bordering Duke 's West Campus northern boundary , combines one of the top @-@ rated hospitals and one of the top @-@ ranked medical schools in the U.S. Founded in 1930 , the Medical Center occupies 8 million square feet ( 700 @,@ 000 m ² ) in 99 buildings on 210 acres ( 85 ha ) .
Duke University Marine Laboratory , located in the town of Beaufort , North Carolina , is also technically part of Duke 's campus . The marine lab is situated on Pivers Island on the Outer Banks of North Carolina , 150 yards ( 140 m ) across the channel from Beaufort . Duke 's interest in the area began in the early 1930s and the first buildings were erected in 1938 . The resident faculty represent the disciplines of oceanography , marine biology , marine biomedicine , marine biotechnology , and coastal marine policy and management . The Marine Laboratory is a member of the National Association of Marine Laboratories . In May 2014 , the newly built Orrin H. Pilkey Marine Research Laboratory was dedicated .
= = Administration and organization = =
Duke University has 12 schools and institutes , two of which are for undergraduates : Trinity College of Arts and Sciences and Pratt School of Engineering .
Duke 's endowment had a market value of $ 7 @.@ 0 billion in the fiscal year that ended June 30 , 2014 . The University 's special academic facilities include an art museum , several language labs , the Duke Forest , the Duke Herbarium , a lemur center , a phytotron , a free electron laser , a nuclear magnetic resonance machine , a nuclear lab , and a marine lab . Duke is a leading participant in the National Lambda Rail Network and runs a program for gifted children known as the Talent Identification Program .
= = Academics = =
= = = Admissions = = =
Admission to Duke is defined by U.S. News & World Report as " most selective " ; Duke received over 28 @,@ 000 applications for the Class of 2020 , and admitted 10 @.@ 4 % of applicants . According to The Huffington Post , Duke was one of the ten toughest universities in the United States to get into based on admissions data from 2010 . The yield rate ( the percentage of accepted students who choose to attend the university ) is approximately 50 % . For the class of 2015 , 90 % of enrolled students ranked in the top 10 % of their high school classes ; 97 % ranked in the top quarter . The middle 50 % range of SAT scores for the prospective students accepted to Trinity College of Arts and Sciences in fall 2014 is 680 – 790 for verbal / critical reading , 700 – 800 for math , and 700 – 790 for writing , while the ACT Composite range is 31 – 35 . For those accepted to the Pratt School of Engineering , the middle 50 % range for the SAT is 700 – 780 for verbal / critical reading , 760 – 800 for math , and 720 – 800 for writing , while the ACT Composite range is 33 – 35 . The average SAT score is 2240 .
From 2001 to 2011 , Duke has had the sixth highest number of Fulbright , Rhodes , Truman , and Goldwater scholarships in the nation among private universities . The University practices need @-@ blind admissions and meets 100 % of admitted students ' demonstrated need . About 50 percent of all Duke students receive some form of financial aid , which includes need @-@ based aid , athletic aid , and merit aid . The average need @-@ based grant for the 2013 – 14 academic year was nearly $ 39 @,@ 275 . Roughly 60 merit @-@ based scholarships are also offered , including the Angier B. Duke Memorial Scholarship , awarded for academic excellence . Other scholarships are geared toward students in North Carolina , African @-@ American students , and high @-@ achieving students requiring financial aid .
= = = Graduate profile = = =
In 2009 , the School of Medicine received 5 @,@ 166 applications and accepted approximately 4 % of them , while the average GPA and MCAT scores for accepted students from 2002 through 2009 were 3 @.@ 74 and 34 , respectively . The School of Law accepted approximately 13 % of its applicants for the Class of 2014 , while enrolling students had a median GPA of 3 @.@ 75 and median LSAT of 170 .
The University 's graduate and professional schools include the Graduate School , the Pratt School of Engineering , the Nicholas School of the Environment , the School of Medicine , the Duke @-@ NUS Graduate Medical School , the School of Nursing , the Fuqua School of Business , the School of Law , the Divinity School , and the Sanford School of Public Policy .
= = = Undergraduate curriculum = = =
Duke offers 46 arts and sciences majors , four engineering majors , 52 Minors ( including two in engineering ) and Program II , which allows students to design their own interdisciplinary major in arts & sciences , and IDEAS , which allows students to design their own engineering major . Twenty @-@ four certificate programs also are available . Students pursue a major , and can pursue a combination of a total of up to three including minors , certificates , and / or a second major . Eighty @-@ five percent of undergraduates enroll in the Trinity College of Arts and Sciences , while the rest are in the Pratt School of Engineering .
Trinity 's curriculum operates under the revised version of " Curriculum 2000 . " It ensures that students are exposed to a variety of " areas of knowledge " and " modes of inquiry . " The curriculum aims to help students develop critical faculties and judgment by learning how to access , synthesize , and communicate knowledge effectively . The intent is to assist students in acquiring perspective on current and historical events , conducting research and solving problems , and developing tenacity and a capacity for hard and sustained work . Freshmen can elect to participate in the FOCUS Program , which allows students to engage in an interdisciplinary exploration of a specific topic in a small group setting .
Pratt 's curriculum is narrower in scope , but still accommodates double majors in a variety of disciplines . The school emphasizes undergraduate research — opportunities for hands @-@ on experiences arise through internships , fellowship programs , and the structured curriculum . More than 27 percent of Pratt undergraduates study abroad , small compared to about half of Trinity undergraduates , but much larger than the recent national average for engineering students ( 3 @.@ 2 % ) .
= = = Libraries and museums = = =
Duke Libraries , one of the nation 's top 10 private research library systems , includes the Perkins , Bostock , and Rubenstein Libraries on West Campus , the Lilly and Music Libraries on East Campus , the Pearse Memorial Library at the Duke Marine Lab , and the separately administered libraries serving the schools of business , divinity , law and medicine .
Duke 's art collections are housed at the Nasher Museum of Art on Central Campus . The museum was designed by Rafael Viñoly and is named for Duke alumnus and art collector Raymond Nasher . The museum opened in 2005 at a cost of over $ 23 million and contains over 13 @,@ 000 works of art , including works by William Cordova , Marlene Dumas , Olafur Eliasson , David Hammons , Barkley L. Hendricks , Christian Marclay , Kerry James Marshall , D Alma Thomas , Hank Willis Thomas , Bob Thompson , Kara Walker , Andy Warhol , Carrie Mae Weems , Ai Weiwei , Fred Wilson and Lynette Yiadom Boakye .
= = = Research = = =
Duke 's research expenditures in the 2014 fiscal year were $ 1 @.@ 037 billion , the seventh largest in the nation . In the 2013 fiscal year , Duke University Medical Center received $ 270 million in funding from the National Institutes of Health ( exclusive of contracts and Economic Stimulus Program awards ) .
Duke 's faculty is among the most productive in the nation . Throughout the school 's history , Duke researchers have made breakthroughs , including the biomedical engineering department 's development of the world 's first real @-@ time , three @-@ dimensional ultrasound diagnostic system and the first engineered blood vessels and stents . In 2015 , Paul Modrich shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry . In 2012 , Robert Lefkowitz along with Brian Kobilka , who is also a former affiliate , shared the Nobel Prize in chemistry for their work on cell surface receptors . In the mechanical engineering department , Adrian Bejan developed the constructal theory , which explains the shapes that arise in nature . Duke has pioneered studies involving nonlinear dynamics , chaos , and complex systems in physics . In May 2006 Duke researchers mapped the final human chromosome , which made world news as the Human Genome Project was finally complete . Reports of Duke researchers ' involvement in new AIDS vaccine research surfaced in June 2006 . The biology department combines two historically strong programs in botany and zoology , while one of the divinity school 's leading theologians is Stanley Hauerwas , whom Time named " America 's Best Theologian " in 2001 . The graduate program in literature boasts several internationally renowned figures , including Fredric Jameson , Michael Hardt , and Rey Chow , while philosophers Robert Brandon and Lakatos Award @-@ winner Alexander Rosenberg contribute to Duke 's ranking as the nation 's best program in philosophy of biology , according to the Philosophical Gourmet Report .
The Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index ranked Duke 's faculty first in the nation in the fields of Oncology and Cancer Biology , Biomedical Engineering and , Applied Economics . The Public Policy , Statistics , Chemistry , Environmental Science , Medicine and Molecular Genetics departments ( among others ) all ranked in the top five . Several other departments including Electrical Engineering , Mechanical Engineering and Nursing ranked in the top ten .
= = = Reputation and rankings = = =
= = = = Undergraduate rankings = = = =
In the 2016 U.S. News & World Report ranking of undergraduate programs at doctoral granting institutions , Duke was ranked 8th . USA Today ranked Duke 3rd in the United States , while Business Insider ranked the university 7th . In the past twenty years , U.S. News & World Report has placed Duke as high as 3rd and as low as 10th . In 2014 , Duke was ranked 1st in the United States for majors in economics and psychology , and 10th overall for computer science and engineering .
In 2015 , Duke was ranked 29th in the world by the QS World University Rankings and 20th in the world by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings . Duke was ranked the 14th @-@ best university in the world by Newsweek and 31st best globally by Shanghai Jiao Tong University 's Academic Ranking of World Universities ( ARWU ) in 2014 , focusing on quality of scientific research and the number of Nobel Prizes . The university also ranks 22nd in the world on the alternative Academic Ranking of World Universities which excludes Nobel Prize and Fields Medal indicators . The Wall Street Journal ranked Duke sixth ( fifth among universities ) in its " feeder " rankings in 2006 , analyzing the percentage of undergraduates that enroll in what it considers the top five medical , law , and business schools . The 2010 report by the Center for Measuring University Performance puts Duke at 6th in the nation .
The 2011 Global Employability Ranking as published by The New York Times surveyed hundreds of chief executives and chairmen from around the world and asked them to select the best universities from which they recruited . Duke placed 13th in the world and 9th in the country .
In 2013 , Duke enrolled 139 National Merit Scholars , the 6th university in rank by number . Duke ranks 5th among national universities to have produced Rhodes , Marshall , Truman , Goldwater , and Udall Scholars . As of 2012 , Duke graduates have received 25 Churchill Scholarships to the University of Cambridge . Only graduates of Princeton and Harvard have received more Churchill awards . Kiplinger 's 50 Best Values in Private Universities 2013 – 14 ranks Duke at 5th best overall after taking financial aid into consideration .
According to a study by Forbes , Duke ranks 11th among universities that have produced billionaires and 1st among universities in the South . A survey by the Journal of Blacks in Higher Education in 2002 ranked Duke as the # 1 university in the country in regard to the integration of African American students and faculty . According to a poll of recruiters conducted by The Wall Street Journal , Duke ranks 2nd in terms of producing the best graduates who have received either a marketing or liberal arts degree . In a corporate study carried out by The New York Times , Duke 's graduates were shown to be among the most valued in the world , and Forbes magazine ranked Duke 7th in the world on its list of ' power factories ' in 2012 . Duke was ranked 17th on Thomson Reuters ' list of the world 's most innovative universities in 2015 . The ranking graded universities based on patent volume and research output among other factors . In 2015 , NPR ranked Duke first on its list of " schools that make financial sense " .Time Magazine ranked Duke third on its list of the " best 50 colleges for african americans " . The ranking was based on representation , affordability and post @-@ graduate earnings . In 2016 , Forbes ranked Duke sixth on its list of " Expensive Schools Worth Every Penny " .
= = = = Graduate school rankings = = = =
In U.S. News & World Report 's " America 's Best Graduate Schools 2017 , " Duke 's medical school ranked tied for 8th in research and 8th in primary care . The School of Law was ranked 11th in the 2017 rankings by the same publication , with Duke 's nursing school ranked tied for 4th while the Sanford School of Public Policy ranked tied for 13th overall for 2017 . Among business schools in the United States , the Fuqua School of Business was ranked tied for 12th overall by U.S. News & World Report for 2017 , while BusinessWeek ranked its full @-@ time MBA program 1st in the nation in 2014 . The graduate program for the Pratt School of Engineering was ranked 30th in the U.S. by U.S. News & World Report in its 2017 rankings .
Times Higher Education ranked the mathematics department tenth in the world in 2011 . Duke 's graduate level specialties that are ranked among the top ten in the nation include areas in the following departments : biological sciences , medicine , nursing , engineering , law , business , English , history , physics , statistics , public affairs , physician assistant ( ranked # 1 ) , clinical psychology , political science , and sociology . In 2007 , Duke was ranked 22nd in the world by Wuhan University 's Research Center for Chinese Science Evaluation . The ranking was based on journal article publication counts and citation frequencies in over 11 @,@ 000 academic journals from around the world . A 2012 study conducted by academic analytics ranks Duke fourth in the nation ( behind only Harvard , Stanford , and MIT ) in terms of faculty productivity . In 2013 , Duke Law ranked 6th in Forbes magazine 's ranking of law schools whose graduates earn the highest starting salaries . T In 2013 , Duke 's Fuqua School of Business was ranked 6th in terms of graduate starting salaries by U.S. News & World Report . In the same year , a ranking compiled by the University of Texas at Dallas ranked Fuqua 5th in the world based on the research productivity of its faculty . The MEM ( Masters in Engineering Management ) program has been ranked 3rd in the world by Eduniversal In 2013 , Forbes ranked Duke 4th in the nation in terms of return on investment ( ROI ) . The ranking used alumni giving as a criteria to determine which private colleges offer the best returns . In the same year , Above the Law ranked Duke Law 6th in the nation in its ranking of law schools based on employment outcomes In 2013 , Business Insider ranked Duke 's Fuqua School of Business 5th in the world based on an extensive survey of hiring professionals . In the same year , Forbes magazine ranked Fuqua 8th in the country based on return on investment . In 2014 , Linkedin named Duke the 3rd best undergraduate university in the U.S. for media professionals . Duke also ranked 4th for investment bankers , 7th for finance professional and 8th for software developers . The ranking was based on career outcomes . In 2014 , Duke was named the 20th best global research university according to rankings published by U.S. News & World Report and the University Ranking by Academic Performance published by Middle East Technical University . The U.S. News ranking was based on 10 indicators that measure academic research performance and global reputations . The University Ranking by Academic Performance uses citation data obtained from Thomson Reuters ' Web of Science to rank universities based on research output .
= = Student life = =
= = = Student body = = =
Duke 's student body consists of 6 @,@ 485 undergraduates and 8 @,@ 465 graduate and professional students ( as of fall 2015 ) .
= = = Residential life = = =
Duke requires its students to live on campus for the first three years of undergraduate life , except for a small percentage of second semester juniors who are exempted by a lottery system . This requirement is justified by the administration as an effort to help students connect more closely with one another and sustain a sense of belonging within the Duke community . Thus , 85 % of undergraduates live on campus . All freshmen are housed in one of 14 residences on East Campus . These buildings range in occupancy size from 50 ( Epworth — the oldest residence hall , built in 1892 as " the Inn " ) to 190 residents ( Gilbert @-@ Addoms ) . Most of these are in the Georgian style typical of the East Campus architecture . Although the newer residence halls differ in style , they still relate to East 's Georgian heritage . Learning communities connect the residential component of East Campus with students of similar academic and social interests . Similarly , students in FOCUS , a first @-@ year program that features courses clustered around a specific theme , live together in the same residence hall as other students in their cluster .
Sophomores , juniors and seniors can choose to reside on either West or Central campuses , although the majority of undergraduate seniors choose to live off campus . West Campus contains six quadrangles — the four along " Main " West were built in 1930s , while two newer ones have since been added . Central Campus provides housing for over 1 @,@ 000 students in apartment buildings . All housing on West and Central is organized into about 80 " houses " — sections of residence halls or clusters of apartments — to which students can return each year . House residents create their house identities . There are houses of unaffiliated students , as well as wellness houses and living @-@ learning communities that adopt a theme such as the arts or foreign languages . There are also numerous " selective living groups " on campus for students wanting self @-@ selected living arrangements . SLGs are residential groups similar to fraternities or sororities , except they are generally co @-@ ed and unaffiliated with any national organization . Many of them also revolve around a particular interest such as entrepreneurship , civic engagement or African @-@ American or Asian culture . Fifteen fraternities and nine sororities also are housed on campus , primarily on Central . Most of the non @-@ fraternity selective living groups are coeducational .
= = = Greek and social life = = =
About 30 % of undergraduate men and about 40 % of undergraduate women at Duke are members of fraternities and sororities . Most of the 17 Interfraternity Council recognized fraternity chapters live in sections within the residence halls . Starting in 2012 , the nine Panhellenic Association sorority chapters decided to live in houses ( clusters of apartments ) on Central Campus . Not all sorority members live with their chapters , though , as membership exceeds house space . Eight National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council ( historically African American ) fraternities and sororities also hold chapters at Duke . In addition , there are seven other fraternities and sororities that are a part of the Inter @-@ Greek Council , the multicultural Greek umbrella organization . Duke also has Selective Living Groups , or SLGs , on campus for students seeking informal residential communities often built around themes . SLGs are residential groups similar to fraternities or sororities , except they are generally co @-@ ed and unaffiliated with any national organizations . Fraternity chapters and SLGs frequently host social events in their residential sections , which are often open to non @-@ members .
In the late 1990s , a new keg policy was put into effect that requires all student groups to purchase kegs through Duke Dining Services . According to administrators , the rule change was intended as a way to ensure compliance with alcohol consumption laws as well as to increase on @-@ campus safety . Some students saw the administration 's increasingly strict policies as an attempt to alter social life at Duke . As a result , off @-@ campus parties at rented houses became more frequent in subsequent years as a way to avoid Duke policies . Many of these houses were situated in the midst of family neighborhoods , prompting residents to complain about excessive noise and other violations . Police have responded by breaking up parties at several houses , handing out citations , and occasionally arresting party @-@ goers . In the mid @-@ to @-@ late 2000s ( decade ) , the administration made a concerted effort to help students re @-@ establish a robust , on @-@ campus social life and has worked with numerous student groups , especially the Duke University Union , to feature a wide array of events and activities . In March 2006 , the university purchased 15 houses in the Trinity Park area that Duke students had typically rented and subsequently sold them to individual families in an effort to encourage renovations to the properties and to reduce off @-@ campus partying in the midst of residential neighborhoods .
Duke athletics , particularly men 's basketball , traditionally serves as a significant component of student life . Duke 's students have been recognized as some of the most creative and original fans in all of collegiate athletics . Students , often referred to as Cameron Crazies , show their support of the men 's basketball team by " tenting " for home games against key Atlantic Coast Conference rivals , especially University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill ( UNC ) . Because tickets to all varsity sports are free to students , they line up for hours before each game , often spending the night on the sidewalk . For a mid @-@ February game against UNC , some of the most eager students might even begin tenting before spring classes begin . The total number of participating tents is capped at 100 ( each tent can have up to 12 occupants ) , though interest is such that it could exceed that number if space permitted . Tenting involves setting up and inhabiting a tent on the grass near Cameron Indoor Stadium , an area known as Krzyzewskiville , or K @-@ ville for short . There are different categories of tenting based on the length of time and number of people who must be in the tent . At night , K @-@ ville often turns into the scene of a party or occasional concert . The men 's basketball coach , Mike Krzyzewski , occasionally buys pizza for the inhabitants of the tent village .
= = = Activities = = =
= = = = Student organizations = = = =
More than 400 student clubs and organizations operate on Duke 's campus . These include numerous student government , special interest , and service organizations . Duke Student Government ( DSG ) charters and provides most of the funding for other student groups and represents students ' interests when dealing with the administration . The Duke University Union ( DUU ) is the school 's primary programming organization , serving a center of social , cultural , intellectual and recreational life . Cultural groups are provided funding directly from the university via the Multicultural Center as well as other institutional funding sources . One of the most popular activities on campus is competing in sports . Duke has 37 sports clubs , and several intramural teams that are officially recognized . Performance groups such as Hoof ' n ' Horn , the country 's second oldest student @-@ run musical theater organization , a cappella groups , student bands , and theater organizations are also prominent on campus . The Duke University mock trial team won the national championship in 2012 . The Duke University Student Dining Advisory Committee provides guidance to the administration on issues regarding student dining , life , and restaurant choices.ױ
Cultural groups on campus include the Asian Students Association , Blue Devils United ( the student lesbian , gay , bisexual and transgender group ) , Black Student Alliance , Diya ( South Asian Association ) , Jewish Life at Duke , Mi Gente ( Latino Student Association ) , International Association / International Council , Muslim Student Association , Native American Student Coalition , Newman Catholic Student Center , Languages Dorm , and Students of the Caribbean .
= = = = Civic engagement = = = =
More than 75 percent of Duke students pursue service @-@ learning opportunities in Durham and around the world through DukeEngage and other programs that advance the university 's mission of " knowledge in service to society . " Launched in 2007 , DukeEngage provides full funding for select Duke undergraduates who wish to pursue an immersive summer of service in partnership with a U.S. or international community . As of summer 2013 , more than 2 @,@ 400 Duke students had volunteered through DukeEngage in 75 nations on six continents . Duke students have created more than 30 service organizations in Durham and the surrounding area . Examples include a weeklong camp for children of cancer patients ( Camp Kesem ) and a group that promotes awareness about sexual health , rape prevention , alcohol and drug use , and eating disorders ( Healthy Devils ) . The Duke @-@ Durham Neighborhood Partnership , started by the Office of Community Affairs in 1996 , attempts to address major concerns of local residents and schools by leveraging university resources . Another community project , " Scholarship with a Civic Mission , " is a joint program between the Hart Leadership Program and the Kenan Institute for Ethics . Another program includes Project CHILD , a tutoring program involving 80 first @-@ year volunteers ; and an after @-@ school program for at @-@ risk students in Durham that was started with $ 2 @.@ 25 million grant from the Kellogg Foundation in 2002 . Two prominent civic engagement pre @-@ orientation programs also exist for incoming freshmen : Project CHANGE and Project BUILD . Project CHANGE is a free weeklong program co @-@ sponsored by the Kenan Institute for Ethics and the Duke Women 's Center with the focus on ethical leadership and social change in the Durham community ; students are challenged in a variety of ways and work closely with local non @-@ profits . Project BUILD is a freshman volunteering group that dedicates 3 @,@ 300 hours of service to a variety of projects such as schools , Habitat for Humanity , food banks , substance rehabilitation centers , homeless shelters . Some courses at Duke incorporate service as part of the curriculum to augment material learned in class such as in psychology or education courses ( known as service learning courses ) .
= = = = Student media = = = =
The Chronicle , Duke 's independent undergraduate daily newspaper , has been continually published since 1905 and now , along with its website , has a readership of about 70 @,@ 000 . Its editors are responsible for selecting the term " Blue Devil " . The newspaper won Best in Show in the tabloid division at the 2005 Associated Collegiate Press National College Media Convention . Cable 13 , established in 1976 , is Duke 's student @-@ run television station . It is a popular activity for students interested in film production and media . WXDU @-@ FM , licensed in 1983 , is the University 's nationally recognized , noncommercial FM radio station , operated by student and community volunteers .
= = Athletics = =
Duke University teams are known as the Blue Devils . They compete as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I level ( Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) sub @-@ level for football ) , primarily competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) for all sports since the 1953 – 54 season . Men 's sports include baseball , basketball , cross country , fencing , football , golf , lacrosse , soccer , swimming & diving , tennis , track & field and wrestling ; while women 's sports include basketball , cross country , fencing , field hockey , golf , lacrosse , rowing , soccer , swimming & diving , tennis , track & field and volleyball . Duke plans to add softball as its 27th varsity sport in spring 2018 .
Duke 's teams have won 16 NCAA team national championships — the women 's golf team has won six ( 1999 , 2002 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 and 2014 ) , the men 's basketball team has won five ( 1991 , 1992 , 2001 , 2010 , and 2015 ) , the men 's lacrosse team has won three ( 2010 , 2013 , and 2014 ) , and the men 's soccer ( 1986 ) and women 's tennis ( 2009 ) teams have won one each .
Duke consistently ranks among the top in the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics ( NACDA ) Directors ' Cup , an overall measure of an institution 's athletic success . For Division I in 2013 , Duke finished ninth overall and fifth in the ACC .
Duke has won 126 ACC Championships since claiming football , men 's lacrosse and men 's golf in the league 's first year in 1953 – 54 , including the Blue Devils ACC Championships in football and volleyball in 2013 – 14 .
Since 1999 – 2000 , Duke has captured 52 league crowns , second most in the ACC , and has won at least one ACC Championship each season since 1979 – 80 and at least two every season since 1990 – 91 . Since hiring David Cutcliffe as head football coach in 2007 , the Duke football program has become one of the strongest in the ACC . The Blue Devils won the ACC Coastal Division in 2013 , but lost to No. 1 @-@ ranked Florida State in the conference championship game . Duke then played Texas A & M in the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl , losing 52 – 48 to the Aggies , who were led by Heisman Trophy winner Johnny Manziel .
The Blue Devil mascot 's origins are rooted in an elite French alpine fighting unit that garnered accolades and much global attention during World War I and its aftermath for its flowing blue capes and blue berets . Duke 's mascot origin is considered to be military and patriotic rather than anti @-@ religious . Historically , Duke 's major rival has been the Tar Heels of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , especially in basketball . The rivalry has led the fanbases to identify the two differing shades of blue in relation to their respective university — calling the lighter powder blue " Carolina blue " and the darker blue " Duke blue " .
On the academic front , eight Duke varsity athletics programs registered a perfect 1 @,@ 000 score in the NCAA 's multi @-@ year Academic Progress Report ( APR ) released in May 2014 . APR scores for football and men 's basketball were the highest among ACC schools in conference @-@ sponsored sports . Overall Duke totaled the highest APR scores in 10 of the ACC 's 25 sports .
= = = Men 's basketball = = =
Duke 's men 's basketball team is one of the nation 's most successful basketball programs . The team has captured five National Championships ( tied for third place all time ) , while attending 15 Final Fours ( third place overall ) and 10 Championship games ( tied for second ) . Duke has the most Atlantic Coast Conference championships , with 19 , and has the most National Players of the Year in the nation , with 11 . Seventy @-@ two players have been selected in the NBA draft , while 32 players have been honored as All @-@ Americans . Duke 's program is one of only two to have been to at least one Final Four and one National Championship game in each of the past five decades . The program 's home facility is historic Cameron Indoor Stadium , considered one of the top venues in the nation .
The team 's success has been particularly outstanding over the past 30 years under coach Mike Krzyzewski ( often simply called " Coach K " ) , who also has coached the USA men 's national basketball team since 2006 and led the team to Olympic golds in 2008 and 2012 , as well as World Championship gold in 2010 and 2014 . Their successes include becoming the only team to win five national championships since the NCAA Tournament field was expanded to 64 teams in 1985 , 11 Final Fours in the past 25 years , and eight of nine ACC tournament championships from 1999 to 2006 .
= = = Football = = =
The Blue Devils have won seven ACC Football Championships , have had ten players honored as ACC Player of the Year ( the most in the ACC ) , and have had three Pro Football Hall of Famers come through the program ( second in the ACC to only Miami 's four ) . The Blue Devils have produced 11 College Football Hall of Famers , which is tied for the 2nd most in the ACC . Duke has also won 18 total conference championships ( 7 ACC , 9 Southern Conference , and 1 Big Five Conference ) . That total is tied with Clemson for the highest in the ACC .
The most famous Duke football season came in 1938 , when Wallace Wade coached the " Iron Dukes " that shut out all regular season opponents ; only three teams in history can claim such a feat . That same year , Duke made their first Rose Bowl appearance , where they lost 7 – 3 when USC scored a touchdown in the final minute of the game . Wade 's Blue Devils lost another Rose Bowl to Oregon State in 1942 , this one held at Duke 's home stadium due to the attack on Pearl Harbor , which resulted in the fear that a large gathering on the West Coast might be in range of Japanese aircraft carriers . The football program proved successful in the 1950s and 1960s , winning six of the first ten ACC football championships from 1953 to 1962 under coach Bill Murray ; the Blue Devils would not win the ACC championship again until 1989 under coach Steve Spurrier .
David Cutcliffe was brought in prior to the 2008 season , and amassed more wins in his first season than the previous three years combined . The 2009 team won 5 of 12 games , and was eliminated from bowl contention in the next @-@ to @-@ last game of the season . Mike MacIntyre , the defensive coordinator , was named 2009 Assistant Coach of the Year by the American Football Coaches Association ( AFCA ) .
While the football team has struggled at times on the field , the graduation rate of its players is consistently among the highest among Division I FBS schools . Duke 's high graduation rates have earned it more AFCA Academic Achievement Awards than any other institution .
In 2012 , the football team became bowl @-@ eligible for the first time since the 1994 season . The Blue Devils were invited to play in the Belk Bowl in Charlotte , but lost to Big East Conference co @-@ champion the Cincinnati Bearcats 48 – 34 .
In 2013 , the team posted a school record 10 wins including wins over # 14 Virginia Tech and # 23 Miami . The season culminated in a Coastal Division Championship and a narrow loss to Texas A & M in the Chick @-@ Fil @-@ A Bowl .
For the 2014 season , Duke finished 9 – 3 , 5 – 3 ( ACC ) and earned a trip to the Sun Bowl , where the Blue Devils lost to the Pac 12 's Arizona State 36 – 31 . In spring 2015 , the Detroit Lions drafted Duke offensive guard Laken Tomlinson in the first round of the NFL draft . The Washington Redskins drafted wide receiver Jamison Crowder in the fourth round of the draft .
= = = Track and Field = = =
In 2003 Norm Ogilvie was promoted to Director of Track and Field , and has led athletes to over 60 individual ACC championships , and 81 All @-@ America selections , along with most of the track and field records being broken during his tenure . A new facility , the Morris Williams Track and Field Stadium , opened in 2015 .
= = Notable people = =
Duke 's active alumni base of more than 145 @,@ 000 devote themselves to the university through organizations and events such as the annual Reunion Weekend and Homecoming . There are 75 Duke clubs in the U.S. and 38 such international clubs . For the 2008 – 09 fiscal year , Duke tied for third in alumni giving rate among U.S. colleges and universities according to U.S. News & World Report . Based on statistics compiled by PayScale in 2011 , Duke alumni rank seventh in mid @-@ career median salary among all U.S. colleges and universities . A number of alumni have made significant contributions in the fields of government , law , science , academia , business , arts , journalism , and athletics , among others .
= = = Government = = =
Richard Nixon , 37th President of the United States graduated with a law degree in 1937 . Former U.S. Senator and Secretary of Transportation Elizabeth Dole , 33rd President of Chile Ricardo Lagos , former U.S. Secretary of Commerce Juanita M. Kreps , congressman and three @-@ time presidential candidate Ron Paul , U.S. Secretary of Veterans Affairs and former Chief of Staff of the United States Army Eric Shinseki , and the first United States Chief Performance Officer Jeffrey Zients and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Martin Dempsey are among the most notable alumni with involvement in politics and government .
= = = Academia and research = = =
Duke graduates who have won the Nobel Prize in Physics include Hans Dehmelt for his development of the ion trap technique , Robert Richardson for his discovery of superfluidity in helium @-@ 3 , and Charles Townes for his work on quantum electronics . Other alumni in research and academia include Turing Award winners Fred Brooks , Edmund M. Clarke and John Cocke , Templeton Prize winning physicist and religion scholar Ian Barbour , MacArthur Award recipient Paul Farmer , and former Dean of the Graduate School at Princeton Theodore Ziolkowski . Duke professor Robert J. Lefkowitz shared the 2012 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and Ingrid Daubechies , currently a James B. Duke professor of mathematics , served as the first woman president of the International Mathematical Union and is known for pioneering work on Wavelets .
= = = Journalism = = =
Prominent journalists include talk show host Charlie Rose , The Washington Post sports writer John Feinstein , Chief Washington Correspondent for CNBC and The Wall Street Journal writer John Harwood , CBS News President Sean McManus , chief legal correspondent for Good Morning America Dan Abrams , and CNN anchor and senior correspondent for The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer Judy Woodruff . Basketball analysts and commentators include Jay Bilas , Mike Gminski , Jim Spanarkel , and Jay Williams . Magazine editors include Rik Kirkland of Fortune and Clay Felker , founder of New York Magazine .
= = = Literature = = =
In the area of literature , William Styron won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1968 for his novel The Confessions of Nat Turner and is well known for his 1979 novel Sophie 's Choice . Anne Tyler also received the Pulitzer Prize for her 1988 novel Breathing Lessons . Additionally , Elizabeth A. Fenn won the Pulitzer Prize for History in 2015 . Other acclaimed writers include John W. Campbell and Reynolds Price .
In the visual arts realm , Annabeth Gish ( actress in the X @-@ Files and The West Wing ) , Ken Jeong ( actor in The Hangover and Community ) , Retta ( actress and comedian ) , Jared Harris ( actor in Mad Men ) , Randall Wallace ( screenwriter , producer , and director , Braveheart , Pearl Harbor , We Were Soldiers ) , Mike Posner ( singer , songwriter , and producer , Cooler Than Me , Please Don 't Go ) , David Hudgins ( television writer and producer , Everwood , Friday Night Lights ) and Robert Yeoman ( cinematographer , The Grand Budapest Hotel ) headline the list .
= = = Business = = =
On the business front , the current or recent President , CEO , or Chairman of each of the following Fortune 500 companies is a Duke alumnus : Apple ( Tim Cook ) , BB & T ( John A. Allison IV ) , Boston Scientific Corporation ( Peter Nicholas ) , Chesapeake Energy ( Aubrey McClendon ) , Cisco Systems ( John Chambers ) , General Motors ( Rick Wagoner ) , JPMorgan Chase ( Steven Black ) , Medtronic ( William A. Hawkins ) , Morgan Stanley ( John J. Mack ) , Norfolk Southern ( David R. Goode ) , Northwest Airlines ( Gary L. Wilson ) , PepsiCo ( Karl von der Heyden ) , Procter & Gamble ( David S. Taylor ) , Pfizer ( Edmund T. Pratt , Jr . ) , The Bank of New York Mellon ( Gerald Hassell ) , and Wachovia ( Robert K. Steel ) . Kevin Martin was Chairman of the FCC , and Rex Adams serves as the Chairman of PBS . Another alumna , Melinda Gates , is the co @-@ founder of the $ 31 @.@ 9 billion Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , the nation 's wealthiest charitable foundation . Some startups founded by Duke alumni include Box ( Dylan Smith ) and Yext ( Howard Lerman ) .
= = = Athletics = = =
Management and ownership of professional athletic franchises include Adam Silver ( NBA commissioner ) , John P. Angelos ( Executive Vice President of the Baltimore Orioles ) , Aubrey McClendon ( partial owner of the Oklahoma City Thunder ) , John Canning , Jr . ( co @-@ owner of Milwaukee Brewers ) , Danny Ferry ( former general manager of the Cleveland Cavaliers ) , Stephen Pagliuca ( co @-@ owner of Boston Celtics ) , and Jeffrey Vinik ( owner of the Tampa Bay Lightning ) .
Finally , several athletes have become stars at the professional level , especially in basketball 's NBA . Shane Battier , Corey Maggette , Elton Brand , Carlos Boozer , Luol Deng , Christian Laettner , Bobby Hurley , Grant Hill , Kyrie Irving and J.J. Redick are among the most famous .
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= Exploding cigar =
An exploding cigar is a variety of cigar that explodes shortly after being lit . Such cigars are normally packed with a minute chemical explosive charge near the lighting end or with a non @-@ chemical device that ruptures the cigar when exposed to heat . The customary intended purpose of exploding cigars is as a form of hostile practical joke , rather than to cause lasting physical harm to the butt of the joke . Nevertheless , the high risk of unintended injuries from their use caused a decline in their manufacture and sale .
Although far rarer than their prank cousins , exploding cigars used as a means to kill or attempt to kill targets in real life has been claimed , and is well represented as a fictional plot device . The most famous case concerning the intentionally deadly variety was an alleged plot by the CIA of the US in the 1960s to assassinate Fidel Castro . Notable real @-@ life incidents involving the non @-@ lethal ilk include an exploding cigar purportedly given by Ulysses S. Grant to an acquaintance and a dust @-@ up between Turkish military officers and Ernest Hemingway after he pranked one of them with an exploding cigar .
= = Manufacture and decline = =
During the early- to mid @-@ 20th century , exploding cigars were a popular practical joke device , frequently advertised and mentioned in newspapers of the era . Despite their popularity , the history of the exploding cigar 's development is apparently not well documented , including how , where and when they first appeared . The largest manufacturer and purveyor of exploding cigars in the United States during the middle of the 20th century was the S. S. Adams Company , which , according to The Saturday Evening Post , made more exploding cigars and other gag novelty items as of 1946 than its next eleven competitors combined .
The company was founded by Soren Sorensen Adams , dubbed " king of the professional pranksters " , who invented and patented many common gag novelties such as sneezing powder , itching powder , the dribble glass and the joy buzzer . The largest New York – based manufacturer of exploding cigars was Richard Appel , a German refugee from Nuremberg , who in or about 1940 opened a gag novelty factory on Manhattan 's Lower East Side .
By the time exploding cigars were being turned out by manufacturers such as Adams and Appel , the chemical explosive variety had fallen out of favor . According to Adams , the large @-@ scale switch to a non @-@ chemical device occurred in approximately 1915 in the aftermath of a death caused by a homemade exploding cigar rigged with dynamite . Though exploding cigars were not normally rigged with dynamite but with explosive caps using a less powerful incendiary , following the incident , a number of U.S. states banned the product altogether . The replacement for chemical explosives was a metal spring mechanism , bound with cord — as the victim puffed away , the cord burned through , causing the device to spring open , thus rupturing the cigar 's end .
However , the decline in the use and advertisement of the exploding cigar was neither complete , nor permanent , and they can be obtained worldwide . In the United States , makers include Don Osvaldo and Hawkins Joke Shop . However , their availability in the USA is limited , as some states , such as Massachusetts , have banned their sale entirely .
Prank exploding cigars have caused many injuries over their history . For example , in 1902 one Edward Weinschreider sued a cigar shop for an exploding cigar which burned his hand so badly three of his fingers had to be amputated . As has been observed by one legal scholar , " [ t ] he utility of the exploding cigar is so low and the risk of injury so high as to warrant a conclusion that the cigar is defective and should not have been marketed at all . " Laws have been enacted banning the sale of exploding cigars entirely , such as Chapter 178 of Massachusetts ' Acts and Resolves , passed by its legislature in 1967 .
= = In fiction = =
Both prank and intentionally deadly exploding cigars have been featured in numerous works of fiction , spanning many forms of media including literature , film , comics books , cartoons and others . A well @-@ known use of the exploding cigar in literature , for example , appears in Thomas Pynchon 's 1973 novel , Gravity 's Rainbow . In it , the character Etzel Ölsch symbolically betrays his death wish by eagerly smoking a cigar he knows to be of the prank explosive variety . Other book examples include Robert Coover 's 1977 novel , The Public Burning , where a fictionalized Richard Nixon hands an exploding cigar to Uncle Sam , and Sherburne James ' Death 's Clenched Fist ( 1982 ) , in which a Tammany Hall politico of the 1890s is murdered with an exploding cigar .
Film examples include Cecil B. DeMille 's 1921 romance Fool 's Paradise , wherein the main character is blinded by an exploding cigar ; Laurel and Hardy 's Great Guns ( 1941 ) , which features a gag in which tobacco is replaced by gunpowder ; the Elke Sommer vehicle , Deadlier Than the Male ( 1967 ) , where a murder by exploding cigar is a key plot element ; in The Beatles ' 1968 animated feature film , Yellow Submarine , where an exploding cigar is used to rebuff a psychedelic boxing monster ; the 1984 comedy Top Secret ! , in which Omar Sharif 's British secret agent character is pranked with an exploding cigar by a blindman ; and in the 2005 film V for Vendetta , where the main antagonist 's cigar is swapped with an exploding one during a comedy skit .
Appearance of exploding cigars in the Warner Bros. cartoon franchises , Merrie Melodies and Looney Tunes was fairly common , often coupled with the explosion resulting in the pranked character appearing in blackface . Some examples include : Bacall to Arms ( 1942 ) , wherein an animated Humphrey Bogart gets zapped by an exploding cigar leaving him in blackface , 1949 's Mississippi Hare , where the character , ' Colonel Shuffle ' likewise ends up in blackface after the explosion , 1952 's Rabbit 's Kin , in which Pete Puma offers Bugs Bunny an exploding cigar ( true to form , Bugs Bunny turns the tables on the hapless feline , placing the cigar in Pete 's mouth after he is dazed and lighting it with expected results ) , and 1964 's Dr. Devil and Mr. Hare , where the Tasmanian Devil successfully gets Bugs Bunny to smoke an exploding cigar .
Other media examples include television appearances such as when Peter Falk 's Columbo must solve an industrial magnate 's death by exploding cigar in the episode " Short Fuse " ( 1972 ) , in a season four episode of the United States television , CBS crime drama , CSI : NY titled " Child 's Play " , wherein the forensic team investigate the death of a man killed by an exploding cigar , and in a 1966 episode of The Avengers entitled " A Touch of Brimstone " ; in video games such as Day of the Tentacle where the player can offer George Washington an exploding cigar ; and as a stock device by the Joker in Batman comic books . For example , in Batman # 251 ( 1973 ) entitled The Joker 's Five @-@ way Revenge , an exploding cigar is used by the Joker to decapitate a man .
= = In reality = =
= = = CIA plot to assassinate Castro = = =
In the late 1950s under Dwight D. Eisenhower 's presidential administration and in the early 1960s under John F. Kennedy 's , the CIA had been brainstorming and implementing plots to assassinate Fidel Castro , going as far as enlisting the help of mafia leaders such as Johnny Roselli and Santo Trafficante , Jr. to assist in carrying out their plans . Many assassination ideas were floated by the CIA in the covert operation which was dubbed " Operation Mongoose . " The most infamous was the CIA 's alleged plot to capitalize on Castro 's well known love of cigars by slipping into his supply a very real and lethal " exploding cigar . " A November 4 , 1967 Saturday Evening Post article reported that during Castro 's visit to the United Nations in 1966 a CIA agent approached New York City police chief inspector Michael J. Murphy with a plan to get Castro to smoke an exploding cigar .
While numerous sources state the exploding cigar plot as fact , at least one source asserts it to be simply a myth , and another , mere supermarket tabloid fodder . Another suggests that the story does have its origins in the CIA , but that it was never seriously proposed by them as a plot . Rather , the plot was made up by the CIA as an intentionally " silly " idea to feed to those questioning them about their plans for Castro , in order to deflect scrutiny from more serious areas of inquiry .
Whether true or not , the CIA 's exploding cigar assassination plot inspired the cover of the October 1963 issue ( # 82 ) of Mad Magazine . The cover ( pictured at right ) bears the headline , " You 'll Get a BANG out of this issue of Mad Magazine " , and features a painting by Norman Mingo depicting Castro in the act of lighting a cigar wrapped with a cigar band on which is drawn Alfred E. Neuman with his fingers plugging his ears , awaiting the explosion . An exploding cigar is also featured on the poster for the Channel 4 British Documentary , 638 Ways to Kill Castro , which shows Castro with a cigar in his mouth that has a fuse projecting from the end and a lit match approaching . An exploding cigar was tested on a season 2 episode of Deadliest Warrior , KGB vs. CIA . The cigar completely destroyed the upper and lower jaw of a gel head but was determined to be very unreliable due to its timed fuse and small explosive payload .
= = = Ulysses S. Grant 's delayed gift = = =
According to a 1932 Associated Press story , U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant gave Horace Norton , the founder of a defunct college in Chicago , an exploding cigar soon after being introduced to him , but the " joke " wasn 't revealed until many years later .
According to the story , unaware of the nature of the gift , Norton saved the cigar , keeping it on display in his college 's museum . Years later , when the school was shutting its doors for good , the alumni thought it would be a fitting gesture to smoke the cigar at the college 's annual reunion . The honor was given to Winstead Norton , Horace 's grandson . During the sober speech he was presenting , Winstead lit the cigar , and after two puffs , it exploded . A 1952 news report contradicts one detail , holding that the explosion ultimately occurred at a family reunion rather than the alumni affair noted .
The tale of " Grant 's cigar " has unquestionably been embellished over time . The possibility exists that the tale is a hoax or urban legend or that the cigar was tampered with by someone after Grant 's purported presentation .
= = = Ernest Hemingway = = =
Reportedly , Ernest Hemingway , urged on by a group of journalists with whom he was drinking at the Palace Hotel bar in Rapallo , Italy , presented an exploding cigar to one of four bodyguards of Turkish general İsmet İnönü . When the cigar " went off " , all four guards drew their guns and aimed at Hemingway . He apparently escaped without any grievous bodily injury .
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= Hungarian Revolution of 1956 =
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 or the Hungarian Uprising of 1956 ( Hungarian : 1956 @-@ os forradalom or 1956 @-@ os felkelés ) was a nationwide revolt against the government of the Hungarian People 's Republic and its Soviet @-@ imposed policies , lasting from 23 October until 10 November 1956 . Though leaderless when it first began , it was the first major threat to Soviet control since the USSR 's forces drove out Nazi Germany from its territory at the end of World War II and broke into Central and Eastern Europe .
The revolt began as a student demonstration , which attracted thousands as they marched through central Budapest to the Parliament building , calling out on the streets using a van with loudspeakers via Radio Free Europe . A student delegation , entering the radio building to try to broadcast the students ' demands , was detained . When the delegation 's release was demanded by the demonstrators outside , they were fired upon by the State Security Police ( ÁVH ) from within the building . One student died and was wrapped in a flag and held above the crowd . This was the start of the revolution . As the news spread , disorder and violence erupted throughout the capital .
The revolt spread quickly across Hungary and the government collapsed . Thousands organised into militias , battling the ÁVH and Soviet troops . Pro @-@ Soviet communists and ÁVH members were often executed or imprisoned and former political prisoners were released and armed . Radical impromptu workers ' councils wrested municipal control from the ruling Hungarian Working People 's Party and demanded political changes . A new government formally disbanded the ÁVH , declared its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact , and pledged to re @-@ establish free elections . By the end of October , fighting had almost stopped and a sense of normality began to return .
After announcing a willingness to negotiate a withdrawal of Soviet forces , the Politburo changed its mind and moved to crush the revolution . On 4 November , a large Soviet force invaded Budapest and other regions of the country . The Hungarian resistance continued until 10 November . Over 2 @,@ 500 Hungarians and 700 Soviet troops were killed in the conflict , and 200 @,@ 000 Hungarians fled as refugees . Mass arrests and denunciations continued for months thereafter . By January 1957 , the new Soviet @-@ installed government had suppressed all public opposition . These Soviet actions , while strengthening control over the Eastern Bloc , alienated many Western Marxists , leading to splits and / or considerable losses of membership for Communist Parties in the West .
Public discussion about this revolution was suppressed in Hungary for more than 30 years . Since the thaw of the 1980s , it has been a subject of intense study and debate . At the inauguration of the Third Hungarian Republic in 1989 , 23 October was declared a national holiday .
= = Prelude = =
During World War II Hungary was a member of the Axis powers , allied with the forces of Nazi Germany , Fascist Italy , Romania , and Bulgaria . In 1941 , the Hungarian military participated in the occupation of Yugoslavia and the invasion of the Soviet Union . The Soviet army was able to force back the Hungarian and other Axis invaders . By 1944 Soviet armies were advancing towards Hungary .
Fearing invasion , the Hungarian government began armistice negotiations with the Allies . These ended when Nazi Germany invaded and occupied the country and set up its own pro @-@ Axis regime , the Government of National Unity .
Both Hungarian and German forces stationed in Hungary were subsequently defeated when the Soviet Union invaded the country in 1945 .
= = = Postwar occupation = = =
After World War II , the Soviet Army occupied Hungary , with the country coming under the Soviet Union 's sphere of influence . At the time , Hungary was a multiparty democracy , and elections in 1945 produced a coalition government under Prime Minister Zoltán Tildy . However , the Hungarian Communist Party , a Marxist – Leninist group who shared the Soviet government 's ideological beliefs , constantly wrested small concessions in a process named salami tactics , which sliced away the elected government 's influence , despite the fact that it had received only 17 % of the vote .
After the elections of 1945 , the portfolio of the Interior Ministry , which oversaw the Hungarian State Security Police ( Államvédelmi Hatóság , later known as the ÁVH ) , was forcibly transferred from the Independent Smallholders Party to a nominee of the Communist Party . The ÁVH employed methods of intimidation , falsified accusations , imprisonment , and torture to suppress political opposition . The brief period of multi @-@ party democracy came to an end when the Communist Party merged with the Social Democratic Party to become the Hungarian Working People 's Party , which stood its candidate list unopposed in 1949 . The People 's Republic of Hungary was then declared . By 1949 , the Soviets had concluded a mutual assistance treaty , the Comecon , with Hungary , that granted the Soviet Union rights to a continued military presence , assuring ultimate political control .
The Hungarian Working People 's Party set about to modify the economy into socialism by undertaking radical nationalization based on the Soviet model . This forced method of economic socialisation during infrastructural recovery from the war initially resulted in economic stagnation , lower standards of living , and a deep malaise . Writers and journalists were the first to voice open criticism of the government and its policies , publishing critical articles in 1955 . By 22 October 1956 , Technical University students had resurrected the banned MEFESZ student union , and staged a demonstration on 23 October that set off a chain of events leading directly to the revolution .
= = = Political repression and economic decline = = =
Hungary became a communist state under the severely authoritarian leadership of Mátyás Rákosi . Under Rákosi 's reign , the Security Police ( ÁVH ) began a series of purges , first within the Communist Party to end opposition to Rákosi 's reign . The victims were labeled as " Titoists , " " western agents , " or " Trotskyists " for as insignificant a crime as spending time in the West to participate in the Spanish Civil War . In total , about half of all the middle and lower level party officials — at least 7 @,@ 000 people — were purged .
From 1950 to 1952 , the Security Police forcibly relocated thousands of people to obtain property and housing for the Working People 's Party members , and to remove the threat of the intellectual and ' bourgeois ' class . Thousands were arrested , tortured , tried , and imprisoned in concentration camps , deported to the east , or were executed , including ÁVH founder László Rajk . In a single year , more than 26 @,@ 000 people were forcibly relocated from Budapest . As a consequence , jobs and housing were very difficult to obtain . The deportees generally experienced terrible living conditions and were interned as slave labor on collective farms . Many died as a result of poor living conditions and malnutrition .
The Rákosi government thoroughly politicised Hungary 's educational system to supplant the educated classes with a " toiling intelligentsia " . Russian language study and Communist political instruction were made mandatory in schools and universities nationwide . Religious schools were nationalized and church leaders were replaced by those loyal to the government . In 1949 the leader of the Hungarian Catholic Church , Cardinal József Mindszenty , was arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment for treason . Under Rákosi , Hungary 's government was among the most repressive in Europe .
The post @-@ war Hungarian economy suffered from multiple challenges . Hungary agreed to pay war reparations approximating US $ 300 million to the Soviet Union , Czechoslovakia , and Yugoslavia and to support Soviet garrisons . The Hungarian National Bank in 1946 estimated the cost of reparations as " between 19 and 22 per cent of the annual national income . " In 1946 , the Hungarian currency experienced marked depreciation , resulting in the highest historic rates of hyperinflation known . Hungary 's participation in the Soviet @-@ sponsored COMECON ( Council Of Mutual Economic Assistance ) prevented it from trading with the West or receiving Marshall Plan aid .
In addition , Rákosi began his first Five @-@ Year Plan in 1950 @-@ based on Joseph Stalin 's industrial program of the same name that sought to raise industrial output by 380 percent . Like its Soviet counterpart , the Five @-@ Year Plan never achieved these outlandish goals due in part to the crippling effect of the exportation of most of Hungary 's raw resources and technology to the Soviet Union as well as Rákosi 's purges of much of the former professional class . In fact , the Five @-@ Year Plan weakened Hungary 's existing industrial structure and caused real industrial wages to fall by 18 percent between 1949 and 1952 . Rákosi 's agricultural programs met with the same lack of success , with attempted collectivization of the peasantry causing a marked fall in agricultural output and a rise in food shortages .
Although national income per capita rose in the first third of the 1950s , the standard of living fell . Huge income deductions to finance industrial investment reduced disposable personal income ; mismanagement created chronic shortages in basic foodstuffs resulting in rationing of bread , sugar , flour , and meat . Compulsory subscriptions to state bonds further reduced personal income . The net result was that disposable real income of workers and employees in 1952 was only two @-@ thirds of what it had been in 1938 , whereas in 1949 , the proportion had been 90 % . These policies had a cumulative negative effect and fueled discontent as foreign debt grew and the population experienced shortages of goods .
= = = International events = = =
On 5 March 1953 , Joseph Stalin died , ushering in a period of moderate liberalization , when most European communist parties developed a reform wing . In Hungary , the reformist Imre Nagy replaced Rákosi , " Stalin 's Best Hungarian Disciple " , as Prime Minister . However , Rákosi remained General Secretary of the Party , and was able to undermine most of Nagy 's reforms . By April 1955 , he had Nagy discredited and removed from office . After Khrushchev 's " secret speech " of February 1956 , which denounced Stalin and his protégés , Rákosi was deposed as General Secretary of the Party and replaced by Ernő Gerő on 18 July 1956 . Radio Free Europe would broadcast the " secret speech " to Eastern Europe on the advice of Ray S. Cline , who saw it as a way to " as I think I told [ Allen Dulles ] to say , ' indict the whole Soviet system ' . "
On 14 May 1955 , the Soviet Union created the Warsaw Pact , binding Hungary to the Soviet Union and its satellite states in Central and Eastern Europe . Among the principles of this alliance were " respect for the independence and sovereignty of states " and " non @-@ interference in their internal affairs " .
In 1955 , the Austrian State Treaty and ensuing declaration of neutrality established Austria as a demilitarised and neutral country . This raised Hungarian hopes of also becoming neutral and in 1955 Nagy had considered " ... the possibility of Hungary adopting a neutral status on the Austrian pattern " .
In June 1956 , a violent uprising by Polish workers in Poznań was put down by the government , with scores of protesters killed and wounded . Responding to popular demand , in October 1956 , the government appointed the recently rehabilitated reformist communist Władysław Gomułka as First Secretary of the Polish United Workers ' Party , with a mandate to negotiate trade concessions and troop reductions with the Soviet government . After a few tense days of negotiations , on 19 October the Soviets finally gave in to Gomułka 's reformist demands . News of the concessions won by the Poles , known as Polish October , emboldened many Hungarians to hope for similar concessions for Hungary and these sentiments contributed significantly to the highly charged political climate that prevailed in Hungary in the second half of October 1956 .
Within the Cold War context of the time , by 1956 , a fundamental tension had appeared in US policy towards Hungary and the Eastern Bloc generally . The United States hoped to encourage European countries to break away from the bloc through their own efforts but wanted to avoid a US @-@ Soviet military confrontation , as escalation might lead to nuclear war . For these reasons , US policy makers had to consider other means of diminishing Soviet influence in Eastern Europe , short of a rollback policy . This led to the development of containment policies such as economic and psychological warfare , covert operations , and , later , negotiation with the Soviet Union regarding the status of the Eastern states . Vice President Richard Nixon had also argued to the National Security Council that it would serve US interests if the Soviet Union would turn on another uprising as they had in Poland , providing a source of anti @-@ Communist propaganda . However , while CIA director Allen Dulles had claimed he was creating an extensive network in Hungary , at the time the agency had no Hungarian station , almost no agents who spoke the language , and unreliable , corrupt local assets . The agency 's own secret history would admit " at no time did we have anything that could or should have been mistaken for an intelligence operation " .
In the summer of 1956 , relations between Hungary and the US began to improve . At that time , the US responded very favourably to Hungary 's overtures about a possible expansion of bilateral trade relations . Hungary 's desire for better relations was partly attributable to the country 's catastrophic economic situation . Before any results could be achieved , however , the pace of negotiations was slowed by the Hungarian Ministry of Internal Affairs , which feared that better relations with the West might weaken Communist rule in Hungary .
= = = Social unrest builds = = =
Rákosi 's resignation in July 1956 emboldened students , writers , and journalists to be more active and critical in politics . Students and journalists started a series of intellectual forums examining the problems facing Hungary . These forums , called Petőfi circles , became very popular and attracted thousands of participants . On 6 October 1956 , László Rajk , who had been executed by the Rákosi government , was reburied in a moving ceremony that strengthened the party opposition .
On 16 October 1956 , university students in Szeged snubbed the official communist student union , the DISZ , by re @-@ establishing the MEFESZ ( Union of Hungarian University and Academy Students ) , a democratic student organization , previously banned under the Rákosi dictatorship . Within days , the student bodies of Pécs , Miskolc , and Sopron followed suit . On 22 October , students of the Technical University compiled a list of sixteen points containing several national policy demands . After the students heard that the Hungarian Writers ' Union planned on the following day to express solidarity with pro @-@ reform movements in Poland by laying a wreath at the statue of Polish @-@ born General Bem , a hero of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 ( 1848 – 49 ) , the students decided to organize a parallel demonstration of sympathy .
= = Revolution = =
= = = First shots = = =
On the afternoon of 23 October 1956 , approximately 20 @,@ 000 protesters convened next to the statue of József Bem — a national hero of Poland and Hungary . Péter Veres , President of the Writers ' Union , read a manifesto to the crowd , which included : The desire for Hungary to be independent from all foreign powers ; a political system based on democratic socialism ( land reform and public ownership of some businesses ) ; Hungary joining the United Nations ; and citizens of Hungary should have all the rights of free men . After the students read their proclamation , the crowd chanted a censored patriotic poem the " National Song " , with the refrain : " This we swear , this we swear , that we will no longer be slaves . " Someone in the crowd cut out the Communist coat of arms from the Hungarian flag , leaving a distinctive hole and others quickly followed suit . Afterwards , most of the crowd crossed the River Danube to join demonstrators outside the Parliament Building . By 18 : 00 , the multitude had swollen to more than 200 @,@ 000 people ; the demonstration was spirited , but peaceful .
At 20 : 00 , First Secretary Ernő Gerő broadcast a speech condemning the writers ' and students ' demands . Angered by Gerő 's hard @-@ line rejection , some demonstrators decided to carry out one of their demands , the removal of Stalin 's 30 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) bronze statue that was erected in 1951 on the site of a church , which was demolished to make room for the monument . By 21 : 30 , the statue was toppled and crowds celebrated by placing Hungarian flags in Stalin 's boots , which was all that was left of the statue .
At about the same time , a large crowd gathered at the Radio Budapest building , which was heavily guarded by the ÁVH . The flash point was reached as a delegation attempting to broadcast their demands was detained and the crowd grew increasingly unruly as rumours spread that the protesters had been shot . Tear gas was thrown from the upper windows and the ÁVH opened fire on the crowd , killing many . The ÁVH tried to re @-@ supply itself by hiding arms inside an ambulance , but the crowd detected the ruse and intercepted it . Hungarian soldiers sent to relieve the ÁVH hesitated and then , tearing the red stars from their caps , sided with the crowd . Provoked by the ÁVH attack , protesters reacted violently . Police cars were set ablaze , guns were seized from military depots and distributed to the masses and symbols of the Communist regime were vandalised .
= = = Fighting spreads , government falls = = =
During the night of 23 October , Hungarian Working People 's Party Secretary Ernő Gerő requested Soviet military intervention " to suppress a demonstration that was reaching an ever greater and unprecedented scale . " The Soviet leadership had formulated contingency plans for intervention in Hungary several months before . By 02 : 00 on 24 October , acting in accordance with orders of Georgy Zhukov , the Soviet defence minister , Soviet tanks entered Budapest .
By noon , on 24 October , Soviet tanks were stationed outside the Parliament , and Soviet soldiers guarded key bridges and crossroads . Armed revolutionaries quickly set up barricades to defend Budapest , and were reported to have already captured some Soviet tanks by mid @-@ morning . That day , Imre Nagy replaced András Hegedüs as Prime Minister . On the radio , Nagy called for an end to violence and promised to initiate political reforms that had been shelved three years earlier . The population continued to arm itself as sporadic violence erupted .
Armed protesters seized the radio building . At the offices of the Communist newspaper Szabad Nép unarmed demonstrators were fired upon by ÁVH guards who were then driven out as armed demonstrators arrived . At this point , the revolutionaries ' wrath focused on the ÁVH ; Soviet military units were not yet fully engaged , and there were reports of some Soviet troops showing open sympathy for the demonstrators .
On 25 October , a mass of protesters gathered in front of the Parliament Building . ÁVH units began shooting into the crowd from the rooftops of neighbouring buildings . Some Soviet soldiers returned fire on the ÁVH , mistakenly believing that they were the targets of the shooting . Supplied by arms taken from the ÁVH or given by Hungarian soldiers who joined the uprising , some in the crowd started shooting back .
During this time , the Hungarian Army was divided as the central command structure disintegrated with the rising pressures from the protests on the government . The majority of Hungarian military units in Budapest and the countryside remained uninvolved , as the local commanders generally avoided using force against the protesters and revolutionaries . From 24 to 29 October , however , there were 71 cases of armed clashes between the army and the populace in fifty communities , ranging from the defence of attacks on civilian and military objectives to fighting with insurgents depending on the commanding officer .
One example is in the town of Kecskemét on 26 October , where demonstrations in front of the office of State Security and the local jail led to military action by the Third Corps under the orders of Major General Lajos Gyurkó , in which seven protesters were shot and several of the organizers were arrested . In another case , a fighter jet strafed a protest in the town of Tiszakécske , killing 17 people and wounding 117 .
The attacks at the Parliament forced the collapse of the government . Communist First Secretary Ernő Gerő and former Prime Minister András Hegedüs fled to the Soviet Union ; Imre Nagy became Prime Minister and János Kádár First Secretary of the Communist Party . Revolutionaries began an aggressive offensive against Soviet troops and the remnants of the ÁVH .
Units led by Béla Király , after attacking the building of the Central Committee of the Communist Party , executed dozens of suspected communists , state security members , and military personnel . Photographs showed victims with signs of torture . On 30 October , Király 's forces attacked the Central Committee of the Communist Party building . Hungarian politician János Berecz referred to how rebels detained thousands of people , and that thousands more had their names on death lists . In the city of Kaposvár , 64 persons including 13 army officers were detained on 31 October .
In Budapest and other areas , the Hungarian Communist committees organised defence . At the Csepel neighbourhood of Budapest , some 250 Communists defended the Csepel Iron and Steel Works . On 27 October , army units were brought in to secure Csepel and restore order . They later withdrew on 29 October , after which the rebels seized control of the area . Communists of Budapest neighbourhood Angyalföld led more than 350 armed workers and 380 servicemen from the Láng Factory . Anti @-@ fascist resistance veterans from World War II participated in the offensive by which the Szabad Nép newspaper 's building was recaptured . In the countryside , defence measures were taken by pro @-@ Communist forces . In Békés County , in and around the town of Szarvas , the armed guards of the Communist Party were in control throughout .
As the Hungarian resistance fought Soviet tanks using Molotov cocktails in the narrow streets of Budapest , revolutionary councils arose nationwide , assumed local governmental authority , and called for general strikes . Public Communist symbols such as red stars and Soviet war memorials were removed , and Communist books were burned . Spontaneous revolutionary militias arose , such as the 400 @-@ man group loosely led by József Dudás , which attacked or murdered Soviet sympathisers and ÁVH members . Soviet units fought primarily in Budapest ; elsewhere the countryside was largely quiet . One armoured division stationed in Budapest , commanded by Pál Maléter , instead opted to join the insurgents . Soviet commanders often negotiated local cease @-@ fires with the revolutionaries .
In some regions , Soviet forces managed to quell revolutionary activity . In Budapest , the Soviets were eventually fought to a stand @-@ still and hostilities began to wane . Hungarian general Béla Király , freed from a life sentence for political offences and acting with the support of the Nagy government , sought to restore order by unifying elements of the police , army and insurgent groups into a National Guard . A ceasefire was arranged on 28 October , and by 30 October most Soviet troops had withdrawn from Budapest to garrisons in the Hungarian countryside .
= = = Interlude = = =
Fighting ceased between 28 October and 4 November , as many Hungarians believed that Soviet military units were withdrawing from Hungary . There were approximately 213 Hungarian Working People 's Party members lynched or executed during this period .
= = = = New Government = = = =
The rapid spread of the uprising in the streets of Budapest and the abrupt fall of the Gerő @-@ Hegedüs government left the new national leadership surprised , and at first disorganised . Nagy , a loyal party reformer described as possessing " only modest political skills " , initially appealed to the public for calm and a return to the old order . Yet Nagy , the only remaining Hungarian leader with credibility in both the eyes of the public and the Soviets , " at long last concluded that a popular uprising rather than a counter @-@ revolution was taking place " . At 13 : 20 on 28 October , Nagy announced an immediate and general cease @-@ fire over the radio and , on behalf of the new national government , declared the following :
that the government would assess the uprising not as counter @-@ revolutionary but as a " great , national and democratic event "
an unconditional general ceasefire and amnesty for those who participated in the uprising ; negotiations with the insurgents
the dissolution of the ÁVH
the establishment of a national guard
the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops from Budapest and negotiations for the withdrawal of all Soviet forces from Hungary
On 1 November , in a radio address to the Hungarian people , Nagy formally declared Hungary 's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact as well as Hungary 's stance of neutrality . Because it held office only ten days , the National Government had little chance to clarify its policies in detail . However , newspaper editorials at the time stressed that Hungary should be a neutral , multi @-@ party social democracy . Many political prisoners were released , most notably Cardinal József Mindszenty . Political parties that were previously banned , such as the Independent Smallholders and the National Peasant Party ( under the name " Petőfi Party " ) , reappeared to join the coalition .
During this time , in 1 @,@ 170 communities across Hungary there were 348 cases in which revolutionary councils and protesters dismissed employees of the local administrative councils , 312 cases in which they sacked the persons in charge , and 215 cases in which they burned the local administrative files and records . In addition , in 681 communities demonstrators damaged symbols of Soviet authority such as red stars , Stalin or Lenin statues ; 393 in which they damaged Soviet war memorials , and 122 communities in which book burnings took place .
Local revolutionary councils formed throughout Hungary , generally without involvement from the preoccupied National Government in Budapest , and assumed various responsibilities of local government from the defunct Communist party . By 30 October , these councils had been officially sanctioned by the Hungarian Working People 's Party , and the Nagy government asked for their support as " autonomous , democratic local organs formed during the Revolution " . Likewise , workers ' councils were established at industrial plants and mines , and many unpopular regulations such as production norms were eliminated . The workers ' councils strove to manage the enterprise while protecting workers ' interests , thus establishing a socialist economy free of rigid party control . Local control by the councils was not always bloodless ; in Debrecen , Győr , Sopron , Mosonmagyaróvár and other cities , crowds of demonstrators were fired upon by the ÁVH , with many lives lost . The ÁVH were disarmed , often by force , in many cases assisted by the local police .
In total there were approximately 2 @,@ 100 local revolutionary and workers councils with over 28 @,@ 000 members . These councils held a combined conference in Budapest decided to end the nationwide labour strikes and resume work on 5 November , with the more important councils sending delegates to the Parliament to assure the Nagy government of their support .
= = = = Soviet perspective = = = =
On 24 October , the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( the Politburo ) discussed the political upheavals in Poland and Hungary . A hard @-@ line faction led by Molotov was pushing for intervention , but Khrushchev and Marshal Zhukov were initially opposed . A delegation in Budapest reported that the situation was not as dire as had been portrayed . Khrushchev stated that he believed that Party Secretary Ernő Gerő 's request for intervention on 23 October indicated that the Hungarian Party still held the confidence of the Hungarian public . In addition , he saw the protests not as an ideological struggle , but as popular discontent over unresolved basic economic and social issues . The concurrent Suez Crisis was another reason to not intervene ; as Khrushchev said on 28 October , it would be a mistake to imitate the " real mess " of the French and British .
After some debate , the Presidium on 30 October decided not to remove the new Hungarian government . Even Marshal Georgy Zhukov said : " We should withdraw troops from Budapest , and if necessary withdraw from Hungary as a whole . This is a lesson for us in the military @-@ political sphere . " They adopted a Declaration of the Government of the USSR on the Principles of Development and Further Strengthening of Friendship and Cooperation between the Soviet Union and other Socialist States , which was issued the next day . This document proclaimed : " The Soviet Government is prepared to enter into the appropriate negotiations with the government of the Hungarian People 's Republic and other members of the Warsaw Treaty on the question of the presence of Soviet troops on the territory of Hungary . " Thus for a brief moment it looked like there could be a peaceful solution .
On 30 October , armed protesters attacked the ÁVH detachment guarding the Budapest Hungarian Working People 's Party headquarters on Köztársaság tér ( Republic Square ) , incited by rumours of prisoners held there and the earlier shootings of demonstrators by the ÁVH in the city of Mosonmagyaróvár . Over 20 ÁVH officers were killed , some of them lynched by the mob . Hungarian army tanks sent to rescue the party headquarters mistakenly bombarded the building . The head of the Budapest party committee , Imre Mező , was wounded and later died . Scenes from Republic Square were shown on Soviet newsreels a few hours later . Revolutionary leaders in Hungary condemned the incident and appealed for calm , and the mob violence soon died down , but images of the victims were nevertheless used as propaganda by various Communist organs .
On 31 October the Soviet leaders decided to reverse their decision from the previous day . There is disagreement among historians whether Hungary 's declaration to exit the Warsaw Pact caused the second Soviet intervention . Minutes of the 31 October meeting of the Presidium record that the decision to intervene militarily was taken one day before Hungary declared its neutrality and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact . Historians who deny that Hungarian neutrality — or other factors such as Western inaction in Hungary or perceived Western weakness due to the Suez crisis — caused the intervention state that the Soviet decision was based solely on the rapid loss of Communist control in Hungary . However , some Russian historians who are not advocates of the Communist era maintain that the Hungarian declaration of neutrality caused the Kremlin to intervene a second time .
Two days earlier , on 30 October , when Soviet Politburo representatives Anastas Mikoyan and Mikhail Suslov were in Budapest , Nagy had hinted that neutrality was a long @-@ term objective for Hungary , and that he was hoping to discuss this matter with the leaders in the Kremlin . This information was passed on to Moscow by Mikoyan and Suslov . At that time , Khrushchev was in Stalin 's dacha , considering his options regarding Hungary . One of his speech writers later said that the declaration of neutrality was an important factor in his subsequent decision to support intervention . In addition , some Hungarian leaders of the revolution as well as students had called for their country 's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact much earlier , and this may have influenced Soviet decision making .
Several other key events alarmed the Presidium and cemented the interventionists ' position :
Simultaneous movements towards multi @-@ party parliamentary democracy , and a democratic national council of workers , which could " lead towards a capitalist state . " Both movements challenged the pre @-@ eminence of the Soviet Communist Party in Eastern Europe and perhaps Soviet hegemony itself . For the majority of the Presidium , the workers ' direct control over their councils without Communist Party leadership was incompatible with their idea of socialism . At the time , these councils were , in the words of Hannah Arendt , " the only free and acting soviets ( councils ) in existence anywhere in the world " .
Khrushchev stated that many in the Communist Party would not understand a failure to respond with force in Hungary . Destalinisation had alienated the more conservative elements of the Party , who were alarmed at threats to Soviet influence in Eastern Europe . On 17 June 1953 , workers in East Berlin had staged an uprising , demanding the resignation of the government of the German Democratic Republic . This was quickly and violently put down with the help of the Soviet military , with 84 killed and wounded and 700 arrested . In June 1956 , in Poznań , Poland , an anti @-@ government workers ' revolt had been suppressed by the Polish security forces with between 57 and 78 deaths and led to the installation of a less Soviet @-@ controlled government . Additionally , by late October , unrest was noticed in some regional areas of the Soviet Union : while this unrest was minor , it was intolerable .
Hungarian neutrality and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact represented a breach in the Soviet defensive buffer zone of satellite nations . Soviet fear of invasion from the West made a defensive buffer of allied states in Eastern Europe an essential security objective .
In the light of what was taking place in China and the news from Budapest , these militants arrived at the conclusion that " the Party is the incarnation of bureaucratic despotism " and that " socialism can develop only on the foundations of direct democracy " . For them the struggle of the Hungarian workers was a struggle " for the principle of direct democracy " and " all power should be transferred to the Workers Committees of Hungary " . The Presidium decided to break the de facto ceasefire and crush the Hungarian revolution . The plan was to declare a " Provisional Revolutionary Government " under János Kádár , who would appeal for Soviet assistance to restore order . According to witnesses , Kádár was in Moscow in early November , and he was in contact with the Soviet embassy while still a member of the Nagy government . Delegations were sent to other Communist governments in Eastern Europe and China , seeking to avoid a regional conflict , and propaganda messages prepared for broadcast when the second Soviet intervention had begun . To disguise these intentions , Soviet diplomats were to engage the Nagy government in talks discussing the withdrawal of Soviet forces .
According to some sources , the Chinese leader Mao Zedong played an important role in Khrushchev 's decision to suppress the Hungarian uprising . Chinese Communist Party Deputy Chairman Liu Shaoqi pressured Khrushchev to send in troops to put down the revolt by force . Although the relations between China and the Soviet Union had deteriorated during the recent years , Mao 's words still carried great weight in the Kremlin , and they were frequently in contact during the crisis . Initially , Mao opposed a second intervention , and this information was passed on to Khrushchev on 30 October , before the Presidium met and decided against intervention . Mao then changed his mind in favour of intervention but , according to William Taubman , it remains unclear when and how Khrushchev learned of this and thus if it influenced his decision on 31 October .
From 1 to 3 November , Khrushchev left Moscow to meet with his European allies and inform them of the decision to intervene . At the first such meeting , he met with Władysław Gomułka in Brest . Then , he had talks with the Romanian , Czechoslovak , and Bulgarian leaders in Bucharest . Finally Khrushchev flew with Malenkov to Yugoslavia , where they met with Josip Broz Tito , who was on holiday on his island Brioni in the Adriatic . The Yugoslavs also persuaded Khrushchev to choose János Kádár instead of Ferenc Münnich as the new leader of Hungary . Two months after the Soviet crackdown , Tito confided in Nikolai Firiubin , the Soviet ambassador to Yugoslavia , that " the reaction raised its head , especially in Croatia , where the reactionary elements openly incited the employees of the Yugoslav security organs to violence . "
= = = = International reaction = = = =
Although John Foster Dulles , the United States Secretary of State recommended on 24 October for the United Nations Security Council to convene to discuss the situation in Hungary , little immediate action was taken to introduce a resolution , in part because other world events unfolded the day after the peaceful interlude started , when allied collusion started the Suez Crisis . The problem was not that Suez distracted US attention from Hungary but that it made the condemnation of Soviet actions very difficult . As Vice President Richard Nixon later explained , " We couldn 't on one hand , complain about the Soviets intervening in Hungary and , on the other hand , approve of the British and the French picking that particular time to intervene against [ Gamel Abdel ] Nasser " .
The US response was reliant on the CIA to covertly effect change , with both covert agents and Radio Free Europe . However , their Hungarian operations collapsed rapidly and they could not locate any of the weapon caches hidden across Europe , nor be sure who they 'd send arms too . The agency 's main source of information were the newspapers and a State Department employee in Budapest called Geza Katona . By the 28th of October , on the same night that the new Nagy government came to power , RFE was ramping up its broadcasts – encouraging armed struggle , advising on how to combat tanks and signing off with " Freedom or Death ! " – on the orders of Frank Wisner . When Nagy did come to power , CIA director Allen Dulles advised the White House that Cardinal Mindszenty would be a better leader ( due to Nagy 's communist past ) ; he had CIA radio broadcasts run propaganda against Nagy , calling him a traitor who 'd invited Soviet troops in . Broadcasts continued to broadcast armed response while the CIA mistakenly believed that the Hungarian army was switching sides and the rebels were gaining arms . ( Wisner was recorded as having a " nervous breakdown " by William Colby as the uprising was crushed )
Responding to the plea by Nagy at the time of the second massive Soviet intervention on 4 November , the Security Council resolution critical of Soviet actions was vetoed by the Soviet Union ; instead resolution 120 was adopted to pass the matter onto the General Assembly . The General Assembly , by a vote of 50 in favour , 8 against and 15 abstentions , called on the Soviet Union to end its Hungarian intervention , but the newly constituted Kádár government rejected UN observers .
US President Dwight D. Eisenhower was aware of a detailed study of Hungarian resistance that recommended against US military intervention , and of earlier policy discussions within the National Security Council that focused upon encouraging discontent in Soviet satellite nations only by economic policies and political rhetoric . In a 1998 interview , Hungarian Ambassador Géza Jeszenszky was critical of Western inaction in 1956 , citing the influence of the United Nations at that time and giving the example of UN intervention in Korea from 1950 to 1953 .
During the uprising , the Radio Free Europe ( RFE ) Hungarian @-@ language programs broadcast news of the political and military situation , as well as appealing to Hungarians to fight the Soviet forces , including tactical advice on resistance methods . After the Soviet suppression of the revolution , RFE was criticised for having misled the Hungarian people that NATO or United Nations would intervene if citizens continued to resist . Allen Dulles lied to Eisenhower that RFE had not promised US aid ; Eisenhower believed him , as the transcripts of the broadcasts were kept secret .
= = = Soviet intervention of 4 November = = =
On 1 November , Imre Nagy received reports that Soviet forces had entered Hungary from the east and were moving towards Budapest . Nagy sought and received assurances ( which proved false ) from Soviet ambassador Yuri Andropov that the Soviet Union would not invade . The Cabinet , with János Kádár in agreement , declared Hungary 's neutrality , withdrew from the Warsaw Pact , and requested assistance from the diplomatic corps in Budapest and the UN Secretary @-@ General to defend Hungary 's neutrality . Ambassador Andropov was asked to inform his government that Hungary would begin negotiations on the removal of Soviet forces immediately .
On 3 November , a Hungarian delegation led by the Minister of Defense Pál Maléter were invited to attend negotiations on Soviet withdrawal at the Soviet Military Command at Tököl , near Budapest . At around midnight that evening , General Ivan Serov , Chief of the Soviet Security Police ( KGB ) ordered the arrest of the Hungarian delegation , and the next day , the Soviet army again attacked Budapest .
During the early morning hours of 4 November , Ferenc Münnich announced on Radio Szolnok the establishment of the " Revolutionary Workers ' -Peasants ' Government of Hungary " .
The second Soviet intervention , codenamed " Operation Whirlwind " , was launched by Marshal Ivan Konev . The five Soviet divisions stationed in Hungary before 23 October were augmented to a total strength of 17 divisions . The 8th Mechanized Army under command of Lieutenant General Hamazasp Babadzhanian and the 38th Army under Lieutenant General Hadzhi @-@ Umar Mamsurovs from the nearby Carpathian Military District were deployed to Hungary for the operation . Some rank @-@ and @-@ file Soviet soldiers reportedly believed they were being sent to Berlin to fight German fascists . By 21 : 30 on 3 November , the Soviet Army had completely encircled Budapest .
At 03 : 00 on 4 November , Soviet tanks penetrated Budapest along the Pest side of the Danube in two thrusts : one up the Soroksári road from the south and the other down the Váci road from the north . Thus before a single shot was fired , the Soviets had effectively split the city in half , controlled all bridgeheads , and were shielded to the rear by the wide Danube river . Armoured units crossed into Buda and at 04 : 25 fired the first shots at the army barracks on Budaörsi Road . Soon after , Soviet artillery and tank fire was heard in all districts of Budapest . Operation Whirlwind combined air strikes , artillery , and the co @-@ ordinated tank @-@ infantry action of 17 divisions .
Between 4 and 9 November , the Hungarian Army put up sporadic and disorganised resistance , with Marshal Zhukov reporting the disarming of twelve divisions , two armoured regiments , and the entire Hungarian Air Force . The Hungarian Army continued its most formidable resistance in various districts of Budapest and in and around the city of Pécs in the Mecsek Mountains , and in the industrial centre of Dunaújváros ( then called Stalintown ) . Fighting in Budapest consisted of between ten and fifteen thousand resistance fighters , with the heaviest fighting occurring in the working @-@ class stronghold of Csepel on the Danube River . Although some very senior officers were openly pro @-@ Soviet , the rank and file soldiers were overwhelmingly loyal to the revolution and either fought against the invasion or deserted . The United Nations reported that there were no recorded incidents of Hungarian Army units fighting on the side of the Soviets .
At 05 : 20 on 4 November , Imre Nagy broadcast his final plea to the nation and the world , announcing that Soviet Forces were attacking Budapest and that the Government remained at its post . The radio station , Free Kossuth Rádió , stopped broadcasting at 08 : 07 An emergency Cabinet meeting was held in the Parliament but was attended by only three ministers . As Soviet troops arrived to occupy the building , a negotiated evacuation ensued , leaving Minister of State István Bibó as the last representative of the National Government remaining at his post . He wrote For Freedom and Truth , a stirring proclamation to the nation and the world .
At 06 : 00 , on 4 November , in the town of Szolnok , János Kádár proclaimed the " Hungarian Revolutionary Worker @-@ Peasant Government " . His statement declared " We must put an end to the excesses of the counter @-@ revolutionary elements . The hour for action has sounded . We are going to defend the interest of the workers and peasants and the achievements of the people 's democracy . " Later that evening , Kádár called upon " the faithful fighters of the true cause of socialism " to come out of hiding and take up arms . However , Hungarian support did not materialise ; the fighting did not take on the character of an internally divisive civil war , but rather , in the words of a United Nations report , that of " a well @-@ equipped foreign army crushing by overwhelming force a national movement and eliminating the Government . "
By 08 : 00 organised defence of the city evaporated after the radio station was seized , and many defenders fell back to fortified positions . During the same hour , the parliamentary guard laid down their arms , and forces under Major General K. Grebennik captured Parliament and liberated captured ministers of the Rákosi @-@ Hegedüs government . Among the liberated were István Dobi and Sándor Rónai , both of whom became members of the re @-@ established socialist Hungarian government . Hungarian civilians bore the brunt of the fighting , as Soviet troops spared little effort to differentiate military from civilian targets . For this reason , Soviet tanks often crept along main roads firing indiscriminately into buildings . Hungarian resistance was strongest in the industrial areas of Budapest , which were heavily targeted by Soviet artillery and air strikes .
The longest holdouts against the Soviet assault occurred in Csepel and in Dunaújváros , where fighting lasted until 11 November before the insurgents finally succumbed to the Soviets . At the end of the fighting , Hungarian casualties totalled at around 2 @,@ 500 dead with an additional 20 @,@ 000 wounded . Budapest bore the brunt of the bloodshed , with 1 @,@ 569 civilians killed . Approximately 53 percent of the dead were workers , and about half of all the casualties were people younger than thirty . On the Soviet side , 699 men were killed , 1 @,@ 450 men were wounded , and 51 men were missing in action . Estimates place around 80 percent of all casualties occurring in fighting with the insurgents in the eighth and ninth districts of Budapest .
= = = Soviet version of the events = = =
Soviet reports of the events surrounding , during , and after the disturbance were remarkably consistent in their accounts , more so after the Second Soviet intervention cemented support for the Soviet position among international Communist Parties . Pravda published an account 36 hours after the outbreak of violence , which set the tone for all further reports and subsequent Soviet historiography :
On 23 October , the honest socialist Hungarians demonstrated against mistakes made by the Rákosi and Gerő governments .
Fascist , Hitlerite , reactionary , counter @-@ revolutionary hooligans financed by the imperialist west took advantage of the unrest to stage a counter @-@ revolution .
The honest Hungarian people under Nagy appealed to Soviet ( Warsaw Pact ) forces stationed in Hungary to assist in restoring order .
The Nagy government was ineffective , allowing itself to be penetrated by counter @-@ revolutionary influences , weakening then disintegrating , as proven by Nagy 's culminating denouncement of the Warsaw Pact .
Hungarian patriots under Kádár broke with the Nagy government and formed a government of honest Hungarian revolutionary workers and peasants ; this genuinely popular government petitioned the Soviet command to help put down the counter @-@ revolution .
Hungarian patriots , with Soviet assistance , smashed the counter @-@ revolution .
The first Soviet report came out 24 hours after the first Western report . Nagy 's appeal to the United Nations was not reported . After Nagy was arrested outside of the Yugoslav embassy , his arrest was not reported . Nor did accounts explain how Nagy went from patriot to traitor . The Soviet press reported calm in Budapest while the Western press reported a revolutionary crisis was breaking out . According to the Soviet account , Hungarians never wanted a revolution at all .
In January 1957 , representatives of the Soviet Union , Bulgaria , Hungary , and Romania met in Budapest to review internal developments in Hungary since the establishment of the Soviet @-@ imposed government . A communiqué on the meeting " unanimously concluded " that Hungarian workers , with the leadership of the Kádár government and support of the Soviet army , defeated attempts " to eliminate the socialist achievements of the Hungarian people " .
Soviet , Chinese , and other Warsaw Pact governments urged Kádár to proceed with interrogation and trial of former Nagy government ministers , and asked for punitive measures against the " counter @-@ revolutionists " . In addition the Kádár government published an extensive series of " white books " ( The Counter @-@ Revolutionary Forces in the October Events in Hungary ) documenting real incidents of violence against Communist Party and ÁVH members , and the confessions of Nagy supporters . These white books were widely distributed in several languages in most of the socialist countries and , while based in fact , present factual evidence with a colouring and narrative not generally supported by non @-@ Soviet aligned historians .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Hungary = = =
In the immediate aftermath , many thousands of Hungarians were arrested . Eventually , 26 @,@ 000 of these were brought before the Hungarian courts , 22 @,@ 000 were sentenced , 13 @,@ 000 imprisoned , and several hundred executed . Hundreds were also deported to the Soviet Union , many without evidence . Approximately 200 @,@ 000 fled Hungary as refugees . Former Hungarian Foreign Minister Géza Jeszenszky estimated 350 were executed . Sporadic armed resistance and strikes by workers ' councils continued until mid @-@ 1957 , causing substantial economic disruption . By 1963 , most political prisoners from the 1956 Hungarian revolution had been released .
With most of Budapest under Soviet control by 8 November , Kádár became Prime Minister of the " Revolutionary Worker @-@ Peasant Government " and General Secretary of the Hungarian Communist Party . Few Hungarians rejoined the reorganised Party , its leadership having been purged under the supervision of the Soviet Praesidium , led by Georgy Malenkov and Mikhail Suslov . Although Party membership declined from 800 @,@ 000 before the uprising to 100 @,@ 000 by December 1956 , Kádár steadily increased his control over Hungary and neutralised dissenters . The new government attempted to enlist support by espousing popular principles of Hungarian self @-@ determination voiced during the uprising , but Soviet troops remained . After 1956 the Soviet Union severely purged the Hungarian Army and reinstituted political indoctrination in the units that remained . In May 1957 , the Soviet Union increased its troop levels in Hungary and by treaty Hungary accepted the Soviet presence on a permanent basis .
The Red Cross and the Austrian Army established refugee camps in Traiskirchen and Graz . Imre Nagy along with Georg Lukács , Géza Losonczy , and László Rajk 's widow , Júlia , took refuge in the Embassy of Yugoslavia as Soviet forces overran Budapest . Despite assurances of safe passage out of Hungary by the Soviets and the Kádár government , Nagy and his group were arrested when attempting to leave the embassy on 22 November and taken to Romania . Losonczy died while on a hunger strike in prison awaiting trial when his jailers " carelessly pushed a feeding tube down his windpipe . "
The remainder of the group was returned to Budapest in 1958 . Nagy was executed , along with Pál Maléter and Miklós Gimes , after secret trials in June 1958 . Their bodies were placed in unmarked graves in the Municipal Cemetery outside Budapest .
During the November 1956 Soviet assault on Budapest , Cardinal Mindszenty was granted political asylum at the United States embassy , where he lived for the next 15 years , refusing to leave Hungary unless the government reversed his 1949 conviction for treason . Because of poor health and a request from the Vatican , he finally left the embassy for Austria in September 1971 .
= = = International = = =
Despite Cold War rhetoric by western countries espousing a roll @-@ back of the domination of Europe by the USSR and Soviet promises of the imminent triumph of socialism , national leaders of this period as well as later historians saw the failure of the uprising in Hungary as evidence that the Cold War in Europe had become a stalemate .
The Foreign Minister of West Germany recommended that the people of Eastern Europe be discouraged from " taking dramatic action which might have disastrous consequences for themselves . " The Secretary @-@ General of NATO called the Hungarian revolt " the collective suicide of a whole people " . In a newspaper interview in 1957 , Khrushchev commented " support by United States ... is rather in the nature of the support that the rope gives to a hanged man . "
In January 1957 , United Nations Secretary @-@ General Dag Hammarskjöld , acting in response to UN General Assembly resolutions requesting investigation and observation of the events in Soviet @-@ occupied Hungary , established the Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary . The Committee , with representatives from Australia , Ceylon ( Sri Lanka ) , Denmark , Tunisia , and Uruguay , conducted hearings in New York , Geneva , Rome , Vienna , and London . Over five months , 111 refugees were interviewed including ministers , military commanders and other officials of the Nagy government , workers , revolutionary council members , factory managers and technicians , Communists and non @-@ Communists , students , writers , teachers , medical personnel , and Hungarian soldiers . Documents , newspapers , radio transcripts , photos , film footage , and other records from Hungary were also reviewed , as well as written testimony of 200 other Hungarians .
The governments of Hungary and Romania refused the UN officials of the Committee entry , and the government of the Soviet Union did not respond to requests for information . The 268 @-@ page Committee Report was presented to the General Assembly in June 1957 , documenting the course of the uprising and Soviet intervention , and concluding that " the Kádár government and Soviet occupation were in violation of the human rights of the Hungarian people . " A General Assembly resolution was approved , deploring " the repression of the Hungarian people and the Soviet occupation " but no other action was taken . The chairman of the Committee was Alsing Andersen , a Danish politician and leading figure of Denmark 's Social Democratic Party . He served in the Buhl government in 1942 during the Nazi German occupation of Denmark . He defended collaboration with the occupation forces and denounced the Resistance . He was appointed Interior Minister in 1947 , but resigned because of scrutiny of his role in 1940 as Defence Minister . He then entered Denmark 's UN delegation in 1948 .
The Committee Report and the motives of its authors were criticised by delegations to the United Nations . The Hungarian representative disagreed with the report 's conclusions , accusing it of falsifying the events , and argued that the establishment of the Committee was illegal . The Committee was accused of being hostile to Hungary and its social system . An article in the Russian journal " International Affairs " , published by the Foreign Affairs Ministry , carried an article in 1957 in which it denounced the report as a " collection of falsehoods and distortions " .
Time magazine named the Hungarian Freedom Fighter its Man of the Year for 1956 . The accompanying Time article comments that this choice could not have been anticipated until the explosive events of the revolution , almost at the end of 1956 . The magazine cover and accompanying text displayed an artist 's depiction of a Hungarian freedom fighter , and used pseudonyms for the three participants whose stories are the subject of the article .
In 2006 , Hungarian Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány referred to this famous Time Man of the Year cover as " the faces of free Hungary " in a speech to mark the 50th anniversary of the 1956 uprising . Prime Minister Gyurcsány , in a joint appearance with British Prime Minister Tony Blair , commented specifically on the Time cover itself , that " It is an idealised image but the faces of the figures are really the face of the revolutionaries "
At the Melbourne Olympics in 1956 , the Soviet handling of the Hungarian uprising led to a boycott by Spain , the Netherlands , and Switzerland . At the Olympic Village , the Hungarian delegation tore down the Communist Hungarian flag and raised the flag of Free Hungary in its place . A confrontation between Soviet and Hungarian teams occurred in the semi @-@ final match of the water polo tournament on 6 December . The match was extremely violent , and was halted in the final minute to quell fighting among spectators . This match , now known as the " blood in the water match " , became the subject of several films . The Hungarian team won the game 4 – 0 and later was awarded the Olympic gold medal . In 1957 , Norway was invited to the first ever Bandy World Championship but declined because the Soviet Union was invited too .
On Sunday , 28 October 1956 , as some 55 million Americans watched Ed Sullivan 's popular television variety show , with the then 21 @-@ year @-@ old Elvis Presley headlining for the second time , Sullivan asked viewers to send aid to Hungarian refugees fleeing from the effects of the Soviet invasion . Presley himself made another request for donations during his third and last appearance on Sullivan 's show on 6 January 1957 . Presley then dedicated a song for the finale , which he thought fit the mood of the time , namely the gospel song " Peace in the Valley " . By the end of 1957 , these contributions , distributed by the Geneva @-@ based International Red Cross as food rations , clothing , and other essentials , had amounted to some SFR 26 million ( US $ 6 million in 1957 dollars ) , the equivalent of $ 50 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 in today 's dollars . On 1 March 2011 , István Tarlós , the Mayor of Budapest , made Presley an honorary citizen , posthumously , and a plaza located at the intersection of two of the city 's most important avenues was named after Presley , as a gesture of gratitude .
Meanwhile , as the 1950s drew to a close , the events in Hungary produced ideological fractures within the Communist parties of Western Europe . Within the Italian Communist Party ( PCI ) a split ensued : most ordinary members and the Party leadership , including Palmiro Togliatti and Giorgio Napolitano , regarded the Hungarian insurgents as counter @-@ revolutionaries , as reported in l 'Unità , the official PCI newspaper . However Giuseppe Di Vittorio , chief of the Communist trade union CGIL , repudiated the leadership position , as did the prominent party members Antonio Giolitti , Loris Fortuna , and many other influential Communist intellectuals , who later were expelled or left the party . Pietro Nenni , the national secretary of the Italian Socialist Party , a close ally of the PCI , opposed the Soviet intervention as well . Napolitano , elected in 2006 as President of the Italian Republic , wrote in his 2005 political autobiography that he regretted his justification of Soviet action in Hungary , and that at the time he believed in Party unity and the international leadership of Soviet communism .
Within the Communist Party of Great Britain ( CPGB ) , dissent that began with the repudiation of Stalin by John Saville and E. P. Thompson , influential historians and members of the Communist Party Historians Group , culminated in a loss of thousands of party members as events unfolded in Hungary . Peter Fryer , correspondent for the CPGB newspaper The Daily Worker , reported accurately on the violent suppression of the uprising , but his dispatches were heavily censored . Fryer resigned from the paper upon his return , and was later expelled from the Communist Party
In France , moderate Communists , such as historian Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie , resigned , questioning the French Communist Party 's policy of supporting Soviet actions . The French philosopher and writer Albert Camus wrote an open letter , The Blood of the Hungarians , criticising the West 's lack of action . Even Jean @-@ Paul Sartre , still a determined Communist , criticised the Soviets in his article Le Fantôme de Staline , in Situations VII . Left Communists were particularly supportive of the revolution .
= = = Commemoration = = =
In December 1991 , the preamble of the treaties with the dismembered Soviet Union , under Mikhail Gorbachev , and Russia , represented by Boris Yeltsin , apologised officially for the 1956 Soviet actions in Hungary . This apology was repeated by Yeltsin in 1992 during a speech to the Hungarian parliament .
On 13 February 2006 , the US State Department commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution . Former US Secretary of State Rice commented on the contributions made by 1956 Hungarian refugees to the United States and other host countries , as well as the role of Hungary in providing refuge to East Germans during the 1989 protests against Communist rule . US President George W. Bush also visited Hungary on 22 June 2006 , to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary .
On 16 June 1989 , the 31st anniversary of his execution , Imre Nagy 's body was reburied with full honours . The Republic of Hungary was declared in 1989 on the 33rd anniversary of the Revolution , and 23 October is now a Hungarian national holiday .
In the north @-@ west corner of MacArthur Park in Los Angeles , California , the Hungarian @-@ American community built a commemorative statue to honour the Hungarian freedom fighters . Built in the late 1960s , the obelisk statue stands with an American eagle watching over the city of Los Angeles .
= = More information = =
From the noon bell to the lads of Pest ( MEK )
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= Hung Up =
" Hung Up " is a song by American singer Madonna from her tenth studio album Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) . It was written and produced by Madonna in collaboration with Stuart Price , and released as the lead single from the album . Initially used in a number of television advertisements and serials , the song was released as the album 's lead single on October 17 , 2005 . It has also made an appearance on her 2009 greatest hits album , Celebration . It also became Madonna 's first track to be released to the iTunes Store for digital download .
" Hung Up " prominently features a sample from the instrumental introduction to ABBA 's hit single " Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! ( A Man After Midnight ) " , for which Madonna personally sought permission from ABBA 's songwriters Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus . Musically the song is influenced by 1980s pop , with a chugging groove and chorus and a background element of a ticking clock that suggests the fear of wasting time . Lyrically the song is written as a traditional dance number about a strong , independent woman who has relationship troubles .
" Hung Up " received critical praise from reviewers , who believed that the track would restore the singer 's popularity , which had diminished following the release of her 2003 album American Life . Critics suggested it was her best dance track to date and have compared it favorably to other Madonna tracks in the same genre . They also complimented the effective synchronization of the ABBA sample with the actual song . " Hung Up " became a worldwide commercial success , peaking atop the charts of 41 countries and earning a place in the Guinness Book of World Records . It was Madonna 's 36th top 10 single on the Billboard Hot 100 , tying her with Elvis Presley as the artist with most top ten hits . It also became the most successful dance song of the decade in the United States . " Hung Up " remains one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with sales of over nine million copies worldwide .
The music video is a tribute to John Travolta , his movies and to dancing in general . Directed by Johan Renck , the clip starts with Madonna clad in a pink leotard dancing alone in a ballet studio and concludes at a gaming parlor where she dances with her backup troupe . Interspersed are scenes of people displaying their dancing skills in a variety of settings , including a Los Angeles residential neighborhood , a small restaurant and the London Underground . It also features the physical discipline Parkour . Madonna has performed the song in a number of live appearances , including as the finale number in 2006 's Confessions Tour , a heavy metal @-@ inspired arrangement in the 2008 Sticky & Sweet Tour and during the 2012 MDNA Tour where the singer performed the song while slacklining .
= = Background and release = =
In 2004 , after the release of her ninth studio album American Life , Madonna began working on two different musicals : one tentatively called Hello Suckers and another one with Luc Besson , who previously directed the music video for her single " Love Profusion " , which would portray her as a woman on her deathbed looking back on her life . Madonna collaborated with Patrick Leonard , Mirwais Ahmadzaï and Stuart Price to write new songs , Price being assigned to pen disco songs sounding like " ABBA on drugs " . However , Madonna found herself dissatisfied with the script written by Besson and scrapped it . When she began composing Confessions on a Dance Floor , she decided to rework " Hung Up " and include it in her record .
" Hung Up " was one of the first songs written for the album , along with " Sorry " and " Future Lovers " . It was inspired by the 1970s disco era , notably ABBA , Giorgio Moroder and the film Saturday Night Fever ( 1977 ) . Madonna imagined it to be a cross between the music played at Danceteria , the New York City night club she frequented in her early days , and the music of ABBA . Their 1979 hit " Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! ( A Man After Midnight ) " formed the basis of the song . Songwriters Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus generally do not allow anyone to sample any of their tracks , an exception being Fugees , who sampled their song " The Name of the Game " for their single " Rumble in the Jungle " . In order to gain the rights to sample " Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! " , Madonna had to send her emissary to Stockholm with a letter which begged them to allow her to sample the song and also telling how much she loved their music . To the BBC she explained : " [ T ] hey never let anyone sample their music . Thank God they didn 't say no . [ ... ] They had to think about it , Benny and Björn . They didn 't say yes straight away . " The pair agreed to let Madonna use the sample only after making a copyright agreement that entitled them to a significant share of the royalties from subsequent sales and airplay . Andersson , in an interview with The Daily Telegraph in October 2005 , declared " Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! " to be the essence of " Hung Up " while joking that it was his favourite Madonna song thus far . He further said :
" We get so many requests from people wanting to use our tracks but we normally say ' no ' . This is only the second time we have given permission . We said ' yes ' this time because we admire Madonna so much and always have done . She has got guts and has been around for 21 years . That is not bad going . "
The song premiered in September 2005 , during a television advertisement for Motorola 's iTunes compatible ROKR mobile phone . The advertisement featured Madonna and other artists jammed in a phone booth . On October 17 , 2005 , the song made its premiere during a live ten @-@ minute radio interview between Ryan Seacrest and Madonna . It was also made available as a master ringtone with various mobile service providers . " Hung Up " was sent to mainstream radio in the United States on October 18 . The song was added to episodes of CSI : Miami and CSI : NY on November 7 and 9 , 2005 , respectively . While promoting Confessions on a Dance Floor , Madonna played both " Hung Up " and the next single " Sorry " at Luke & Leroy 's nightclub in Greenwich Village , where she was invited by Junior Sanchez to perform briefly as the DJ , mixing the two songs . Regarding her decision to release the song to iTunes , Madonna said : " I 'm a businesswoman . The music industry has changed . There 's a lot of competition , and the market is glutted with new releases – and new ' thises and thats ' . You must join forces with other brands and corporations . You 're an idiot if you don 't . "
= = Music structure and lyrics = =
Musically , " Hung Up " is a dance @-@ pop and disco song . According to The New York Times , the song has vaguely familiar hooks , sustained overlays of the string arrangement and acoustic guitar enfolding the music to create a haze like sound . Billboard described the music as frothy , nonsensical and joyous . The instant familiarity of the sampled music is changed by Stuart Price and Madonna by adding a chugging groove and a chorus which singles it out as an independent song . Besides the ABBA sample , Rolling Stone said that the song also incorporated Madonna 's older songs like " Like a Prayer " and " Holiday " and features fleeting quotes from bands like S.O.S. and the Tom Tom Club .
According to Musicnotes.com , " Hung Up " is set in common time , and has a moderate dance @-@ beat tempo of 120 beats per minute . The key of the song is in D minor with Madonna 's vocal range spanning from G3 to B ♭ 4 . The song progresses in the following chord progressions of Dm – F – C – Dm in the verses and Dm – F – Am – Dm – Dm – F – Am – Dm in the chorus , and changes to B ♭ – F – A – Dm – B ♭ – F – A – Dm for the bridge . " Hung Up " uses the sound of a ticking clock to symbolize fear of wasted time , which was incorporated by composer Stuart Price , from his remix of Gwen Stefani 's 2004 single " What You Waiting For ? " . According to Slant Magazine , the song embodies some of Madonna 's old hits , incorporating them into the song 's pitched @-@ upward vocals while presenting an archetypical key change / tonicization during the bridge .
Lyrically , the song is written from the perspective of a girl who once had nothing and the theme centers around love . About.com compared the lyrics of " Hung Up " and another song " I Love New York " from the Confessions on a Dance Floor album , to the style of the songs in Madonna 's American Life album . According to About.com , the song is written as a very traditional dance number which is rooted in relationship issues . Also present in the lyrics is Madonna 's enduring embrace of strong , independent women . The song 's hook , " Time goes by so slowly for those who wait , " is taken from Madonna 's 1989 collaboration with Prince , " Love Song , " as is the line , " Those who run seem to have all the fun . "
= = Critical reception = =
Keith Caulfield from Billboard , while reviewing Confessions on a Dance Floor , called the song " a fluffier cut " . Chris Tucker from Billboard explained that " Madonna returns with a song that will restore faith among her minions , fans of pop music and radio programmers " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times said that Madonna kept her pop touch in " Hung Up " and called it a love song which is both happy as well as sad . Alan Light from Rolling Stone called the song candy coated . David Browne from Entertainment Weekly was impressed by the song and said " ' Hung Up ' shows how effortlessly she [ Madonna ] can tap into her petulant inner teen " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine compared the song to the remix of Gwen Stefani 's 2004 single " What You Waiting For ? " . Ed Gonzalez from the same magazine called the song the biggest hit of her career . Margaret Moser from The Austin Chronicle said that the song strobes and pulses along with another album track " Forbidden Love " . Peter Robinson from The Guardian commented that " Hung Up " is Madonna 's " most wonderfully commercial single since the mid Eighties " . Alexis Petridis from The Guardian said that the song could have been more campy by addition of Liza Minnelli inspired vocals in the background and lyrics which talk about Larry Grayson .
Ben Williams from New York magazine described the song as sounding both throbbing as well as wistful . Christian John Wikane from PopMatters called the song a propulsive track . Alan Braidwood of the BBC , noted of the track : " full @-@ on dance , dark , disco , fun , big " and compared it to other Madonna songs like " Vogue " , " Deeper and Deeper " and " Ray of Light " . Tom Bishop from the BBC commented that Madonna has either reinvigorated her career or she is " merely throwing one final dance party for her long @-@ term fans before settling down to record more sedate material " . Jason Shawhan from About.com commented that the song has " way too much Abba in it for its own good . " He went on to elaborate that " [ t ] he only reason I can think of for this to be chosen as the first single was the Motorola ad campaign . It 's not a bad song by far , it has pep and a sense of fun , but it 's not even close to being one of the best songs on the record " . Bill Lamb of About.com said that the ABBA sample sounded completely effortless like much of Madonna 's best dance music . He further elaborated that what " ' Hung Up ' amounts to is a big gushy love note to Madonna 's core fans , those club kids who pack the floor every time they hear the pounding beats of a Madonna classic and the dj 's who can 't get enough of spinning her records . ' Hung Up ' will send those fans into ecstasy , and it sounds good on the radio , too " . Thomas Inskeep of Stylus Magazine declared that " Hung Up " and the next single " Sorry " might not have the same sleaze as Madonna 's older songs like " Physical Attraction " or " Burning Up " , but have the same modus operandi of being designed for " sweaty up @-@ all @-@ night dancing " . Rob Harvilla from The Village Voice called the song a triumphant jazz exercise .
= = Recognition = =
" Hung Up " was ranked at number 76 on Rolling Stone 's " 100 Best Songs of the 2000s " decade @-@ end list , calling it " One of her [ Madonna 's ] most captivating hits ever — and thanks to those deceptively hard @-@ hitting lyrics , one of her most personal . " NME ranked it at number 39 in their list of the best tracks of 2005 . Slant Magazine 's writers listed the song at number 36 on their list of Best of the Aughts : Singles saying : " ' Hung Up ' employs a ticking clock to represent fear of wasted time , but Madonna isn 't singing about aging or saving the world — she 's talking about love . It had been years since Madge sounded this vapid . With its pitched @-@ upward vocals , infectious arpeggio sample from ABBA 's ' Gimme Gimme Gimme ( A Man After Midnight ) , ' and the bridge 's unironic , archetypical key change , the track decidedly points to the past , and it proved that , 20 years into her career , Madonna was still the one and only Dancing Queen . " The song was also named the 26th best single of 2005 by Pitchfork Media . Stylus Magazine included " Hung Up " on their ranking of the best singles from 2005 at number 11 .
= = Chart performance = =
" Hung Up " was a worldwide commercial success , peaking at number one in charts of 41 countries and earning a place in the 2007 Guinness Book of World Records , as the song topping the charts in most countries . It also remains one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with sales of over 9 million copies worldwide . In the United States , " Hung Up " debuted at twenty on the Billboard Hot 100 on the issue dated November 5 , 2005 . It became her highest opening position since " Ray of Light " entered the chart at five in 1998 . The same week the song entered the Hot Digital Songs chart at number six and became the highest debuting single of the week on the Pop 100 Airplay , where it debuted at number 38 . On the issue dated November 21 , 2005 , the song reached a peak of number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 , jumping from number 14 from previous week . The song became the chart 's greatest digital gainer for that week and claimed the top position on the Hot Digital Songs chart . It also tied Madonna with Elvis Presley for 36 top ten hits , which was subsequently broken by Madonna 's 2008 song " 4 Minutes " , which peaked at number three on the Hot 100 . " Hung Up " debuted at numbers 25 and 10 on the Hot Dance Club Play and Hot Dance Airplay charts respectively ultimately reaching the top of both . It became the most successful dance song of the 2000s in the United States , by topping the Dance / Club Play Songs Decade @-@ end tally . The song also reached a peak of seven on the Pop 100 chart . In 2008 , the single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling at least a million copies in paid digital downloads . As of April 2010 , the song has sold 1 @.@ 2 million digital units in the United States .
" Hung Up " became the fastest rising single on radio in Canada , according to Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems . On the second week itself , the song reached the top of the Contemporary Hit Radio chart of Canada , while reaching the top five of the Adult Contemporary and Canadian Airplay charts . Paul Tuch from Nielsen clarified that " Hung Up " achieved this feat within 10 days only . Consequently , " Hung Up " also peaked atop the Canadian Singles Chart for 15 non @-@ consecutive weeks , and was certified double platinum by Music Canada for sales of 160 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , the song debuted atop the ARIA Singles Chart on November 20 , 2005 , breaking her tie with Kylie Minogue as the female artist with most number @-@ one singles in Australian chart history . It was present within the top 50 of the chart for 23 weeks . The song was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies . " Hung Up " debuted at number 67 in the French singles chart and jumped to the top next week , remaining there for five non @-@ consecutive weeks . It received a gold certification from Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for sales of 150 @,@ 000 copies . " Hung Up " reached a peak position of number two in New Zealand , being kept from the top spot by Kanye West 's single , " Gold Digger " .
In the United Kingdom , " Hung Up " debuted at number one on the issue dated November 13 , 2005 , thus giving Madonna her 11th number one single on this chart . It sold 105 @,@ 619 copies becoming the first single to sell more than 100 @,@ 000 copies in a week since Crazy Frog 's " Axel F " did it 23 weeks earlier . The first week sales of " Hung Up " were a little lower than Madonna 's last UK number one , " Music " ( 2000 ) , which opened with 114 @,@ 925 sales , but exceeded her last single " Love Profusion " , which debuted at number 11 with 15 @,@ 361 sales in December 2003 . The next week the single had a decline in sales of 43 % to 59 @,@ 969 ; copies , but remained on the top as Confessions on a Dance Floor debuted atop the UK Albums Chart . It remained at the top position for three weeks and a total of 40 weeks on the Singles Chart . According to the Official Charts Company , by the end of 2005 , " Hung Up " was Madonna 's biggest selling single with 339 @,@ 285 copies since " Music " sold 390 @,@ 624 copies in 2000 . It was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) and has sold 617 @,@ 000 in the UK to date . In Ireland , the song debuted at number two on the chart dated November 10 , 2005 becoming the highest debut of the week . The song also topped Billboard 's European Hot 100 Singles chart where it soared from 73 to the top of the chart on the issue dated November 21 , 2005 . The song was able to peak the charts in almost all the European nations including Austria , Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Italy , Netherlands , Norway , Spain , Sweden and Switzerland .
= = Music video = =
= = = Conception = = =
Originally the video for " Hung Up " was to be directed by photographer David LaChapelle . He wanted the video to have a " documentary " -style look , much like that of his 2005 film , Rize , in which five of the dancers from the " Hung Up " video appeared . LaChapelle and Madonna disagreed on the concept , prompting the project to be reassigned to Johan Renck , who worked with Madonna in her video for " Nothing Really Matters " . According to an interview with MTV , Renck was directing Kate Moss for a H & M commercial when he received a phone call from Madonna who desperately wanted to work with him . The next day he went to Los Angeles to meet the stylist and the choreographer hired by Madonna , who mailed him with her ideas for the video . The director explained that he " kind of liked that we didn 't have time to over @-@ think this and be too clever , I like being out on a limb and not know what we 're doing and why . Just deal with it , the mayhem , you know ? "
Madonna clarified that the video was a tribute to John Travolta and to dance in general . Her dance moves for the video , which were inspired by Travolta 's movies like Saturday Night Fever ( 1977 ) , Grease ( 1978 ) and Perfect ( 1985 ) took three hours to shoot . Madonna had broken eight bones in a horseback @-@ riding accident a few weeks before shooting the video and faced difficulty doing the steps devised by choreographer Jamie King . Renck said ,
" She was such a trooper , [ ... ] She just fell off a horse ! [ Madonna said ] ' If you were a real dance choreographer , you could tell I can 't lift my left arm higher than this ' — and it was like , what , a 20 @-@ centimeter difference ? [ ... ] But when she said it ' hurts like f--- , ' she 'd take a break and sit down for two minutes . [ Madonna ] ' I have broken ribs , remember that ! ' I just can 't imagine dancing like that . Talk about priorities . "
Madonna wanted to use a few performers from her tour , such as Daniel " Cloud " Campos , Miss Prissy from LaChapelle 's Rize crew and traceur Sebastien Foucan , a practitioner of Parkour , a philosophical French sport . Renck said that " It 's not about the music , but the bodily expression , [ ... ] We wanted to show the whole spectrum , be it krumping , breakdancing , jazz or disco . " Since they could not shoot all over the world , Madonna wanted the video to have an " omnipresent feel " , with the middle section of the song generating a sense of congregation . Renck suggested that they include a boombox , used as a means of uniting everyone and everything since it was through listening to songs on a boombox that street dancing started . Though some scenes in the video feature cities like London , Paris , New York , Los Angeles , Shanghai and Tokyo , in reality the actual sets were constructed in Los Angeles and London only . A London suburb was made to look like a Parisian one , where the routine for Parkour takes place , whereas a restaurant in London 's Chinatown was used for the Shanghai sequence and Compton stood in for the Bronx . The dancers ' scenes were shot in early October 2005 within half a day , for a total of six days of shooting .
= = = Release and reception = = =
Madonna was also associated with the editing process of the video . She was Renck 's editing supervisor . Madonna wanted a raw documentary look for the video which allowed her to be portrayed more realistically . Regarding the making of " Hung Up " , Renck said that it was a massive work to undertake , " It 's like you form this little family that 's flourished and prospered for the month , and then you chop it down like a tree , [ ... ] You come out with a sense of yearning and longing , like , ' Can we just do that again ? Please ? ' "
The video starts with Madonna coming to a ballet studio carrying a boombox . She switches it on as the clock ticking sound of the music starts . Wearing a pink leotard , Madonna starts gyrating to the music while doing warm up exercises . The scene interchanges with a group of people on the street who start dancing to the music while listening to a similar boombox . They also display aspects of the physical discipline Parkour , while climbing over buildings and jumping from staircases . As the song starts , Madonna dances to the music in the ballet studio . The second verse shows her continuing dancing while the people from the street take their boombox and board a taxi . Scenes are interspersed with people dancing in a Chinese restaurant and Parisian streets . In the meantime , Madonna finishes her workout in the ballet studio , drops her towel , changes her clothes and comes out on the street . The people on the taxi , leave it and take the Underground instead . After another round of dancing in the train , the intermediate music starts . Madonna is shown mingling with some dancers on a dance floor and riding on a boombox . As the song starts again , Madonna and the people from the street , who act as her background dancers , all dance on a Dance Dance Revolution machine in a gaming parlor . The video ends showing Madonna lying on the ballet studio floor . The video was nominated for five awards at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards including Best Female Video , Dance Video , Pop Video , Best Choreography and the Video of the Year award although it did not win any of them .
= = Live performances = =
On November 4 , 2005 Madonna opened the 2005 MTV Europe Music Awards at the Pavilhão Atlântico in Lisbon , Portugal with her first performance of " Hung Up " . She emerged from a glitterball to perform sing the song while wearing a purple leotard and matching leather boots . During next days , Madonna performed " Hung Up " on TV shows such as Wetten , dass .. ? in Germany , Parkinson in England and Star Academy in France , as well as on the Children in Need 2005 telethon in London . She opened her concerts at Koko and G @-@ A @-@ Y nightclubs in London with " Hung Up " , respectively on November 15 and 19 . The performance again saw Madonna emerge from a glitter ball while wearing a purple jacket , velvet pedal pushers and knee @-@ high boots . In December Madonna travelled to Tokyo , Japan , where " Hung Up " was performed on TV show SMAP × SMAP and her concert at Studio Coast . On February 8 , 2006 Madonna opened the 2006 Grammy Awards at the Staples Center in Los Angeles . She sang the song by pairing up with the fictional animated band Gorillaz . The band appeared on the stage via a three dimensional technique which projected their holograms on the stage . They performed their song " Feel Good Inc . " while rappers De La Soul made a guest appearance . Madonna then appeared on the stage and started performing the song while interchanging places with the hologram figures of the band . She was later joined by her own group of dancers and the performance was finished on the main stage rather than the virtual screen . Another performance of " Hung Up " came on April 30 , 2006 during the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in Indio , California .
The song was performed as the last song of her 2006 Confessions Tour . It was performed at the last " disco fever " segment of the tour . During the performance , her dancers displayed the Parkour routine all over the stadium as the familiar ABBA sample played . Madonna changed her aerobics costume for a purple leotard . As the music progressed , she and her dancers appeared on the center stage and she started singing . During the second verse , she left her sunglasses and jacket and proceeded towards the front of the stage . A boombox appeared in the center with Madonna playing with it . The song starts again as balloons fall on the crowd from the top . The finale had Madonna engaging the audience to sing @-@ along with her to the song while making a contest as to which side of the stadium can sing the loudest . Madonna then uttering the line " I 'm tired of waiting for you " while the backdrop showed the phrase " Have You Confessed ? " . The New York Times ' Ginia Belafonte compared this performance with that of Ethel Merman . Slant Magazine commented that the performance reminded Madonna 's ability to encapsulate the audience as a part of her performance . On July 7 , 2007 Madonna closed her set during the Live Earth concert at the Wembley Stadium in London with " Hung Up " .
The song was also added to the six song set list of the Hard Candy Promo Tour in 2008 . Madonna wore a shiny black outfit with black tails , Adidas track pants and high @-@ heeled , lace @-@ up boots . " Hung Up " was the fourth song of the set list . It was re @-@ invented as a heavy @-@ metal version . As the performance of " 4 Minutes " ended , Madonna picked up an electric guitar and played the first few chords of The Rolling Stones single " ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction " . She then asked the crowd whether they thought they had come to a Rolling Stones concert . When the crowd responded negatively , she started " Hung Up " , while dedicating it to all the people who had waited outside in the queue to watch the show . She declared that the noisy , metallic guitar breakdown of the song symbolised what waiting sounded like in the brain of all those who had waited . The song was performed in the futuristic rave with Japanese influences segment of the 2008 Sticky & Sweet Tour . Madonna wore a futuristic robotic outfit designed by Heatherette , with plates on her shoulder and a wig with long curled hair . The similar heavy @-@ metal version of " Hung Up " was performed but it later gave way to the ABBA music . Before starting the performance , she played a capella versions of her older hit songs on audience demand , mostly " Express Yourself " and " Like a Virgin " . However , after that , the electric guitar was played to make noises , which Madonna dedicated to Republican vice @-@ presidential nominee for the 2008 election , Sarah Palin . She said , " I 'd like to express myself to Sarah Palin right now . [ Playing a screeching note on her guitar ] This is the sound of Sarah Palin thinking . [ ... ] Sarah Palin can 't come to my party . Sarah Palin can 't come to my show . It 's nothing personal . " The performance ended with Madonna playing the guitar riff of " A New Level " by heavy @-@ metal band Pantera . For the second European leg of the tour in 2009 , " Hung Up " was removed from the setlist and was replaced by an up @-@ beat version of " Frozen " .
For The MDNA Tour of 2012 , " Hung Up " was added to the setlist as part of the opening segment , known as Transgression . After performing a fragment of " Papa Don 't Preach " , several dancers wearing tribal masks , surrounded Madonna , tied her up and proceeded to carry her to the center of the main stage just as the song 's opening riffs , underpinned by the dramatic sound of church bells with vocoder vocals , started to play in the background . Dressed in a black skintight outfit with an ample cleavage , gloves of the same color and heeled boots , Madonna and her dancers performed the song while at the same time realizing a slacklining session on some ropes held on the middle of the stage . As Madonna sang the song , her dancers slid under the ropes . This performance received generally mixed reviews , Jon Pareles from The New York Times believed that changing the composition of the song in lieu of the theme for the segment made it " ominous and obsessive " , while making it " a memory of distant innocence " . Jim Farber from the Daily News felt that the introduction of slacklining gave the whole tour " some needed bounce " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine was negative on his review of the performance , as he felt it was out of place on the show 's segment , and compared it negatively to the performance of the Sticky & Sweet Tour , concluding that the song " should never be performed in any way other than its original form . "
On April 13 , 2015 , Madonna made a surprise appearance at the Coachella Festival and performed a medley of her 1994 song " Human Nature " and " Hung Up " during Drake 's act , sporting thigh @-@ high boots and a tank top that read " Big as Madonna " . She then went on to kiss Drake ; the kissing becoming an Internet viral .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Writer and Producer – Madonna , Stuart Price
Writer of Sample – Benny Andersson , Björn Ulvaeus
Cover Artwork – Giovanni Bianco
Digital Imaging – Lorenzo Irico ( Pixelway NYC )
Management – Angela Becker , Guy Oseary
Photography – Steven Klein
Hair and makeup – Andy LeCompte
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= David Villa =
David Villa Sánchez ( Spanish pronunciation : [ daˈβið ˈβiʎa ] ; born 3 December 1981 ) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a striker and is the captain for New York City FC . He is nicknamed El Guaje ( The Kid in Asturian ) because as a youngster he frequently played football with children much older than him .
Despite sustaining a serious injury as a child , Villa started his professional career with Sporting de Gijón . He moved to Real Zaragoza after two seasons , where he made his La Liga debut , winning the Copa del Rey and Supercopa de España . He joined Valencia CF in 2005 for a transfer fee of € 12 million and was part of the Valencia team that won the Copa del Rey in the 2007 – 08 season . Villa hit his La Liga goalscoring peak while at Valencia , scoring 28 league goals in the 2008 – 09 season . In 2010 , he moved to FC Barcelona for € 40 million , where he won his first La Liga and UEFA Champions League titles . He was one of the goalscorers in the 2011 final of the Champions League as Barcelona defeated Manchester United , 3 – 1 . After a € 5 @.@ 1 million transfer , he spent the 2013 – 14 season at Atlético Madrid , winning another La Liga title before leaving to play for New York City .
Villa made his international debut for Spain in 2005 . He has since participated in four major tournaments , becoming an integral member of the Spain teams that won UEFA Euro 2008 and the 2010 FIFA World Cup . He scored three goals at the 2006 World Cup , was the top scorer at Euro 2008 and earned the Silver Boot at the 2010 World Cup . He is the first Spanish player to ever reach 50 international goals and retired from internationals after the 2014 World Cup with 59 in 97 matches , making him Spain 's all @-@ time top goalscorer as well as the country 's top scorer in the World Cup , with nine goals .
= = Childhood and early career = =
Villa was born in Tuilla , a small parish in Langreo , Asturias , a region in northern Spain , the son of José Manuel Villa , a miner . When Villa was four , his chances of becoming a footballer were put in jeopardy when he suffered a fracture to the femur in his right leg , but he made a complete recovery . Due to the injury , he and his father worked on strengthening his left leg and Villa ultimately became ambidextrous . He recalls his father being consistently supportive : " He would be there throwing me the ball over and over , making me kick it with my left leg when my right was in plaster after breaking it , I was four . I can barely remember a single training session when my dad wasn 't there . I have never been alone on a football pitch . "
Villa admitted that he came close to giving up football at the age of 14 after growing disillusioned and falling out with his coach . However , thanks to his parents ' encouragement , he persisted in pursuing his dream , realising his talent could earn him a living . " In those days I was a nobody , not earning a penny and after being made to sit on the bench all season I just wanted to get away and play with my friends " he said . " But my dad always supported me and cheered me up until my career turned round . " He went on to begin his footballing career at UP Langreo and when he turned 17 he joined the Mareo football school .
= = Club career = =
= = = Sporting Gijón = = =
Villa attracted interest from many Asturian teams , but one of the province 's bigger teams , Real Oviedo , declared that he was too short and that they did not believe he had sufficient potential . He subsequently got his professional breakthrough at his local club Sporting de Gijón , following in the footsteps of his childhood idol Quini . Starting out at the team 's youth ranks , he made his first @-@ team debut in the 2000 – 01 season . After scoring 25 goals in two seasons , he became a first team regular . Pepe Acebal , Sporting 's manager at the time , said that Villa initially lacked the stamina to have a real impact and had to be given his chance bit by bit and that Villa 's capacity for work was " unrivalled " .
= = = Real Zaragoza = = =
= = = = 2003 – 04 season = = = =
With his goal tally nearly reaching 40 goals after spending two full seasons in Sporting 's main team , Villa got his chance in Spain 's top @-@ flight when Sporting were in financial difficulty – newly promoted Real Zaragoza signed him for approximately € 3 million in the summer of 2003 . The striker had no trouble adapting to playing at the higher level , netting 17 times in his first season at Zaragoza . His league debut came during Zaragoza 's first La Liga game since his arrival , where the team were defeated 1 – 0 away by Galician side Deportivo de La Coruña while his first goal came two games later , an eighth @-@ minute goal against Real Murcia which put Zaragoza 2 – 0 up in a match which ended 3 – 0 . 4 December 2003 saw him net his first brace ( two goals ) in a 2 – 2 draw against Athletic Bilbao and on 25 April 2004 , he scored his first hat @-@ trick in a tight 4 – 4 draw against Sevilla which saw Villa score all four of Zaragoza 's goals , putting his team ahead on two occasions .
Zaragoza reached the 2004 Copa del Rey final where he played a big part in the team 's victory , scoring a crucial goal to put the Aragonese outfit 2 – 1 up against Real Madrid in a match which eventually ended 3 – 2 . Soon after , he earned his first international call @-@ up and cap , which resulted in Zaragoza fans becoming so proud of his achievements that they invented the football chant " illa illa illa , Villa maravilla " , a play on the words " Villa " and " maravilla " , the latter which translates to " marvel " but can also mean " wonderful " or " great " in that context .
= = = = 2004 – 05 season = = = =
After Zaragoza 's triumph in the Copa del Rey , they were granted a place in the 2004 – 05 UEFA Cup ; this was Villa 's first time playing in a European competition . In the team 's opening group game , against Utrecht , Villa netted a brace in the dying minutes of the game , which ended 2 – 0 in Zaragoza 's favour . In the round of 16 , Zaragoza faced Austria Wien . The first leg ended 1 – 1 , while Villa scored in the second leg in an eventual 2 – 2 draw ; Austria Wien progressed on the away goals rule . Meanwhile , in La Liga , Villa excited Zaragoza fans on 23 September 2004 by putting the team 1 – 0 up against Barcelona at the Camp Nou , although Barcelona came back to win the game 4 – 1 . On 17 April 2005 , Villa scored a brace which helped see off Sevilla in a 3 – 0 victory .
= = = Valencia = = =
= = = = 2005 – 06 season = = = =
After his success at Zaragoza , the team was in need of money , as a result , Villa made his big move to one of Spanish football 's heavyweights , as a new look Valencia under Quique Sánchez Flores parted with € 12 million to secure his services in the summer of 2005 . During his first game in a Valencia shirt , an Intertoto Cup match against Belgian outfit Gent , Villa scored the first goal in a game which Valencia won 2 – 0 . He made his league debut for Valencia coming on as a substitute against Real Betis in a 1 – 0 win on 27 August 2005 . The next match would see his previous team , Zaragoza , leading 2 – 1 for the majority of the match ; however , on the 81st minute , Villa came on as a late substitute for Rubén Baraja and scored the equalizer within the space of a minute , earning Valencia a point in a 2 – 2 draw .
On 21 September , Villa would once again save Valencia a vital point by netting a brace against Barcelona at Camp Nou , actually giving his team the lead at one point after Víctor Valdés ' clearance rebounded off Villa 's back and into the net . On 23 October , Villa scored the winning goal against another Spanish giant , this time Real Madrid at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium , and would once again score against Barcelona on 12 February 2006 , his one @-@ goal proving enough to secure all three points in a 1 – 0 victory . Villa scored a goal against Deportivo La Coruña at the Riazor on 4 February 2006 , later described as " superb " by ESPN and " his best " by Sid Lowe , who went on to credit it even more pointing out he achieved it " on the turn " . Hitting the ball from the half way line ( 50 yards out ) it sailed over the keepers head and into the net .
Villa scored his first hat @-@ trick for Valencia against Athletic Bilbao at San Mamés in La Liga on 23 April 2006 . He managed the hat @-@ trick in just over five minutes ( 80th to the 85th minute ) , making it one of the quickest hat @-@ tricks ever recorded . Valencia won that game 3 – 0 . That season saw him score 25 goals in 35 league matches for Valencia , finishing one goal behind the league 's top scorer Samuel Eto 'o of Barcelona . Villa 's goal tally that year was the best that any Valencia player had ever achieved since Edmundo Suárez over 60 years prior .
= = = = 2006 – 07 season = = = =
Villa 's form continued into the 2006 – 07 season , with the striker forming a partnership up front with former Real Madrid star Fernando Morientes . Between them , Villa and Morientes netted 43 goals in all competitions . That year also saw Villa debut in the UEFA Champions League ; his first match was a qualifying match , coming on as a late substitute in a 1 – 0 first leg loss against Red Bull Salzburg . He went on to start the second leg and scored in a 3 – 0 win which saw Valencia qualify for the Champions League group stages . Crucial goals against Roma and Shakhtar Donetsk helped Valencia qualify for the knockout stages , where they faced Inter Milan . Villa scored a free @-@ kick goal in the first leg away from home , while one of Inter 's defenders complained that Villa had " made us look like idiots , all on his own " . Valencia went through to the quarter @-@ finals , where they faced Chelsea . Villa featured in both games but failed to make the score sheet as Valencia were knocked out by the London team 3 – 2 on aggregate . In October 2006 , he was included among the 50 nominees for the Ballon d 'Or ( often referred to as the European Footballer of the Year Award ) .
A crucial goal against Espanyol and a brace against Sevilla helped him reach 16 goals that season and would see him come sixth in La Liga 's top scorer list that season ( scoring the same amount of goals as fellow international Raúl Tamudo ) while he created more assists than anyone .
= = = = 2007 – 08 season = = = =
The 2007 – 08 season was not easy for Villa nor for his teammates . Early in the season , their manager , Quique Sánchez Flores , was fired and replaced by Ronald Koeman , who ended up being fired on 22 April , after a run of poor results , even though he managed to win a trophy with Valencia after the team defeated Getafe in the Copa del Rey @-@ final . Koeman was replaced by highly rated Almería coach Unai Emery at the end of the season . Under Koeman , Villa managed to see the back of the net 18 times in his 26 appearances . He also won the first professional trophy of his Valencia spell , winning the Copa del Rey for the second time in his career , beating Barcelona 3 – 2 in the semi @-@ finals and then Getafe 3 – 1 in the final. ensuring the team 's place for the following season 's UEFA Cup . By the end of the season , he signed a new six @-@ year contract with Valencia , committing his future to the club until 2014 .
That season , Villa once again saw himself playing Champions League football . He scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 win against Schalke 04 and went on to put Valencia 1 – 0 up against Chelsea , although goals from Joe Cole and Didier Drogba saw Valencia lose 2 – 1 . Valencia finished bottom of the group and were knocked out . On his 100th league appearance for Valencia , Villa scored a hat @-@ trick against Levante ; his 54th , 55th and 56th league goals for the club . Another two goals on the final day of the season against Atlético Madrid completed his tally of 18 goals that season .
= = = = 2008 – 09 season = = = =
After finishing as the top scorer at Euro 2008 , Villa continued his form into the 2008 – 09 season , where he scored the first goal in a 3 – 0 win against Mallorca in what was the opening game of the season . After failing to sign the player , Real Madrid 's manager at the time , Bernd Schuster , accused Villa of having " no ambition " , whereupon Villa responded by saying , " Footballing ambition is not about your mouth , it is about your feet . You can accuse me of lots of things – of having a bad day , of missing chances , of many things – but I have always had ambition and always will have . I think I have proved that on the pitch with Zaragoza , Sporting , UD Langreo , and the national team . " In October 2008 , Kaká praised Villa : speaking to Canal + , he claimed that Villa is " the best Spanish footballer " adding that , " The player with whom I would most like to play is David Villa of Valencia . " On 2 December 2008 , Villa came seventh in the Ballon d 'Or 2008 rankings and on 12 January 2009 , he was announced as the joint ninth @-@ best player of 2008 alongside international teammate Andrés Iniesta of Barcelona , according to the 2008 FIFA World Player of the Year awards .
Valencia finished second in their UEFA Cup group , although Villa was not featured heavily and was often an unused or late @-@ match subtitute . He scored a late winner against Marítimo and was used in the Round of 32 against Dynamo Kyiv , though he did not make the score sheet . The two legs finished in a 3 – 3 aggregate score , with Dynamo progressing through the away goals rule .
Hitting a consistent goalscoring form during mid @-@ season , Villa scored against Deportivo La Coruña , although he was sent off during the match after his second yellow card , received due to a foul on Daniel Aranzubia ; as a result , he missed Valencia 's next match against Real Valladolid , a game Valencia lost 2 – 1 at home . Ready to return from suspension , Villa suffered from an inflammation in the joint in his left knee due to a partial dislocation and would be ruled out for the next 15 days , missing games against Numancia , Recreativo de Huelva and Racing de Santander . When he finally returned from injury on 5 April 2009 , he had no trouble recovering form , netting a brace in a match against Getafe which Valencia won 4 – 1 . On 12 April , Villa was set to return to El Molinón , the home ground of Sporting de Gijón where he started his career . He admitted that the encounter would be very emotional for him but went on to score the second Valencia goal in a 3 – 2 win and kept a pre @-@ match promise by not celebrating the goal . His goal against Villarreal brought his tally to 26 , and he then scored another two against Athletic Bilbao , finishing with 28 goals after the last game of the season , thus equalling records set by the Argentinian Mario Kempes and the Montenegrin Predrag Mijatović , who also scored 28 goals in a Valencia shirt in 1978 and 1996 , respectively . Kempes reached his tally of 28 goals in 34 games while Mijatović achieved it in 40 , ultimately seeing Villa beat their percentages , as he achieved the 28 goals in 33 games , recording a goal ratio of 0 @.@ 84 goals per game . That season saw Villa 's best goal @-@ scoring season at Valencia .
With the season over , Villa had marked his fourth year at Valencia , with only Barcelona 's Samuel Eto 'o scoring more goals than him in that period , with just six more . British columnist Sid Lowe , however , pointed out that Eto 'o achieved this " in a team that racked up 129 [ goals ] more than Villa 's side " , and noted that " most of that time he [ Villa ] has taken Valencia 's corners and free @-@ kicks – and however good a player is he can 't head in his own crosses " . Villa also ended the season as the third top scorer in La Liga with 28 goals , just behind Eto 'o ( 30 ) and Diego Forlán ( 32 ) . After recording the best goal tally for a Valencia player in 60 years back in the 2005 – 06 season , he went three better in the 2008 – 09 season . The 28 league goals , in addition to three more in other competitions that season , accumulated a total of 101 goals in 180 official games with the Valencian outfit .
= = = = 2009 – 10 season = = = =
After the shock exit from the Confederations Cup with Spain , Villa returned from his holidays on 27 July amidst much media speculation linking him with top clubs such as Real Madrid , Barcelona , Liverpool , Chelsea , and Manchester United . Villa quelled such rumours after announcing his desire to remain at the Mestalla to fulfil his contract , underlining that he " could not spend all summer refuting things , so I wanted to be quiet ... I was told I should leave Valencia for the good of the club , soon after that everything changed and from that moment on I never saw myself out of here – before the Euros , the club told me what my asking price was , and I thought they were going to sell me , but when I returned from my vacations , Vicente Soriano said that he did not want me to leave Valencia . That removed all doubt for me . There is no train missed because all that I have achieved is because of Valencia and the Spanish national team . " When questioned on whether or not he should apologise to Valencia fans , he simply replied , " I did not kill anyone , I do not think I have to ask for forgiveness . "
On 20 August 2009 , Villa scored in his first official match of the season , a 3 – 0 Europa League qualifier against Stabæk . He followed this up with two goals against Real Valladolid on 13 September , Villa 's first league goals of the 2009 – 10 season . He scored twice more a week later against former club Sporting Gijón in a 2 – 2 draw at the Mestalla , where he also performed duties as the team 's captain . After the match , Villa hinted towards being unhappy with Unai Emery 's managerial decisions , stating , " The approach for the second half was not right . We relaxed and ended up with the same result as last year . What has happened , has happened , but their goalkeeper was good , unlike our approach , which was not good , " however a day later he denied being critical of Emery , pointing out that , " When I talked about the approach , I was referring to the whole team , I spoke in the heat of the moment , I was annoyed at the way we lost two points and I said what I thought , but I have clarified everything that needed to be cleared up . "
In 2009 , Villa scored more goals than any other footballer , tallying 43 goals in 54 games across all competitions for both Spain and Valencia . The IFFHS listed him fourth in the " World 's Top Goal Scorer 2009 " rankings .
On 18 October , Villa was nominated for the Ballon d 'Or , while nearly two weeks later , on 30 October , he was nominated for the FIFA World Player of the Year . After going three league games without scoring , Villa contributed two goals towards Valencia 's 4 – 1 victory against Villarreal on 17 January 2010 , the first of his two goals became his 100th league goal with Valencia . Another brace came against Getafe on 22 February 2010 , the second goal being " a superb chip " ( as described by ESPN ) over Jordi Codina . On 18 March , Valencia went to the Weserstadion to play Werder Bremen in the Europa League . Villa scored a hat @-@ trick , his third goal being of note , which was fired in from eight yards out . The match ended 4 – 4 while Valencia proceeded to the next round on away goals . On 4 May 2010 , Valencia played Xerez ; Villa did not start but came on as a substitute 62 minutes into the match , which ended 3 – 1 . Valencia still had two more games to play in the league , although Villa did not feature , making the game against Xerez the last time he played for Valencia .
= = = Barcelona = = =
= = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = =
On 19 May 2010 , Barcelona reached an agreement with Valencia for the acquisition of Villa for a € 40 million transfer fee . Villa signed a four @-@ year contract with Barça with the option for a fifth , worth a reported € 7 million per season , thus following in the footsteps of his heroes Luis Enrique and Quini , both of whom , like Villa , started out at Sporting Gijón and ended up at Barcelona . On 21 May 2010 , over 35 @,@ 000 Barcelona supporters packed into Camp Nou to see Villa 's presentation , where he revealed the kit Barcelona would use during the 2010 – 11 season . He was given his favourite number 7 , a number which had been free at the club since Eiður Guðjohnsen left in 2009 . He made his first appearance for the club in the second leg of the Supercopa de España , during the second half as a substitute for fellow Spanish international Pedro . His debut appearance would also see him win his first piece of silver @-@ ware with the Catalonian side , as Barcelona won 4 – 0 and 5 – 3 on aggregate due to a hat @-@ trick by teammate Lionel Messi . His first goal came during the Joan Gamper Trophy ( an annual friendly competition ) against Milan ; Barcelona won 3 – 1 on penalties after the match had ended 1 – 1 during normal time .
On 29 August 2010 , Villa made his La Liga debut with Barcelona against Racing de Santander , where he scored the third goal of the match to help seal a 3 – 0 victory . On 14 September 2010 , he scored on his Champions League debut with Barcelona in a 5 – 1 victory over Panathinaikos
Against Sevilla , on 31 October 2010 , Barcelona won 5 – 0 against the Andalusian side , while Villa netted a brace . His first goal that match was voted " The Best Goal of the Week ( October 25 – 31 ) " by the readers of Goal.com. Villa 's first El Clásico against Real Madrid came on 29 November 2010 , where he scored two goals as Barcelona won 5 – 0 at the Camp Nou . Talking about the match , he commented that , " It 's been a very important win . We looked for the victory and we got it . And the result and the manner in which we achieved it , you cannot ask for more . " He then scored a goal against Real Sociedad , a match Barcelona won 5 – 0 . He followed with a brace against Espanyol , helping Barcelona to a 5 – 1 win .
On 27 December 2010 , Villa was named " Male Athlete of the Year " by the United States Sports Academy , as he edged fellow Spaniard Rafael Nadal and previous winner Manny Pacquiao for the title .
On 28 May 2011 , Villa scored the third goal – curling the ball into the net from 25 @-@ yards out – in Barcelona 's 3 – 1 victory over Manchester United in the 2010 – 11 UEFA Champions League final . After the victory , Villa said that he would like to dedicate the victory " to all my family , my daughters and also Pepe Reina 's , who are like my nieces " .
= = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = =
Villa started the season with goals against Mexican clubs Guadalajara and América in pre @-@ season friendly matches . His first official match of the season was against Real Madrid in the first leg of the 2011 Supercopa de España , where Villa scored a " world @-@ class " goal to help Barça seal a 2 – 2 tie at the Santiago Bernabéu , while on 17 August 2011 , Villa was sent off in the dying moments of the second leg ( which Barcelona won 3 – 2 ) after an altercation with Mesut Özil . Against Osasuna on 17 September 2011 , Villa contributed two goals and forced Rovérsio into scoring an own goal in Barcelona 's 8 – 0 win over the team from Pamplona . He then broke his tibia in a Club World Cup match in Yokohama against Al Sadd . Doctors said he was to be out of action for up to six months , but this eventually led to him missing the entire 2011 – 12 season with both Barcelona and the Spanish football team at Euro 2012 .
= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =
After spending eight months without being able to play any football , Villa finally returned from his injury in the 73rd minute of Barcelona 's 2 – 0 win over Dinamo Bucharest on 11 August 2012 . Eight days later , he played his first competitive football match since December 2011 in Barcelona 's first La Liga game of the season where he received a standing ovation while coming on as a substitute for Pedro . It only took seven minutes before Villa found himself on the score @-@ sheet while sealing a 5 – 1 victory for his team against Real Sociedad . On 28 November , Villa scored two goals in a 3 – 1 over Deportivo Alavés , which included his 300th career goal .
Against Milan in the second leg of round of 16 of the Champions League , Villa scored the decisive third goal in Barcelona 's 4 – 0 victory , helping his team overturn a two @-@ goal first @-@ leg deficit . In the next round , Villa assisted Pedro 's equalising goal against Paris Saint @-@ Germain which took Barcelona through to the semi @-@ final , where they were eventually knocked out by Bayern Munich .
David Villa ended the season with a large amount of his appearances coming from the bench , partly due to the recovery time of his previous injury . Despite this , he was still able to amass 16 goals in 39 appearances while his performances earned him a spot in Spain 's 2013 Confederations Cup squad .
= = = Atlético Madrid = = =
On 8 July 2013 , Barcelona announced that they had reached an agreement for the transfer of Villa to Atlético Madrid for a cut @-@ price deal of € 5 @.@ 1 million . On 21 August 2013 , he scored in the 2013 Supercopa de España first leg on his debut for Atlético against his former club Barcelona with a right @-@ footed volley .
Villa scored his first goal of the league season on 1 September , also assisting Koke as Atlético won 2 – 1 away at Real Sociedad . On 27 October , he scored his first Atlético brace as the side defeated Real Betis 5 – 0 at the Vicente Calderón Stadium . He added two further braces during the season : on 23 November in a 7 – 0 win over Getafe and the other in the space of 90 seconds in a 2 – 0 away win against Celta de Vigo on 8 March 2014 . He finished his only season at the club with 13 league goals from 36 appearances , contributing to Atlético 's first league title since 1996 .
= = = New York City FC = = =
On 1 June 2014 , Villa announced that he would leave Atlético . While he called the club he was joining " an irresistible project " , he did not reveal the identity of the club . The following day , he was announced as the first player for the newly formed New York City FC , who would start playing in the 2015 season of Major League Soccer ( MLS ) . He was handed the number 7 shirt on arrival , and stated , " I want to try to help MLS continue to grow and try to make New York City become the best team in the league . "
= = = = Melbourne City ( loan ) = = = =
Parallel to his joining New York City FC , Villa was announced to have joined the Australian A @-@ League with Melbourne City , following the team 's association with Manchester City . Villa was on a guest stint , allowing him to make up to ten appearances for Melbourne City during the 2014 – 15 season , taking advantage of the scheduling of the A @-@ League and MLS to maintain match fitness ahead of his debut with New York City . After only joining Melbourne City for pre @-@ season training just over a week before their first game , Villa was brought on in the 48th minute of the first game of the season against Sydney FC , and scored a debut goal a quarter of an hour into his appearance . On 19 October 2014 , in his second match , Villa scored an 87th @-@ minute equaliser against the Newcastle Jets for a 1 – 1 draw .
Despite signing for ten matches , Villa was recalled by New York after just four matches , none of which were won by Melbourne City ; the last was a 1 – 2 home defeat to Adelaide United . It was estimated that he tripled the club 's attendance , and manager John van ' t Schip credited Villa with bringing attention to the club .
= = = = Return to New York City = = = =
Villa was named NYCFC 's first ever team captain on 1 February 2015 , as well as a Designated Player . Nine days later , in a friendly against Scottish club St Mirren , he scored the team 's first ever goal . On 8 March , he started in the team 's first MLS game , away to fellow newcomers Orlando City . In a 1 – 1 draw , he set up Mix Diskerud for the first goal and was fouled by Aurélien Collin , who was sent off for the challenge . A week later , in their first home match at Yankee Stadium , Villa opened the scoring in a 2 – 0 win over the New England Revolution for the team 's first competitive victory .
On 12 July , Villa netted twice in a 4 – 4 home draw against Toronto FC , despite missing a penalty in the first half . He was selected to take part in the 2015 MLS All @-@ Star Game on 29 July , at the Dick 's Sporting Goods Park in Commerce City , Colorado ; he scored the match @-@ winning goal from a Kaká assist as the MLS All @-@ Stars defeated Tottenham Hotspur 2 – 1 . Despite Villa 's prolific performances , which saw him score 18 goals during the 2015 MLS regular season , New York City FC did not qualify for the MLS Cup Playoffs in their inaugural campaign .
In July 2016 , Villa was included in the roster for the 2016 MLS All @-@ Star Game .
= = International career = =
= = = 2006 World Cup = = =
An occasional member of the Under @-@ 21 team , Villa marked his international début under Luis Aragonés on 9 February 2005 in a 2006 World Cup qualifier where Spain beat San Marino 5 – 0 at the Estadio del Mediterráneo while his first international goal came in the form of a late equaliser during a World Cup qualifier against Slovakia on 16 November .
A successful season with Valencia saw him get called up as part of the 23 @-@ man squad to represent Spain at the 2006 FIFA World Cup . Spain 's first match at the tournament and Villa 's World Cup debut resulted in a 4 – 0 win against Ukraine where Villa netted a brace , and also put his nation 1 – 0 up against France in the Round of 16 , although Spain went on to lose the match 3 – 1 . He and Fernando Torres finished as Spain 's top scorers with three goals each .
= = = Euro 2008 = = =
By the end of 2006 , Villa had become an integral part of Luis Aragonés ' plans and ousted Raúl from the team . Proving vital in Spain 's qualification for Euro 2008 , he scored six goals , including a bicycle kick against Liechtenstein . He was subsequently called up for the tournament where he formed a striking relationship with Torres , with whom he would often celebrate his goals . He scored a hat @-@ trick in Spain 's 4 – 1 win over Russia , making him the first player to do so at a UEFA European Championship since Patrick Kluivert in 2000 , and only the seventh overall . After the third goal , he went out of his way to meet Torres , who was on the bench at the time , to celebrate with him : " I had just scored a hat @-@ trick and I knew people would be talking about me , but I wanted them to see that I had benefited from Torres 's work , just as he sometimes benefits from mine . " In the next match , he secured a 2 – 1 win against Sweden with a goal in the 92nd minute . Rested for the next match against Greece , he started once again in the quarter @-@ finals , where Spain beat Italy 4 – 2 on penalties ; Villa took the first penalty and scored .
Reaching their first semi @-@ final in 24 years , Spain went on to face Russia for the second time during the tournament , though during the early stages of the match , Villa sustained a thigh injury after taking a free kick and was replaced by Cesc Fàbregas . The injury meant that he could not participate in the final where Spain beat Germany 1 – 0 to claim their second win at the European Football Championships . Despite missing the final and the majority of the semi @-@ final , Villa 's four goals in the four games he played were enough for him to be top scorer of the tournament and was awarded the Golden Boot . He also made the UEFA Euro 2008 Team of the Tournament alongside striking partner Torres .
= = = 2009 Confederations Cup = = =
Spain 's first match during qualification for the 2010 World Cup was against Bosnia and Herzegovina where Villa scored the only goal of the game . He would go on to score four goals in Spain 's next three games , including a last minute winner against Belgium . Another goal during a friendly match against Chile saw him end the year with 12 goals , breaking Raúl 's record of 10 goals held since 1999 . Villa began 2009 with a goal against England in a 2 – 0 friendly , with this goal , he broke another record and became the first Spanish international to have scored in six consecutive games , seeing off records set by Telmo Zarra and László Kubala . Speaking of the goal , he said , " I am very happy with the goal . Truth is , I really want to see it on TV . The record is very nice . I would never have imagined in years that I would be able to obtain it . I am very proud and I hope I can continue breaking records . "
On 1 June 2009 , Vicente del Bosque named Villa in his 23 @-@ man squad for the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup . In a friendly match before the tournament , Villa scored his second international hat @-@ trick against Azerbaijan , nearly exactly a year after his hat @-@ trick against Russia at Euro 2008 . He debuted at the Confederations Cup with a goal , the last of the five goals in Spain 's 5 – 0 victory over New Zealand , while in the next game he scored the decisive goal against a defensive Iraqi team . Against South Africa , he missed a penalty , but within a minute made up for the miss by putting Spain ahead , helping them equal the records of most consecutive wins and most consecutive matches undefeated before making way for Pablo Hernández . The goal was his last of the tournament but was enough to see him win the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup Bronze Shoe , he would also go on to make the team of the tournament .
Villa earned his 50th cap during a friendly against the Republic of Macedonia in a match where Spain won 3 – 2 .
= = = 2010 World Cup = = =
On 5 September 2009 , Villa added two more goals to his goal tally for Spain , while assisting twice during the World Cup qualifier against Belgium , in A Coruña . The match ended 5 – 0 to Spain , where Villa also had a first @-@ half penalty saved by Belgian goalkeeper Jean @-@ François Gillet . Villa finished the year with his sixth international brace against Austria in the Ernst @-@ Happel @-@ Stadion , the setting where Spain were crowned European champions the previous year . With these two goals , Villa equalled the record he set last year of most goals scored in one calendar year by a Spanish international . Spain 's first match in 2010 came on 3 March , against France at the Stade de France ; Villa scored the opening goal in a game which Spain went on to win 2 – 0 .
In 2010 , Villa came first in the IFFHS " 2010 's World Top Goalscorer at International Level " rankings , he was subsequently selected as a part of Vicente del Bosque 's 23 @-@ man squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup . In a friendly against Saudi Arabia on 29 May 2010 , Villa scored the first of Spain 's goals as they won 3 – 2 at the Tivoli Neu – the stadium where he scored his hat @-@ trick against Russia during Euro 2008 . Failing to score in Spain 's next match against South Korea , he opened the score sheet in Spain 's next match against Poland , in which Spain won 6 – 0 , recording Poland 's their worst defeat in 50 years .
In Spain 's first 2010 World Cup match , Villa was chosen as a lone striker , but could do nothing to prevent their shock defeat at the hands of Switzerland . Five days later , Spain defeated Honduras 2 – 0 , where Villa scored both goals , but wasted his chance to complete a hat @-@ trick when he was awarded a penalty kick – side @-@ footing the ball just wide of the post . It was the first time in 14 attempts Spain ever missed a penalty in a World Cup during the run of play . In the same game , Villa was shown to slap Emilio Izaguirre in the face after the Honduran player trod on him . Villa said he was " not proud " of the heat of the moment incident , but he escaped a ban . Villa helped secure Spain 's place in the round of 16 after scoring the first goal in a 2 – 1 win over Chile , with a long @-@ range shot into an empty net after Chilean goalkeeper Claudio Bravo ran out of his area to prevent Fernando Torres from scoring . The goal would become his sixth goal in FIFA World Cup matches , becoming Spain 's all @-@ time top scorer at the World Cup finals , ahead of Emilio Butragueño , Fernando Hierro , Fernando Morientes and Raúl , all of whom have five .
Spain were up against Portugal in the round of 16 , and Villa would prove to be vital once again , as Xavi backheeled an Andrés Iniesta pass to the on @-@ rushing Villa , who hit the back of the net on the rebound after having his first shot saved by Eduardo , proving enough to give Spain a place in the quarter @-@ finals against Paraguay , where Villa scored a goal from a rebound after Pedro hit the post . Once again , Villa 's goal proved to be the difference as the match finished 1 – 0 , while Spain booked a game with Germany in the semi @-@ finals , where Spain recorded yet another 1 – 0 victory with the only goal coming from Carles Puyol .
Villa started in the final against the Netherlands , where he had an opportunity to score from close range , but was impeded by John Heitinga who managed to block his shot . Villa was replaced by Fernando Torres in the 106th minute and Spain won the championship 1 – 0 on Iniesta 's goal in the 116th minute . Villa , who scored five of Spain 's eight goals in the World Cup Finals , was awarded the Silver Shoe ; he had the same number of goals as Thomas Müller , the Gold Shoe winner , but fewer assists . Villa was named in the FIFA World Cup All @-@ Star Team .
= = = Euro 2012 qualifying and missing out on Euro 2012 = = =
Spain 's first match of UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying was against Liechtenstein on 3 September 2010 , Villa scored the second goal of the match which eventually ended 4 – 0 . It was believed that this goal meant that he had equalled Raúl 's record 44 @-@ goal tally , however after many debates about whether he or Dariusz Dudka scored the first goal in Spain 's 6 – 0 win over Poland , FIFA eventually decided that the goal was indeed an own goal by Dudka , meaning Villa 's goal tally would remain at 43 . On 12 October 2010 , he finally equalled Raúl 's record , scoring a penalty against Scotland and helping Spain see off the Scots in a 3 – 2 victory at Hampden Park .
On 25 March 2011 , Villa scored two goals against the Czech Republic in a Euro 2012 qualifier , which ultimately handed Spain a 2 – 1 victory , while at the same time he managed to eclipse Raúl as Spain 's all @-@ time leading goalscorer . Speaking of the achievement , he stated that , " The goals are dedicated to all the team @-@ mates , all the coaches , all partners and friends I had during my career ... But long ago I promised José , who is a friend of mine , that the goal which overtook Raúl would be for him . "
On 7 September 2011 , Villa helped secure Spain 's qualification for UEFA Euro 2012 by scoring two goals in Spain 's 6 – 0 victory over Liechtenstein . In Spain 's last Euro 2012 qualifying match , Villa scored his 50th international goal against Scotland in a 3 – 1 victory for Spain . That same match was also the first time Villa was able to wear the captain 's armband while playing for the Spanish national team .
Villa finished as top scorer of Group I with seven goals , however , after fracturing his tibia in December 2011 , he was left out of Spain 's final squad for Euro 2012 after telling Vicente del Bosque that he would not be fit for the tournament . He tweeted , " I 've tried , but I can 't be 100 % to play the Eurocup . I called Del Bosque . It 's the honest thing . " Del Bosque was hoping to include Villa in the squad and promised to give Villa as long as possible to return to fitness .
= = = 2013 Confederations Cup and 2014 World Cup = = =
After Spain had won Euro 2012 , Villa had returned to fitness and was subsequently called up to the Spain team again . He made his return in the 53rd minute during a friendly against Saudi Arabia and found himself on the score sheet just ten minutes later .
On 3 June 2013 , Vicente del Bosque included Villa in his 23 @-@ man squad for the 2013 Confederations Cup where he scored three goals , all of which were against Tahiti in a 10 – 0 victory for Spain .
Villa was named in Spain 's squad for the 2014 World Cup . Prior to the World Cup , he confirmed that he would retire from international football after the tournament . With Spain 's elimination already confirmed , Villa was selected to start in Spain 's final group match against Australia . He scored his 59th goal for La Furia Roja , and ninth in World Cup finals , in his final international appearance , a 3 – 0 win on 23 June 2014 .
In December 2015 , Villa revealed that he was considering reversing his international retirement .
= = = Succeeding Raúl as Spain 's number 7 = = =
The Spanish media has often compared Villa with Raúl , to the point where Villa was accused of taking the number 7 jersey away from the then @-@ Real Madrid player . In March 2009 , Villa spoke out , saying , " I have not taken anything away from anybody , I was simply playing well for my club and the national coach gave me an opportunity . Too much has been said about the number issue . I ’ m not looking to cause any controversy . In fact , Raúl and I were in the national squad together in the past . I haven ’ t forced anybody out . " When questioned on whether the whole uproar created over Raúl 's omission was affecting him personally , he said , " I 've never liked it because I think it has been damaging for the both of us . We 've always got on well together whenever we 've met up for international duty , so I 'm not concerned . I just work hard for myself . All I want is to be in the squad for every game , to have the Spain badge on my chest and to score as many goals as I can . "
In February 2010 , Bernd Schuster was asked if Raúl did not favour Villa moving to Real Madrid , to which he responded , " I have a cough , " which caused many to believe that he was implying the rumour to be true . Villa firmly ridiculed that idea by saying , " It is impossible that a player with as much class on and off the pitch as Raúl would speak poorly of me . I have always had a good relationship with Raúl , even though we have hardly met on international duty . " Speaking about Raúl 's record with the Spanish national team as the nation 's leading top scorer , Villa said , " I 've got 25 goals but he 's got 44 and is still playing . I 'd be delighted to reach that tally as I 'd help the national team achieve great victories and , in many years ' time , I could see my name on a [ scorers ' list ] that another young lad was trying to beat . That would be great . " On 25 March 2011 , two years after making that remark , Villa surpassed Raúl as Spain 's all @-@ time top scorer .
= = Style of play = =
A prolific goalscorer , Villa is regarded by pundits as one of the best forwards of his generation , and one of the best Spanish strikers of all @-@ time . An opportunistic , versatile and well @-@ rounded player , Villa is naturally right @-@ footed , but an accurate and powerful finisher with either foot , due to his ambidexterity , both inside and outside the area , despite his lack of height or physicality ; he is also a set piece and penalty kick specialist . Villa is a quick , agile , and mobile team player , with excellent technique and dribbling skills , who is also known for his work @-@ rate and intelligent offensive movement , as well as his ability to either create space for teammates or make attacking runs into the area . Due to his vision and passing ability , he is also capable of dropping deep to link up play with midfielders , and of creating chances and providing assists for teammates , which has allowed him to be deployed as a supporting forward , as an attacking midfielder or as a winger throughout his career , in addition to his more common role as a centre @-@ forward .
= = Personal life = =
In 2003 , Villa married his childhood sweetheart Patricia González , who had also been a footballer in her teenage years . Together they have three children : Zaida , Olaya — named after the wife of Fernando Torres , who is a close friend of Patricia — and Luca . The names of his children are engraved on his personalised Adidas F50 boots ; while one boot bears the Spanish flag , the other has the flag of Asturias .
His footballing idols are fellow Asturians Luis Enrique and Quini , both of whom also played for Sporting de Gijón and Barcelona .
Villa frequently attends charity events . He is actively involved with the campaigns of the UNICEF charity .
Beginning in July 2008 , a David Villa Camp is held annually , where children receive training from professional footballers . Villa also participates in a training session with the children .
Villa features in EA Sports ' FIFA video game series ; he was on the cover of the Spanish edition of the video game FIFA 07 , and he also appeared on the cover of the MLS custom edition of FIFA 16 .
In 2010 , Villa sang alongside Grammy Award @-@ nominated Spanish singer Ana Torroja on the song " Insurrection " by El Último de la Fila . The recording was made for the beneficiary project Voces X1FIN to help raise money to build an art and education school in Mali . Villa commented that footballers " are an example for society and we have to be ready to get involved in these projects , where we can help people who need it " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 17 July 2016
= = = International = = =
= = = = International statistics = = = =
As of 23 June 2014 .
Note : Each season is September – August
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Real Zaragoza
Copa del Rey ( 1 ) : 2003 – 04
Supercopa de España ( 1 ) : 2004
Valencia
Copa del Rey ( 1 ) : 2007 – 08
Barcelona
La Liga ( 2 ) : 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13
Copa del Rey ( 1 ) : 2011 – 12
Supercopa de España ( 2 ) : 2010 , 2011
UEFA Champions League ( 1 ) : 2010 – 11
UEFA Super Cup ( 1 ) : 2011
FIFA Club World Cup ( 1 ) : 2011
Atlético Madrid
La Liga ( 1 ) : 2013 – 14
UEFA Champions League Runner @-@ up ( 1 ) : 2013 – 14
New York City
MLS All @-@ Star : 2015
= = = Country = = =
Spain
FIFA World Cup ( 1 ) : 2010
UEFA European Championship ( 1 ) : 2008
= = = Individual = = =
Awards
Spanish Player of the Year : 2005 – 06
Zarra Trophy : 2005 – 06 , 2006 – 07 , 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10
UEFA Euro 2008 Golden Boot
UEFA Euro 2008 Team of the Tournament
UEFA Euro 2008 Man of the Match Spain vs Russia , Spain vs Sweden
2009 FIFA Confederations Cup Bronze Shoe
2009 FIFA Confederations Cup Team of the Tournament .
2010 FIFA World Cup Silver Shoe
2010 FIFA World Cup Bronze Ball
2010 FIFA World Cup Dream Team
2010 FIFA World Cup Man of the Match Spain vs Honduras
USSA Male Athlete of the Year : 2010
FIFA / FIFPro World XI : 2010
UEFA Team of the Year : 2010
MLS Player of the Week 2015 : Week 2
MLS Player of the Week 2015 : Week 15
MLS All @-@ Star : 2015
NYCFC Etihad Player of the month : July 2015
Ride of Fame : September 2015
NYCFC Most Valuable Player : 2015
NYCFC Goal of the Year : 2015
NYCFC Etihad Player of the month : April 2016
Achievements
Valencia Top Scorer : 2005 – 06 , 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10
La Liga 's Top Assisting Player : 2006 – 07
Spain all @-@ time top scorer : 59 goals
Spain 's all @-@ time top scorer in FIFA World Cup matches
Most goals scored in one World Cup ( by a Spanish international ) : 5
Most goals scored in one calendar year ( by a Spanish international ) : 12 ( 2008 , 2009 )
Largest streak of games having scored ( by a Spanish international ) : 6
= = = Decorations = = =
Prince of Asturias Awards : 2010
Gold Medal of the Royal Order of Sporting Merit : 2011
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= Courageous ( song ) =
" Courageous " is a song by contemporary Christian music band Casting Crowns , released by Beach Street Records , Reunion Records , and Provident Label Group . Written by Mark Hall and Matthew West and produced by Mark A. Miller , it was released on July 19 , 2011 as the first single from the band 's 2011 album Come to the Well . Hall has said the inspiration for the song was at the National Day of Prayer breakfast in 2008 . A rock , pop rock and soft rock song , it calls fathers to be better spiritual leaders .
" Courageous " was received positively by critics , many of whom praised the song as one of the best off of Come to the Well . It peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Christian AC Indicator charts and also peaked inside the top five on the Hot Christian Songs , Christian CHR , and Soft AC / Inspirational charts . It peaked at number four on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , which measures the top twenty @-@ five singles that have not entered the Billboard Hot 100 , and number sixteen on the Heatseekers Songs chart .
= = Background and recording = =
According to lead vocalist Mark Hall , the inspiration for " Courageous " came at the National Day of Prayer breakfast in 2008 . Casting Crowns was performing at the event and Hall met with Alex Kendrick , who was also a part of the event . The two started talking about various topics until Hall told Kendrick about his church 's Bible study program for fathers . Hall said that " our hearts just sort of joined on this passion to see men rise up and be the godly men of the house that God has called us to be " . Kendrick mentioned that he wanted a song to be at the end credits of a movie and that " lit [ Hall ] up " .
" Courageous " was written by Mark Hall and Matthew West and produced by Mark A. Miller . It was recorded and mixed by Sam Hewitt at Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee , with additional vocals recorded at Eagle 's Landing Studio in McDonough , Georgia . The song was mastered by Andrew Mendelson .
= = Composition = =
" Courageous " is a song with a length of three minutes and fifty @-@ nine seconds . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , it is set common time in the key of F ♯ minor and has a tempo of 82 beats per minute . Mark Hall 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of A3 to the high note of F ♯ 5 . A rock , pop rock , and soft rock song , " Courageous " features " jangling " guitars and a " muscular " guitar riff . Lyrically , it calls fathers to be better spiritual leaders ; the song 's bridge quotes the Book of Micah , calling the listener to " live justly and love mercy and walk humbly with your God " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Courageous " was received positively by music critics . James Christopher Monger of Allmusic selected it as a ' Track pick ' and felt it contributed to a strong opening for Come to the Well . Grace S. Aspinwall of CCM Magazine felt " Courageous " was one of the best tracks on the album . Tom Lennie of Cross Rhythms was less positive , calling the song " one of the least melodic tunes on offer on [ Come to the Well ] . Lindsay Williams of Gospel Music Channel felt the song demonstrated how Matthew West 's songwriting on Come to the Well made the album better . Alex " Tincan " Caldwell of Jesus Freak Hideout felt the song was an " apt challenge to men of God in this world who maintain spectator lifestyles and live vicariously through television shows and sports teams " and said the bridge made the song " thought @-@ provoking " .
= = Release and chart performance = =
" Courageous " was released as a digital download on July 19 , 2011 and to Christian AC , Christian CHR , and Soft AC / Inspirational radio on August 13 , 2011 . It debuted at number thirty @-@ eight on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart for the chart week of August 27 , 2011 . It advanced to number eighteen in its second chart week and to number fifteen in its sixth week . In its eight chart week , it jumped from number eleven to number four . In its eleventh chart week , " Courageous " advanced to the number one position , which it held for a total of four consecutive weeks . It dropped to the number two position in its fifteenth chart week but returned to the number one position the following week . In total , " Courageous " spent twenty @-@ seven weeks on the Hot Christian Songs chart .
It also peaked at number one on the Christian AC Indicator chart , number two on the Hot Christian AC chart , number three on the Soft AC / Inspirational and Christian CHR charts . It peaked at number four on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , which ranks the top twenty @-@ five songs that have not reached the Billboard Hot 100 , and at number sixteen on the Heatseekers Songs chart , which measures the top songs by artists who have never reached the top fifty on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Courageous " was the twenty @-@ ninth best @-@ selling Christian song of 2011 , also ranking on the 2011 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts at number thirty @-@ one and thirty @-@ three , respectively .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits lifted from the digital booklet for Come to the Well .
= = Chart positions = =
= = Release and radio history = =
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= Willow ( film ) =
Willow is a 1988 American @-@ British high fantasy film directed by Ron Howard , produced and with a story by George Lucas , and starring Warwick Davis , Val Kilmer , Joanne Whalley , Jean Marsh , and Billy Barty . Davis plays the eponymous lead character and hero : a reluctant farmer who plays a critical role in protecting a special baby from a tyrannical queen who vows to destroy her and take over the world in a high fantasy setting .
Lucas conceived the idea for the film in 1972 , approaching Howard to direct during the post @-@ production phase of Cocoon in 1985 . Bob Dolman was brought in to write the screenplay , coming up with seven drafts before finishing in late 1986 . It was then set up at Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer and principal photography began in April 1987 , finishing the following October .
The majority of filming took place at Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire , England , as well as Wales and New Zealand . Industrial Light & Magic created the visual effects sequences , which led to a revolutionary breakthrough with digital morphing technology . The film was released in 1988 to mixed reviews from critics , but was a modest financial success , received two Academy Award nominations , and has developed a cult following amongst fantasy fans .
= = Plot = =
A prophecy states that a female child with a special birthmark will herald the downfall of the evil sorceress Queen Bavmorda . Bavmorda imprisons all pregnant women in her realm to prevent fulfilment of the prophecy . When the prophesied child is born , the mother begs the midwife to take her to safety . The midwife reluctantly accepts and leaves Nockmaar castle unnoticed . The mother is executed and the midwife is eventually found . Knowing she cannot escape , she sets the baby on a makeshift raft of grass and sends her down the river hoping for fate to run its course . The midwife is then killed by Nockmaar hounds . Bavmorda sends her daughter Sorsha and General Kael to find the baby .
The baby drifts downriver to a Nelwyn village . She comes into the care of Willow Ufgood , a kind farmer and conjurer who hopes to become a sorcerer ; his wife Kiaya and his children fall in love with the baby immediately , and Willow too soon grows to love her as one of his own . During a town festival the village is attacked by a Nockmaar hound which is quickly killed by the village warriors . The High Aldwin , the village sorcerer , learns about the baby and selects Willow , due to his devotion to the child , to accompany a party of volunteers returning the baby to the Daikini ( human ) people . At a crossroads , they find a human warrior named Madmartigan trapped in a crow 's cage . The rest of the party want to give the baby to Madmartigan and go home immediately , but Willow and his friend Meegosh refuse , so the others leave . After spending the night at the crossroads , and meeting an army led by Airk Thaughbaer , an old friend of Madmartigan 's , marching against Bavmorda , Willow reluctantly decides to free Madmartigan so that he can take care of the baby for them .
Later on , the baby is stolen by a group of brownies . While chasing them , Willow and Meegosh are trapped , but rescued by Cherlindrea , a Fairy Queen , who identifies the baby as Elora Danan , the future princess of Tir Asleen and Bavmorda 's bane , and assigns Willow the task of helping the baby fulfil her destiny . Willow sends Meegosh home , and two of the brownies , Franjean and Rool , are instructed to guide Willow to the sorceress Fin Raziel . The three of them later encounter Madmartigan at a tavern , where he is disguised as a woman to hide from Lug , a cuckolded husband , who then flirts with the disguised Madmartigan . Sorsha arrives and reveals his identity , and in the ensuing brawl started by the furious Lug upon realisation that Madmartigan is not a woman , Willow , Madmartigan and the brownies escape . Madmartigan guides them to a lake where Raziel lives , but departs again as they cross it .
Raziel has been transformed into a possum by Bavmorda , and Willow and his party return with her to shore . They are captured by Sorsha , who already has Madmartigan in custody , and are taken to a snowbound mountain camp of the Nockmaar army . Willow tries to restore Raziel , but turns her into a rook instead . Madmartigan is dosed with love dust by the brownies and declares his undying love for Sorsha . The prisoners escape and reach a village at the foot of a mountain , where they again encounter Airk and the remains of his army , recently defeated by Bavmorda 's forces . Madmartigan proclaims his loyalty to the Nelwyn and promises to protect Willow and Elora .
With Sorsha as their temporary hostage , they escape to the castle of Tir Asleen , but discover that its inhabitants have all been frozen by Bavmorda and the castle is overrun by trolls . The castle is surrounded by Kael 's army . During Kael 's assault on the castle , Sorsha realizes she also loves Madmartigan and decides to join him and Willow in opposing her mother 's army . Willow accidentally turns a troll into a massive , fire @-@ breathing , two @-@ headed monster that turns the tide of the battle , and Airk arrives with his army to assist . However , Kael captures Elora and returns to Nockmaar , where he reports Sorsha 's betrayal to Bavmorda .
Airk 's army , Willow , and the others arrive at Nockmaar to lay siege , but Bavmorda turns the soldiers into pigs . Instructed by Raziel , Willow protects himself with a spell and avoids transformation . He succeeds in turning Raziel into a human again , and she restores the others to their original forms . Willow 's group tricks their way into the castle and start a battle . Airk is killed by Kael , who is in turn slain by Madmartigan after a lengthy sword duel . Sorsha leads Willow and Raziel to the ritual chamber where they interrupt Elora 's sacrifice . Bavmorda and Raziel have a magical duel , during the course of which Raziel is incapacitated . Willow uses a " disappearing pig trick " he had performed as a conjurer to fool Bavmorda into thinking that Elora was sent out of her reach . Lunging at Willow , Bavmorda accidentally triggers the ritual 's final part to send Elora 's soul to oblivion and banishes her own soul instead .
Willow is rewarded with a magic book to aid him in becoming a sorcerer , and Sorsha and Madmartigan remain in Tir Asleen to raise Elora together . Willow returns home to a hero 's welcome and is happily reunited with his family .
= = Cast = =
Warwick Davis as Willow Ufgood , a Nelwyn dwarf and aspiring sorcerer who plays a critical role in protecting infant Elora Danan from the evil queen Bavmorda .
Val Kilmer as Madmartigan , a boastful mercenary swordsman who helps Willow on his quest . In the film ( further explained in the film 's novelization ) it is partly revealed that he is a disgraced knight from the kingdom of Galladoorn .
Kate and Ruth Greenfield / Rebecca Bearman as Elora Danan , an infant princess that prophecy says will bring about Queen Bavmorda 's downfall .
Joanne Whalley as Sorsha , Bavmorda 's warrior daughter who falls in love with Madmartigan . In the film 's novelization , her father is revealed as the king of Tir Asleen , which becomes a further factor for Sorsha to turn against her mother .
Jean Marsh as Queen Bavmorda , the villainous ruler of Nockmaar , a powerful black sorceress and mother of Sorsha .
Patricia Hayes as Fin Raziel , the aging sorceress who is turned into a possum due to a curse by Bavmorda .
Billy Barty as The High Aldwin , the Nelwyn wizard who commissions Willow to go on his journey , realizing the potential that Willow possesses in magic .
Pat Roach as General Kael , the villainous associate to Queen Bavmorda and high commander of her army .
Gavan O 'Herlihy as Airk Thaughbaer , the military commander of the destroyed kingdom of Galladoorn who shares a mixed friendship with Madmartigan .
Maria Holvöe as Cherlindrea , the fairy queen who resides in the forest and updates Willow on the importance of his quest .
Kevin Pollak and Rick Overton as Rool and Franjean , a brownie duo who also serve as comic relief in Willow 's journey .
David J. Steinberg as Meegosh , Willow 's closest friend who accompanies Willow partway on his journey .
Mark Northover as Burglekutt , the leader of the Nelwyn village council who maintains a running enmity with Willow .
Phil Fondacaro as Vohnkar , a Nelwyn warrior who also accompanies Willow partway on his journey . In the film 's novelization , Vohnkar is portrayed as far @-@ travelled and worldly .
Julie Peters as Kaiya Ufgood , Willow 's wife ; a loving mother and enthusiastic in caring for Elora .
Tony Cox as a Nelwyn warrior .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
George Lucas conceived the idea for the film ( originally titled Munchkins ) in 1972 . Similar in intent to Star Wars , he created " a number of well @-@ known mythological situations for a young audience " . During the production of Return of the Jedi in 1982 , Lucas approached Warwick Davis , who was portraying Wicket the Ewok , about playing Willow Ufgood . Five years passed before he was actually cast in the role . Lucas " thought it would be great to use a little person in a lead role . A lot of my movies are about a little guy against the system , and this was just a more literal interpretation of that idea . "
Lucas explained that he had to wait until the mid @-@ 1980s to make the film because visual effects technology was finally advanced enough to execute his vision . Meanwhile , actor @-@ turned @-@ director Ron Howard was looking to do a fantasy film . He was at Industrial Light & Magic during the post @-@ production phase of Cocoon , when he was first approached by Lucas to direct Willow . He had previously starred in Lucas ' American Graffiti , and Lucas felt that he and Howard shared a symbiotic relationship similar to the one he enjoyed with Steven Spielberg . Howard nominated Bob Dolman to write the screenplay based on Lucas ' story . Dolman had worked with him on a 1983 television pilot called Little Shots that had not resulted in a series , and Lucas admired Dolman 's work on the sitcom WKRP in Cincinnati .
Dolman joined Howard and Lucas at Skywalker Ranch for a series of lengthy story conferences , and wrote seven drafts of his script between the spring and fall of 1986 . Pre @-@ production began in late 1986 . Various major film studios turned down the chance to distribute and co @-@ finance it with Lucasfilm because they believed the fantasy genre was unsuccessful . This was largely due to films such as Krull , Legend , Dragonslayer , and Labyrinth . Lucas took it to Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) , which was headed by Alan Ladd , Jr . Ladd and Lucas shared a relationship as far back as the mid @-@ 1970s , when Ladd , running 20th Century Fox , greenlighted Lucas ' idea for Star Wars . However , in 1986 , MGM was facing financial troubles , and major investment in a fantasy film was perceived as a risk . Ladd advanced half the $ 35 million budget for it in return for theatrical and television rights , leaving Lucasfilm with home video and pay television rights to offer in exchange for the other half .
Lucas based the character of General Kael ( Pat Roach ) on the film critic Pauline Kael , a fact that was not lost on Kael in her printed review of the film . She referred to General Kael as an " homage a moi " . Similarly , the two @-@ headed dragon was named " Sispert " ( " Eborsisk " in the novelization ) after film critics Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on April 2 , 1987 and ended that following October . Interior footage took place at Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire , England , while location shooting took place in Wales and New Zealand . Lucas initially visualized shooting the film similar to Return of the Jedi , with studio scenes at Elstree and locations in Northern California , but the idea eventually faded . However , some exteriors were done around Skywalker Ranch and on location at Burney Falls , near Mount Shasta . The Chinese government refused Lucas the chance for a brief location shoot . He then sent a group of photographers to South China to photograph specific scenery , which was then used for background blue screen footage . Tongariro National Park in New Zealand was chosen to house Bavmorda 's castle .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Lucasfilm 's Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) created the visual effects sequences . The script called for Willow to restore Fin Raziel ( Patricia Hayes ) from a goat to her human form . Willow recites what he thinks is the appropriate spell , but turns the goat into an ostrich , a peacock , a tortoise , and finally a tiger , before returning her to normal . ILM supervisor Dennis Muren considered using stop motion animation for the scene . He also explained that another traditional and practical way in the late @-@ 1980s to execute this sequence would have been through the use of an optical dissolve with cutaways at various stages .
Muren found both stop motion and optical effects to be too technically challenging and decided that the transformation scene would be a perfect opportunity for ILM to create advances with digital morphing technology . He proposed filming each animal , and the actress doubling for Hayes , and then feeding the images into a computer program developed by Doug Smythe . The program would then create a smooth transition from one stage to another before outputting the result back onto film . Smythe began development of the necessary software in September 1987 . By March 1988 , the impressive result Muren and fellow designer David Allen achieved what would represent a breakthrough for computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) . The head of ILM 's animation department , Wes Takahashi , supervised the film 's animation sequences .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film score was written by James Horner and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra .
" I am a musicologist , a doctor of music . Therefore I listened to , studied and analysed a lot of music . I also enjoy metaphors , the art of quoting and of cycles . The harmonic draft of the Willow score , and most particularly its spiritual side , came from such a cycle , from such mythology and music history that I was taught , and that I myself convey with my own emotions and compositions . "
Eclectic influences on the score include Leos Janacek 's " Glagolitic Mass " , Mozart 's " Requiem " , " The Nine Splendid Stags " from Béla Bartók , Edvard Grieg 's " Arabian Dance " for the theater play Peer Gynt , and compositions by Sergei Prokofiev .
" Willow 's Theme " purposefully ( see Horner 's quote above ) contains a reworking / alteration of part of the theme of the first movement ( " Lebhaft " ) of Robert Schumann 's Symphony No 3 referencing it , while " Elora Danan 's Theme " shows a reference to the Bulgarian folk song " Mir Stanke Le " ( Мир Станке ле ) , also known as the " Harvest Song from Thrace " .
Track listing
" Elora Danan " – 9 : 45
" Escape from the Tavern " – 5 : 04
" Willow 's Journey Begins " – 5 : 26
" Canyon of Mazes " – 7 : 52
" Tir Asleen " – 10 : 47
" Willow 's Theme " – 3 : 54
" Bavmorda 's Spell is Cast " – 18 : 11
" Willow the Sorcerer " – 11 : 55
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The film was shown and promoted at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival . It was released on May 20 , 1988 in 1 @,@ 209 theaters , earning $ 8 @,@ 300 @,@ 169 in its opening weekend , placing number one at the weekend box office . Lucas had hoped it would earn as much money as E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial , but the film faced early competition with Crocodile Dundee II , Big and Rambo III . Making over $ 57 million at the North American box office , it was not the blockbuster hit insiders had anticipated . It was not , however , a financial flop either , as it made a profit because of strong international , home video , and television sales .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film was released to mixed reviews from critics . Based on 29 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 48 % of the critics gave the film a positive review with an average score of 5 @.@ 6 / 10 .
Janet Maslin from The New York Times praised Lucas ' storytelling , but was critical of Ron Howard 's direction . " Howard appears to have had his hands full in simply harnessing the special effects , " Maslin said .
Desson Thomson writing in The Washington Post , explained " Rob Reiner 's similar fairytale adventure The Princess Bride ( which the cinematographer Adrian Biddle also shot ) managed to evoke volumes more without razzle @-@ dazzle . It 's a sad thing to be faulting Lucas , maker of the Star Wars trilogy and Raiders of the Lost Ark , for forgetting the tricks of entertainment . " Mike Clark in USA Today wrote that " the rainstorm wrap @-@ up , in which Good edges Evil is like Led Zeppelin Meets The Wild Bunch . The film is probably too much for young children and possibly too much of the same for cynics . But any 6 – 13 @-@ year @-@ old who sees this may be bitten by the " movie bug " for life . "
= = = Accolades = = =
At the Academy Awards , the film was nominated for Sound Editing and Visual Effects , but lost both to Who Framed Roger Rabbit , which was similarly done by Industrial Light & Magic . It won Best Costume Design at the Saturn Awards , where it was also nominated for Warwick Davis for Best Performance by a Younger Actor ( lost to Fred Savage for Vice Versa ) and Jean Marsh for Best Supporting Actress ( lost to Sylvia Sidney for Beetlejuice ) . It also lost Best Fantasy Film and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation to Who Framed Roger Rabbit . It was also nominated for two Golden Raspberry Awards including Worst Screenplay , which lost to Cocktail and Worst Supporting Actor for Billy Barty , who lost to Dan Aykroyd for Caddyshack II .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD as a " special edition " in November 2001 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment . The release included an audio commentary by Warwick Davis and two " making of " featurettes . In the commentary , Davis confirms that there were a number of " lost scenes " previously rumored to have been deleted from it including a battle in the valley , Willow battling a boy who transforms into a shark in a lake while retrieving Fin Raziel , and an extended sorceress duel at the climax . ( Though removed from the theatrical version , the battle with the lake monster was retained for both Marvel Comics ' adaptation and Wayland Drew 's novelization of the film . ) 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released the film on Blu @-@ ray Disc on March 12 , 2013 , with an all @-@ new transfer supervised by George Lucas .
= = Other media = =
= = = Board game = = =
In 1988 , Tor Books released The Willow Game , a two to six player adventure board game based on the film designed by Greg Costikyan .
= = = Video games = = =
Three video games based on the film were released . Mindscape published an action game in 1988 for Amiga , Atari ST , Commodore 64 , and DOS . Capcom published two different games in 1989 , a platform game for the arcades and a role @-@ playing game for the Nintendo Entertainment System .
= = = Novels = = =
Wayland Drew adapted Lucas ' story into a film novel , providing additional background information to several major characters and various additional scenes , including an encounter with a lake monster near Razel 's island which was filmed , but ultimately not used in the movie . A segment of that scene 's filmed material can be found in the DVD 's " Making of Willow " documentary .
Lucas outlined the Chronicles of the Shadow War trilogy to follow the film and hired comic book writer / novelist Chris Claremont to adapt them into a series of books . They take place about fifteen years after the original film and feature the now teenage Elora Danan as a central character .
Shadow Moon ( 1995 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 553 @-@ 57285 @-@ 7
Shadow Dawn ( 1996 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 553 @-@ 57289 @-@ X
Shadow Star ( 2000 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 553 @-@ 57288 @-@ 1
= = Sequel = =
In April 2005 , Lucas and Davis commented that a television series acting as a sequel was under consideration . In June 2008 , Davis reiterated his hopes to return for a theatrically @-@ released second installment of the film . On February 15 , 2013 Val Kilmer posted a photo via Twitter implying that it was " Right around the corner ! " . However , this coincided with a Life 's Too Short mockumentary featuring Davis and Kilmer , and is likely to have been a hoax . In March 2013 , Davis indicated an interest in seeing a sequel ( perhaps as a TV series ) , but gave no indication that any development was ongoing .
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= Madlax =
Madlax ( マドラックス , Madorakkusu ) is a 26 @-@ episode Japanese anime television series produced in 2004 by the Bee Train animation studio . Kōichi Mashimo directed Madlax and the soundtrack was composed by Yuki Kajiura . The DVD version was released by ADV Films in North America and the United Kingdom and by Madman Entertainment in Australia and New Zealand .
The story revolves around two young women who seemingly have little in common and do not know of the other 's existence at the beginning . The eponymous Madlax is a legendary mercenary and assassin in the fictional civil war @-@ torn country of Gazth @-@ Sonika , who cannot remember her past or indeed her real name before twelve years ago , when the war started . The other main character is Margaret Burton , the sole heir of a wealthy aristocratic family in the peaceful European country Nafrece . Twelve years before the story begins , an airliner Margaret and her mother were on crashed over Gazth @-@ Sonika , and its passengers , as well as Margaret 's father who led the rescuers , have been missing ever since . Margaret , however , mysteriously traveled back to Nafrece on her own , losing her memories prior to her return ; the only thing she recalls is a single word , " Madlax " . With this thread linking the two girls , they both independently start investigating the powerful crime syndicate Enfant after its enigmatic mastermind shows interest in both of them .
Madlax was produced as a spiritual successor to the studio 's earlier project , Noir , and together with El Cazador de la Bruja , these series constitute a trilogy exploring the " girls @-@ with @-@ guns " genre . The production of Madlax began in 2002 but it wasn 't until Yōsuke Kuroda joined the project that the series took its final form . While the critics noted the resulting similarities between Noir and Madlax , they also acknowledged the differences , such as the latter 's less episodic and more plot @-@ driven style and , in particular contrast to the predominantly realistic Noir , incorporation of many supernatural elements , which the audience must often interpret without further explanation .
= = Plot = =
The first half of the series alternates between the two leads . Madlax is one of the most efficient special ops agents for hire in the war @-@ torn Gazth @-@ Sonika , while Margaret Burton is a sleepy , clumsy amnesiac living in Nafrece , a country styled after France . When a " picture book " , presumably given to Margaret by her late father , attracts the attention of international criminal network Enfant , she discovers that the origins of the book lie in Gazth @-@ Sonika . Enfant 's top operative , Carrossea Doon , tracks Margaret down but tips off his superiors in the wrong direction , towards Madlax , who has been causing Enfant trouble for some time . Meanwhile , Vanessa Rene , Margaret 's former tutor whose parents died because of Gazth @-@ Sonikan war , discovers that her current employer , Bookwald Industries , covertly supports the war by supplying both sides with firearms and starts investigating its true cause . Her investigation brings her to Gazth @-@ Sonika , where Madlax is hired as her bodyguard , and together , they uncover data that proves that Enfant orchestrated the entire conflict . Enfant eventually intercepts them and they are forced into hiding . Back in Nafrece , Margaret decides to help Vanessa and travels to Gazth @-@ Sonika , accompanied by her devoted and sometimes overprotective maid Elenore Baker and Carrossea Doon .
Eventually , Madlax and Margaret meet and embark on a search for Quanzitta Marison , a Gazth @-@ Sonikan mystic who supposedly knows about Margaret 's book , Enfant 's involvement with it , and Enfant itself . Lady Quanzitta does indeed tell them about Enfant and its plans to plunge the entire world into a total war , starting with Gazth @-@ Sonika . She reveals that Enfant 's leader Friday Monday possesses supernatural powers connected to the three ancient books , one of which belongs to Margaret . Margaret uses her own supernatural abilities and that of her book to return her lost memories . Carrossea , who has been aiding Margaret , requests that his memories be restored as well despite warnings not to do so ; he discovers that he , in fact , died 12 years ago and held on to life only by sheer force of will to protect Margaret . Carrossea disappears , and Margaret is captured by Monday who intends to use her abilities to advance his own plans .
While Margaret and Carrossea perform the ritual , Madlax is attacked by Limelda Jorg , a Gazth @-@ Sonikan sniper who holds a grudge against Madlax ever since she failed to stop an assassination by Madlax earlier in the show . Limelda kills Vanessa while targeting Madlax , sending the latter into clinical depression . Elenore and Lady Quanzitta 's servant Nakhl manage to restore Madlax 's will to live and persuade her to save Margaret , and the three storm Enfant 's headquarters together . During the assault , Elenore is killed and Margaret , now under Monday 's control , shoots Madlax . Believing her to be dead , Monday commences a ritual to unleash people 's inhibitions and trigger worldwide anarchy ; but Margaret 's memories return and she snaps out of his mind control . Only now does the audience learn the back @-@ story : back in 1999 , Monday drove Margaret 's father insane with his powers and she was forced to kill her own father . To escape the horrible truth of her patricide , Margaret split herself into three personae : the " memory keeper " Laetitia , the sinful Madlax , and the innocent Margaret herself . Margaret then fuses her three personae back together to undo the ritual she previously performed with Monday , saving the world from insanity . Madlax , who should no longer exist after the fusion , appears and guns down Monday . It becomes apparent that Margaret has once again split herself into three , judging that after twelve years , she no longer has the right to make decisions for her other personae .
= = Themes = =
Madlax is set against the backdrop of Gazth @-@ Sonikan war and the first episodes contrast the tranquil Nafrece with the war @-@ torn Gazth @-@ Sonika ; later , the story moves completely to the combat zone , focusing on the central characters , such as Limelda Jorg , and their suffering . In an interview , the director Mashimo stated that " [ t ] he story is about portraying inner struggles of people , while showing what life is like in this place of madness and this other place of peace " . Accordingly , the series ' title is a portmanteau of two English words , " mad " and " relaxed " , mirroring the authors ' intention to portray the two extremes of human being .
Madlax also plays as the story of Margaret Burton 's search for her psychological identity . Based on the Mashimo Menu theme titles available to her , Yuki Kajiura has suggested an interpretation that while searching for her memories , Margaret meets the other characters ( " Gatekeepers " ) one after another and learns about the lifestyles ( " Gates " ) they represent . In the end , she finds her own " Gate " , which is the new identity that finally replaces the one she lost twelve years ago .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
According to the director Kōichi Mashimo , he envisioned Noir and Madlax as part of a trilogy exploring the girls @-@ with @-@ guns genre , and soon after the release of the latter , he confirmed having plans to produce the third installment , which would later become El Cazador de la Bruja . In late 2002 , Mashimo invited Shigeru Kitayama , the producer of Noir who once came up with its original idea , to discuss a new series entitled Madlax . Kitayama greatly expanded Mashimo 's original screenplay plan , but it was not until Yōsuke Kuroda was put in charge of the script that the series took its final appearance . It took Kuroda around one year to finish the screenplays for all 26 episodes , during which he was constantly encouraged by Mashimo to add his own original ideas to their initial plan . Kuroda has admitted that at the time he received Mashimo 's invitation , he felt frustrated after his first project has been canceled by the publisher , so he decided to make Madlax " really extravagant " , blending as many genres at once as he could . Kōichi Mashimo , furthermore , admitted that the most unusual plot twists , like Margaret and Madlax 's connection to each other , were invented by Kuroda and him while drunk .
= = = Character design = = =
By comparison with Noir , Madlax features a much larger primary cast , including multiple recurring male characters , an element nearly absent in the former . It was not so in the original screenplay draft written by Mashimo and Kitayama : for example , " Madlax " was Margaret 's own nickname and Charlie ( Vanessa 's colleague at Bookwald Industries ) had one of the central roles similar to Speedy 's in Avenger . Only the " draft " characters ' names remained of them when Kuroda has rewritten the script . A total of three character designers collaborated on Madlax cast : Satoshi Ohsawa ( who also worked on Noir cast ) created the central heroines Margaret and Madlax ; Minako Shiba drew Friday Monday and Carrossea Doon ; and Satoko Miyachi was entrusted with the " mysterious " characters , Laetitia and Poupee .
= = = Music = = =
As with many of studio Bee Train 's other works , the entire Madlax soundtrack was composed by the acclaimed Yuki Kajiura , making it her and Kōichi Mashimo 's fifth project together . In an interview Kajiura recalls having written the score in a hotel high @-@ rise to save studio costs , and that this change in location helped her to explore different styles of music .
Kajiura and Yuuka Nanri 's duo FictionJunction Yuuka recorded the series ' opening and ending themes , " Fragments of an Eye " ( 瞳の欠片 , Hitomi no Kakera ) and " Inside Your Heart " , respectively , as well as two insert songs : " nowhere " and " I 'm here " . Aside from the opening sequence , " Fragments of an Eye " is featured in the series itself : at the end of episode 18 and in the episode 24 , when Margaret is humming its tune to herself in the flower field .
In the insert song " nowhere " , there is a frequently repeated background refrain " Yanmaani " ( ヤンマーニ , Yanmāni ) . It doesn 't have any particular meaning but since the song usually plays when Madlax is fighting , " Yanmaani " has become something of a joke to Japanese fans , claiming that it apparently gives her superpowers .
= = Media = =
= = = Television series = = =
Originally , Madlax was broadcast in Japan by TV Tokyo from 5 April to 27 September 2004 , from 1 : 30 to 2 : 00 a.m. every Tuesday ( formally , Monday night ) . Shortly before the series finished airing , it has been licensed in North America and Europe by ADV Films , which has previously acquired distribution rights for Noir and has long had plans to license its successor , as well . The official English dub has been released in the United States under the trademark MADLAX on a total of seven DVDs from 12 April 2005 to 28 March 2006 . A complete collection was released by ADV on 17 July 2007 . Madlax has become the first series on which ADV Films ' director and producer David Williams tested the technology of distributing promotional materials via P2P network BitTorrent . As of September 1 , 2009 , all of the titles from ADV 's catalog , including Madlax , were transferred to AEsir Holdings , with distribution from Section23 Films .
The North @-@ American DVD release contains extras available in English only , such the controversial self @-@ parody Conversations with SSS and Sock Puppet Theater , an Easter egg live action about Madlax going after Chris Patton , Badgis ' voice actor and an annoying womanizer .
On 7 February 2006 , the first episode of Madlax aired on Anime Network ( which was , like ADV Films , a subsidiary of A.D. Vision at the time ) . On 4 April , shortly after the last DVD volume has been released , the consequent broadcast was put on halt and until 27 June , only the first 8 episodes were repeated . Since then , the series has been relaunched multiple times . Madman Entertainment , who previously licensed Noir in its region , has acquired rights for distribution of Madlax in Australia and New Zealand and released it on seven DVD volumes between 20 July 2005 and 26 July 2006 . A complete collection was released on 4 April 2007 .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The series ' original soundtrack was released on two albums on 21 July and 22 September 2004 by Victor Entertainment . Two singles , Hitomi no Kakera and Inside Your Heart , were published in the same year by FictionJunction Yuuka , each containing an opening / ending theme and one insert song , as well as their respective karaoke versions .
= = = Artbook = = =
MADLAX the Bible is a 95 @-@ page artbook that was published in Japan on 21 May 2005 by Hobby Japan . Aside from illustrations and artworks for the series , it contains interviews with its authors and voice actors , as well as diverse additional information about the show in Japanese . The artbook has never been published outside Japan . Since the word " Bible " is derived from Ancient Greek : τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια , meaning " holy books " , it is likely that the artbook 's title is a reference to the Holy Books that play an important role in the series ' plot .
= = = Merchandise = = =
A resin model kit known as " Madlax with Guns " has been produced , featuring a figurine of Madlax dual wielding her signature SIG P210s . A polystone figurine entitled simply " Madlax " , was launched in August 2007 . In Japan , a T @-@ shirt with Madlax logo has been added to the limited edition of the first DVD volume , and the " first press " of the OST albums came with logotype mousepads .
= = Reception = =
Madlax was often accused of being secondary and reusing Noir 's stylistic solutions , such as the story premise , the two heroines ' appearance , and the musical style . Nevertheless , some sources praised the story for being more monolithic and consequent than its predecessor 's , owing to all its episodes and subplots being tightly intertwined and held together by the primary plot .
The majority of reviewers perceived the early episodes of Madlax as boring and too slow @-@ paced , but some of the same critics later remarked that the prolonged exposition is crucial to the unusual finale of the series , which fully establishes the series ' own identity and sets it apart from other works . According to them , after the initial volume , the story gets better and better with every new episode , though some have been dissatisfied with its " pseudo @-@ existentialistic " ending . Erica Friedman , the president of Yuricon , highly praised Kuroda 's script , naming it " the best writing that Bee Train has done " . Professional reviewers welcomed the increased number of sympathetic characters , especially the distinguishable male ones ( Friday , Carrossea , Colonel Burton ) , as opposed to stormtrooper @-@ like operatives of Soldats in Noir , but the female character designs were still said to be much more detailed ( to the point of fanservice in the case of Madlax ) than the more generic male characters .
The high quality of the animation in Madlax was generally acknowledged . On the negative side , the episodes that involve computer use and hacking received criticism for their lack of realism . In terms of soundtrack , Madlax has not become as innovative as Noir , with critics suggesting its OST to be a blend of Noir and .hack / / Sign styles . Nevertheless , the reviewers acknowledged its superiority over the majority of contemporary works . The English translation released by ADV Films was praised for preserving most of the series ' original stylistic aspects and inviting veteran voice actors for the dub . Reviewers went as far as to suggest that several English voices ( especially Mike Kleinhenz 's ) match the characters better than the Japanese ones . Others , however , criticized the dub , e.g. Carl Kimlinger of Anime News Network in his 2009 review of the series rated the performance as " wildly uneven , ranging from good ... to plain amateurish " , citing " delivery issues " as main problem of the dub .
The initial slow pacing , especially compared to the first episodes of Noir , became a main reason why the audience often dropped watching Madlax before it could present its later story turns which eventually resulted in the moderate success of the series . Among other suggested reasons behind the mediocre popularity of the show were : the market saturation , which resulted from other anime series attempting to repeat the success of Noir since 2001 ; the expectable disinterest against a " Noir remake " , found among the fans of the first series ; the over @-@ the @-@ top action scenes that some felt to be ridiculous ; and its unconventional genre , which straddled Madlax uncomfortably between fans of mystical science fiction and those who prefer Noir 's strict realism .
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= The Rescue ( Doctor Who ) =
The Rescue is the third serial of the second season of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , which was first broadcast in two weekly parts on 2 January and 9 January 1965 on BBC1 . It was written by outgoing story editor David Whitaker and directed by Christopher Barry .
The Rescue was produced in a six @-@ episode block with The Romans and was the first story produced in Doctor Who 's second production block . Rehearsals and recording took place from 30 November to 11 December 1964 , entirely in @-@ studio . The two episodes were watched by 12 and 13 million viewers in the UK respectively and have received generally positive reviews from critics , who praise the character @-@ based storytelling , although plot holes were noted . Both episodes of The Rescue have been retained in the BBC archives , and the story has been novelised and released on VHS and DVD . The serial is notable as the first appearance of Maureen O 'Brien as companion Vicki .
= = Plot = =
The Doctor , Ian , and Barbara are still missing the Doctor 's granddaughter Susan when the TARDIS lands on a planet the Doctor eventually recognises as Dido , a world he has visited before . The trio soon encounter two survivors of a space crash , Vicki and Bennett , who are awaiting a rescue ship that is due to arrive in three days time . Vicki and Bennett live in fear of Koquillion , a bipedal inhabitant of Dido , who is stalking the area . Koquillion encounters the time travellers and attacks , pushing Barbara over a cliff and temporarily trapping Ian and the Doctor . Vicki finds Barbara injured and rescues her from Koquillion , and they share reminiscences . Vicki 's father was amongst those who died when the survivors of the crash , save Bennett and Vicki , were lured to their deaths by the natives of Dido . She is evidently very lonely , having befriended an indigenous Sand Beast for company . However , when Ian and the Doctor reach the ship , tempers are fraught because Barbara mistook the Sand Beast for a threat and killed it .
The Doctor enters Bennett 's room , and finds things are not as they seem . The supposedly crippled Bennett is missing , and a tape recorder hides his absence . He finds a trap door in the floor of the cabin and follows it to a temple carved from rock where he unmasks Koquillion as Bennett . Bennett reveals he killed a crewmember on board the ship and was arrested , but the ship crashed before the crime could be radioed to Earth . It was he who killed the crash survivors and the natives of Dido to cover his crime . He has been using the Koquillion alias so that Vicki would back up his story , and had hoped the planet would be destroyed when his version of events was given . Just as Bennett is about to kill the Doctor , two surviving native Didonians arrive and force Bennett to his death over a ledge . They then stop the signal to prevent the Rescue Ship reaching their planet . With no living family and nothing left for her on Dido , Vicki is welcomed aboard the TARDIS .
= = Production = =
The Rescue was written as a short vehicle to introduce Vicki as the new companion , replacing Carole Ann Ford ( Susan ) when Ford decided she wanted to leave the series , and is thus more character @-@ driven than anything that had preceded it . Vicki was a replacement for the Doctor 's granddaughter , Susan ( Carole Ann Ford ) , who was the first companion to leave Doctor Who ; Ford was displeased with the lack of her character 's development . In contrast to Susan , Vicki is an Earth orphan from the future ; the production team considered many names from here , some of them odd like " Lukki " and " Tanni " . Doctor Who creator Sydney Newman told actress Maureen O 'Brien that they were considering having her cut her hair and dye it black . O 'Brien refused , saying , " Why don 't you just get Carole Ann Ford back ? "
The Rescue is the first story under Dennis Spooner as script editor , though he is not listed in the credits because he had little to do since much of the job was given to his predecessor David Whitaker and thus he is not credited . The story was commissioned on 1 November 1964 , the day after his contract with the BBC for his position as script editor had expired . The scripts were due on 10 November . In Whitaker 's original draft , entitled Doctor Who and Tanni after one of Vicki 's original names , there are a few differences from the broadcast version . Bennett was more unkind to Vicki . Notably , Koquillion had a " torch " device , which he used to paralyse Ian upon meeting and interrogating him and Barbara in the first episode . He hypnotised Ian and Barbara and tried to get them to encourage the Doctor to come out of the TARDIS , but the Doctor could see this on the TARDIS ' scanner and demands the teachers be released . In a scuffle Ian 's trance was broken when he was shoved against the TARDIS and Barbara 's was broken when she was thrown to the ground . The beginning of the first episode also had Ian confide to Barbara that he was afraid of a time where the Doctor would close the TARDIS on them and leave like he did with Susan , to which the Doctor , overhearing , replied that there would be warning if they were to part .
O 'Brien had just come out of drama school when she was cast as Vicki ; it was her first television acting job . Director Christopher Barry originally wanted Bernard Archard for the role of Bennett / Koquillion , but was not able to get him . Barry would later cast Archard in The Power of the Daleks ( 1966 ) . The role went to Australian actor Ray Barrett , whom Barry had seen on TV and marked in his book of actors he wanted to remember , and so he " dug him out of the book " when the time came . Barrett played Bennett as a " normal , straight human being " so as not to give the ending away . To preserve the mystery , Koquillion was credited in the first episode as being played by " Sydney Wilson " — a name made up by the production team in tribute to two of the creators of Doctor Who , Sydney Newman and Donald Wilson . This was the first instance of an alias being used in the credits in order to conceal a plot twist in Doctor Who ; the practice would be employed later on to conceal the appearance of villains Davros and the Master . Tom Sheridan provided the voice of the space captain and also played the Sand Beast . He was originally scheduled to play one of the Didonians at the end , but for unknown reasons they were played by two uncredited extras , John Stuart and Colin Hughes .
The Rescue was the first in a new production block of Doctor Who ; the first production block lasted for 52 weeks with one episode filmed per week , though the final two stories , Planet of Giants and The Dalek Invasion of Earth , were held back and the first season ended early . As such , there was a six @-@ week break for the regular cast before work on The Rescue began.The Rescue used the same production team as the following story , The Romans , and the two were combined to form a single six @-@ episode production block . Model filming took place in Ealing studios on 16 November 1965 . The models were made by an outside modelmaker called Shawcraft . As they were not designers , Doctor Who designer Raymond Cusick drew what he wanted the spacecraft to look like in more detail than he normally would have . He drew the spacecraft in flight as well as it wrecked so they could visualise it from the two . Cusick had found a cheap material he called " reeded hardboard " , which was spray @-@ painted silver and used for the outside of the craft prop . The design of Koquillion was based on a close @-@ up of a fly .
Rehearsals for the first episode took place from 30 November 1964 to 3 December , with the episode recorded on 4 December . Ford visited during rehearsals to meet O 'Brien and wish her luck . Rehearsals for the second episode took place from 7 − 10 December 1964 , with the episode recorded on 11 December . Recording of the first episode overran its schedule by fifteen minutes . The Dido temple was a large set that was lit in such a way to create a dark atmosphere ; dark drapes and smoke were also used . When shooting Vicki 's Sand Beast , Jacqueline Hill underestimated the gun 's power and fired too soon ; she was not seriously injured , though suffered shock and a sore face because it blew back in her face . The sound the Sand Beast makes while dying was modelled after the " horrible noise " a dying Dalek made in The Daleks . To save money , the score is reused from The Daleks , which Barry had partially directed . He selected pieces from episodes one and four through seven of that serial .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The Rescue was broadcast on BBC1 in two weekly parts ; the first episode aired on 2 January 1965 , with the second on 9 January . The first episode , " The Powerful Enemy " , was watched by 12 million viewers and was the eleventh most @-@ watched programme of the week . The second episode , " Desperate Measures " , was watched by 13 million viewers and was the eighth most @-@ watched programme of the week . This figure was higher than the preceding story , The Dalek Invasion of Earth , which was an event story . Audience Appreciation Indexes were taken for both episodes and garnered 57 and 59 per cent respectively .
On 13 December 1966 , a retention order was issued that included both episodes of The Rescue to be retained by the BBC . However , both episodes were wiped , the first on 17 August 1967 and the second on 31 January 1969 . Fortunately , BBC Enterprises had retained both episodes and returned them to the BBC in 1978 .
Paul Cornell , Martin Day , and Keith Topping wrote of the serial in The Discontinuity Guide ( 1995 ) , " As a vehicle to introduce a companion , The Rescue just about works , but it 's too inconsequential to sustain any real interest . " In The Television Companion ( 1998 ) , David J. Howe and Stephen James Walker described the story as " one of the best examples of character @-@ driven drama from this period of the series ' history " . While they noted there were some unexplained parts of the plot , they felt that it was generally believable and said that " Vicki actually steals the show here " . In 2008 , Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times described The Rescue as a " neglected gem " with a strong debut for Vicki and many production improvements . Despite this , he wondered " how convincing Bennett 's masquerade as Koquillion was in 1965 " as in the present day it seems " a tad obvious " . DVD Talk 's Stuart Galbraith felt that the story was " quite strong " with a " smart , if somewhat predictable climax and resolution " that worked due to the dialogue . Den of Geek wrote that the serial was only let down by its " weak and convenient resolution " and provided good material for the main cast . Dreamwatch gave The Rescue a score of 7 out of 10 , calling it a " solid enough adventure " with a slight plot but brisk pacing that allowed Ian and Barbara to be more heroic .
= = Commercial releases = =
= = = In print = = =
A novelisation of this serial written by Ian Marter was published by Target Books in August 1987 . Marter died soon after completing the manuscript . It was subsequently edited and published , with some new material added , by Nigel Robinson , editor of the Target Books line . An unabridged audio reading of the novelisation , read by O 'Brien , was released by AudioGo on 1 April 2013 .
= = = Home media = = =
The Rescue was released on 5 September 1994 on VHS with The Romans . It was released on DVD on 23 February 2009 , again with The Romans . The Region 1 release followed on 7 July 2009 .
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= Phil Simms =
Phillip Martin Simms ( born November 3 , 1954 ) is a former American football quarterback who spent his entire 14 @-@ year professional career playing for the New York Giants of the National Football League ( NFL ) . He is currently a television sportscaster for the CBS network . After playing college football at Morehead State University , Simms was drafted in the first round by the New York Giants of the National Football League ( NFL ) with the number seven selection overall in the 1979 NFL Draft . Simms was named Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) of Super Bowl XXI , after he led the Giants to a 39 – 20 victory over the Denver Broncos and set the record for highest completion percentage in a Super Bowl , going 22 for 25 ( 88 % ) . He also was named to the Pro Bowl for his performances in the 1985 and 1993 seasons .
He finished his career with 33 @,@ 462 passing yards and has since gone on to be a career broadcaster of NFL games — first as an analyst for ESPN , then as a in @-@ game color commentator with NBC , and currently with CBS . He is the father of former NFL quarterback , New England Patriots assistant coach , and current FOX Sports College Football analyst Chris Simms , as well as Atlanta Falcons quarterback Matt Simms .
= = Early life and rookie season = =
Simms was born in Springfield , Kentucky on his grandfather 's farm , a place now called Maple Hill Manor in Washington County , Kentucky where he attended St. Dominic 's Elementary . While an elementary school student his family moved and Simms grew up in Louisville , Kentucky . He went to St. Rita catholic grade school also . He attended Southern High School in Louisville and was quarterback of the Southern Trojans , graduating in 1974 . Simms chose to attend Morehead State University in nearby Morehead , Kentucky , and joined Tau Kappa Epsilon there . The team featured a ball control offense , and Simms ' numbers at Morehead State were unspectacular — in his senior season he completed 92 of 173 passes for a 53 @.@ 2 % completion percentage and had six touchdown passes , 11 interceptions , and 1 @,@ 229 yards . The team also finished with a 2 – 6 – 1 record in his senior season and failed to make a bowl game during Simms ' four years . Simms finished his career at Morehead State with 409 completions in 835 attempts for a 48 @.@ 9 % completion percentage . He also totalled 32 touchdowns , 45 interceptions , and a school @-@ record 5 @,@ 545 yards .
Before the 1979 NFL Draft , Bill Walsh , who was the new coach of the San Francisco 49ers , flew to Morehead State with assistant coach Sam Wyche to work out Simms . Walsh was so impressed with Simms that he planned to draft him in the third round , preferring him over another young quarterback they scouted and ultimately drafted , Joe Montana . But the New York Giants decided to make Simms their first round pick to the surprise of many . As Simms acknowledged , " most people have never heard of me . " When Simms 's name was announced by Commissioner Pete Rozelle in front of the audience at the draft ( which was held in New York ) , his selection was booed loudly by the Giants fans in attendance . Simms was not happy being a Giant either , " All I was thinking was which teams I would rather play for — the Green Bay Packers , the Kansas City Chiefs , San Diego , San Francisco ... " Nonetheless , he became popular with his teammates who jokingly dubbed him " Prince Valiant " in his rookie training camp .
Simms won his first five starts of his rookie year . He led the team to a 6 – 4 record as a starter , throwing for 1 @,@ 743 yards and 13 touchdown passes and was named to the NFL All Rookie Team . He was runner @-@ up in 1979 for Rookie of the Year , losing out to future teammate , Ottis Anderson .
= = Early career : 1980 – 1986 = =
Simms ' next four years were marred by injuries and inconsistent play . He finished the 1980 season with 15 touchdowns and 19 interceptions , while completing a subpar 48 @.@ 0 % of his passes for 2 @,@ 321 yards . In 1981 , Simms threw for 2 @,@ 031 yards , 11 touchdowns , and 9 interceptions on 54 @.@ 4 % completion percentage before suffering a separated shoulder in a November 15 loss to the Washington Redskins . With Simms out , the Giants went on a run led by Scott Brunner and advanced to the second round of the playoffs . Simms suffered a torn knee ligament in a preseason game against the New York Jets , preventing him from playing the entire 1982 season . Following the season , Ray Perkins resigned as head coach to take over the same position at the University of Alabama , and was replaced by the team 's defensive coordinator Bill Parcells . In the coming years this change would prove crucial to the Giants and Simms .
One of Parcells first decisions as coach was to replace Simms as the starting quarterback with Brunner . Simms asked to be traded after the benching , but his request was ignored . During the sixth game of the Giants ' 1983 Season , Simms came in to replace the struggling Brunner against the Philadelphia Eagles . On his second drive , Simms suffered a season @-@ ending injury when the thumb on his throwing hand hit a player 's helmet on his follow @-@ through . The injury was reported as a dislocation , but according to the book , Simms to McConkey , written by Phil McConkey , Simms , and Dick Schaap , the injury was much more severe , with the thumb literally hanging off after impact , and the bone sticking out through the skin .
During his first few years on the team , Giants fans were merciless in their treatment of Simms , who they felt was a disappointment . He commented that his wife " had to sit up in the stands and listen to them cuss me . " However , in 1984 , after many seasons plagued by injuries and up @-@ and @-@ down play , Simms finally emerged as a team offensive leader . During his 1983 injury , offensive coordinator Ron Erhardt talked Simms into watching more game film , something he had not regularly done in college or the pros . He gained a better understanding of NFL defenses , his team 's formations , and pass protection schemes , and improved his ability to audible at the line of scrimmage . He also changed his strength training regimen in an attempt to make his body more resistant to injury . He passed for 4 @,@ 044 yards ( second most in the National Football Conference ( NFC ) ) , 22 touchdown passes , and led the Giants to a playoff berth .
He was voted to the Pro Bowl and named Pro Bowl MVP as he led the NFC to a comeback win over the American Football Conference ( AFC ) by throwing three touchdowns . In 1985 , he passed for 3 @,@ 829 yards , 22 touchdowns , and led the Giants to 10 victories , the most for a Giants team since 1963 . In a game against the Cincinnati Bengals during the 1985 season , Simms passed for 513 yards — the fifth most passing yards in a single game in NFL history . In 1986 , he passed for 3 @,@ 487 yards and 21 touchdown passes during a season in which the Giants won 14 games . In week 11 , he completed a desperate fourth @-@ and @-@ 17 pass to Bobby Johnson late in the game to set up Raul Allegre 's game @-@ winning field goal , which gave the Giants a 22 – 20 victory over the Minnesota Vikings . Simms later commented :
It 's my favorite game in my career , because it 's everything I always wanted to be as a player . I wanted to be tough , making big throws , immune to pressure , not worried about outcomes . It was truly like standing on the tee box in golf and there 's trees on each side and water and you just go ' Man , I 'm gonna rip it down the middle . ' And no other thought crosses your mind .
= = = Super Bowl XXI = = =
On January 25 , 1987 , the Giants met the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXI . In the biggest game of his life , Simms had one of the finest performances in Super Bowl history . He completed 22 of 25 passes ( with 2 of his 3 incompletions being drops by receivers ) for 268 yards , setting Super Bowl records for consecutive completions ( 10 ) , accuracy ( 88 % ) , and passer rating ( 150 @.@ 9 ) . In addition , he threw 3 touchdown passes and his passer rating set an NFL postseason record . " This might be the best game a quarterback has ever played " , Giants coach Bill Parcells later said . Two of the most famous plays from the game were the flea flicker to McConkey , and the touchdown pass caught by McConkey off of the fingertips of Giants tight end , Mark Bavaro . The Giants defeated the Broncos 39 @-@ 20 , and Simms was named MVP of Super Bowl XXI . He is credited for being the first to use the phrase " I 'm going to Disney World ! " following a championship victory .
= = Later career : 1987 – 1993 = =
Simms performed well in the strike @-@ shortened 1987 NFL season , finishing with the second highest quarterback rating in the NFC . He threw for 2 @,@ 230 yards , 17 touchdowns , and 9 interceptions . He passed for 3 @,@ 359 yard , 21 touchdowns , and 11 interceptions while completing 54 @.@ 9 % of his passes in the 1988 season . The Giants rebounded from a 6 – 9 record in 1987 to finish 10 – 6 but fell just short of the playoffs due to the NFL tie @-@ breaker system . In 1989 , the Giants started 8 – 1 and finished 12 – 4 , Simms passed for 3 @,@ 061 yards , 14 touchdowns , and 14 interceptions on 56 @.@ 3 % completion percentage . He performed consistently most of the season except for a two @-@ game stretch against the Eagles and 49ers where he produced seven turnovers , six of which resulted in points for the opposition . He also struggled in the Giants playoff game against the Los Angeles Rams , and the Giants lost 19 – 13 . In 1990 , Simms was having one of his finest seasons , leading the NFC with the highest quarterback rating ( 92 @.@ 7 ) and the Giants to an 11 – 3 record . But his season was cut short due to a broken foot suffered in the fourteenth game against the Giants ' eventual Super Bowl XXV opponent , the Buffalo Bills . The Giants went on to defeat the Bills 20 – 19 in the Super Bowl with Jeff Hostetler filling in at quarterback .
After the Giants Super Bowl victory , Parcells resigned and was replaced by the team 's running backs coach Ray Handley . One of Handley 's first decisions was to select Jeff Hostetler as the team 's starting quarterback following his performance in Super Bowl XXV . Simms saw only spot action in two games prior to Week 13 , when Hostetler broke his back in a game against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers . Simms finished the game and reclaimed the starting job , but won only once in his remaining four starts as the Giants failed to return to the playoffs at 8 @-@ 8 . Simms was named starter for the 1992 season after beating out Hostetler , whom Handley still thought high of as a quarterback in the preseason . However , Simms suffered a severe arm injury in a Week 4 loss to the Los Angeles Raiders and missed the remainder of the season . In those two seasons Simms amassed only a combined 1 @,@ 905 yards , 13 touchdowns , and 7 interceptions while completing 59 @.@ 3 % of his passes . The Giants finished the 1992 season at 6 @-@ 10 , which led to the termination of the unpopular Handley and the hiring of former Denver Broncos coach Dan Reeves . As part of an overall house cleaning , Reeves released Hostetler and named Simms his starting quarterback . He started all 16 games in 1993 , being one of only seven quarterbacks to do so , and led the Giants to a resurgent 11 – 5 season including a victory over the Minnesota Vikings in the playoffs . However , Simms underwent shoulder surgery after the 1993 NFL Season to repair a torn labrum . The surgery was successful , and team doctor Russell F. Warren 's prognosis for recovery was excellent , and Simms was expected to be ready in time for training camp . However , later during that offseason , Simms was released by the Giants , and subsequently decided to retire . Upon his release , co @-@ owner Wellington Mara called it " a day of overwhelming sadness . " . Phil Simms considered playing for the Browns in 1995 , but eventually decided to stay retired .
In his 14 seasons with the Giants , Simms completed 2 @,@ 576 out of 4 @,@ 647 passes for 33 @,@ 462 yards and 199 touchdowns . His career passing yardage total ranks him twenty first in NFL history . He added 349 carries for 1 @,@ 252 rushing yards and 6 touchdowns on the ground . He set team records for most passes completed and attempted in one game ( 40 and 62 , respectively ) , season ( 286 , 533 ) and career ( 2 @,@ 576 , 4 @,@ 647 ) , most career touchdown passes ( 199 ) and most 300 @-@ yard games in a career ( 21 ) . Simms still owns some of the New York Giants passing records , although Eli Manning , who is in his tenth year with the Giants as of the 2013 season , has started to surpass some of them : season passes ( 359 completed , 589 attempted ) , career completed passes ( 2 @,@ 679 ) , career touchdowns ( 216 ) , career 300 @-@ yard games ( 26 ) . Sports Illustrated considered Simms to be the " Most Underrated Quarterback " in NFL history in their August 27 , 2001 issue entitled , " The Most Overrated and Underrated " .
= = After retirement from the NFL = =
On September 4 , 1995 , Simms ' jersey was retired in a halftime ceremony of a game versus the Dallas Cowboys . During an emotional speech , Simms stated that he wanted to don his jersey one final time , and throw " one more pass " to teammate Lawrence Taylor . Simms later commented , " [ a ] ll of a sudden it kind of hit me , I 've put Lawrence in a really tough spot ; national TV , he 's got dress shoes and a sports jacket on , and he 's had a few beers and he 's going to run down the field and I 'm going to throw him a pass . " Simms then motioned for Taylor to run a longer pattern , and after 30 – 40 yards , threw him the pass . Taylor later stated that the situation made him more nervous than any play of his career , " I 'm saying to myself ( as the pass is being thrown ) , ' If I drop this pass , I got to run my black ass all the way to Upper Saddle River because there ain 't no way I 'm going to be able to stay in that stadium ' . " Taylor caught the pass however , and the capacity crowd in attendance cheered in approval . Since he has been retired for more than five years , Simms is eligible for selection into the Pro Football Hall of Fame ; he has yet to be inducted , however .
After his retirement as a player in 1994 , Simms first joined ESPN then went on to join NBC 's lead broadcast crew , teaming with Dick Enberg and Paul Maguire on that network 's coverage of Super Bowl XXX and Super Bowl XXXII . Simms also announced Weightlifting at the 1996 Summer Olympics and served as a sideline reporter on the NBA on NBC for NBC Sports . In 1998 , he moved to CBS with the AFC package , teaming first with Greg Gumbel ( through the end of the 2003 season ) and currently with Jim Nantz on the CBS 's lead broadcast team . He also worked with Armen Keteyian , Bonnie Bernstein and Lesley Visser . He hosts Inside the NFL on Showtime ( another CBS holding ) with James Brown and Cris Collinsworth . He has appeared on CBS Daytime since joining CBS , with a 2007 appearance as himself on the CBS soap opera As the World Turns , and in February 2010 an appearance on The Price Is Right ( with Nantz ) to present a Super Bowl XLIV showcase . Simms is part of the commentary team , along with his broadcast partner Jim Nantz , in the Madden NFL 16 video game .
As of the 2014 – 15 NFL season , Simms has been a commentator for the CBS and NFL Network broadcasts of Thursday Night Football .
On November 13 , 2014 , Simms appeared uncredited on the " Just a Regular Irregular " episode of the CBS TV series Elementary . Simms ' cameo was as a character named " Phillip " who had , like Simms himself , spent 15 years as a professional football player , but was a consultant to Sherlock Holmes in the art of knife throwing .
= = Personal life = =
Simms and his wife , Diana , live in Franklin Lakes , New Jersey . They have three children : Chris , Deirdre and Matthew ( currently backup quarterback for the Atlanta Falcons ) . Simms is fond of New Jersey , remarking in 1987 ; " I wasn 't overjoyed about coming to New York . When I thought of New York I thought of New York City . But out here , it 's just like anywhere else . "
Simms is a relative of former Vanderbilt quarterback Oliver " Doc " Kuhn and former Kentucky quarterback John Simms " Shipwreck " Kelly .
In 2011 , Simms was inducted into the Kentucky Pro Football Hall of Fame .
= = NFL passing statistics = =
Key to abbreviations
GP
= Games played
Att =
Passes attempted
Com
= Passes completed
Pct =
Completion percentage
Yds
= Yards
TD =
Touchdowns
In
= Interceptions
Rate =
Passer rating
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= Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike =
Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike is a comedy play written by Christopher Durang . The story revolves around the relationships of three middle @-@ aged single siblings , two of whom live together , and takes place during a visit by the third , Masha , who supports them . They discuss their lives and loves , argue , and Masha threatens to sell the house . Some of the show 's elements were derived from works of Anton Chekhov , including several character names , the play 's setting in a cherry orchard , and the theme of the possible loss of an ancestral home .
The play premiered at McCarter Theatre in Princeton , New Jersey in 2012 , followed by an Off @-@ Broadway production later the same year . It transferred to Broadway in 2013 . The original McCarter , Off @-@ Broadway , and Broadway casts included David Hyde Pierce , Kristine Nielsen , Sigourney Weaver and Billy Magnussen . Subsequently , the play has been produced in Tennessee , California , Indiana , Minnesota , Arizona , Washington , Massachusetts , Missouri , Wyoming , Georgia , South Carolina and the District of Columbia .
Critics praised Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike as a humorous adaptation of Chekhov themes that doesn 't require familiarity with Chekhov . The original Broadway production proved to be a commercial success , recouping its $ 2 @.@ 75 million investment in under four months . In 2013 , it won the Tony Award for Best Play and the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Play , among other awards .
= = Plot = =
Middle @-@ aged siblings Vanya and Sonia live in the family home in Bucks County , Pennsylvania . Named after Chekhov 's characters by their theater @-@ enthusiast professor parents , Vanya and Sonia have not had to grow up . After spending their adulthood looking after their now @-@ dead parents , neither has a job , and money is provided by their movie star sister Masha , who owns the house and pays the bills . Vanya ( who is gay ) and Sonia ( who is forever reminding everyone that she was adopted ) spend their days reflecting on their lost chances , debating whether the grove of nine cherry trees on their property constitutes an orchard , and bemoaning their rather Chekhovian lot in life . The only other resident of the house is their cleaning woman Cassandra , who , like her namesake , is prone to making dire prophecies that no one believes .
This static environment is disrupted when Masha returns home , bringing with her a flurry of drama , an endless litany of insecurity , and a much younger , gorgeous , dimwitted lover named Spike . Sonia 's resentments and Masha 's competitive nature begin to spark arguments , and while Vanya tries to keep the peace , he is repeatedly distracted by the preening Spike , who takes every opportunity possible to strip down and show off his muscular body . Masha 's fifth marriage has recently ended and her career is starting to stall . Spike 's career has never started , and his biggest claim to fame is nearly landing a part in the sequel to Entourage , Entourage 2 . Another interloper arrives , the neighbor 's pretty niece Nina , an aspiring actress who provokes envy in Masha , lust in Spike , and sympathy in Vanya .
Masha has returned home to attend a costume party at an influential neighbor 's house and insists that her friends and family dress as characters from Disney 's animated Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , choosing to dress as Snow White . When told she will be going as one of the dwarfs , Sonia rebels and dresses up as the Evil Queen , imagining her as portrayed by Maggie Smith on her way to the Oscars . As they prepare for the party , Masha tells them she intends to sell the house , leaving Vanya and Sonia devastated .
Things come to a head the day after the party . As Cassandra uses a voodoo doll on Masha , trying to dissuade thoughts of selling the house , Sonia receives a phone call from a man she met at the party , requesting a date . Hesitantly , she accepts . Vanya , who is secretly writing a play inspired by Konstantin 's imagined symbolist drama in The Seagull , is convinced by Nina to let her read it in front of the others . During the reading ( which stars Nina as a molecule and takes place after the destruction of the earth ) , Spike rudely answers a text on his phone , and dismisses Vanya 's suggestion of a handwritten response . Vanya reacts by launching into an impassioned rant , criticizing America 's cultural regression in communication and media , while fondly and wistfully recalling the surroundings and memories of his childhood . Concluding that the intent of such progress seems to make people like him feel lost and forgotten , he retreats into the kitchen in tears .
Masha realizes that the person Spike is texting is her personal assistant , with whom he has been having an affair . She ends her relationship with him and kicks him out of the house , announcing she no longer intends to sell it . As the play ends , the three siblings , optimistic for the first time in a very long time , sit quietly together and listen to The Beatles ' song " Here Comes the Sun " .
= = Characters = =
According to Durang , " My play is not a Chekhov parody ... I take Chekhov scenes and characters and put them into a blender . " Although the characters in the play , named by university professors , share names with Chekhov characters , they are not the same characters . They share some elements but are fully imagined . Durang mentioned that Masha is more like Madame Arkadina in The Seagull than any of Chekhov 's characters named Masha . Rather than mimic Three Sisters , his play has a sister , brother and adopted sister , with the latter two being the most Chekhovian of the title characters . Durang has described Nina as most like a Chekhov character , and related to the character of the same name in The Seagull . After five marriages to her contemporaries , Masha has taken up with Spike in a May – December relationship . Durang says that " Cassandra , who 's a cleaning woman and soothsayer , is like the Greek @-@ tragedy Cassandra . In some ways , she 's like the nanny in Vanya , but she doesn 't reflect Chekhov as much . "
= = = Principal roles and original cast = = =
= = Production history = =
Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike was commissioned by the McCarter Theatre , Princeton , New Jersey , in association with the Lincoln Center Theater . The play , which was originally a one @-@ act play , ran at the McCarter Theatre from September 7 , 2012 , to October 14 , 2012 .
The play opened Off @-@ Broadway at Lincoln Center 's Mitzi E. Newhouse Theater on November 12 , 2012 , after previews from October 25 , and ran until January 20 , 2013 . The show 's run at Lincoln Center was sold out . On January 29 , it was announced that the show would transfer to Broadway for 17 weeks beginning March 5 with its original cast under the production of Joey Parnes , Larry Hirschhorn , and John O 'Boyle , in association with McCarter Theatre and Lincoln Center Theater .
It opened on Broadway on March 14 , 2013 , at the John Golden Theatre , after previews beginning March 5 . The Broadway engagement , originally announced to close on June 30 , was extended to July 28 , 2013 and again to August 25 . On July 1 , the show recouped its $ 2 @.@ 75 million investment . The play closed on August 25 , 2013 , after 201 performances on Broadway . " The house expanded with each of the play 's moves , first from McCarter Theatre 's proscenium stage to Newhouse Theater 's thrust stage , then to the Golden Theatre 's proscenium stage . The actors had to make adjustments to compensate for the changes . Nielsen and Pierce both said that the proscenium accentuated their comedic performances .
The original Off @-@ Broadway and Broadway casts featured Pierce as Vanya , Weaver as Masha , Magnussen as Spike , Nielsen as Sonia , Angelson as Nina , and Grant as Cassandra . The play was directed by Nicholas Martin with the set designed by David Korins and costumes by Emily Rebholz . On July 28 , Weaver left the cast and was replaced by Julie White as Masha . Magnussen departed the cast on August 4 and was replaced by understudy Creed Garnick as Spike .
Following its Broadway run , the show ran at Berkeley , California 's Berkeley Repertory Theatre in September and October 2013 with Anthony Fusco as Vanya , Sharon Lockwood as Sonia , Lorri Holt as Masha , and Mark Junek as Spike . Hyde Pierce reunited with the show to direct the January 29 – March 9 , 2014 , production at Los Angeles ' Mark Taper Forum by Center Theatre Group . The cast was Mark Blum , Christine Ebersole , Grant , David Hull , Nielsen and Liesel Allen Yaeger .
In September / October 2013 , a separate production ran in the Phoenix Theatre , Indianapolis , produced by Bryan Fonseca . In 2014 , the show ran at the Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis , and in Tucson and Phoenix , Arizona . The show was produced in Seattle at the ACT Theatre from October 17 – November 16 , 2014 .
= = Themes = =
Although Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike is a comedy , it has some darker elements that pervade its themes . Ben Brantley of The New York Times described the play as a " sunny new play about gloomy people " . Patrick Healy of The New York Times described it as a " black comedy about unhappy siblings " .
According to Robin Pogrebin of The New York Times , " The play sets characters and themes from Chekhov in present day Bucks County , PA . " The characters Vanya , Sonia and Masha are middle @-@ aged siblings named after Chekhov characters . Their deceased parents were " college professors who dabbled in community theater " . The character names are borrowed from Chekhov plays . Vanya is the protagonist in Uncle Vanya and Sonia is his niece . Meanwhile , Masha comes from Chekhov 's Three Sisters . Other characters also embody the themes and characters from Chekhov works , such as Nina from The Seagull . The play depicts a home of siblings who have quarreled their entire lives .
According to Charles Isherwood of The New York Times , not only are the character names derived from Chekhov , but also " The country @-@ house setting is also borrowed from the work of that Russian master , as are the self @-@ delusions and self @-@ pity that plague the central characters , all of whom have reached the difficult age when life ’ s path has narrowed uncomfortably , and there is little point in turning around and looking to take another , more rewarding course . "
= = Critical review = =
Knowledge of Chekhov will increase the enjoyment of this work 's in @-@ jokes , but not as much as an understanding of Durang 's absurdism , according to Theatermania.com 's Brian Scott Lipton . Brantley noted that the work was suitable for any audience : " Even if you ’ ve never read a word of Chekhov , you ’ re likely to find plenty to make you laugh : Mr. Hyde Pierce ’ s skillfully low @-@ key comic discomfort ; Ms. Nielsen ’ s segues from manic eruption into glazed smiling stupor ; Ms. Weaver ’ s game sendup of every self @-@ loving , self @-@ doubting movie queen there ever was . " He noted the play does not compare with some of Durang 's most absurd work , calling it " blander and thinner " . Brantley said there was comfort in an evening of deliverance of Chekhov 's " lost souls " , by Durang .
Isherwood noted that as Nielsen demonstrated her ability to lighten the play 's stream of Chekhovian themes , " broad comic acting [ was ] raised to the level of high art . " He also noted that in Durang 's plays , " heartache is generally fodder for belly laughs " and that Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike had plenty . Lipton noted that the show was quite funny , but also belabored and " scattershot " . Several reviewers agreed that the show was " a bit of a patchwork " .
According to the New York Post critic , Elisabeth Vincentelli , the show improved with its transfer from Off @-@ Broadway to Broadway , especially Weaver 's performance , which Vincentelli deemed the weakest . Weaver portrayed a movie star who was " overindulgent , self @-@ centered and unaware she ’ s on the decline . " Mark Kennedy of The Washington Post suggested Durang , with whom Weaver graduated from the Yale School of Drama in 1974 , may have written the role for her . Both Hyde Pierce and Nielsen exhibited mastery of their monologues , according to Vincentelli : " Hyde Pierce is a master of the slow burn , while Nielsen ’ s wild @-@ eyed Sonia often looks as if her train of thought has a loose caboose . " Vincentelli also noted that Weaver 's character had " turned her life into a performance . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
The play received six Tony Award nominations for the 67th Tony Awards , winning the Tony Award for Best Play . Magnussen earned his first Tony nomination for his role . Grant also earned her first Tony nomination . The play won the 58th Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Play and the 2013 New York Drama Critics ' Circle Award for Best Play . Grant received a Theatre World Award for Best Debut Performance . Emily Rebholz earned a 2013 Lucille Lortel Award nomination for Outstanding Costume Design of the Off @-@ Broadway production .
The Off @-@ Broadway and Original Broadway productions were jointly recognized with Drama League Award nominations for Outstanding Production of a Broadway or Off @-@ Broadway Play and with Distinguished Performance Award nominations for both Nielsen and Pierce ; the play won for Outstanding Production of a Broadway or Off @-@ Broadway Play . The production received four Outer Critics Circle Award nominations : Outstanding New Broadway Play , Outstanding Director of a Play ( Martin ) , Outstanding Actor in a Play ( Pierce ) , and Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play ( Nielsen ) , and won the awards for Outstanding New Broadway Play and Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play . The production won the 2013 Off @-@ Broadway Alliance Award for Best New Play . The show received an Artios Award from The Casting Society of America for Outstanding Achievement in Casting , New York Broadway Theatre – Comedy .
= = = Original Broadway / Off @-@ Broadway productions = = =
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= Early life of Keith Miller =
This article chronicles the life of Keith Miller , an Australian Test cricketer and Australian rules footballer , from his birth on 28 November 1919 until 20 August 1940 , when he left civilian life and joined the Militia ( army reserve ) during World War II . Born in the town of Sunshine on the outskirts of Melbourne , Miller made sport the focal point of his early life . The youngest of four children of Scottish descent , Miller joined his siblings in being inculcated with a love of sport by their father , playing football in winter and cricket in summer . Miller 's father — an engineer and sportslover — emphasised the importance of technique over power ; Miller benefited as he was of small stature during his childhood and could not rely on brute strength . Miller yearned to be a horse racing jockey , as he felt that he would not have the physique to succeed in cricket or football .
Miller received his secondary education at the academically selective Melbourne High School , where his mathematics teacher was the incumbent Australian cricket captain Bill Woodfull . He was an academically poor student who neglected his studies but excelled at sports . He made the school 's first @-@ choice cricket team at the age of 14 and gained attention for his technical and defensive ability , which was compared to that of Woodfull . Miller was rejected by the St Kilda Cricket Club so he joined South Melbourne in district competition , making his first @-@ grade debut at the start of the 1935 – 36 season , still only 162 cm ( 5 ft 4 in ) tall . In one match , he scored 61 runs to orchestrate a lower @-@ order fightback in a low @-@ scoring match against Woodfull 's Carlton team , prompting his teacher to award him a silver eggcup during maths class . It remained one of his most treasured possessions .
In the following year , Miller grew 28 cm ( 11 in ) and began to play cricket and football with more power . Leaving school at the end of year 10 , having just turned 17 , Miller played cricket for the Victorian Colts for two seasons , before breaking through to be selected for his first @-@ class debut late in the 1937 – 38 season . He played sporadically until making his Sheffield Shield debut during the 1939 – 40 season and scoring his maiden century . During this time , Miller played exclusively as a batsman ; he was yet to become a fast bowler . Miller 's football career also took off . Starting in 1937 , Miller played for the Brighton Football Club in the Victorian Football Association for three years , mainly as a defender . At the start of his fourth season , he restricted Bob Pratt , regarded as the best forward of the time , to one goal for the match and was named best on ground . He was promptly signed by the St Kilda Football Club to play in the leading Victorian Football League in 1940 , where his team came second to last .
= = Birth = =
Born in the western Melbourne suburb of Sunshine on 28 November 1919 , Keith Ross Miller was the youngest of Leslie ( Les Sr ) and Edith ( Edie ) Miller 's four children . He had two older brothers and a sister . Sister Gladys was 12 when Miller was born , while Les Jr and Ray were nine and seven respectively . Miller was named after the Australian pioneer aviator brothers Keith and Ross Smith , who were half @-@ way through their historic flight from England to Australia at the time of his birth . Miller 's two Christian names reflected his Scottish heritage ; his father 's family originated from the dock area of Edinburgh and Dundee , and his paternal grandfather arrived in Australia in April 1849 . The family lived in a one @-@ level terrace house in Sunshine , which at the time was a separate town of 900 people , 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) west of Melbourne 's city centre . The area was and remains a working @-@ class area . The town 's lifeblood was the farm machinery maker H. V. McKay , which employed a large proportion of the population . Miller 's father started as a teacher in Warracknabeal in rural Victoria , before working as an engineer for McKay in Ballarat until a transfer brought him to Sunshine .
= = Early schooling = =
Sunshine offered open fields , and the three Miller boys quickly took a liking to sport during their childhood , playing Australian rules football in winter and cricket in summer . Their father had played cricket for Warracknabeal , winning a premiership in the local league in 1900 . Les taught the boys to play with a side @-@ on stance and underlined the importance of orthodox batting technique , reminding his sons to maintain a high leading elbow when hitting the ball . They were taught to rely on a solid defence , concentration , and self @-@ control in the mould of the leading Victorian and Australian Test batsman of the era , Bill Ponsford . Miller began his schooling in Sunshine , where he quickly became known for his diminutive height ; he was one of the smallest children in the school . At the age of seven , Miller moved to the inner @-@ eastern middle @-@ class Melbourne suburb of Elsternwick , where his parents had purchased a two @-@ storey house with a spacious garden that allowed the children to play sport . By this time , his elder brothers had given him the derisive nickname Weedy . Miller 's small size and age deficit meant that he conceded a strength advantage to his brothers in backyard cricket matches . This forced him to develop his technique rather than rely on power , which held him in good stead for his future career . Whenever Miller managed to dismiss his brothers and earn himself some batting time , he typically played with a straight bat in a watchful manner , as it was difficult for him to remove his brothers , meaning that his opportunities with the bat were rare . Miller and his friends would loiter outside Ponsford 's home , just 400 m ( 440 yd ) away , in the hope of catching a glimpse of their hero . Like Miller in his backyard , Ponsford was known for his powers of concentration and was the first person to score two quadruple centuries in first @-@ class cricket . Miller often practised for hours by himself ; he put a tennis ball inside a stocking , before suspending it from a clothes line and hitting it back and forth . Indoors , Miller developed a lifelong love of classical music through a cousin who liked to play Mozart . He played flute in the Elsternwick school band but could not read music .
As a small child , Miller 's major sporting aspiration was to be a jockey , but he continued to play cricket and Australian football . At the age of 12 , he played for an under @-@ 15 Victorian schoolboys cricket team that toured Queensland under the captaincy of future Test batsman Merv Harvey . At the time , Miller stood only 150 cm ( 4 ft 11 in ) and wielded a sawn @-@ off bat . His shots did not travel far , but he impressed observers with the manner in which he moved his feet and stroked the ball . Miller 's small stature in a contact sport such as football forced him to rely on physical courage , something for which he became famed . However , his lack of height prompted him to turn to horseracing . Miller saw his first Melbourne Cup in 1926 at the age of seven and had been fascinated ever since . Caulfield Racecourse was only a short distance from the family home , and Miller spent many early mornings watching the trainers and jockeys go through their routines . He eventually persuaded his father to let him take horseriding lessons . Aside from being attracted to the racing culture , Miller felt that as he appeared destined to be a small person , he was more likely to have a successful career as a jockey than in cricket or football .
= = Melbourne High School = =
Miller went to the local state school before transferring to Melbourne High School — a selective government institution that accepted students through an academic exam — at the start of 1934 . The school 's emphasis on scholastic and sporting excellence and its culture was more in line with that of a private school than a standard government school . Australian Test captain Bill Woodfull was on the teaching staff as Miller 's mathematics teacher . Because he did little study and focused his energy on sport , Miller was a mediocre student . In addition to cricket and football , Miller played baseball and competed in swimming . This disappointed Woodfull , a disciplined man who invoked the school 's motto Honour the Work in exhorting his students to work hard as Australia was attempting to emerge from the depths of the Great Depression . Despite being Australia 's captain , Woodfull refused to involve himself in the coaching of the school 's cricket teams , feeling that it would intrude on the responsibilities of the sports teachers . Despite this , Woodfull watched the students at cricket training and quickly noticed Miller 's skills . Aged 14 and still under 153 cm ( 5 ft 0 in ) , Miller was selected in the school 's First XI . With his pads flapping against his stomach and sporting a sawn @-@ down bat , Miller batted at No. 6 and scored 44 on his senior debut . Although his lack of power was obvious , Miller 's control and solidity prompted the spectators to call him the Unbowlable , the same nickname that was accorded to Woodfull , who had a similarly strong defensive style . Melbourne went on to win the match , and Miller impressed his captain Keith Truscott , who fought for his selection and took him under his wing . Truscott later became an ace fighter pilot in the Royal Australian Air Force , and Miller would follow in his footsteps . Truscott 's social influence compounded the distractions from Miller 's study . Miller failed all eight of his subjects at the end of 1934 , and with an average mark of 25 % , was the class dunce . He scored zero in his final exam for Woodfull 's geometry class , and was forced to repeat year 9 .
= = Club cricket = =
At the start of the 1934 – 35 season , Truscott took Miller to a try out with St Kilda Cricket Club , but his protege could not find a place in any of the club 's five teams . Joining the local sub @-@ district cricket club Elsternwick , Miller did not get to bat or bowl on debut , and was then dropped to the Second XI after his first match for poor fielding . Nevertheless , the former Victorian state player Hughie Carroll spotted Miller 's talent and lured him to the rival South Melbourne club . However , Elsternwick used the competition rules to prevent Miller from playing for Souths , so he continued to play in the former 's second @-@ choice team . In the meantime , Miller continued to play for his school with steady results , scoring 30 and 25 in two matches against Melbourne 's main rival , University High School . A loosening of the zoning rules allowed Miller to start competing for South Melbourne in the following season . However , the rules required South Melbourne to play Miller in their First XI , else St Kilda could reclaim him , so he made his district cricket debut for South at the start of the 1935 – 36 season after a trial in the nets . At this stage , Miller was just 162 cm ( 5 ft 4 in ) tall — the Test batsman Keith Rigg recalled his first encounter with the diminutive youngster in a district match :
He was so small he came in to bat with pads flapping around up near his waist . Hans Ebeling was bowling and Keith hit him through the covers for four . I thought , ' Crikey , who 's this kid ? '
It was at South Melbourne that Miller met Ian Johnson and Lindsay Hassett , his future Australia team @-@ mates and captains . On debut against St Kilda , Miller scored only 11 not out after batting for 62 minutes at No. 7 , but observers felt the young batsman would succeed if he physically grew . Miller passed his exams at the end of 1935 and continued his development on the field . He began to develop a leg break and googly and represented his school against a visiting schoolboy team from Ceylon . Miller scored an unbeaten 28 to prevent a loss and later cited the experience as helping to broaden his horizons towards other cultures . Assisted by cross @-@ training in baseball , his improved fielding skills saw him placed in the slips and he was named as Melbourne High School 's cricket sports champion for 1936 . Miller averaged 86 with the bat and took 13 wickets at an average of 9 @.@ 23 , including innings figures of seven wickets for 29 runs against St Kevin 's and 3 / 5 against University High . These performances prompted Woodfull to write in the school magazine that " Miller has Test possibilities " . In March , Miller played for South Melbourne against Carlton , who were captained by Woodfull . South Melbourne batted first and collapsed to 5 / 6 . The sixth wicket fell at 32 , bringing Miller to the crease . He guided his team to 141 , and was the last man out for 61 after putting on a stand of 65 in 95 minutes with the No. 11 . Miller struck four boundaries in a 147 @-@ minute innings . The crowd of 14 @,@ 000 — the largest of the season — gave Miller a standing ovation , and newspapers compared him to Ponsford and Alan Kippax . Carlton went on to win the game , and when it was obvious that this would be the case , Miller 's captain let him bowl for the first time . The small batsman took his first wicket in district cricket when Test paceman Laurie Nash took a high @-@ leaping catch . Miller 's performance prompted Carlton to donate a silver eggcup as a memento " for sterling performance " . Woodfull presented Miller with the trophy during algebra class . It was one of the few sports trophies that Miller kept in later life .
During 1936 , Miller underwent a sudden growth spurt , including a three @-@ month period during which he added 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) to his height . He began to play football with more physical aggression and developed the ability to leap high and take airborne marks . The increase in size allowed Miller to become the longest kicker in the school team . Having grown 28 cm ( 11 in ) in a year , Miller was unrecognisable to Hassett upon his return to South Melbourne the following season . Eventually , Miller reached 185 cm ( 6 ft 1 in ) in height , thwarting his ambition to be a jockey , although he never lost his love for the racetrack .
= = Representative beginnings = =
At the start of the 1936 – 37 season , Miller was selected for the Colts , a state under @-@ 21 team that played at district level . At the end of the 1936 school year , Miller completed year 10 by passing five of his eight subjects . Disinclined towards university studies , he left school without finishing his leaving year and began working as a clerk for a car business . Miller felt confident that he could make a career out of sport and therefore felt that further education was unnecessary .
Miller spent the 1937 – 38 season with the Colts and won the team 's batting trophy for having the best average ; he made 340 runs at 42 @.@ 50 . Across the entire competition , Miller had the eighth highest average . He scored three half @-@ centuries and a 102 against Northcote . At this stage , Miller was a solid , slow and steady batsman , who accumulated his runs gradually , but The Age predicted that his physical growth would open his horizons , opining " Once he fills out — he is rather tall for his weight — Miller should become a brilliant , aggressive batsman " . In early February 1938 , late in the summer , he made his first @-@ class debut for Victoria as an 18 @-@ year @-@ old and hit 181 in 289 minutes against Tasmania at the Melbourne Cricket Ground . With his increased power , Miller began to loft the ball over the infield and struck five fours . During the 1938 – 39 season , he rejoined South Melbourne and played four first @-@ class matches for Victoria , scoring 125 runs at an average of 25 @.@ 00 . However , Miller was yet to play in the Sheffield Shield competition , only taking to the field in one @-@ off matches against other teams . In the two matches against Tasmania in December 1938 , Miller took his first catch , but managed only four , seven not out and three , and he spent a period of time outside the team . Miller was recalled in March 1939 — late in the season — for two matches against Western Australia in Perth , scoring 111 runs at 37 @.@ 00 , notching his first first @-@ class fifty of the season in the second innings of the first match .
Miller achieved more success as a footballer . In 1937 , he followed his brothers Les and Ray and joined the Brighton Football Club in the Victorian Football Association ( VFA ) . The VFA was the second tier of Australian rules football below the Victorian Football League ( VFL ) . A defender , Miller played his first two seasons on the flanks ; he was yet to reach his physical peak and lacked the power required to play in central defensive positions until his third season , in 1939 . At this stage , he was unable to hip and shoulder his opponents and relied on his running ability and accurate kicking .
During the 1939 – 40 season , Miller was selected to make his Sheffield Shield debut in a match against South Australia at Adelaide Oval . Batting at No. 4 , Miller came to the crease at 2 / 9 after a top @-@ order collapse , but managed only four runs before being caught by Richard Whitington — with whom he later wrote cricket books — from the bowling of Harold Cotton . When Victoria fielded , Miller ran out his future Invincibles captain Don Bradman ; it was the first time that Bradman had been caught short of his ground in first @-@ class cricket . Miller also took his first catch at Shield level , that of Mervyn Waite . In the second innings , he managed seven before being bowled by leg spinner Clarrie Grimmett , one of the leading bowlers in the world in the 1930s . One of Miller 's teammates was Percy Beames , who also happened to be his manager at Vacuum Oil , where he had moved from his first job . Miller made 41 and 47 not out in his second match against Queensland , top @-@ scoring in the second innings as his team completed a seven @-@ wicket victory . Miller retained his place for the match against New South Wales , but was out for 14 in both innings . He had difficulties against leg spin , falling to Bill O 'Reilly and Cec Pepper . In the return match against South Australia , Miller decided to take the initiative against Grimmett , charging down the wicket to drive the leg spinner . He featured in a 165 @-@ run partnership with Hassett , and at times bluffed Grimmett by moving forward before leaning back after the bowler had adjusted his length . Miller reached 108 to complete his first century in Shield competition . He was given out caught by Bradman from Garth Burton , after an appeal for a disputed catch ; Miller asked the umpires if Bradman had caught a bump ball . Nevertheless , Bradman praised Miller 's innings , and Clem Hill predicted a bright future for the Victorian . Apart from the century , Miller had an average season , making 37 , 1 and 24 in his remaining innings to end the campaign with 298 runs at 29 @.@ 80 . He did not bowl during the season .
= = = Breakthrough into the VFL = = =
In 1940 , Miller started his fourth season in the VFA . In a match against Coburg , regarded as one of the strongest teams in the competition , he was assigned to man Bob Pratt , who was regarded as the greatest forward of the era . Pratt had scored 678 goals in ten seasons for South Melbourne in the Victorian Football League ( VFL ) , the top tier of football , and had scored more than 100 goals in each of his last three seasons . Miller restricted Pratt to one goal for the match and was named as the best on ground . In the third quarter , Miller restricted Pratt to two marks , and in the fourth quarter , he prevented the forward from getting a single kick . Scouts from the VFL club St Kilda signed Miller on the spot . Reacting to Miller 's signing , The Age opined that he " is one of the most promising players ever to enter league ranks , and can be played anywhere in defence . It was he who kept Bob Pratt to one goal in last week 's Association match . "
At the time , World War II had broken out and by mid @-@ 1940 , France , Belgium and the Netherlands had fallen to Nazi Germany . Australia had declared war on Germany and Miller wanted to join the military , but St Kilda told him that if he was deployed outside Victoria , his career would be in jeopardy . As a result , Miller postponed his enlistment until the end of the season .
Playing as a defender , Miller debuted for St Kilda in their fifth round home game against Carlton , at the Junction Oval on 25 May , playing on the half @-@ back flank . At the start of the game , Miller 's opponent Ron Cooper king hit and concussed him . Miller said of the experience , " I learnt more in a second or two than I would have in a year " . When St Kilda met Carlton in the return match at Princes Park , Miller shoulder bumped Cooper in the first minute of the match , forcing his opponent to leave the field . In a match against Richmond , Miller was physically targeted by renowned enforcer Jack Dyer , known as Captain Blood . However , Dyer slipped and missed Miller . In one game , Miller was reported for showing dissent to a goal umpire , but was let off without punishment . St Kilda came second to last , so they did not make the finals .
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= E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial ( album ) =
E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial is an audiobook and soundtrack album for the 1982 blockbuster film of the same name directed by Steven Spielberg . Narrated by American recording artist Michael Jackson , the album was produced by composer Quincy Jones and distributed by MCA Records . The production of the audiobook brought Jackson together with several former collaborators , such as Rod Temperton , Freddy DeMann , and Bruce Swedien .
The E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial audiobook was released by MCA on November 7 , 1982 — the same month as Jackson 's acclaimed sixth studio album Thriller despite conditions given by Epic Records , Jackson 's record label , that it should not be released until after Thriller . As a result , Epic took legal action against MCA which forced the album 's withdrawal . During its curtailed release , E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial reached number 82 on the UK Albums Chart . It was well @-@ received critically and won Jackson a Grammy Award for Best Recording for Children .
= = Content = =
The E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial album package contains a storybook , which allows listeners to read along with Jackson as he narrates the tale of E.T. and the alien 's visit to planet Earth . The book contains a photograph of E.T. placing hands on Jackson 's shoulders , while one of the extraterrestrial 's fingers glows . This picture is included in the album package as a 22 inches ( 56 cm ) × 22 inches ( 56 cm ) full @-@ color poster . The 20 @-@ page storybook include stills from the movie and the lyrics to the song " Someone in the Dark " ( written by Alan and Marilyn Bergman ) , which Jackson sings on the audiobook . The recording , on a 12 @-@ inch vinyl LP , features original music by John Williams , integrated sound effects from the movie , as well as the voice of E.T. in the background .
= = Background = =
Prior to the recording of the E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial album , Jackson released four solo studio albums with Motown Records ( Got to Be There , Ben , Music & Me and Forever , Michael ) , and several with his brothers as part of The Jackson 5 . In 1975 , he moved to Epic Records and in 1979 released Off the Wall , to critical and commercial success .
In June 1982 , the Steven Spielberg – directed science fiction film E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial was released . Created by Spielberg 's Amblin Entertainment and distributed by Universal Pictures ( then a subsidiary of MCA Inc . ) , it starred Henry Thomas , Dee Wallace , Robert MacNaughton , Drew Barrymore and Peter Coyote . The film tells the story of Elliott , a boy who befriends a good @-@ natured extraterrestrial called E.T. , who is stranded on Earth . Upon its release , the film became a blockbuster and surpassed Star Wars to become the highest @-@ grossing film released to that point . Critics lauded it as a timeless story of friendship , and the American Film Institute ranks it as the third greatest science fiction film ever produced in the United States .
= = Production = =
Jackson began work on the audiobook of E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial in June 1982 — around the same time he began recording his sixth studio album Thriller . Quincy Jones served as the producer for both projects , in addition to working as the narrative writer for the audiobook . During the recording of the narration , Jackson became so upset when E.T. died that he wept . Jones and Spielberg both felt that trying to record the part again would not change the pop star 's emotional reaction , and decided to leave Jackson 's crying in the finished recording . Jackson biographer Lisa D. Campbell wrote that Jones had learned this during the recording of " She 's Out of My Life " ( from the Off the Wall album ) , where the singer also broke down in tears .
Several of the contributors to the E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial storybook album had worked with Jackson on his solo projects in the past . Rod Temperton , who had written several songs featured on Off the Wall and Thriller , wrote the music for " Someone in the Dark " . Freddy DeMann and Ron Weisner , former managers of The Jacksons , served as the production coordinators for the album . Bruce Swedien engineered E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial , a task he had performed on Off the Wall and Thriller and would go on to perform for the albums Bad ( 1987 ) and Dangerous ( 1991 ) . Dick Zimmerman photographed Jackson for the Thriller album cover , before again capturing the singer for the accompanying poster to the E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial album .
Once the recording and engineering aspects of production had been completed , MCA Records ( the distributor of the album ) pressed more than 1 million copies of the audiobook . In 1982 , a journalist for Billboard wrote that it was one of the " most ambitious " projects that MCA Records had taken on to date .
= = Jackson 's empathy with the E.T. character = =
According to the biography Michael Jackson : The Magic and the Madness , written by journalist J. Randy Taraborrelli , the pop singer had shown an early attachment to the story of E.T. After a publicity photo shoot for the soundtrack album in which an animatronic robot of the extraterrestrial character hugged Jackson , the singer stated with wonderment , " He was so real that I was talking to him . I kissed him before I left . The next day , I missed him . " Jackson later revealed in the December 1982 issue of Ebony magazine — in which both he and E.T. appear on the cover — that he felt he actually was the creature during the album recording and shared his thoughts on why he had such a strong connection to the character :
" He 's in a strange place and wants to be accepted — which is a situation that I have found myself in many times when travelling from city to city all over the world . He 's most comfortable with children , and I have a great love for kids . He gives love and wants love in return , which is me . And he has that super power which lets him lift off and fly whenever he wants to get away from things on Earth , and I In can identify with that . He and I are alike in many ways "
= = Release and legal issues = =
Epic Records allowed Jackson to record the album on two conditions :
MCA Records was not to release E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial until after Christmas 1982 . ( This was to avoid the audiobook competing with Jackson 's new album , Thriller . )
The song " Someone In the Dark " was not to be released as a single .
MCA Records breached both conditions , releasing the storybook in November 1982 and giving 7 @-@ inch promo copies of " Someone In the Dark " to radio stations . After Epic lodged a $ 2 million lawsuit , MCA Records was forced to withdraw the album and prohibited from releasing " Someone In the Dark " as a single . Epic executives had felt that MCA was misleading members of the public into believing that the then @-@ recently released single " The Girl Is Mine " was featured on the storybook album . The plaintiffs further requested that MCA Records be banned from working with Jackson in the future and that any other media owned by MCA featuring the singer be prohibited from release .
As a result of the legal restrictions that prohibited the public release of " Someone In the Dark " as a single , the promo copies which were made have since become one of the singer 's rarest and most sought @-@ after records ; some have been sold for over £ 1000 ( $ 1587 ) . The song was later included as a bonus track on the 2001 special edition of Thriller , as well as the box set Michael Jackson : The Ultimate Collection .
= = Reception = =
E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial was a commercial success ; it reached number 82 on the UK Albums Chart , which was considered high for a storybook album . The audiobook won Jackson a Grammy Award in 1984 for Best Recording for Children . Upon collecting the award and taking home a record eight Grammys from an unprecedented twelve nominations , the singer stated that of all the awards had received that night , he was " most proud of this one " .
E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial was also well @-@ received critically . Charles L Sanders of Ebony magazine described it as an " extraordinary album " . Mark Bego of the Toledo Blade asserted that the song " Someone in the Dark " was " one of the most beautiful ballads " that Jackson had ever recorded . He further commented that the amalgamation of Jones ' production , dialogue from the film , Jackson 's " effective and emotional " reading of the narrative and the audiobook 's " grand soaring orchestration " made the E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial album " [ elicit ] as many tears as the movie does " . A writer for Billboard described the audiobook as being " lavishly packaged , lovingly produced " and worth its high asking price . A journalist for the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader concluded that it was a " delightful " storybook album .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
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= Eva Cassidy =
Eva Marie Cassidy ( February 2 , 1963 – November 2 , 1996 ) was an American vocalist and guitarist known for her interpretations of jazz , blues , folk , gospel , country , rock and pop classics . In 1992 , she released her first album , The Other Side , a set of duets with go @-@ go musician Chuck Brown , followed by the 1996 live solo album titled Live at Blues Alley . Although she had been honored by the Washington Area Music Association , she was virtually unknown outside her native Washington , D.C .. She died of melanoma in 1996 .
Two years later , Cassidy 's music was brought to the attention of British audiences when her versions of " Fields of Gold " and " Over the Rainbow " were played by Mike Harding and Terry Wogan on BBC Radio 2 . Following the overwhelming response , a camcorder recording of " Over the Rainbow " , taken at Blues Alley in Washington by her friend Bryan McCulley , was shown on BBC Two 's Top of the Pops 2 . Shortly afterwards , the compilation album Songbird climbed to the top of the UK Albums Charts , almost three years after its initial release . The chart success in the United Kingdom and Ireland led to increased recognition worldwide ; her posthumously released recordings , including three UK number 1 records , have sold more than ten million copies . Her music has also charted top 10 positions in Australia , Germany , Sweden , Norway and Switzerland .
= = Early life = =
Born on February 2 , 1963 , at the Washington Hospital Center , Cassidy grew up in Oxon Hill and later Bowie , Maryland , suburbs of Washington , DC . She was the third of four children . Her father Hugh Cassidy , a retired teacher , sculptor , musician , former army medic and world champion powerlifter , is of Scottish and Irish descent , while her mother , Barbara ( Kratzer ) , was a horticulturist and originally German , born in Bad Kreuznach . From an early age , Cassidy displayed interest in art and music . When she was nine , her father began teaching her to play the guitar , and she began to play and sing at family gatherings .
At age 11 , Cassidy began singing and playing guitar in a Washington @-@ area band called Easy Street . This band performed in a variety of styles at weddings , corporate parties , and pubs . Due to her shyness , she struggled with performing in front of strangers . While a student at Bowie High School , she sang with a local band called Stonehenge . During the summer of 1983 , Cassidy sang and played guitar six days a week at the theme park Wild World . Her younger brother Dan , a fiddler , was also a member of this working band . She enrolled in art classes at Prince George 's Community College but dropped out after finding them unhelpful .
Throughout the 1980s , Cassidy worked with several other bands , including the techno @-@ pop band Characters Without Names . During this period , Cassidy also worked as a propagator at a plant nursery and as a furniture painter . In her free time , she explored other artistic expressions including painting , sculpting , and jewelry design . Despite holding a belief in God , Cassidy was not part of any organized religion .
= = Music career = =
In 1986 , Cassidy was asked by Stonehenge guitarist and high school friend , David Lourim , to lend her voice to his music project , Method Actor . This brought her to Black Pond Studios , where she met recording engineer and bassist Chris Biondo . Biondo helped her find work as a session singer and later introduced her to Al Dale , who would become her manager . She sang back @-@ ups for various acts , from go @-@ go rhythm and blues band Experience Unlimited to rapper E @-@ 40 . Biondo and Cassidy , who were in a romantic relationship for a time , formed the five @-@ piece " Eva Cassidy Band " with Lenny Williams , Keith Grimes and Raice McLeod in 1990 . They began to perform frequently in the Washington area .
In 1992 , Biondo played a tape of Cassidy 's voice for Chuck Brown , the " Godfather of go @-@ go " . It resulted in the duet album The Other Side featuring performances of classic songs such as " Fever " , " God Bless the Child , " and what would later become Cassidy 's signature song , " Over the Rainbow " . The album was released and distributed in 1992 by Liaison Records , the label that also released Brown 's Go @-@ go albums . Brown originally intended to record an additional duet with Cassidy for his next solo album , but this was postponed due to ongoing negotiations between Dale and other labels for a solo deal . Cassidy 's unwillingness to narrow her stylistic focus to one genre hindered her chances of securing a deal . After talks broke down , the two decided to record their own duet album . As a duo , they performed at the Columbia Arts Festival and opened for acts like Al Green and The Neville Brothers .
In 1993 , Cassidy was honored by the Washington Area Music Association with a Wammie award for the Vocalist Jazz / Traditional category . The next year she was invited to perform at the event and chose to sing " Over the Rainbow " . A Washington Times review of the event called her performance " a show @-@ stopper " . She took home two Wammies that night , again for Vocalist Jazz / Traditional and also for Roots Rock / Traditional R & B. For a brief period that year , Cassidy signed a deal with Blue Note Records to pair up with pop @-@ jazz band Pieces of a Dream to release an album and tour the country . She sang two tracks in a mainly instrumental album . It was a musically unsatisfying experience for her .
After having a potential contract with Apollo Records collapse when the label went bankrupt , Biondo and Dale decided that she should release her own live album . In January 1996 , the material for Live at Blues Alley was recorded over a two @-@ day period at Blues Alley in Washington , DC . Due to a technical glitch on the first night of recording , only the second night 's recording was usable . Unhappy with the way she sounded due to a cold , she was reluctant to release the album . She eventually relented , on the condition that the studio track " Oh , Had I a Golden Thread " , Cassidy 's favorite song , would be included in the release , and that they start working on a follow @-@ up studio album . Her apprehension appeared unfounded as local reviewers and the public responded positively . The Washington Post commented that " she could sing anything — folk , blues , pop , jazz , R & B , gospel — and make it sound like it was the only music that mattered . " The subsequent studio album she worked on was released posthumously as Eva by Heart in 1997 . In the liner notes of Eva by Heart , critic Joel E. Siegel described Cassidy as " one of the greatest voices of her generation . "
= = Death = =
In 1993 , Cassidy had a malignant mole removed from her back . Three years later , during a promotional event for the Live at Blues Alley album in July 1996 , Cassidy noticed an ache in her hips , which she attributed to stiffness from painting murals while perched atop a stepladder . The pain persisted and a few weeks later , X @-@ rays revealed that the melanoma had spread to her lungs and bones . Her doctors estimated she had three to five months to live . Cassidy opted for aggressive treatment , but her health deteriorated rapidly . In the early fall , at a benefit concert for her at the Bayou , she made her final public appearance , closing the set with " What a Wonderful World " in front of an audience of family , friends , and fans . Additional chemotherapy was ineffective and Cassidy died on November 2 , 1996 at her family 's home in Bowie , Maryland . In accordance with her wishes , her body was cremated and the ashes were scattered on the lake shores of St. Mary 's River Watershed Park , a nature reserve near Callaway , Maryland .
= = Posthumous recognition = =
After Cassidy 's death , local folk singer Grace Griffith introduced the Blues Alley recording to Bill Straw from her label , Blix Street Records . Straw approached the Cassidy family to put together a new album . In 1998 , a compilation of tracks from Cassidy 's three released recordings was assembled into the CD Songbird . This CD lingered in relative obscurity for two years until being given airplay by Terry Wogan on his wide @-@ reaching BBC Radio 2 show Wake Up to Wogan , following recommendation by his producer Paul Walters . The album sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies in the following months . The New York Times spoke of her " silken soprano voice with a wide and seemingly effortless range , unerring pitch and a gift for phrasing that at times was heart @-@ stoppingly eloquent . "
Before Christmas of 2000 , Top Of The Pops 2 aired a video of Cassidy performing " Over the Rainbow " , which resulted in Songbird climbing steadily up the UK charts over the next few weeks . Just as ITV 's Tonight with Trevor McDonald aired a feature on Cassidy , the album topped the chart . Shot at Blues Alley by a friend with a camcorder the same night the album was recorded , the video became the most requested video ever shown on Top Of The Pops 2 . " There 's an undeniable emotional appeal in hearing an artist who you know died in obscurity singing a song about hope and a mystical world beyond everyday life " , wrote The Guardian .
Paul McCartney and Eric Clapton were among her new @-@ found fans . Jazz critic Ted Gioia writes , " you might be tempted to write off the ' Cassidy sensation ' [ ... ] as a response to the sad story of the singer 's abbreviated life rather than as a measure of her artistry . But don 't be mistaken , Cassidy was a huge talent , whose obscurity during her lifetime was almost as much a tragedy as her early death . " Songbird has since achieved significant chart success throughout Europe and six times platinum status in the UK . Although still relatively unknown in the United States at that time , the album would eventually be certified gold in the United States as well .
In May 2001 , ABC 's Nightline in the United States broadcast a well @-@ received short documentary about Cassidy , a labor of love from Nightline correspondent Dave Marash who was a fan of her music . Over the weekend , all five of Cassidy 's albums occupied Amazon.com 's best sellers list top spots . The Nightline episode has since been rebroadcast three times due to popular demand . Producer Leroy Sievers has said that it is " probably the most popular Nightline ever " . In December , a nine @-@ minute segment on NPR resulted in a similar sales surge , with five of the top seven spots going to Cassidy . A rebroadcast of the Tonight with Trevor McDonald feature on Cassidy in Britain also bumped up sales .
Since Songbird , several other CDs with original material have been released : Time After Time ( 2000 ) , Imagine ( 2002 ) and American Tune ( 2003 ) . 2008 saw the release of another new album titled Somewhere . Unlike previous albums , which consisted solely of cover songs , this release contains two original songs co @-@ written by Cassidy . An acoustic album titled Simply Eva was released in January 2011 .
Together with word of mouth and internet fansites , online commerce has played a big role in Cassidy 's success . This point was further affirmed when in 2005 , Amazon.com released a list of its top 25 best @-@ selling musicians , which placed Cassidy in fifth position , behind The Beatles , U2 , Norah Jones and Diana Krall .
In 2004 , during the gala opening of the Bowie Center for the Performing Arts , the Bowie Regional Arts Vision Association , Inc . ( BRAVA ) dedicated the Star 's Dressing Room to Eva . Following a moving tribute to Eva , Chuck Brown took the stage and performed his duet " with " Eva as her photos and video appeared in the background .
= = Unofficial releases = =
A collection of previously unreleased studio recordings from 1987 to 1991 , was released in 2000 as No Boundaries . This release was not endorsed by the Cassidy family and was released under a different label . An AllMusic review of the album stated that even " a gifted vocalist like Eva Cassidy can only do so much with bad material " .
In 2002 , the self @-@ titled 1988 album by the band Method Actor , which featured Cassidy , was re @-@ released by the band 's guitarist and producer David Lourim with Cassidy 's name displayed prominently on the cover . The Cassidy family and Blix Street Records filed a lawsuit against Lourim , claiming that Cassidy 's name was used in a misleading fashion and that Blix Street has exclusive rights to her recordings . Lourim had Cassidy 's written permission to release the album and eventually the cover was changed to look like the original LP album while already released copies were affixed with a sticker indicating that they are not solo Eva Cassidy albums .
A bootleg recording that has been in circulation is called Live at Pearl 's . It was recorded at Pearl 's Restaurant in Annapolis , Maryland in 1994 . Copies of the recording were circulated among friends and family after her death . Some of the songs on the recording are also on Imagine and American Tune . Another recording from the early ' 90s , featuring Mick Fleetwood on drums and recorded at his restaurant ( named Fleetwood 's ) in Alexandria , Virginia , was in the possession of writer / musician Niki Lee , the former wife of pianist Lenny Williams , 1988 @-@ 1996 . Lee discovered it in her garage and attempted to sell it on eBay in 2008 . She asserts that she converted the dollars to pounds incorrectly and was lambasted by Cassidy fans for her mistake . On September 19 , 2013 , Lee donated Cassidy 's lost recording , Eva Cassidy Live at Fleetwoods , to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland , Ohio . The recording will remain in the museum 's archives . Two other lost cassettes of Cassidy 's recordings are being remastered for entrance .
= = In popular culture = =
In 2001 , a book titled Songbird : Eva Cassidy : Her Story By Those Who Knew Her , on the life and work of Cassidy based on interviews with close family and associates was released in the UK . The hardcover edition has since sold in excess of 100 @,@ 000 copies . A US edition published by Gotham Books was released in late 2003 and includes two additional chapters on her influences and success in the US . Her life story has also been adapted into a musical and also a Broadway piece for cancer benefit .
At the 2002 Winter Olympics gala , and later on tour , figure skater Michelle Kwan brought Cassidy 's music to a new audience when she skated to a recording of Cassidy 's version of Sting 's " Fields of Gold " . Kwan 's part in exposing the music of Cassidy to the international and American public led Cassidy 's label to present her a gold record from the certification of Songbird . Subsequently , other figure skaters such as Kristi Yamaguchi , Sarah Hughes and Kimmie Meissner have used Cassidy 's music in their routines .
Anglo @-@ Georgian singer Katie Melua is a keen fan of Cassidy . Her debut album Call Off the Search contained the song " Faraway Voice " , written in Cassidy 's memory . Melua has also performed Cassidy 's arrangement of " Anniversary Song " in concert . On Christmas Eve 2006 , she performed alongside video footage of Cassidy singing Over The Rainbow on BBC One 's " Duet Impossible " . One year later , Cassidy 's " What a Wonderful World " was spliced together with new vocals by Melua and released as a single exclusively at the British retail chain Tesco . It debuted at # 1 on the UK Singles chart on December 16 . All profits from the single went to the British Red Cross . Irish singer Chris de Burgh has stated that his song " Songbird " from his album The Road to Freedom was written in honour of Cassidy . Singer Mary Chapin Carpenter made reference to Cassidy in the song " My Heaven " on the album Between Here and Gone : " More memories than my heart can hold , when Eva 's singing ' Fields of Gold ' . " In 2008 , her rendition of " Fields Of Gold " was also featured in the final set of scenes on the season finale of " Army Wives " on Lifetime television .
In 2008 , Cassidy 's recording of " Autumn Leaves " was used by the Canadian National Professional Latin Champions , Andre and Natalie Paramonov , when they competed in America 's Ballroom Challenge as finalists in the International Latin Competition .
The first film to feature an Eva Cassidy recording was Flight of Fancy starring Dean Cain . Since then her music has appeared in various film and TV series including the Dawson 's Creek season four episode titled " The Graduate , " Judging Amy , Joe Somebody , Love Actually , Maid in Manhattan , The Man from Elysian Fields , Alpha Dog and Smallville . Cassidy 's arrangement of " Over the Rainbow " is a popular cover choice by singing competition contestants , with American Idol season 5 runner @-@ up Katharine McPhee and The X Factor season 3 winner Leona Lewis among the singers . Her interpretation of " Imagine " has been performed by American Idol season 7 runner @-@ up David Archuleta .
In March 2012 , Sweden 's Caroline Larsson and Bengt Magnusson released an album titled A Tribute to Eva Cassidy . The Eva Cassidy biography Behind the Rainbow by Johan Bakker won The People 's Book Prize 2011 / 2012 in London on May 30 , 2012 .
= = Possibility of feature film = =
A number of filmmakers have proposed films based on Cassidy 's life , and have worked with her family to greater or lesser degrees , but to date these projects have not progressed past the early development stages . In late 2007 , AIR Productions acquired the rights to produce a film based on Cassidy 's life . It is being produced by Amy Redford ( daughter of Robert Redford ) , Irwin Shapiro and Rick Singer . In an interview a year earlier , Cassidy 's parents suggested Kirsten Dunst or Emily Watson as possible actresses who could play their daughter .
= = New Album = =
To mark the 20th anniversary of the Blues Alley concert , Blix Street Records will release Nightbird , a 32 track double CD album , in November 2015 . Nightbird comprises the complete Blues Alley concert recordings , including 8 previously unreleased songs , from the night of January 3 , 1996 . The European version of the CD package will also include a DVD comprising 12 video performances from the Blues Alley concert . Nightbird will also be released as a 4LP vinyl package worldwide .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = Unauthorized releases = = =
= = Videography = =
= = = Books = = =
Rob Burley ; Jonathan Maitland ; Elana Rhodes Byrd ( 2003 ) . Eva Cassidy : Songbird : Her Story by Those Who Knew Her . Gotham Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59240 @-@ 035 @-@ 5 .
Johan Bakker ; Behind the Rainbow , the tragic life of Eva Cassidy ( 2012 ) Omnibus Press , 207 pages , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 78038 @-@ 231 @-@ 9 ( Winner of The People 's Book Prize 2011 / 2012 )
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= Homer the Smithers =
" Homer the Smithers " is the 17th episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 25 , 1996 . In the episode , Mr. Smithers takes a vacation and hires Homer to take over as Mr. Burns ' assistant .
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Steven Dean Moore . The story came from another writer on the show , Mike Scully . The episode features cultural references to The Little Rascals , a series of comedy short films from the 1930s , and the 1971 film A Clockwork Orange . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 , and was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
After a company night out to the Springfield drag races , Smithers fails to protect Mr. Burns from being harassed by a drunken Lenny . Though he tries to make amends the next day , Smithers again bungles his duties and attempts to drown himself in the water cooler out of guilt , so Burns suggests he take a vacation . Seeking a replacement who will not outshine him , Smithers purposely selects Homer for the job . He then proceeds to go on vacation to what appears to be a gay male resort . However , Burns soon proves to be ridiculously demanding for someone who has not devoted his life to him like Smithers had . After putting up with Mr. Burns 's constant abuse for several days , Homer finally snaps and punches Burns in anger . Fearing he has killed the old man , Homer runs away in panic , and hides at home .
Homer returns to apologize but is turned away by a fearful Burns . With no one around , Burns learns to do things himself , such as making coffee and operating the telephone . Burns soon becomes completely self @-@ reliant and thanks Homer for making him learn that he can fend for himself . Burns then fires Smithers when he returns from his vacation . Smithers tries to find other employment but eventually decides he can only be happy working for Mr. Burns . He enlists Homer in a scheme to get his job back by handling a call from Burns ' mother ( the one task that Burns still cannot do ) , but it backfires when Homer accidentally hangs up the phone and then attempts to impersonate Burns ' mother . Smithers and Homer engage in a fight within Burns ' office which ends when Burns accidentally falls out the window . Burns is seriously injured and becomes reliant on Smithers once again . In gratitude , Smithers sends Homer a fruit basket .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder , who got the story from another member of the writing staff , Mike Scully . When the show runners of this season , Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein , took over the job from David Mirkin , they wanted to " take the show back " to the Simpson family . Their goal was to have at least 15 episodes per season that revolved around the family or a member of the family , but they still wanted to do the annual Halloween episode , a Sideshow Bob episode , an Itchy and Scratchy episode , and a " format bending " episode , which in this season was " 22 Short Films About Springfield " . They wanted the family episodes to be realistic , and Oakley thought " Homer the Smithers " was a good example . When Scully pitched the idea to the writers , Oakley was surprised that it had not been done earlier on the show . He thought the story sounded like something that would have been done by the third season because it was " simple " and " organic " .
Weinstein said that this episode was an opportunity for him , Oakley , and Swartzwelder to " go nuts " with the " Burns @-@ ism " . He said that they enjoy to write for characters such as Burns and Abe Simpson because of their " out @-@ datedness " , and because they get to use thesauruses for looking up " old time slang " . Burns answers the phone by saying " Ahoy , hoy ! " , for example , which was suggested by Alexander Graham Bell to be used as the proper telephone answer when the telephone was first invented . Burns ' kitchen is full of " crazy old @-@ time " devices and contraptions . For inspiration , Weinstein brought in " a bunch " of old books with designs of old kitchen devices . Oakley commented that the stuffed polar bear had always been in Burns ' office , and they were excited to " finally " have a use for it .
Matt Groening has noted the challenges of sound mixing with this episode , the results of which influenced future episodes of the show and Groening 's other series Futurama . When the animation for the episode returned , the production staff found the scene of Homer fighting Smithers " horrifying " , as the sounds of character exertion made it seem too violent . After experimenting with the sound , they were eventually able to make the scene humorous by only leaving in sounds of the characters ' agony .
= = Cultural references = =
When Homer gets up early to make Mr. Burns breakfast , he wakes up Marge in bed . She says : " Homie , it 's 4 : 30 in the morning . Little Rascals isn 't until 6 " , referencing The Little Rascals , a series of comedy short films from the 1930s and a 1994 comedy film of the same name . Smithers uses a Macintosh computer with the Mac OS operating system to search for his replacement . Burns tells Homer to make him Postum for breakfast , a hot drink designed to rival tea and coffee . At the end of the episode , Burns is lying in bed in a body cast , chewing loudly and pausing his speech for Smithers to spoon @-@ feed him , as in A Clockwork Orange when a bedridden Alex is spoonfed steak . The manner in which Burns becomes injured is also similar to Alex : they both take a potentially life @-@ threatening fall from a top story window .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Homer the Smithers " finished 60th in the ratings for the week of February 19 to February 25 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 . The episode was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Beverly Hills , 90210 , Melrose Place and Married ... With Children .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Dave Foster of DVD Times said that in " Homer the Smithers " we see " just how dependent upon Smithers Mr. Burns is " . He added that the staging and animation of the scene in which Homer tries to apologize to Burns " will remain engraved in your memory in the same way as some of the series finest dialogue can . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode and commented that " any doubts about Smithers ' sexuality will not last long when we see his vacation . " Jacobson would have liked to see more scenes from Smithers ' vacation , but he still thought the episode offered " nice exposition " for the character . He added : " It ’ s fun to see more about his pampering of Burns , and it ’ s amusing to watch Homer take over for him . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be the scenes of Smithers on vacation . She concluded her review by giving the episode a grade of A − . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it a " very good episode , and an unusually straightforward one for this surreal season . "
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= Shashthi =
Shashthi or Shashti ( Sanskrit : षष ् ठी , Ṣaṣṭhī , literally " sixth " ) is a Hindu folk goddess , venerated as the benefactor and protector of children ( especially , as the giver of male child ) . She is also the deity of vegetation and reproduction and is believed to bestow children and assist during childbirth . She is often pictured as a motherly figure , riding a cat and nursing one or more infants . She is symbolically represented in a variety of forms , including an earthenware pitcher , a banyan tree or part of it or a red stone beneath such a tree ; outdoor spaces termed shashthitala are also consecrated for her worship . The worship of Shashthi is proscribed to occur on the sixth day of each lunar month of the Hindu calendar as well as on the sixth day after a child 's birth . Barren women desiring to conceive and mothers seeking to ensure the protection of their children will worship Shashthi and request her blessings and aid . She is especially venerated in eastern India .
Most scholars believe that Shashthi 's roots can be traced to Hindu folk traditions . References to this goddess appear in Hindu scriptures as early as 8th and 9th century BCE , in which she is associated with children as well as the Hindu war @-@ god Skanda . Early references consider her a foster @-@ mother of Skanda , but in later texts she is identified with Skanda 's consort , Devasena . In some early texts where Shashthi appears as an attendant of Skanda , she is said to cause diseases in the mother and child , and thus needed to be propitiated on the sixth day after childbirth . However , over time , this malignant goddess became seen as the benevolent saviour and bestower of children .
= = Iconography = =
Shashthi is portrayed as a motherly figure , often nursing or carrying as many as eight infants in her arms . Her complexion is usually depicted as yellow or golden . A Dhyana @-@ mantra – a hymn describing the iconography of a deity , upon which a devotee of Shashthi should meditate – describes her as a fair young woman with a pleasant appearance , bedecked in divine garments and jewellery with an auspicious twig laying in her lap . A cat ( mārjāra ) is the vahana ( mount ) upon which she rides . Older depictions of Shashthi may show her as cat @-@ faced , while another reference describes her as bird @-@ faced .
In Kushan era representations between the first and third centuries CE , she is depicted as two @-@ armed and six @-@ headed like Skanda . A significant number of Kushan and Yaudheya coins , sculptures and inscriptions produced from 500 BCE to 1200 CE picture the six @-@ headed Shashthi , often on the reverse of the coin , with the six @-@ headed Skanda on the observe . Shashthi is also pictured in a Kushan @-@ era Vrishni triad from the Mathura region , surrounded by Skanda and Vishakha . In Yaudheya images , she is shown to have two arms and six heads that are arranged in two tiers of three heads each , while in Kushan images , the central head is surrounded by five female heads , sometimes attached to female torsos . Terracotta Gupta era ( 320 – 550 CE ) figures from Ahichchhatra show the goddess with three heads on the front and three on the back .
The folk worship representation of Shashthi is a red @-@ coloured stone about the size of a human head , typically placed beneath a banyan tree such as those usually found on the outskirts of villages . The banyan may be decorated with flowers or strewn with rice and other offerings . Shashthi is also commonly represented by planting a banyan tree or a small branch in the soil of a family 's home garden . Other common representations of the goddess include a Shaligrama stone , an earthen water pitcher , or a Purna Ghata – a water vase with an arrangement of coconut and mango leaves – generally set beneath a banyan tree .
= = Evolution and textual references = =
The general consensus among scholars of Hinduism traces the origins of Shashthi , like Skanda , back to ancient folk traditions . Over the course of the early centuries BCE , the Vedic fertility goddess of the new moon , Sinivali @-@ Kuhu , and Shri @-@ Lakshmi , the Vedic antecedent of Lakshmi , were gradually fused with the folk @-@ deity Shashthi . This merger created a " new " Shashthi that was associated in various ways with Skanda ( also known as Kartikeya or Murugan ) . From her origins as a folk goddess , Shashthi was gradually assimilated into the Brahmanical Hindu pantheon , and ultimately , came to be known in Hinduism as the Primordial Being and Great Mother of all . The fifth century text Vayu Purana includes Shashthi in a list of 49 goddesses , while a Puranic text calls her " the worthiest of worship among mother goddesses . " However , the long @-@ standing universality of her worship has led scholar David Gordon White to challenge the classification of Shashthi as a folk goddess , observing that Shashthi has been worshipped on the sixth day after childbirth by " all Hindus : rural as well as urban people , since the Kushan era . "
In textual references , Shashthi is often depicted as closely connected to Skanda . An early textual reference dating to 8th – 9th century BCE relates Shashthi to the six Krittikas who nurtured and nursed Skanda . Sometimes regarded as an aspect of the goddess Durga ( identified with Parvati – the mother of Skanda ) , she is also called Skandamata ( " Skanda 's mother " ) . The 3rd to 5th century text Yajnavalkya Smriti describes Shashthi as the foster @-@ mother and protector of Skanda . However , later texts identified her as Devasena , the consort of Skanda , including the epic Mahabharata wherein Shashthi ( as Devasena ) -the daughter of Prajapati- is betrothed by the god @-@ king Indra to Skanda . She is also identified with goddesses Shri , Lakshmi , Sinivali , and Kuhu in this text . The scripture Padma Purana also describes Shashthi as the wife of Skanda . In the 7th century text Kadambari , the images of Skanda and Shashthi are also said to have painted together on the wall of a palace lying @-@ in chamber of the queen .
Scriptures and folk traditions also connect Shashthi and Skanda in numerous indirect ways . The Mahabharata , finalised around the 4th century CE , describes a relationship between the infant Skanda and the Matrikas ( " Mothers " ) , a group of female deities who embody the perils that afflict children until the age of sixteen . The Encyclopaedia of Hinduism identifies this textual account as a source of the modern @-@ day practice of mothers worshipping Shashthi until their child reaches the age of sixteen . In the Mahabharata , Shashthi is described as an attendant of Skanda who behaves malevolently by causing disease . Skanda is furthermore said to have 18 malevolent spirit @-@ followers collectively known as the skanda graha , one of whom – Revati – is given the epithet " Shashthi . " This association of Revati with Shashthi is reiterated in the 5th century text Kashyapa Samhita , wherein Shashthi is also identified as the sixth form of Skanda and a sister of the five Skanda deities . Like Skanda , Shashthi is occasionally depicted with six heads , in which form she is also known by the epithet Shanmukhi ( " six @-@ headed " ) .
Shashthi is historically associated with a variety of other deities . The second century BCE composition Manava Grhya Sutra identifies Shashthi with Lakshmi , the goddess of wealth and beauty . It also describes the Shashthi @-@ kalpa rite was performed on the sixth lunar day of every fortnight invoking Shashthi to provide sons , cattle , treasures , corn , and the fulfilment of wishes . The scripture Padma Purana , composed between the 8th and 11th centuries , describes Shashthi as the daughter of Indra . Texts written over the last 500 years , such as the Brahma Vaivarta Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana describe Shashthi as the daughter of the creator @-@ god Brahma . In addition , she is associated with Mula @-@ Prakriti , the universal female energy said to be composed of six aspects : one of these , typically the sixth aspect , is said to be Shashthi .
Over time , the characterisation of Shashthi underwent a gradual evolution . Aforementioned folk traditions originating between the 10th and 5th centuries BCE associated the goddess with both positive and negative elements of fertility , birth , motherhood and childhood . However , between the 4th century BCE and the 5th century CE , a shift occurred in which Shashthi was increasingly depicted as a malevolent deity associated with the sufferings of mothers and children . The fifth century text Kashyapa Samhita calls Shashthi by the epithet Jataharini ( " one who steals the born " ) and provides a list of the malevolent activities in which Shashthi is believed to engage , including her practice of stealing foetuses from the womb and devouring children on the sixth day following birth . For this reason , the text recommends that she be propitiated through worship in her honour on this day in the lying @-@ in room and on the sixth day of every fortnight thereafter .
Eventually , Shashthi came to represent all goddesses and forces responsible for causing diseases in children and their mothers , who needed to be propitiated on the sixth day after childbirth to prevent these illnesses . Consequently , Shashthi came to personify the sixth day of a child 's life . The sixth day of the lunar fortnight is itself called Shashti , a name derived from the name of the goddess . The Yajnavalkya Smriti , composed during Gupta rule between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE , describes the rites of Shashthi Puja in which Shashthi is worshipped on the sixth day after childbirth to ensure the protection of the newborn baby . According to one explanation for the worship of Shashthi on this day , folk belief associates this critical time in an infant 's life with great susceptibility to diseases related to childbirth , such as puerperal fever and tetanus , and that worship of Shashthi is performed to help ward off these diseases .
Over the past 1500 years , the characterisation of Shashthi gradually shifted toward that of a benevolent and protective figure . In Banabhatta 's 7th century work Harshacharita , Shashthi is called Jatamatr ( " mother of the born one " ) , while the Kadambari by the same author calls her Bahuputrika , meaning " having many children " . Shashthi 's evolution mirrors that of the demoness Jara of the Mahabharata and a similar Buddhist goddess , Hariti : all of them are characterised in early texts as malevolent goddesses , but over the course of time these deities transform from devourers of children into their saviours and protectors .
= = Legends = =
A chapter entitled Shashthidevyupakhyanam , appended to the texts Brahma Vaivarta Purana and Devi Bhagavata Purana , narrates the tale of Shashthi . King Priyavrata – the son of Svayambhuva Manu ( the progenitor of mankind ) – and his wife Malini performed the putrakamesti yajna ( a fire @-@ sacrifice ritual to gain a son ) in an effort to conceive , but after twelve years of pregnancy , a still @-@ born son was delivered to Malini . Priyavrata set off to the cremation grounds with the corpse of his son . On his way , he saw a celestial woman dressed in white silk and jewels , riding in a heavenly chariot . She declared to Priyavrata that she was Devasena , the daughter of Brahma and wife of Skanda . She further said that she was Shashthi , foremost of the Matrikas ( " Mothers " ) of Skanda , and had the power to grant children to devotees . She held the child in her hand and resurrected the infant , then began to leave for her heavenly abode , taking the child with her . Priyavrata stopped the goddess , praising her and pleading that she return his son to him . The goddess agreed on the condition that Priyavrata would initiate and propagate her worship in all three worlds : heaven , earth and the netherworld . She returned the child to the king , naming him Suvrata and declaring that he should become famous as a great , virtuous , and learned ruler . Priyavrata decreed that Shashthi should be worshipped on the sixth day of every month , as well as the sixth and twenty @-@ first days after childbirth , and on all occasions auspicious to a child . She would be worshipped in the form of a Shaligrama stone , a Purna Ghata under a banyan tree , or an image of her on a wall .
A Bengali folk @-@ tale about Shashthi tells of the youngest of seven daughters @-@ in @-@ law in a prosperous household who was a glutton that used to secretly steal food and then blame a black cat , which was thrashed as punishment . The black cat happened to be the vahana ( mount ) of Shashthi and complained about the mistreatment to the goddess , who pledged to avenge it . When the youngest daughter @-@ in @-@ law gave birth to a son , the cat stole the child in the night and gave it to the goddess , and did the same for her next six sons . The neighbours accused the young mother of carelessness and began to believe she might be a witch who ate her own children . Finally , when a daughter was born , the young mother decided to remain awake the whole night to resolve the mystery . She managed to catch the cat in the act of robbery and wounded it with her bracelet , but the cat escaped with the child , leaving a trail of blood . The mother followed this trail to the abode of Shashthi . There she saw her sons playing around Shashthi as the goddess held the mother 's infant daughter in her arms . Shashthi explained the reason for the mother 's ordeal and told her to ask pardon of the cat . The mother asked the cat 's pardon , which was granted , and then she promised the goddess that she would offer worship in a ritual dedicated to her , which would come to be known as the Jamai @-@ Shasthi Vrata . The mother returned home with her children and spread the worship of the goddess , who blessed her family with children , wealth and happiness .
A different version of this tale narrates that when the youngest daughter @-@ in @-@ law was pregnant , she secretly ate the food @-@ offerings ritually dedicated to Shashthi and then blamed the theft on the black cat . Angered by the dishonour of its mistress and the unjust accusation of theft , the cat pledged to teach the young mother a lesson . In this version of the tale , the cat not only stole her six children , but also ate them . But when the seventh child was born , the mother caught the cat fleeing with her child and followed it but tripped in middle of the chase and fainted . The cat took the infant to Shashthi 's abode , where she told the goddess the whole tale of her insult . The benign goddess , however , was annoyed with the cat and rushed to the aid of the mother . The goddess explained the reason of her suffering , and after the mother had begged the cat for forgiveness and had sworn to worship Shashthi on anointed days , all seven of her children were returned to her .
Shashthi 's Bengali legends appear in the Mangal @-@ Kavya texts , especially in the Shashthi @-@ mangal section of this work . The Mangal @-@ Kavya and Bengali folk tales describe Shashthi as closely related to Manasa , the serpent goddess . Shashthi furthermore appears as an ally of Manasa in a famous Bengali folk @-@ tale describing Shashthi 's activities during the Nag Panchami festival of Manasa .
= = Worship = =
Among Hindus , Shashthi is widely regarded the benefactor and protector of children and tutelary deity of every household . She is also worshipped as a bestower of children to the childless , and regarded as the foremost goddess for blessing children . One of the earliest scriptural sources to describe a ritual in her honour is the second century BCE composition Manava Grhya Sutra , appended to the Yajurveda ( written between the 14th and 10th centuries BCE ) , which describes a ritual called Shashthi @-@ kalpa . In the Shashthi @-@ kalpa rite , which was described as performed on the sixth lunar day of every fortnight , Shashthi was invoked to provide sons , cattle , treasures , corn , and the fulfilment of wishes . Today , Shashthi continues to be worshipped on the sixth day of each of the twelve lunar months of the Hindu calendar , as well as on the sixth day after childbirth in the lying @-@ in chamber where the birth has taken place . Shashthi is worshipped in a different form in each of these lunar months as the deities Chandan , Aranya , Kardama , Lunthana , Chapeti , Durga , Nadi , Mulaka , Anna , Sitala , Gorupini or Ashoka .
In North India , Shashthi is worshipped at childbirth and puberty , and during marriage rites . When the pregnant woman is isolated during childbirth in the lying @-@ in chamber , a cow @-@ dung figure of the goddess is traditionally kept in the room . The birth of a living child is considered the blessing of Shashthi , while the birth of a stillborn infant or the early death of a child are considered manifestations of her wrath . Before childbirth , Shashthi is worshipped to protect the welfare of the expecting mother . She is also invoked after childbirth on the sixth day of each month until the child reaches puberty , especially when the child is sick .
In Bengal and South India , Shashthi is worshipped on the sixth day after childbirth and on Aranya @-@ Shashthi ( also called Jamai @-@ Shashthi ) , the sixth day of the bright fortnight of the Hindu month of Jyeshtha . Her worship can be performed in the house , where she is symbolised as an earthenware pitcher ; she may also be worshipped outdoors in a natural , open space consecrated to her , termed a shashthitala . In honour of Shashthi , women tie a stone in a small rag to the branch of a tree in the shasthitala : a mother does this to ask for long life for her child , while a barren woman does so to entreat the goddess to aid her in conceiving . The vrata ( ritual ) performed on the day of Jamai @-@ Shashthi is also prescribed to be performed by pregnant women at least once on any Monday , Tuesday , Friday or Saturday in the month of Jyestha . Dough images of Shashthi and her black cat are prepared and worshipped , along with a water pitcher with a banyan tree branch near it . Betel nuts and leaves , fruits , sweets and kheer are offered to her in units of six . In North India , Shashthi is worshipped in the form of the banyan tree , which is sacred to her .
In Bengal , on the night of the sixth day after childbirth , a number of items may be placed in the lying @-@ in chamber in deference to Shashthi , such as an earthen pitcher of water covered with a napkin , offerings of husked rice , cooked rice , bananas and sweets , bangles , and pieces of gold and silver . A pen and paper are also kept in the room , because it is believed that Shashthi ( or , according to some traditions , Chitragupta or Brahma ) comes into the home after everyone is asleep and writes the child 's fortune on the paper with invisible ink . In Bihar , the sixth day ceremony is called Chathi or Chati ( " sixth " ) and Shashthi is known by the epithet Chati Mata ( " Mother Chati " ) . A lump of cow dung dressed in red cloth or paper and covered with vermilion , symbolising the goddess , is kept in the lying @-@ in room . Here , the new @-@ born baby is oiled and dressed in new clothes and rings and then named ; a feast follows this ceremony . Childless people may perform a vrata ( ritual ) in worship of Shashthi , called either Chati Mata or Shashthi Vrata , in an effort to conceive .
In Orissa , the goddess is worshipped in the lying @-@ in room on the sixth day after childbirth , on the 21st day after childbirth and on every subsequent birthday of the child until he or she reaches the age of sixteen . Shashthi is also prescribed to be worshipped the sixth day of each of the two lunar fortnights occurring each month ; as part of the vrata rites , the worship occurring on the bright fortnight of the month of Bhadrapada is the most important of these and holds the same status in Orissa as the Aranva @-@ Shashthi ritual in Bengal . By these rites , it is believed a childless woman may gain offspring , while a mother may secure the longevity and welfare of her child by the grace of the goddess .
In North India , women worship Shashthi on Ashoka Shashthi , the sixth lunar day of the month of Chaitra . In this region , women will drink water from six flower @-@ buds of the Ashoka tree to secure the well @-@ being of their children . Women observe Khas Shashthi in the month of Pausha by fasting to ensure the longevity of their children .
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= Sir Francis Bernard , 1st Baronet =
Sir Francis Bernard , 1st Baronet ( bapt . 12 July 1712 – 16 June 1779 ) was a British colonial administrator who served as governor of the provinces of New Jersey and Massachusetts Bay . His uncompromising policies and harsh tactics in Massachusetts angered the colonists and were instrumental in the building of broad @-@ based opposition within the province to the rule of Parliament in the events leading to the American Revolution .
Appointed governor of New Jersey in 1758 , he oversaw the province 's participation in the later years of the French and Indian War , and had a generally positive relationship with its legislature . In 1760 he was given the governorship of Massachusetts , where he had a stormy relationship with the assembly . Early actions turned the colony 's populists against him , and his responses to protests against Parliament 's attempts to tax the colonies deepened divisions . After protests against the Townshend Acts in 1768 , Bernard sought British Army troops be stationed in Boston to overawe the colonists . He was recalled after the publication of letters in which he was critical of the colony .
After returning to England , he continued to advise the British government on colonial matters , calling for hardline responses to ongoing difficulties in Massachusetts that culminated in the 1773 Boston Tea Party . He suffered a stroke in 1771 and died in 1779 , leaving a large family .
= = Early life = =
Francis was born in Brightwell @-@ cum @-@ Sotwell , ( then in Berkshire , but part of Oxfordshire since 1974 ) , England to the Rev. Francis and Margery ( Winslowe ) Bernard and was christened on 12 July 1712 . His father died three years later . His mother remarried , but died herself of smallpox in 1718 . He was thereafter probably raised by an aunt for several years , since his stepfather was forced by a failed courtship to flee to Holland . His stepfather , Anthony Alsop , returned to Berkshire a few years later , and continued to play a role in the boy 's upbringing . Bernard 's formal education began at Westminster in 1725 , and he then spent seven years at Oxford , where Christ Church granted him a master of arts in 1736 . He read law at the Middle Temple and was called to the bar in 1737 , after only four years ( instead of the typical seven ) of study . He settled in Lincoln , where he practiced law and took on a variety of municipal posts . Among his neighbors in Lincoln were the Pownalls , who had one son ( John ) serving in the Colonial Office , and another , Thomas , who went to the North American colonies in 1753 and was appointed governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1757 .
Bernard married Amelia Offley , daughter of the sheriff of Derbyshire , in December 1741 , and the couple raised a large family : by 1757 the couple had eight living children . Because his prospects for further income to support this large family were unlikely in Lincoln , he apparently decided to seek a posting in the colonies . John Adams later described Bernard as " avaricious to a most infamous degree ; needy at the same time , having a numerous family to provide for . "
= = Governor of New Jersey = =
Bernard 's wife was cousin to Lord Barrington , who became a Privy Councillor in 1755 . Probably through his connections to Barrington and the Pownalls , he secured an appointment as governor of the Province of New Jersey on 27 January 1758 , a post that became available upon the death of Jonathan Belcher . Leaving some of his children with relatives , the couple sailed for North America with four of their children , arriving at Perth Amboy on 14 June .
The colonies were in the middle of the French and Indian War at the time of Bernard 's arrival . He established a good working relationship with New Jersey 's assembly , and was able to convince the province to raise troops and funds for the ongoing war effort . He signed the Treaty of Easton , an agreement between New Jersey and Pennsylvania on one side , and a group of Indian tribes ( the Lenape being of principal concern to New Jersey ) fixing boundaries between colonial and Indian lands . This effort was important , for it reduced raiding on the frontiers and made possible the reallocation of provincial military strength to the war with New France . It and other agreements negotiated by Bernard extinguished all of the remaining Indian titles to New Jersey . Negotiations with the Lenape also resulted in the establishment of the first formal Indian reservation , Brotherton , near present @-@ day Indian Mills . This reservation was only sparsely populated , and was abandoned in 1801 when its remaining inhabitants joined the Stockbridge Indians in upstate New York .
= = Governor of Massachusetts = =
Through the influence of his connections in the Colonial Office , Bernard was appointed governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in late 1759 . Delays in communications and slow travel were such that Bernard did not arrive in Boston until 2 August 1760 . Although initially warmly welcomed , his tenure in Massachusetts was difficult . Bernard sought to vigorously enforce the Navigation Acts , in part because crown officials ( including the governor and the customs officials ) received shares of the proceeds from the seizure of ships that were caught violating the acts . The legal actions involving these seizures were heard in a jury @-@ less admiralty court before a Crown @-@ appointed judge , and were extremely unpopular . Bernard also made an early opponent of James Otis , Jr. by appointing Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson to be chief justice of the province 's highest court , a post that had been promised by several previous governors to Otis ' father . Upset over the snub the younger Otis resigned his post as advocate general ( i.e. the Crown 's representative , equivalent to a government prosecutor ) before the admiralty court , and devoted himself instead to arguing ( sometimes pro bono ) on behalf of the merchants in defense of their ships . These early actions during Bernard 's tenure drew a clear dividing line between the " popular party " ( exemplified by the Otises ) opposed to British colonial policy and the " court party " ( exemplified by Hutchinson ) who supported it .
Bernard 's difficulties were compounded when , after the death in late 1760 of King George II , it became necessary to reissue writs of assistance to customs tax collectors . These writs , which were essentially open @-@ ended search warrants , were judicially controversial and so unpopular that their issuance was later explicitly disallowed by the United States Constitution . Hutchinson , who approved the writs in one of his first acts as chief justice , saw his popularity fall , and Otis , who argued the writs violated the Rights of Englishmen , gained in popularity . He was elected to the provincial legislature in May 1761 , where he was well placed to continue his attacks on Bernard 's policies . In the 1761 session of the assembly Otis engineered the gift of Mount Desert Island to Bernard , a partially successful stratagem to divert Bernard 's attention from ongoing customs seizures .
Bernard 's unpopularity continued through other tax measures , including the Sugar Act ( 1763 ) and the Stamp Act ( 1765 ) . While the passage of both acts occasioned protest , the response to the Stamp Act included rioting in the streets , and united many factions in the province against the governor . In 1767 the passage by Parliament of the Townshend Acts again raised a storm of protest in the colonies . In Massachusetts the provincial assembly issued a circular letter , calling on the other colonies to join it in a boycott of the goods subject to the Townshend taxes . Bernard was ordered in April 1768 by Lord Hillsborough , who had recently been appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary , to dissolve the assembly if it failed to retract the letter . The assembly refused , and Bernard prorogued it in July .
Maier says that his letters to London greatly influenced officials there , but they " distorted " reality . " His misguided conviction that the ' faction ' had espoused violence as its primary method of opposition , for example , kept him from recognizing the radicals ' peace @-@ keeping efforts .... Equally dangerous , Bernard 's elaborate accounts were sometimes built on insubstantial evidence . " Warden argues that Bernard was careful not to explicitly ask London for troops , but his exaggerated accounts strongly suggested they were needed . In the fall of 1767 he warned about a possible insurrection in Boston any day , and his exaggerated report of one disturbance in 1768 , " certainly had given Lord Hillsboro the impression that troops were the only way to enforce obedience in the town . " Warden notes that other key British officials in Boston wrote London with the " same strain of hysteria . " Four thousand British Army troops arrived in Boston in October 1768 , further heightening tensions . Bernard was vilified in the local press , and accused of writing letters to the ministry that mischaracterized the situation . Although he was challenged to release those letters he refused . Opposition agents in London were eventually able to acquire some of his letters , which reached members of the Sons of Liberty in April 1769 . They were promptly published by the radical Boston Gazette , along with deliberations of the governor 's council . One letter in particular , in which Bernard called for changes to the Massachusetts charter to increase the governor 's power by increasing the council 's dependence on him , was the subject of particularly harsh treatment , and prompted the assembly to formally request that " he might be forever removed from the Government of the Province . " He was recalled to England , and Lieutenant Governor Hutchinson became acting governor . When Bernard left Boston on 1 August , the town held an impromptu celebration , decorated the Liberty Tree , and rang church bells .
His accomplishments in Massachusetts included the design of Harvard Hall at Harvard University and the construction of a summer estate on Pond Street in Jamaica Plain .
= = Return to England = =
Upon his return to England , he asked for and received a hearing concerning the colonial petition against his rule . The Privy Council in February 1770 considered the petition , and after deliberation dismissed all of the charges as " groundless , vexatious , and scandalous . " Despite this vindication , Bernard resigned as governor in 1771 . He was confirmed in the ownership of Mount Desert Island , a recognition he had been seeking since it was awarded to him in 1761 . Although he had been promised a baronetcy and a pension of £ 1 @,@ 000 for his service , he learned after his return that the pension had been reduced to £ 500 ( the baronetcy , of Nettleham , was awarded at crown expense ) . His appeals on the matter were at first rejected , but when Lord North became Prime Minister in 1770 , the pension was raised , but shortly after replaced by an appointment as commissioner on the Board of Revenue for Ireland , which paid the same amount .
Bernard became an advisor to the North administration on matters concerning the colonies . He generally took a harder line than his predecessor Thomas Pownall , who advocated for colonial interests in Parliament . Proposals he made in 1771 included ideas central to the 1774 Massachusetts Government Act , which severely constrained colonial political power , including a council appointed by the governor rather than one elected by the assembly . Bernard may also have played a role in the difficulties Benjamin Franklin had in being recognized as a colonial agent ; after Franklin 's credentials were refused by the colonial secretary , he encountered Bernard in an antechamber . Biographer Colin Nicolson observes that Bernard 's presence as an advisor to the ministry " cast a shadow over virtually ever American measure regarding Massachusetts " that the ministry considered , because of Bernard 's role in breaking trust between the colonists and the London government and the subsequent radicalization of Massachusetts politics .
In 1774 , when the North government was considering how to respond to the Boston Tea Party , Bernard published Select Letters on Trade and Government , containing proposals on how to deal with the ongoing difficulties in the colonies . He proposed to reconcile the constitutional grievances of the British and radical Americans by the possible introduction of American representatives into the Parliament of Great Britain . In the Select Letters , which included the essay Principles of Law and Polity which he drafted in 1764 , he laid out a point @-@ by @-@ point exposition of his viewpoints concerning imperial governance . Some of his ideas were enacted , notably those enshrined in the Massachusetts Government Act ; the outrage in London even sparked the sympathetic colonial advocate Thomas Pownall to propose the closure of Boston 's port , which was enacted in the Boston Port Act .
= = Decline and death = =
In late 1771 Bernard was bequeathed the manor at Nether Winchendon upon the death of a cousin to whom he had been close since childhood . Combined with other uncertainties about where various family members would reside after he received the Irish appointment , the stress of the situation led Bernard to suffer a stroke . His mobility was impaired , but he took the waters at Bath , which appear to have helped his recovery . He applied for permission to resign the Irish post , and settled first at the Nether Winchendon manor ; in 1774 his resignation was accepted and his pension restored . He was well enough in 1772 to travel to Oxford , where he received an honorary Doctor of Civil Law from his alma mater , Christ Church . Because of his health he moved later in 1772 to a smaller house in nearby Aylesbury . He died on 16 June 1779 , after an epileptic seizure , at Nether Winchendon .
= = Legacy = =
Bernard never believed the difficulties he had in Massachusetts were personal : instead of accepting some responsibility , he blamed his problems on the policies emanating from London that he was instructed to implement . John Adams wrote that Bernard 's " antagonistic reports " of matters in Massachusetts were instrumental in turning British government policymakers against colonial interests . Bernard 's name headed a list drawn up in Massachusetts after the American Revolutionary War broke out of " notorious conspirators against the government " , and most of his property there was confiscated . Mount Desert Island was not entirely taken ; Bernard 's son John , who resided in Maine during the war and sided with the victorious Americans , was able to receive Massachusetts title to half of the island .
Upon the election of James Bowdoin to be Governor of Massachusetts in 1786 , Reverend William Gordon in his sermon warned Bowdoin that he ignored the state 's legislature at his peril , as Bernard had .
Vealtown , New Jersey , a town first settled around 1715 and located in Bernards Township , was renamed Bernardsville in Bernard 's honour in 1840 . Bernardston , Massachusetts was incorporated during his Massachusetts administration and is named for him . Bernard also named Berkshire County , Massachusetts ( after his county of birth ) and Pittsfield , Massachusetts ( after British Prime Minister William Pitt ) .
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= The Slip ( album ) =
The Slip is the seventh studio album by American industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails , released on July 22 , 2008 . It was the fourth consecutive Nine Inch Nails release to be produced by frontman Trent Reznor with collaborators Atticus Ross and Alan Moulder . The album was released for free under a Creative Commons ( BY @-@ NC @-@ SA ) license , with the message from Reznor , " this one 's on me " . The Slip was initially released digitally via the Nine Inch Nails official website without any prior advertisement or promotion . A limited @-@ edition , physical version followed two months later , though this iteration of the album was not free .
The Slip was originally intended to be an EP , but eventually grew to be a full @-@ length album . It was recorded and released in three weeks ; Reznor released the album 's single , " Discipline " , to radio stations himself , less than 24 hours after it was mastered by Moulder . Critical reception of the album has been generally favorable , and its unorthodox method of release attracted significant media attention . The album peaked at number 13 on the Billboard 200 .
= = Background and recording = =
Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor announced in 2007 that the band had completed its contractual obligations to its record label Interscope Records , and would no longer be working with the company . Reznor also revealed that Nine Inch Nails would likely distribute any future material independently . Following the announcement , Nine Inch Nails released the 36 @-@ track instrumental album Ghosts I – IV in March , 2008 on Reznor 's independent label The Null Corporation .
Reznor returned to writing soon after the release of Ghosts , and after a month of work , The Slip was recorded in three weeks of studio time at Trent Reznor 's in @-@ home studio . The album was engineered by Atticus Ross and mixed by Alan Moulder , both of whom co @-@ produced it with Reznor . Originally intended as an EP , in Reznor 's own words " it just kept growing legs until it [ became ] what it is " . Some instrumental performances were contributed by NIN live band members Josh Freese , Robin Finck and Alessandro Cortini , though they did not participate in the songwriting process ; their contributions were limited to small parts rather than complete song recordings . During recording sessions , Reznor sent the album 's first and only single , " Discipline " , to radio stations before the remainder of the album was completed , and less than 24 hours after the track had been mastered . According to Reznor , the track listing and lyrics were finished on a Wednesday , the final mix and album sequencing on Thursday , the mastering on Friday , artwork on Saturday and the album was released on Sunday , May 5 . Reznor reflected on the quick turnaround by saying " that was fun [ ... ] you never could have done that before " , referring to the slow and bureaucratic pace of record production , promotion and release he experienced with major record labels .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Many critics noted how tracks on The Slip echoed musical stylings from the band 's past , and that the record contained musical allusions to older Nine Inch Nails records . Anastasia Pantsios of the Cleveland Free Times said that " The Slip more or less sums up the terrain Reznor 's covered in his nearly two @-@ decade career " , and went on to compare the album sound with the " edgy but irresistible beats " of Pretty Hate Machine and The Downward Spiral , and " the elusive atmospherics " of The Fragile . Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that " the music revives Nine Inch Nails ' past , from stomping hard rock to dance @-@ club beats to piano ballad to inexorably building instrumentals . " The album 's final track , " Demon Seed " , directly incorporates instrumental elements from the final track of the band 's previous all @-@ instrumental album Ghosts I – IV .
Ed Thompson of IGN commented that the tracks " Discipline " and " Echoplex " channeled " bits and pieces of Depeche Mode , Bauhaus and even some Siouxsie and the Banshees " . Richard Cromelin of the Los Angeles Times called The Slip " murkier and less catchy than the last couple of regular NIN albums " , and added that " Reznor blends the jarring sounds of the industrial rock genre [ ... ] with a terse , punk @-@ like attack , bringing an insistent , sometimes claustrophobic feel to his scenarios of alienation " .
Lyrically , Eric Harvey of Pitchfork compared " Discipline " to one of Nine Inch Nails 's first singles , " Head Like a Hole " , saying " [ ' Discipline ' ] comes from a long @-@ established and now label @-@ free artist trying to reflexively reassert his position in the pop landscape , on his own terms . [ ... ] ' Discipline ' evinces Reznor 's desire for some sort of framework [ ... ] In relative terms , ' I need your discipline / I need your help ' is sure a long way from the nearly 20 @-@ year @-@ old ' Head Like a Hole ' refrain ' I 'd rather die / Than give you control ' . " Tom Breihan of The Village Voice reached a similar interpretation of the album 's lyrical content , writing " The Slip seems to deal with Reznor 's break from the corporate machine , or at least from the numbing conformity @-@ minded forces it represents . "
In commenting on the album , Reznor has said that it derived from " a weird sense of being outside [ himself ] in isolation and watching [ himself ] getting older . " He also described it as " a quickly assembled album " , and as " more of a sketch than a painting . " Reznor compared the quick assembly of The Slip to the much longer process of creating his 1999 double album The Fragile , saying that the creation of The Slip relied more on " reflexes " and that his next project would be given more " editorial time " .
= = Artwork = =
Rob Sheridan , in collaboration with Reznor , was the album 's art director , as he had been for the previous three Nine Inch Nails studio albums , Ghosts I – IV ( 2008 ) , Year Zero ( 2007 ) , and With Teeth ( 2005 ) . The downloadable version of The Slip comes with a PDF containing liner notes and album art . Like Ghosts I @-@ IV , each track from the album is accompanied by its own graphic image , each of which consists chiefly of geometric patterns against a grey background .
= = Release = =
Trent Reznor posted on the official Nine Inch Nails website on April 21 a message saying " 2 weeks ! " Reznor employed a similar tactic to tease the release of the band 's previous album ( Ghosts I – IV ) earlier the same year . The following day , Reznor released the single , " Discipline " , by email to radio stations and as a free download on the official Nine Inch Nails site . The song failed to conquer the pole position of the Billboard Alternative Songs chart as expected , and charted below the Top 5 . Another song , " Echoplex " , was released as a free download from iLike later . The ID3 tags of these MP3 files also pointed to the date May 5 , just as Reznor 's post had . On May 5 , a free direct download link to the album in MP3 format was posted on the official Nine Inch Nails website , with a message from Reznor that said : " Thank you for your continued and loyal support over the years - this one 's on me . " The digital download is available in a variety of DRM @-@ free audio , in both CD standard and higher resolution formats . The lyrics for each track are embedded using ID3 tags , for viewing in supported media players .
Like the previous Nine Inch Nails studio album Ghosts I – IV , The Slip was released under a Creative Commons attribution @-@ noncommercial share @-@ alike license , in effect allowing anyone to use or rework the material for any non @-@ profit purpose , as long as credit is provided and the resulting work is released under a similar license . The website further expands this by saying " we encourage you to remix it , share it with your friends , post it on your blog , play it on your podcast , give it to strangers , etc . " As with Ghosts I – IV and Year Zero , multi @-@ track audio source files of the album were also made available at the official Nine Inch Nails remix site . Reznor also plans on giving away the online software and digital infrastructure through which both The Slip and Ghosts were released .
The Slip was released on CD in the United States and Canada on July 22 ; unlike the digital release , however , the physical version of the album was not free . The physical package was released as a six @-@ panel digipack which contained the album itself , a 24 @-@ page booklet , a sticker pack , and a DVD with live rehearsals of " 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 " , " Letting You " , " Discipline " , " Echoplex " , and " Head Down " . Three of these videos were featured on Pitchfork Media prior to the CD / DVD release . The physical release of the album was limited to 250 @,@ 000 numbered units worldwide and as of December 2011 is still available . An unlimited 180 @-@ gram gatefold vinyl was released in the US and Canada on August 12 , and in the United Kingdom August 18 .
= = = Lights in the Sky tour = = =
Since the release of Ghosts I – IV , a 25 @-@ date tour was announced in several North American cities . Cortini and Freese returned as members from the previous tour , while Finck rejoined the live band . The lineup was initially to include Rich Fownes , but before any scheduled performances it was revealed that Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen would instead be contributing on bass guitar .
Supporting acts for the tour include Deerhunter , Crystal Castles , Does It Offend You , Yeah ? , Ghostland Observatory , A Place to Bury Strangers , and White Williams . In early June , a tour EP was released for free on the Nine Inch Nails website featuring four songs from the supporting artists and one from Nine Inch Nails . The files are DRM @-@ free MP3s that are fully tagged , and included with the download are desktop wallpapers and a printable tour poster .
The band headlined the 2008 Lollapalooza festival , the 2008 Virgin Festival , and the first Pemberton Festival . In May 2008 , Nine Inch Nails announced that premium seating for all the upcoming 2008 tour shows would be offered in a pre @-@ sale for fans who registered at the official Nine Inch Nails website . In an effort to combat ticket scalpers , each concert ticket will list the purchaser 's legal name . The ticketing process was previously used for smaller pre @-@ sales and was available exclusively to fan club members . On July 26 , Reznor introduced an " unplugged " portion into the live show in which the band steps to the front of the stage about an hour into the show , with Reznor on vibraphone and bassist Meldal @-@ Johnsen playing an upright bass . The 20 @-@ minute jazzy , acoustic set is taken mostly from Ghosts I - IV . The stage show also featured mesh LED curtains that projected various visuals , ranging from falling rain to static to a ruined city , and made the band appear to be playing on " a stage that appeared to be constructed entirely out of lights . " Nine Inch Nails later confirmed that the tour was to extend to South America and it was thought this would be the last Americas set of dates but soon after Reznor announced yet more North American dates including two dates in tourist capital Florida .
Initially , Reznor had been trying to set up a 3 @-@ D concert film intended for theatrical release to be overseen by director James Cameron . However a dispute with the bands then @-@ label Interscope Records led to the project being cancelled altogether ; much to the disappointment of fans . By December , a frustrated Reznor enabled a relaxed camera policy at the three remaining Lights in the Sky performances , eventually culminating in a 3 @-@ disc tour documentary created " by fans for fans " and sanctioned by the band , entitled Another Version of the Truth which was eventually released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray , and BitTorrent formats .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales and public reception = = =
A month and a half after its online release , The Slip had been downloaded 1 @.@ 4 million times from the official Nine Inch Nails website . By the time the physical version was released two months later , that number had grown beyond 2 million . The physical release of the album has sold more than 98 @,@ 000 copies , peaked at number 13 on the Billboard 200 and the Top Internet Albums charts , based on weekly retail sales . The album also charted internationally , including number 12 on the Canadian Albums Chart , number 2 on the Australian Albums Chart , and number 25 on the UK Albums Chart . The album 's only single , " Discipline " reached number 6 and number 24 on Billboard 's Alternative Songs and Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks charts , respectively , based on weekly radio airplay .
Following the release of The Slip and the similarly unorthodox release of Ghosts I – IV , Reznor confessed in retrospect that " It doesn 't feel like an overwhelming success to me . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical response to The Slip has been generally favorable , with an average rating of 78 / 100 based on eleven reviews on Metacritic . IGN gave the album an 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 , stating " Simply put , The Slip is an amazing record . " The Toronto Star said " [ The Slip ] is hardly a throwaway , this seems a sincere gift to fans . " Eric Harvey of Pitchfork Media gave the album a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 and wrote " Reznor 's unique capacity to commingle raging industrial bangers with ballads and ambient instrumental passages appears in its best form since The Downward Spiral , and here gains much of the focus and restraint that many remember used to be his calling card . " Daphne Carr of LA Weekly said " Musically , it ’ s his most adventurous work since The Fragile , and his business model is inspired — if unsustainable . " Mikael Wood of Spin complained that " a few tracks , such as ' The Four of Us Are Dying , ' go on for far too long " , but then said " Reznor recovers with a barn burner like ' Demon Seed ' " .
As with Ghosts I – IV , The Slip 's unorthodox distribution methods also garnered the attention of various news agencies . An ABC News op ed questioned if consumers would " ever pay for an album again " stating " with NIN now in the game , its [ sic ] hard to argue that this is anything but a harbinger of the future . " Commenting on the distribution of the album , Dave LaGesse of U.S. News & World Report said " The move seems an even purer play than what Radiohead did with its most recent album , In Rainbows . " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone magazine called giving away The Slip for free Reznor 's " most radical stunt yet " , and added that " [ it 's ] an impressively democratic , fourth @-@ wall @-@ shattering gesture coming from one of music 's biggest control @-@ freak auteurs . " Eric Harvey of Pitchfork Media compared the release strategy of The Slip favorably to that of Ghosts I – IV and Year Zero , writing " Unlike its most immediate predecessors , The Slip comes packaged with a crucial difference : the music itself is more satisfying than the sui generis marketing scheme . "
Rolling Stone named The Slip in their " Best of 2008 " list , ranking the album at number 37 , and named Reznor number 46 in its " 100 People Who Are Changing America " list , concluding that he has " been more creative than anyone in embracing the post @-@ CD era " . Following the release of the online @-@ releases of The Slip and Ghosts I – IV , Reznor was awarded the " Webby Artist of the Year Award " at the annual Webby Awards in 2009 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Trent Reznor .
= = = Limited Edition Bonus DVD = = =
Live From Rehearsals June 2008 :
" 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 " ( Live )
" Letting You " ( Live )
" Discipline " ( Live )
" Echoplex " ( Live )
" Head Down " ( Live )
= = Chart positions = =
= = Personnel = =
= = = Video content ( CD / DVD version ) = = =
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= Broad @-@ billed parrot =
The broad @-@ billed parrot or raven parrot ( Lophopsittacus mauritianus ) is a large extinct parrot in the family Psittaculidae . It was endemic to the Mascarene island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar . It is unclear what other species it is most closely related to , but it has been classified as a member of the tribe Psittaculini , along with other Mascarene parrots . It had similarities with the Rodrigues parrot ( Necropsittacus rodricanus ) , and may have been closely related .
The broad @-@ billed parrot 's head was large in proportion to its body , and there was a distinct crest of feathers on the front of the head . The bird had a very large beak , comparable in size to that of the hyacinth macaw , which would have enabled it to crack hard seeds . Subfossil bones indicate that the species exhibited greater sexual dimorphism in overall size and head size than any living parrot . The exact colouration is unknown , but a contemporary description indicates that it had multiple colours , including a blue head , and perhaps a red body and beak . It is believed to have been a weak flier , but not flightless .
The broad @-@ billed parrot was first referred to as the " Indian raven " in Dutch ships ' journals from 1598 onwards . Only a few brief contemporary descriptions and three depictions are known . It was first scientifically described from a subfossil mandible in 1866 , but this was not linked to the old accounts until the rediscovery of a detailed 1601 sketch that matched old descriptions . The bird became extinct in the 17th century owing to a combination of deforestation , predation by introduced invasive species , and probably hunting as well .
= = Taxonomy = =
The earliest known descriptions of the broad @-@ billed parrot were provided by Dutch travellers during the Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia , led by Admiral Jacob Cornelis van Neck in 1598 . They appear in reports published in 1601 , which also contain the first illustration of the bird , along with the first of a dodo . The Dutch sailors who visited Mauritius categorised the broad @-@ billed parrots separately from parrots , and referred to them as " Indische ravens " ( translated as either " Indian ravens " or " Indian crows " ) without accompanying useful descriptions , which caused confusion when their journals were studied .
The English naturalist Hugh Edwin Strickland assigned the " Indian ravens " to the hornbill genus Buceros , because he interpreted the projection on the forehead in a crude illustration as a horn . The Dutch and the French also referred to South American macaws as " Indian ravens " during the 17th century , and the name was used for hornbills by Dutch , French , and English speakers in the East Indies . Sir Thomas Herbert referred to the broad @-@ billed parrot as " Cacatoes " ( cockatoo ) in 1634 , with the description " birds like Parrats [ sic ] , fierce and indomitable " , but naturalists did not realise that he was referring to the same bird . Even after subfossils of a parrot matching the descriptions were found , French zoologist Emile Oustalet argued that the " Indian raven " was a hornbill whose remains awaited discovery . France Staub was in favour of this idea as late as 1993 . No remains of hornbills have ever been found on the island , and apart from an extinct species from New Caledonia , hornbills are not found on any oceanic islands .
The first known physical remain of the broad @-@ billed parrot was a subfossil mandible collected along with the first batch of dodo bones found in the Mare aux Songes swamp . Richard Owen described the mandible in 1866 and identified it as belonging to a large parrot species , to which he gave the binomial name Psittacus mauritianus and the common name " broad @-@ billed parrot " . This holotype specimen is now lost . In 1868 , shortly after the 1601 journal of the Dutch East India Company ship Gelderland had been rediscovered , Hermann Schlegel examined an unlabelled pen @-@ and @-@ ink sketch in it . Realising that the drawing , which is attributed to the artist Joris Joostensz Laerle , depicted the parrot described by Owen , Schlegel made the connection with the old journal descriptions . In 1875 , because its bones and crest are significantly different from those of Psittacus species , Alfred Newton assigned it to its own genus , which he called Lophopsittacus . Lophos is the Ancient Greek word for crest , referring here to the bird 's frontal crest , and psittakos is Ancient Greek for parrot .
In 1973 , based on remains collected by Louis Etienne Thirioux in the early 20th century , D. T. Holyoak placed a small subfossil Mauritian parrot in the same genus as the broad @-@ billed parrot and named it Lophopsittacus bensoni . In 2007 , on the basis of a comparison of subfossils together with 17th and 18th century descriptions , Hume reclassified it as a species in the genus Psittacula and called it Thirioux 's grey parrot . Previously , James Greenway speculated that reports of grey Mauritian parrots referred to the broad @-@ billed parrot .
= = = Evolution = = =
The taxonomic affinities of the broad @-@ billed parrot are undetermined . Considering its large jaws and other osteological features , Edward Newton and Hans Gadow thought it to be closely related to the Rodrigues parrot ( Necropsittacus rodricanus ) , but were unable to determine whether they both belonged in the same genus , since a crest was only known from the latter . Graham S. Cowles instead found their skulls too dissimilar for them to be close relatives .
Many endemic Mascarene birds , including the dodo , are derived from South Asian ancestors , and the English palaeontologist Julian Hume has proposed that this may be the case for all the parrots there as well . Sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene , so it was possible for species to colonise some of the then less isolated islands . Although most extinct parrot species of the Mascarenes are poorly known , subfossil remains show that they shared features such as enlarged heads and jaws , reduced pectoral bones , and robust leg bones . Hume has suggested that they have a common origin in the radiation of the tribe Psittaculini , basing this theory on morphological features and the fact that Psittacula parrots have managed to colonise many isolated islands in the Indian Ocean . The Psittaculini may have invaded the area several times , as many of the species were so specialised that they may have evolved significantly on hotspot islands before the Mascarenes emerged from the sea . A 2011 genetic study instead found that the Mascarene parrot ( Mascarinus mascarinus ) of nearby Réunion was most closely related to the lesser vasa parrot ( Coracopsis nigra ) from Madagascar and nearby islands , and therefore unrelated to the Psittacula parrots , undermining the theory of their common origin .
= = Description = =
The broad @-@ billed parrot possessed a distinct frontal crest of feathers . Ridges on the skull indicate that this crest was firmly attached , and that the bird , unlike cockatoos , could not raise or lower it . The 1601 Gelderland sketch was examined in 2003 by Hume , who compared the ink finish with the underlying pencil sketch and found that the latter showed several additional details . The pencil sketch depicts the crest as a tuft of rounded feathers attached to the front of the head at the base of the beak , and shows long primary covert feathers , large secondary feathers , and a slightly bifurcated tail . Measurements of sub @-@ fossils known by 1893 show that the mandible was 65 – 78 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) in length , 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) in width , the femur was 58 – 63 mm ( 2 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 5 in ) in length , the tibia was 88 – 99 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) , and the metatarsus 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) . Unlike other Mascarene parrots , the broad @-@ billed parrot had a flattened skull .
Subfossils show that the males were larger , measuring 55 – 65 centimetres ( 22 – 26 in ) to the females ' 45 – 55 cm ( 18 – 22 in ) and that both sexes had disproportionately large heads and beaks . The sexual dimorphism in size between male and female skulls is the largest among parrots . Differences in the bones of the rest of the body and limbs are less pronounced ; nevertheless , it had greater sexual dimorphism in overall size than any living parrot . The size differences between the two birds in the 1601 sketch may be due to this feature . A 1602 account by Reyer Cornelisz has traditionally been interpreted as the only contemporary mention of size differences among broad @-@ billed parrots , listing " large and small Indian crows " among the animals of the island . A full transcript of the original text was only published in 2003 , and showed that a comma had been incorrectly placed in the English translation ; " large and small " instead referred to " field @-@ hens " , possibly the red rail and the smaller Sauzier 's wood rail .
There has been some confusion over the colouration of the broad @-@ billed parrot . The report of van Neck 's 1598 voyage , published in 1601 , contained the first illustration of the parrot , with a caption stating that the bird had " two or three colours " . The last account of the bird , and the only mention of specific colours , was by Johann Christian Hoffman in 1673 – 75 :
There are also geese , flamingos , three species of pigeon of varied colours , mottled and green perroquets , red crows with recurved beaks and with blue heads , which fly with difficulty and have received from the Dutch the name of ' Indian crow ' .
In spite of the mention of several colours , authors such as Walter Rothschild claimed that the Gelderland journal described the bird as entirely blue @-@ grey , and it was restored this way in Rothschild 's 1907 book Extinct Birds . Later examination of the journal by Julian Hume has revealed only a description of the dodo . He suggested that the distinctively drawn facial mask may represent a separate colour . The head was evidently blue , and in 2007 , Hume suggested the beak may have been red , and the rest of the plumage greyish or blackish , which also occurs in other members of Psittaculini .
In 2015 , a translation of the 1660s report of Johannes Pretorius about his stay on Mauritius was published , wherein he described the bird as " very beautifully coloured " . Hume accordingly reinterpreted Hoffman 's account , and suggested the bird may have been brightly coloured with a red body , blue head , and red beak ; the bird was illustrated as such in the paper by Ria Winters . Possible iridescent or glossy feathers that changed appearance according to angle of light may also have given the impression that it had even more colours . It has also been suggested that in addition to size dimorphism , the sexes may have had different colours , which would explain some of the discrepancies in old descriptions .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Johannes Pretorius ( on Mautirius from 1666 to 1669 ) kept various now @-@ extinct Mauritian birds in captivity , and described the behaviour of the broad @-@ billed parrot as follows :
The Indian ravens are very beautifully coloured . They cannot fly and are not often found . This kind is a very bad tempered bird . When captive it refuses to eat . It would prefer to die rather than to live in captivity .
Though the broad @-@ billed parrot may have fed on the ground and been a weak flier , its tarsometatarsus was short and stout , implying some arboreal characteristics . The Newton brothers and many authors after them inferred that it was flightless , due to the apparent short wings and large size shown in the 1601 Gelderland sketch . According to Hume , the underlying pencil sketch actually shows that the wings are not particularly short . They appear broad , as they commonly are in forest @-@ adapted species , and the alula appears large , a feature of slow @-@ flying birds . Its sternal keel was reduced , but not enough to prevent flight , as the adept flying Cyanoramphus parrots also have reduced keels , and even the flightless kakapo , with its vestigial keel , is capable of gliding . Furthermore , Hoffman 's account states that it could fly , albeit with difficulty , and the first published illustration shows the bird on top of a tree , an improbable position for a flightless bird . The broad @-@ billed parrot may have been behaviourally near @-@ flightless , like the now @-@ extinct Norfolk Island kaka .
Sexual dimorphism in beak size may have affected behaviour . Such dimorphism is common in other parrots , for example in the palm cockatoo and the New Zealand kaka . In species where it occurs , the sexes prefer food of different sizes , the males use their beaks in rituals , or the sexes have specialised roles in nesting and rearing . Similarly , the large difference between male and female head size may have been reflected in the ecology of each sex , though it is impossible to determine how .
Masauji Hachisuka suggested the broad @-@ billed parrot was nocturnal , like the kakapo and the night parrot , two extant ground @-@ dwelling parrots . Contemporary accounts do not corroborate this , and the orbits are of similar size to those of other large diurnal parrots . The broad @-@ billed parrot was recorded on the dry leeward side of Mauritius , which was the most accessible for people , and it was noted that birds were more abundant near the coast , which may indicate that the fauna of such areas was more diverse . It may have nested in tree cavities or rocks , like the Cuban amazon . The terms raven or crow may have been suggested by the bird 's harsh call , its behavioural traits , or just its dark plumage . The following description by Jacob Granaet from 1666 mentions some of the broad @-@ billed parrot 's co @-@ inhabitants of the forests , and might indicate its demeanour :
Within the forest dwell parrots , turtle and other wild doves , mischievous and unusually large ravens [ broad @-@ billed parrots ] , falcons , bats and other birds whose name I do not know , never having seen before .
Many other endemic species of Mauritius were lost after the arrival of man , so the ecosystem of the island is severely damaged and hard to reconstruct . Before humans arrived , Mauritius was entirely covered in forests , almost all of which have since been lost to deforestation . The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . The broad @-@ billed parrot lived alongside other recently extinct Mauritian birds such as the dodo , the red rail , the Mascarene grey parakeet , the Mauritius blue pigeon , the Mauritius owl , the Mascarene coot , the Mauritian shelduck , the Mauritian duck , and the Mauritius night heron . Extinct Mauritian reptiles include the saddle @-@ backed Mauritius giant tortoise , the domed Mauritius giant tortoise , the Mauritian giant skink , and the Round Island burrowing boa . The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Mauritius and Réunion but became extinct in both islands . Some plants , such as Casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid , have also become extinct .
= = = Diet = = =
Species that are morphologically similar to the broad @-@ billed parrot , such as the hyacinth macaw and the palm cockatoo , may provide insight into its ecology . Anodorhynchus macaws , which are habitual ground dwellers , eat very hard palm nuts . Carlos Yamashita has suggested that these macaws once depended on now @-@ extinct South American megafauna to eat fruits and excrete the seeds , and that they later relied on domesticated cattle to do this . Similarly , in Australasia the palm cockatoo feeds on undigested seeds from cassowary droppings . Yamashita suggested that the abundant Cylindraspis tortoises and dodos performed the same function on Mauritius , and that the broad @-@ billed parrot , with its macaw @-@ like beak , depended on them to obtain cleaned seeds . Many types of palms and palm @-@ like plants on Mauritius produce hard seeds that the broad @-@ billed parrot may have eaten , including Latania loddigesii , Mimusops maxima , Sideroxylon grandiflorum , Diospyros egrettorium , and Pandanus utilis .
On the basis of radiographs , D. T. Holyoak claimed that the mandible of the broad @-@ billed parrot was weakly constructed and suggested that it would have fed on soft fruits rather than hard seeds . As evidence , he pointed out that the internal trabeculae were widely spaced , that the upper bill was broad whereas the palatines were narrow , and the fact that no preserved upper rostrum had been discovered , which he attributed to its delicateness . G. A. Smith , however , pointed out that the four genera Holyoak used as examples of " strong jawed " parrots based on radiographs , Cyanorhamphus , Melopsittacus , Neophema and Psephotus , actually have weak jaws in life , and that the morphologies cited by Holyoak do not indicate strength . Hume has since pointed out that the mandible morphology of the broad @-@ billed parrot is comparable to that of the largest living parrot , the hyacinth macaw , which cracks open palm nuts with ease . It is therefore probable that the broad @-@ billed parrot fed in the same manner .
= = Extinction = =
Though Mauritius had previously been visited by Arab vessels in the Middle Ages and Portuguese ships between 1507 and 1513 , they did not settle on the island . The Dutch Empire acquired the island in 1598 , renaming it after Maurice of Nassau , and it was used from then on for the provisioning of trade vessels of the Dutch East India Company . To the Dutch sailors who visited Mauritius from 1598 and onwards , the fauna was mainly interesting from a culinary standpoint . Of the eight or so parrot species endemic to the Mascarenes , only the echo parakeet ( Psittacula echo ) of Mauritius has survived . The others were likely all made extinct by a combination of excessive hunting and deforestation .
Because of its poor flying ability , large size and possible island tameness , the broad @-@ billed parrot was easy prey for sailors who visited Mauritius , and their nests would have been extremely vulnerable to predation by introduced crab @-@ eating macaques and rats . Various sources indicate the bird was aggressive , which may explain why it held out so long against introduced animals after all . The bird is believed to have become extinct by the 1680s , when the palms it may have sustained itself on were harvested on a large scale . Unlike other parrot species , which were often taken as pets by sailors , there are no records of broad @-@ billed parrots being transported from Mauritius either live or dead , perhaps because of the stigma associated with ravens . The birds would not in any case have survived such a journey if they refused to eat anything but seeds .
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= Pluto =
Pluto ( minor @-@ planet designation : 134340 Pluto ) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt , a ring of bodies beyond Neptune . It was the first Kuiper belt object to be discovered . It is the largest and second @-@ most @-@ massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the ninth @-@ largest and tenth @-@ most @-@ massive known object directly orbiting the Sun . It is the largest known trans @-@ Neptunian object by volume but is less massive than Eris , a dwarf planet in the scattered disc . Like other Kuiper belt objects , Pluto is primarily made of ice and rock and is relatively small — about one @-@ sixth the mass of the Moon and one @-@ third its volume . It has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit during which it ranges from 30 to 49 astronomical units or AU ( 4 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 4 billion km ) from the Sun . This means that Pluto periodically comes closer to the Sun than Neptune , but a stable orbital resonance with Neptune prevents them from colliding . Light from the Sun takes about 5 @.@ 5 hours to reach Pluto at its average distance ( 39 @.@ 5 AU ) .
Pluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930 , and was originally considered the ninth planet from the Sun . After 1992 , its planethood was questioned following the discovery of several objects of similar size in the Kuiper belt . In 2005 , Eris , which is 27 % more massive than Pluto , was discovered , which led the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) to define the term " planet " formally for the first time the following year . This definition excluded Pluto and reclassified it as a member of the new " dwarf planet " category .
Pluto has five known moons : Charon ( the largest , with a diameter just over half that of Pluto ) , Styx , Nix , Kerberos , and Hydra . Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body . The IAU has not formalized a definition for binary dwarf planets , and Charon is officially classified as a moon of Pluto .
On July 14 , 2015 , the New Horizons spacecraft became the first spacecraft to fly by Pluto . During its brief flyby , New Horizons made detailed measurements and observations of Pluto and its moons .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
In the 1840s , Urbain Le Verrier used Newtonian mechanics to predict the position of the then @-@ undiscovered planet Neptune after analysing perturbations in the orbit of Uranus . Subsequent observations of Neptune in the late 19th century led astronomers to speculate that Uranus 's orbit was being disturbed by another planet besides Neptune .
In 1906 , Percival Lowell — a wealthy Bostonian who had founded the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff , Arizona , in 1894 — started an extensive project in search of a possible ninth planet , which he termed " Planet X " . By 1909 , Lowell and William H. Pickering had suggested several possible celestial coordinates for such a planet . Lowell and his observatory conducted his search until his death in 1916 , but to no avail . Unknown to Lowell , his surveys had captured two faint images of Pluto on March 19 and April 7 , 1915 , but they were not recognized for what they were . There are fourteen other known prediscovery observations , with the oldest made by the Yerkes Observatory on August 20 , 1909 .
Percival 's widow , Constance Lowell , entered into a ten @-@ year legal battle with the Lowell Observatory over her late husband 's legacy , and the search for Planet X did not resume until 1929 . Vesto Melvin Slipher , the observatory director , summarily handed the job of locating Planet X to 23 @-@ year @-@ old Clyde Tombaugh , who had just arrived at the Lowell Observatory after Slipher had been impressed by a sample of his astronomical drawings .
Tombaugh 's task was to systematically image the night sky in pairs of photographs , then examine each pair and determine whether any objects had shifted position . Using a blink comparator , he rapidly shifted back and forth between views of each of the plates to create the illusion of movement of any objects that had changed position or appearance between photographs . On February 18 , 1930 , after nearly a year of searching , Tombaugh discovered a possible moving object on photographic plates taken on January 23 and 29 of that year . A lesser @-@ quality photograph taken on January 21 helped confirm the movement . After the observatory obtained further confirmatory photographs , news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on March 13 , 1930 .
= = = Name = = =
The discovery made headlines around the globe . The Lowell Observatory , which had the right to name the new object , received more than 1 @,@ 000 suggestions from all over the world , ranging from Atlas to Zymal . Tombaugh urged Slipher to suggest a name for the new object quickly before someone else did . Constance Lowell proposed Zeus , then Percival and finally Constance . These suggestions were disregarded .
The name Pluto , after the god of the underworld , was proposed by Venetia Burney ( 1918 – 2009 ) , a then eleven @-@ year @-@ old schoolgirl in Oxford , England , who was interested in classical mythology . She suggested it in a conversation with her grandfather Falconer Madan , a former librarian at the University of Oxford 's Bodleian Library , who passed the name to astronomy professor Herbert Hall Turner , who cabled it to colleagues in the United States .
The object was officially named on May 25 , 1930 . Each member of the Lowell Observatory was allowed to vote on a short @-@ list of three : Minerva ( which was already the name for an asteroid ) , Cronus ( which had lost reputation through being proposed by the unpopular astronomer Thomas Jefferson Jackson See ) , and Pluto . Pluto received every vote . The name was announced on May 1 , 1930 . Upon the announcement , Madan gave Venetia £ 5 ( equivalent to 300 GBP , or 450 USD in 2014 ) as a reward .
The final choice of name was helped in part by the fact that the first two letters of Pluto are the initials of Percival Lowell . Pluto 's astronomical symbol ( , Unicode U + 2647 , ♇ ) was then created as a monogram constructed from the letters " PL " . Pluto 's astrological symbol resembles that of Neptune ( ) , but has a circle in place of the middle prong of the trident ( ) .
The name was soon embraced by wider culture . In 1930 , Walt Disney was apparently inspired by it when he introduced for Mickey Mouse a canine companion named Pluto , although Disney animator Ben Sharpsteen could not confirm why the name was given . In 1941 , Glenn T. Seaborg named the newly created element plutonium after Pluto , in keeping with the tradition of naming elements after newly discovered planets , following uranium , which was named after Uranus , and neptunium , which was named after Neptune .
Most languages use the name " Pluto " in various transliterations . In Japanese , Houei Nojiri suggested the translation Meiōsei ( 冥王星 ? , " Star of the King ( God ) of the Underworld " ) , and this was borrowed into Chinese , Korean , and Vietnamese . Some Indian languages use the name Pluto , but others , such as Hindi , use the name of Yama , the Guardian of Hell in Hindu and Buddhist mythology . Polynesian languages also tend to use the indigenous god of the underworld , as in Maori Whiro .
= = = Planet X disproved = = =
Once found , Pluto 's faintness and lack of a resolvable disc cast doubt on the idea that it was Lowell 's Planet X. Estimates of Pluto 's mass were revised downward throughout the 20th century .
Astronomers initially calculated its mass based on its presumed effect on Neptune and Uranus . In 1931 , Pluto was calculated to be roughly the mass of Earth , with further calculations in 1948 bringing the mass down to roughly that of Mars . In 1976 , Dale Cruikshank , Carl Pilcher and David Morrison of the University of Hawaii calculated Pluto 's albedo for the first time , finding that it matched that for methane ice ; this meant Pluto had to be exceptionally luminous for its size and therefore could not be more than 1 percent the mass of Earth . ( Pluto 's albedo is 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 9 times greater than that of Earth . )
In 1978 , the discovery of Pluto 's moon Charon allowed the measurement of Pluto 's mass for the first time : roughly 0 @.@ 2 % that of Earth , and far too small to account for the discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus . Subsequent searches for an alternative Planet X , notably by Robert Sutton Harrington , failed . In 1992 , Myles Standish used data from Voyager 2 's flyby of Neptune in 1989 , which had revised the estimates of Neptune 's mass downward by 0 @.@ 5 % — an amount comparable to the mass of Mars — to recalculate its gravitational effect on Uranus . With the new figures added in , the discrepancies , and with them the need for a Planet X , vanished . Today , the majority of scientists agree that Planet X , as Lowell defined it , does not exist . Lowell had made a prediction of Planet X 's orbit and position in 1915 that was fairly close to Pluto 's actual orbit and its position at that time ; Ernest W. Brown concluded soon after Pluto 's discovery that this was a coincidence , a view still held today .
= = = Classification = = =
From 1992 onward , many bodies were discovered orbiting in the same area as Pluto , showing that Pluto is part of a population of objects called the Kuiper belt . This made its official status as a planet controversial , with many questioning whether Pluto should be considered together with or separately from its surrounding population . Museum and planetarium directors occasionally created controversy by omitting Pluto from planetary models of the Solar System . The Hayden Planetarium reopened — in February 2000 , after renovation — with a model of only eight planets , which made headlines almost a year later .
As objects increasingly closer in size to Pluto were discovered in the region , it was argued that Pluto should be reclassified as one of the Kuiper belt objects , just as Ceres , Pallas , Juno and Vesta eventually lost their planet status after the discovery of many other asteroids . On July 29 , 2005 , astronomers at Caltech announced the discovery of a new trans @-@ Neptunian object , Eris , which was substantially more massive than Pluto and the most massive object discovered in the Solar System since Triton in 1846 . Its discoverers and the press initially called it the tenth planet , although there was no official consensus at the time on whether to call it a planet . Others in the astronomical community considered the discovery the strongest argument for reclassifying Pluto as a minor planet .
= = = = IAU classification = = = =
The debate came to a head on August 24 , 2006 with an IAU resolution that created an official definition for the term " planet " . According to this resolution , there are three main conditions for an object in the Solar System to be considered a planet :
The object must be in orbit around the Sun .
The object must be massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity . More specifically , its own gravity should pull it into a shape of hydrostatic equilibrium .
It must have cleared the neighborhood around its orbit .
Pluto fails to meet the third condition , because its mass is only 0 @.@ 07 times that of the mass of the other objects in its orbit ( Earth 's mass , by contrast , is 1 @.@ 7 million times the remaining mass in its own orbit ) . The IAU further decided that bodies that , like Pluto , meet criteria 1 and 2 but do not meet criterion 3 would be called dwarf planets . On September 13 , 2006 , the IAU included Pluto , and Eris and its moon Dysnomia , in their Minor Planet Catalogue , giving them the official minor planet designations " ( 134340 ) Pluto " , " ( 136199 ) Eris " , and " ( 136199 ) Eris I Dysnomia " . Had Pluto been included upon its discovery in 1930 , it would have likely been designated 1164 , following 1163 Saga , which was discovered a month earlier .
There has been some resistance within the astronomical community toward the reclassification . Alan Stern , principal investigator with NASA 's New Horizons mission to Pluto , publicly derided the IAU resolution , stating that " the definition stinks , for technical reasons " . Stern 's contention was that , by the terms of the new definition , Earth , Mars , Jupiter , and Neptune , all of which share their orbits with asteroids , would be excluded . He argued that all big spherical moons , including the Moon , should likewise be considered planets . His other claim was that because less than five percent of astronomers voted for it , the decision was not representative of the entire astronomical community . Marc W. Buie , then at Lowell Observatory , voiced his opinion on the new definition on his website and petitioned against the definition . Others have supported the IAU . Mike Brown , the astronomer who discovered Eris , said " through this whole crazy circus @-@ like procedure , somehow the right answer was stumbled on . It 's been a long time coming . Science is self @-@ correcting eventually , even when strong emotions are involved . "
Public reception to the IAU decision was mixed . Although many accepted the reclassification , some sought to overturn the decision with online petitions urging the IAU to consider reinstatement . A resolution introduced by some members of the California State Assembly facetiously called the IAU decision a " scientific heresy " . The New Mexico House of Representatives passed a resolution in honor of Tombaugh , a longtime resident of that state , that declared that Pluto will always be considered a planet while in New Mexican skies and that March 13 , 2007 , was Pluto Planet Day . The Illinois Senate passed a similar resolution in 2009 , on the basis that Clyde Tombaugh , the discoverer of Pluto , was born in Illinois . The resolution asserted that Pluto was " unfairly downgraded to a ' dwarf ' planet " by the IAU . Some members of the public have also rejected the change , citing the disagreement within the scientific community on the issue , or for sentimental reasons , maintaining that they have always known Pluto as a planet and will continue to do so regardless of the IAU decision .
In 2006 , in its 17th annual words of the year vote , the American Dialect Society voted plutoed as the word of the year . To " pluto " is to " demote or devalue someone or something " .
Researchers on both sides of the debate gathered on August 14 – 16 , 2008 , at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory for a conference that included back @-@ to @-@ back talks on the current IAU definition of a planet . Entitled " The Great Planet Debate " , the conference published a post @-@ conference press release indicating that scientists could not come to a consensus about the definition of planet . Just before the conference , on June 11 , 2008 , the IAU announced in a press release that the term " plutoid " would henceforth be used to refer to Pluto and other objects that have an orbital semi @-@ major axis greater than that of Neptune and enough mass to be of near @-@ spherical shape .
= = Orbit = =
Pluto 's orbital period is 248 years . Its orbital characteristics are substantially different from those of the planets , which follow nearly circular orbits around the Sun close to a flat reference plane called the ecliptic . In contrast , Pluto 's orbit is moderately inclined relative to the ecliptic ( over 17 ° ) and moderately eccentric ( elliptical ) . This eccentricity means a small region of Pluto 's orbit lies nearer the Sun than Neptune 's . The Pluto – Charon barycenter came to perihelion on September 5 , 1989 , and was last closer to the Sun than Neptune between February 7 , 1979 , and February 11 , 1999 .
In the long term , Pluto 's orbit is chaotic . Although computer simulations can be used to predict its position for several million years ( both forward and backward in time ) , after intervals longer than the Lyapunov time of 10 – 20 million years , calculations become speculative : Pluto is sensitive to immeasurably small details of the Solar System , hard @-@ to @-@ predict factors that will gradually change Pluto 's position in its orbit .
= = = Relationship with Neptune = = =
Despite Pluto 's orbit appearing to cross that of Neptune when viewed from directly above , the two objects ' orbits are aligned so that they can never collide or even approach closely . There are several reasons why .
At the simplest level , one can examine the two orbits and see that they do not intersect . When Pluto is closest to the Sun , and hence closest to Neptune 's orbit as viewed from above , it is also the farthest above Neptune 's path . Pluto 's orbit passes about 8 AU above that of Neptune , preventing a collision . Pluto 's ascending and descending nodes , the points at which its orbit crosses the ecliptic , are currently separated from Neptune 's by over 21 ° .
This alone is not enough to protect Pluto ; perturbations from the planets ( especially Neptune ) could alter aspects of Pluto 's orbit ( such as its orbital precession ) over millions of years so that a collision could be possible . Some other mechanism or mechanisms must therefore be at work . The most significant of these is that Pluto lies in the 2 : 3 mean @-@ motion resonance with Neptune : for every two orbits that Pluto makes around the Sun , Neptune makes three . The two objects then return to their initial positions and the cycle repeats , each cycle lasting about 500 years . This pattern is such that , in each 500 @-@ year cycle , the first time Pluto is near perihelion , Neptune is over 50 ° behind Pluto . By Pluto 's second perihelion , Neptune will have completed a further one and a half of its own orbits , and so will be a similar distance ahead of Pluto . Pluto and Neptune 's minimum separation is over 17 AU , which is greater than Pluto 's minimum separation from Uranus ( 11 AU ) .
The 2 : 3 resonance between the two bodies is highly stable , and is preserved over millions of years . This prevents their orbits from changing relative to one another ; the cycle always repeats in the same way , and so the two bodies can never pass near each other . Thus , even if Pluto 's orbit were not inclined , the two bodies could never collide .
= = = = Other factors = = = =
Numerical studies have shown that over periods of millions of years , the general nature of the alignment between the orbits of Pluto and Neptune does not change . There are several other resonances and interactions that govern the details of their relative motion , and enhance Pluto 's stability . These arise principally from two additional mechanisms ( besides the 2 : 3 mean @-@ motion resonance ) .
First , Pluto 's argument of perihelion , the angle between the point where it crosses the ecliptic and the point where it is closest to the Sun , librates around 90 ° . This means that when Pluto is closest to the Sun , it is at its farthest above the plane of the Solar System , preventing encounters with Neptune . This is a direct consequence of the Kozai mechanism , which relates the eccentricity of an orbit to its inclination to a larger perturbing body — in this case Neptune . Relative to Neptune , the amplitude of libration is 38 ° , and so the angular separation of Pluto 's perihelion to the orbit of Neptune is always greater than 52 ° ( 90 ° – 38 ° ) . The closest such angular separation occurs every 10 @,@ 000 years .
Second , the longitudes of ascending nodes of the two bodies — the points where they cross the ecliptic — are in near @-@ resonance with the above libration . When the two longitudes are the same — that is , when one could draw a straight line through both nodes and the Sun — Pluto 's perihelion lies exactly at 90 ° , and hence it comes closest to the Sun when it is highest above Neptune 's orbit . This is known as the 1 : 1 superresonance . All the Jovian planets , particularly Jupiter , play a role in the creation of the superresonance .
To understand the nature of the libration , imagine a polar point of view , looking down on the ecliptic from a distant vantage point where the planets orbit counterclockwise . After passing the ascending node , Pluto is interior to Neptune 's orbit and moving faster , approaching Neptune from behind . The strong gravitational pull between the two causes angular momentum to be transferred to Pluto , at Neptune 's expense . This moves Pluto into a slightly larger orbit , where it travels slightly more slowly , according to Kepler 's third law . As its orbit changes , this has the gradual effect of changing the perihelion and longitude of Pluto 's orbit ( and , to a lesser degree , of Neptune ) . After many such repetitions , Pluto is sufficiently slowed , and Neptune sufficiently speeded up , that Neptune begins to catch up with Pluto at the opposite side of its orbit ( near the opposing node to where we began ) . The process is then reversed , and Pluto loses angular momentum to Neptune , until Pluto is sufficiently speeded up that it begins to catch Neptune again at the original node . The whole process takes about 20 @,@ 000 years to complete .
= = = Quasi @-@ satellite = = =
In 2012 , it was hypothesized that ( 15810 ) 1994 JR1 could be a quasi @-@ satellite of Pluto , a specific type of co @-@ orbital configuration . According to the hypothesis , the object would be a quasi @-@ satellite of Pluto for about 350 @,@ 000 years out of every two @-@ million @-@ year period . This hypothesis was disproven in 2016 , when more @-@ accurate observations of the position of 1994 JR1 were made by New Horizons .
= = Rotation = =
Pluto 's rotation period , its day , is equal to 6 @.@ 39 Earth days . Like Uranus , Pluto rotates on its " side " on its orbital plane , with an axial tilt of 120 ° , and so its seasonal variation is extreme ; at its solstices , one @-@ fourth of its surface is in continuous daylight , whereas another fourth is in continuous darkness .
The amount of light from the Sun on Pluto is weak , analogous to twilight on Earth . NASA has posted a " Pluto Time " calculator that determines when the light on Earth is equivalent to that on Pluto on a clear day . For example , on July 13 , 2015 , at the coordinates of the Applied Physics Laboratory where the probe was constructed , the Pluto Time was 8 : 38 p.m. , four minutes later than the apparent sunset of 8 : 34 p.m. reported for that location by NOAA .
= = Geology = =
Due to Pluto 's distance from Earth , in @-@ depth study from Earth is difficult . On July 14 , 2015 , NASA 's New Horizons space probe flew through the Pluto system , and the information it gathered will be transmitted to Earth until late 2016 .
= = = Surface = = =
Pluto 's surface is composed of more than 98 percent nitrogen ice , with traces of methane and carbon monoxide . Nitrogen and carbon monoxide are most abundant on the anti @-@ Charon face of Pluto ( around 180 ° longitude , where Tombaugh Regio 's western lobe , Sputnik Planum , is located ) , whereas methane is most abundant near 300 ° east . Pluto 's surface is quite varied , with large differences in both brightness and color . Pluto is one of the most contrastive bodies in the Solar System , with as much contrast as Saturn 's moon Iapetus . The color varies between charcoal black , dark orange and white . Pluto 's color is more similar to that of Io with slightly more orange , significantly less red than Mars . Notable geographical features include Tombaugh Regio , or the " Heart " ( a large bright area on the side opposite Charon ) , Cthulhu Regio , or the " Whale " ( a large dark area on the trailing hemisphere ) , and the " Brass Knuckles " ( a series of equatorial dark areas on the leading hemisphere ) . Sputnik Planum , the western lobe of the " Heart " , is a 1000 @-@ km @-@ wide plain of frozen nitrogen and carbon monoxide ices , divided into polygonal cells which are interpreted as convection cells that carry floating blocks of water ice crust and sublimation pits towards their margins ; there are obvious signs of glacial flows both into and out of the plain . It has no craters that were visible to New Horizons , indicating that its surface is less than 10 million years old . The New Horizons science team summarized initial findings as " Pluto displays a surprisingly wide variety of geological landforms , including those resulting from glaciological and surface – atmosphere interactions as well as impact , tectonic , possible cryovolcanic , and mass @-@ wasting processes . "
= = = Internal structure = = =
Pluto 's density is 1 @.@ 860 ± 0 @.@ 013 g / cm3 . Because the decay of radioactive elements would eventually heat the ices enough for the rock to separate from them , scientists expect that Pluto 's internal structure is differentiated , with the rocky material having settled into a dense core surrounded by a mantle of water ice . The diameter of the core is hypothesized to be approximately 1700 km , 70 % of Pluto 's diameter . It is possible that such heating continues today , creating a subsurface ocean of liquid water some 100 to 180 km thick at the core – mantle boundary .
= = Mass and size = =
Pluto 's diameter is 2374 ± 8 km and its mass is ( 1 @.@ 303 ± 0 @.@ 003 ) × 1022 kg , 17 @.@ 7 % that of the Moon ( 0 @.@ 22 % that of Earth ) . Its surface area is 1 @.@ 665 × 107 km2 , or roughly the same surface area as Russia . Its surface gravity is 0 @.@ 063 g ( compared to 1 g for Earth ) .
The discovery of Pluto 's satellite Charon in 1978 enabled a determination of the mass of the Pluto – Charon system by application of Newton 's formulation of Kepler 's third law . Observations of Pluto in occultation with Charon allowed scientists to establish Pluto 's diameter more accurately , whereas the invention of adaptive optics allowed them to determine its shape more accurately .
With less than 0 @.@ 2 lunar masses , Pluto is much less massive than the terrestrial planets , and also less massive than seven moons : Ganymede , Titan , Callisto , Io , the Moon , Europa , and Triton . The mass is much less than thought before Charon was discovered .
Pluto is more than twice the diameter and a dozen times the mass of the dwarf planet Ceres , the largest object in the asteroid belt . It is less massive than the dwarf planet Eris , a trans @-@ Neptunian object discovered in 2005 , though Pluto has a larger diameter of 2374 km compared to Eris 's approximate diameter of 2326 km .
Determinations of Pluto 's size had been complicated by its atmosphere , and hydrocarbon haze . In March 2014 , Lellouch , de Bergh et al. published findings regarding methane mixing ratios in Pluto 's atmosphere consistent with a Plutonian diameter greater than 2360 km , with a " best guess " of 2368 km . On July 13 , 2015 , images from NASA 's New Horizons mission Long Range Reconnaissance Imager ( LORRI ) , along with data from the other instruments , determined Pluto 's diameter to be 2 @,@ 370 km ( 1 @,@ 470 mi ) , which was later revised to be 2 @,@ 372 km ( 1 @,@ 474 mi ) on July 24 , and later to 2374 ± 8 km .
= = Atmosphere = =
Pluto has a tenuous atmosphere consisting of nitrogen ( N2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) , which are in equilibrium with their ices on Pluto 's surface . According to the measurements by New Horizons , the surface pressure is about 1 Pa ( 10 μbar ) , roughly one million to 100 @,@ 000 times less than Earth 's atmospheric pressure . It was initially thought that , as Pluto moves away from the Sun , its atmosphere should gradually freeze onto the surface ; however , studies of New Horizons data and ground @-@ based occultations show that Pluto 's atmospheric density actually increases , and that it likely remains gaseous throughout Pluto 's orbit . New Horizons observations showed that atmospheric escape of nitrogen to be 10 @,@ 000 times less than expected . Alan Stern has contended that even a small increase in Pluto 's surface temperature can lead to exponential increases in Pluto 's atmospheric density ; from 18 to as much as 280 millibars ( three times that of Mars to a quarter that of the Earth ) . At such densities , nitrogen could flow across the surface as liquid . Just like sweat cools the body as it evaporates from the skin , the sublimation of Pluto 's atmosphere cools its surface . The presence of atmospheric gases was traced up to 1670 kilometers high , although the atmosphere does not have a sharp upper boundary .
The presence of methane , a powerful greenhouse gas , in Pluto 's atmosphere creates a temperature inversion , with the average temperature of its atmosphere tens of degrees warmer than its surface , though observations by New Horizons have revealed Pluto 's upper atmosphere to be far colder than expected ( 70 K , as opposed to about 100 K ) . Pluto 's atmosphere is divided into roughly 20 regularly spaced haze layers up to 150 km high , thought to be the result of pressure waves created by airflow across Pluto 's mountains .
= = Satellites = =
Pluto has five known natural satellites : Charon , first identified in 1978 by astronomer James Christy ; Nix and Hydra , both discovered in 2005 ; Kerberos , discovered in 2011 ; and Styx , discovered in 2012 . The satellites ' orbits are circular ( eccentricity < 0 @.@ 006 ) and coplanar with Pluto 's equator ( inclination < 1 ° ) , and therefore tilted approximately 120 ° relative to Pluto 's orbit . The Plutonian system is highly compact : the five known satellites orbit within the inner 3 % of the region where prograde orbits would be stable . Closest to Pluto is Charon , which is large enough to be in hydrostatic equilibrium and to cause the barycenter of the Pluto – Charon system to be outside Pluto . Beyond Charon there are four much smaller circumbinary moons , Styx , Nix , Kerberos , and Hydra .
The orbital periods of all Pluto 's moons are linked in a system of orbital resonances and near resonances . When precession is accounted for , the orbital periods of Styx , Nix , and Hydra are in an exact 18 : 22 : 33 ratio . There is a sequence of approximate ratios , 3 : 4 : 5 : 6 , between the periods of Styx , Nix , Kerberos , and Hydra with that of Charon ; the ratios become closer to being exact the further out the moons are .
The Pluto – Charon system is one of the few in the Solar System whose barycenter lies outside the primary body ; 617 Patroclus is a smaller example , and the Sun – Jupiter system is the only larger one . The similar sizes of Charon and Pluto has prompted some astronomers to call it a double dwarf planet . The system is also unusual among planetary systems in that each is tidally locked to the other , which means that Pluto and Charon always have the same hemisphere facing each other . From any position on either body , the other is always at the same position in the sky , or always obscured . This also means that the rotation period of each is equal to the time it takes the entire system to rotate around its barycenter .
In 2007 , observations by the Gemini Observatory of patches of ammonia hydrates and water crystals on the surface of Charon suggested the presence of active cryo @-@ geysers .
Pluto 's moons are hypothesized to have been formed by a collision between Pluto and a similar @-@ sized body , early in the history of the Solar System . The collision released material that consolidated into the moons around Pluto . However , Kerberos has a much lower albedo than the other moons of Pluto , which is difficult to explain with a giant collision .
= = Origin = =
Pluto 's origin and identity had long puzzled astronomers . One early hypothesis was that Pluto was an escaped moon of Neptune , knocked out of orbit by its largest current moon , Triton . This idea was eventually rejected after dynamical studies showed it to be impossible because Pluto never approaches Neptune in its orbit .
Pluto 's true place in the Solar System began to reveal itself only in 1992 , when astronomers began to find small icy objects beyond Neptune that were similar to Pluto not only in orbit but also in size and composition . This trans @-@ Neptunian population is thought to be the source of many short @-@ period comets . Pluto is now known to be the largest member of the Kuiper belt , a stable belt of objects located between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun . As of 2011 , surveys of the Kuiper belt to magnitude 21 were nearly complete and any remaining Pluto @-@ sized objects are expected to be beyond 100 AU from the Sun . Like other Kuiper @-@ belt objects ( KBOs ) , Pluto shares features with comets ; for example , the solar wind is gradually blowing Pluto 's surface into space . It has been claimed that if Pluto were placed as near to the Sun as Earth , it would develop a tail , as comets do . This claim has been disputed with the argument that Pluto 's escape velocity is too high for this to happen .
Though Pluto is the largest Kuiper belt object discovered , Neptune 's moon Triton , which is slightly larger than Pluto , is similar to it both geologically and atmospherically , and is thought to be a captured Kuiper belt object . Eris ( see above ) is about the same size as Pluto ( though more massive ) but is not strictly considered a member of the Kuiper belt population . Rather , it is considered a member of a linked population called the scattered disc .
A large number of Kuiper belt objects , like Pluto , are in a 2 : 3 orbital resonance with Neptune . KBOs with this orbital resonance are called " plutinos " , after Pluto .
Like other members of the Kuiper belt , Pluto is thought to be a residual planetesimal ; a component of the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into a full @-@ fledged planet . Most astronomers agree that Pluto owes its current position to a sudden migration undergone by Neptune early in the Solar System 's formation . As Neptune migrated outward , it approached the objects in the proto @-@ Kuiper belt , setting one in orbit around itself ( Triton ) , locking others into resonances , and knocking others into chaotic orbits . The objects in the scattered disc , a dynamically unstable region overlapping the Kuiper belt , are thought to have been placed in their current positions by interactions with Neptune 's migrating resonances . A computer model created in 2004 by Alessandro Morbidelli of the Observatoire de la Côte d 'Azur in Nice suggested that the migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt may have been triggered by the formation of a 1 : 2 resonance between Jupiter and Saturn , which created a gravitational push that propelled both Uranus and Neptune into higher orbits and caused them to switch places , ultimately doubling Neptune 's distance from the Sun . The resultant expulsion of objects from the proto @-@ Kuiper belt could also explain the Late Heavy Bombardment 600 million years after the Solar System 's formation and the origin of the Jupiter trojans . It is possible that Pluto had a near @-@ circular orbit about 33 AU from the Sun before Neptune 's migration perturbed it into a resonant capture . The Nice model requires that there were about a thousand Pluto @-@ sized bodies in the original planetesimal disk , which included Triton and Eris .
= = Observation and exploration = =
Pluto 's distance from Earth makes its in @-@ depth study and exploration difficult . On July 14 , 2015 , NASA 's New Horizons space probe flew through the Pluto system , providing much information about it .
= = = Observation = = =
Pluto 's visual apparent magnitude averages 15 @.@ 1 , brightening to 13 @.@ 65 at perihelion . To see it , a telescope is required ; around 30 cm ( 12 in ) aperture being desirable . It looks star @-@ like and without a visible disk even in large telescopes , because its angular diameter is only 0 @.@ 11 " .
The earliest maps of Pluto , made in the late 1980s , were brightness maps created from close observations of eclipses by its largest moon , Charon . Observations were made of the change in the total average brightness of the Pluto – Charon system during the eclipses . For example , eclipsing a bright spot on Pluto makes a bigger total brightness change than eclipsing a dark spot . Computer processing of many such observations can be used to create a brightness map . This method can also track changes in brightness over time .
Better maps were produced from images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) , which offered higher resolution , and showed considerably more detail , resolving variations several hundred kilometers across , including polar regions and large bright spots . These maps were produced by complex computer processing , which finds the best @-@ fit projected maps for the few pixels of the Hubble images . These remained the most detailed maps of Pluto until the flyby of New Horizons in July 2015 , because the two cameras on the HST used for these maps were no longer in service .
= = = Exploration = = =
The New Horizons spacecraft , which flew by Pluto in July 2015 , is the first and so far only attempt to explore Pluto directly . Launched in 2006 , it captured its first ( distant ) images of Pluto in late September 2006 during a test of the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager . The images , taken from a distance of approximately 4 @.@ 2 billion kilometers , confirmed the spacecraft 's ability to track distant targets , critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects . In early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from Jupiter .
New Horizons made its closest approach to Pluto on July 14 , 2015 after a 3 @,@ 462 @-@ day journey across the Solar System . Scientific observations of Pluto began five months before the closest approach and continued for at least a month after the encounter . Observations were conducted using a remote sensing package that included imaging instruments and a radio science investigation tool , as well as spectroscopic and other experiments . The scientific goals of New Horizons were to characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and its moon Charon , map their surface composition , and analyze Pluto 's neutral atmosphere and its escape rate .
= = Gallery = =
= = = Videos = = =
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= Tim Donaghy =
Tim Donaghy ( / ˈdɒnəɡi / ; born January 7 , 1967 ) is a former professional basketball referee who worked in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) for 13 seasons , from 1994 to 2007 . During his career in the NBA , Donaghy officiated in 772 regular season games and 20 playoff games .
Donaghy resigned from the league on July 9 , 2007 before reports of an investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) for allegations that he bet on games that he officiated during his last two seasons and that he made calls affecting the point spread in those games . On August 15 , 2007 , Donaghy pleaded guilty to two federal charges related to the investigation . However , he could face more charges at the state level if it is determined that he deliberately miscalled individual games . Donaghy was sentenced to 15 months in federal prison on July 29 , 2008 . He served 11 months in a federal prison camp in Pensacola , Florida to spend the remainder of his sentence in a halfway house , but was sent back to prison in August for violating his release terms . He was released on November 4 , 2009 after serving out his sentence .
= = Personal = =
Born in the Philadelphia suburb Havertown , Pennsylvania , Donaghy attended Cardinal O 'Hara High School in Springfield , Pennsylvania along with three other NBA referees : Joe Crawford , Mike Callahan , and Ed Malloy . In 1989 , Donaghy graduated from Villanova University with a degree in sales and marketing . While at Villanova , he played on the school 's baseball team . According to the National Basketball Referee 's Association , Donaghy participated and earned All @-@ Catholic and All @-@ Delaware County honors in baseball and All @-@ Delaware County honors in basketball during high school , but then – Villanova baseball coach George Bennett contends that Donaghy did not play on the varsity team and that no records indicate that he was selected to the All @-@ Catholic team in baseball or named to the All @-@ Delaware County basketball team . Donaghy and his wife Kimberly had four daughters before terminating their 12 @-@ year marriage in 2007 .
= = Officiating career = =
Before officiating in the NBA , Donaghy spent five years working Pennsylvania high school games and seven seasons in the Continental Basketball Association ( CBA ) , and he was the head official for the 1993 CBA All @-@ Star Game . The following year , he joined the NBA , where he worked for 13 years , officiating in 772 regular @-@ season games and 20 playoff games . Donaghy was a participant in the NBA 's Read to Achieve program , for which he participated in an event at the Universal Charter school during the 2002 NBA Finals . His uniform number was 21 .
Donaghy was one of three referees who worked the Pacers – Pistons brawl at The Palace of Auburn Hills on November 19 , 2004 , which ended in a fight between Pacers players and Pistons fans .
Donaghy was involved in another controversial incident in 2003 , when he called a technical foul on Rasheed Wallace , then playing with the Portland Trail Blazers , for allegedly throwing a ball at another official during a game played at the Rose Garden Arena in Portland , Oregon . While Donaghy was leaving the arena , Wallace confronted him at the arena 's loading dock , where he screamed obscenities at Donaghy . Donaghy claimed that Wallace threatened him , and after an investigation by the NBA , Wallace was suspended for seven games ; this was the longest suspension issued by the league for an incident not involving violence or drugs .
= = Betting scandal = =
On July 20 , 2007 , columnist Murray Weiss of the New York Post reported an investigation by the FBI into allegations of an NBA referee betting on games to control the point spread . It was revealed that Donaghy , who has a gambling problem , placed tens of thousands of dollars in bets on games during the 2005 – 06 and 2006 – 07 season and had been approached by low @-@ level mob associates to work on a gambling scheme . Mike Missanelli of The Stephen A. Smith Show suggested that Donaghy had gotten himself into debt and tried to make it up by betting on games .
The report sent shock waves through the NBA . While the league devotes significant resources to monitor officials ' performance , it only found out about the affair when the FBI stumbled upon Donaghy in the midst of a broader organized crime investigation . NBA Commissioner David Stern said in a statement , " We would like to assure our fans that no amount of effort , time or personnel is being spared to assist in this investigation , to bring to justice an individual who has betrayed the most sacred trust in professional sports , and to take the necessary steps to protect against this ever happening again . " He called the scandal a " wakeup call that says you can 't be complacent " .
Sports gambling expert R. J. Bell , president of sports betting information site Pregame.com , tracked every game Donaghy worked from 2003 to 2007 . He discovered that during the two seasons investigated by the NBA , the teams involved scored more points than expected by the Las Vegas sports books 57 % of the time . In the previous two seasons , this only happened 44 % of the time . According to Bell , the odds of such a discrepancy are 1 in 1 @,@ 000 , and there was " a 99 @.@ 9 % chance that these results would not have happened without an outside factor " . He also found 10 straight games in 2007 in which Donaghy worked the game that the point spread moved 1 @.@ 5 points or more before the tip — an indication that big money had been wagered on the game . The big money won every time — another indication that " something ( was ) going on " . However , Bell suggested that there was no way anyone who wasn 't in on the fix could have known that something was amiss about Donaghy 's actions during a game ; he said it would have been another year at the earliest before anyone could have caught on .
Handicapper Brandon Lang told ESPN that it is fairly easy for a crooked sports official to fix a game , despite Stern 's insistence that Donaghy was a " rogue official " . According to Lang , an official can directly influence the outcome of a game 75 % of the time if he has money on the game . Lang also believed that a bookie connected to the mob turned Donaghy in to the FBI .
On July 27 , U.S. Congressman Bobby Rush of Illinois , chairman of the Energy and Commerce Commerce , Trade and Consumer Protection Subcommittee , asked to meet with Stern regarding the Donaghy matter . In a letter to Stern , Rush indicated that he might call a hearing " should the facts warrant public scrutiny . " He also said that the affair could potentially be " one of the most damaging scandals in the history of American sports " .
Earlier in the day , federal sources told the New York Daily News that Donaghy would surrender to the FBI and pleaded guilty to gambling charges . The Daily News also learned that the bookies in the scandal were two high school classmates of Donaghy 's who embellished their mob ties . The Daily News reported that at his friends ' request , Donaghy passed word about the crews working the games they planned to bet on . The Associated Press identified one of the men as James Battista , former owner of a sports bar in Havertown , Pennsylvania ; a Philadelphia suburb . Battista 's lawyer told the AP that his client expected to be indicted .
At his home in Bradenton , Donaghy did not initially comment on his situation . He reportedly claimed to be " the butler " to visiting reporters and turned his sprinklers on a freelance photographer for the New York Times when he got too close . His wife ( at the time ) , Kimberly , passed a note to reporters telling them not to bother asking them any questions .
On August 15 , Donaghy appeared in a Brooklyn federal court and pleaded guilty to conspiracy to engage in wire fraud and transmitting wagering information through interstate commerce . Donaghy told U.S. District Judge Carol Bagley Amon that he used coded language to tip Battista about players ' physical condition and player / referee relations . In doing so , Donaghy disclosed classified information that he obtained as an NBA referee . Donaghy initially received $ 2 @,@ 000 per correct pick , but his calls were so accurate that Battista increased his take to $ 5 @,@ 000 . In total , he received $ 30 @,@ 000 to pass inside information to the bookies . Another high school friend of Donaghy 's , Thomas Martino , acted as the middle man . Donaghy also admitted that he had a severe gambling addiction , for which he was taking antidepressants .
Donaghy specifically admitted to passing information about two games during the 2006 – 07 season . Prosecutors also said that Donaghy bet on games himself . Donaghy was fined $ 500 @,@ 000 , and will also have to pay at least $ 30 @,@ 000 in restitution . ESPN legal analyst Lester Munson believes that Battista is one of the FBI 's prime targets , based on the large amounts of money he bet .
Donaghy was released on a $ 250 @,@ 000 bond and awaited sentencing on January 25 , 2008 . On June 19 , 2008 , the NBA filed a demand that Donaghy reimburse the league for the costs of his airfare and meals , complimentary game tickets , and other expenses , including $ 750 in shoes . Donaghy 's lawyer said that this was the league trying to retaliate against Donaghy for his misconduct . A judge delayed sentencing to allow for more time to decide how much restitution Donaghy and two co @-@ conspirators should pay the NBA for their roles in the betting scandal . The NBA has claimed Donaghy owes it $ 1 @.@ 4 million , including $ 577 @,@ 000 of his pay and benefits over four seasons , plus hefty legal fees and other expenses related to an internal investigation . His lawyer has argued that the punishment should apply to only one season — a position supported by the government in court papers .
According to the Associated Press , Andrew Thomas , the former county attorney for Maricopa County , Arizona , asked the NBA and FBI if Donaghy intentionally miscalled two Phoenix Suns road playoff games . The games in question occurred on April 29 , 2007 versus the Los Angeles Lakers and May 12 , 2007 versus the San Antonio Spurs . In a letter to Stern and FBI director Robert Mueller , Thomas said that Donaghy 's conduct may have violated Arizona criminal law , and could face charges there . Per the United States Supreme Court 's decision in Ponzi v. Fessenden , federal plea bargains have no standing regarding state charges .
= = = Allegations against the NBA = = =
On June 10 , 2008 , Donaghy 's attorney filed a court document alleging , among other things , that Game 6 of the 2002 Western Conference Finals between the Los Angeles Lakers and Sacramento Kings was fixed by two referees . The letter states that Donaghy " learned from Referee A that Referees A and F wanted to extend the series to seven games . Tim knew Referees A and F to be ' company men ' , always acting in the interest of the NBA , and that night , it was in the NBA 's interest to add another game to the series . " The Lakers won Game 6 , attempting 18 more free throws than the Kings in the fourth quarter , and went on to win the 2002 NBA Finals . The teams were not named , but the Western Conference Finals was the only seven @-@ game series that year . The document claimed that Donaghy told federal agents that to increase television ratings and ticket sales , " top executives of the NBA sought to manipulate games using referees " . It also said that NBA officials would tell referees to not call technical fouls on certain players , and states that a referee was privately reprimanded by the league for ejecting a star player in the first quarter of a January 2000 game . Stern denied the accusations , calling Donaghy a " singing , cooperating witness " .
= = = Sentencing = = =
On July 29 , 2008 , Donaghy was sentenced in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York to 15 months in prison for his participation in the gambling scandal . Donaghy could have faced up to 33 months , but Judge Carol Amon reduced his sentence to 15 months ( two 15 @-@ month terms served concurrently , followed by 3 years of supervised release ) in exchange for his cooperation . His lawyer , John Lauro , asked for probation , but the request was denied . Donaghy apologized in court , saying " I brought shame on myself , my family and the profession . " Battista and Martino were sentenced earlier that month , earning sentences of 15 months and 366 days , respectively .
= = = Effect on the NBA = = =
As a result of the betting scandal , Stern revised the guidelines on the behavior of NBA referees during the Board of Governors ' meeting in 2007 . Despite the labor agreement for referees , which restricted them from participating in almost all forms of gambling , it was revealed that about half of the NBA 's officials had made bets in casinos , albeit not with sportsbooks . In addition , all referees had admitted to engaging in some form of gambling . Stern stated that " [ the ] ban on gambling is absolute , and in my view it is too absolute , too harsh and was not particularly well @-@ enforced over the years " . The gambling rules were revised to allow referees to engage in several forms of betting — though not on sports . There were several other referee @-@ related rule changes made : the announcement of referees of a game was moved from 90 minutes before tip @-@ off to the morning of the game , to reduce the value of the information to gamblers ; referees received more in @-@ season training and counseling on gambling ; more thorough background checks were carried out ; the league declared its intention to analyze the statistical relationship between NBA games and referees ' gambling patterns for those games ; and the interactions between referees and NBA teams were made easier and more formal .
= = Post @-@ sentencing = =
In the federal prison camp in Pensacola , Florida , Donaghy started to write his memoir , Blowing the Whistle : The Culture of Fraud in the NBA . The book was to have covered his NBA career , described his dealings with the " underworld " during the betting scandal , and explained how he would determine the winning team in the games he refereed . Donaghy also promised to " discuss the relationship that players , coaches and referees have with each other " . The book was due to be published in October 2009 . However , Donaghy 's publisher , Triumph Books , canceled it because of liability concerns . Pat Berdan , Donaghy 's liaison with Triumph , said the book was canceled after the NBA threatened legal action — which the NBA denies . Donaghy found a new publisher , VTi @-@ Group , willing to release the book , which was renamed Personal Foul : A First @-@ Person Account of the Scandal That Rocked the NBA . The book was released in December 2009 .
During his imprisonment , Donaghy was attacked and threatened . In November 2007 , a man claiming to be an associate of the New York Mafia struck Donaghy with a paint roller extension bar , resulting in injuries to his knee and leg which required surgery .
Donaghy was released from prison after serving 11 months and was due to finish his sentence in a recovery house near Tampa , Florida , where he will be treated for his gambling addiction as mandated by the court . He was arrested and put in the county jail in late August after being caught at a health club without permission , when he should have been at work . His lawyer and his ex @-@ wife both insisted that Donaghy should not have been taken into custody , as he was allowed to visit the center to rehabilitate his injured knee .
On November 4 , 2009 , Donaghy was released from prison in Hernando County after serving out the remainder of his sentence .
Donaghy sued VTi @-@ Group , the publisher of his memoir , for not paying him . In June 2012 , a jury found VTi liable for breach of contract . Donaghy was awarded $ 1 @.@ 3 million .
On April 22 , 2014 , Donaghy claimed that the league office was going to push referees to fix playoffs games to have Brooklyn Nets beat the Toronto Raptors , so they could advance to the second round and face the Miami Heat because it would be good for ratings , which it was . On May 4 , 2014 , the Nets eliminated the Raptors after winning game seven of the series by a point .
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= Hugh Nonant =
Hugh Nonant ( sometimes Hugh de Nonant ; died 27 March 1198 ) was a medieval Bishop of Coventry in England . A great @-@ nephew and nephew of two Bishops of Lisieux , he held the office of archdeacon in that diocese before serving successively Thomas Becket , the Archbishop of Canterbury and King Henry II of England . Diplomatic successes earned him the nomination to Coventry , but diplomatic missions after his elevation led to a long delay before he was consecrated . After King Henry 's death , Nonant served Henry 's son , King Richard I , who rewarded him with the office of sheriff in three counties . Nonant replaced his monastic cathedral chapter with secular clergy , and attempted to persuade his fellow bishops to do the same , but was unsuccessful . When King Richard was captured and held for ransom , Nonant supported Prince John 's efforts to seize power in England , but had to purchase Richard 's favour when the king returned .
= = Early life = =
Nonant was a great @-@ nephew of John , Bishop of Lisieux , who had been the chief deputy in Normandy of King Henry I of England , and he was also a nephew of Arnulf of Lisieux , another bishop of Lisieux . Nonant had a brother Sylvester , who was treasurer of Lisieux . Hugh Nonant was a canon in his uncle Arnulf 's cathedral chapter before serving as an archdeacon of the diocese of Lisieux from 1167 until 1184 . Nonant served in the household of Thomas Becket while Becket was Archbishop of Canterbury , and went into exile with Becket , although he left Becket 's service while the archbishop was in exile . While in Becket 's service , Nonant may have authored a letter dated to 1165 that is attributed to Becket . Nonant had been reconciled to King Henry II of England by 1170 . Along with Richard Barre , Nonant was named in January 1184 as a papal judge @-@ delegate in a case between two Norman monasteries . In 1184 , Nonant was sent by the king to the papal curia to petition Pope Lucius III on behalf of Henry the Lion , Duke of Saxony and Henry II 's son @-@ in @-@ law . Nonant 's success on this mission probably was the reason he was elevated to the episcopate in 1185 .
= = Bishop of Coventry = =
Nonant was elected bishop in 1185 , probably in January , and consecrated on 31 January 1188 . The long delay between his election and his consecration was due to Nonant 's continued diplomatic efforts on behalf of Henry II . In 1186 , he was sent to Rome to secure papal permission for the crowning of Prince John as King of Ireland . The bishop @-@ elect was briefly in England from December of 1186 until February 1187 , but then went with King Henry to the continent and did not return to England until January 1188 . However , when Henry returned to France in July 1188 , Hugh accompanied the king and did not return until shortly before the coronation of King Richard I of England . Nonant also purchased the offices of Sheriff of Warwickshire , Leicestershire , and Staffordshire . Holding these offices was against canon law , and the bishop 's tenure in these offices may have been the cause of his quarrel with Baldwin of Forde .
It was after the coronation of Richard that Nonant had a dispute with the monks of his cathedral chapter which led to Nonant replacing the monks with secular clergy . He was said to have commented that " I call my clerks gods and the monks demons . " Nonant was very shrewd and eloquent , but he was also violent in his attempts to reform or expel his monastic clergy from Coventry . In October 1189 he attempted to persuade his fellow bishops who had monastic cathedral chapters to expel the monks and replace them with secular clergy . He also attempted to get all the bishops to prosecute a joint case at Rome to expel the monastic cathedral chapters , but gave up that idea after the Archbishop of Canterbury , Baldwin of Exeter declined to go along . Nonant did , however , receive papal sanction for the replacement of monks at Coventry . By 1197 , however , Pope Celestine III issued instructions to Hubert Walter , the new Archbishop of Canterbury , Hugh of Lincoln , the Bishop of Lincoln and Samson of Tottington , the Abbot of Bury St Edmunds , to restore the monks to the cathedral .
After King Richard went to the Holy Land on the Third Crusade , Nonant supported the efforts of Prince John , King Richard 's brother , to seize power in England . Nonant joined with John in trying to wrest control of the castles of Tickhill and Nottingham from William Longchamp , the Bishop of Ely , who had been named justiciar and chancellor during Richard 's absence . It was probably Nonant that was responsible for the meeting at Loddon Bridge on 5 October 1191 that ended in the deposition of Longchamp from office . Nonant supported John 's side throughout the time that Richard was on Crusade and in captivity , and was tried with John after Richard 's return to England in 1194 . Nonant was only restored to royal favour in 1195 after the payment of a fine of 5000 marks . The bishop lost his three sheriffdoms , and retired to Normandy .
= = Death and legacy = =
Nonant died on 27 March 1198 . Before his death he was clothed in the habit of a Benedictine monk by the monks of Bec Abbey and he died at Bec . On his deathbed , he confessed a long record of sins , which deterred any priest from absolving him . The historian A. L. Poole described Hugh as a " dexterous and unprincipled politician who had inherited the diplomatic gifts of his uncle . " Another historian , John Gillingham , stated that Nonant was King " John 's chief propagandist and , in his spare time , bishop of Coventry " . Hugh 's brother was Robert Brito , who was captured by King Richard in 1194 and starved to death because Robert had earlier refused to be a hostage for the payment of Richard 's ransom .
The constitutions of the cathedral chapter at Lichfield are often stated to have been Nonant 's work , but this has been disproven . The chronicler Roger of Howden inserted a letter supposedly by Nonant in his Chronica . This letter was also preserved in other manuscripts , including a section of a manuscript now in the Bodleian Library as manuscript ( MS ) Additional A.44. This letter has now been published as part of the English Episcopal Acta series in the volume on the diocese of Lichfield and Coventry .
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= Italian cruiser Carlo Alberto =
The Italian cruiser Carlo Alberto was the second of two Vettor Pisani @-@ class armored cruisers built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the 1890s . She was deployed overseas several times during her career , notably to the Far East and South America . The ship was used as a royal yacht by King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy in 1902 , during which time she was used for radio experiments by Guglielmo Marconi . Carlo Alberto served as a training ship before the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 . During the war she supported Italian operations in Libya . The ship was virtually inactive during World War I and was converted into a troop transport in 1917 – 18 . Carlo Alberto was stricken from the Navy List in 1920 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= = Design and description = =
Carlo Alberto had a length between perpendiculars of 99 meters ( 324 ft 10 in ) and an overall length of 105 @.@ 7 meters ( 346 ft 9 in ) . She had a beam of 18 @.@ 04 meters ( 59 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 2 meters ( 23 ft 7 in ) . The ship displaced 6 @,@ 397 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 296 long tons ) at normal load , and 7 @,@ 057 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 946 long tons ) at deep load . The Vettor Pisani @-@ class ships had a complement of 28 officers and 472 to 476 enlisted men .
The ship was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was supplied by eight Scotch marine boilers . Designed for a maximum output of 13 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 700 kW ) and a speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , Carlo Alberto barely exceeded her designed speed when she reached 19 @.@ 1 knots ( 35 @.@ 4 km / h ; 22 @.@ 0 mph ) during her sea trials from 13 @,@ 219 ihp ( 9 @,@ 857 kW ) . She had a cruising radius of about 5 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 000 km ; 6 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament of the Vettor Pisani @-@ class ships consisted of twelve quick @-@ firing ( QF ) Cannone da 152 / 40 A Modello 1891 guns in single mounts . All of these guns were mounted on the broadside , eight on the upper deck and four at the corners of the central citadel in armored casemates . Single QF Cannone da 120 / 40 A Modello 1891 guns were mounted in the bow and stern and the remaining two 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns were positioned on the main deck between the 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) guns . For defense against torpedo boats , the ship carried fourteen QF 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) Hotchkiss guns and eight QF 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns . The ship was also equipped with four 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes .
Carlo Alberto was protected by an armored belt that was 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) at the bow and stern . The upper strake of armor was also 15 cm thick and protected just the middle of the ship , up to the height of the upper deck . The curved armored deck was 3 @.@ 7 cm thick . The conning tower armor was also 15 cm thick and each 15 @.@ 2 cm gun was protected by a 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) gun shield .
= = Construction and career = =
Carlo Alberto , named after King Charles Albert of Sardinia , was laid down on 1 February 1892 at the Arsenale di La Spezia in La Spezia . The ship was launched on 23 September 1896 and completed on 1 May 1898 . She was deployed to South America later that year and returned to Italy on 28 February 1899 . Later that year Carlo Alberto was sent to the Far East and returned on 1 June 1900 . After her return the ship was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet .
Carlo Alberto served as the royal yacht for Victor Emmanuel III when he attended the Coronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra of the United Kingdom in 1902 . Victor Emmanuel invited Guglielmo Marconi to accompany him and conduct radio experiments en route . Originally scheduled for 26 June , the coronation was delayed by Edward 's illness and rescheduled for 9 August . In the meantime , the ship took Victor Emmanuel to meetings with Tsar Nicholas II of Russia in Kronstadt . She returned to England before the coronation ceremony and then participated in the fleet review at Spithead on 16 August . On the return voyage Marconi conducted more long @-@ range experiments with his site in Poldhu , Cornwall . The King then loaned Carlo Alberto to Marconi in September for more testing . She then ferried Marconi across the Atlantic to Glace Bay , Nova Scotia for further experiments transmitting radio messages across the ocean . After 15 December , when Marconi successfully transmitted messages from Glace Bay to Poldhu , Carlo Alberto was sent to Venezuelan waters during the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 , when an international force of British , German , and Italian warships blockaded Venezuela over the country 's refusal to pay foreign debts . She returned in early 1903 and was briefly deployed in Salonica later that year . From 1907 to 1910 she served as a gunnery and torpedo training ship .
When the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 began on 29 September , Carlo Alberto was assigned to the Training Division . She bombarded the fortifications defending Tripoli and provided gunfire support to Italian forces at Zanzur , Zuara and elsewhere in Tripolitania . She fired enough ammunition during these missions that her guns had to be replaced in early 1912 . After the war the ship was transferred to the Aegean Sea where she remained until March 1913 .
Obsolescent by the beginning of World War I , Carlo Alberto was not very active during the war . She spent almost the entire war based in Venice . The ship began conversion into a troop transport there in 1917 . This required the removal of her armor , the addition of a new deck and internal modifications to suit her new role . The work was finished in Taranto early the next year ; she was recommissioned with the new name of Zenson on 4 April 1918 . The ship was discarded on 12 June 1920 and subsequently scrapped .
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= New York State Route 31A =
New York State Route 31A ( NY 31A ) is an east – west state highway located in the western part of New York in the United States . It serves as a southerly alternate route of NY 31 from the western part of Orleans County to the far western part of Monroe County . It diverges from NY 31 south of the village of Medina and parallels NY 31 eastward until it reconnects to its parent route southwest of the village of Brockport . While NY 31 passes through the villages of Medina , Albion , and Holley , NY 31A bypasses all three , serving sparsely populated areas to their south instead . The route intersects NY 98 south of Albion and NY 237 in Clarendon .
The origins of NY 31A date back to the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York when the section of modern NY 31 between Middleport and Medina was designated as NY 3A . It was renumbered to NY 3B c . 1932 and extended northeastward to Knowlesville via Millville by 1932 before becoming NY 31A c . 1935 . NY 31A was cut back to its current western terminus in 1949 and extended eastward to NY 19 and NY 31 in Brockport c . 1963 , replacing New York State Route 31D , a spur route linking NY 31 to the Monroe – Orleans county line . The route was truncated to its current eastern terminus in the early 1980s after NY 31 was altered to bypass Brockport to the southwest .
= = Route description = =
NY 31A begins at a four @-@ way intersection in the southern portion of the village of Medina . At this junction , NY 31 travels to the west and to the north ( eastbound ) , NY 63 travels to the north and to the south , and NY 31A travels to the east as Maple Ridge Road . It leaves the village shortly afterward , entering a rural area of Orleans County dominated by open fields . The route heads due east to Millville , a small hamlet situated at the junction of NY 31A and East Shelby Road in northeastern Shelby . At the eastern edge of the community , NY 31A meets West County House Road , the former routing of NY 31A toward Knowlesville .
Past Millville , NY 31A becomes West Lee Road and heads southeastward through farmland to the Barre town line , at which point the route turns back to the east and follows a slightly northeasterly alignment for 5 miles ( 8 km ) into the town of Albion . Here , NY 31A passes the Benjamin Franklin Gates House , situated on the north side of the route near a junction with Mix Road . Not far to the east , the highway meets NY 98 at a rural junction 3 miles ( 5 km ) south of the village of Albion and 50 yards ( 46 m ) north of the Albion town line . NY 31A , now East Lee Road , continues on a northeasterly line for another 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) before curving southward for 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to avoid a marshy area near the eastern town line . The route briefly reenters Barre along this stretch , heading south and east across the town 's northeastern corner on its way into the town of Clarendon .
The highway retains an east – west alignment for 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the outskirts of the hamlet of Clarendon , the largest community on the route since Medina . At this point , NY 31A turns southeast to serve Clarendon , where NY 31A intersects NY 237 in the center of the hamlet . Upon crossing NY 237 , NY 31A changes names for the final time , becoming Fourth Section Road . The rural surroundings return outside of Clarendon hamlet as a mix of woodlands and fields , which NY 31A progresses generally northeasterly through to the hamlet of Bennetts Corners . Here , the amount of development along the route begins to increase , a change ushered in by a pair of large housing tracts in the eastern part of the community .
East of Bennetts Corners , the route takes on a more easterly alignment as it crosses into Monroe County , which contains just 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of the 23 @-@ mile ( 37 km ) NY 31A . In Monroe County , the highway passes through a slightly more populated area on its way to a junction with NY 31 and NY 19 Truck southwest of the village of Brockport . Both NY 19 Truck and NY 31 enter the intersection from the north on Redman Road and turn east at Fourth Section Road , following the right @-@ of @-@ way of NY 31A eastward toward Brockport 's business district . The junction completes the alternate loop of NY 31 , which follows a parallel but more northerly routing between Medina and Brockport that takes it through the villages of Medina , Albion , and Holley . Along the way , NY 31 passes the campus of SUNY Brockport , situated 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) northeast of NY 31A 's eastern terminus .
= = History = =
Most of modern NY 31 west of Rochester — including the section between Gasport and the outskirts of Brockport — was originally designated as part of NY 3 when the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 3 was realigned between Middleport and Medina to follow what is now NY 31E . NY 3 's former routing between the two villages was designated as NY 3A . NY 3A was redesignated as NY 3B c . 1932 as part of a renumbering of NY 3 's suffixed routes . NY 3B was also extended eastward along Maple Ridge , County House , and Taylor Hill Roads to meet NY 31 at Knowlesville Station ( a hamlet in the town of Ridgeway ) by this time . The route was renumbered again c . 1935 , becoming NY 31A after NY 3 was replaced with a realigned NY 31 west of Rochester .
Farther east , the segment of modern NY 31A from Clarendon to Brockport and what is now NY 31 from NY 31A to NY 19 became NY 3B in the 1930 renumbering . Like NY 3A , NY 3B was renumbered to NY 3C c . 1932 ; however , it was also truncated to consist solely of the Monroe County portion of its routing at this time . The route now began at the Monroe – Orleans county line , where state maintenance of Fourth Section Road began , and ended at the junction of NY 63 ( now NY 19 ) and NY 3 ( NY 31 ) south of Brockport . NY 3C was redesignated as NY 31D c . 1935 following NY 31 's supplantation of NY 3 west of Rochester .
On January 1 , 1949 , NY 31 was rerouted between Middleport and Medina to use NY 31A between the two locations . NY 31A was truncated to its current western terminus in Medina as a result . It was substantially extended c . 1963 , however , to a new eastern terminus in Brockport . The highway was rerouted east of Millville to follow a series of previously unnumbered roads through Barre and Clarendon to Monroe County , where it supplanted NY 31D from the county line eastward . NY 31A was truncated slightly to its current eastern terminus in the early 1980s after NY 31 was rerouted to bypass Brockport to the west and south on NY 31A and Redman Road .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Grand Street Bridge ( Connecticut ) =
The Grand Street Bridge was a double @-@ leaf deck @-@ girder bascule bridge in Bridgeport , Connecticut , United States , that spanned the Pequonnock River and connected Grand Street and Artic Street . It was one of three movable bridges planned by the City of Bridgeport in 1916 at the request of the War Department during World War I. Construction was completed in 1919 , but the delays surrounding the construction went to the Connecticut Supreme Court in case of Edward DeV . Tompkins , Inc. vs. City of Bridgeport , Connecticut . The court ruled in favor of Tompkins and awarded damages equal to the contract . In 1936 , the bridge had excessive settling and required the replacement of its southeast pier . As part of the repairs , a new floor and electrical system were installed . In 1965 , the floor was replaced with a steel grate on I @-@ beam floor . In 1984 , the eastern approach span was replaced and the northwest trunnion post was reconstructed . The bridge was closed in the 1990s and dismantled in 1999 .
= = Construction = =
Requests for bids for the Grand Street Bridge were announced in the trade publication Contractor , for the " substructure , superstructure and approaches " . Originally the deadline was set for April 6 , 1916 , but it was later extended to May 6 , 1916 . The June 1916 issue of Contractor announced that Edward DeVoe Tompkins , Inc . , obtained the contract with the lowest bid of $ 187 @,@ 000 . The contract , signed on May 16 , 1916 , stipulated that work on the bridge was to begin within 15 days and the project 's original deadline would be September 1 , 1917 .
The engineering firm which provided the design was the Strauss Bascule Bridge Company , and the fabricator of the steel was the Penn Bridge Company . The moving bridge had two bascule leaves , each 48 feet ( 15 m ) long that were connected by a 69 feet ( 21 m ) long deck @-@ girder approach , for a total overall length of 372 feet ( 113 m ) . The girders were 40 feet ( 12 m ) in width ; which were wider than the 37 @.@ 5 feet ( 11 @.@ 4 m ) bascules . The angle @-@ iron outriggers added another 7 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) on each side , making the bridge 's total width 55 feet ( 17 m ) . The original floor was made of wooden blocks atop wooden planks .
The contract called for the complete construction of the bridge , including the approaches on each side of the river and four piers with each consisting of two cylindrical columns of reinforced concrete . Construction of the bridge was complicated by the contract which stipulated that concrete had to be pumped dry , the concrete of each cylinder had to be poured in " one continuous operation " and that the wooden piles for the pier must project at least six feet into the concrete base . These stipulations required the use of a cofferdam to deposit the concrete , but boring in the river showed that it did not have a suitable bottom upon which to build . Tompkins would have to construct a 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) thick artificial bottom in order to proceed . To deposit in accordance with the contract , a tremie would be needed . A tremie is a pipe that concrete is passed through so it doesn 't contact the water and disintegrate .
The plans were stipulated to be presented by May 26 , but it first submitted on June 2 with the sketches of the design following on June 14 , 1916 . The project was delayed due to the consulting engineer 's proposals being denied by the Bridgeport bridge commission and the " ambiguous and contradictory requirements " advanced and by the position of the consulting engineer . The project was delayed for months because due to the consulting engineer 's discussions , via mail , between Bridgeport and Chicago . Construction of the concrete wing @-@ piles and slabs began around August 1 , 1916 and the substructure was nearly completed by January 31 , 1917 , the original deadline for that part of the project , but the issue with the construction of the piers had already greatly delayed the construction .
In early 1917 , Tompkins submitted a plan to attempt a pumping out of the constructed cofferdam , which it noted as dangerous to the crew . This plan was denied because there was no artificial seal in place . The commission did not want Tompkins to proceed until the commission consulted an advisory engineer . In April 1917 , William Burr was made the advisory engineer and made many changes to the original Strauss designs , most importantly the requirement that piers project into the concrete cylinders was stricken . Burr 's alterations called for an open caisson for the central piers which made impossible the projection of piles into the concrete and required dredging that was unnecessary under the initial Strauss plan . The seal for the end piers was thickened to 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) and would be deposited through a tremie , as previously suggested by Tompkins . The Bridgeport bridge commission terminated the contract on August 20 , 1917 and notified Tompkins that it would complete the project . The commission had Tompkin 's crew forcibly ejected from the site on September 3 , 1917 and took possession of its equipment until October 19 , 1917 . While the contract allowed the equipment to be taken , it also stipulated that delays that were the fault of the city would result in an equal extension to the time lost and Tompkins would sue the City of Bridgeport . The City of Bridgeport hired another contractor to complete the bridge .
The cylindrical piers of the bridge were 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in diameter and finished with an ashlar of cut granite . The completed bridge had its bascule leaves pivot on trunnions located 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) from the end of the girders . The bridge 's reinforced @-@ concrete counterweights , measuring 5 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) high by 11 @.@ 5 feet ( 3 @.@ 5 m ) wide , was supported by pivots at the ends of the girders . The trunnions were supported by box @-@ girder posts on the sides of the bascule leaves and each set of inside trunnion posts were braced by a girder ran both between them and to the operating mechanism . Earle Gear and Machine Company provided the operating mechanism for the bridge . The bascule leaves were raised by a motor that used reduction gears and engaged a pinion to move the rack quadrant to raise the bridge . A manual @-@ operation shaft was originally present so that it could be operated from the surface of the roadway , but it was later paved over . The operator 's house was located on the south side of the western approach , it originally housed the operator 's house and public bathrooms , but it was removed in 1936 . The plans originally dictated for a second station on the opposite end , but 1930s photos shows it was apparently never constructed .
= = Court case = =
Edward DeVoe Tompkins , Inc. suffered numerous delays in the construction of the bridge and sued the City of Bridgeport . The case went to the Connecticut Supreme Court in Edward DeV . Tompkins v. City of Bridgeport , Connecticut . Tompkins sued the City of Bridgeport for breach of contract on the grounds that City of Bridgeport was unresponsive , and did not clear the site as scheduled . Tompkins also cited other concerns relating to the design and construction of the bridge including the design engineers from the Strauss Bascule Bridge Company being located in Chicago . The City of Bridgeport alleged that Tompkins was incompetent and uncooperative , but the Connecticut Supreme Court disagreed and ruled in favor of Tompkins . The Court awarded Tompkins the full contract as damages .
= = Service Life = =
The Grand Street Bridge opened for traffic in 1919 , but had to be closed in 1932 after the southeast pier was excessively settled . The Connecticut Highway Department and federal government provided the funds required to remove the bascule leaves and replace the pier in 1936 . As a part of the renovations , a new floor and electrical system were installed . In 1965 , the bridge floor was replaced with steel grating atop 14 @-@ inch ( 36 @-@ cm ) I @-@ beam stringers . In 1984 , the eastern approach span and northwest trunnion post , the point where the bridge pivots , were reconstructed as part of what would be the bridge 's last major renovations . Other minor repairs to the bridge 's steel and masonry were done during the project . The bridge was closed in the 1990s and it was dismantled in 1999 . In 2010 , the United States Coast Guard struck the rule pertaining to the operation of the bridge due to its removal . Previously , the rule stated that the bridge need not open for the passage of vessels .
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= Cricket ( insect ) =
Crickets ( also known as " true crickets " ) , of the family Gryllidae , are insects related to bush crickets , and , more distantly , to grasshoppers . The Gryllidae have mainly cylindrical bodies , round heads , and long antennae . Behind the head is a smooth , robust pronotum . The abdomen ends in a pair of long cerci ( spikes ) ; females have a long , cylindrical ovipositor . The hind legs have enlarged femora ( thighs ) , providing power for jumping . The front wings are adapted as tough , leathery elytra ( wing covers ) , and some crickets chirp by rubbing parts of these together . The hind wings are membranous and folded when not in use for flight ; many species , however , are flightless . The largest members of the family are the bull crickets , Brachytrupes , which are up to 5 cm ( 2 in ) long .
More than 900 species of crickets are described ; the Gryllidae are distributed all around the world except at latitudes 55 ° or higher , with the greatest diversity being in the tropics . They occur in varied habitats from grassland , bushes , and forests to marshes , beaches , and caves . Crickets are mainly nocturnal , and are best known for the loud , persistent , chirping song of males trying to attract females , although some species are mute . The singing species have good hearing , via the tympani ( eardrums ) on the tibiae of the front legs .
Crickets often appear as characters in literature . The Talking Cricket features in Carlo Collodi 's 1883 children 's book , The Adventures of Pinocchio , and in films based on the book . The eponymous insect is central to Charles Dickens 's 1845 The Cricket on the Hearth , as is the chirping insect in George Selden 's 1960 The Cricket in Times Square . Crickets are celebrated in poems by William Wordsworth , John Keats , and Du Fu . They are kept as pets in countries from China to Europe , sometimes for cricket fighting . Crickets are efficient at converting their food into body mass , making them a candidate for food production . They are used as food in Southeast Asia , where they are sold deep @-@ fried in markets as snacks . They are also used to feed carnivorous pets and zoo animals . In Brazilian folklore , crickets feature as omens of various events .
= = Description = =
Crickets are small to medium @-@ sized insects with mostly cylindrical , somewhat vertically flattened bodies . The head is spherical with long slender antennae arising from cone @-@ shaped scapes ( first segments ) and just behind these are two large compound eyes . On the forehead are three ocelli ( simple eyes ) . The pronotum ( first thoracic segment ) is trapezoidal in shape , robust , and well @-@ sclerotinized . It is smooth and has neither dorsal or lateral keels ( ridges ) .
At the tip of the abdomen is a pair of long cerci ( paired appendages on rearmost segment ) , and in females , the ovipositor is cylindrical , long and narrow , smooth and shiny . The femora ( third segments ) of the back pair of legs are greatly enlarged for jumping . The tibiae ( fourth segments ) of the hind legs are armed with a number of moveable spurs , the arrangement of which is characteristic of each species . The tibiae of the front legs bear one or more tympani which are used for the reception of sound .
The wings lie flat on the body and are very variable in size between species , being reduced in size in some crickets and missing in others . The fore wings are elytra made of tough chitin , acting as a protective shield for the soft parts of the body and in males , bear the stridulatory organs for the production of sound . The hind pair is membranous , folding fan @-@ wise under the fore wings . In many species , the wings are not adapted for flight .
The largest members of the family are the 5 cm ( 2 in ) -long bull crickets ( Brachytrupes ) which excavate burrows a metre or more deep . The tree crickets ( Oecanthinae ) are delicate white or pale green insects with transparent fore wings , while the field crickets ( Gryllinae ) are robust brown or black insects .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Crickets have a cosmopolitan distribution , being found in all parts of the world with the exception of cold regions at latitudes higher than about 55 ° North and South . They have colonised many large and small islands , sometimes flying over the sea to reach these locations , or perhaps conveyed on floating timber or by human activity . The greatest diversity occurs in tropical locations , such as in Malaysia , where 88 species were heard chirping from a single location near Kuala Lumpur . A greater number than this could have been present because some species are mute .
Crickets are found in many habitats . Members of several subfamilies are found in the upper tree canopy , in bushes , and among grasses and herbs . They also occur on the ground and in caves , and some are subterranean , excavating shallow or deep burrows . Some make galleries in rotting wood , and certain beach @-@ dwelling species can run and jump over the surface of pools .
= = Biology = =
= = = Defence = = =
Crickets are relatively defenceless , soft @-@ bodied insects . Most species are nocturnal and spend the day hidden in cracks , under bark , inside curling leaves , under stones or fallen logs , in leaf litter , or in the cracks in the ground that develop in dry weather . Some excavate their own shallow holes in rotting wood or underground and fold in their antennae to conceal their presence . Some of these burrows are temporary shelters , used for a single day , but others serve as more permanent residences and places for mating and laying eggs . Crickets burrow by loosening the soil with the mandibles and then carrying it with the limbs , flicking it backwards with the hind legs or pushing it with the head .
Other defensive strategies are the use of camouflage , fleeing , and aggression . Some species have adopted colourings , shapes , and patterns that make it difficult for predators that hunt by sight to detect them . They tend to be dull shades of brown , grey , and green that blend into their background , and desert species tend to be pale . Some species can fly , but the mode of flight tends to be clumsy , so the most usual response to danger is to scuttle away to find a hiding place .
= = = Chirping = = =
Most male crickets make a loud chirping sound by stridulation . The stridulatory organ is located on the tegmen , or fore wing , which is leathery in texture . A large vein runs along the centre of each tegmen , with comb @-@ like serrations on its edge forming a file @-@ like structure , and at the rear edge of the tegmen is a scraper . The tegmina are held at an angle to the body and rhythmically raised and lowered which causes the scraper on one wing to rasp on the file on the other . The central part of the tegmen contains the " harp " , an area of thick , sclerotinized membrane which resonates and amplifies the volume of sound , as does the pocket of air between the tegmina and the body wall . Most female crickets lack the necessary adaptations to stridulate , so make no sound .
Several types of cricket songs are in the repertoire of some species . The calling song attracts females and repels other males , and is fairly loud . The courting song is used when a female cricket is near and encourages her to mate with the caller . A triumphal song is produced for a brief period after a successful mating , and may reinforce the mating bond to encourage the female to lay some eggs rather than find another male . An aggressive song is triggered by contact chemoreceptors on the antennae that detect the presence of another male cricket .
Crickets chirp at different rates depending on their species and the temperature of their environment . Most species chirp at higher rates the higher the temperature is ( about 62 chirps a minute at 13 ° C in one common species ; each species has its own rate ) . The relationship between temperature and the rate of chirping is known as Dolbear 's law . According to this law , counting the number of chirps produced in 14 seconds by the snowy tree cricket , common in the United States , and adding 40 will approximate the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit .
In 1975 , Dr. William H. Cade discovered that the parasitic tachinid fly Ormia ochracea is attracted to the song of the cricket , and uses it to locate the male to deposit her larvae on him . It was the first known example of a natural enemy that locates its host or prey using the mating signal . Since then , many species of crickets have been found to be carrying the same parasitic fly , or related species . In response to this selective pressure , a mutation leaving males unable to chirp was observed amongst a population of field crickets on the Hawaiian island of Kauai , enabling these crickets to elude their parasitoid predators .
= = = Flight = = =
Some species , such as the ground crickets ( Nemobiinae ) , are wingless ; others have small fore wings and no hind wings ( Copholandrevus ) , others lack hind wings and have shortened fore wings in females only , while others are macropterous , with the hind wings longer than the fore wings . In Teleogryllus , the proportion of macropterous individuals varies from very low to 100 % . Probably , most species with hind wings longer than fore wings engage in flight .
Some species , such as Gryllus assimilis , take off , fly , and land efficiently and well , while other species are clumsy fliers . In some species , the hind wings are shed , leaving wing stumps , usually after dispersal of the insect by flight . In other species , they may be pulled off and consumed by the cricket itself or by another individual , probably providing a nutritional boost .
Gryllus firmus exhibits wing polymorphism ; some individuals have fully functional , long hind wings and others have short wings and cannot fly . The short @-@ winged females have smaller flight muscles , greater ovarian development , and produce more eggs , so the polymorphism adapts the cricket for either dispersal or reproduction . In some long @-@ winged individuals , the flight muscles deteriorate during adulthood and the insect 's reproductive capabilities improve .
= = = Diet = = =
Captive crickets are omnivorous ; when deprived of their natural diet , they accept a wide range of organic foodstuffs . Some species are completely herbivorous , feeding on flowers , fruit , and leaves , with ground @-@ based species consuming seedlings , grasses , pieces of leaf , and the shoots of young plants . Others are more predatory and include in their diet invertebrate eggs , larvae , pupae , moulting insects , scale insects , and aphids . Many are scavengers and consume various organic remains , decaying plants , seedlings , and fungi . In captivity , many species have been successfully reared on a diet of ground , commercial dry dog food , supplemented with lettuce and aphids .
Crickets have relatively powerful jaws , and several species have been known to bite humans .
= = = Reproduction and lifecycle = = =
Male crickets establish their dominance over each other by aggression . They start by lashing each other with their antennae and flaring their mandibles . Unless one retreats at this stage , they resort to grappling , at the same time each emitting calls that are quite unlike those uttered in other circumstances . When one achieves dominance , it sings loudly , while the loser remains silent .
Females are generally attracted to males by their calls , though in nonstridulatory species , some other mechanism must be involved . After the pair has made antennal contact , a courtship period may occur during which the character of the call changes . The female mounts the male and a single spermatophore is transferred to the external genitalia of the female . Sperm flows from this into the female 's oviduct over a period of a few minutes or up to an hour , depending on species . After copulation , the female may remove or eat the spermatophore ; males may attempt to prevent this with various ritualised behaviours . The female may mate on several occasions with different males .
Most crickets lay their eggs in the soil or inside the stems of plants , and to do this , female crickets have a long , needle @-@ like or sabre @-@ like egg @-@ laying organ called an ovipositor . Some ground @-@ dwelling species have dispensed with this , either depositing their eggs in an underground chamber or pushing them into the wall of a burrow . The short @-@ tailed cricket ( Anurogryllus ) excavates a burrow with chambers and a defecating area , lays its eggs in a pile on a chamber floor , and after the eggs have hatched , feeds the juveniles for about a month .
Crickets are hemimetabolic insects , whose lifecycle consists of an egg stage , a larval or nymph stage that increasingly resembles the adult form as the nymph grows , and an adult stage . The egg hatches into a nymph about the size of a fruit fly . This passes through about 10 larval stages , and with each successive moult , it become more like an adult . After the final moult , the genitalia and wings are fully developed , but a period of maturation is needed before the cricket is ready to breed .
The species Gryllus bimaculatus exhibits the reproductive pattern of polyandry . This sexual selective pattern increases the overall fitness of the species and promotes genetic variation . The females select and mate with multiple viable sperm donors and exhibit a distinct preference to novel mates .
= = = Inbreeding avoidance = = =
Female Teleogryllus oceanicus crickets from natural populations mate polyandrously and store sperm from multiple males . Female crickets exert a postcopulatory fertilization bias in favour of unrelated males to avoid the genetic consequences of inbreeding . Fertilization bias depends on the control of sperm transport to the sperm storage organs . The inhibition of sperm storage by female crickets can act as a form of cryptic female choice to avoid the severe negative effects of inbreeding .
In controlled @-@ breeding experiments with the cricket Gryllus firmus , seven inbred lines were tested , and during 14 generations of brother – sister matings , nymphal weight and early fecundity declined substantially . This observed inbreeding depression appeared to be due to an increased frequency of homozygous combinations of deleterious recessive alleles generated by the inbreeding ( thereby decreasing fitness ) . These results support the general idea that the principal benefit of outcrossing is the masking of deleterious recessive alleles by wild @-@ type alleles .
= = = Predators , parasites , and pathogens = = =
Crickets have many natural enemies and are subject to various pathogens and parasites . They are eaten by large numbers of vertebrate and invertebrate predators and their hard parts are often found when the contents of animal 's guts are examined . Mediterranean house geckos ( Hemidactylus turcicus ) have learned that although a calling decorated cricket ( Gryllodes supplicans ) may be safely positioned in an out @-@ of @-@ reach burrow , female crickets attracted to the call can be intercepted and eaten .
The entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae attacks and kills crickets and has been used as the basis of control in pest populations . The insects are also affected by the cricket paralysis virus , which has caused high levels of fatalities in cricket @-@ rearing facilities . Other fatal diseases that have been identified in mass @-@ rearing establishments include Rickettsia and three further viruses . The diseases may spread more rapidly if the crickets become cannibalistic and eat the corpses .
Red parasitic mites sometimes attach themselves to the dorsal region of crickets and may greatly affect them . The horsehair worm Paragordius varius is an internal parasite and can control the behaviour of its cricket host and cause it to enter water , where the parasite continues its lifecycle and the cricket likely drowns . The larvae of the sarcophagid fly Sarcophaga kellyi develop inside the body cavity of field crickets . Female parasitic wasps of Rhopalosoma lay their eggs on crickets , and their developing larvae gradually devour their hosts . Other wasps in the family Scelionidae are egg parasitoids , seeking out batches of eggs laid by crickets in plant tissues in which to insert their eggs .
The fly Ormia ochracea has very acute hearing and targets calling male crickets . It locates its prey by ear and then lays its eggs nearby . The developing larvae burrow inside any crickets with which they come in contact and in the course of a week or so , devour what remains of the host before pupating . In Florida , the parasitic flies were only present in the autumn , and at that time of year , the males sang less but for longer periods . A trade @-@ off exists for the male between attracting females and being parasitized .
= = Phylogeny and taxonomy = =
The phylogenetic relationships of the Gryllidae , summarized by Darryl Gwynne in 1995 from his own work ( using mainly anatomical characteristics ) and that of earlier authors , are shown in the following cladogram , with the Orthoptera divided into two main groups , Ensifera ( crickets sensu lato ) and Caelifera ( grasshoppers ) . Fossil Ensifera are found from the late Carboniferous period ( 300 Mya ) onwards , and the true crickets , Gryllidae , from the Triassic period ( 250 to 200 Mya ) .
Cladogram after Gwynne , 1995 :
A phylogenetic study by Jost & Shaw in 2006 using sequences from 18S , 28S , and 16S rRNA supported the monophyly of Ensifera . Most ensiferan families were also found to be monophyletic , and the superfamily Gryllacridoidea was found to include Stenopelmatidae , Anostostomatidae , Gryllacrididae and Lezina . Schizodactylidae and Grylloidea were shown to be sister taxa , and Rhaphidophoridae and Tettigoniidae were found to be more closely related to Grylloidea than had previously been thought . The authors stated that " a high degree of conflict exists between the molecular and morphological data , possibly indicating that much homoplasy is present in Ensifera , particularly in acoustic structures . " They considered that tegmen stridulation and tibial tympanae are ancestral to Ensifera and have been lost on multiple occasions , especially within the Gryllidae .
More than 900 species of Gryllidae ( true crickets ) are known . The family is divided into these subfamily groups , subfamilies , and extinct genera ( not placed within the subfamilies ) :
= = In human culture = =
= = = Folklore and myth = = =
The folklore and mythology surrounding crickets is extensive . The singing of crickets in the folklore of Brazil and elsewhere is sometimes taken to be a sign of impending rain , or of a financial windfall . In Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca 's chronicles of the Spanish conquest of the Americas , the sudden chirping of a cricket heralded the sighting of land for his crew , just as their water supply had run out . In Caraguatatuba , Brazil , a black cricket in a room is said to portend illness ; a gray one , money ; and a green one , hope . In Alagoas state , northeast Brazil , a cricket announces death , thus it is killed if it chirps in a house . In Barbados , a loud cricket means money is coming in ; hence , a cricket must not be killed or evicted if it chirps inside a house . However , another type of cricket that is less noisy forebodes illness or death .
= = = In literature = = =
Crickets feature as major characters in novels and children 's books . Charles Dickens 's 1845 novella The Cricket on the Hearth , divided into sections called " Chirps " , tells the story of a cricket which chirps on the hearth and acts as a guardian angel to a family . Carlo Collodi 's 1883 children 's book " Le avventure di Pinocchio " ( The Adventures of Pinocchio ) featured " Il Grillo Parlante " ( The Talking Cricket ) as one of its characters . George Selden 's 1960 children 's book The Cricket in Times Square tells the story of Chester the cricket from Connecticut who joins a family and their other animals , and is taken to see Times Square in New York . The story , which won the Newbery Honor , came to Selden on hearing a real cricket chirp in Times Square .
The French entomologist Jean @-@ Henri Fabre 's popular Souvenirs Entomoloqiques devotes a whole chapter to the cricket , discussing its construction of a burrow and its song @-@ making . The account is mainly of the field cricket , but also mentions the Italian cricket .
Crickets have from time to time appeared in poetry . William Wordsworth 's 1805 poem The Cottager to Her Infant includes the couplet " The kitten sleeps upon the hearth , The crickets long have ceased their mirth " . John Keats 's 1819 poem Ode to Autumn includes the lines " Hedge @-@ crickets sing ; and now with treble soft / The redbreast whistles from a garden @-@ croft " . The Chinese Tang dynasty poet Du Fu ( 712 – 770 ) wrote a poem that in the translation by J. P. Seaton begins " House cricket ... Trifling thing . And yet how his mournful song moves us . Out in the grass his cry was a tremble , But now , he trills beneath our bed , to share his sorrow . "
= = = As pets and fighting animals = = =
Crickets are kept as pets and are considered good luck in some countries ; in China , they are sometimes kept in cages or in hollowed @-@ out gourds specially created in novel shapes . The practice was common in Japan for thousands of years ; it peaked in the 19th century , though crickets are still sold at pet shops . It is also common to have them as caged pets in some European countries , particularly in the Iberian Peninsula . Cricket fighting is a traditional Chinese pastime that dates back to the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) . Originally an indulgence of emperors , cricket fighting later became popular among commoners . The dominance and fighting ability of males does not depend on strength alone ; it has been found that they become more aggressive after certain pre @-@ fight experiences such as isolation , or when defending a refuge . Crickets forced to fly for a short while will afterwards fight for two to three times longer than they otherwise would .
= = = As food = = =
In the southern part of Asia including Cambodia , Laos , Thailand and Vietnam , crickets are commonly eaten as a snack , prepared by deep frying the soaked and cleaned insects . In Thailand , there are 20 @,@ 000 farmers rearing crickets , with an estimated production of 7 @,@ 500 tons per year and United Nation 's FAO has implemented a project in Laos to improve cricket farming and consequently food security .
The food conversion efficiency of house crickets ( Acheta domesticus ) is 1 @.@ 7 , some five times higher than that for beef cattle , and if their fecundity is taken into account , 15 to 20 times higher .
More and more small companies in western countries are processing crickets to convert them in powder ( often referred to as flour ) to produce processed food products like protein bars , cricket pasta , and cookies . This innovation is part of a general diffusion of edible insects as food . Crickets are reared on a large scale as food for carnivorous zoo and laboratory animals ; they may be " gut loaded " with additional minerals , such as calcium , to provide a balanced diet for predators such as tree frogs ( Hylidae ) .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Cricket characters feature in the Walt Disney animated movies Pinocchio ( 1940 ) , where Jiminy Cricket becomes the title character 's conscience , and in Mulan ( 1998 ) , where Cri @-@ kee is carried in a cage as a symbol of luck , in the Asian manner . The Crickets was the name of Buddy Holly 's rock and roll band ; Holly 's home town baseball team in the 1990s was called the Lubbock Crickets . Cricket is the name of a US children 's literary magazine founded in 1973 ; it uses a cast of insect characters . The sound of crickets is often used in media to emphasize silence , often for comic effect after an awkward joke , in a similar manner to tumbleweed .
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= Smartsheet =
Smartsheet is a software as a service ( SaaS ) application for collaboration and work management that is developed and marketed by Smartsheet.com , Inc . It is used to assign tasks , track project progress , manage calendars , share documents and manage other work . It has a spreadsheet @-@ like user interface . As of November 2014 , Smartsheet is used by 5 million people at 55 @,@ 000 organizations . It was initially unpopular until a redesign in 2010 , which was followed by an increase in adoption and larger funding rounds .
= = Smartsheet service = =
Smartsheet is used to collaborate on project timelines , documents , calendars , tasks and other work . It combines some of the functionality of Microsoft Excel , Project , Access and Sharepoint . It competes with Microsoft Project . As of November 2014 , there are 5 million users of Smartsheet at 55 @,@ 000 organizations .
= = = Features = = =
According to Forbes , Smartsheet has " a relatively simple " user interface . The interface centers on " smartsheets , " which are similar to spreadsheets typically found in Microsoft Excel . Each smartsheet can have its rows expanded or collapsed to see individual tasks or large @-@ scale project progress respectively . Tasks can be sorted by deadline , priority or the person assigned to it . If a spreadsheet contains dates , Smartsheet will create a calendar view .
Each row in a smartsheet may have files attached to it , emails stored within it , and a discussion board associated with it . When a new smartsheet is created , notifications are pushed out to staff to populate its rows and columns . As information is updated , other smartsheets tracking the same task , project or data @-@ point are updated automatically . The service also has alerts for when a task deadline is coming up , and keeps track of document versions .
Smartsheet can import data from Microsoft Office or Google applications . The software integrates with services like Salesforce.com , Dropbox and Amazon Web Services . There is also a Smartsheet mobile app for Android and iPhone operating systems . Smartsheet is sold on a subscription basis with no free version .
= = = History = = =
Smartsheet was first introduced in 2006 . According to the company 's co @-@ founder , Brent Frei , initial adoption was slow because the software was too difficult to use . At the end of its first year , it had only 10 @,@ 000 users . The company began making changes to the software in 2008 , eventually cutting 60 percent of its features for the purpose of making it more user @-@ friendly . Following the 2010 launch of the redesign , adoption grew to 1 million users at 20 @,@ 000 organizations by 2012 .
Integration with Microsoft Office 365 and Microsoft Azure were added in 2014 . That October the Account Map tool was introduced , which uses an algorithm to visualize the flow of work across groups of employees . In August 2014 , version 2 @.@ 0 of the Smartsheet iOS app was introduced . It made a spreadsheet @-@ like user interface the focus of the app 's user interface , whereas previously the mobile interface was different than the spreadsheet @-@ oriented desktop version .
In 2015 , Smartsheet started introducing closer integrations with Microsoft Office products , in part thanks to changes Microsoft was making in their products to work better with third @-@ party software . In January 2015 , Smartsheet added support for Microsoft 's identity management software Azure Active Directory , which allowed users to log in to products like Excel and Smartsheet with the same login . Users can also now make changes to smartsheets directly from Microsoft Outlook .
= = Smartsheet.com , Inc . = =
Smartsheet.com , Inc. is a private company that develops and markets the Smartsheet application . As of April 2015 , it has about 200 employees and is headquartered in Bellevue , Washington . It operates data centers in Texas , Virginia and Illinois .
The company was founded in the summer of 2006 , shortly after co @-@ founder Brent Frei sold his prior company , Onyx Software . Initially it was funded mostly by Frei . About a year after its founding , Smartsheet had raised $ 4 million in funding and had just nine employees . By early 2012 it had raised $ 8 @.@ 2 million in funding over three rounds and hired its first salesperson .
After the Smartsheet software was redesigned in 2010 , the company 's revenues grew by more than 100 percent each year , for four consecutive years . It raised $ 26 million in funding in December 2012 and another $ 35 million in May 2015 .
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= The Dorchester =
The Dorchester is a five @-@ star luxury hotel on Park Lane and Deanery Street , London , to the east of Hyde Park . It is one of the world 's most prestigious and expensive hotels . The Dorchester opened on 18 April 1931 , and still retains its 1930s furnishings and ambiance despite being modernised .
Throughout its history the hotel has been closely associated with the rich and famous . During the 1930s it became known as a haunt of numerous writers and artists such as poet Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , novelist Somerset Maugham , and the painter Sir Alfred Munnings . It held prestigious literary gatherings , notably the " Foyles Literary Luncheons " , an event the hotel still hosts today . During the Second World War , the strength of its construction gave the hotel the reputation of being one of London 's safest buildings , and a host of political and military luminaries chose it as their London residence . Queen Elizabeth II attended the Dorchester when she was a princess on the day prior to the announcement of her engagement to the Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh on 10 July 1947 . The hotel has since become particularly popular with film actors , models and rock stars , and Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton frequently stayed at the hotel throughout the 1960s and 1970s . The hotel became a Grade II Listed Building in January 1981 , and was subsequently purchased by the Sultan of Brunei in 1985 . It belongs to the Dorchester Collection , which in turn is owned by the Brunei Investment Agency ( BIA ) , an arm of the Ministry of Finance of Brunei .
In the 1950s , theatrical designer Oliver Messel made a number of notable changes to the interior of the hotel , incorporating aspects of theatrical design into the hotel interior . He designed the lavish apartments on the 7th and 8th floors ; the Oliver Messel Suite is named after him , designed in the Georgian country house style . Between 1988 and 1990 , the hotel was completely renovated by Bob Lush of the Richmond Design Group at a cost of US $ 100 million .
Today The Dorchester has five restaurants : The Grill , Alain Ducasse , The Spatisserie , The Promenade , and China Tang . Alain Ducasse 's restaurant is one of the UK 's four 3 @-@ Michelin @-@ starred restaurants . Afternoon tea , a tradition which has taken place at the hotel since its opening in 1931 , is served every day of the week at five in the afternoon in The Promenade and the Spatisserie . Harry Craddock , one of the world 's most famous barmen of the 1930s , invented the " Dorchester of London " cocktail here at the Dorchester Bar . A well @-@ lit plane tree stands at the edge of the hotel in the front garden , and was named one of the " Great Trees of London " by the London Tree Forum and Countryside Commission in 1997 .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The site was originally part of the Manor of Hyde , which was given to William the Conqueror by Geoffrey de Mandeville . Joseph Damer acquired it in the 18th century and a large building was constructed in 1751 . It was named Dorchester House in 1792 after Damer became the Earl of Dorchester . In the early 19th century it became the Hertford House after it was purchased by Francis Seymour @-@ Conway , the 3rd Marquess of Hertford , and alterations were made to it , inspired by the Villa Farnese of Rome . Following the death of Hertford , it was converted into a mansion by Captain Robert Stayner Holford .
The background to the development of the Dorchester Hotel is complicated . Sir Malcolm McAlpine , a partner in the building company , Sir Robert McAlpine & Sons , and Sir Frances Towle , the managing director of Gordon Hotels Ltd . , shared a vision of creating the ‘ perfect hotel ’ : ultramodern and ultra @-@ efficient , with all the conveniences modern technology could supply . The two companies purchased Hertford House in 1929 and quickly demolished it . The British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) had also shown an interest in purchasing it and had almost done so prior to the McAlpine acquisition , but instead they turned their attention to Foley House . The purchase and destruction of Hertford House was part of significant redevelopment which took place on Park Lane during this period ; it followed the gutting of Grosvenor House and the building of the Grosvenor Hotel , which was completed in 1929 .
= = = Construction = = =
Sir Owen Williams was commissioned to design the new hotel , using reinforced concrete to allow the creation of large internal spaces without support pillars , but he abandoned the project in February 1930 and was replaced with William Curtis Green . James Maude Richards , hired by Williams , served as an architectural assistant within the all @-@ engineer staff . Percy Morley Horder , consulting architect to Gordon 's Hotels , had not been consulted during the design process and , after seeing the plan , resigned from the project , remarking to The Observer that the design was ill @-@ suited for the location , assuming the concrete was to be left unpainted and that the insulation would be minimal . Some 40 @,@ 000 tonnes of earth were excavated to make room for the hotel 's extensive basement which is one @-@ third of the size of the hotel above the surface . The upper eight floors were erected in just 10 weeks , supported on a massive 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) thick reinforced concrete deck that forms the roof of the first floor . With the development of the Dorchester , concerns were raised that Park Lane would soon become New York City 's Fifth Avenue .
= = = 1931 – 1945 = = =
The new Dorchester Hotel was feted with a grand opening on 18 April ( 21 April also cited ) 1931 by Lady Violet Astor . The Dorchester quickly gained reputation as a luxury hotel . During the 1930s it became known as a haunt of numerous writers and artists such as poet Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , novelist Somerset Maugham , and the painter Sir Alfred Munnings . There were prestigious literary gatherings , including " Foyles Literary Luncheons " , an event the hotel still hosts . Shortly after the opening , Sir Percival David , a leading admirer of Chinese porcelain , moved his growing collection from the Mayfair Hotel to the Dorchester , where he kept it in his suites for many years . Danny Kaye began appearing in cabaret at the hotel in the 1930s , initially earning £ 50 a week . Many blues and jazz artists appeared at the hotel , including Alberta Hunter and the Jack Jackson Orchestra . In 1934 , Hunter and her orchestra recorded Noël Coward 's " I Travel Alone " and Cole Porter 's " Miss Ortis Regrets " at the hotel ; both Coward and Porter were fans . It also became a rendezvous for many businessmen ; it was at the Dorchester that British Petroleum formed a joint Collaborate Committee with ICI in 1943 .
During the Second World War , the strength of its construction gave the hotel the reputation of being one of London 's safest buildings . On its opening , Sir Malcolm McAlpine declared it to be " bomb @-@ proof , earthquake @-@ proof and fireproof , " and the only damage inflicted on the building by the Luftwaffe during the war was several broken windows . Some felt the communal air @-@ raid shelter in the basement to be insufficiently exclusive and retreated to the hotel 's underground gymnasium and Turkish baths , which had been converted into a shelter by Victor Cazalet . Its wartime clientele included such political and military luminaries as Lord Halifax ( Foreign Minister ) , Oliver Stanley ( Minister for War ) , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal ( Chief of the Air Staff ) , Duff Cooper ( with his wife Lady Diana Cooper ) , Oliver Lyttleton ( President of the Board of Trade ) and Duncan Sandys ( Financial Secretary to the War Office ) . Halifax and his wife took eight rooms as well as a chapel in the hotel , and when possible he enjoyed trysts with his mistress , Alexandra " Baba " Metcalfe , who was also staying in the hotel and concurrently having an affair with Dino Grandi , Mussolini 's representative in London . General Dwight D. Eisenhower took a suite on the first floor ( now the Eisenhower Suite ) in 1942 after having previously stayed at Claridge 's and in 1944 made it his headquarters ; Kay Summersby , his chauffeur and purported mistress , and Roosevelt ’ s representative Averell Harriman also stayed there thanks to its reputation as a safe haven . During a dinner party which Harriman attended in the Dorchester , the bombing was so intense that guests came down to join him there as it was safer than in the upper @-@ floor rooms . Bostonian Sherry Mangan of Time was one of several American correspondents who stayed at the hotel during the war , meeting the Trotskyist Sam Gordon in 1944 who asked if the Dorchester was safe from air raids , to which Mangan assured him that " every fifth columnist in London is staying here " . Other of the hotel 's guests reflected the directors ' wide @-@ ranging political beliefs : it was at once the base for the Zionist movement 's leaders , including Chaim Weizmann , as well as a group of upper @-@ class British anti @-@ Semites , including Margaret Greville . According to Cecil Beaton the clientele was a " mixed brew " ; to its wartime chronicler , it was " a building in which the respectable and the dubious mixed by the thousand , knocking back cocktails and indulging in careless talk " . In March 1945 , Ernest Hemingway and Time correspondent and lover Mary Welsh stayed at the Dorchester , where they were entertained by Emerald , Lady Cunard , who had a three @-@ room suite on the seventh floor .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
In 1949 , the 150th anniversary of Alexander Pushkin 's birth was organized at the hotel by the Society of Cultural Relations with the USSR , attended by the Soviet chargé d 'affaires , the Polish ambassador , the Romanian minister , and Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , raising Mi5 's suspicions that he still had communist sympathies , a contention he later denounced . In the post @-@ war period , the Dorchester became one of the most popular hotels in London for actors and entertainers , and the banqueting rooms and suites became known for their press conferences and parties . Diners at the Dorchester included Cyril Connolly , T. S. Eliot , Harold Nicolson , and Edith Sitwell , with a clientele of luminaries such as Ralph Richardson , Elizabeth Taylor , Alfred Hitchcock , and Barbra Streisand . Queen Elizabeth II attended the Dorchester when she was a princess on the day prior to the announcement of her engagement to the Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh on 10 July 1947 . Prince Philip also held his stag night party at the hotel , which has been documented in a plaque .
When Said bin Taimur of Oman was ousted in a coup in July 1970 and replaced with his son Qaboos bin Said , he was sent in exile and lived at the Dorchester until his death in 1972 . The McAlpine family owned the hotel until 1977 when they sold it to a consortium of businessmen from the Middle East headed by the Sultan of Brunei . On 3 June 1982 , Shlomo Argov , the Israeli ambassador to the United Kingdom was shot and seriously injured in an assassination attempt as he left the Dorchester . The attack was the immediate cause for the 1982 Lebanon War .
In 1985 , the hotel was purchased by the Sultan of Brunei . The hotel is currently owned by the Dorchester Collection , which in turn is owned by the Brunei Investment Agency ( BIA ) , an arm of the Ministry of Finance of Brunei . The Dorchester Collection owns luxury hotels in the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Switzerland and Italy . In 1988 , the hotel closed for two years for a major refurbishment .
In June 1998 the brother of the Sultan of Brunei , Prince Jefri Bolkiah , was sued by his former business partners in a case that was settled out of court . During the case the Manoukians claimed that Prince Jefri kept 40 prostitutes at a time at the Dorchester . In 1999 , the hotel hosted the first ever Pride of Britain Awards . In March 2002 , a robbery took place in the lobby of the hotel when thieves wearing ski masks smashed the jewelry cabinets with a sledgehammer and took off with jewels . The Dorchester celebrated its 80th anniversary in 2011 . To mark the event , the charity ‘ Trees for Cities ’ planted eighty ‘ future great trees ’ around the capital .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The architectural style adopted by William Curtis Green , largely based on Owen William 's design , was a departure from the Neoclassical with its reinforced concrete covered over with terrazzo slabs . British Modernists were disappointed with the result , describing Green 's adaptation as , " a genteel period piece which looks the compromise it is " . In comparison to some of the other hotels in London such as the Lanesborough , the building 's exterior is unremarkable . It is eight storeys high aside from the ground floor , with the central bay containing three windows on each floor . Christopher Matthew has stated that he thinks of the Dorchester as a " rather American hotel " , not only because of the strong association with American actors such as Elizabeth Taylor , but because the sweeping 1930s facade reminded him of many of those which appeared in American film musicals . However , he notes that the hotel still remains " very much an English hotel " . The hotel became a Grade II Listed Building in January 1981 .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior displays a " subtle amalgam of styles " , testament to the number of different designers involved over the years , including William Curtis Green , Oliver Ford , Alberto Pinto and Oliver Messel . Green designed the original interior which is still retained in part . Kim Einhorn believes that this fusion of style was achieved tastefully and has remarked that the Dorchester Hotel is " a good example of somewhere it may be better to add decor rather than completely re @-@ invent " . DK Eyewitness describes the Dorchester as " the epitome of the glamorous luxury hotel , with an outrageously lavish lobby and a star @-@ studded history " . Rooms include the Grill Room , the Ballroom , the Gold Room , the Crush Hall , the ( former ) Oriental Restaurant , and the Dorchester Bar . The Ballroom was built to accommodate some 1 @,@ 000 guests . Thomas Prebensen Steen , in his book Remarkable hotels of Europe , describes the doors of the hotel , " Effectively set off by the ivory walls between the pilasters behind the row of Corinthian columns , the doorways are easily recognised as decorative masterpieces in their own right : dominated by stuccoed , classic pediments decorated with friezes and gilded details , these impressive portals , with either double or single , richly panelled Georgian mahogany doors , make a regal link between the Promenade and Dorchester 's renowned , stunning banqueting rooms . " Gold leaf and marble remain distinct features of the public rooms of the hotel , including the restaurants , with features more reminiscent of an English country house than a hotel . Considerable efforts to make the rooms soundproof at the Dorchester were made from the outset ; the exterior walls were faced with cork , and the floors and ceilings of the bedrooms and suites were lined with compressed seaweed . Following renovation , the hotel was fitted with double glazing , and triple glazing on the Park Lane side to further improve soundproofing .
In the 1950s , theatrical designer Oliver Messel made a number of notable changes to the interior of the hotel . He incorporated aspects of theatrical design into the hotel interior , and designed the lavish apartments on the 7th and 8th floors . As Country Life documented , Messel 's rooms at the hotel " represents a rare glimpse into the world of mid @-@ 20th @-@ century interior design " , in which he drew upon his skills as a theatre designer to fill his rooms with " tricks of space and light , colour and period reference " . Today one of the suites is named after him , the Oliver Messel Suite . This suite displays a remarkable Georgian country house ambiance . Messel made the changes on the Deanery Side of the building in 1952 / 3 . Oliver Frederick Ford served as consultant designer from 1962 , decorating both the Stanhope Suite and the Orchid Room , a corner of which was completely re @-@ built and decorated in the English rococo style . He also remodelled the white , gold , and green entrance hall . The current dark green staff uniform of The Dorchester was designed in 1980 and is also attributed to Ford .
Between 1988 and 1990 , the hotel was completely renovated by Bob Lush of the Richmond Design Group at a cost of $ 100 million . The Promenade , Grill Room , and the Oliver Messel Suite were restored during the renovation . The Dorchester Spa is also designed in an Art Deco style , featuring , as Steen puts it , " elegant statues , engraved panels after René Lalique , blond maple woodwork , and a decorative pond with a group of small bronze foundations formed as water lilies producing gentle sounds of waterfall " . Liberace 's piano sits in the lobby .
As of 2012 , the Dorchester has 250 rooms and 49 suites . In the rooms , specially @-@ made Irish linen sheets cover the four poster beds , with cherry wood furnishings . The bath tubs , cited as " probably the deepest in London " , are made of Italian marble in the Art Deco style . All rooms in the hotel either provide views of Hyde Park or of its landscaped terraces . During the major renovation of 2002 , all rooms and suites were fitted with modern telecommunication systems . The hotel has its own floristry team , led by designer florist Philip Hammond , who are responsible for regularly updating the flowers on display in the hotel and providing their services for weddings and special occasions .
= = = Restaurants = = =
The Dorchester has five restaurants : The Grill , Alain Ducasse , The Spatisserie , The Promenade , and China Tang , and three bars , two of which are in the last two restaurants . Employing 90 full @-@ time chefs , the hotel has long had a reputation for its cuisine , and chefs such as Jean Baptiste Virlogeux , Eugene Kaufeler , Willi Elsener and Anton Mosimann have all run restaurants there . Mosimann ran the Maitre Chef des Cuisines at the Dorchester for 13 years . Virlogeux , head chef during the Second World War , had to succumb to rationing and a national maximum @-@ price restriction of five shillings for a three @-@ course meal .
Alain Ducasse 's restaurant , Alain Ducasse at the Dorchester , holds three Michelin stars . When refurbished along with other parts of the hotel in 2007 , the redesign purposefully retained its 1940s influence . The restaurant serves contemporary French cuisine using seasonal French and British ingredients . The restaurant features a special table for up to six diners called the " Table Lumière " , lit by 4500 fibre optic lights . It is surrounded by a thin white curtain which allows diners at the table to view out into the restaurant but prevents other diners from viewing in .
The Grill restaurant , which serves British cuisine , is decorated in a Moorish theme , attributed to King Alfonso 's influence during his time in London in exile in the 1930s . The cream @-@ painted walls feature gilded gratings and mirrored arches and display a Flemish tapestry . The ceilings are ornate , featuring gold leaves and brass chandeliers , and the room also features deep red riveted leather chairs and deep red curtains , with a Middle Eastern @-@ looking exotic carpet . According to restaurant critic Jay Rayner , " when you drill down on the menu it ’ s what the faded gentry used to call high tea . It ’ s nursery food at stupid prices . "
The Promenade was refurbished in 1990 by Leslie Wright with a gilded ceiling and reliefs and brass lanterns , and was altered again in 2005 by Thierry Despont , who fitted it with an oval leather bar ; it forms the grand entrance and has a length which is equal to that of Nelson 's Column . Piano music is played throughout much of the day , with live jazz from 19 : 30 . Afternoon tea , a tradition which has taken place at the hotel since its opening in 1931 , is served every day of the week at five in the afternoon in the large Promenade and the Spatisserie , with guests seated in decorative upholstered sofas with low tables placed in front of them . The tables are set with elegant silver cutlery and crockery , with Corinthian columns made of marble , glittering chandeliers , French tapestries and potted plants in the background . Tea is served by waiters dressed in English @-@ style long coats . Hollywood actor Charlton Heston , a frequent guest at the hotel , once commented on the aspect of service at the hotel : “ The cooks and bakers , the clerks and porters , the maids and the flower ladies , the bell men are the hotel ” .
The choice of tea offered to the guests is diverse , and includes the hotel 's own Dorchester Blend . The service includes a first course consisting of finger sandwiches with sliced cucumber , cream cheese , and smoked salmon , all served in silver trays , a second course consisting of scones with clotted cream and jam , followed by a pastry tray with a selection of freshly @-@ made patisseries .
China Tang is owned by the businessman David Tang and was opened in 2005 . The restaurant is luxuriously designed , with an art deco lounge bar reminiscent of 1930s Shanghai . The Spatisserie is an informal restaurant , which specialises in light snacks and afternoon tea , serving cakes , biscuits and pastries .
The Dorchester Bar was initially rebuilt in 1938 and was run by Harry Craddock , one of the world 's most famous barmen of the period , known for his Martini , Manhattan and White Lady cocktails . Craddock invented the " Dorchester of London " cocktail here in the 1930s . The bar was refurbished in 1979 . It was designed by Alberto Pinto with bleached wood , Provençale blue and white ceramic picture panels , and a mirrored ceiling . As of 2012 , the bar is curved and is furnished with rich " blacks , browns and aubergine – combined with lacquered mahogany , mirrored glass and velvet " . In the evenings , jazz is played in the bar . As of 2002 , the Dorchester had 460 different wines in stock .
= = = Grounds = = =
A plane tree , with its monumental root system , stands at the edge of the hotel in the well @-@ tended front garden . The branches of the tree are fitted with numerous bulbs which makes the night scene of the hotel evocative . Named one of the " Great Trees of London " by the London Tree Forum and Countryside Commission in 1997 , it featured in a BBC programme Meetings with Remarkable Trees in 2000 .
= = Entertainment = =
The hotel has continued to be associated with actors , rock stars and people in entertainment . Numerous film actors and people have auditioned , been interviewed or have stayed at the Dorchester over the years , and it is strongly associated with cinema , particularly American film . From the 1940s onwards the Dorchester was a common rendezvous for film producers , actors and casting agents . In 1940 , Gabriel Pascal and David Lean used Pascal 's hotel suite as the casting location for the movie Major Barbara ; Deborah Kerr , who auditioned for the film , said of it : " How bizarre it was . This room full of chaps smoking enormous cigars and drinking martinis and this young girl reciting the Lords ' Prayer . " In the 1940s , producer Earl St. John was found drunk at the hotel ; writer and co @-@ producer Eric Ambler promptly sent him back to John Davis in a taxi with a board around his neck with the words " Return to John Davis with compliments " . Ray Bradbury stayed at the hotel during the filming of Moby Dick ( 1956 ) . In 1964 , John Lennon was invited to attend one of the Foyle Literary Luncheons after he received acclaim for his book In His Own Write . John and Cynthia had not realised the notability of the event and attended with a hangover , with Lennon disappointing the crowd which had gathered at the Dorchester who were expecting a speech , simply muttering " Thank you very much , it 's been a pleasure " . Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor were regulars at the hotel throughout the 1960s and 1970s and spent their honeymoon in the Oliver Messel suite in March 1964 . Burton was interviewed in his suite while promoting The Wild Geese in 1978 .
The hotel has also hosted many footballers attending the F.A. Cup Finals over the years , and in 1961 Leicester City players checked in before playing Tottenham Hotspur . Taylor and Burton were staying there at the time . In 1972 , Raquel Welch visited Stamford Bridge and invited the Chelsea Football Club team back to a cocktail party at the Dorchester , which was also attended by the Rolling Stones . In 2003 , Ken Bates agreed to sell Chelsea Football Club to Roman Abramovich after they met for 20 minutes at the hotel . On 28 August 2007 , an honorary dinner for Nelson Mandela was held at the Dorchester on the eve of the unveiling of his statue on Parliament Square . It was also at a Dorchester suite that actor Christian Bale was alleged to have assaulted his mother and sister shortly before The Dark Knight premiere in July 2008 and was subsequently arrested . In 2014 numerous celebrities started boycotting the hotel due to its links to the introduction of Sharia Law in Brunei , which most famously includes the death penalty for homosexuality .
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= Balu Mahendra =
Balanathan Benjamin Mahendran ( 20 May 1939 – 13 February 2014 ) , commonly known as Balu Mahendra , was a Sri Lankan cinematographer , director , screenwriter and film editor , who worked in various Indian film industries , primarily in Tamil cinema . Born into a Sri Lankan Tamil household , Mahendra developed a passion towards photography and literature at a young age . He was drawn towards film @-@ making after witnessing the shoot of David Lean 's The Bridge on the River Kwai ( 1957 ) in Sri Lanka . A graduate of the London University , he started his career as a draughtsman before gaining an admission to the Film and Television Institute of India ( FTII ) to pursue a course in cinematography . Mahendra entered films as a cinematographer in the early 1970s and gradually rose to becoming a film @-@ maker by the end of the decade .
Making his directorial debut through the Kannada film Kokila ( 1977 ) , Mahendra made over 20 films in all South Indian languages and two in Hindi . He was one of the earliest film @-@ makers in Tamil cinema to introduce realism and helped revitalise the industry . At the tail end of his career , he established a film school in Chennai which offers courses in cinematography , direction and acting . Following a brief phase of poor health , Mahendra died of cardiac arrest in February 2014 .
Widely regarded as an auteur , Mahendra wrote the script for his films , handled the camera and edited the film himself apart from directing . He was the recipient of six National Film Awards — including two for Best Cinematography , three Filmfare Awards South , and several state awards from the governments of Kerala , Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh .
= = Early life = =
Mahendra was born in 1939 into a Sri Lankan Tamil family in the village Amirthakali near Batticaloa , Sri Lanka . Born to a professor father , he did his schooling at Methodist Central College and St. Michael 's College , Batticaloa . As a teenager , he was drawn towards films by his class teacher . It was during this time he happened to see Bicycle Thieves ( 1948 ) and Battleship Potemkin ( 1925 ) . When he was at the sixth grade , he got an opportunity to witness the making of David Lean 's The Bridge on the River Kwai ( shot in Sri Lanka ) during a school field trip . Inspired by Lean 's personality , Mahendra determined to become a film @-@ maker .
Right from his childhood , Mahendra was interested in fine arts and literature . Upon completion of school , he joined the London University and graduated with a bachelor 's degree ( honours ) in science . After his graduation , he returned to Sri Lanka and worked in Colombo as a draughtsman in the survey department for a brief period during which he edited a Tamil literary magazine titled Thyen Aruvi . In Colombo , he worked as an amateur drama artist with Radio Ceylon and got acquainted with the Sinhala theatre groups .
Mahendra 's passion for cinema prompted him to leave for India and join the Film and Television Institute of India , Pune in 1966 . He had to take up cinematography as he could not gain admissions to other disciplines . At the institute he was exposed to world cinema as he got an opportunity to watch films made by François Truffaut and Jean @-@ Luc Godard , both associated with the French New Wave movement . In 1969 , Mahendra graduated from the institute with a gold medal .
= = Film career = =
= = = Debut as cinematographer = = =
As a fresh graduate from the FTII , Mahendra 's early attempts to enter Tamil cinema were unsuccessful . He got his first break as a cinematographer in 1971 in the Malayalam film Nellu . Ramu Kariat , the director of Nellu , was impressed by A View from the Fortress , Mahendra 's diploma film at the FTII . Though the filming of Nellu began in 1971 , production delays postponed its release for three years . Meanwhile , Kariat signed up Mahendra for another film titled Maaya which released in 1972 . However , P. N. Menon 's Panimudakku ( 1972 ) got released before Maaya , thus becoming Mahendra 's first release . He continued to work in Malayalam films such as Sasthram Jayichu Manushyan Thottu ( 1973 ) , Kaliyugam ( 1973 ) and Chattakari ( 1974 ) .
Nellu , shot in colour , won the Kerala State Film Award for Best Cinematography after it was released in 1974 . Mahendra had continued successes with films such as Prayanam ( 1975 ) and Chuvanna Sandhyakkal ( 1975 ) , both fetching the state award for best photography to him for the second consecutive time . Between 1971 and 1976 , he worked in about 20 films — mostly in Malayalam — as a cinematographer . The following year he made his directorial debut with Kokila . Made in Kannada , the film was a " triangular love story " . In addition to a Best Screenplay award from the Karnataka government , Mahendra won his first National Film Award for Best Cinematography for the film . The film was both critically acclaimed and commercially successful . It was equally successful in the neighbouring state of Tamil Nadu and has the distinction of being the only Kannada film to complete 150 days in Madras ( now Chennai ) as of 2014 .
= = = Entry into Tamil films = = =
Despite being a Tamil , it was not until 1978 he worked in a Tamil film when he signed up as the cinematographer for J. Mahendran 's directorial debut Mullum Malarum ( 1978 ) . Apart from handling the cinematography , Mahendra involved himself in other aspects such as screenwriting , casting , editing and direction in the film . After completing Mullum Malarum , Mahendra decided to work on his second directorial venture , this time in Tamil . He named the film Azhiyadha Kolangal ( 1979 ) , which according to him was " partly autobiographical " . Inspired from the 1971 American film Summer of ' 42 , Azhiyadha Kolangal was a coming @-@ of @-@ age film that dealt with the story of three adolescent boys who are in the awakening of sexuality . Although it was controversial for its theme , it was a box @-@ office success . During this time he did the cinematography of K. Vishwanath 's Telugu film Sankarabharanam ( 1979 ) which turned out to be a major critical and commercial success .
Mahendra 's third film as director Moodu Pani ( 1980 ) was loosely based on Alfred Hitchcock 's 1960 film Psycho . Moodu Pani saw Mahendra collaborating with Ilaiyaraaja for the first time ; Ilaiyaraaja was Mahendra 's regular composer since then . In 1982 , Mahendra made Moondram Pirai which had Kamal Haasan and Sridevi in the lead . The film told the story of a school teacher who looks after a girl suffering from amnesia . It had a 300 @-@ day run in the theatres and was labelled a " blockbuster " . The film fetched two National Film Awards including an award for cinematography for Mahendra . The same year he made Olangal ( 1982 ) which marked his directorial debut in Malayalam . Inspired from Erich Segal 's novel Man , Woman and Child , the film was a critical success . At the end of the year , Mahendra won two Filmfare trophies for directing Olangal and Moondram Pirai .
In 1983 , Mahendra entered Hindi cinema with Sadma , a remake of Moondram Pirai , with Kamal Hasan and Sridevi reprising their roles . Mahendra received a Filmfare nomination for Best Story and became a well @-@ known director with the Hindi audience with the film . The same year , he worked as the cinematographer of the Kannada film Pallavi Anu Pallavi , Mani Ratnam 's debut film . During this time , he made his second film in Malayalam titled Oomakkuyil . Unlike Olangal , Oomakkuyil failed to create an impact among the audience .
= = = Mainstream cinema and tryst with art film genre = = =
During the mid 1980s , Mahendra concentrated on mainstream films . The first of which Neengal Kettavai ( 1984 ) was labelled an outright commercial picture . Later Mahendra noted that he made the film with a sole intention to prove critics that he could make commercial films . The following year , he collaborated with Rajinikanth to make Un Kannil Neer Vazhindal which turned out to be a commercial failure . He then worked on the Malayalam film Yathra ( 1985 ) with Mammooty in the lead role as a forest officer . Made with " artistic values " the film earned ₹ 1 @.@ 9 million ( equivalent to ₹ 20 million or US $ 290 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) and was the highest @-@ grossing Malayalam film that year . By this time , he declined an offer to direct the Kannada film Malaya Marutha ( 1986 ) . As a director who is known for making intense films , critics were surprised when he made Rettai Vaal Kuruvi ( 1987 ) , a full @-@ length comedy film . Closely based on the 1984 American film Micki and Maude , the film is regarded as one of the best comedies ever made in Tamil cinema during the decade . The film would serve as a base for his future films Marupadiyum ( 1993 ) and Sathi Leelavathi ( 1995 ) which explored similar themes .
Towards the end of the decade , Mahendra made two low @-@ budgeted films — Veedu ( 1988 ) and Sandhya Raagam ( 1989 ) . While Veedu focused on the life of a lower middle @-@ class urban woman and her struggle to build a house , Sandhya Raagam dealt with " old age " . At the 35th , Veedu won two National Film Awards — including one for Best Regional Film — and Sandhya Raagam won the Best Film on Family Welfare two years later . According to Mahendra , both the films were a tribute to his mother and father respectively . He named these two films as his best works as they were made with fewest mistakes and compromises .
In 1992 , Mahendra made Vanna Vanna Pookkal which was produced by S. Dhanu . The film had a 100 @-@ day run and won the award for the " Best Regional Film " at the 39th National Film Awards . During this time M. Night Shyamalan , then a newcomer , approached Mahendra to be the cinematographer for his directorial debut Praying with Anger to which he refused . The next year , he remade Mahesh Bhatt 's Arth in Tamil as Marupadiyum . Mahendra made the film as he felt it was close to his personal life . He then came up with a full @-@ length comedy Sathi Leelavathi in 1995 which was produced by Kamal Haasan . The following year , he made a comeback in Bollywood through Aur Ek Prem Kahani , a remake of his Kannada film Kokila . He then made Raman Abdullah ( 1997 ) — a remake of the Malayalam film Malappuram Haji Mahanaya Joji ( 1994 ) — which deals with a friendship between two friends belonging to different religions . The film 's shoot became the epicentre of a dispute that arose between the Tamil Film Producers Council and Film Employees Federation of South India ( FEFSI ) . It was reported that members of FEFSI had stopped the filming of Raman Abdullah as Mahendra was engaging outside cast members in the film . This led FEFSI to go for an indefinite strike which affected to the delaying of several Tamil films . The film received negative reviews and failed at the box @-@ office .
After Raman Abdullah , Mahendra took a break from films during which he made Kathai Neram , a television series based on different short stories , mostly by Sujatha . It was aired in Sun TV during the early 2000s .
= = = Final years = = =
Following a five @-@ year sabbatical , he returned with Julie Ganapathi ( 2003 ) . The film was based on the psychological thriller novel Misery by Stephen King . According to Mahendra , Julie Ganapathi was made on the lines of his previous films Moondram Pirai ( 1982 ) and Moodu Pani ( 1980 ) . A review from Rediff.com stated , " Balu Mahendra has kept the flag of sensible cinema within the commercial format once again in his latest offering Julie Ganapathy " and rated the film as one of the best thrillers ever made . In spite of being a critical success , the film turned out to be a commercial failure . For his next film Adhu Oru Kana Kaalam ( 2005 ) , he decided to cast Dhanush in the lead role . Initially he stated that the film to be an extension of his 1979 film Azhiyatha Kolangal . However , he ended up making a different film . The film was loosely based on his own Malayalam film Yathra released in 1985 . When asked about the difference between the two films , he said " Yat [ h ] ra was the love story of two adults , this is the love story of two adolescents . " Shobha Warrier of Rediff.com wrote that the film was " extremely disappointing " .
In 2007 , he started a film school named " Cinema Pattarai " in Chennai . The institute offers courses in disciplines such as cinematography , direction and acting . After a brief hiatus from films , he made a comeback through Thalaimuraigal ( 2013 ) , which marked his acting debut . Apart from acting , he also scripted , directed , edited and served as the cinematographer of the film . The film was about the relationship between an ageing man and his grandson . The film received positive response with Mahendra 's acting being well acclaimed . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu stated , " If Mahendra 's aim was to make a film that can compete on a global level , Thalaimuraigal is a concrete step in that direction . " Despite being critically acclaimed , the film was a commercial failure . At the 61st National Film Awards , it won the Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration .
= = Personal life = =
Mahendra was married thrice . He was first married to Akhileshwari with whom he had a son . His relationship with actress Shoba ended in 1980 after she committed suicide following their marriage . Upon Shoba 's death , the media speculated that it was not a suicide and further added that Mahendra was responsible for her death . In 1985 , a case was filed against him and Akhileshwari as they were " illegally " staying in India ; both suffered four months of imprisonment for illegal immigration . However , the court after a few months dismissed the plea saying that his stay had " enriched " the Tamil culture as he had made significant contributions to Tamil cinema . Following that , Mahendra wrote a series of " sentimental musings " in the Tamil magazine Kumudam under the title Shobavum Naanum ( Shoba and me ) . Their relationship was later explored in the 1983 Malayalam film Lekhayude Maranam Oru Flashback by its director K. G. George . However , when the film was released , Mahendra in an interview said that he has nothing to do with the film and has not discussed about it with George . In 1998 , he married another actress Mounika and declared their marriage publicly in 2004 .
Following a heart attack on 13 February 2014 , Mahendra was admitted to Vijaya Hospital in Chennai where he was declared dead after six hours of cardiac arrest . Shortly after the news of his death , members of the Indian film industry posted their condolences in Twitter and Facebook . The Tamil film fraternity mourned the death and paid homage to him at his " film school " in Saligramam , Chennai , and decided not to work on the following day as a sign of respect . The last rites of Mahendra were performed at Porur crematorium on the same day .
= = Style and legacy = =
As a photographer , Mahendra was inspired by the works of French New Wave cinematographers such as Néstor Almendros and Michael Chapman . Among his contemporaries , he admired the works of Ashok Kumar . Mahendra believed a " well @-@ photographed movie is that which is very close to the script " . As a film @-@ maker , he claims himself as belonging to the realistic way of story @-@ telling devised by Satyajit Ray and Vittorio De Sica . Mahendra was drawn towards realistic cinema after watching Ray 's Pather Panchali ( 1955 ) . He is credited as being one among the earliest filmmakers to bring " naturalism " in Tamil cinema in the 1970s . He usually photographed , scripted and edited all his films . His films were characterised by strong " visual appeal " and minimal number of characters . A majority of his films centre on the complexity of human relationships and are known to portray women as strong characters . Although influenced by realism , his films Moodu Pani , Rettai Vaal Kuruvi and Julie Ganapathi heavily borrowed from American cinema .
Mahendra was equally praised for his cinematography and directorial finesse . Described by the media as " one of the finest cinematographers of Indian cinema " , he was among the first to pioneer innovative colour in South India . Subrata Mitra , the cinematographer of Ray , presented a viewfinder to Mahendra acknowledging his talent . Fellow cinematographer Madhu Ambat described that it was Mahendra who gave " fame " to those cameramen who came out of the FTII , and further noted that he was one of the few film @-@ makers who effectively used romantic realism . Lauded for usage of " natural lighting " , Mahendra was considered as " one of the few filmmakers in Tamil who believes in telling a story visually " . Kamal Haasan described that he was one of the few directors who balanced between art and popular cinema . As a film @-@ maker , he inspired contemporary actors and film @-@ makers such as Mani Ratnam , Kamal Haasan and Sripriya , He has mentored next generation film @-@ makers including Bala , Ameer , Vetrimaaran , Ram and Seenu Ramasamy . Cinematographers like Santosh Sivan , Ravi K. Chandran , Natarajan Subramaniam and K. V. Anand have taken inspirations from him . The negatives of his acclaimed films — Moodu Pani , Veedu , Sandhya Raagam , Marupadiyum and Sathi Leelavathi — are lost .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Filmography = =
= = = As director = = =
= = = As cinematographer only = = =
= = = Television = = =
Kathai Neram ( 2000 )
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= Birmingham =
Birmingham ( / ˈbɜːrmɪŋəm / ) is a major city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands of England . It is the largest and most populous British city outside London , with a population in 2014 of 1 @,@ 101 @,@ 360 . The city is in the West Midlands Built @-@ up Area , the third most populous urban area in the United Kingdom , with a population of 2 @,@ 440 @,@ 986 at the 2011 census . Birmingham is the second most populous metropolitan area in the UK with a population of 3 @.@ 8 million . This also makes Birmingham the 9th most populous metropolitan area in Europe .
A medium @-@ sized market town in the medieval period , Birmingham grew to international prominence in the 18th century at the heart of the Midlands Enlightenment and subsequent Industrial Revolution , which saw the town at the forefront of worldwide advances in science , technology and economic development , producing a series of innovations that laid many of the foundations of modern industrial society . By 1791 it was being hailed as " the first manufacturing town in the world " . Birmingham 's distinctive economic profile , with thousands of small workshops practising a wide variety of specialised and highly skilled trades , encouraged exceptional levels of creativity and innovation and provided a diverse and resilient economic base for industrial prosperity that was to last into the final quarter of the 20th century . Perhaps the most important invention in British history , the industrial steam engine , was invented in Birmingham . Its resulting high level of social mobility also fostered a culture of broad @-@ based political radicalism , that under leaders from Thomas Attwood to Joseph Chamberlain was to give it a political influence unparalleled in Britain outside London , and a pivotal role in the development of British democracy . From the summer of 1940 to the spring of 1943 , Birmingham was bombed heavily by the German Luftwaffe in what is known as the Birmingham Blitz . The damage done to the city 's infrastructure , in addition to a deliberate policy of demolition and new building by planners , led to extensive demolition and redevelopment in subsequent decades .
Today Birmingham 's economy is dominated by the service sector . The city is a major international commercial centre , ranked as a beta − world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ; and an important transport , retail , events and conference hub . Its metropolitan economy is the second largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $ 121.1bn ( 2014 ) , and its six universities make it the largest centre of higher education in the country outside London . Birmingham 's major cultural institutions – including the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra , the Birmingham Royal Ballet , the Birmingham Repertory Theatre , the Library of Birmingham and the Barber Institute of Fine Arts – enjoy international reputations , and the city has vibrant and influential grassroots art , music , literary and culinary scenes . Birmingham is the fourth @-@ most visited city in the UK by foreign visitors .
Birmingham 's sporting heritage can be felt worldwide , with the concept of the Football League and lawn tennis both originating from the city . Its most successful football club Aston Villa has won seven league titles and one European Cup with the other professional club being Birmingham City .
People from Birmingham are called Brummies , a term derived from the city 's nickname of Brum . This originates from the city 's dialect name , Brummagem , which may in turn have been derived from one of the city 's earlier names , Bromwicham . There is a distinctive Brummie accent and dialect .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ history and medieval = = =
Birmingham 's early history is that of a remote and marginal area . The main centres of population , power and wealth in the pre @-@ industrial English Midlands lay in the fertile and accessible river valleys of the Trent , the Severn and the Avon . The area of modern Birmingham lay in between , on the upland Birmingham Plateau and within the densely wooded and sparsely populated Forest of Arden .
There is evidence of early human activity in the Birmingham area dating back 10 @,@ 000 years , with stone age artefacts suggesting seasonal settlements , overnight hunting parties and woodland activities such as tree felling . The many burnt mounds that can still be seen around the city indicate that modern humans first intensively settled and cultivated the area during the bronze age , when a substantial but short @-@ lived influx of population occurred between 1700 BC and 1000 BC , possibly caused by conflict or immigration in the surrounding area . During the 1st @-@ century Roman conquest of Britain , the forested country of the Birmingham Plateau formed a barrier to the advancing Roman legions , who built the large Metchley Fort in the area of modern @-@ day Edgbaston in AD 48 , and made it the focus of a network of Roman roads .
Birmingham as a settlement dates from the Anglo @-@ Saxon era . The city 's name comes from the Old English Beormingahām , meaning the home or settlement of the Beormingas – indicating that Birmingham was established in the 6th or early 7th century as the primary settlement of an Anglian tribal grouping and regio of that name . Despite this early importance , by the time of the Domesday Book of 1086 the manor of Birmingham was one of the poorest and least populated in Warwickshire , valued at only 20 shillings , with the area of the modern city divided between the counties of Warwickshire , Staffordshire and Worcestershire .
The development of Birmingham into a significant urban and commercial centre began in 1166 , when the Lord of the Manor Peter de Bermingham obtained a charter to hold a market at his castle , and followed this with the creation of a planned market town and seigneurial borough within his demesne or manorial estate , around the site that became the Bull Ring . This established Birmingham as the primary commercial centre for the Birmingham Plateau at a time when the area 's economy was expanding rapidly , with population growth nationally leading to the clearance , cultivation and settlement of previously marginal land . Within a century of the charter Birmingham had grown into a prosperous urban centre of merchants and craftsmen . By 1327 it was the third @-@ largest town in Warwickshire , a position it would retain for the next 200 years .
= = = Early modern = = =
The principal governing institutions of medieval Birmingham – including the Guild of the Holy Cross and the lordship of the de Birmingham family – collapsed between 1536 and 1547 , leaving the town with an unusually high degree of social and economic freedom and initiating a period of transition and growth . By 1700 Birmingham 's population had increased fifteenfold and the town was the fifth @-@ largest in England and Wales .
The importance of the manufacture of iron goods to Birmingham 's economy was recognised as early as 1538 , and grew rapidly as the century progressed . Equally significant was the town 's emerging role as a centre for the iron merchants who organised finance , supplied raw materials and traded and marketed the industry 's products . By the 1600s Birmingham formed the commercial hub of a network of forges and furnaces stretching from South Wales to Cheshire and its merchants were selling finished manufactured goods as far afield as the West Indies . These trading links gave Birmingham 's metalworkers access to much wider markets , allowing them to diversify away from lower @-@ skilled trades producing basic goods for local sale , towards a broader range of specialist , higher @-@ skilled and more lucrative activities .
By the time of the English Civil War Birmingham 's booming economy , its expanding population , and its resulting high levels of social mobility and cultural pluralism , had seen it develop new social structures very different from those of more established areas . Relationships were built around pragmatic commercial linkages rather than the rigid paternalism and deference of feudal society , and loyalties to the traditional hierarchies of the established church and aristocracy were weak . The town 's reputation for political radicalism and its strongly Parliamentarian sympathies saw it attacked by Royalist forces in the Battle of Birmingham in 1643 , and it developed into a centre of Puritanism in the 1630s and as a haven for Nonconformists from the 1660s .
The 18th century saw this tradition of free @-@ thinking and collaboration blossom into the cultural phenomenon now known as the Midlands Enlightenment . The town developed into a notable centre of literary , musical , artistic and theatrical activity ; and its leading citizens – particularly the members of the Lunar Society of Birmingham – became influential participants in the circulation of philosophical and scientific ideas among Europe 's intellectual elite . The close relationship between Enlightenment Birmingham 's leading thinkers and its major manufacturers – in men like Matthew Boulton and James Keir they were often in fact the same people – made it particularly important for the exchange of knowledge between pure science and the practical world of manufacturing and technology . This created a " chain reaction of innovation " , forming a pivotal link between the earlier Scientific Revolution and the Industrial Revolution that would follow .
= = = Industrial Revolution = = =
Birmingham 's explosive industrial expansion started earlier than that of the textile @-@ manufacturing towns of the North of England , and was driven by different factors . Instead of the economies of scale of a low @-@ paid , unskilled workforce producing a single bulk commodity such as cotton or wool in large , mechanised units of production , Birmingham 's industrial development was built on the adaptability and creativity of a highly paid workforce with a strong division of labour , practising a broad variety of skilled specialist trades and producing a constantly diversifying range of products , in a highly entrepreneurial economy of small , often self @-@ owned workshops . This led to exceptional levels of inventiveness : between 1760 and 1850 – the core years of the Industrial Revolution – Birmingham residents registered over three times as many patents as those of any other British town or city .
The demand for capital to feed rapid economic expansion also saw Birmingham grow into a major financial centre with extensive international connections . Lloyds Bank was founded in the town in 1765 , and Ketley 's Building Society , the world 's first building society , in 1775 . By 1800 the West Midlands had more banking offices per head than any other region in Britain , including London .
Innovation in 18th @-@ century Birmingham often took the form of incremental series of small @-@ scale improvements to existing products or processes , but also included major developments that lay at the heart of the emergence of industrial society . In 1709 the Birmingham @-@ trained Abraham Darby I moved to Coalbrookdale in Shropshire and built the first blast furnace to successfully smelt iron ore with coke , transforming the quality , volume and scale on which it was possible to produce cast iron . In 1732 Lewis Paul and John Wyatt invented roller spinning , the " one novel idea of the first importance " in the development of the mechanised cotton industry . In 1741 they opened the world 's first cotton mill in Birmingham 's Upper Priory . In 1746 John Roebuck invented the lead chamber process , enabling the large @-@ scale manufacture of sulphuric acid , and in 1780 James Keir developed a process for the bulk manufacture of alkali , together marking the birth of the modern chemical industry . In 1765 Matthew Boulton opened the Soho Manufactory , pioneering the combination and mechanisation under one roof of previously separate manufacturing activities through a system known as " rational manufacture " . As the largest manufacturing unit in Europe this come to symbolise the emergence of the factory system .
Most significant , however , was the development in 1776 of the industrial steam engine by James Watt and Matthew Boulton . Freeing for the first time the manufacturing capacity of human society from the limited availability of hand , water and animal power , this was arguably the pivotal moment of the entire industrial revolution and a key factor in the worldwide increases in productivity that would follow over the following century .
= = = Regency and Victorian = = =
Birmingham rose to national political prominence in the campaign for political reform in the early 19th century , with Thomas Attwood and the Birmingham Political Union bringing the country to the brink of civil war during the Days of May that preceded the passing of the Great Reform Act in 1832 . The Union 's meetings on Newhall Hill in 1831 and 1832 were the largest political assemblies Britain had ever seen . Lord Durham , who drafted the Act , wrote that " the country owed Reform to Birmingham , and its salvation from revolution " . This reputation for having " shaken the fabric of privilege to its base " in 1832 led John Bright to make Birmingham the platform for his successful campaign for the Second Reform Act of 1867 , which extended voting rights to the urban working class .
Birmingham 's tradition of innovation continued into the 19th century . Birmingham was the terminus for both of the world 's first two long @-@ distance railway lines : the 82 mile Grand Junction Railway of 1837 and the 112 mile London and Birmingham Railway of 1838 . Birmingham schoolteacher Rowland Hill invented the postage stamp and created the first modern universal postal system in 1839 . Alexander Parkes invented the first man @-@ made plastic in the Jewellery Quarter in 1855 .
By the 1820s , an extensive canal system had been constructed , giving greater access to natural resources and fuel for industries . During the Victorian era , the population of Birmingham grew rapidly to well over half a million and Birmingham became the second largest population centre in England . Birmingham was granted city status in 1889 by Queen Victoria . Joseph Chamberlain , mayor of Birmingham and later an MP , and his son Neville Chamberlain , who was Lord Mayor of Birmingham and later the British Prime Minister , are two of the most well @-@ known political figures who have lived in Birmingham . The city established its own university in 1900 .
= = = 20th century and contemporary = = =
Birmingham suffered heavy bomb damage during World War II 's " Birmingham Blitz " . The city was also the scene of two scientific discoveries that were to prove critical to the outcome of the war . Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls first described how a practical nuclear weapon could be constructed in the Frisch – Peierls memorandum of 1940 , the same year that the cavity magnetron , the key component of radar and later of microwave ovens , was invented by John Randall and Henry Boot . Details of these two discoveries , together with an outline of the first jet engine invented by Frank Whittle in nearby Rugby , were taken to the United States by the Tizard Mission in September 1940 , in a single black box later described by an official American historian as " the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores " .
The city was extensively redeveloped during the 1950s and 1960s . This included the construction of large tower block estates , such as Castle Vale . The Bull Ring was reconstructed and New Street station was redeveloped . In the decades following World War II , the ethnic makeup of Birmingham changed significantly , as it received waves of immigration from the Commonwealth of Nations and beyond . The city 's population peaked in 1951 at 1 @,@ 113 @,@ 000 residents .
Birmingham remained by far Britain 's most prosperous provincial city as late as the 1970s , with household incomes exceeding even those of London and the South East , but its economic diversity and capacity for regeneration declined in the decades that followed World War II as Central Government sought to restrict the city 's growth and disperse industry and population to the stagnating areas of Scotland , Wales and Northern England . These measures hindered " the natural self @-@ regeneration of businesses in Birmingham , leaving it top @-@ heavy with the old and infirm " , and the city became increasingly dependent on the motor industry . The recession of the early 1980s saw Birmingham 's economy collapse , with unprecedented levels of unemployment and outbreaks of social unrest in inner @-@ city districts .
In recent years , many parts of Birmingham has been transformed , with the redevelopment of the Bullring Shopping Centre and regeneration of old industrial areas such as Brindleyplace , The Mailbox and the International Convention Centre . Old streets , buildings and canals have been restored , the pedestrian subways have been removed and the Inner Ring Road has been rationalised . In 1998 Birmingham hosted the 24th G8 summit .
= = Government = =
Birmingham City Council is the largest local authority in Europe with 120 councillors representing 40 wards . Its headquarters are at the Council House in Victoria Square . As of 2014 , the council has a Labour Party majority and is led by Sir Albert Bore , replacing the previous Conservative / Liberal Democrat coalition at the May 2012 elections . The honour and dignity of a Lord Mayoralty was conferred on Birmingham by Letters Patent on 3 June 1896 .
Birmingham 's ten parliamentary constituencies are represented in the House of Commons as of 2015 by one Conservative and nine Labour MPs . In the European Parliament the city forms part of the West Midlands European Parliament constituency , which elects six Members of the European Parliament .
Birmingham was originally part of Warwickshire , but expanded in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , absorbing parts of Worcestershire to the south and Staffordshire to the north and west . The city absorbed Sutton Coldfield in 1974 and became a metropolitan borough in the new West Midlands county . Until 1986 , the West Midlands County Council was based in Birmingham City Centre .
Since 2011 , Birmingham has formed part of the Greater Birmingham & Solihull Local Enterprise Partnership along with neighbouring authorities Bromsgrove , Cannock Chase , East Staffordshire , Lichfield , Redditch , Solihull , Tamworth , Wyre Forest .
A top @-@ level government body , the West Midlands Combined Authority , will be formed in April 2016 . The WMCA will gain devolved powers in transport , development planning , and economic growth . The authority will be governed by a directly @-@ elected Mayor , similar to the Mayor of London .
= = Geography = =
Birmingham is located in the centre of the West Midlands region of England on the Birmingham Plateau – an area of relatively high ground , ranging between 500 and 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 150 – 300 m ) above sea level and crossed by Britain 's main north @-@ south watershed between the basins of the Rivers Severn and Trent . To the south west of the city lie the Lickey Hills , Clent Hills and Walton Hill , which reach 1 @,@ 033 feet ( 315 m ) and have extensive views over the city . Birmingham is drained only by minor rivers and brooks , primarily the River Tame and its tributaries the Cole and the Rea .
The City of Birmingham forms a conurbation with the largely residential borough of Solihull to the south east , and with the city of Wolverhampton and the industrial towns of the Black Country to the north west , which form the West Midlands Built @-@ up Area covering 59 @,@ 972 ha ( 600 km2 ; 232 sq mi ) . Surrounding this is Birmingham 's metropolitan area – the area to which it is closely economically tied through commuting – which includes the former Mercian capital of Tamworth and the cathedral city of Lichfield in Staffordshire to the north ; the industrial city of Coventry and the Warwickshire towns of Nuneaton , Warwick and Leamington Spa to the east ; and the Worcestershire towns of Redditch and Bromsgrove to the south west .
Much of the area now occupied by the city was originally a northern reach of the ancient Forest of Arden , whose former presence can still be felt in the city 's dense oak tree @-@ cover and in the large number of districts such as Moseley , Saltley , Yardley , Stirchley and Hockley with names ending in " -ley " : the Old English -lēah meaning " woodland clearing " .
= = = Geology = = =
Geologically , Birmingham is dominated by the Birmingham Fault which runs diagonally through the city from the Lickey Hills in the south west , passing through Edgbaston and the Bull Ring , to Erdington and Sutton Coldfield in the north east . To the south and east of the fault the ground is largely softer Mercia Mudstone , interspersed with beds of Bunter pebbles and crossed by the valleys of the Rivers Tame , Rea and Cole and their tributaries . To the north and west of the fault , between 150 and 600 feet ( 45 – 180 m ) higher than the surrounding area and underlying much of the city centre , lies a long ridge of harder Keuper Sandstone . The bedrock underlying Birmingham was mostly laid down during the Permian and Triassic periods .
= = = Climate = = =
Birmingham has a temperate maritime climate , like much of the British Isles , with average maximum temperatures in summer ( July ) being around 21 @.@ 3 ° C ( 70 @.@ 3 ° F ) ; and in winter ( January ) around 6 @.@ 7 ° C ( 44 @.@ 1 ° F ) . Between 1971 and 2000 the warmest day of the year on average was 28 @.@ 8 ° C ( 83 @.@ 8 ° F ) and the coldest night typically fell to − 9 @.@ 0 ° C ( 15 @.@ 8 ° F ) . Some 11 @.@ 2 days each year rose to a temperature of 25 @.@ 1 ° C ( 77 @.@ 2 ° F ) or above and 51 @.@ 6 nights reported an air frost . The highest recorded temperature , set during August 1990 , was 34 @.@ 9 ° C ( 94 @.@ 8 ° F ) .
Like most other large cities , Birmingham has a considerable urban heat island effect . During the coldest night recorded , 14 January 1982 , the temperature fell to − 20 @.@ 8 ° C ( − 5 @.@ 4 ° F ) at Birmingham Airport on the city 's eastern edge , but just − 12 @.@ 9 ° C ( 8 @.@ 8 ° F ) at Edgbaston , near the city centre .
Birmingham is a snowy city relative to other large UK conurbations , due to its inland location and comparatively high elevation . Between 1961 and 1990 Birmingham Airport averaged 13 @.@ 0 days of snow lying annually , compared to 5 @.@ 33 at London Heathrow . Snow showers often pass through the city via the Cheshire gap on north westerly airstreams , but can also come off the North Sea from north easterly airstreams .
Extreme weather is rare but the city has been known to experience tornados – the most recent being in July 2005 in the south of the city , damaging homes and businesses in the area .
= = = Environment = = =
There are 571 parks within Birmingham – more than any other European city – totalling over 3 @,@ 500 hectares ( 14 sq mi ) of public open space . The city has over six million trees , and 250 miles of urban brooks and streams . Sutton Park , which covers 2 @,@ 400 acres ( 971 ha ) in the north of the city , is the largest urban park in Europe and a National Nature Reserve . Birmingham Botanical Gardens , located close to the city centre , retains the regency landscape of its original design by J. C. Loudon in 1829 , while the Winterbourne Botanic Garden in Edgbaston reflects the more informal Arts and Crafts tastes of its Edwardian origins .
Birmingham has many areas of wildlife that lie in both informal settings such as the Project Kingfisher and Woodgate Valley Country Park and in a selection of parks such as Lickey Hills Country Park , Handsworth Park , Kings Heath Park , and Cannon Hill Park ; the latter also housing the Birmingham Nature Centre .
= = Demography = =
The 2012 mid @-@ year estimate for the population of Birmingham was 1 @,@ 085 @,@ 400 . This was an increase of 11 @,@ 200 , or 1 @.@ 0 % , since the same time in 2011 . Since 2001 , the population has grown by 99 @,@ 500 , or 10 @.@ 1 % . Birmingham is the largest local Authority area and city outside London . The population density is 10 @,@ 391 inhabitants per square mile ( 4 @,@ 102 / km ² ) compared to the 976 @.@ 9 inhabitants per square mile ( 377 @.@ 2 / km ² ) for England . Based on the 2011 census , Birmingham 's population is projected to reach 1 @,@ 160 @,@ 100 by 2021 , an increase of 8 @.@ 0 % . This compares with an estimated rate of 9 @.@ 1 % for the previous decade .
The West Midlands conurbation had a population of 2 @,@ 441 @,@ 00 ( 2011 est . , ) , and 2 @,@ 762 @,@ 700 people live in the West Midlands ( county ) ( 2012 est . , ) .
According to figures from the 2011 census , 57 @.@ 9 % of the population was White ( 53 @.@ 1 % White British , 2 @.@ 1 % White Irish , 2 @.@ 7 % Other White ) , 4 @.@ 4 % of mixed race ( 2 @.@ 3 % White and Black Caribbean , 0 @.@ 3 % White and Black African , 1 @.@ 0 % White and Asian , 0 @.@ 8 % Other Mixed ) , 26 @.@ 6 % Asian ( 13 @.@ 5 % Pakistani , 6 @.@ 0 % Indian , 3 @.@ 0 % Bangladeshi , 1 @.@ 2 % Chinese , 2 @.@ 9 % Other Asian ) , 8 @.@ 9 % Black ( 2 @.@ 8 % African , 4 @.@ 4 % Caribbean , 1 @.@ 7 % Other Black ) , 1 @.@ 0 % Arab and 1 @.@ 0 % of other ethnic heritage . 57 % of primary and 52 % of secondary pupils are from non @-@ white British families .
238 @,@ 313 Birmingham residents were born overseas , of these , 44 % ( 103 @,@ 682 ) have been resident in the UK for less than 10 years . Countries new to the twenty most reported countries of birth for Birmingham residents since 2001 include , Iran , Zimbabwe , Philippines and Nigeria . Established migrants outnumbered newer migrants in all wards except for , Edgbaston , Ladywood , Nechells and Selly Oak .
In Birmingham 60 @.@ 4 % of the population was aged between 16 and 74 , compared to 66 @.@ 7 % in England as a whole . There are generally more females than males in each single year of age , except for the youngest ages ( 0 @-@ 18 ) and late 30 's and late 50 's . Females represented 51 @.@ 6 % of the population whilst men represented 48 @.@ 4 % . The differences are most marked in the oldest age group reflecting greater female longevity , where more women were 70 or over . The bulge around the early 20 's is due largely to students coming to the city 's Universities . Children around age 10 are a relatively small group , reflecting the decline in birth rates around the turn of the century . There is a large group of children under the age of five which reflecting high numbers of births in recent years . Births are up 20 % since 2001 , increasing from 14 @,@ 427 to 17 @,@ 423 in 2011 .
In 2011 of all households in Birmingham , 0 @.@ 12 % were same @-@ sex civil partnership households , compared to the English national average of 0 @.@ 16 % .
25 @.@ 9 % of all households owned their accommodation outright , another 29 @.@ 3 % owned their accommodation with a mortgage or loan . These figures were below the national average .
45 @.@ 5 % of people said they were in very good health which was below the national average . Another 33 @.@ 9 % said they were in good health , which was also below the national average . 9 @.@ 1 % of people said their day @-@ to @-@ day activities were limited a lot by their health which was higher than the national average .
The Birmingham Larger Urban Zone , a Eurostat measure of the functional city @-@ region approximated to local government districts , has a population of 2 @,@ 357 @,@ 100 in 2004 . In addition to Birmingham itself , the LUZ includes the Metropolitan Boroughs of Dudley , Sandwell , Solihull and Walsall , along with the districts of Lichfield , Tamworth , North Warwickshire and Bromsgrove .
= = Religion = =
Christianity is the largest religion within Birmingham , with 46 @.@ 1 % of residents identifying as Christians in the 2011 Census . The city 's religious profile is highly diverse , however : outside London , Birmingham has the United Kingdom 's largest Muslim , Sikh and Buddhist communities ; its second largest Hindu community ; and its seventh largest Jewish community . Between the 2001 and 2011 censuses , the proportion of Christians in Birmingham decreased from 59 @.@ 1 % to 46 @.@ 1 % , while the proportion of Muslims increased from 14 @.@ 3 % to 21 @.@ 8 % and the proportion of people with no religious affiliation increased from 12 @.@ 4 % to 19 @.@ 3 % . All other religions remained proportionately similar .
St Philip 's Cathedral was upgraded from church status when the Anglican Diocese of Birmingham was created in 1905 . There are two other cathedrals : St Chad 's , seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Birmingham and the Greek Orthodox Cathedral of the Dormition of the Mother of God and St Andrew . The Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Midlands is also based at Birmingham , with a cathedral under construction . The original parish church of Birmingham , St Martin in the Bull Ring , is Grade II * listed . A short distance from Five Ways the Birmingham Oratory was completed in 1910 on the site of Cardinal Newman 's original foundation .
The oldest surviving synagogue in Birmingham is the 1825 Greek Revival Severn Street Synagogue , now a Freemasons ' Lodge hall . It was replaced in 1856 by the Grade II * listed Singers Hill Synagogue . Birmingham Central Mosque , one of the largest in Europe , was constructed in the 1960s . During the late 1990s Ghamkol Shariff Masjid was built in Small Heath . The Guru Nanak Nishkam Sewak Jatha Sikh Gurdwara was built on Soho Road in Handsworth in the late 1970s and the Buddhist Dhammatalaka Peace Pagoda near Edgbaston Reservoir in the 1990s . Winners ' Chapel also maintains physical presence in Digbeth .
= = Economy = =
Birmingham grew to prominence as a manufacturing and engineering centre , but its economy today is dominated by the service sector , which in 2012 accounted for 88 % of the city 's employment . Birmingham is the largest centre in Great Britain for employment in public administration , education and health ; and after Leeds the second largest centre outside London for employment in financial and other business services . It is ranked as a beta- world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network , the third highest ranking in the country after London and Manchester , and its wider metropolitan economy is the second @-@ largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $ 121.1bn ( 2014 est . , PPP ) . Two FTSE100 companies ( Severn Trent and IMI plc , which is currently a FTSE250 company ) have their corporate headquarters within Birmingham , with two more based in the wider metropolitan area , together forming the largest concentration outside London and the South East . With major facilities such as the National Exhibition Centre and International Convention Centre Birmingham attracts 42 % of the UK 's total conference and exhibition trade .
Manufacturing accounted for 8 % of employment within Birmingham in 2012 , a figure beneath the average for the UK as a whole . Major industrial plants within the city include Jaguar Land Rover in Castle Bromwich and Cadbury in Bournville , with large local producers also supporting a supply chain of precision @-@ based small manufacturers and craft industries . More traditional industries also remain : 40 % of the jewellery made in the UK is still produced by the 300 independent manufacturers of the city 's Jewellery Quarter , continuing a trade first recorded in Birmingham in 1308 .
Birmingham 's GVA was £ 24.1bn ( 2013 est . , ) , and the economy grew relatively slowly between 2002 and 2012 , where growth was 30 % below the national average . The value of manufacturing output in the city declined by 21 % in real terms between 1997 and 2010 , but the value of financial and insurance activities more than doubled . With 16 @,@ 281 start @-@ ups registered during 2013 Birmingham has the highest level of entrepreneurial activity outside London , while the number of registered businesses in the city grew by 1 @.@ 6 % during 2012 . Birmingham was behind only London and Edinburgh for private sector job creation between 2010 and 2013 .
Economic inequality within Birmingham is greater than in any other major English city , and is exceeded only by Glasgow in the United Kingdom . Levels of unemployment are among the highest in the country , with 14 @.@ 4 % of the economically active population unemployed ( Dec 2013 ) . In the inner @-@ city wards of Aston and Washwood Heath , the figure is higher than 30 % . Two @-@ fifths of Birmingham 's population live in areas classified as in the 10 % most deprived parts of England , and overall Birmingham is the most deprived local authority in England in terms of income and employment deprivation . The city 's infant mortality rate is high , around 60 % worse than the national average . Meanwhile , just 49 % of women have jobs , compared to 65 % nationally , and only 28 % of the working @-@ age population in Birmingham have degree level qualifications in contrast to the average of 34 % across other Core Cities .
According to the 2014 Mercer Quality of Living Survey , Birmingham was placed 51st in the world in , which was the second highest rating in the UK . This is an improvement on the city 's 56th place in 2008 . The Big City Plan aims to move the city into the index 's top 20 by 2026 . An area of the city has been designated an enterprise zone , with tax relief and simplified planning to lure investment .
= = Culture = =
= = = Music = = =
The internationally renowned City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra 's home venue is Symphony Hall . Other notable professional orchestras based in the city include the Birmingham Contemporary Music Group , the Royal Ballet Sinfonia and Ex Cathedra , a Baroque chamber choir and period instrument orchestra . The Orchestra of the Swan is the resident chamber orchestra at Birmingham Town Hall , where weekly recitals have also been given by the City Organist since 1834 .
The Birmingham Triennial Music Festivals took place from 1784 to 1912 . Music was specially composed , conducted or performed by Mendelssohn , Gounod , Sullivan , Dvořák , Bantock and Edward Elgar , who wrote four of his most famous choral pieces for Birmingham . Elgar 's The Dream of Gerontius had its début performance there in 1900 . Composers born in the city include Albert William Ketèlbey and Andrew Glover .
Jazz has been popular in the city since the 1920s , and there are many regular festivals such as the Harmonic Festival , the Mostly Jazz Festival and the annual International Jazz Festival .
Birmingham 's other city @-@ centre music venues include The National Indoor Arena , which was opened in 1991 , O2 Academy on Bristol Street , which opened in September 2009 replacing the O2 Academy in Dale End , The CBSO Centre , opened in 1997 , HMV Institute in Digbeth and the Adrian Boult Hall at the Birmingham Conservatoire .
During the 1960s Birmingham was the home of a music scene comparable to that of Liverpool . Although it produced no single band as big as The Beatles it was " a seething cauldron of musical activity " , and the international success of groups such as The Move , The Spencer Davis Group , The Moody Blues , Traffic and the Electric Light Orchestra had a collective influence that stretched into the 1970s and beyond . The city was the birthplace of heavy metal music , with pioneering metal bands from the late 1960s and 1970s such as Black Sabbath , Judas Priest , and half of Led Zeppelin having come from Birmingham . The next decade saw the influential metal bands Napalm Death and Godflesh arise from the city . Birmingham was the birthplace of modern bhangra in the 1960s , and by the 1980s had established itself as the global centre of bhangra culture , which has grown into a global phenomenon embraced by members of the Indian diaspora worldwide from Los Angeles to Singapore . The 1970s also saw the rise of reggae and ska in the city with such bands as Steel Pulse , UB40 , Musical Youth , The Beat and Beshara , expounding racial unity with politically leftist lyrics and multiracial line @-@ ups , mirroring social currents in Birmingham at that time .
Other popular bands from Birmingham include Duran Duran , Fine Young Cannibals , Ocean Colour Scene , The Streets , The Twang , Deluka and Dexys Midnight Runners . Musicians Jeff Lynne , Ozzy Osbourne , Tony Iommi , Bill Ward , Geezer Butler , John Lodge , Roy Wood , Joan Armatrading , Toyah Willcox , Denny Laine , Sukshinder Shinda , Apache Indian , Steve Winwood , Jamelia , Fyfe Dangerfield and Laura Mvula all grew up in the city .
Since 2012 the Digbeth @-@ based B @-@ Town indie music scene has attracted widespread attention , led by bands such as Peace and Swim Deep , with the NME comparing Digbeth to London 's Shoreditch , and The Independent writing that " Birmingham is fast becoming the best place in the UK to look to for the most exciting new music " .
= = = Theatre and performing arts = = =
Birmingham Repertory Theatre is Britain 's longest @-@ established producing theatre , presenting a wide variety of work in its three auditoria on Centenary Square and touring nationally and internationally . Other producing theatres in the city include the Blue Orange Theatre in the Jewellery Quarter ; the Old Rep , home stage of the Birmingham Stage Company ; and @ A. E. Harris , the base of the experimental Stan 's Cafe theatre company , located within a working metal fabricators ' factory . Touring theatre companies include the politically radical Banner Theatre , the Maverick Theatre Company and Kindle Theatre . The Alexandra Theatre and the Birmingham Hippodrome host large @-@ scale touring productions , while professional drama is performed on a wide range of stages across the city , including the Crescent Theatre , the Custard Factory , the Old Joint Stock Theatre , the Drum in Aston and the mac in Cannon Hill Park .
The Birmingham Royal Ballet is one of the United Kingdom 's five major ballet companies and one of three based outside London . It is resident at the Birmingham Hippodrome and tours extensively nationally and internationally . The company 's associated ballet school – Elmhurst School for Dance in Edgbaston – is the oldest vocational dance school in the country .
The Birmingham Opera Company under artistic director Graham Vick has developed an international reputation for its avant @-@ garde productions , which often take place in factories , abandoned buildings and other found spaces around the city . In 2010 it was described by The Guardian as " far and away the most powerful example that I 've experienced in this country of how and why opera can still matter . " More conventional seasons by Welsh National Opera and other visiting opera companies take place regularly at the Birmingham Hippodrome .
= = = Literature = = =
Literary figures associated with Birmingham include Samuel Johnson who stayed in Birmingham for a short period and was born in nearby Lichfield . Arthur Conan Doyle worked in the Aston area of Birmingham whilst poet Louis MacNeice lived in Birmingham for six years . It was whilst staying in Birmingham that American author Washington Irving produced several of his most famous literary works , such as Bracebridge Hall and The Humorists , A Medley which are based on Aston Hall .
The poet W. H. Auden grew up in the Harborne area of the city and during the 1930s formed the core of the Auden Group with Birmingham University lecturer Louis MacNeice . Other influential poets associated with Birmingham include Roi Kwabena , who was the city 's sixth poet laureate , and Benjamin Zephaniah , who was born in the city .
The author J. R. R. Tolkien was brought up in Birmingham , with many locations in the city such as Moseley bog , Sarehole Mill and Perrott 's Folly supposedly being the inspiration for various scenes in The Lord of the Rings . The award winning political playwright David Edgar was born in Birmingham , and the science fiction author John Wyndham spent his early childhood in the Edgbaston area of the city , as did Dame Barbara Cartland .
Birmingham has a vibrant contemporary literary scene , with local authors including David Lodge , Jim Crace , Jonathan Coe , Joel Lane and Judith Cutler . The city 's leading contemporary literary publisher is the Tindal Street Press , whose authors include prize @-@ winning novelists Catherine O 'Flynn , Clare Morrall and Austin Clarke .
Birmingham is the home of the UK 's longest @-@ established local science fiction group , launched in 1971 ( although there were earlier incarnations in the 1940s and 1960s ) and which organises the annual science fiction event Novacon .
= = = Art and design = = =
The Birmingham School of landscape artists emerged with Daniel Bond in the 1760s and was to last into the mid 19th century . Its most important figure was David Cox , whose later works make him an important precursor of impressionism . The influence of the Royal Birmingham Society of Artists and the Birmingham School of Art made Birmingham an important centre of Victorian art , particularly within the Pre @-@ Raphaelite and Arts and Crafts movements . Major figures included the Pre @-@ Raphaelite and symbolist Edward Burne @-@ Jones ; Walter Langley , the first of the Newlyn School painters ; and Joseph Southall , leader of the group of artists and craftsmen known as the Birmingham Group .
The Birmingham Surrealists were among the " harbingers of surrealism " in Britain in the 1930s and the movement 's most active members in the 1940s , while more abstract artists associated with the city included Lee Bank @-@ born David Bomberg and CoBrA member William Gear . Birmingham artists were prominent in several post @-@ war developments in art : Peter Phillips was among the central figures in the birth of Pop Art ; John Salt was the only major European figure among the pioneers of photo @-@ realism ; and the BLK Art Group used painting , collage and multimedia to examine the politics and culture of Black British identity . Contemporary artists from the city include the Turner Prize winner Gillian Wearing and the Turner Prize shortlisted Richard Billingham , John Walker and Roger Hiorns .
Birmingham 's role as a manufacturing and printing centre has supported strong local traditions of graphic design and product design . Iconic works by Birmingham designers include the Baskerville font , Ruskin Pottery , the Acme Thunderer whistle , the Art Deco branding of the Odeon Cinemas and the Mini .
= = = Museums and galleries = = =
Birmingham has two major public art collections . Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery is best known for its works by the Pre @-@ Raphaelites , a collection " of outstanding importance " . It also holds a significant selection of old masters – including major works by Bellini , Rubens , Canaletto and Claude – and particularly strong collections of 17th @-@ century Italian Baroque painting and English watercolours . Its design holdings include Europe 's pre @-@ eminent collections of ceramics and fine metalwork . The Barber Institute of Fine Arts in Edgbaston is one of the finest small art galleries in the world , with a collection of exceptional quality representing Western art from the 13th century to the present day .
Birmingham Museums Trust runs other museums in the city including Aston Hall , Blakesley Hall , the Museum of the Jewellery Quarter , Soho House and Sarehole Mill . The Birmingham Back to Backs are the last surviving court of back @-@ to @-@ back houses in the city . Cadbury World is a museum showing visitors the stages and steps of chocolate production and the history of chocolate and the company . The Ikon Gallery hosts displays of contemporary art , as does Eastside Projects .
Thinktank is Birmingham 's main science museum , with a giant screen cinema , a planetarium and a collection that includes the Smethwick Engine , the world 's oldest working steam engine . Other science @-@ based museums include the National Sea Life Centre in Brindleyplace , the Lapworth Museum of Geology at the University of Birmingham and the Centre of the Earth environmental education centre in Winson Green .
= = = Nightlife and festivals = = =
Nightlife in Birmingham is mainly concentrated along Broad Street and into Brindleyplace . Although in more recent years Broad St has lost its popularity due to the closing of several clubs , the Arcadian now has more popularity in terms of nightlife . Outside the Broad Street area are many stylish and underground venues . The Medicine Bar in the Custard Factory , hmv Institute , Rainbow Pub and Air are large clubs and bars in Digbeth . Around the Chinese Quarter are areas such as the Arcadian and Hurst Street Gay Village , that abound with bars and clubs . Summer Row , The Mailbox , O2 Academy in Bristol Street , Snobs Nightclub , St Philips / Colmore Row , St Paul 's Square and the Jewellery Quarter all have a vibrant night life . There are a number of late night pubs in the Irish Quarter . Outside the city centre is Star City entertainment complex on the former site of Nechells Power Station .
Birmingham is home to many national , religious and spiritual festivals including a St. George 's Day party . The Birmingham Tattoo is a long @-@ standing military show held annually at the National Indoor Arena . The Caribbean @-@ style Birmingham International Carnival takes place in odd numbered years . Birmingham Pride takes place in the gay village and attracts up to 100 @,@ 000 visitors each year . From 1997 until December 2006 , the city hosted an annual arts festival ArtsFest , the largest free arts festival in the UK at the time . The city 's largest single @-@ day event is its St. Patrick 's Day parade ( Europe 's second largest , after Dublin ) . Other multicultural events include the Bangla Mela and the Vaisakhi Mela . The Birmingham Heritage Festival is a Mardi Gras style event in August . Caribbean and African culture are celebrated with parades and street performances by buskers .
Other festivals in the city include the Birmingham International Jazz Festival , " Party in the Park " was originally a festival hosted by local and regional radio stations which died down in 2007 and has now been brought back to life as an unsigned festival for regional unsigned acts to showcase themselves in a one @-@ day music festival for the whole family . Birmingham Comedy Festival ( since 2001 ; 10 days in October ) , which has been headlined by such acts as Peter Kay , The Fast Show , Jimmy Carr , Lee Evans and Lenny Henry , and the Off The Cuff Festival established in 2009 . The biennial International Dance Festival Birmingham started in 2008 , organised by DanceXchange and involving indoor and outdoor venues across the city . Since 2001 , Birmingham has also been host to the Frankfurt Christmas Market . Modelled on its German counterpart , it has grown to become the UK 's largest outdoor Christmas market and is the largest German market outside of Germany and Austria , attracting over 3 @.@ 1 million visitors in 2010 and over 5 million visitors in 2011 .
= = = Entertainment and Leisure = = =
Birmingham is home to many entainment and leisure venues . It is home to Europe 's largest leisure and entertainment complex Star City as well as Europe 's first out @-@ of @-@ city @-@ centre entertainment and leisure complex Resorts World Birmingham owned by the Genting Group . The Mailbox which caters for more affluent clients is based within the city .
= = Architecture = =
Birmingham is chiefly a product of the 18th , 19th and 20th centuries ; its growth began during the Industrial Revolution . Consequently , relatively few buildings survive from its earlier history and those that do are protected . There are 1 @,@ 946 listed buildings in Birmingham and thirteen scheduled ancient monuments . Birmingham City Council also operate a locally listing scheme for buildings that do not fully meet the criteria for statutorily listed status .
Traces of medieval Birmingham can be seen in the oldest churches , notably the original parish church , St Martin in the Bull Ring . A few other buildings from the medieval and Tudor periods survive , among them the Lad in the Lane and The Old Crown , the 15th century Saracen 's Head public house and Old Grammar School in Kings Norton and Blakesley Hall .
A number of Georgian buildings survive , including St Philip 's Cathedral , Soho House , Perrott 's Folly , the Town Hall and much of St Paul 's Square . The Victorian era saw extensive building across the city . Major civic buildings such as the Victoria Law Courts ( in characteristic red brick and terracotta ) , the Council House and the Museum & Art Gallery were constructed . St Chad 's Cathedral was the first Roman Catholic cathedral to be built in the UK since the Reformation . Across the city , the need to house the industrial workers gave rise to miles of redbrick streets and terraces , many of back @-@ to @-@ back houses , some of which were later to become inner @-@ city slums .
Postwar redevelopment and anti @-@ Victorianism resulted in the loss of dozens of Victorian buildings like Birmingham New Street Station and the old Central Library , often replaced by brutalist architecture . Sir Herbert Manzoni , City Engineer and Surveyor of Birmingham from 1935 until 1963 , believed conservation of old buildings was sentimental and that the city did not have any of worth anyway . In inner @-@ city areas too , much Victorian housing was demolished and redeveloped . Existing communities were relocated to tower block estates like Castle Vale .
In a partial reaction against the Manzoni years , Birmingham City Council is demolishing some of the brutalist buildings like the Central Library and has an extensive tower block demolition and renovation programme . There has been much redevelopment in the city centre in recent years , including the award @-@ winning Future Systems ' Selfridges building in the Bullring Shopping Centre , the Brindleyplace regeneration project , the Millennium Point science and technology centre , and the refurbishment of the iconic Rotunda building . Funding for many of these projects has come from the European Union ; the Town Hall for example received £ 3 million in funding from the European Regional Development Fund .
Highrise development has slowed since the 1970s and mainly in recent years because of enforcements imposed by the Civil Aviation Authority on the heights of buildings as they could affect aircraft from the Airport ( e.g. Beetham Tower ) .
= = Transport = =
Partly because of its central location , Birmingham is a major transport hub on the motorway , rail and canal networks . The city is served by the M5 , M6 , M40 , and M42 motorways , and probably the best known motorway junction in the UK : Spaghetti Junction . The M6 passes through the city on the Bromford Viaduct , which at 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) is the longest bridge in the United Kingdom .
Birmingham Airport , located 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) east of the city centre in the neighbouring borough of Solihull , is the seventh busiest by passenger traffic in the United Kingdom and the third busiest outside the London area after Manchester and Edinburgh . It is the largest base for Flybe , Europe 's largest regional airline , and a major base for Ryanair , Monarch Airlines and Thomson Airways . Airline services exist to many destinations in Europe , North America , the Caribbean , Africa , the Middle East and Asia .
Birmingham New Street is the busiest railway station in the United Kingdom outside London , both for passenger entries and exits and for passenger interchanges . It is the national hub for CrossCountry , the most extensive long @-@ distance train network in Britain , and a major destination for Virgin Trains services from London Euston , Glasgow Central and Edinburgh Waverley . Birmingham Moor Street and Birmingham Snow Hill form the northern termini for Chiltern Railways express trains running from London Marylebone . Local and regional services are operated from all of Birmingham 's stations by London Midland . Curzon Street railway station is planned to be the northern terminus for phase 1 of the High Speed 2 rail link from London , due to open in 2026 .
The National Express Group headquarters are located in Digbeth , in offices above Birmingham Coach Station , which forms the national hub of the company 's coach network .
Local public transport in Birmingham is co @-@ ordinated by Transport for West Midlands . TfWM 's network includes the busiest urban rail system in the UK outside London , with 122 million passenger entries and exits per annum ; the busiest urban bus system outside London , with 300 @.@ 2 million passenger journeys per annum ; and the Midland Metro , a light rail system which operates between New Street Station and Wolverhampton via Bilston , Wednesbury and West Bromwich , . Bus routes are mainly operated by National Express West Midlands , which accounts for over 80 % of all bus journeys in Birmingham , though there are around 50 other , smaller registered bus companies . The number 11 outer circle bus routes are the longest urban bus routes in Europe , being 26 miles ( 42 km ) long with 272 bus stops .
An extensive canal system remains from the Industrial Revolution , with the city having more miles of canal than Venice , although because Birmingham is much larger than Venice the canals are less of a prominent feature than they are in Venice . Nowadays the canals are mainly used for leisure purposes , and canalside regeneration schemes such as Brindleyplace have turned the canals into tourist attractions .
= = Education = =
= = = Further and higher education = = =
Birmingham is home to five universities : Aston University , University of Birmingham , Birmingham City University , University College Birmingham and Newman University . The city also hosts major campuses of the University of Law and BPP University , as well as the Open University 's West Midlands regional base . In 2011 Birmingham had 78 @,@ 259 full @-@ time students aged 18 – 74 resident in the city during term time , more than any other city in the United Kingdom outside London . Birmingham has 32 @,@ 690 research students , also the highest number of any major city outside London .
The Birmingham Business School , established by Sir William Ashley in 1902 , is the oldest graduate @-@ level business school in the United Kingdom . Another top business school in the city includes Aston Business School , one of fewer than 1 % of business schools globally to be granted triple accreditation , and Birmingham City Business School . The Birmingham Conservatoire , Birmingham School of Acting and Birmingham Institute of Art and Design , all now part of Birmingham City University , offer higher education in specific arts subjects .
Birmingham is an important centre for religious education . St Mary 's College , Oscott is one of the three seminaries of the Catholic Church in England and Wales ; Woodbrooke is the only Quaker study centre in Europe ; and Queen 's College , Edgbaston is an ecumenical theological college serving the Church of England , the Methodist Church and the United Reformed Church .
Birmingham Metropolitan College is one of the largest further education colleges in the country , with fourteen campuses spread across Birmingham and into the Black Country and Worcestershire . South & City College Birmingham has nine campuses spread throughout the city . Bournville College is based in a £ 66 million , 4 @.@ 2 acre campus in Longbridge that opened in 2011 . Fircroft College is a residential college based in a former Edwardian mansion in Selly Oak , founded in 1909 around a strong commitment to social justice , with many courses aimed at students with few prior formal qualifications . Queen Alexandra College is a specialist college based in Harborne offering further education to visually impaired or disabled students from all over the United Kingdom .
= = = Primary and secondary education = = =
Birmingham City Council is England 's largest local education authority , directly or indirectly responsible for 25 nursery schools , 328 primary schools , 77 secondary schools and 29 special schools. and providing around 3 @,@ 500 adult education courses throughout the year . Most of Birmingham 's state schools are community schools run directly by Birmingham City Council in its role as local education authority ( LEA ) . However , there are a large number of voluntary aided schools within the state system . Since the 1970s , most secondary schools in Birmingham have been 11 @-@ 16 / 18 comprehensive schools , while post GCSE students have the choice of continuing their education in either a school 's sixth form or at a further education college . Birmingham has always operated a primary school system of 4 – 7 infant and 7 – 11 junior schools .
King Edward 's School , Birmingham , founded in 1552 by King Edward VI , is the one of the oldest and the most prestigious schools in the city , constantly setting high academic standards in GCSE and IB and having many notable alumni pass through its doors , such as J.R.R Tolkien , author of the Lord of the Rings books and the Hobbit . Notable independent schools in the city include the Birmingham Blue Coat School , King Edward VI High School for Girls and Edgbaston High School for Girls . The seven schools of The King Edward VI Foundation are known nationally for setting very high academic standards and all the schools consistently achieve top positions in national league tables .
= = Public services = =
In Birmingham libraries , leisure centres , parks , play areas , transport , street cleaning and waste collection face cuts among other services . Albert Bore , leader of Birmingham City Council called on the government to change radically how local services are funded and provided . It is claimed government cuts to local authorities have hit Birmingham disproportionately . Child protection services within Birmingham were rated " inadequate " by OFSTED for four years running between 2009 and 2013 , with 20 child deaths since 2007 being investigated . In March 2014 the government announced that independent commissioner would be appointed to oversee improvements to children 's services within the city .
= = = Library services = = =
The former Birmingham Central Library , opened in 1972 , was considered to be the largest municipal library in Europe . Six of its collections were designated by the Arts Council England as being " pre @-@ eminent collections of national and international importance " , out of only eight collections to be so recognised in local authority libraries nationwide . A new Library of Birmingham in Centenary Square , replacing Central Library , was opened on 3 September 2013 . It was designed by the Dutch architects Mecanoo and has been described as " a kind of public forum ... a memorial , a shrine , to the book and to literature " . This library faces cuts , due to reduced funding from Central government .
There are 41 local libraries in Birmingham , plus a regular mobile library service . The library service has 4 million visitors annually . Due to budget cuts , four of the branch libraries risk closure whilst services may be reduced elsewhere .
= = = Emergency services = = =
Law enforcement in Birmingham is carried out by West Midlands Police , whose headquarters are at Lloyd House in Birmingham City Centre . With 87 @.@ 92 recorded offences per 1000 population in 2009 – 10 , Birmingham 's crime rate is above the average for England and Wales , but lower than any of England 's other major core cities and lower than many smaller cities such as Oxford , Cambridge or Brighton . Fire and rescue services in Birmingham are provided by West Midlands Fire Service and emergency medical care by West Midlands Ambulance Service .
= = = Healthcare = = =
There are several major National Health Service hospitals in Birmingham . The Queen Elizabeth Hospital , adjacent to the Birmingham Medical School in Edgbaston , houses the largest critical care unit in Europe , and is also the home of the Royal Centre for Defence Medicine , treating military personnel injured in conflict zones . Other general hospitals in the city include Heartlands Hospital , Good Hope Hospital in Sutton Coldfield and City Hospital in Winson Green . There are also many specialist hospitals , such as Birmingham Children 's Hospital , Birmingham Women 's Hospital , Birmingham Dental Hospital , and the Royal Orthopaedic Hospital .
Birmingham saw the first ever use of radiography in an operation , and the UK 's first ever hole @-@ in @-@ the @-@ heart operation was performed at Birmingham Children 's Hospital .
See also Healthcare in West Midlands .
= = = Water supply = = =
The Birmingham Corporation Water Department was set up in 1876 to supply water to Birmingham , up until 1974 when its responsibilities were transferred to Severn Trent Water . Most of Birminghams water is supplied by the Elan aqueduct , opened in 1904 ; water is fed by gravity to Frankley Reservoir , Frankley , and Bartley Reservoir , Bartley Green , from reservoirs in the Elan Valley , Wales .
= = = Energy from waste = = =
Within Birmingham the Tyseley Energy from Waste Plant , a large incineration plant built in 1996 for Veolia , burns some 366 @,@ 414 tonnes of household waste annually and produces 166 @,@ 230 MWh of electricity for the National Grid along with 282 @,@ 013 tonnes of carbon dioxide . Birmingham Friends of the Earth have strongly opposed the facility for contributing to climate change , causing air pollution and reducing recycling rates in the city .
Another energy @-@ from @-@ waste centre using pyrolysis technology has been granted planning permission at Washwood Heath .
= = Sport = =
Birmingham has played an important part in the history of modern sport . The Football League – the world 's first league football competition – was founded by Birmingham resident and Aston Villa director William McGregor , who wrote to fellow club directors in 1888 proposing " that ten or twelve of the most prominent clubs in England combine to arrange home @-@ and @-@ away fixtures each season " . The modern game of tennis was developed between 1859 and 1865 by Harry Gem and his friend Augurio Perera at Perera 's house in Edgbaston , with the Edgbaston Archery and Lawn Tennis Society remaining the oldest tennis club in the world . The Birmingham and District Cricket League is the oldest cricket league in the world , and Birmingham was the host for the first ever Cricket World Cup , a Women 's Cricket World Cup in 1973 . Birmingham was the first city to be named National City of Sport by the Sports Council . Birmingham was selected ahead of London and Manchester to bid for the 1992 Summer Olympics , but was unsuccessful in the final selection process , which was won by Barcelona .
Today , the city is home of two of the country 's oldest professional football teams : Aston Villa F.C. , which was founded in 1874 and plays at Villa Park ; and Birmingham City F.C. , which was founded in 1875 and plays at St Andrew 's . Rivalry between the clubs is fierce and the fixture between the two is called the Second City derby . Aston Villa are 7 @-@ time Premier League champions and the 1982 European Champions , but currently play in the Championship following their relegation from the Premier League in the 2015 – 16 season . Birmingham City also currently play in the Championship .
Seven times County Championship winners Warwickshire County Cricket Club play at Edgbaston Cricket Ground , which also hosts test cricket and one day internationals and is the largest cricket ground in the United Kingdom after Lord 's . Edgbaston was the scene of the highest ever score by a batsman in first @-@ class cricket , when Brian Lara scored 501 not out for Warwickshire in 1994 .
Birmingham has a professional Rugby Union club , Moseley R.F.C. , who play at Billesley Common ; with a second professional club , Birmingham & Solihull R.F.C. , playing at Damson Park in the neighbouring borough of Solihull . The city also has a rugby league club , the Birmingham Bulldogs , who compete in the Co @-@ operative RLC Midlands Premier League ( RLC ) . The city is also home to one of the oldest American Football teams in the BAFA National Leagues , the Birmingham Bulls .
Two major championship golf courses lie on the city 's outskirts . The Belfry near Sutton Coldfield is the headquarters of the Professional Golfers ' Association and has hosted the Ryder Cup more times than any other venue . The Forest of Arden Hotel and Country Club near Birmingham Airport is also a regular host of tournaments on the PGA European Tour , including the British Masters and the English Open .
The AEGON Classic is , alongside Wimbledon and Eastbourne , one of only three UK tennis tournaments on the WTA Tour . It is played annually at the Edgbaston Priory Club , which in 2010 announced plans for a multimillion @-@ pound redevelopment , including a new showcase centre court and a museum celebrating the game 's Birmingham origins .
The Alexander Stadium in Perry Barr is the headquarters of UK Athletics , and one of only two British venues to host fixtures in the elite international IAAF Diamond League . It is also the home of Birchfield Harriers , which has many international athletes among its members . The National Indoor Arena hosted the 2007 European Athletics Indoor Championships and 2003 IAAF World Indoor Championships , as well as hosting the annual Aviva Indoor Grand Prix – the only British indoor athletics fixture to qualify as an IAAF Indoor Permit Meeting – and a wide variety of other sporting events . The venue will host the World Indoor Athletics Championships for a second time , when they come to Birmingham in 2018 .
Professional boxing , hockey , skateboarding , stock @-@ car racing , greyhound racing and speedway also takes place within the city .
= = Food and drink = =
Birmingham 's development as a commercial town was originally based around its market for agricultural produce , established by royal charter in 1166 . Despite the industrialisation of subsequent centuries this role has been retained and the Birmingham Wholesale Markets remain the largest combined wholesale food markets in the country , selling meat , fish , fruit , vegetables and flowers and supplying fresh produce to restaurateurs and independent retailers from as far as 100 miles ( 161 km ) away .
Birmingham is the only English city outside London to have five Michelin starred restaurants : Simpson 's in Edgbaston , Turners in Harborne , Carters of Moseley and Purnell 's and Adam 's in the city centre .
Birmingham based breweries included Ansells , Davenport 's and Mitchells & Butlers . Aston Manor Brewery is currently the only brewery of any significant size . Many fine Victorian pubs and bars can still be found across the city , whilst there is also a plethora of more modern nightclubs and bars , notably along Broad Street .
The Wing Yip food empire first began in the city and now has its headquarters in Nechells . The Balti , a type of curry , was invented in the city , which has received much acclaim for the ' Balti Belt ' or ' Balti Triangle ' . Famous food brands that originated in Birmingham include Typhoo tea , Bird 's Custard , Cadbury 's chocolate and HP Sauce .
There is also a thriving independent and artisan food sector in Birmingham , encompassing microbreweries like Two Towers , and collective bakeries such as Loaf . Recent years have seen these businesses increasingly showcased at farmers markets , popular street food events and food festivals including Birmingham Independent Food Fair .
= = Media = =
Birmingham has several major local newspapers – the daily Birmingham Mail and the weekly Birmingham Post and Sunday Mercury , all owned by the Trinity Mirror . Forward ( formerly Birmingham Voice ) is a freesheet produced by Birmingham City Council , which is distributed to homes in the city . Birmingham is also the hub for various national ethnic media , and the base for two regional Metro editions ( East and West Midlands ) .
Birmingham has a long cinematic history ; The Electric on Station Street is the oldest working cinema in the UK , and Oscar Deutsch opened his first Odeon cinema in Brierley Hill during the 1920s . The largest cinema screen in the West Midlands is located at Millennium Point in the Eastside . Birmingham has also been the location for films including Felicia 's Journey of 1999 , which used locations in Birmingham that were used in Take Me High of 1973 to contrast the changes in the city .
The BBC has two facilities in the city . The Mailbox , in the city centre , is the national headquarters of BBC English Regions and the headquarters of BBC West Midlands and the BBC Birmingham network production centre . These were previously located at the Pebble Mill Studios in Edgbaston . The BBC Drama Village , based in Selly Oak , is a production facility specialising in television drama .
Central / ATV studios in Birmingham were the location for the recording of many programmes for ITV including Tiswas and Crossroads , until the complex was closed in 1997 , and Central moved to its current Gas Street studios . These were also the main hub for CITV , until that was moved to Manchester in 2004 . Central 's output from Birmingham now consists of only the West and East editions of the regional news programme Central Tonight .
The city is served by numerous national and regional radio stations , as well as local radio stations . These include Free Radio Birmingham & Free Radio 80s , Capital Birmingham , Heart West Midlands , Absolute Radio , and Smooth Radio . The city also has a community radio scene , with stations including Big City Radio , New Style Radio , Switch Radio , Raaj FM , and Unity FM .
The Archers , the world 's longest running radio soap , is recorded in Birmingham for BBC Radio 4 .
= = Twin cities = =
Birmingham has seven sister cities ;
Birmingham , Alabama , USA , is named after the city and shares an industrial kinship .
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= Occupation ( Battlestar Galactica ) =
" Occupation " is the third season premiere and 34th episode of the re @-@ imagined American science fiction drama television series Battlestar Galactica . The episode was written by re @-@ imagined creator Ronald D. Moore , and directed by Sergio Mimica @-@ Gezzan . It first aired on October 6 , 2006 on the Sci @-@ Fi Channel along with the following episode " Precipice " . In the episode , the Cylons are in their fourth month of a military occupation on New Caprica , where the majority of the human population are residing . A resistance movement is trying to drive the Cylons away . Meanwhile , Admiral William Adama continues his plan to rescue everybody there . Unlike most episodes , it does not include a survivor count .
The story behind the episode was inspired by several wars and occupations in the past , including the Quartering Acts and the Iraq War . Several parts of the episode changed from the script , more predominantly the scenes involving a suicide bombing . The producers were worried that the Sci Fi Channel would not allow the inclusion of the scene . The episode was seen by 2 @.@ 2 million viewers and attracted generally positive reactions from critics . In addition , Moore 's writing of the episode was nominated for an Emmy and a Writers Guild of America award .
= = Plot = =
Four months have passed since the end of " Lay Down Your Burdens " , where Cylons found the majority of the human population on a planet known as New Caprica , which had supposedly been hidden from DRADIS , and commenced their occupation . A few thousand humans had escaped in the remaining spaceships following Battlestars Galactica and Pegasus . Admiral William Adama ( Edward James Olmos ) is continuing to work on a plan to free those trapped on New Caprica . His son and commander of Pegasus Lee " Apollo " Adama ( Jamie Bamber ) confronts his father on pushing his Viper pilots beyond the breaking point , to which Adama says Apollo is becoming " soft . " Apollo 's wife , Anastasia Dualla ( Kandyse McClure ) surprises him by supporting the Admiral .
On New Caprica , Kara " Starbuck " Thrace ( Katee Sackhoff ) is placed in an elaborate prison cell made to look like her old apartment on Caprica by Leoben Conoy ( Callum Keith Rennie ) , who is attempting to force her to fall in love with him . Starbuck kills him several times , though Leoben always downloads into another body . Saul Tigh ( Michael Hogan ) is in a Cylon detention facility , where his right eye was forcibly removed . He is released when his wife Ellen Tigh ( Kate Vernon ) performs sexual favors for the Cylon Brother Cavil ( Dean Stockwell ) . Tigh returns to Samuel Anders ( Michael Trucco ) and Galen Tyrol ( Aaron Douglas ) , who have been leading a resistance movement against the Cylons , having detonated a bomb in a Cylon docking facility before Tigh 's release . Now free , Tigh resorts to escalating their efforts , by planning suicide bombings against the Cylons and any human collaborators .
The resistance is given intelligence by an unidentified informant from the Cylon command structure , by use of a secret dead drop ; flipping a dog bowl and hiding some documents inside the tent next to it . One piece of intelligence given is information on a Cylon communications blocker ; the resistance makes use of that information to contact a Raptor orbiting the planet . The Raptor returns to Galactica with news they have made contact with the resistance on the planet .
Next , the resistance plans to kill the President of the Colonies , Gaius Baltar ( James Callis ) , who is unwillingly collaborating with the Cylons . They learn he is to attend a graduation ceremony for the New Caprica Police , an unpopular masked police force set up by the Cylons to allow the humans to police the city and do the Cylons ' bidding . Tucker " Duck " Clellan ( Christian Tessier ) , who has access to the ceremony and whose wife had been killed by the Cylons , agrees to suicide bomb the ceremony . Towards the end of the episode it is revealed that Baltar 's aide , Felix Gaeta ( Alessandro Juliani ) is the informant . He learns that Baltar will not be attending the ceremony , but cannot alert the resistance in time . Duck attends the ceremony , and when Number Three ( Lucy Lawless ) comes to shake his hand , Duck detonates the bomb , killing everybody in the room .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Occupation " , and following episode " Precipice " were written by series creator Ronald D. Moore . The Cylon occupation of New Caprica , and the human resistance fighting them , was inspired by wars and military occupations from history , including the Quartering Acts , World War II , and the more recent occupation in Iraq . In the original writing , Moore did not originally consider including Tigh with an eye removed until the final drafts were written . Portraying actor Michael Hogan was initially hesitant with the idea . He recalled that when the producers called him to talk about how his character would be maimed , they suggested having an eye removed . Hogan responded by laughing , and the producers assumed he agreed .
When Anders and Tyrol detonate the bomb at the beginning of the episode , one of the Number Three ( D 'anna ) models was to film a propaganda film in front of Laura Roslin 's ( Mary McDonnell ) school at the time , but that was cut . Also , Jammer ( Dominic Zamprogna ) was originally considered the suicide bomber at the end , but was changed to Duck because he had less to live for after his wife 's death . In the original drafts , the resistance was not planning suicide bombings , but " freaking the Cylons out " by imprisoning many of them in a secret underground prison , torture them for information , and leave them alive instead of killing them , as they would resurrect otherwise . This would make the Cylons worry about their missing comrades . However , Moore later realized that suicide bombings would be " really potent and really powerful . " When writing the scenes involving Duck leading to the suicide bombing , Moore got " emotionally caught up in it , " adding " as I was writing these scenes of him standing in the police ranks , we know he 's got the belt on . What 's he gonna do ? And then , oh my God , he actually does it . I mean , it 's really horrifying stuff . But it 's true . That 's why I want to do it . It really happens . People do this . " The producers were initially worried that the Sci Fi Channel would not allow the inclusion of the bombing scene , but to Moore 's surprise , Sci Fi executive Mark Stern did not object to it .
There was some debate among the writers on when Galactica and the fleet would be brought into the story . Moore decided to reintroduce the space @-@ bound fleet in the beginning of the third act , in order to establish the story on New Caprica , and make the audience happy and more excited to see Galactica . Moore also decided to evolve one of the Number Eight Cylon models , Sharon Agathon ( Grace Park ) imprisoned on board the ship , where a year would allow Sharon and Admiral Adama to form a special relationship , eventually leading to Adama releasing her and allowing her to become a Colonial officer by the next episode . Moore felt " Occupation " was the best season premiere of Battlestar since " 33 " , the first season premiere , believing the writers " never quite matched " the performance on " 33 " in the following episodes . He also felt it was a better premiere than " Scattered " from the second season , as it contained disparate story lines where the characters were not fully reunited with each other until a few episodes in .
= = = Filming and post @-@ production = = =
The episode began with one of the most extended recaps in the series , as the producers wanted to bring the audience up to date from the events from " Lay Down Your Burdens " , which covered " quite a bit of ground " because of the large story development behind the finale . The scene where the Cylons meet in Colonial One became very tedious for the crew because several versions of the same Cylon model were used in the same shot , and the crew disliked filming on the set . Moore elaborated ;
The crew had to film different versions of the prayer scene before Duck commits the suicide attack . In making the photograph of him and his late wife , the actress who played Nora in the webisode series The Resistance was not available , so the producers digitally inserted her face onto the photograph . The episode includes a voiceover of Roslin detailing the occupation and resistance . This was not originally added in the final script , but was instead considered during post @-@ production of the episode . The ending for the episode was originally Leoben presenting Starbuck with Kacey Brynn , her " daughter , " but for unspecified reasons , the scene was instead used for " Precipice " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcast and ratings = = =
" Occupation " and " Precipice " was originally meant to be released as two separate episodes , however the producers decided to merge them together to be released as a two @-@ hour broadcast . The reasoning was partly due to the third episode " Exodus " , which became too long and split to a two @-@ part episode , and the producers did not wish to stretch the New Caprica storyline to several weeks . The first 13 minutes of the episode were leaked on the Sci Fi Channel website days prior the broadcast . The two @-@ hour season three premiere was first broadcast on the Sci Fi Channel in the United States on Friday , October 6 , 2006 between 9 pm and 11 pm . After its original broadcast , the two @-@ hour episode attracted a household rating of 1 @.@ 8 , equalling a total of 2 @.@ 2 million viewers . Ratings were an increase of 2 per cent in total viewing from the average ratings from the second half of the second season .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Occupation " received generally positive reviews from critics . Eric Goldman of IGN rated " Occupation " a " masterful " 10 out of 10 , stating " watching the season premiere of Battlestar Galactica is a great reminder that this is truly still the best show on television . " Ian Berriman of SFX called the episode a " stunning season opener , " citing the similarities of the occupation of Iraq as its greatest strength , but also thought it was the episode 's weakness . Berriman also liked Tigh 's transformation to a " ruthless terrorist " and Starbuck 's part of the episode . " Occupation " was rated five stars out of five .
Patrick Sauriol of UGO started the review stating " After the events of season two 's cliffhanger , there were a hundred questions on the minds of the show 's fans , but the biggest one gets answered with the Season Three double @-@ header premiere : was the start of Season Three worth the wait or has the show jumped the shark ? Answer : You better frakkin ' believe that Battlestar Galactica hasn 't jumped the shark . " Sauriol commented that the time leap of a year was a " gutsy move , " but felt it has " always been the case " for the series . However , he also felt that all doubts the audience might have to harbor " that this show won 't live up to the first two seasons should be wiped away . " Callis ' performance was praised , with Sauriol stating " again Callis proves that he owns this role and again he proves tonight why Gaius Baltar is the best character on this show . " Sauriol graded " Occupation " and the following " Precipice " A- . Television Without Pity gave the episode a B.
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
In 2007 , the episode was nominated for a 59th Primetime Emmy Awards for " Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series " , but lost to HBO 's The Sopranos series finale " Made in America " . It was also nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for best Episodic Drama . However , the episode lost out to the pilot episode of Big Love .
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= Interstate 805 =
Interstate 805 ( I @-@ 805 ) is a major north – south Interstate Highway in Southern California . It is a bypass of I @-@ 5 , running roughly through the center of the Greater San Diego region from San Ysidro ( part of the city of San Diego ) near the Mexico – U.S. border to near Del Mar. The southern terminus of I @-@ 805 at I @-@ 5 in San Ysidro is less than a mile north of the Mexican border . I @-@ 805 then traverses the cities of Chula Vista and National City before reentering San Diego . The freeway passes though the San Diego neighborhoods of North Park , Mission Valley , Clairemont , and University City before terminating at I @-@ 5 in the Sorrento Valley neighborhood near the Del Mar city limit .
Planning for I @-@ 805 began in 1956 , and the route was officially designated in 1959 before it was renumbered in the 1964 state highway renumbering . Starting in 1967 , the freeway was built in phases , with the northern part of the freeway finished before the southern part . I @-@ 805 was completed and open to traffic in 1975 . Named the Jacob Dekema Freeway after the longtime head of the regional division of the California Department of Transportation ( Caltrans ) , I @-@ 805 has been frequently cited for its complex engineering and architecture , including near I @-@ 8 on the Mission Valley Viaduct . Since then , several construction projects have taken place , including the construction of local and express lanes at the northern interchange with I @-@ 5 . High @-@ occupancy toll lanes are under construction on both the northern and southern portions of the route .
= = Route description = =
The route begins at I @-@ 5 near the Mexican border in a far south part of San Ysidro , a neighborhood of San Diego . As it starts its journey northward , it quickly has a junction with State Route 905 ( SR 905 ) before exiting the city of San Diego and entering Chula Vista . Within the past 20 years the freeway has delineated the apparent divide between rich and poor in the city of Chula Vista ; those on the eastern side of the freeway have been more affluent and have better schools compared to those on the western side . Just outside the city , I @-@ 805 meets County Route S17 ( CR S17 ) , also named Bonita Road , before coming to an interchange with SR 54 . The freeway then enters National City , where it intersects Sweetwater Road and Plaza Boulevard , before leaving the city and reentering the city of San Diego .
I @-@ 805 continues northward through San Diego , where it intersects SR 94 , the Martin Luther King Jr . Freeway . As the freeway continues through downtown San Diego , it meets SR 15 , the continuation of I @-@ 15 . It then intersects El Cajon Boulevard before passing under the Hazard Memorial Bridge that carries Adams Avenue . The bridge was named after Roscoe Hazard for his involvement in the construction of several roads and highways in Southern California . I @-@ 805 then travels on the Mission Valley Viaduct , a towering reinforced concrete viaduct built in 1972 , spanning over Mission Valley and the San Diego River . The viaduct is the top stack of the Jack Schrade Interchange over I @-@ 8 , which runs along the south side of Mission Valley and crosses underneath the viaduct perpendicularly , and is San Diego County 's only symmetrical stack interchange . The San Diego Trolley traffic also runs under the viaduct on the valley floor .
After intersecting SR 163 , also known as the Cabrillo Freeway , I @-@ 805 continues through suburban San Diego , where it meets SR 52 in Clairemont Mesa . North of SR 52 , it closely parallels I @-@ 5 near La Jolla , heading northwest . Passing under the Eastgate Mall arch bridge and entering Sorrento Valley , it finally meets its north end at I @-@ 5 . During the widening project which was completed in 2007 , I @-@ 5 at the I @-@ 805 merge was built to be 21 lanes wide . Eastbound SR 56 and Carmel Mountain Road are accessible via a parallel carriageway for local traffic heading northbound from I @-@ 805 ; traffic from SR 56 westbound can merge onto I @-@ 805 from the local bypass .
The route is officially known as the Jacob Dekema Freeway after Jacob Dekema , a pioneering force from California Department of Transportation ( Caltrans ) who helped shape the San Diego freeway system . It is also part of the California Freeway and Expressway System and the National Highway System , a network of roads that are important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In 2013 , I @-@ 805 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 41 @,@ 500 at the southern terminus , and 262 @,@ 000 between Bonita Road and SR 54 , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
According to Dekema , planning for I @-@ 805 began in 1956 . The original routing for I @-@ 805 was approved as an Interstate Highway in July 1958 . It was added to the state highway system and the Freeway and Expressway System in 1959 as Route 241 . I @-@ 805 was expected to reduce traffic on what was then US 101 between Los Angeles and San Diego , when the former was opened . Route 241 was renumbered to Route 805 in the 1964 state highway renumbering , and I @-@ 5 was designated along the route from Los Angeles to San Diego . Further planning was underway in 1965 , with the goal to have the route built by 1972 , the federal highway funding deadline . This was to be the first freeway in the area with no prior road along its route that it would replace ; the goal was to provide a bypass around San Diego for those traveling to Mexico , and improve access for local residents . By June , houses along the route in the North Park area were being sold , as the land was needed for the first stretch of the freeway to be constructed . The next year , Dekema confirmed that the first portion of what was known as the Inland Freeway to be built would be between Home and Adams avenues .
In May 1967 , bidding began , after construction had been delayed by that of the I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 8 freeways , both of which had been given higher priority . This first portion would run from Wabash Boulevard to around Madison Avenue ( a distance of 3 @.@ 5 miles or 5 @.@ 6 kilometres ) , and the next portion would include the I @-@ 8 interchange . The R.E. Hazard and W.F. Maxwell Companies won the low bid of $ 11 @.@ 7 million ( equivalent to $ 150 million in 2015 ) in mid @-@ 1967 . The groundbreaking ceremony happened on September 25 at El Cajon Boulevard and Boundary Street . In August 1968 , the portion of I @-@ 805 from just south of I @-@ 8 to north of Friars Road , including the interchange with I @-@ 8 , was put up for bidding ; at a budgeted $ 27 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 327 million in 2015 ) , it was the most expensive job that the Division of Highways had ever put up for bid . The winning bid was $ 20 @.@ 9 million ( equivalent to $ 313 million in 2015 ) , and was awarded to R.E. Hazard Contracting Company and W.F. Maxwell Company .
Construction had begun on the viaduct by May 1969 ; in the meantime , National City was making plans for developing the freeway corridor with motels and restaurants , as well as a shopping center . In mid @-@ 1969 , bidding was to begin on 3 @.@ 2 miles ( 5 @.@ 1 km ) of I @-@ 805 from north of Friars Road to north of what was then US 395 , which would become SR 163 . Construction from J Street south to near San Ysidro was underway by September , when there were concerns that an order from President Richard Nixon to reduce federal construction projects by 75 percent might affect funding for the portion north of Friars Road . However , Governor Ronald Reagan lifted the associated freeze in construction at the state level a few weeks later . A month later , the contract for the portion between Friars Road and US 395 had been awarded for $ 15 million ( equivalent to $ 166 million in 2015 ) ; the portions between there and north of Miramar Road were in the planning phases , while construction continued south of I @-@ 8 to Wabash Boulevard . The 2 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) portion from SR 52 to Miramar Road had been contracted out to O.G. Sansome Company for $ 5 @.@ 6 million ( equivalent to $ 62 @.@ 1 million in 2015 ) by the end of 1969 . Meanwhile , $ 4 million ( equivalent to $ 44 @.@ 3 million in 2015 ) of state funding was spent in 1969 to find housing for those who were to be displaced by the freeway in San Ysidro .
By March 1970 , the original section between Home Avenue and near I @-@ 8 was almost finished . The Mission Valley portion extending north of US 395 , as well as from Otay Valley Road and J Street in Chula Vista , were still under construction . The portion immediately north of US 395 was contracted to A.A. Baxter Corporation , E.C. Young , and Young and Sons , Inc. for $ 7 @.@ 9 million ( equivalent to $ 84 million in 2015 ) . On July 6 , the first section to begin construction was dedicated , and was to be opened from El Cajon Boulevard to Wabash Boulevard soon thereafter ; the rest of the section would not open until the Mission Valley interchange with I @-@ 8 was finished .
A second border crossing in the San Ysidro area was proposed near the Playas de Tijuana area , that would be accessible from I @-@ 805 , although another alternative was considered near Brown Field . A formal study on the matter was commissioned in August . However , this would have added $ 10 million ( equivalent to $ 106 million in 2015 ) to the cost of the freeway , and possibly delay it by up to 10 years ; furthermore , most traffic crossing the border was found to head to Tijuana and not Ensenada . Following this , the city of Chula Vista asked that the state proceed with the original plans to construct the freeway , even though it would pass through a San Ysidro neighborhood .
In September 1970 , bidding began for the final portion of the northern half of I @-@ 805 between Miramar Road and I @-@ 5 ; a month later , the segments between Home Avenue and SR 94 , and SR 54 to 12th Street had funding allocated . By the end of the year , Hazard , Maxwell , and Matich had submitted the low bid of around $ 7 @.@ 2 million ( equivalent to $ 76 @.@ 5 million in 2015 ) for the northernmost portion . The Chula Vista portion of the freeway from Main Street to L Street was completed in February 1971 ; by then , the estimated date for completing the entire freeway had slipped to 1975 from 1972 . By March , the projected completion date for the Mission Valley bridge was revised to July 1972 . A 102 @-@ home mobile home park was approved by the City Council a few weeks later to house those who were displaced by the freeway construction .
The portion of the freeway from Otay Valley Road to Telegraph Canyon Road opened during 1972 . On October 22 , several unconstructed portions of I @-@ 805 were partially funded , including from Chula Vista south past SR 75 , north of the completed Chula Vista portion to SR 54 , from SR 54 to Plaza Boulevard in National City , from there to SR 94 ( including the interchange with SR 252 ) , and from there to Home Avenue . Before the end of the year , the portion from SR 94 to Home Avenue entered the bidding phase ; Guy F. Atkinson Company won the contract for roughly $ 9 @.@ 96 million ( equivalent to $ 90 @.@ 9 million in 2015 ) in early 1972 . Following a request from the El Cajon City Council , March 19 was set aside as a Community Cycle Day for bicyclists to travel the newly finished freeway from El Cajon Boulevard to SR 52 , just before the freeway was to be dedicated the next day ; the entire Mission Valley Viaduct was open to traffic that month .
By the beginning of 1974 , I @-@ 805 was open north of Home Avenue , and from Otay Valley Road to Telegraph Canyon Road in Chula Vista ; five segments remaining were under construction , and the last segment was funded . The Imperial Avenue section of I @-@ 805 remained in the budget , despite revisions in response to the 1973 oil crisis . In late January , I @-@ 805 between SR 15 and SR 94 was opened to traffic , though not all of the ramps at the SR 94 interchange were operational . The connectors to SR 94 east were completed in March . The entire portion between SR 94 and Home Avenue cost $ 10 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 80 @.@ 9 million in 2015 ) . Construction between SR 94 and Imperial Avenue was well under way by December , at a cost of $ 8 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 65 @.@ 5 million in 2015 ) .
As the scheduled completion of the freeway neared , Mayor Tom Hamilton of Chula Vista expressed concerns regarding the predicted development of the I @-@ 805 corridor , and the decisions that the City Council would need to make regarding such plans . The portion south of Otay Valley Road cost $ 15 million ( equivalent to $ 107 million in 2015 ) , and the portion between Telegraph Canyon Road and Sweetwater Road cost $ 12 million ( equivalent to $ 85 @.@ 6 million in 2015 ) . The portion from there to Imperial Avenue was projected to cost $ 10 @.@ 2 million ( equivalent to $ 72 @.@ 7 million in 2015 ) . The dedication of the freeway took place on July 23 , 1975 , even though the freeway was not entirely finished , due to the desire to hold the ceremony during the summer . I @-@ 805 from Plaza Boulevard to Telegraph Canyon Road opened to traffic on July 28 , leaving the freeway complete except for the portion between Plaza Boulevard and SR 94 . While portions of the freeway were nearly ready for traffic , there were reports of motorists driving on the closed freeway , which the California Highway Patrol warned was illegal . On September 3 , Dekema announced that the entirety of the freeway would open the next day as he made a final inspection of the unopened portion ; the total cost of the construction was $ 145 million ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 03 billion in 2015 ) . However , Dekema announced that there was no more state funding available to construct further roads for the short @-@ term .
= = = Recognition , artwork , and architecture = = =
The Mission Valley Viaduct was recognized by the American Society of Civil Engineers ( ASCE ) as the " Outstanding Civil Engineering Project for 1973 in the San Diego Area " ; it was designed to match the close @-@ by Mission San Diego de Alcalá with its columns that look similar to cathedral windows , and arch @-@ like shapes etched into the textured concrete . The viaduct was designed to span 3 @,@ 900 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , and use squared @-@ off support columns instead of traditional cylindrical supports . Octagonal columns were to be used on the ramps and the ends of the bridge . Over 600 tons of steel bars were to be used , and the bridge was constructed as high as 98 feet ( 30 m ) above I @-@ 8 . The Adams Avenue Bridge over I @-@ 805 was also recognized for its 439 @-@ foot ( 134 m ) span and two tapered supports on the ends of the bridge ; in 1968 , a Princeton University engineering professor asked for a copy of the design from Caltrans for educational purposes . The construction supervisor , in fact , compared the construction of this bridge to building a boat , and it was constructed from the middle outward rather than the conventional method of building from the ends inward . The span was designed to be 268 feet ( 82 m ) long , and 100 feet ( 30 m ) high .
Awards for the Eastgate Mall ( or Old Miramar Bridge ) came from the Federal Highway Administration , San Diego Highway Development Association , and Prestressed Concrete Institute Awards Program ; at the time , it was one of the first arch bridges in the state , and did not use traditional concrete pillars . The San Diego Union ( predecessor to the Union @-@ Tribune ) published a few freelance articles in 1984 about I @-@ 805 , complimenting the four @-@ level interchange with I @-@ 8 and the arch bridge at Eastgate Mall , while mentioning that subsequent inflation after their completion would have made such structures more difficult to build if they had been constructed later . Other artwork and architecture that was mentioned included the Wateridge development in Sorrento Valley , and the " Stargazer " building by Alexander Liberman that was lit with fluorescent colors at night .
However , not all forms of artwork along the highway were uncontroversial . In 1977 , there were several complaints regarding new billboards that were installed at the northern terminus of the highway , since they blocked the view of the coast . In 1981 , an illegal mural that was determined to be incomplete was discovered at the I @-@ 8 interchange ; while Caltrans discouraged the painting of such murals , they were impressed with the portion that had already been completed . Art Cole , the artist , stepped forward to the department , and was allowed to finish the mural of a desert highland sunrise ; following this , Caltrans made efforts to have other murals commissioned .
The San Ysidro Chamber of Commerce attempted to have I @-@ 805 named as the San Ysidro Freeway in 1976 . However , I @-@ 805 was named after Jacob Dekema in August 1981 , and ceremonies to mark the occasion occurred in February 1982 . The plaque honoring Dekema was installed in November at the Governor Drive interchange . Because of his efforts in designing I @-@ 805 , Ed Settle of Caltrans was given the Outstanding Civil Engineering Award from the ASCE ; he designed several other regional freeways , including SR 163 through Balboa Park and I @-@ 5 through San Diego .
= = = Expansion = = =
The construction of a " dual freeway " at the northern end of I @-@ 805 was discussed as early as 1989 , referring to the two carriageways needed for each direction of the freeway , resulting in four total . It would require drivers to use the new local lanes to access eastbound SR 56 from I @-@ 5 or I @-@ 805 . The project would allow for trucks to use the new lanes to assist in merging with traffic . However , it faced opposition from local residents , concerned about the loss of the view from their homes , as well as environmentalists concerned about nearby wetlands . Further objections espoused the view that the congestion would continue to increase , regardless of what was done , and that the new road would be at capacity in a few years . The San Diego Association of Governments ( SANDAG ) funded the construction with $ 110 million ( equivalent to $ 168 million in 2015 ) in mid @-@ 2000 .
Construction of the " dual freeway " began in early 2002 , at a cost of $ 182 million ( equivalent to $ 266 million in 2015 ) . The northbound lanes were scheduled to open in February 2006 . The southbound lanes were completed in early 2007 . That year , a three @-@ year project began to allow robot controlled vehicles , including buses and trucks , to use a special lane . The intention is to allow the vehicles to travel at shorter following distances and thereby allow more vehicles to use the lanes . The vehicles will still have drivers since they need to enter and exit the special lanes . The system was designed by Swoop Technology , based in San Diego County .
Two years later , construction began on two auxiliary lanes on I @-@ 805 southbound from SR 54 to Bonita Road , to improve traffic flow at the SR 54 interchange . In 2010 , Caltrans proposed adding high @-@ occupancy toll express lanes between SR 15 and East Palomar Street in Chula Vista . The California Transportation Commission ( CTC ) awarded $ 100 million for the work in June 2011 , which would be split into two phases at the interchange with SR 54 . Work is also underway to add two HOV lanes between SR 52 and Mira Mesa Boulevard ; this project also received $ 59 @.@ 5 million from the CTC in September 2011 . Meanwhile , SANDAG made arrangements to purchase the SR 125 toll road and reduce the tolls , which was hoped to encourage commuters to take that road instead of I @-@ 805 and reduce congestion ; this would then enable Caltrans to construct two managed lanes instead of the original four .
In February 2013 , construction began on the northern HOV lanes ; the project is expected to cost $ 86 million . By May , construction on the Palomar Street direct access ramps had begun , and the Carroll Canyon Road ramps were almost finished . The northern project is expected to be complete in 2015 , and the southern express lanes opened in March 2014 at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 4 billion , with an option to expand them into two lanes in each direction , and a proposed direct ramp to the express lanes . A 2012 Caltrans report proposed adding four managed lanes along the entire length of the highway . Construction on HOV lanes from SR 905 to SR 15 is planned for 2016 .
= = Exit list = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in San Diego County .
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= Nefertiti Bust =
The Nefertiti Bust is a 3 @,@ 300 @-@ year @-@ old painted stucco @-@ coated limestone bust of Nefertiti , the Great Royal Wife of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten . The work is believed to have been crafted in 1345 BC by the sculptor Thutmose , because it was found in his workshop in Amarna , Egypt . It is one of the most copied works of ancient Egypt . Owing to the work , Nefertiti has become one of the most famous women of the ancient world , and an icon of feminine beauty .
A German archaeological team led by Ludwig Borchardt discovered the Nefertiti bust in 1912 in Thutmose 's workshop . It has been kept at various locations in Germany since its discovery , including the cellar of a bank , a salt mine in Merkers @-@ Kieselbach , the Dahlem museum , the Egyptian Museum in Charlottenburg and the Altes Museum . It is currently on display at the Neues Museum in Berlin , where it was originally displayed before World War II .
The Nefertiti bust has become a cultural symbol of Berlin as well as ancient Egypt . Nefertiti herself has become quite an icon . Nefertiti is widely known for her beauty and versatility . It has also been the subject of an intense argument between Egypt and Germany over Egyptian demands for its repatriation . It was dragged into controversy by the Body of Nefertiti art exhibition and also by doubts over its authenticity . However various testing and analysis of the bust have proved it to be authentic .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Nefertiti ( meaning " the beautiful one has come " ) was the 14th @-@ century BC Great Royal Wife ( chief consort ) of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt . Akhenaten initiated a new monotheistic form of worship called Atenism dedicated to the Sun disc Aten . Little is known about Nefertiti . Theories suggest she could have been an Egyptian royal by birth , a foreign princess or the daughter of a high government official named Ay , who became pharaoh after Tutankhamun . She may have been the co @-@ regent of Egypt with Akhenaten , who ruled from 1352 BC to 1336 BC . Nefertiti bore six daughters to Akhenaten , one of whom , Ankhesenpaaten ( renamed Ankhesenamun after the suppression of the Aten cult ) , married Tutankhamun , Nefertiti 's stepson . Nefertiti was thought to have disappeared from history in the twelfth year of Akhenaten 's reign , though whether this is due to her death or because she took a new name is not known . She may also have later become a pharaoh in her own right , ruling alone for a short time after her husband 's death . However , it is now known that she was still alive in the sixteenth year of her husband 's reign from a limestone quarry inscription found at Dayr Abū Ḥinnis . Dayr Abū Ḥinnis is located " on the eastern side of the Nile , about ten kilometres north of Amarna . "
The bust of Nefertiti is believed to have been crafted about 1345 BC by the sculptor Thutmose . The bust does not have any inscriptions , but can be certainly identified as Nefertiti by the characteristic crown , which she wears in other surviving ( and clearly labelled ) depictions ( see for instance the ' house altar ' , right ) .
= = = Discovery = = =
The Nefertiti bust was found on 6 December 1912 at Amarna by the German Oriental Company ( Deutsche Orient @-@ Gesellschaft – DOG ) , led by German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt . It was found in what had been the sculptor Thutmose 's workshop , along with other unfinished busts of Nefertiti . Borchardt 's diary provides the main written account of the find ; he remarks , " Suddenly we had in our hands the most alive Egyptian artwork . You cannot describe it with words . You must see it . "
A 1924 document found in the archives of the German Oriental Company recalls the 20 January 1913 meeting between Ludwig Borchardt and a senior Egyptian official to discuss the division of the archeological finds of 1912 between Germany and Egypt . According to the secretary of the German Oriental Company ( who was the author of the document and who was present at the meeting ) , Borchardt " wanted to save the bust for us " . Borchardt is suspected of having concealed the bust 's real value , although he denied doing so .
While Philipp Vandenberg describes the coup as " adventurous and beyond comparison " , Time magazine lists it among the " Top 10 Plundered Artifacts " . Borchardt showed the Egyptian official a photograph of the bust " that didn 't show Nefertiti in her best light " . The bust was wrapped up in a box when Egypt 's chief antiques inspector Gustave Lefebvre came for inspection . The document reveals that Borchardt claimed the bust was made of gypsum to mislead the inspector . The German Oriental Company blames the negligence of the inspector and points out that the bust was at the top of the exchange list and says the deal was done fairly .
= = Description and examinations = =
The bust of Nefertiti is 48 centimetres ( 19 in ) tall and weighs about 20 kilograms ( 44 lb ) . It is made of a limestone core covered with painted stucco layers . The face is completely symmetrical and almost intact , but the left eye lacks the inlay present in the right . The pupil of the right eye is of inserted quartz with black paint and is fixed with beeswax . The background of the eye @-@ socket is unadorned limestone . Nefertiti wears her characteristic blue crown known as the " Nefertiti cap crown " with a golden diadem band looped around like horizontal ribbons and joining at the back , and an Uraeus ( cobra ) over her brow – which is now broken . She also wears a broad collar with a floral pattern on it . The ears also have suffered some damage . Gardner 's Art Through the Ages suggests that " With this elegant bust , Thutmose may have been alluding to a heavy flower on its slender sleek stalk by exaggerating the weight of the crowned head and the length of the almost serpentine neck . "
According to David Silverman , the Nefertiti bust reflects the classical Egyptian art style , deviating from the " eccentricities " of the Amarna art style , which was developed in Akhenaten 's reign . The exact function of the bust is unknown , though it is theorized that the bust may be a sculptor 's modello to be used as a basis for other official portraits , kept in the artist 's workshop . Surviving royal portraits are normally wholly in stone , though originally painted on a thin plaster layer , but not largely made up of stucco plaster as this piece is .
= = = Colors = = =
Ludwig Borchardt commissioned a chemical analysis of the colored pigments of the head . The result of the examination was published in the book Portrait of Queen Nofretete in 1923 :
Blue : powdered frit , colored with copper oxide
Skin color ( light red ) : fine powdered lime spar colored with red chalk ( iron oxide )
Yellow : orpiment ( arsenic sulfide )
Green : powdered frit , colored with copper and iron oxide
Black : coal with wax as a binding medium
White : chalk
= = = Missing left eye = = =
When the bust was first discovered , no piece of quartz to represent the iris of the left eyeball was present , as in the other eye , and none was found despite an intensive search and a then significant reward of £ 5 being put up for information regarding its whereabouts . Borchardt assumed that the quartz iris of the left eye had fallen out when the sculptor Thutmose 's workshop fell into ruin . The missing eye led to speculation that Nefertiti may have suffered from an ophthalmic infection , and actually lost her left eye , though the presence of an iris in other statues of her contradicted this possibility .
Dietrich Wildung proposed that the bust in Berlin was a model for official portraits and was used by the master sculptor for teaching his pupils how to carve the internal structure of the eye , and thus the left iris was not added . Gardner 's Art Through the Ages and Silverman presents a similar view that the bust was deliberately kept unfinished . Hawass suggested that Thutmose had created the left eye , but it was later destroyed .
= = = CT scans = = =
The bust was first CT scanned in 1992 , with the scan producing cross sections of the bust every 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) . In 2006 , Dietrich Wildung , the director of Berlin 's Egyptian Museum , while trying a different lighting at the Altes Museum — where the bust was then displayed — observed wrinkles on Nefertiti 's neck and bags under her eyes , suggesting the sculptor had tried to depict signs of aging . A CT scan confirmed Wildung 's findings ; Thutmose had added gypsum under the cheeks and eyes in an attempt to perfect his sculpture , Wildung explained .
The CT scan in 2006 , led by Alexander Huppertz , the director of the Imaging Science Institute in Berlin , revealed a wrinkled face of Nefertiti carved in the inner core of the bust . The results were published in the April 2009 Radiology journal . The scan revealed that Thutmose placed layers of varying thickness on top of the limestone core . The inner face has creases around her mouth and cheeks and a swelling on the nose . The creases and the bump on the nose are leveled by the outermost stucco layer . According to Huppertz , this may reflect " aesthetic ideals of the era " . The 2006 scan provided greater detail than the 1992 one , revealing subtle details just 1 – 2 mm under the stucco .
= = Later history = =
The bust of Nefertiti has become " one of the most admired , and most copied , images from ancient Egypt " , and the star exhibit used to market Berlin 's museums . It is seen as an " icon of international beauty " . " Showing a woman with a long neck , elegantly arched brows , high cheekbones , a slender nose and an enigmatic smile played about red lips , the bust has established Nefertiti as one of the most beautiful faces of antiquity . " It is described as the most famous bust of ancient art , comparable only to the mask of Tutankhamun .
Nefertiti has become an icon of Berlin 's culture . Some 500 @,@ 000 visitors see Nefertiti every year . The bust is described as " the best @-@ known work of art from ancient Egypt , arguably from all antiquity " . Her face is on postcards of Berlin and 1989 German postage stamps .
= = = Locations in Germany = = =
The Nefertiti bust has been in Germany since 1913 , when it was shipped to Berlin and presented to James Simon , a wholesale merchant and the sponsor of the Amarna excavation . It was displayed at Simon 's residence until 1913 , when Simon loaned the bust and other artifacts from the Amarna dig to the Berlin Museum . Although the rest of the Amarna collection was displayed in 1913 – 14 , Nefertiti was kept secret at Borchardt 's request . In 1918 , the Museum discussed the public display of the bust , but again kept it secret on the request of Borchardt . It was permanently donated to the Berlin Museum in 1920 . Finally , in 1923 , the bust was first unveiled to the public in Borchardt 's writing and later in 1924 , displayed to the public as part of the Egyptian Museum of Berlin . The bust created a sensation , swiftly becoming a world @-@ renowned icon of feminine beauty , and one of the most universally @-@ recognised artifacts to survive from Ancient Egypt . The Nefertiti bust was displayed in Berlin ’ s Neues Museum on Museum Island until the museum was closed in 1939 ; with the onset of World War II , the Berlin museums were emptied and the artifacts moved to secure shelters for safekeeping . Nefertiti was initially stored in the cellar of the Prussian Governmental Bank and then , in the autumn of 1941 , moved to the tower of a flak bunker in Berlin . The Neues Museum suffered bombings in 1943 by the Royal Air Force . On 6 March 1945 , the bust was moved to a German salt mine at Merkers @-@ Kieselbach in Thuringia .
In March 1945 , the bust was found by the American Army and given over to its Monuments , Fine Arts and Archives branch . It was moved to the Reichsbank in Frankfurt and then , in August , shipped to the U.S. Central Collecting Point in Wiesbaden where it was displayed to the public in 1946 . In 1956 , the bust was returned to West Berlin . There it was displayed at the Dahlem Museum . As early as 1946 , East Germany ( German Democratic Republic ) insisted on the return of Nefertiti to Museum Island in East Berlin , where the bust had been displayed before the war . In 1967 , Nefertiti was moved in the Egyptian Museum in Charlottenburg and remained there until 2005 , when it was moved to the Altes Museum . The bust returned to the Neues Museum as its centerpiece when the museum reopened in October 2009 .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Requests for repatriation to Egypt = = =
Ever since the official unveiling of the bust in Berlin in 1924 , the Egyptian authorities have been demanding its return to Egypt . In 1925 , Egypt threatened to ban German excavations in Egypt unless Nefertiti was returned . In 1929 , Egypt offered to exchange other artifacts for Nefertiti , but Germany declined . In the 1950s , Egypt again tried to initiate negotiations but there was no response from Germany . Although Germany had previously strongly opposed the repatriation , in 1933 Hermann Göring considered returning the bust to King Farouk Fouad of Egypt as a political gesture . Hitler opposed the idea , and told the Egyptian government that he would build a new Egyptian museum for Nefertiti : " In the middle , this wonder , Nefertiti , will be enthroned , ... I will never relinquish the head of the Queen . " While the bust was under American control , Egypt requested the United States to hand it over ; the USA refused and advised Egypt to take up the matter with the new German authorities . In 1989 , the Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak viewed the bust and announced that Nefertiti was " the best ambassador for Egypt " in Berlin .
Dr. Zahi Hawass , the former Secretary General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities , believes that Nefertiti belongs to Egypt and that the bust was taken out of Egypt illegally and should therefore be returned . Dr. Hawass has maintained the stance that Egyptian authorities were misled over the acquisition of Nefertiti in 1913 . He has demanded that Germany prove that it was exported legally . According to Kurt G. Siehr , another argument in support of repatriation is that " Archeological finds have their ' home ' in the country of origin and should be preserved in that country . " The Nefertiti repatriation issue sprang up again in 2003 over the Body of Nefertiti sculpture ( see Controversy ) . In 2005 , Hawass requested UNESCO to intervene to return the bust .
In 2007 , Hawass threatened to ban exhibitions of Egyptian artifacts in Germany if Nefertiti was not lent to Egypt , but to no avail . Hawass also requested a worldwide boycott of loans to German museums to initiate what he calls a " scientific war " . Hawass wanted Germany to at least lend the bust to Egypt in 2012 for the opening of the new Grand Egyptian Museum near the Great Pyramids of Giza . Simultaneously , a campaign called " Nefertiti Travels " was launched by cultural association CulturCooperation , based in Hamburg , Germany . They distributed postcards depicting the bust of Nefertiti with the words " Return to Sender " and wrote an open letter to the German Culture Minister , Bernd Neumann , supporting the view that Egypt should be given the bust on loan . In 2009 , when Nefertiti moved back to the Neues Museum – her old home , the appropriateness of Berlin as the bust 's location was questioned .
Several German art experts have attempted to refute all the claims made by Hawass , pointing to the 1924 document discussing the pact between Borchardt and the Egyptian authorities , though , as discussed earlier , Borchardt has been accused of foul play in the deal . The German authorities have also argued the bust is too fragile to transport and that the legal arguments for the repatriation were insubstantial . According to The Times , Germany may be concerned that lending the bust to Egypt would mean its permanent departure from Germany .
In December 2009 Friederike Seyfried , the director of Berlin 's Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection , presented to the Egyptians documents held by the museum regarding the discovery of the bust which include a protocol signed by the German excavator of the bust and the Egyptian Antiquities Service . In the documents , the object was listed as a painted plaster bust of a princess . But in the diary of Ludwig Borchardt he clearly referred to it as the head of Nefertiti . " This proves that Borchardt wrote this description so that his country can get the statue , " Hawass commented " These materials confirm Egypt 's contention that ( he ) did act unethically with intent to deceive . " However , Hawass said Egypt didn 't consider the Nefertiti bust to be a looted antiquity . Still , it is one of a handful of truly singular Egyptian antiquities still in foreign hands . " I really want it back , " he said . Hawass ' statement quoted the director of the museum as saying the authority to approve the return of the bust to Egypt lies with the Prussian Cultural Heritage and the German culture minister .
= = = Allegations over authenticity = = =
The French book , Le Buste de Nefertiti – une Imposture de l 'Egyptologie ? ( The Bust of Nefertiti – a Fraud in Egyptology ? ) by Swiss art historian Henri Stierlin and the book Missing Link in Archaeology by Berlin author and historian Edrogan Ercivan both claimed that the Nefertiti bust was a modern fake . Stierlin claims that Borchardt may have created the bust to test ancient pigments and that when the bust was admired by Prince Johann Georg of Saxony , Borchardt pretended it was genuine to avoid offending the prince . Stierlin argues that the missing left eye of the bust would have been a sign of disrespect in ancient Egypt , that no scientific records of the bust appear until 11 years after its supposed discovery , and while the paint pigments are ancient , the inner limestone core has never been dated . Ercivan suggests Borchardt 's wife was the model for the bust , and both authors argue that it was not revealed to the public until 1924 because it was a fake . Another theory suggested that the existing Nefertiti bust was crafted in the 1930s on Hitler 's orders , and that the original was lost in World War II .
Dietrich Wildung dismissed the claims as a publicity stunt , as radiological tests , detailed computer tomography , and material analysis have proved its authenticity . The pigments used on the bust have been matched to those used by ancient Egyptian artisans . The 2006 CT scan that discovered the " hidden face " of Nefertiti proved without doubt – according to Science News – that the bust was genuine .
Egyptian authorities also dismissed Stierlin 's theory . Dr Zahi Hawass said " Stierlin is not a historian . He is delirious . " Although Stierlin had argued " Egyptians cut shoulders horizontally " and Nefertiti had vertical shoulders , Hawass said that the new style seen in the Nefertiti bust is part of the changes introduced by Akhenaten , the husband of Nefertiti . Hawass also claimed that the sculptor Thutmose had created the eye , but it was later destroyed .
= = = The Body of Nefertiti = = =
In 2003 , the Egyptian Museum in Berlin allowed the Hungarian artist duo Little Warsaw , Andras Galik and Balint Havas , to place the bust atop a nearly nude female bronze for a video installation to be shown at the Venice Biennale modern art festival . The project called the Body of Nefertiti was , according to the artists , an attempt to pay homage to the bust . According to Wildung , it showed " the continued relevance of the ancient world to today 's art . " However , Egyptian cultural officials took offense and proclaimed it to be a disgrace to " one of the great symbols of their country 's history " . As a consequence , they also banned Wildung and his wife from further exploration in Egypt . The Egyptian Minister for Culture , Farouk Hosny , declared that Nefertiti was " not in safe hands " , and although Egypt had not renewed their claims for restitution " due to the good relations with Germany , " this " recent behaviour " was unacceptable .
= = Cultural significance = =
In 1930 , the German press described the Nefertiti bust as their new monarch , personifying it as a queen . As the " ' most precious ... stone in the setting of the diadem ' from the art treasures of ' Prussia Germany ' " , Nefertiti would re @-@ establish the imperial German national identity after 1918 . Hitler described the bust as " a unique masterpiece , an ornament , a true treasure " , and pledged to build a museum to house it . By the 1970s , the bust had become an issue of national identity to both German states — East Germany and West Germany — created after World War II . In 1999 , Nefertiti appeared on an election poster for the green political party Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen as a promise for cosmopolitan and multi @-@ cultural environment with the slogan " Strong Women for Berlin ! " According to Claudia Breger , another reason that the Nefertiti bust became associated with a German national identity was its place as a rival to the Tutankhamun find by the British , who then ruled Egypt .
The bust became an influence on popular culture with Jack Pierce 's make @-@ up work on Elsa Lanchester 's iconic hair style in the film Bride of Frankenstein being inspired by it . In the Italian film Nefertiti , Queen of the Nile ( 1961 ) Nefertiti is in love with the young sculptor Tumos ( Thutmose ) , played by Edmund Purdom , who is a friend of prince Amenophis ( Akhenaten ) . Tumos loses Nefertiti to Akhenaten , but preserves his love for her in the famous sculpture . The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery uses the bust of Nefertiti as its official emblem .
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= Andalusian horse =
The Andalusian , also known as the Pure Spanish Horse or PRE ( Pura Raza Española ) , is a horse breed from the Iberian Peninsula , where its ancestors have lived for thousands of years . The Andalusian has been recognized as an individual breed since the 15th century , and its conformation has changed very little over the centuries . Throughout its history , it has been known for its prowess as a war horse , and was prized by the nobility . The breed was used as a tool of diplomacy by the Spanish government , and kings across Europe rode and owned Spanish horses . During the 19th century , warfare , disease and crossbreeding reduced herd numbers dramatically , and despite some recovery in the late 19th century , the trend continued into the early 20th century . Exports of Andalusians from Spain were restricted until the 1960s , but the breed has since spread throughout the world , despite their low population . In 2010 , there were more than 185 @,@ 000 registered Andalusians worldwide .
Strongly built , and compact yet elegant , Andalusians have long , thick manes and tails . Their most common coat color is gray , although they can be found in many other colors . They are known for their intelligence , sensitivity and docility . A sub @-@ strain within the breed known as the Carthusian , is considered by breeders to be the purest strain of Andalusian , though there is no genetic evidence for this claim . The strain is still considered separate from the main breed however , and is preferred by breeders because buyers pay more for horses of Carthusian bloodlines . There are several competing registries keeping records of horses designated as Andalusian or PRE , but they differ on their definition of the Andalusian and PRE , the purity of various strains of the breed , and the legalities of stud book ownership . At least one lawsuit is in progress as of 2011 , to determine the ownership of the Spanish PRE stud book .
The Andalusian is closely related to the Lusitano of Portugal , and has been used to develop many other breeds , especially in Europe and the Americas . Breeds with Andalusian ancestry include many of the warmbloods in Europe as well as western hemisphere breeds such as the Azteca . Over its centuries of development , the Andalusian breed has been selected for athleticism and stamina . The horses were originally used for classical dressage , driving , bullfighting , and as stock horses . Modern Andalusians are used for many equestrian activities , including dressage , show jumping and driving . The breed is also used extensively in movies , especially historical pictures and fantasy epics .
= = Characteristics = =
Andalusians stallions and geldings average 15 @.@ 1 1 ⁄ 2 hands ( 61 @.@ 5 inches , 156 cm ) at the withers and 512 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 129 lb ) in weight ; mares average 15 1 ⁄ 2 hands ( 60 @.@ 5 inches , 154 cm ) and 412 kilograms ( 908 lb ) . The Spanish government has set the minimum height for registration in Spain at 15 @.@ 0 hands ( 60 inches , 152 cm ) for males and 14 @.@ 3 hands ( 59 inches , 150 cm ) for mares - this standard is followed by the Association of Purebred Spanish Horse Breeders of Spain ( Asociación Nacional de Criadores de Caballo de Pura Raza Española or ANCCE ) and the Andalusian Horse Association of Australasia . The Spanish legislation also requires that in order for animals to be approved as either " qualified " or " élite " breeding stock , stallions must stand at least 15 @.@ 1 hands ( 61 inches , 155 cm ) and mares at least 15 1 ⁄ 4 hands ( 60 @.@ 25 inches , 153 cm ) .
Andalusian horses are elegant and strongly built . Members of the breed have heads of medium length , with a straight or slightly convex profile . Ultra convex and concave profiles are discouraged in the breed , and are penalized in breed shows . Necks are long and broad , running to well @-@ defined withers and a massive chest . They have a short back and broad , strong hindquarters with a well @-@ rounded croup . The breed tends to have clean legs , with no propensity for blemishes or injuries , and energetic gaits . The mane and tail are thick and long , but the legs do not have excess feathering . Andalusians tend to be docile , while remaining intelligent and sensitive . When treated with respect they are quick to learn , responsive , and cooperative .
There are two additional characteristics unique to the Carthusian strain , believed to trace back to the strain 's foundation stallion Esclavo . The first is warts under the tail , a trait which Esclavo passed to his offspring , and a trait which some breeders felt was necessary to prove that a horse was a member of the Esclavo bloodline . The second characteristic is the occasional presence of " horns " , which are frontal bosses , possibly inherited from Asian ancestors . The physical descriptions of the bosses vary , ranging from calcium @-@ like deposits at the temple to small horn @-@ like protuberances near or behind the ear . However , these " horns " are not considered proof of Esclavo descent , unlike the tail warts .
In the past , most coat colors were found , including spotted patterns . Today most Andalusians are gray or bay ; in the US , around 80 percent of all Andalusians are gray . Of the remaining horses , approximately 15 percent are bay and 5 percent are black , dun or palomino or chestnut . Other colors , such as buckskin , pearl , and cremello , are rare , but are recognized as allowed colors by registries for the breed .
In the early history of the breed , certain white markings and whorls were considered to be indicators of character and good or bad luck . Horses with white socks on their feet were considered to have good or bad luck , depending on the leg or legs marked . A horse with no white markings at all was considered to be ill @-@ tempered and vice @-@ ridden , while certain facial markings were considered representative of honesty , loyalty and endurance . Similarly , hair whorls in various places were considered to show good or bad luck , with the most unlucky being in places where the horse could not see them – for example the temples , cheek , shoulder or heart . Two whorls near the root of the tail were considered a sign of courage and good luck .
The movement of Andalusian horses is extended , elevated , cadenced and harmonious , with a balance of roundness and forward movement . Poor elevation , irregular tempo , and excessive winging ( sideways movement of the legs from the knee down ) are discouraged by breed registry standards . Andalusians are known for their agility and their ability to learn difficult moves quickly , such as advanced collection and turns on the haunches . A 2001 study compared the kinematic characteristics of Andalusian , Arabian and Anglo @-@ Arabian horses while moving at the trot . Andalusians were found to overtrack less ( the degree to which the hind foot lands ahead of the front hoof print ) but also exhibit greater flexing of both fore and hind joints , movement consistent with the more elevated way of going typically found in this breed . The authors of the study theorized that these characteristics of the breed 's trot may contribute to their success as a riding and dressage horse .
A 2008 study found that Andalusians experience ischaemic ( reduced blood flow ) diseases of the small intestine at a rate significantly higher than other breeds ; and stallions had higher numbers of inguinal hernias , with risk for occurrence 30 times greater than other breeds . At the same time , they also showed a lower incidence of large intestinal obstruction . In the course of the study , Andalusians also showed the highest risk of laminitis as a medical complication related to the intestinal issues .
= = History = =
= = = Early development = = =
The Andalusian horse is descended from the Iberian horses of Spain and Portugal , and derives its name from its place of origin , the Spanish region of Andalusia . Cave paintings show that horses have been present on the Iberian Peninsula as far back as 20 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 BCE . Although Portuguese historian Ruy d 'Andrade hypothesized that the ancient Sorraia breed was an ancestor of the Southern Iberian breeds , including the Andalusian , genetic studies using mitochondrial DNA show that the Sorraia is part of a genetic cluster that is largely separated from most Iberian breeds .
Throughout history , the Iberian breeds have been influenced by many different peoples and cultures who occupied Spain , including the Celts , the Carthaginians , the Romans , various Germanic tribes and the Moors . The Iberian horse was identified as a talented war horse as early as 450 BCE . Mitochondrial DNA studies of the modern Andalusian horse of the Iberian peninsula and Barb horse of North Africa present convincing evidence that both breeds crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and were used for breeding with each other , influencing one another 's bloodlines . Thus , the Andalusian may have been the first European " warmblood " , a mixture of heavy European and lighter Oriental horses . Some of the earliest written pedigrees in recorded European history were kept by Carthusian monks , beginning in the 13th century . Because they could read and write , and were thus able to maintain careful records , monastics were given the responsibility for horse breeding by certain members of the nobility , particularly in Spain . Andalusian stud farms for breeding were formed in the late 15th century in Carthusian monasteries in Jerez , Seville and Cazalla .
The Carthusians bred powerful , weight @-@ bearing horses in Andalusia for the Crown of Castile , using the finest Spanish Jennets as foundation bloodstock . These horses were a blend of Jennet and warmblood breeding , taller and more powerfully built than the original Jennet . By the 15th century , the Andalusian had become a distinct breed , and was being used to influence the development of other breeds . They were also noted for their use as cavalry horses . Even though in the 16th and 17th centuries Spanish horses had not reached the final form of the modern Andalusian , by 1667 William Cavendish , the Duke of Newcastle , called the Spanish horse of Andalusia the " princes " of the horse world , and reported that they were " unnervingly intelligent " . The Iberian horse became known as the " royal horse of Europe " and was seen at many royal courts and riding academies , including those in Austria , Italy , France and Germany . By the 16th century , during the reigns of Charles V ( 1500 – 1558 ) and Phillip II ( 1556 – 1581 ) , Spanish horses were considered the finest in the world . Even in Spain , quality horses were owned mainly by the wealthy . During the 16th century , inflation and an increased demand for harness and cavalry horses drove the price of horses extremely high . The always expensive Andalusian became even more so , and it was often impossible to find a member of the breed to purchase at any price .
= = = Dissemination = = =
Spanish horses also were spread widely as a tool of diplomacy by the government of Spain , which granted both horses and export rights to favored citizens and to other royalty . As early as the 15th century , the Spanish horse was widely distributed throughout the Mediterranean , and was known in northern European countries , despite being less common and more expensive there . As time went on , kings from across Europe , including every French monarch from Francis I to Louis XVI , had equestrian portraits created showing themselves riding Spanish @-@ type horses . The kings of France , including Louis XIII and Louis XIV , especially preferred the Spanish horse ; the head groom to Henri IV , Salomon de la Broue , said in 1600 , " Comparing the best horses , I give the Spanish horse first place for its perfection , because it is the most beautiful , noble , graceful and courageous " . War horses from Spain and Portugal began to be introduced to England in the 12th century , and importation continued through the 15th century . In the 16th century , Henry VIII received gifts of Spanish horses from Charles V , Ferdinand II of Aragon and the Duke of Savoy and others when he wed Katherine of Aragon . He also purchased additional war and riding horses through agents in Spain . By 1576 , Spanish horses made up one third of British royal studs at Malmesbury and Tutbury . The Spanish horse peaked in popularity in Great Britain during the 17th century , when horses were freely imported from Spain and exchanged as gifts between royal families . With the introduction of the Thoroughbred , interest in the Spanish horse faded after the mid @-@ 18th century , although they remained popular through the early 19th century . The Conquistadors of the 16th century rode Spanish horses , particularly animals from Andalusia , and the modern Andalusian descended from similar bloodstock . By 1500 , Spanish horses were established in studs on Santo Domingo , and Spanish horses made their way into the ancestry of many breeds founded in North and South America . Many Spanish explorers from the 16th century on brought Spanish horses with them for use as war horses and later as breeding stock . By 1642 , the Spanish horse had spread to Moldovia , to the stables of Transylvanian prince George Rakoczi .
= = = 19th century to present = = =
Despite their ancient history , all living Andalusians trace to a small number of horses bred by religious orders in the 18th and 19th centuries . An influx of heavy horse blood beginning in the 16th century , resulted in the dilution of many of the bloodlines ; only those protected by selective breeding remained intact to become the modern Andalusian . During the 19th century , the Andalusian breed was threatened because many horses were stolen or requisitioned in wartime , including the War of the Oranges , the Peninsular War and the three Carlist Wars . Napoleon 's invading army also stole many horses . One herd of Andalusians was hidden from the invaders however , and subsequently used to renew the breed . In 1822 , breeders began to add Norman blood into Spanish bloodlines , as well as further infusions of Arabian blood . This was partially because increasing mechanization and changing needs within the military called for horses with more speed in cavalry charges as well as horses with more bulk for pulling gun carriages . In 1832 , an epidemic seriously affected Spain 's horse population , from which only one small herd survived in a stud at the monastery in Cartuja . During the 19th and early 20th centuries , European breeders , especially the Germans , changed from an emphasis on Andalusian and Neapolitan horses ( an emphasis that had been in place since the decline of chivalry ) , to an emphasis on the breeding of Thoroughbreds and warmbloods , further depleting the stock of Andalusians . Despite this change in focus , Andalusian breeding slowly recovered , and in 1869 , the Seville Horse Fair ( originally begun by the Romans ) , played host to between ten and twelve thousand Spanish horses . In the early 20th century , Spanish horse breeding began to focus on other breeds , particularly draft breeds , Arabians , Thoroughbreds and crosses between these breeds , as well as crosses between these breeds and the Andalusian . The purebred Andalusian was not viewed favorably by breeders or the military , and their numbers decreased significantly .
Andalusians only began to be exported from Spain in 1962 . The first Andalusians were imported into Australia in 1971 , and in 1973 the Andalusian Horse Association of Australasia was formed for the registration of these Andalusians and their offspring . Strict quarantine guidelines prohibited the importation of new Andalusian blood to Australia for many years , but since 1999 , regulations have been relaxed and more than half a dozen new horses have been imported . Bloodines in the United States also rely on imported stock , and all American Andalusians can be traced directly to the stud books in Portugal and Spain . There are around 8 @,@ 500 animals in the United States , where the International Andalusian and Lusitano Horse Association ( IALHA ) registers around 700 new purebred foals every year . These numbers indicate that the Andalusian is a relatively rare breed in the United States . In 2003 , there were 75 @,@ 389 horses registered in the stud book , and they constituted almost 66 percent of the horses in Spain . Breed numbers have been increasing during the 21st century . At the end of 2010 , a total of 185 @,@ 926 Pura Raza Española horses were recorded in the database of the Spanish Ministerio de Medio Ambiente , y Medio Rural y Marino . Of these , 28 @,@ 801 or about 15 % were in other countries of the world ; of those in Spain , 65 @,@ 371 or about 42 % were in Andalusia .
= = = Strains and sub @-@ types = = =
The Carthusian Andalusian or Cartujano is generally considered the purest Andalusian strain , and has one of the oldest recorded pedigree lines in the world . The pure sub @-@ type is rare , as only around 12 percent of the Andalusian horses registered between the founding of the stud book in the 19th century and 1998 were considered Carthusians . They made up only 3 @.@ 6 percent of the overall breeding stock , but 14 @.@ 2 percent of the stallions used for breeding . In the past , Carthusians were given preference in breeding , leading to a large proportion of the Andalusian population claiming ancestry from a small number of horses and possibly limiting the breed 's genetic variability . A 2005 study compared the genetic distance between Carthusian and non @-@ Carthusian horses . They calculated a Fixation index ( FST ) based on genealogical information and concluded that the distinction between the two is not supported by genetic evidence . However , there are slight physical differences ; Carthusians have more " oriental " or concave head shapes and are more often gray in color , while non @-@ Carthusians tend toward convex profiles and more often exhibit other coat colors such as bay .
The Carthusian line was established in the early 18th century when two Spanish brothers , Andrés and Diego Zamora , purchased a stallion named El Soldado and bred him to two mares . The mares were descended from mares purchased by the Spanish king and placed at Aranjuez , one of the oldest horse breeding farms in Spain . One of the offspring of El Soldado , a dark gray colt named Esclavo , became the foundation sire of the Carthusian line . One group of mares sired by Esclavo in about 1736 were given to a group of Carthusian monks to settle a debt . Other animals of these bloodlines were absorbed into the main Andalusian breed ; the stock given to the monks was bred into a special line , known as Zamoranos . Throughout the following centuries , the Zamoranos bloodlines were guarded by the Carthusian monks , to the point of defying royal orders to introduce outside blood from the Neapolitan horse and central European breeds . They did , however , introduce Arabian and Barb blood to improve the strain . The original stock of Carthusians was greatly depleted during the Peninsular Wars , and the strain might have become extinct if not for the efforts of the Zapata family . Today , the Carthusian strain is raised in state @-@ owned stud farms around Jerez de la Frontera , Badajoz and Cordoba , and also by several private families . Carthusian horses continue to be in demand in Spain , and buyers pay high prices for members of the strain .
= = = Influence on other breeds = = =
Spain 's worldwide military activities between the 14th and 17th centuries called for large numbers of horses , more than could be supplied by native Spanish mares . Spanish custom also called for mounted troops to ride stallions , never mares or geldings . Due to these factors , Spanish stallions were crossed with local mares in many countries , adding Spanish bloodlines wherever they went , especially to other European breeds .
Because of the influence of the later Habsburg families , who ruled in both Spain and other nations of Europe , the Andalusian was crossbred with horses of Central Europe and the Low Countries and thus was closely related to many breeds that developed , including the Neapolitan horse , Groningen , Lipizzaner and Kladruber . Spanish horses have been used extensively in classical dressage in Germany since the 16th century . They thus influenced many German breeds , including the Hanoverian , Holstein , East Friesian and Oldenburg . Dutch breeds such as the Friesian and Gelderland also contain significant Spanish blood , as do Danish breeds such as the Fredericksborg and Knabstrupper .
Andalusians were a significant influence on the creation of the Alter Real , a strain of the Lusitano , and the Azteca , a Mexican breed created by crossing the Andalusian with American Quarter Horse and Criollo bloodlines . The Spanish jennet ancestors of the Andalusian also developed the Colonial Spanish Horse in America , which became the foundation bloodstock for many North and South American breeds . The Andalusian has also been used to create breeds more recently , with breed associations for both the Warlander ( an Andalusian / Friesian cross ) and the Spanish @-@ Norman ( an Andalusian / Percheron cross ) being established in the 1990s .
= = Naming and registration = =
Until modern times , horse breeds throughout Europe were known primarily by the name of the region where they were bred . Thus the original term " Andalusian " simply described the horses of distinct quality that came from Andalusia in Spain . Similarly , the Lusitano , a Portuguese horse very similar to the Andalusian , takes its name from Lusitania , an ancient Roman name for Portugal .
The Andalusian horse has been known historically as the Iberian Saddle Horse , Iberian War Horse , Spanish Horse , Portuguese , Peninsular , Extremeño , Villanos , Zapata , Zamoranos , Castilian , and Jennet . The Portuguese name refers to what is now the Lusitano , while the Peninsular , Iberian Saddle Horse and Iberian War Horse names refer to horses from the Iberian Peninsula as a whole . The Extremeño name refers to Spanish horses from the Extremadura province of Spain and the Zapata or Zapatero name to horses that come from the Zapata family stud . The Villano name has occasionally been applied to modern Andalusians , but originally referred to heavy , crossbred horses from the mountains north of Jaen . The Carthusian horse , also known as the Carthusian @-@ Andalusian and the Cartujano , is a sub @-@ type of the Andalusian , rather than a distinct breed in itself . A common nickname for the Andalusian is the " Horse of Kings " . Some sources state that the Andalusian and the Lusitano are genetically the same , differing only in the country of origin of individual horses .
In many areas today , the breeding , showing , and registration of the Andalusian and Lusitano are controlled by the same registries . One example of this is the International Andalusian and Lusitano Horse Association ( IALHA ) , claimed to have the largest membership of any Andalusian registering organization . Other organizations , such as The Association of Purebred Spanish Horse Breeders of Spain ( Asociación Nacional de Criadores de Caballo de Pura Raza Española or ANCCE ) , use the term " Pura Raza Española " or PRE to describe the true Spanish horse , and claim sole authority to officially register and issue documentation for PRE Horses , both in Spain and anywhere else in the world . In most of the world the terms " Andalusian " and " PRE " are considered one and the same breed , but the public position of the ANCCE is that terms such as " Andalusian " and " Iberian horse " refer only to crossbreds , which the ANCCE considers to be horses that lack quality and purity , without official documentation or registration from official Spanish Stud Book .
In Australasia , the Australasia Andalusian Association registers Andalusians ( which the registry considers an interchangeable term for PRE ) , Australian Andalusians , and partbred Andalusians . They share responsibility for the Purebred Iberian Horse ( an Andalusian / Lusitano cross ) with the Lusitano Association of Australasia . In the Australian registry , there are various levels of crossbred horses . A first cross Andalusian is a crossbreed that is 50 percent Andalusian , while a second cross Andalusian is the result of crossing a purebred Andalusian with a first cross – resulting in a horse of 75 percent Andalusian blood . A third cross , also known by the registry as an Australian Andalusian , is when a second cross individual is mated with a foundation Andalusian mare . This sequence is known as a " breeding up " program by the registry .
= = = Pure Spanish Horse = = =
The name Pura Raza Española ( PRE ) , translated as " Pure Spanish Horse , " is the term used by the ANCCE , a private organization , and the Ministry of Agriculture of Spain . The ANCCE uses neither the term " Andalusian " nor " Iberian horse " , and only registers horses that have certain recognized bloodlines . In addition , all breeding stock must undergo an evaluation process . The ANCCE was founded in 1972 . Spain 's Ministry of Agriculture recognizes the ANCCE as the representing entity for PRE breeders and owners across the globe , as well as the administrator of the breed stud book . ANCCE functions as the international parent association for all breeders worldwide who record their horses as PRE . For example , the United States PRE association is affiliated with ANCCE , follows ANCCE rules , and has a wholly separate governance system from the IALHA .
A second group , the Foundation for the Pure Spanish Horse or PRE Mundial , has begun another PRE registry as an alternative to the ANCCE . This new registry claims that all of their registered horses trace back to the original stud book maintained by the Cria Caballar , which was a branch of the Spanish Ministry of Defense , for 100 years . Thus , the PRE Mundial registry asserts that their registry is the most authentic , purest PRE registry functioning today .
As of August 2011 , there is a lawsuit in progress to determine the legal holder of the PRE stud book . The Unión de Criadores de Caballos Españoles ( UCCE or Union of Spanish Horse Breeders ) has brought a case to the highest European Union courts in Brussels , charging that the Ministry of Spain 's transfer of the original PRE Libro de Origen ( the official stud book ) from the Cria Caballar to ANCCE was illegal . In early 2009 , the courts decided on behalf of UCCE , explaining that the Cria Caballar formed the Libro de Origin . Because it was formed by a government entity , it is against European Union law for the stud book to be transferred to a private entity , a law that was broken by the transfer of the book to ANCCE , which is a non @-@ governmental organization . The court found that by giving ANCCE sole control of the stud book , Spain 's Ministry of Defense was acting in a discriminatory manner . The court held that Spain must give permission to maintain a breed stud book ( called a Libro Genealógico ) to any international association or Spanish national association which requests it . Based on the Brussels court decision , an application has been made by the Foundation for the Pure Spanish Horse to maintain the United States stud book for the PRE . As of March 2011 , Spain has not revoked ANCCE 's right to be the sole holder of the PRE stud book , and has instead reaffirmed the organization 's status .
= = Uses = =
The Andalusian breed has over the centuries been consistently selected for athleticism . In the 17th century , referring to multi @-@ kilometer races , Cavendish said , " They were so much faster than all other horses known at that time that none was ever seen to come close to them , even in the many remarkable races that were run . " In 1831 , horses at five years old were expected to be able to gallop , without changing pace , four or five leagues , about 12 to 15 miles ( 19 to 24 km ) . By 1925 , the Portuguese military expected horses to " cover 40 km over uneven terrain at a minimum speed of 10 km / h , and to gallop a flat course of 8 km at a mimimum speed of 800 metres per minute carrying a weight of at least 70 kg " , and the Spanish military had similar standards .
From the very beginning of their history , Andalusians have been used for both riding and driving . Among the first horses used for classical dressage , they are still making a mark in international competition in dressage today . At the 2002 World Equestrian Games , two Andalusians were on the bronze @-@ medal winning Spanish dressage team , a team that went on to take the silver medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics . Today , the breed is increasingly being selectively bred for increased aptitude in classical dressage . Historically , however , they were also used as stock horses , especially suited to working with Iberian bulls , known for their aggressive temperaments . They were , and still are , known for their use in mounted bull fighting . Mares were traditionally used for la trilla , the Spanish process of threshing grain practiced until the 1960s . Mares , some pregnant or with foals at their side , spent full days trotting over the grain . As well as being a traditional farming practice , it also served as a test of endurance , hardiness and willingness for the maternal Andalusian lines .
Andalusians today are used for show jumping , western pleasure and many other classes at horse shows . The current Traveler , the mascot of the University of Southern California , is an Andalusian . The dramatic appearance of the Andalusian horse , with its arched neck , muscular build and energetic gaits , has made it a popular breed to use in film , particularly in historical and fantasy epics . Andalusians have been present in films ranging from Gladiator to Interview with a Vampire , and Lara Croft Tomb Raider : The Cradle of Life to Braveheart . The horses have also been seen in such fantasy epics as The Lord of the Rings film trilogy , King Arthur , and The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe . In 2006 , a rearing Andalusian stallion , ridden by Spanish conquistador Don Juan de Oñate , was recreated as the largest bronze equine in the world . Measuring 36 feet ( 11 m ) high , the statue currently stands in El Paso , Texas .
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= Eyes of the Insane =
" Eyes of the Insane " is a 2006 single by the American thrash metal band Slayer , taken from their 2006 album Christ Illusion . The lyrics explore an American soldier 's mental anguish following his return home from the second Gulf War , and are based on an article entitled " Casualty of War " in Texas Monthly magazine . " Eyes of the Insane " was written by vocalist Tom Araya during pre @-@ production for the album . The song was generally well received by critics , and also peaked # 15 on the Danish singles charts .
The accompanying music video by the Iranian director Tony Petrossian was recorded in the Los Angeles area in August 2006 . The film is presented as a close @-@ up of the soldier 's pupil and iris , which reflect disconcerting images of war @-@ themed horrors , flashbacks of his home , wife and children , and ultimately images of his death . " Eyes of the Insane " was used on the soundtrack to Saw III , and won an award for the Best Metal Performance at the 49th Grammy Awards .
= = Origins = =
While walking through an airport , vocalist Tom Araya picked up a March 2006 issue of Texas Monthly with a soldier 's helmet on the front cover . Seeing the article " Casualty of War " , he was interested enough to purchase a copy . The issue explored the involvement of military personnel from Texas in the Iraq War , and included a list of Texan soldiers who had died in the conflict . The feature was accompanied by photographs of some of the dead , while a further article dealt with the anguish of surviving soldiers on their return home . Araya later said that the article " blew his mind " .
Araya read the article during his flight back to Los Angeles . Pre @-@ production for Slayer 's ninth studio album Christ Illusion had just begun , and the band was about to undertake a three @-@ day rehearsal with producer Josh Abraham . Araya left his baggage at the hotel to attend the rehearsals , then returned to re @-@ read the article . Finding it to be " very profound " , he woke up in the middle of the night and wrote down the lyrics . He said that his treatment of the topic is " sincere " , and that he believes it to be " one that the military doesn 't want you to know . They sweep it under the rug , but it 's a story that needs to be told . " The band 's guitarist , Kerry King , has said that " these new songs [ from the Christ Illusion album ] aren 't political at all : ' Jihad ' , ' Eyes of the Insane ' — it 's what 's spewing out at us from the TV . "
= = Musical structure = =
" Eyes of the Insane " is 3 minutes 23 seconds long . A slow drum pattern played by Dave Lombardo opens the track , over which Hanneman and King play angular and descending scales on guitar . These guitar riffs evolve from verse to verse , and have been described by Allmusic as " intensely harrowing " . The song gradually builds over the course of the verses , refrain and bridge , before resolving with a " towering " chorus .
Some reviewers paid particular attention to Araya 's vocal contribution . Zach Hothorn of Prefix magazine said the song " allows Araya to show his vocal range , deepening to build up tension and creating a wonderfully chilling 3 and a half minutes " , while Ian Robinson of musicOMH.com felt the track " is a distinct but welcome change of pace , Dave Lombardo 's machine @-@ gun rhythms forming the backbone for Tom Araya 's impressively intact scream . "
= = Music video = =
By the time Slayer decided that a music video should be filmed , touring commitments prevented their involvement in the actual shoot . Instead , others were contacted to produce the film . Director Tony Petrossian presented Slayer with the first draft , and the group made a few suggestions for improvement . Never having met him , King recalled Petrossian " had a treatment , and we all dug the treatment so we just turned him loose . " " Eyes of the Insane " ' s war @-@ themed music video was filmed on August 13 , 2006 , in the Los Angeles area . Casting company Tolley Casparis Casting sought a male Caucasian between the ages of 18 and 26 to appear in the clip , with auditions held on August 10 , 2006 . The official project notes deemed that " This guy must be a serious actor , capable of emoting everything through his eyes . He was innocent a few months ago , now he is scarred by seeing so much fighting . Strong eyebrows that do not overpower the face . Scars or large veins actually a plus . "
The video was shot as a " first @-@ person narrative about the horrors leading up to the final moments of a soldier at war " , and was described as " a single , long and tight close @-@ up of the soldier 's eye with images clearly reflected within his pupil and iris and perfectly choreographed with the rhythm of the music . Reflected are disconcerting images of para trooping into enemy territory , gunfire , helicopters and tanks , explosions , poignant flashbacks of his wife and child and home , and the images of his death . " Two endings were shot ; one in which the soldier is killed as the result of sustained combat wounds , and another in which the soldier commits suicide by hanging - the latter one was used . Jeff Hanneman confirmed that the band " loved " the eye concept , and personally felt that the video was " pretty amazing " when he first viewed it . King admitted that the film is " pretty cool — I thought it was neat idea — very different , especially for us , because we usually do performance based videos . " The video was exclusively posted on mp3.com late in October 2006 . In April 2007 , it was announced that the video had earned a Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards nomination for Best Video with the winner to be revealed on June 11 , 2007 , at the Koko Club in London , England .
= = Critical reception = =
Critics were generally positive when reviewing " Eyes of the Insane " . Stylus magazine 's Cosmo Lee described the track as " a dark , midpaced exploration of a soldier 's psyche " , and remarked that " it 's memorable and would be a good breather between the usual barnburners " . Peter Atkinson of KNAC.com felt that " ' Eyes of the Insane ' offers a post @-@ traumatic sequel to ' Mandatory Suicide ' , again with a soundtrack that recalls the original , but boasting a couple truly mammoth hooks that do shake things up . " Don Kaye of Blabbermouth made a comparison to a different Slayer track than Atkinson , and commented that " ' Eyes of the Insane ' and ' Catatonic ' both have that slow , grinding feeling of doom that the band has done so well before on classics like ' Dead Skin Mask ' . "
= = Awards = =
The song was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 49th annual Grammy Awards . When asked for his thoughts on the nomination , King revealed that he did not " even care " , and noted that Slayer fans " don 't give a shit and that 's the most important thing to me " . The interviewer expressed his surprise at the nomination given Slayer 's " inflammatory " lyrics , to which King replied , " That would be the coolest thing , you know ? To win with the shit we write about . " The ceremony was held on February 11 , 2007 , at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , with Slayer competing against Mastodon , Lamb of God , Ministry and Stone Sour . Slayer won the Best Metal Performance Grammy award , although the band was unable to attend because of a conflicting North American headlining tour . Araya commented about the win from a hotel room in Columbus , Ohio : " Jeff [ Hanneman ] and I put a lot into ' Eyes of the Insane ' so we 're thrilled that the Grammy voters took the time to listen to it , and then vote for it . We 're out here on the road and we 're all really , really happy . " King disagreed , deeming the song " one of the poorest representations of us [ Slayer ] on the record [ Christ Illusion ] " . He further said that , if given the decision , he would have chosen the controversial track " Jihad " to represent Slayer from their ninth album Christ Illusion . Critical of the Recording Academy , King said , " Realistically , I think people on the academy who vote pick the household name ... And that 's what we are . "
= = Other media = =
The soundtrack to the 2006 horror film Saw III included " Eyes of the Insane " , and was released on October 24 , 2006 , by Warcon Enterprises . The track was one of six songs performed by Slayer during their first US network television appearance on ABC @-@ TV 's Jimmy Kimmel Live ! ( January 19 , 2007 ) , and was the only song broadcast in its entirety . However , King dislikes playing " Eyes of the Insane " live , commenting , " It 's just dull to play , good song just dull to play on guitar . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
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= Wicklow Way =
The Wicklow Way ( Irish : Slí Cualann Nua , meaning " New Cuala Way " ) is a 131 @-@ kilometre ( 81 @-@ mile ) long @-@ distance trail that crosses the Wicklow Mountains in Ireland . It runs from Marlay Park in the southern suburbs of Dublin through County Wicklow and ends in the village of Clonegal in County Carlow . It is designated as a National Waymarked Trail by the Irish Sports Council and is waymarked by posts with a yellow " walking man " symbol and a directional arrow . Typically completed in 5 – 7 days , it is one of the busiest of Ireland 's National Waymarked Trails , with up to 24 @,@ 000 people a year walking the most popular sections . The Way is also used regularly by a number of mountain running competitions .
The trail follows forest tracks , mountain paths , boreens and quiet country roads . Mountains , upland lakes and steep @-@ sided glacial valleys make up the terrain of the initial northern sections of the Way before giving way to gentler rolling foothills in the latter southern sections . Much of the route follows the contact point between the igneous granite of the western side of Wicklow and the metamorphic schists and slates of the eastern side . The principal habitat of the upland sections is a mixture of broadleaf and coniferous woodland , heath and blanket bog while in the lowland sections the hedgerows marking the boundaries between fields support a variety of wildlife . The Way also passes the Monastic City at Glendalough , founded in the 6th century by Saint Kevin .
The Wicklow Way was originally proposed by J. B. Malone in a series of newspaper articles in 1966 . In 1977 , Malone was appointed to the Long Distance Walking Routes Committee of Cospoir , the National Sports Council and set about making the concept a reality . Malone ’ s original proposal for a circular route around Wicklow was dropped in favour of the linear route that exists today because the Government wanted the Wicklow Way to form part of a network of walking routes around the country . The first section opened in 1980 and the trail was fully completed in 1982 . It became the first of many National Waymarked Trails to be developed in Ireland : there are now over forty such trails , covering a distance of over 4 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 500 miles ) . The Way forms part of European walking route E8 which stretches from the Atlantic coast of County Cork to Istanbul in Turkey . A memorial to J. B. Malone , who died in 1989 , was erected on the Wicklow Way , near Lough Tay , in honour of his contribution .
The provision of and access to the routes through the countryside used by the Wicklow Way is dependent on agreement with local authorities and landowners . Accordingly the route has been criticised for excessive use of routes through forestry plantations and roads . Proposals to address these issues were put forward in a review of the National Waymarked Trails published in 2010 .
= = History = =
The concept of a long @-@ distance trail through County Wicklow was first published by J. B. Malone ( 1914 – 1989 ) in a series of newspaper articles in 1966 . Malone had a regular column on walking in Wicklow in the Evening Herald newspaper and had published two books – The Open Road ( 1950 ) and Walking in Wicklow ( 1964 ) – on the subject as well as contributing to the RTÉ television series Mountain and Meadow ( 1962 ) . He proposed a circular route , dubbed " The Twelve Days of Wicklow " , which he considered to be " a journey comparable to that along the celebrated " Pennine Way " but I would say more varied than its north British counterpart " . The route consisted of twelve stages , beginning at Bohernabreena , near Tallaght , Dublin 24 and ending at Stepaside , County Dublin as follows : Bohernabreena to Baltyboys ( near Valleymount ) , via Athdown ; Baltyboys to Ballinclea ( near Donard ) , via Hollywood ; Ballinclea to Aghavannagh , via Lugnaquilla summit ; a rest day at Aghavannagh ; Aghavannagh to Tinahely ; a circular day route beginning and ending in Tinahely , via Shillelagh ; Tinahely to Avoca ; Avoca to Glenmalure , via Greenan ; Glenmalure to Glendalough ; a rest day at Glendalough ; Glendalough to Knockree ; and Knockree to Stepaside .
In 1977 Malone was appointed , by John Bruton , T. D. , then Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Education , to a committee to develop rural pathways in Ireland . This evolved into the Long Distance Walking Routes Committee ( LDWRC ) of Cospóir , the National Sports Council , where Malone , acting as Field Officer , set about developing a scheme for a " Wicklow Way " along the lines of what he had proposed twelve years earlier . The Government 's decision to develop a series of walking routes was prompted in response to the development of the Ulster Way in Northern Ireland . Malone 's original concept of a circular route returning to Dublin via West Wicklow was dropped in favour of the linear path between Marlay Park and Clonegal that exists today , mainly because the Government wanted the Wicklow Way to form part of national network of trails to cover Ireland . Issues regarding access were another reason . Nevertheless , the route remains substantially as planned in 1966 . In developing the route , the LDWRC made use of many existing paths , tracks and forest roads but , having no compulsory powers to include any of these , the provision of and access to such routes was , and continues to be , achieved by agreement with local authorities and landowners .
The first section of the Way – from Marlay Park to Luggala – was opened by Jim Tunney , T. D. , Minister of State for Education on 15 August 1980 . The second section – from Luggala to Moyne – was opened by Michael Keating , T. D. , Minister of State for Education on 27 September 1981 . The final stretch as far as Clonegal was completed in 1982 . The Irish name of the Wicklow Way – Slí Cualann Nua – is not a literal translation but means " New Cuala Way " , a reference to the Slí Cualann , one of five ancient routes that radiated from the Hill of Tara that ran through the land of Cuala ( modern @-@ day Wicklow ) .
The route of the Wicklow Way has been altered on a number of occasions since opening in 1980 , generally as a result of problems with erosion or difficulties with rights of way . For instance , concerns about erosion led to the Way being diverted away from Fairy Castle , the summit of Two Rock mountain . Similarly , the Way was also diverted away from the summit of Mullacor , which at 657 metres ( 2 @,@ 156 feet ) was the highest point on the Way before the trail was rerouted . In 1999 , the Way was diverted away from the village of Laragh on foot of an objection by a local landowner , to the chagrin of businesses in the village dependent on the custom of walking tourists . A number of information boards and stone landmarks were erected in 2006 to mark the 25th anniversary of the opening of the Way . The state @-@ owned forestry company Coillte has in recent years worked with a number of tourism and voluntary bodies to upgrade sections of the Way that run through its lands . Today , the Wicklow Way is managed by the Wicklow Outdoor Recreation Committee .
The Wicklow Way was the first waymarked way to be opened in Ireland . The LDWRC ( now the National Trails Advisory Committee of the Irish Sports Council ) went on to develop many more long distance walking routes , the intention at the time being to develop a walking route around Ireland . There are now more than forty National Waymarked Trails , comprising over 4 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 500 miles ) of trails in Ireland .
= = Usage and criticism = =
On account of being the first to be developed in Ireland and also on account of its proximity to Dublin , the Wicklow Way is one of the most popular of Ireland 's National Waymarked Trails . It has , however , been subject to some criticisms . Since access to lands along the Way is on a permissive basis , much of the walk ( 41 km ( 25 mi ) ) is on tarred country roads , is highly dependent on access provided by the state , ( 57 km ( 35 mi ) is on land owned by Coillte and 16 km ( 10 mi ) is on land owned by the Wicklow Mountains National Park ) and covers a relatively small amount of private land ( 13 km ( 8 mi ) ) . Most of the road walking is confined to the southernmost section of the Way , between Tinahely and Clonegal , where some 63 % of the route is on roads . Research by the Wicklow Uplands Council showed that while up to 24 @,@ 000 people a year walk along the busiest sections , this number falls to under 2 @,@ 500 a year on the stretches south of Glenmalure .
The extensive use of forest roads through conifer plantations has been another criticism : the authors of the Lonely Planet guidebook , Walking in Ireland , found , " The Way 's one shortcoming is the character of the walking [ … ] you 'll become all too familiar with forest tracks and roads through conifer plantations [ … ] where they 're surrounded by tall , dense forest they 're not particularly interesting " . Similarly , Paul Gosling , who walked the Way for The Independent , found that , " While the long distance path is , on occasion , very attractive , it is not so much hazardous as unadventurous . [ … ] Over the next four and a half days , we lost our enthusiasm for conifers [ … ] The views were restricted and there was little sign of wildlife " . In The Irish Times John G. O 'Dwyer described them as " gloomy trails through invading armies of monoculture [ … ] as memorable as a motorway median " .
A review of the National Waymarked Trails in Ireland by the National Trails Office in 2010 acknowledged these shortcomings and recommended that the Wicklow Way be selected as one of fourteen trails to be upgraded to a National Long Distance Trail . This is a proposed new standard of trail in Ireland , intended to meet international standards for outstanding trails . It would require sections on unsuitable roads to comprise less than 10 % of the total trail and for appropriate support services – accommodation , meals , transport , luggage transfer etc . – to be available . The review also recommended the development of shorter looped walks off the Wicklow Way and improving parking facilities .
= = Route = =
The Wicklow Way is waymarked in both directions and can be started at Marlay Park or Clonegal . The trail is marked with square black posts with an image , in yellow , of a walking man and a directional arrow . This image , copied from the symbol used for waymarking the Ulster Way , has become the traditional waymarking symbol for all of the National Waymarked Trails in Ireland . Brown fingerposts are used on sections that follow roads . The Way is typically completed in five to seven days .
= = = Marlay Park to Knockree = = =
If travelling in a North @-@ South direction , the Wicklow Way begins in Marlay Park , a historic demesne on the outskirts of Dublin 's suburbs laid out in the late 18th century by the La Touches , a family of Huguenot merchants and bankers , and later developed as a public park . The trailhead comprises a map board , beside which is a low wall with a stone stile through which walkers pass in order to make their first step on the trail . The Way traverses the park , following a wooded shelterbelt along the Little Dargle River , before emerging on the southern side of the park onto College Road . Passing under the M50 motorway , it ascends Kilmashogue Lane and enters the forest recreation area on Kilmashogue mountain . This is the first of many forest plantations , owned by Coillte , that the Wicklow Way passes through . The tree species in this area comprise Sitka spruce , Scots pine and beech . Much of this initial section of the Way is underlain by granite . The trail circles the mountain , emerging onto open moorland near Fairy Castle . This upland heath and bog habitat is dominated by heather , purple moor grass and bog cotton and supports many bird species , including red grouse , meadow pipit and skylark . The Way crosses a saddle between Two Rock mountain and Kilmashogue before descending from a broad ridge between Two Rock and Tibradden Mountain into the valley of Glencullen where it follows the R116 road to the hamlet of Boranaraltry . The road is flanked by hedgerow @-@ bordered farmland . Ascending from Boranaraltry , the trail crests the shoulder of Prince William ’ s Seat , at which point the Way leaves County Dublin and enters County Wicklow . The habitat here alternates between blanket bog and upland heath . The trail descends to the floor of the Glencree valley via Curtlestown Wood where it then enters Lackan Wood and crosses the shoulder of Knockree Hill .
= = = Knockree to Oldbridge = = =
From Knockree on to Clonegal , much of the Way follows the contact point between the granite of the western part of the Wicklow Mountains and the schists and slates of the east . The trail follows the Glencree River through Seskin Wood , a semi @-@ natural oak and hazel woodland and a habitat for jays . Crossing the river at a footbridge , the trail then passes into Crone Woods and ascends to Ride Rock , which overlooks Powerscourt Deerpark and the Powerscourt Waterfall , the tallest in Ireland at 121 metres ( 397 feet ) . Deer – hybrids of imported Japanese Sika and native Red deer – are common in the forests and mountains along the Wicklow Way and all deer in the Wicklow Mountains originated with the Powerscourt herd . The next valley to be crossed is Glensoulan which , although uninhabited today , before the Great Famine of the 1840s was home to a small population of cottiers and faint traces of their farms can still be seen in the wintertime when the bracken is low . Crossing the River Dargle , the trail ascends the eastern shoulder of Djouce mountain . Here , the heathland gives way to wetter blanket bog . Bogland shares a number of plant and animal species with heathland but is also a habitat for species of bog cotton as well as bog asphodel , sedges ( which contribute to the formation of peat ) and bog moss . The wet bogland is also a habitat for frogs , pondskaters and diving beetles . Near the summit of Djouce , the Way joins a wooden tóchar or bog bridge , constructed to protect the bog from erosion , which crosses White Hill , the highest point on the Way at 630 metres ( 2 @,@ 067 feet ) . The trail descends White Hill towards Luggala along a ridge , known as the Barr , where a memorial stone to J. B. Malone , carved by sculptor Billy Gannon and erected in 1990 , may be found overlooking Lough Tay . From Luggala , the trail passes through a coniferous plantation of spruce and pine on the eastern flanks of Sleamaine and Ballinafunshoge Hills to reach Oldbridge , which crosses the River Avonmore near Lough Dan .
= = = Oldbridge to Glendalough = = =
Leaving Oldbridge , the Way follows the road for approximately 4 kilometres ( 2 miles ) before turning onto a boreen . To the left of the boreen is Wart Stone Field , so called on account of a bullaun stone that lies in the field , water from which is said to cure warts . The boreen ends at Brusher Gap , reputed to be a place where locals left food and supplies for Michael Dwyer and his followers when they went on the run after the 1798 Rebellion . The Way enters Drummin forest , a sitka spruce plantation , where it passes an Adirondack shelter , constructed by Mountain Meitheal , a volunteer group dedicated to trail preservation that has upgraded various sections of the Wicklow Way over the years . The trail climbs Paddock Hill before descending into a plantation of larch trees . The forest floor here is a habitat for spurges , heath bedstraw and fly agaric toadstools . The trail crosses the Military Road , near Laragh , and then a wooden footbridge across the Glenmacnass River . A dense spread of granite boulders litters the riverbed , glacial erratics deposited by melting glaciers at the end of the last ice age . This stretch of the trail follows an old mass path through a woodland of many native Irish tree species , including oak , rowan , silver birch and willow , carpeted with a forest floor of bilberry , bluebell and hard fern . The Way continues along forest tracks over the shoulder of Brockagh Mountain . At the highest point there is a vista over the Vale of Glendalough with the two lakes nestled in the shelter of Camaderry and Derrybawn Mountains . Exiting the forest , the Way reaches the R756 road and the Glendalough visitor centre . Crossing the Glendasan River , it passes the remains of the Monastic City , founded in the 6th century by Saint Kevin .
= = = Glendalough to Iron Bridge = = =
Most of this stretch of the trail is on forest roads . From the Monastic City at Glendalough , the Way follows the Green Road towards the Upper Lake . It passes through an area of native woodland made up of oak , holly , birch , and rowan . Ascending from the Upper Lake , the trail reaches Poulanass Waterfall which , over millennia , has cut a narrow gorge through the slate rock and borne millions of tonnes of rock , sand and mud into Glendalough , dividing what was originally one lake into the two seen today . The trail continues its ascent through forest before emerging onto the saddle between Mullacor and Lugduff mountains at Borenacrow . The Borenacrow route between Glendalough and Glenmalure dates back to ancient times and there is a local tradition that Saint Kevin travelled this way to celebrate Mass in Glenmalure . The view ahead looks across the Glenmalure valley at Fraughan Rock Glen and Lugnaquilla , Wicklow 's highest mountain at 925 metres ( 3 @,@ 035 feet ) . The Way then begins a long descent into Glenmalure , the longest glacial valley in Ireland and Great Britain . Along the way the trail passes another Adirondack shelter , constructed in 2006 by Mountain Meitheal . Reaching the floor of the valley , the Way joins the Military Road to reach Drumgoff Crossroads . Crossing the River Avonbeg , the route passes the remains of an old military barracks , built around 1800 , and enters Drumgoff Wood . At the forest entrance is a granite pillar marking the official halfway point of the Wicklow Way . The trail follows a forest road along the flanks of Slieve Maan before briefly re @-@ joining the Military Road and then following a forest road around Carrickashane Mountain before reaching the road at Iron Bridge where the Way crosses the Ow River . Another Adirondack shelter , again constructed by Mountain Meitheal volunteers with assistance from the Glenwalk Hillwalking Club , can be found at Mucklagh , on the slopes of Carrickashane Mountain .
= = = Iron Bridge to Derry River = = =
After Iron Bridge , the character of the Way changes with the steeper hills of the earlier sections giving way to a gentler gradient that meanders between low hills . These latter sections also contain a great deal of road walking as the Way crosses farmland via minor roads and boreens .
Hedgerows of hawthorn and blackthorn , which form the boundaries between the fields , are the principal habitat in these cultivated areas . They support many species of wild flowers , insects and birds , including dog rose , purple foxglove and wild violet as well as wrens , blackbirds and song thrushes .
The Way ascends through a gap between Ballygobban and Shielstown Hills , yielding views stretching from Lugnaquilla to Keadeen Mountain and beyond to Eagle Hill and the Castlecomer Plateau . The hills ahead mark the edge of the granite backbone of the Wicklow Mountains ; in the distance they gradually merge with the Blackstairs Mountains , which can be seen on the skyline . The trail follows the road passing close to the village of Moyne before joining a boreen . Along this boreen are the remains of a holy well dedicated to Saint Colmcille . The trail contours around Ballycumber Hill and then continues along the eastern slopes of Garryhoe Hill , passing the remains of a ringfort , approximately 15 metres ( 49 feet ) in diameter . Further along is a memorial to a Dr James McNamara who was killed in a shooting accident in 1916 . Passing through a series of gates along the way , the trail follows Coolafunshoge Lane , an old droving path with extensive views of south Wicklow . The lane emerges onto the road , crossing a bridge over the River Derry to reach the R747 road close to Tinahely .
= = = Derry River to Clonegal = = =
The trail follows an ancient cattle droving path around Muskeagh Hill before joining a series of country roads . 63 % of this final stretch is on roads . These pass through the village of Mullinacuff whose neo @-@ Gothic church and cottages are built from local granite . At Stranakelly Crossroads , the Way passes Tallon 's pub , better known as the " Dying Cow " from a story that , when visited by police late one night , the landlady argued that she wasn 't serving drink after hours but providing refreshments to neighbours who helped her with a dying cow . Circling Cronlea Hill , which is topped with a windfarm , and passing near the village of Kilquiggan , the Way crosses the R725 road near Shillelagh . The trail enters forestry at Raheenakit before joining an old drovers ' road , once used to herd sheep to market in Shillelagh . The Blackstairs Mountains , whose main peak , Mount Leinster , is distinguished by the television mast on its summit , begin to dominate the horizon . The trail meanders along forestry tracks around Moylisha and Urelands Hills . Urelands Hill is littered with hornblende @-@ rich schist , a legacy of a chain of long @-@ extinct volcanic islands that existed 450 – 500 million years ago when this part of Ireland lay under the primeval Iapetus Ocean . Joining the road for the final stretch into Clonegal , the Way leaves County Wicklow and enters County Carlow at Wicklow Bridge , about 3 kilometres ( 2 miles ) from the end . The Wicklow Way ends in the village green of Clonegal where a stone bench and a map board , displaying the entire route from Marlay Park , may be found .
= = Intersecting and connecting paths = =
The Wicklow Way forms part of European walking route E8 which runs from Dursey Island in County Cork to Istanbul in Turkey . The Irish section incorporates the Wicklow Way , the South Leinster Way , the East Munster Way , the Blackwater Way and parts of the Kerry Way and the Beara Way . There is an unmarked link route from Dublin Port ( where the E8 connects to Liverpool by ferry ) which follows the River Dodder to Rathfarnham and on to the Wicklow Way trailhead at Marlay Park via Saint Enda 's Park . Similarly , an unmarked road walk connects Clonegal with the trailhead of the South Leinster Way in Kildavin , County Carlow .
The Wicklow Way also shares part of its route with the Dublin Mountains Way along a section of the ridge between Two Rock and Tibradden . The Saint Kevin 's Way Pilgrim Path starts at either Hollywood or Valleymount , County Wicklow and ends at Glendalough where it connects with the Wicklow Way .
Sections of the Wicklow Way are also used by several National Looped Walks : the Maulin Mountain Loop and the Ballycumber , Kyle , and Mangan 's Loops near Tinahely .
= = Sporting events = =
A number of mountain running events are held along the route of the Way . The Wicklow Way Relay is a 127 @-@ kilometre ( 79 @-@ mile ) event run between Kilmashogue and Shillelagh for teams of 2 to 8 runners . The Wicklow Way Ultra is a 51 @-@ kilometre ( 32 @-@ mile ) individual event run between Glencullen and Ballinastoe Woods . The record for running the entire distance of the Wicklow Way from Marlay Park to Clonegal is held by Eoin Keith who completed the route in a time of 12h25 : 07 on 25 May 2013 .
= = Public transport = =
The trailhead at Marlay Park is served by a number of Dublin Bus routes . There is no public transport available to or from the trailhead in Clonegal , with the closest bus routes serving the nearby villages of Kildavin and Bunclody , County Carlow . Some places on or near the route are also served by bus . The St. Kevins ( sic ) Bus Service stops at Roundwood , Laragh and Glendalough . The Wicklow Way Bus provides services to Laragh , Glendalough , Glenmalure , Iron Bridge and Tinahely .
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= Robert Bathurst =
Robert Guy Bathurst ( born 22 February 1957 ) is an English actor . Bathurst was born in the Gold Coast in 1957 , where his father was working as a management consultant . His family moved to Dublin , Ireland , in 1959 and Bathurst was enrolled at an Anglican boarding school . In 1966 , the family moved to England , and Bathurst transferred to Worth School in Sussex , where he took up amateur dramatics . At the age of 18 , he read law at the University of Cambridge and joined the Cambridge Footlights group . After graduating , he took up acting full @-@ time .
He made his professional stage debut in 1983 , playing Tim Allgood in Michael Frayn 's Noises Off , which ran for a year at the Savoy Theatre . To broaden his knowledge of working on stage , he joined the National Theatre . He supplemented his stage roles in the 1980s with television roles , appearing in comedies such as the aborted pilot episode of Blackadder , Chelmsford 123 , The Lenny Henry Show , and the first episode of Red Dwarf . In 1991 , he won his first major television role playing Mark Taylor in Steven Moffat 's semi @-@ autobiographical BBC sitcom Joking Apart . Although only thirteen episodes were made between 1991 and 1995 , the role remains Bathurst 's favourite of his whole career . After Joking Apart concluded , he was cast as pompous management consultant David Marsden in the ITV comedy drama Cold Feet , which ran for five series from 1998 to 2003 .
Since 2003 , Bathurst has played a fictional prime minister in the BBC sitcom My Dad 's the Prime Minister , Mark Thatcher in the fact @-@ based drama Coup ! , and a man whose daughter goes missing in the ITV thriller The Stepfather . He also made a return to theatre roles , playing Vershinin in The Three Sisters ( 2003 ) , Adrien in the two @-@ hander Members Only ( 2006 ) , government whip Alistair in Whipping it Up ( 2006 – 07 ) , and Alex in Alex ( 2007 , 2008 ) . In the following years he starred in the television dramas The Pillars of the Earth ( 2010 ) , Downton Abbey ( 2010 ) , Hattie ( 2011 ) and joined the cast of Wild at Heart ( 2012 ) . Bathurst appeared in his first Noël Coward play , Present Laughter , in 2010 and followed it with a role in Blithe Spirit in 2010 and 2011 . He is married and has four children .
= = Early life = =
Robert Guy Bathurst was born in Accra , Gold Coast ( modern @-@ day Ghana ) , on 22 February 1957 to Philip Bathurst and Gillian Bathurst ( née Debenham ) . His father was a major in the Royal Engineers during the Second World War and was working in West Africa as a management consultant , and his mother was a physiotherapist . They had two other children ; Nicholas and Charlotte . The family lived in Ghana until 1959 , when they moved to Ballybrack , Dublin , Ireland . Bathurst and his brother attended two schools in Dublin — the Holy Child School in Killiney and a school in Ballsbridge — before being sent to a preparatory school in Kells , County Meath . He compared the time he and his brother , Catholics , spent at the Anglican boarding school to Lord of the Flies ; " we were incarcerated in a huge , stinking , Georgian house , where we were treated very brutally . "
In 1966 , the family moved to England . Bathurst transferred to the Worth Abbey boarding school in Sussex , which he much preferred to the school in Kells . At the age of 13 , he began acting in minor skits and revues and read old copies of Plays and Players magazine , " studying floor plans of theatres and reading about new theatres being built " . He had first become interested in acting when his family saw a pantomime at the Gaiety Theatre in Dublin , and he watched actors waiting for their cues in the wings .
He left Worth at the age of 18 to read law at Pembroke College , Cambridge . Describing himself as " hopeless at anything academic " , he spent much of his time at university performing in the Cambridge Footlights alongside Hugh Laurie , Rory McGrath and Emma Thompson . From 1977 to 1978 , he was the secretary of the group , and from 1978 to 1979 the president . Among the Footlights Revues he participated in were Stage Fright in 1978 , which he also co @-@ wrote , and Nightcap in 1979 . He also directed and appeared in the Footlights pantomime Aladdin as Widow Twankey during the 1978 – 79 season . He took the Bar Vocational Course at the University of Law , in London , which allowed him to go on to become a practising barrister , but stuck to acting instead .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early career = = =
After graduating from Cambridge , Bathurst spent a year touring Australia in the Footlights Revue Botham , The Musical , which he described as " a bunch of callow youths flying round doing press conferences and chat shows " . Although he enjoyed his work with Footlights , he did not continue performing with the troupe , worrying that he would be " washed up at 35 having coat @-@ tailed on their success through the early part of [ his ] career " . After leaving , he found that he was considered a dilettante , which resulted in it taking him longer than expected to be accepted as a serious actor . His first professional role out of university was in the BBC Radio 4 series Injury Time , alongside fellow Footlights performers Rory McGrath and Emma Thompson . His first role for television came in 1982 when he appeared as Prince Henry in the unaired pilot episode of Blackadder . He had already appeared in a training video by director Geoff Posner and got the role of Henry by way of thanks . The character was recast and downgraded when the series was commissioned as The Black Adder .
Bathurst 's professional stage debut came the next year when he joined the second cast of Michael Frayn 's Noises Off at the Savoy Theatre . He replaced Roger Lloyd @-@ Pack as Tim Allgood and stayed at the Savoy for a year . Between roles , he worked as a television presenter for BBC East . After declining an offer to be a presenter of That 's Life ! he joined the National Theatre in 1984 , where he appeared as a background actor in Saint Joan . He regards it as " the most demoralising " job he has ever had but was grateful for the theatre experience it gave him . The following year , he appeared at The Man In The Moon , a pub theatre in Chelsea , in Judgement , a two @-@ hour monologue on cannibalism . The opening night audience was made up of three people but after good reviews in the national press the audience grew to an average of fifteen .
A casting director for the James Bond film The Living Daylights persuaded Bathurst to audition for Bond . Bathurst believes that his " ludicrous audition " was only " an arm @-@ twisting exercise " because the producers wanted to pressure Timothy Dalton to take the role by telling him they were still auditioning other actors . Bathurst noted " I could never have done it - Bond actors are always very different to me " .
He continued to make minor appearances in television throughout the 1980s ; in 1987 , he auditioned for the role of Dave Lister in the BBC North science fiction sitcom Red Dwarf . The part eventually went to Craig Charles but Bathurst was given a role in the first episode of the series as Frank Todhunter , second officer on the ship , who is killed in the first ten minutes . Ten years later , Bathurst was invited to reprise the role when a storyline in the series allowed former characters to return , but filming commitments prevented him from appearing . In 1989 , he appeared in Malcolm Bradbury 's Anything More Would Be Greedy for Anglia Television , playing Dennis Medlam , MP . The programme was broadcast in 1990 to little fanfare . In 1990 , he performed on Up Yer News , a live topical programme broadcast on BSB .
= = = Joking Apart = = =
While working on Up Yer News , Bathurst auditioned for a one @-@ off television comedy called Joking Apart . Earlier in the day , he noticed a fellow Up Yer News performer reading the script to prepare for his own audition . As Bathurst went into the audition room , his colleague was leaving , and told Bathurst he would " break his legs " if he got the part , a threat that seemed not to be " entirely jocular " . Bathurst got the part , and the pilot of Joking Apart was broadcast as an installment of the BBC 2 Comic Asides strand . It returned for two series in 1993 and 1995 . Bathurst appeared as sitcom writer Mark Taylor in the series . After the first series was broadcast , a critic called Bathurst the " Best Comedy Newcomer of 1993 " .
The show was punctuated by fantasy sequences in which his character performed his thoughts as a stand @-@ up routine in a small club . In the commentary and the interview on the DVD , Bathurst says that he was told that they would be reshot after filming everything else , an idea abandoned because of the expense . He has an idea of refilming the sequences ' now ' , as his older self , to give them a more retrospective feeling . He has also said that he believes Mark was too " designery " and wishes that he had " roughened him up a bit " . The role is his favourite of his whole career ; he has described it as " the most enjoyable job I will ever do " and considers several episodes of the series to be " timeless , beautifully constructed farces which will endure " . Bathurst is often recognised for his appearance in this series , mentioning that " Drunks stop me on public transport and tell me details of the plot of their favourite episode " . As punishment for arriving late for the series one press launch at the Café Royal in Regent Street , London , writer Steven Moffat pledged to write an episode in which Mark is naked throughout . To a large extent , this vow is realised in the second series .
Between 1991 and 1995 , Bathurst also appeared on television in No Job for a Lady , The House of Eliott and The Detectives , and on stage in The Choice , George Bernard Shaw 's Getting Married at Chichester with Dorothy Tutin and Gogol 's The Nose adapted by Alastair Beaton , which played in Nottingham and Bucharest . He also filmed a role in The Wind in the Willows ( Terry Jones , 1996 ) as St John Weasel .
= = = Wider recognition = = =
In 1996 , while appearing in The Rover at the Salisbury Playhouse , Bathurst got an audition for the Granada Television comedy pilot Cold Feet . He arrived for the audition " bearded and shaggy " , on account of his role in the play , and did not expect to win the role of upper @-@ middle class management consultant David Marsden . The role in the pilot was only minor , and created at the last minute to support characters played by James Nesbitt and Helen Baxendale ; the only character note in the script about David related to his high salary . Bathurst identified the character as merely a " post @-@ Thatcherite whipping boy " .
Bathurst reprised the role in the Cold Feet series , which ran for five years from 1998 to 2003 . He described the character of David as an " emotional cripple " , originally with little depth . The third series features an affair between David and a political activist played by Yasmin Bannerman . Bathurst appreciated the opportunity to bring some depth a previously one @-@ dimensional character but was more impressed with the storylines that came out of the affair , rather than the affair itself : " It was the deception , the guilt and the recrimination rather than the actual affair , which was neither interesting nor remarkable " . Like other cast members , Bathurst was able to suggest storylines as the series went on ; one episode features David celebrating his fortieth birthday and Bathurst suggested the character could get a Harley @-@ Davidson motorbike . Granada paid for him to take motorbike lessons and a test . On the day before his test , the filming of a scene where David takes off on his new bike was scheduled . Bathurst " wobbled , missed the camera and crashed into the pavement " leading director Simon Delaney to exclaim it was the funniest thing he had ever seen . In another episode , David buys a racehorse — ostensibly as a birthday present for his wife — in a plot borne out of Bathurst 's own love of horseracing . The role made him more widely recognisable and he often received prospective scripts that were " obvious rewrites of the character " . He turned them down , preferring to play a " good person " , which would be more interesting from a dramatic point of view .
Between 1998 and 2003 , he made television appearances in Goodbye , Mr Steadman ( 2001 ) , starring opposite Caroline Quentin as a headmaster who has been declared dead after one of his pupils erases all computer records relating to him , and the adaptation of White Teeth ( 2002 ) . On stage he appeared in Michael Frayn 's Alarms and Excursions in 1998 and in Hedda Gabler in 1999 , his last theatre role for several years . In the Daily Telegraph , Charles Spencer described his role as Tesman as a " weird casting choice " but called his acting " a brave stab " . In 2001 , Bathurst appeared in the music video for Westlife 's Comic Relief single " Uptown Girl " .
In 2002 , straight after finishing Cold Feet , Bathurst went straight into filming My Dad 's the Prime Minister , a series in which he portrays fictional British prime minister Michael Philips . The first series was broadcast in a Sunday afternoon CBBC slot in 2003 . He watched debates in the House of Commons to prepare for the role but did not base his portrayal on Tony Blair . In 2003 , he returned to theatre for the first time in four years to play Vershinin in The Three Sisters , opposite Kristin Scott Thomas and Eric Sykes . He had not seen The Three Sisters before starring in it . Director Michael Blakemore advised him to turn this to his advantage , as he would not feel he had to live up to previous portrayals . After its run concluded , a special edition of The Three Sisters was filmed with the same cast for television broadcast on BBC Four . In 2005 , the second series of My Dad 's the Prime Minister was broadcast , now moved to a Friday night timeslot to take advantage of the adult humour . The same year , he starred in the ITV thriller The Stepfather playing Christopher Veazey , a man whose daughter goes missing . Bathurst was pleased that this white @-@ collar worker had an emotional side , in comparison to David Marsden , whom he used as a yardstick when accepting those sorts of roles . Also in 2005 , he played Mr Sesseman in an adaptation of Heidi and Dottore Massimo in The Thief Lord .
= = = 2006 – present = = =
In 2006 , he played Mark Thatcher in Coup ! , a dramatisation of the attempted coup in Equatorial Guinea . He also starred as Adrien opposite Nicholas Tennant in the UK premiere of Members Only at the Trafalgar Studios . He accepted the part because it was " funny , plausible , plausibly absurd , and cruel " and he liked that it was a translation from an original French play . He enjoyed working on it , telling What 's on Stage , " Nick is a really good actor and really good to work with in that you can have completely frank discussions about tiny issues and it 's totally ego @-@ free . We 're all just discussing the point and not playing games with each other . It does make the working practice easier . If there 's only two of you in a play , you are equally responsible — there 's nobody else to blame if it goes wrong . So its a greater risk and there 's no hiding . " At the end of the year , he appeared opposite Richard Wilson in Whipping it Up , a play about whips in a fictional David Cameron government . To research his role , he watched more Commons debates .
After a season at the Bush Theatre at the end of 2006 , Whipping it Up transferred to the New Ambassadors Theatre from March to June 2007 , The tour coincided with his appearance as the titular character in Alex , based on the comic in The Daily Telegraph . The play ran at the Arts Theatre between October and November 2007 and featured Bathurst interacting with other characters that are projected onto a screen behind him . He was attracted to the role because of the " duplicity and guile " Alex uses to get himself out of tight situations . The role won him a nomination for Best Solo Performance at the What 's on Stage Awards . He reprised the role in an international tour from September to November 2008 , playing in Melbourne , Sydney , Hong Kong , Singapore and Dubai . As Alex he presented a ten @-@ part series on Classic FM , which won a Gold Award at the Sony Radio Academy Awards in 2012 . He now performs Alex as a corporate after dinner entertainment . 2007 also saw Bathurst perform as linguistician Charles in the first series of the BBC Radio 4 sitcom Hut 33 . He reprised the role for two more series in 2008 and 2009 .
In 2009 , he made his third and final appearance as art dealer James Garrett in My Family . He also played the role of Mr Weston in the BBC costume drama Emma , which was broadcast on BBC One through October 2009 . He previously played Weston in a two @-@ part adaptation of Emma for BBC Radio 4 in 2000 . Between January and April 2010 , Bathurst starred as Garry Essendine in a national touring revival of Noël Coward 's Present Laughter . He had not seen Present Laughter before , though had seen several Coward plays in his 20s , and did not imitate Coward 's speech patterns while performing . Present Laughter was the first time Bathurst had appeared in a Coward play , and he was cast in another , Blithe Spirit , later in the year . He plays Charles Condomine opposite Alison Steadman and his Cold Feet co @-@ star Hermione Norris . The played toured theatres around southern England in 2010 and early 2011 before beginning a three @-@ month run at the Apollo Theatre in London .
On television in 2010 , Bathurst starred as Percy Hamleigh in the German @-@ Canadian miniseries The Pillars of the Earth and had a recurring role as widower Sir Anthony Strallan in the period drama Downton Abbey . In 2011 he starred as John Le Mesurier in the Hattie Jacques biopic Hattie , and joined the cast of the long @-@ running ITV drama Wild at Heart .
He also has a recurring role in the sitcom Toast of London .
Bathurst is to star as Andy in the upcoming Sky1 television film television film adaptation of the M. C. Beaton novel Agatha Raisin and the Quiche of Death .
= = Personal life = =
Bathurst met artist Victoria Threlfall through mutual friends and they married in 1985 . They have four daughters : Matilda , Clemency , Oriel and Honor .
= = Filmography and bibliography = =
Written works
Bathurst , Robert ( 4 December 2001 ) . " Yes , Cold Feet beat Trollope , but at what cost ? " . The Daily Telegraph : p . 17 .
Bathurst , Robert ( 25 October 2008 ) . " Alex tour : Getting Brezhnev to smile would have been easier " . The Daily Telegraph : p . 26 ( Review section )
= = Written works = =
Cheltenham Festival : http : / / www.independent.co.uk / sport / racing / its @-@ their @-@ loss @-@ but @-@ our @-@ pain @-@ 1639179.html ? printService = print
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= 2015 NBL Canada Finals brawl =
The 2015 NBL Canada Finals brawl was an altercation that occurred prior to Game 7 of the year 's National Basketball League of Canada ( NBL ) Finals , between the Windsor Express and Halifax Rainmen on April 30 , 2015 . It led to the Rainmen 's forfeit of the deciding game and allowed the Express to win the championship by default . Windsor 's guard Tony Bennett , who participated in the brawl , said , " It 's a black eye not just for the league , but for basketball . "
After the Rainmen reached the site of the game hours early and began warming up , they were discovered by Express assistant coach Gerry Brumpton . Windsor head coach Bill Jones later entered the room to retrieve a ball and violence erupted between him and Halifax center Liam McMorrow . This sparked a brawl between both the teams as a whole , causing police to arrive . The Rainmen eventually left the stadium and chose to not compete in Game 7 because of safety concerns .
The incident resulted in mass fines and several suspensions , most notably the lifetime ban of Rainmen coaches Josep Clarós and Pedro Monteiro from coaching in the NBL Canada . The league also fined the entire Halifax Rainmen organization , with charges totaling to $ 90 @,@ 000 . Tony Bennett was the sole Express player to be fined and suspended . Many players , including Bennett , were reinstated into the league in the following season .
= = Background = =
Both teams had previously appeared in the NBL Canada Finals , with the Windsor Express being named the champions in the prior season by topping the Island Storm in seven games . The Halifax Rainmen appeared in the 2012 Finals , which was played in a best @-@ of @-@ five format , but dropped three games and lost to the London Lightning . Halifax finished the 2014 – 15 regular season as the Atlantic Division champions and had the second @-@ best record in the league , behind only the Central Division winners , the Express . In the 2015 NBL Canada Playoffs , the Rainmen were coming off wins over the Moncton Miracles and Island Storm , 3 – 1 and 4 – 1 respectively . Windsor , on the other hand , had beaten the Mississauga Power 3 – 1 and the Brampton A 's 4 – 3 .
= = Series = =
The Rainmen entered the Finals series without playing a single game in 16 days and were defeated by Windsor in Game 1 , 104 – 113 . Chris Commons led the Express with 33 points and 8 rebounds and Tony Bennett added 25 points . Halifax struggled with fouls in the first quarter , and point guard Cliff Clinkscales most notably committed three fouls in the first 12 minutes of the game . He would finish the contest with six penalties . By the end of the game , seven Rainmen players had committed over three personal fouls and the team totaled for 48 , allowing Windsor to get 55 free throw attempts . The Express , on the other hand , finished with 32 personal fouls . In the fourth quarter , Halifax 's Liam McMorrow took a hard fall to his shoulder and was taken off the court with a stretcher . He would undergo a CT scan and MRI after feeling tingling in the injured area .
Halifax rallied in Game 2 , winning a road game at the WFCU Centre in Windsor . The Rainmen committed 37 personal fouls in the entire game , but their opponents allowed them to attempt 44 free throws despite committing only 31 .
The Rainmen followed up by ousting the Express in Game 3 at the Scotiabank Centre , their home arena . They were strongly benefited by their accurate free throw shooting , going 28 of 33 from the line ; previously , Halifax shot at about .600 on free throws .
However , Windsor tied the series back up with a 109 – 105 road win in a foul @-@ filled Game 4 . A total of 71 fouls were called throughout the contest , and Seiya Ando , Kevin Young , and Liam McMorrow were fouled out for the Rainmen in the final quarter . In turn , both teams often exchanged trash @-@ talk and officials were forced to separate members of the opposing sides on multiple occasions .
Halifax started off Game 5 at home on a low note , with Liam McMorrow committing four personal fouls in the first three minutes . Nevertheless , Halifax pulled away with the 125 – 91 victory , putting them one win away from the title . Rainmen forward Forrest Fisher complained about Windsor , " They 're playing very physical , and at times a little bit dirty with sucker punches , and we started playing into their game ( Friday ) and that 's not us . A couple of us can play like that , myself included , and we came out tonight and I told them ' hey , let me take the hits , I 'm used to that . You guys play your normal game . ' We play the way we play , and it doesn 't matter how they play . " According to The Chronicle Herald , " the game featured several incidents that threatened to escalate into a full @-@ scale brawl . " The teams ' coaches would frequently have to break up skirmishes and confront officials for what they felt were bad calls .
In Game 6 of the series , the Express led by four points by the end of the first quarter , but the Rainmen responded with a 21 – 9 run and led by 12 points at halftime . Windsor , however , entered the fourth quarter with a score of 85 – 85 after dominating the third . In the third quarter , they shot 21 free throws . The Express kept it close in the final minutes of the game and held Halifax off to win the contest , 119 – 112 , forcing a decisive Game 7 . Quinnel Brown led the way for Windsor with 30 points , 16 of them off free throws . After the game , Rainmen head coach Josep Clarós expressed his unhappiness with the calls made by the referees against his team . Clarós said that rather than protesting to the league , he would " send film to FIBA . " He commented on the officiating , " It 's ridiculous for a final of a professional league in Canada . " An anonymous referee later denounced the league 's policy regarding player fines and suspensions . He said , " So you could have a guy punch a guy in the face in Game 1 , get kicked out , and be playing in Game 2 . "
= = Incident = =
= = = Altercation = = =
The deciding Game 7 of the 2015 Finals was scheduled to be played at 7 : 00 PM on April 30 , 2015 at the WFCU Centre in Windsor , Ontario . The Express shootaround was set to take place before that of the Rainmen . The road team was supposed to arrive for warm @-@ ups at approximately 1 : 00 PM , but entered the stadium approximately two hours earlier . Express assistant coach Gerry Brumpton recounted , " They snuck in here before they even had the light on . We were here in the dark , I opened up the curtain and I looked in and there they were . They were still here working out . So they had been here for a while . " The Express told their opponents to leave the arena , but they refused , with one Rainmen player dunking a basketball instead . Windsor 's Bill Jones then attempted to take a ball from Halifax center Liam McMorrow , but the player " flinched , " pretending to throw a punch . According to Rainmen player Forrest Fisher , Jones tackled McMorrow to the ground and Express guard Tony Bennett followed up by hitting McMorrow with a chair . Referring to the Rainmen , Jones said , " A couple of them kicked me and tried to take swings at me . And my players were there and they came to my rescue to be able to get me up . " Soon the violence escalated , with staff members and players from both teams involved . At around 10 : 40 AM , Windsor police received a phone call " that between 15 to 20 men were involved in an altercation . " By the time they arrived at the WFCU Centre , however , the fighting was over and the Rainmen players had already reached their team bus .
= = = Forfeit = = =
After leaving the stadium , the Rainmen drove to the airport . But midway , they crossed paths with Vito Frijia , London Lightning owner and a member of the NBL Canada executive committee , who stopped the bus in the middle of the highway . Despite Frijia spending a good hour attempting to convince the Rainmen 's coaches to return to the WFCU Centre and play the game , they refused . According to Frijia :
The start time of Game 7 of the series was postponed from 8 : 00 to 8 : 30 PM AST , but it was cancelled once the Express were informed that the Rainmen had left the city . By the end of the night , Windsor were declared the NBL Canada champions . Shortly before the scheduled start time , the Rainmen said in an official statement , " Due to a physical altercation between the Halifax Rainmen and the Windsor Express , the game has been cancelled citing safety concerns . " At around 9 : 00 PM , the Express were awarded the championship trophy and conducted their post @-@ game celebrations .
= = Reaction = =
In the weeks after the forfeit , Rainmen guard Joey Haywood recounted that the team had been approached by an unknown man at their hotel following the brawl . Haywood said , " He was pacing around the lobby on his phone eyeing us . He then went to the ATM but didn 't actually do anything . He went and sat in a parked car out front . We thought something was going to go down , like he was scouting us out . " The Rainmen promptly left on the team bus , but the incident would be ignored by owner Andre Levingston . However , it was considered a motive for forfeiting the game . On the morning of May 2 , two days after the brawl , Rainmen guard Forrest Fisher wrote on Twitter that he had been kicked out of his apartment without warning . He said , " We were in Toronto Friday morning , and I get a message from the landlord at the apartment I stay at , telling me that my bags have been packed and all of my stuff has been moved to storage . " The players also claimed that they had not been paid in more than two weeks .
Members from the Rainmen profusely criticized the brutality of the Express throughout the series as well . Kevin Young was notified by players on Windsor saying that their coach had told them to " take out " him , Liam McMorrow and Forrest Fisher . Cliff Clinkscales said , " There 's a difference between playing physical and dirty and hurting people . " Halifax entered Game 7 with two players out with concussions they suffered in the series itself . Clinkscales also played with injured ribs . Despite this , the players had supposedly been " forced " by team owner Andre Levingston to partake in the game . Levingston attempted to convince the players to play without their coaches , who favored forfeiting it . He also offered the Rainmen new coaches , a raised salary , and $ 1 @,@ 000 , but to no avail . Haywood said , " How could we play without coach , bringing another coach in ? And do what ? Coach us ? He doesn 't even know us . " Levingston , on the other hand , slammed Clarós , saying that " instead of leading our team to the championship , he led a group of talented players to broken contracts and a lifetime of controversy . " The owner claimed that he felt cheated and that the players were misled by their coaches . He took full responsibility for leading the Rainmen into the WFCU Centre ahead of schedule but believed that the two teams could have negotiated to avoid conflict .
Eric Crookshank , who had his jersey retired while playing for Halifax , said that the prospect of having the organization fold was " sad . " He also said , " If what these players are saying is true it ’ s very hurtful to me . It sickening to my stomach that the players say they didn 't get paid or they got kicked out of their living arrangements . " Joey Haywood criticized the league for not having a players ' union or commissioner , with " owners acting like commissioners . " He also condemned Levingston for not standing up for his players . On May 7 , Clarós issued an open letter to the City of Halifax and the fans of the Rainmen . In a paragraph about the forfeit , he wrote , " At this time , we don 't know what the future holds . But there is one thing we know for sure . That when a group of good people unite to take a stand in the name of safety , good values , people ’ s rights and strong principles , that this will rise above any rules or even winning . "
= = Investigation and charges = =
In the day after the forfeit , the NBL Canada announced , " The league takes this incident very seriously and we are working to address the matter to ensure it never happens in the future , and so that those who were responsible are held accountable . " On May 5 , 2015 , Dave Magley , head coach and general manager of the Brampton A 's during the season , was appointed by the league 's Board of Governors to lead the investigation . He had already conducted interviews and spoken to representatives from both teams involved in the brawl . Magley also said that he would consider assuming the position of commissioner if he was approached , succeeding Paul Riley , who was fired in January 2015 . Vito Frijia would be named league spokesman during the investigation .
On May 1 , 2015 , the league 's Board unanimously approved of several charges for players and coaches from the Rainmen . The organization as a whole was fined $ 20 @,@ 000 per league rules , head coach Josep Clarós was fined $ 10 @,@ 000 and assistant coach Pedro Monteiro was fined $ 5 @,@ 000 . Both coaches received lifetime bans from the NBL Canada as well . A $ 5 @,@ 000 fine was imposed on every player on the team 's roster , excluding Douglas Appiah , Jr. who was injured at the time of the brawl . They were also suspended indefinitely during the investigation . Later on , the league allowed the Rainmen 's players to apply for reinstatement into the league , although the coaches would remain banned for life . Halifax 's total fines totaled up to $ 90 @,@ 000 . The Rainmen were not notified of their fines and suspensions through e @-@ mail or a phone call . Instead they learned of it through Twitter . Clarós officially received his termination letter on May 5 , after his contract had already been renewed for one more month . In an effort to give the players and coaches their final paychecks , he contacted the Canadian labour board . After one month , Clarós won the decision , but Levingston declared bankruptcy on July 6 , the following day . According to bankruptcy documents , the Rainmen were about $ 700 @,@ 000 in debt .
Later in the investigation , an additional $ 4 @,@ 000 fine was imposed on Monteiro . The coach had a salary of only about $ 1 @,@ 500 per month during the eight months he spent with the Rainmen . Despite this , he was unable to contact team owner Andre Levingston , who did not assist or help him . Monteiro responded to the charges by claiming that they were unfair . In a statement on May 11 , he said , " I am looking for help to fight these unjust sanctions and fines so I can continue to work and be able to support my family . The investigation was not full . The truth of what happened is being ignored . I have not been contacted by any league representative . "
For the Express , head coach Bill Jones faced a one @-@ year suspension that would bar him from directing his team in the 2015 – 16 season . He also received a $ 4 @,@ 000 fine with Monteiro . The coach accepted responsibility for his role in the incident . Windsor guard Tony Bennett faced an indefinite suspension from the league during the investigation . Frijia said , " It was a very , very big decision to suspend Jones for a year . " However , Express owner Dartis Willis claimed that the investigation was " botched , " because Magley was an NBL Canada coach that had faced Jones in previous games .
= = Aftermath = =
By late August 2015 , it became a strong possibility that a new NBL Canada team would be created in Halifax for the 2015 – 16 season . A new ownership group , led by former Rainmen advisor and CEO of Corporate Research Associates in Don Mills , soon confirmed that the defunct team 's reincarnation would compete for the next season . Mills expected a group of 25 shareholders to help start up the organization , many of whom personally paid for the Rainmen 's flights and hotels in the last season . He chose to not include Levingston in the ownership group but allowed him to assume the position as the team 's general manager . Mills said , " There would not be a new team in Halifax without Andre . We decided that the only way we would go forward to raise the money was if Andre was part of the solution . " Despite this , he preferred to break ties with the Rainmen franchise . It was not disclosed who paid for the $ 250 @,@ 000 fee required for a team to register in the NBL Canada .
On October 20 , 2015 , the team was announced as the Halifax Hurricanes . Mills commented , " We think it 's kind of an appropriate name from where we 're located and from a sports team 's point of view . What it really says is energy and power , so some of the descriptions of hurricanes sort of suit the kind of team that we want as well . " The Hurricanes also signed Cliff Clinkscales and Mike Glover as its first players and hired Hugo López as head coach . Mills aimed for lower ticket prices at the team 's games .
For the Express , head coach Bill Jones was replaced by his brother Tony Jones , who would assume the position of interim head coach until February 20 , 2016 . At this time , Bill was reinstated into the NBL Canada , with Tony remaining with Windsor as an assistant coach . Bill said , " What happened in that Game 7 was not Bill Jones . It happened in the heat of the moment and is something I 'll probably regret for the rest of my life . " Magley said that his concern with the future of the Express organization helped him make the decision to reinstate Jones , who he believed would help the team 's fan support grow .
At the beginning of the new season on December 31 , 2015 , Clinkscales and Tony Benett were both reinstated after applying to return to the league . The two players received unanimous support from the NBL Canada Board of Governors . Bennett was only suspended for two games and received a $ 500 fine , while Clinkscales still had a $ 5 @,@ 000 fine . On March 11 , 2016 , Rainmen player Tyrone Watson was also reinstated to the league after paying his $ 5 @,@ 000 fine and receiving a unanimous vote .
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= USS New Hampshire ( BB @-@ 25 ) =
New Hampshire ( BB @-@ 25 ) was the sixth and final Connecticut @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship , the last vessel of that type built for the United States Navy . Like most contemporary battleships , she was armed with an offensive armament that consisted of four large @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns and several medium @-@ caliber 7 and 8 @-@ inch ( 178 and 203 mm ) guns . The ship was laid down in May 1905 , launched in June 1906 , and commissioned in March 1908 , a little over a year after the revolutionary all @-@ big @-@ gun HMS Dreadnought rendered ships like New Hampshire obsolescent .
Despite being rapidly surpassed by new American dreadnoughts , New Hampshire had an active career . She made two trips to Europe in 1910 and 1911 , and she sank the old battleship USS Texas , which had been converted into a target ship . New Hampshire was particularly active in the Caribbean during this period , as several countries , including Haiti , the Dominican Republic , and Mexico devolved into internal political conflicts . These actions included the United States occupation of Veracruz , during which the ship 's commander was awarded the Medal of Honor .
After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , the ship was used primarily to train gunners and engine room personnel , as the US Navy had expanded significantly to combat the German U @-@ boat campaign . She escorted convoys in late 1918 , and after the war ended she took part in the effort to bring American soldiers back from France . New Hampshire remained in service for only a few years after the war , as the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty significantly reduced the navies of the signatories ; as a result , the ship was sold for scrap in November 1923 .
= = Design = =
New Hampshire was 456 ft 4 in ( 139 m ) long overall and had a beam of 76 ft 10 in ( 23 m ) and a draft of 24 ft 6 in ( 7 m ) . She displaced 16 @,@ 000 long tons ( 16 @,@ 000 t ) as designed and up to 17 @,@ 666 long tons ( 17 @,@ 949 t ) at full load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 16 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 300 kW ) and twelve coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers , generating a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . As built , she was fitted with heavy military masts , but these were quickly replaced by lattice masts in 1909 . She had a crew of 827 officers and men , though this increased to 881 and later to 896 .
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 inch / 45 Mark 5 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of eight 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) / 45 guns and twelve 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) / 45 guns . The 8 @-@ inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets amidships and the 7 @-@ inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull . For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , she carried twenty 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3 @-@ pounder guns . She also carried four 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 1 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , New Hampshire carried four 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside .
New Hampshire 's main armored belt was 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 6 in ( 152 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets had 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had the 10 in ( 254 mm ) of armor plating . The secondary turrets had 7 in of frontal armor . The conning tower had 9 in ( 229 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
New Hampshire was laid down on 1 May 1905 at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation in Camden , New Jersey . She was launched on 30 June 1906 and was christened by Hazel McLane , the daughter of John McLane , then the Governor of New Hampshire . The ship was commissioned into the US Navy on 19 March 1908 ; her first commander was Captain Cameron Winslow . After completing final fitting @-@ out work , New Hampshire transported a Marine Expeditionary Regiment to Colón , Panama on 20 June , arriving six days later . She then made a series of visits to ports on the eastern coast of North America , including Portsmouth , New York , and Bridgeport , along with a stop in the Canadian province of Quebec . The ship was then overhauled in New York , followed by training exercises in the Caribbean Sea . On 22 February 1909 , she participated in a Naval Review for President Theodore Roosevelt to greet the return of the Great White Fleet in Hampton Roads , Virginia . During this period , Ernest King , later the Chief of Naval Operations during World War II , served aboard the ship in the engine room .
New Hampshire conducted training exercises in the Atlantic and Caribbean through late 1910 . On 1 November that year , she steamed out of Hampton Roads with the Second Battleship Division for a visit to Europe . There , the ships stopped in Cherbourg , France and Weymouth , the United Kingdom . The Division departed Weymouth on 30 December and returned to the Caribbean for training , before proceeding to Norfolk on 10 March 1911 . On 21 – 22 March , New Hampshire conducted gunnery training with the target ship San Marcos — the old battleship Texas — in Tangier Sound in Chesapeake Bay . Over the course of the two days of firing , New Hampshire inflicted severe damage to the old ship , sinking her in shallow water . A cursory inspection of the wreck noted that the interior of the ship above the waterline was destroyed and that she had been holed multiple times below the waterline .
She then prepared for another trip to Europe . This time the ships cruised into the Baltic Sea , stopping in several ports in Germany , Russia , and Scandinavia , before returning to New England on 13 July . New Hampshire spent the next three years training midshipmen on summer cruises and patrolling the Caribbean . In December 1912 , she steamed off the island of Hispaniola during unrest in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic . From 14 June to 29 December 1913 , she patrolled the Caribbean coast of Mexico during the Mexican Revolution . The following year , she took part in the occupation of Veracruz in Mexico , starting on 15 April . During the operations , the ship 's commander , Edwin Anderson , Jr . , led a landing party that came under fire from the Heroica Escuela Naval Militar academy ( Heroic Naval Military School ) , though gunfire from cruisers in the harbor silenced the Mexican snipers . Anderson and several others were awarded the Medal of Honor for the action . New Hampshire departed the area on 21 April for an overhaul in Norfolk . Exercises off the east coast of the United States followed before the ship returned to Veracruz in August 1915 .
= = = World War I = = =
The ship was back in Norfolk on 30 September and remained in American waters late 1916 . On 2 December , she steamed to Santo Domingo , the capital of the Dominican Republic , where the United States had instituted a military government under Rear Admiral Harry Knapp in an attempt to put an end to the political instability there . New Hampshire 's captain was involved in the government while the ship was in the country . In February 1917 , she returned to Norfolk for an overhaul ; this work was still ongoing when the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April . Over the course of the next eighteen months , the ship was occupied with training gunners and engine room personnel for the rapidly expanding wartime fleet . During training on 1 June 1918 , the crews for three of the 7 @-@ inch guns aboard New Hampshire accidentally began firing at one of the submarine chasers present ; they fired several salvos before they received the order to cease fire . One of the shells struck the nearby battleship USS Louisiana , killing one man and wounding several more . While the ships stopped to regain control of the situation , a lookout reported a periscope from a U @-@ boat ; New Hampshire and the battleship USS Ohio opened fire with their 6 @-@ inch guns to no effect . The submarine chasers could not find a U @-@ boat in the area .
In September 1918 , she was assigned to convoy escort duty , with the first such mission on 6 September . The ship departed with the battleship USS Kansas and the dreadnought USS South Carolina to protect a fast HX troopship convoy . On 16 September , the three battleships left the convoy in the Atlantic and steamed back to the United States , while other escorts brought the convoy into port . On the 17th , South Carolina 's starboard propeller fell off , which forced her to reduce speed to 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) using only the port shaft . New Hampshire and Kansas remained with South Carolina to escort her back to port . This duty did not last long , as the Germans signed the Armistice that ended the war on 11 November . On 24 December , New Hampshire began the first of four trips to bring soldiers back from the battlefields of Europe . On the first trip , she steamed with Louisiana , the two ships arriving in Brest , France on 5 January 1919 . Between the two of them , they returned 2 @,@ 169 men , including eight civilians .
= = = Postwar career = = =
By 1919 , the ship had had all of her 7 @-@ inch guns and eight of the 3 @-@ inch guns removed , and a pair of 3 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns had been installed . On 22 June 1919 , the ship went into drydock in Philadelphia for an overhaul . A year later , on 5 June 1920 , she began a training cruise for midshipmen to the Pacific Ocean via the Panama Canal . The cruise took the ship to Hawaii and several cities on the western coast of the United States . She was back in Philadelphia by 11 September . From 18 October to 12 January 1921 , New Hampshire served as the flagship for a mission to Haiti . On 25 January she crossed the Atlantic to Europe for the final time to carry the remains of Wilhelm August Ferdinand Ekengren , the Swedish ambassador to the United States . She arrived in Stockholm on 14 February ; on the return voyage , she also stopped in Kiel , Germany , and Gravesend , United Kingdom . The ship reached Philadelphia on 24 March , where she was decommissioned on 21 May . According to the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty , New Hampshire was sold on 1 November 1923 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
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= Troy McClure =
Troy McClure is a fictional character from the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . He was voiced by Phil Hartman and first appeared in the second season episode " Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment " . McClure is usually shown doing low @-@ level work , such as hosting infomercials and educational films . He appears as the main character in " A Fish Called Selma " , in which he marries Selma Bouvier to aid his failing career and quash rumors about his personal life . McClure also ' hosts ' " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " and " The Simpsons Spin @-@ Off Showcase " .
McClure was partially based on B movie actors Troy Donahue and Doug McClure , as well as Hartman himself . Following Hartman 's murder in 1998 , all of his Simpsons characters were retired out of respect , with Hartman 's final appearance as McClure was in the tenth season episode " Bart the Mother " four months later . Since his retirement , McClure is often cited as one of the series ' most popular characters . In 2006 , IGN ranked McClure # 1 on their list of the " Top 25 Simpsons Peripheral Characters " .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
Troy McClure is a stereotypical Hollywood has @-@ been . He was a star in the early 1970s , but his career went downhill due to rumors of a paraphilia involving fish . In most of his appearances in the show , he hosts short video clips that other characters watch on television or in a public place . He often presents educational videos and infomercials . McClure introduces himself by saying , " Hi , I 'm Troy McClure . You may remember me from such [ films , educational videos , voiceovers , etc . ] as ... , " mentioning two titles that are similar to his current performance . For example , in the episode " Bart the Mother " , McClure introduces a film about birds by saying , " Hi , I 'm Troy McClure . You may remember me from such nature films as Earwigs : Eww ! and Man vs. Nature : The Road to Victory . "
McClure 's most prominent role occurs in the seventh @-@ season episode " A Fish Called Selma " . In the episode , McClure begins a relationship with Selma Bouvier , whom he meets when she gives him an eye test at the Department of Motor Vehicles . The relationship revives his career , leading him to star in Stop the Planet of the Apes , I Want to Get Off ! , a stage musical version of the film Planet of the Apes . To further boost McClure 's career , McClure 's agent suggests that he get married . Unaware of McClure 's motivation , Selma accepts his proposal , and moves into McClure 's house , a Modernist building which resembles the Chemosphere . At his bachelor party , a drunken McClure tells Homer Simpson that the marriage is just a sham to help his career . Homer says nothing at the wedding , but later offhandedly mentions McClure 's admission to Marge , who then informs her sister . Selma decides to remain with McClure anyway , but she becomes disturbed when McClure 's agent advises the pair to have a child ( since " all the big parts these days are going to family men " ) . Having a child will secure McClure 's casting as McBain 's sidekick in McBain IV : Fatal Discharge , but Selma is unwilling to bring a child into a loveless relationship and decides to leave McClure . McClure ultimately gets the role , but turns it down in order to direct and star in his own pet project , a 20th Century Fox film called The Contrabulous Fabtraption of Professor Horatio Hufnagel .
In addition to his in @-@ story appearances , McClure appears as host of " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " and " The Simpsons Spin @-@ Off Showcase " . The first is a behind the scenes look at The Simpsons , answering questions and featuring extra " never before seen " material . The second is an episode presenting three possible spin @-@ offs from The Simpsons .
= = = In other media = = =
McClure was made into an action figure as part of the World of Springfield toy line , and was released in the " Celebrity Series 1 " wave . He also features briefly in the video game Virtual Springfield , introducing the town of Springfield to the player .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
McClure was based on the typical " washed up " Hollywood actor . B movie actors Troy Donahue and Doug McClure served as inspiration for his name and certain character aspects . Writer Mike Reiss later met Doug McClure 's daughter , who revealed that her father had found the homage funny . His children would call their father " Troy McClure " when his back was turned . According to show creator Matt Groening , Phil Hartman was cast in the role due to his ability to pull " the maximum amount of humor " out of any line he was given . McClure 's visual appearance is similar to that of Hartman himself . When he was designed , McClure was given an extra line under his eyes to suggest that the character had gotten a facelift .
In a very brief appearance in the season 2 episode Bart 's Dog Gets an " F " , Troy was voiced by Dan Castellaneta .
= = = Development = = =
According to executive producer Al Jean , the writers often used McClure as a " panic button " and added the character when they felt an episode needed more humor .
McClure 's character is most developed in " A Fish Called Selma " , which provides a more in @-@ depth look into his private life and backstory . Showrunners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein were fans of Hartman , and wished to make an episode entirely about McClure in order to give Hartman as much to do as possible . From this came the idea of McClure 's marriage to Selma Bouvier , as she was " always marrying people " . Animator Mark Kirkland was particularly pleased that McClure was the star of the episode . He enjoyed interpreting Hartman 's voice @-@ over performances , and the episode allowed him and the other animators to " open [ McClure ] up visually as a character " .
Throughout " A Fish Called Selma " , it is hinted that McClure engages in strange sexual behavior . The writers did not initially know what the " unsavory " sexual preference would be , but eventually decided on a fish fetish , using a suggestion from executive producer James L. Brooks . Josh Weinstein described the fish fetish concept as " so perverted and strange , it was over the top " .
= = = Retirement = = =
After Hartman 's murder in 1998 , rather than replace him with a new voice actor , the production staff retired McClure , along with Hartman 's other recurring character , Lionel Hutz , from the show . McClure last appeared in the season ten episode " Bart the Mother " , which was dedicated to Hartman . Before his death , Hartman had often expressed an interest in starring in a live @-@ action film about McClure , which would be penned by some of the show 's writers . He noted that he was " looking forward to his live @-@ action movie , publicizing [ McClure 's ] Betty Ford appearances . " Matt Groening later told Empire that the idea never " got further than enthusiasm " , but " would have been really fun " .
= = Reception and cultural influence = =
Even after his retirement , Troy McClure remains a popular supporting character . IGN ranked McClure first in their 2006 list of the " Top 25 Simpsons Peripheral Characters " , calling him " a wonderfully bizarre and entertaining character that showcases the best of what small roles on The Simpsons can be " . In a 2007 article on Simpsons guest stars , Adam Finley of TV Squad wrote that McClure was " responsible for some of the funniest moments in Simpsons history " . Hartman ranked first on AOL 's list of their favorite 25 Simpsons guest stars . Chris Turner argues in Planet Simpson that McClure and Lionel Hutz " together ... represent the most significant contribution to the show outside of its permanent cast " , adding that " the show 's Golden Age is hard to imagine without them " . He continues , " The smarmy Hollywood type ... has been done to death , but Hartman 's version breathed new life into it with each appearance . McClure has become the apotheosis of the stereotype , a gut @-@ achingly funny reinterpretation whose trademark introduction ... has become a shorthand way to describe any grossly artificial media figure . "
McClure 's most prominent episode , " A Fish Called Selma " , is a favorite of many of the show 's staff members , and has been cited as one of the series ' best episodes by several publications . Entertainment Weekly placed the episode eighth on their top 25 The Simpsons episode list , and IGN named the episode the best of the seventh season , calling it the " obvious pick " . They also deemed McClure 's Planet of the Apes musical the best moment of the episode and " maybe even the whole show " .
McClure was one of Phil Hartman 's best known @-@ roles . He often used his McClure voice to entertain the audience between takes while taping episodes of NewsRadio . He remarked , " My favorite fans are Troy McClure fans . " He added " It 's the one thing that I do in my life that 's almost an avocation . I do it for the pure love of it . " Many obituaries of Hartman mentioned his work as McClure as one of the highlights of his career . The BBC said that " [ Hartman 's ] voice was known to millions " because of McClure and Lionel Hutz .
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= Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga =
Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga , known in Japan as Mario & Luigi RPG ( マリオ ＆ ルイージRPG , Mario ando Ruīji Aru Pī Jī ) , is a role @-@ playing video game developed by AlphaDream and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance in 2003 . The first game in the Mario & Luigi RPG series , Superstar Saga was followed by four sequels : Mario & Luigi : Partners in Time and Mario & Luigi : Bowser 's Inside Story for the Nintendo DS , Mario & Luigi : Dream Team for the Nintendo 3DS and Mario & Luigi : Paper Jam also for the Nintendo 3DS . The game was later re @-@ released for the Wii U Virtual Console on the Nintendo eShop in 2014 .
The setting of the game begins in the Mushroom Kingdom , but progresses to the Beanbean Kingdom for the majority of the game . In the game , Mario and Luigi combat Cackletta , the primary antagonist . The quest begins when Cackletta , with the aid of her assistant Fawful , steals Princess Peach 's voice after adopting the guise of an ambassador from the Beanbean Kingdom .
A role @-@ playing game , it centers on a battle system different from that of traditional games of the genre , with emphasis on timing and more elaborate attacks . The game is whimsical in tone , with various in @-@ game jokes and comical references to the heritage of the Mario series . Superstar Saga was generally well received by critics , and IGN named it the twelfth best Game Boy Advance game of all time in their feature reflecting on the Game Boy Advance 's lifespan .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Mario & Luigi differs from most other role @-@ playing games due its focus on controlling Mario and Luigi simultaneously . During overworld sections , the direction pad controls Mario 's movement with Luigi following closely , while Mario and Luigi 's other actions are controlled individually with the A and B buttons respectively . The game begins with them being able to jump independently , though they will soon gain access to hammers and a variety of other techniques as the game progresses . For example , Luigi 's hammer can be used to squash Mario into a smaller size , allowing to access small gaps , while placing Mario on Luigi 's shoulders allows them to act like a propeller and hover across large gaps . Various enemies roam the overworld , and coming into contact with these enemies initiates a battle . Landing a hit on the enemy while on the overworld allows the player to deal pre @-@ emptive damage , while the opposite is also possible .
Battles in Superstar Saga are turn @-@ based . Mario and Luigi can attack normally either by jumping , which can deal multiple hits but when used against enemies covered in flames or with spikes , Mario or Luigi will get hurt , instead of the enemy . Another attack option is the hammer , which is powerful , but ineffective against flying enemies . Similar to previous Mario RPG titles , such as Super Mario RPG and the Paper Mario series , players can time button presses to make their attacks more effective , such as earning an extra jump attack or increasing the hammer 's power . Introduced in this series is the way in which Mario and Luigi can defend themselves during an enemy 's attack . When an enemy attacks , the brothers will be able to either jump or use their hammer which , when successfully timed , allows them to dodge their attacks and even deal counter damage ( for example : if they jump on top of a charging Goomba ) . Throughout the game , players can unlock Bros. Attacks , which use Bros. Points ( BP ) which requires players to cooperate between Mario and Luigi 's actions to perform powerful combination attacks . Players can also use items such as mushrooms for healing , peppers for boosting stats and 1UP mushrooms for reviving fallen bros . Defeating enemies earns experience points which help the bros level up and increase their stats , with players given the option to further increase the stats of one attribute every time they level up . Players can further improve their stats by equipping new gear to the Bros. , or making them wear badges that give them special attributes .
Like other Mario titles for the Game Boy Advance , Superstar Saga features the enhanced remake of the Mario Bros. arcade game . The game also supports rumble functionality when used with the Nintendo GameCube 's Game Boy Player accessory .
= = Plot = =
Unlike most games in the Mario series , this game is not set in the Mushroom Kingdom . Instead , Superstar Saga introduces the Beanbean Kingdom , a neighboring monarchy to the Mushroom Kingdom . Despite this , traditional enemies such as Goombas are present , as well as new enemies exclusive to the game . The predominant race are the " Beanish " , although there are other species such as the " Hoohooligans " and Yoshis . No locations featured in the Beanbean Kingdom , with the exception of Bowser 's Castle , existed in any earlier Mario series games .
= = = Characters = = =
The playable protagonists in the game are Mario and Luigi , whose quest is to rescue the voice of Princess Peach , the princess of the Mushroom Kingdom . The voice is stolen by the game 's antagonists Cackletta and Fawful . Throughout the game , Mario and Luigi must work with the Beanbean monarchy headed by Queen Bean . Both she and her son , Prince Peasley , offer Mario and Luigi assistance . The youthful Prince Peasley is a celebrity figure in his native Beanbean Kingdom .
Deviating from a tradition of the Mario franchise , Superstar Saga 's central antagonist is not Bowser , but the Beanish witch Cackletta . Bowser aids the protagonists during a period of the game , but Bowser 's body becomes possessed by the consciousness of Cackletta to form the creature Bowletta . Cackletta is aided by the assailant Fawful , who is often characterized by his comical use of language , as evidenced by his famous quote " I HAVE FURY ! " and who is also the antagonist in the sequel Mario & Luigi : Bowser 's Inside Story . Additionally , Mario and Luigi have recurring incidents with a thief named Popple and his sidekick Rookie ( amnesiac Bowser ) , who engages both protagonists in conflict at various times throughout the game . In one case , Popple fights alone . In another , he uses Birdo instead of Rookie .
= = = Story = = =
The game opens with the witch Cackletta and her assistant Fawful arriving to steal Princess Peach 's voice and replace it with explosives . After being summoned to the palace by Toad , Mario and Luigi confront and subdue Bowser , who coincidentally was attempting to kidnap Peach . However , Bowser soon decides against kidnapping her and teams up with the Mario Bros. to retrieve her true voice back from Cackletta , who has fled to the Beanbean Kingdom , with the intention of kidnapping her afterward when her voice would not destroy his castle .
Mario , Luigi , and Bowser fly to the Beanbean Kingdom via Bowser 's airship , the Koopa Cruiser . Mid @-@ flight , Fawful attacks the cruiser and blows it out of the sky . Bowser and the brothers become separated . On their journey , the brothers rescue Prince Peasley , who had been transformed into a dragon by Cackletta . The brothers reach Beanbean Castle Town and step into a trap laid by Cackletta that drops them into the sewers . The brothers learn that Cackletta 's goal is to steal the Beanstar , a mystical object inside the castle which once awoken with Peach 's voice will grant all of her wishes . Cackletta takes the Beanstar and attacks Mario and Luigi with a mutated form of the Queen Bean during her escape . After defeating the Queen , Mario and Luigi travel to Chucklehuck Woods to retrieve the Chuckola Reserve , a soda which will restore Queen Bean to her former state . They encounter Popple , a thief also after the Chuckola Reserve , with an amnesiac Bowser as his accomplice , named Rookie . The brothers manage to obtain the Reserve , return to Beanbean Castle Town , and cure Queen Bean .
Mario and Luigi then travel to Woohoo Hooniversity , where Cackletta plans to awaken the Beanstar . The Beanstar is exposed to Peach 's voice , which causes it to go berserk and flee . Mario and Luigi then battle Cackletta and defeat her . Cackletta is severely incapacitated from the battle , so Fawful sucks up her soul into his " vacuum helmet " to save her life . Cackletta then commands Fawful to attack , but he is stopped by Prince Peasley . The brothers locate the Beanstar but encounter Popple and Rookie again . After battling them , the Beanstar is again exposed to Peach 's voice . The four grab onto the Beanstar in an effort to keep it under control , but it shoots into the sky . The Beanstar explodes into four pieces , which scatter across Beanbean Kingdom , and the brothers become separated from Popple and Bowser . Mario and Luigi backtrack and meet Peach as she arrives in Beanbean Kingdom , who inexplicably has her own voice . They discover that Prince Peasley had learned of Cackletta 's plot and warned the Princess beforehand and Birdo , disguised as Peach , had her voice stolen instead . Bowser 's arrival and presence at her castle had prevented Peach from revealing the plan to Mario and Luigi . Meanwhile , Fawful imbues a weak Bowser with Cackletta 's soul , resulting in the twisted Bowletta .
On a trip to Little Fungitown , Peach is kidnapped by Bowletta , who demands all the pieces of the Beanstar in exchange . After restoring the Beanstar , Mario and Luigi travel to Joke 's End to make the exchange . Bowletta refuses to hand over Peach , but Luigi , disguised in Peach 's spare dress , ends up being taken in Peach 's stead . He escapes from the repaired Koopa Cruiser , reclaiming the Beanstar in the process . The brothers return to Beanbean Castle Town , finding it under attack by Bowletta using Bowser 's flying castle . The brothers and Prince Peasley fly up to it to stop Cackletta once and for all . Mario and Luigi battle past the Koopalings and Fawful before confronting Bowletta . Feinting defeat , she tricks the brothers and swallows them both . After waking up in her belly , the brothers battle and defeat Cackletta 's soul , exorcising her from Bowser 's body . The two are regurgitated and Bowser returns to normal . Afterwards , the brothers escape the castle before it explodes from a bomb set by Peasley . The explosion sends the castle falling into the ocean . Exhausted from their vacation , Mario , Luigi , Peach and Toadsworth decide to head back to the Mushroom Kingdom . Before they can leave , Peasley brings a farewell gift for them to take home , which is Bowser , who regained memory . The gang then returns home .
= = Development and marketing = =
Superstar Saga , developed by AlphaDream , is said to take its inspiration from the Nintendo 64 game Paper Mario ; the two games have similar graphics and gameplay . The producers of the game were Shigeru Miyamoto , the creator of the Mario franchise , Tetsuo Mizuno , and Satoru Iwata , the president of Nintendo . The voice acting for Mario and Luigi in the game is provided by Charles Martinet , well known for providing the characters ' voice in Nintendo 's Mario franchise . The game 's music was composed by Yoko Shimomura , who also composed the score for Super Mario RPG .
Superstar Saga was first revealed at Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) 2003 , where a playable demo of the game was available . In August and September 2003 , a playable demonstration was also available at the European Computer Trade Show , the Games Convention , and Nintendo Gamers ' Summit . To link in with the game 's comic themes , Nintendo organized an official competition between October and November 2003 in which contestants would try to submit the best knock @-@ knock joke to win a Game Boy Advance SP and a copy of the game . Nintendo employed comedian Kathy Griffin to choose the winner .
= = Reception = =
Superstar Saga received universal critical acclaim . The game 's comical dialog and themes in particular were lauded by critics . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell commented that " each line of dialogue and identifiable cameo is handled with a loving sense of humour . " Despite this , RPGamer 's Andrew Long labelled the plot as repetitive , and the game 's characters as " a tad shallow " . While also appreciating references to the heritage of the Mario series , critics praised the game for avoiding clichés common in previous games of the Mario series .
The gameplay attained a mixed reception . Critics enjoyed the game 's battle system , which deviated from role @-@ playing game tradition . IGN 's Craig Harris commented that " unlike most Japanese RPGs Mario & Luigi 's turn @-@ based battle involves the player at all times " . Despite this novel approach to combat situations , some reviewers thought that the overall gameplay lacked innovation . GameSpy in particular criticized the game for an apparent lack of originality , commenting that " in terms of gameplay , there isn 't much there that we haven 't seen in the NES and SNES Mario and Zelda titles . " Furthermore , some reviewers were disappointed by a perceived lack of difficulty in the gameplay as a result of targeting a younger audience . However , Cubed3 welcomed this approach , citing that " any gamer , be them veterans to the genre or complete amateurs , will find the title to be perfectly accessible . " Edge and other gaming publications have criticized the controls for being occasionally confusing when considering the usage of jumping , hammers , and other combinations between the two characters .
A common concern among reviewers is the overhead perspective , which critics have bemoaned for preventing them from judging pathway routes and an object 's location in relation to its background . Besides this , the actual visuals were generally well received , as well as the setting and animations . The audio was commended for combining both originality and nostalgia , even though it looped frequently .
In 2006 , Superstar Saga was rated the 37th best game made on a Nintendo System in Nintendo Power 's Top 200 Games list . In the same year , the game became part of the Player 's Choice label . In 2007 , the game was named the twelfth best Game Boy Advance game of all time in IGN 's feature reflecting on the Game Boy Advance 's long lifespan . As of 2007 , Superstar Saga has sold over 441 @,@ 000 units in Japan and 1 @.@ 46 million in the US .
= = Sequels = =
Nintendo released Partners in Time , the prequel / sequel to Superstar Saga , on November 28 , 2005 for the Nintendo DS system . The plot and setting is relatively disconnected to that of Superstar Saga , as Cackletta has been replaced by the Shroobs as the primary antagonists . Although the game is set outside the Beanbean Kingdom , there are references to Superstar Saga in Partners in Time , such as the inclusion of Fawful in the sewers of Princess Peach 's Castle in the game . The Bros. Moves have been retained in Partners in Time , although they involve an item system as opposed to the Bros. Points system that Superstar Saga has . A second sequel , Bowser 's Inside Story , was released in 2009 for the Nintendo DS , with Fawful reprising his role as a key villain . A third sequel , Dream Team , was released in 2013 for the Nintendo 3DS . A fourth sequel , Paper Jam , a crossover with the Paper Mario series , was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2015 .
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= BBC Symphony Orchestra =
The BBC Symphony Orchestra ( BBC SO ) is a British orchestra based in London . Founded in 1930 , it was the first permanent salaried orchestra in London , and is the only one of the city 's five major symphony orchestras not to be self @-@ governing . The BBC SO is the principal orchestra of the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) .
The orchestra was originally conceived in 1928 as a joint enterprise by the BBC and the conductor Sir Thomas Beecham , but the latter withdrew the next year ; and the task of assembling and training the orchestra fell to the BBC 's director of music , Adrian Boult . Among its guest conductors in its first years was Arturo Toscanini , who judged it the finest orchestra he had ever conducted . During and after the Second World War , Boult strove to maintain standards , but the senior management of the post @-@ war BBC did not allocate the orchestra the resources to meet competition from new and well @-@ funded rivals .
After Boult 's retirement from the BBC in 1950 , the orchestra went through a fallow period . Boult 's successor , Sir Malcolm Sargent , was popular with the public but had poor rapport with his players , and orchestral morale dropped . Sargent 's successor , Rudolf Schwarz , made little public impact , and although the BBC appointed high @-@ profile chief conductors in the 1960s and 1970s – Antal Doráti , Colin Davis , Pierre Boulez and Gennady Rozhdestvensky – the BBC SO remained underfunded and could not attract enough good players to rival the leading London orchestras .
As a result of initiatives begun in the 1960s by the BBC controller of music William Glock , performing standards gradually began to rise . Under Andrew Davis in the 1990s and Jiří Bělohlávek in the 2000s the orchestra prospered . By the second decade of the 21st century the BBC SO was once again regarded by critics as of first @-@ class status . From the outset the orchestra has been known for pioneering new music , and it continues to do so , at the Proms , in concerts at the Barbican Centre , and in studio concerts from its base at BBC Maida Vale studios .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Almost from its beginning in November 1922 the BBC had started broadcasting from its " 2LO " transmitter with its own musical ensembles . The first such groups were the " 2LO Dance Band " , the " 2LO Military Band " , the " 2LO Light Orchestra " , and the " 2LO Octette " , all of which began broadcasting in 1923 . No concert promoter would co @-@ operate with the BBC , regarding it as a dangerous competitor , but the British National Opera Company allowed broadcasts of its performances from the Royal Opera House . John Reith , the General Manager of the BBC , invited the opera company 's musical director , Percy Pitt , to become the BBC 's part @-@ time musical adviser from May 1923 . Later in the same year Pitt conducted the BBC 's first broadcast symphony concert , which included Dvořák 's New World Symphony and works by Saint @-@ Saëns , Elgar and Weber .
Pitt expanded the regular eight @-@ piece studio ensemble to form The Wireless Orchestra of 18 players , augmented to 37 for important broadcasts . There was no thought at this stage that the BBC would maintain a full @-@ scale symphonic orchestra of up to 100 players . With Reith 's approval , Pitt engaged various orchestras for a BBC concert series in 1924 at the Methodist Central Hall Westminster . Pitt and Landon Ronald conducted the Royal Albert Hall Orchestra ; Eugene Goossens conducted the London Symphony Orchestra ; and Hamilton Harty and Sir Edward Elgar conducted the orchestra of the Royal Philharmonic Society .
In 1924 the Wireless Orchestra , by then comprising 22 players , was contracted for six concerts a week . The following year , Pitt , by now working full @-@ time for the BBC , as its director of music , augmented the ensemble to form the " Wireless Symphony Orchestra " for a new series of concerts broadcast from Covent Garden , conducted by Bruno Walter , Ernest Ansermet and Pierre Monteux . In 1927 the BBC and Covent Garden collaborated in a series of public concerts with an orchestra of 150 players under conductors including Richard Strauss and Siegfried Wagner . Although the orchestra was large , it was not good . The BBC attempted to stop its contracted players sending deputies to rehearsals and even to concerts , but was unsuccessful . In January 1928 The Musical Times protested :
The B.B.C. has been blamed for devoting too much time to the classics , and also for not giving them all that is due to them ; it has been held responsible for the inferiority of the apparatus of the listener @-@ in ; it has been censured on a variety of trifling points , but never for the one heinous offence it has committed , and goes on committing : for this corporation , with all its assured and conspicuous wealth , has given and is giving us the worst orchestral performances ever heard in London . … This year at Queen 's Hall they have assembled an orchestra which sounds as if it were composed in great part of " substitutes . "
In 1927 the BBC took over the responsibility for the Promenade Concerts , widely known as " the Proms " . At first Henry Wood , the founding conductor , persuaded the corporation to engage his Queen 's Hall Orchestra for each Prom season ; from 1930 onwards , the BBC provided the orchestra .
The inadequacy of the BBC 's players , and also of the established London orchestras , was shown up by the Berlin Philharmonic , under Wilhelm Furtwängler , in two concerts in 1927 . A historian of the Queen 's Hall , Robert Elkin , writes , " At this period the standard of orchestral playing in London was distinctly low , and the well @-@ drilled efficiency of the Berliners under their dynamic conductor came as something of a revelation . " These , and later concerts by the same orchestra , gained plaudits from the public and music critics at the expense of the London orchestras . The chief music critic of The Times , Frank Howes , later commented , " the British public ... was electrified when it heard the disciplined precision of the Berlin Philharmonic ... This apparently was how an orchestra could , and , therefore , ought to sound " . After the Berliners , London heard a succession of major foreign orchestras , including the Amsterdam Concertgebouw Orchestra under Willem Mengelberg and the Philharmonic @-@ Symphony Orchestra of New York under Arturo Toscanini .
Among those determined that London should have a permanent orchestra of similar excellence were Reith and the conductor Sir Thomas Beecham . The latter aimed at setting up a first rate ensemble for opera and concert performances and , though no admirer of broadcasting , he was willing to negotiate with the BBC if this gave him what he sought . Reith 's concern was that the BBC should have a first @-@ rate radio orchestra . The critic Richard Morrison writes :
Reith 's BBC of the 1920s was ... imbued with an almost religious zeal for " enlightening " the public through the magical medium of the wireless . An orchestra , and particularly one that was unencumbered by commercial constraints and thus free to deliver the highest of highbrow programmes , would fit very well into that idealistic philosophy .
Landon Ronald brought Reith and Beecham together in April 1928 ; negotiations and preliminary arrangements continued for more than 18 months until it became clear that the corporation and the conductor had irreconcilable priorities for the proposed new ensemble . Beecham withdrew and , as described by Nicholas Kenyon :
With the collapse of the Beecham scheme , the way was open for the BBC 's music department to design an orchestral scheme truly suited to broadcasting needs – a plan for a 114 @-@ piece orchestra that could split into four different smaller groups , which had been devised in the autumn of 1929 by Edward Clark and Julian Herbage – and to place that orchestra 's fortunes under the direction of the man who was to guide it with the utmost distinction for the next 20 years , the BBC 's new director of music , Adrian Boult .
= = = Foundation = = =
By the time Adrian Boult succeeded Pitt as director of music for the BBC , the violinist Albert Sammons and the violist Lionel Tertis had scouted for new talent around the country on behalf of the corporation . Twenty @-@ seven players had been offered positions in the new orchestra . Among those who joined were Aubrey Brain , Arthur Catterall , Eugene Cruft , Sidonie Goossens , Lauri Kennedy and Frederick Thurston . Although many of the principals were stars recruited from the LSO , the Hallé and other orchestras , a high proportion of the rank and file members were fresh from music colleges . Boult wrote , " a brilliant group of young and inexperienced players came to sit behind the well @-@ known old stagers . "
A substantial number of the players performed at the 1930 Promenade Concerts under Sir Henry Wood , and the full BBC Symphony Orchestra gave its first concert on 22 October 1930 , conducted by Boult at the Queen 's Hall . The programme consisted of music by Wagner , Brahms , Saint @-@ Saëns and Ravel . Of the 21 programmes in the orchestra 's first season , Boult conducted nine and Wood five .
The reviews of the new orchestra were enthusiastic . The Times wrote of its " virtuosity " and of Boult 's " superb " conducting . The Musical Times commented , " The boast of the B.B.C. that it intended to get together a first @-@ class orchestra was not an idle one " , spoke of " exhilaration at the playing " , and called another concert later in the season " an occasion for national pride " . The Observer called the playing " altogether magnificent " . After the initial concerts Reith was told by his advisers that the orchestra had played better for Boult than anyone else . Reith asked him if he wished to take on the chief conductorship , and if so whether he would resign as director of music or occupy both posts simultaneously . Boult opted for the latter .
During the 1930s , the orchestra became renowned for its high standard of playing and for performing new and unfamiliar music . The pioneering work of Boult and the BBC SO included an early performance of Schoenberg 's Variations , Op. 31 , British premieres , including Berg 's Wozzeck and Three Movements from the Lyric Suite , and world premieres , including Vaughan Williams 's Symphony No. 4 in F minor . Anton Webern conducted eight BBC SO concerts between 1931 and 1936 .
During the 1930s the orchestra presented rarely heard large @-@ scale works from the past , including Berlioz 's Grande Messe des morts and Grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale . Mahler 's Eighth and Ninth Symphonies , and Purcell 's King Arthur .
The excellence of the orchestra attracted leading international conductors . In its second season guest conductors included Richard Strauss , Felix Weingartner and Bruno Walter , followed , in later seasons , by Serge Koussevitzky , Beecham and Mengelberg . Arturo Toscanini , widely regarded at the time as the world 's leading conductor , conducted the BBC SO in 1935 and later said that it was the finest he had ever directed . He returned to conduct the orchestra in 1937 , 1938 and 1939 , and declared , " This is the orchestra I would like to take round the world . "
= = = Second World War and postwar = = =
On the outbreak of war in September 1939 the BBC put into effect its contingency plans to minimise disruption of broadcasting . The corporation withdrew from responsibility for the Proms , with which Wood went ahead , backed by the Royal Philharmonic Society , with the LSO replacing the BBC SO . The BBC SO was relocated from London to Bristol . More than 40 players were released for active service , including the 30 youngest members ; the orchestra was reduced to a complement of 70 , although it was increased to 90 later in the war . During 1940 and 1941 Bristol suffered devastation from German air @-@ raids , and the BBC decided to move the orchestra again . In September 1941 the BBC SO took up residence in Bedford , where it remained , giving live broadcasts and making recordings until it returned permanently to its London base at the BBC 's BBC Maida Vale studios in 1945 . The BBC resumed its support for the Proms in 1942 , with the BBC SO returning temporarily to London during the Proms seasons of 1942 – 45 . For the rest of the year , the orchestra played in the hall of Bedford School , and after the launch of the V @-@ 1 raids in 1944 the remaining broadcast concerts of that year 's Proms season were performed at the Bedford Corn Exchange .
Boult had striven to maintain the orchestra 's standards and prestige during the war ; as an instance of its prowess in the 1940s Kennedy cites an HMV recording of Elgar 's Second Symphony released in January 1945 : " a performance that blazed with excitement and passion and is documentary evidence of the excellence of the orchestra in 1944 " . With Reith long gone from the post of director @-@ general , Boult found that the top management of the BBC was less concerned for the status of its Symphony Orchestra . The new director @-@ general , Sir William Haley , was unwilling to approve the funding needed to keep the orchestra competitive with new rivals – Walter Legge 's Philharmonia and Beecham 's Royal Philharmonic . Some younger players felt that many BBC SO principals were past their best . There were even a few members of the BBC 's staff who were not sorry when Steuart Wilson , a BBC executive with a private grudge against Boult , engineered Boult 's retirement in 1950 , though many profoundly regretted it . Wilson had neglected to secure a successor of similar eminence to take over the orchestra . His efforts to recruit Sir John Barbirolli and Rafael Kubelík were unsuccessful , and he was obliged to offer the post to his third choice , Sir Malcolm Sargent , on whatever terms Sargent demanded .
= = = 1950s = = =
Sargent , an immensely popular figure with the public , was not at all popular with orchestral players , because of what a historian of the Proms has called his " autocratic and prima @-@ donna attitude towards orchestral players " . He offended the BBC SO players by demanding that they all stand up when he came on to the platform – which they firmly declined to do . He rapidly became equally unpopular with the BBC music department , ignoring its agenda and pursuing his own . He refused to join the staff of the BBC , and insisted on remaining a freelance , taking numerous external engagements to the detriment of his work with the BBC SO . A senior BBC manager wrote , :
Except when a Barbirolli or a Kletzki has been in charge for a few days , the Orchestra is inferior , as an artistic instrument , to the Hallé or Philharmonia ... [ Sargent ] is indifferent to the morale and welfare of the Orchestra and to the individual temperaments of his players as artists or as human beings .
It did not help that Sargent was universally acknowledged to be at his finest in choral music . His reputation in big works for chorus and orchestra such as The Dream of Gerontius , Hiawatha 's Wedding Feast and Belshazzar 's Feast was unrivalled , and his large @-@ scale performances of Handel oratorios were assured packed houses . However , his regular programming of such works did nothing to lift the spirits of the BBC SO : orchestral musicians regarded playing the instrumental accompaniment for large choirs as drudgery .
In the 1950s the BBC SO , in common with the rest of the BBC 's musical organisation , suffered from stagnation . In the words of the critic Peter Heyworth , " the Corporation 's music department had become a byword for its narrow @-@ mindedness and lassitude " . Boult had been followed as director of music by a series of successors between 1944 and 1959 who either lacked his commitment to modern music or were actively hostile to it . Richard Howgill , who held the post from 1952 to 1959 , took the view that although Webern " might have been a small composer of some significance , Schoenberg wasn 't really a composer at all . " In addition to working under a conductor it disliked , the BBC SO found its role as a pioneer of progressive music gone , and its performances of the standard classics criticised as under @-@ rehearsed ( particularly during Proms seasons ) compared with those given by Legge 's Philharmonia and others . Sargent 's contract was not renewed in 1957 , although he continued with undiminished popularity as chief conductor of the Proms until his death ten years later . Howgill appointed Rudolf Schwarz as chief conductor of the BBC SO . Schwarz failed to restore orchestral standards to pre @-@ war levels , and lacked Sargent 's box @-@ office appeal . Under Schwarz , BBC SO concerts other than the Proms drew poor houses – as low as 29 per cent of capacity in the 1959 – 60 season . The manager of the Royal Festival Hall , Ernest Bean , spoke of " an inherited aura of mediocrity about BBC concerts which keeps people away " . Schwarz 's five @-@ year contract was not renewed when it expired .
= = = 1960s to 1980s = = =
In 1959 William Glock was appointed controller of music for the BBC , and the profile and fortunes of the BBC SO began to rise . For the post of principal conductor Glock engaged Antal Doráti , who , in Heyworth 's judgment , raised standards of playing and brought new vigour to the programmes in his four years in charge ( 1962 – 66 ) . Doráti was convinced that the orchestra was stultified by concentrating on studio broadcasts , as it did except during the Proms season . He strove to free players from " slavery to the microphone " , and Glock promoted a regular series of concerts at the Festival Hall . The music critic Tom Sutcliffe later wrote that Doráti and his successors , Colin Davis ( 1967 – 71 ) , Pierre Boulez ( 1971 – 75 ) and Gennady Rozhdestvensky ( 1978 – 81 ) had been partly successful in improving playing standards , but had not brought the orchestra up to its original level of distinction .
By 1962 Glock had persuaded the management of the BBC to increase the orchestra 's budget to allow for joint principals in the string sections , to attract top musicians who could play in the BBC SO without having to give up their solo or chamber careers . The following season he was able to engage joint principals for the wind section ; he recruited such star players as Jack Brymer and Terence MacDonagh , formerly members of Beecham 's celebrated " Royal Family " in the RPO . The problem remained that recruiting rank @-@ and @-@ file string players was difficult : although the BBC offered secure employment and a pension , it did not pay as well as its London rivals . After 1964 the BBC SO was the only one of the five London symphony orchestras that was not self @-@ governed , and some musicians felt that the BBC SO 's constitution as a body of salaried employees , with no say in the management or repertory of the orchestra , attracted an unadventurous type of player . A former member of the BBC SO said in 1979 @,@
I felt I was getting too secure ... [ in ] the BBC Symphony you can be a poor player , but if you 're on time and never moan at the conductor … you 'll have no trouble ... I think the BBC Symphony lost some good young players because the management got their priorities wrong .
Glock was well known as a proponent of music of the Second Viennese School and their successors ; earlier in his career he had been dismissed as music critic of The Observer for such views as " no great composer has ever cared how ' pleasant ' his music sounds " . Under his administration , the BBC SO gave world premieres of works by composers including Roberto Gerhard , Peter Maxwell Davies and Michael Tippett , and UK premieres of works by , among others , Luciano Berio , Boulez and Edgard Varèse . The policy of commissioning works , and giving UK premieres of new compositions was continued under Glock 's successors . World or UK premieres in the 1970s included works by Elliott Carter , György Ligeti , Witold Lutosławski , Olivier Messiaen , Luigi Nono , Arvo Pärt and Karlheinz Stockhausen . BBC commissions premiered by the BBC SO in the 1980s included Alfred Schnittke 's Second Symphony , Harrison Birtwistle 's Earth Dances , and John Tavener 's The Protecting Veil .
Although Glock restored the orchestra 's reputation as Britain 's leading modern music ensemble , the balance of programming affected the players ' capacity in the mainstream repertoire . The principal horn , Alan Civil , recalled , " We did about eighty percent modern and twenty percent classical . The awful tragedy , for the orchestra , was that eventually we were not able to play the standard classics . We could sight @-@ read the most fearsome contemporary piece , but a Brahms symphony – embarrassing ! " The bassoon player William Waterhouse who joined the BBC SO from the LSO found the BBC 's repertory refreshing , but the music making less impressive : " There were no potboilers , but also , I 'm afraid , no world @-@ ranking soloists either . "
John Pritchard was principal conductor from 1982 to 1989 . In The Times , Paul Griffiths wrote , " Sir John 's seven @-@ year period with the orchestra has been marked by growing orchestral confidence and many memorable performances . " Principal guest conductors in the 1970s and 1980s included Sir Charles Mackerras ( 1977 – 79 ) , Michael Gielen ( 1978 – 81 ) , Günter Wand , Mark Elder ( 1982 – 85 ) and Péter Eötvös ( 1985 – 88 ) .
= = = 1990s and 21st century = = =
Pritchard 's successor was Andrew Davis , who ( 1989 – 2000 ) was the longest @-@ serving chief conductor since Boult . He was at the helm for what John Allison in The Times called " the valuable Barbican weekends that each January investigate another major but not fully understood 20th @-@ century composer . " Noting that modern music was central to the work of Davis and the orchestra , Allison added that under Davis the orchestra took part in " once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lifetime projects such as Anthony Payne 's completion of Elgar 's Third Symphony . " Such was Davis 's contribution to the orchestra that when he resigned he was appointed its first conductor laureate .
In 2000 , Davis was succeeded by Leonard Slatkin , whose relationship with the players was uneasy , and whose repertoire was not generally liked by the orchestra or the audiences ; he was felt to emphasise twentieth century American music at the expense of cutting @-@ edge modern works and the central European classics . When his departure was announced in 2004 the BBC had not found a replacement . There was speculation that the successor would be Jukka @-@ Pekka Saraste , Donald Runnicles or David Robertson , but the post went to Jiří Bělohlávek . He was well known to the players , having been the orchestra 's principal guest conductor in the 1990s . The classical repertory was regarded as one of Bělohlávek 's strengths , but he had no reputation for conducting new works , which remained a core part of the orchestra 's remit . He welcomed the fact that the orchestra 's new principal guest conductor was David Robertson , a new @-@ music expert and a protégé of Boulez . The orchestra was seen by some as " a bolshie lot " and " grumpy " , but its relations with Bělohlávek were harmonious . Under Bělohlávek the orchestra won glowing reviews : The Times referred to its " superb musicians " , Michael Kennedy in The Sunday Telegraph referred to a " rich and opulent [ score ] magnificently played by the BBC Symphony Orchestra " under Bělohlávek , and another Telegraph critic praised the BBC SO 's " virtuoso form " .
Principal guest conductors during these years were Alexander Lazarev ( 1992 – 95 ) , Bělohlávek ( 1995 – 2000 ) and Jukka @-@ Pekka Saraste ( 2002 – 05 ) . It was announced in 2012 that Sakari Oramo would take over as chief conductor in 2013 . In 2012 , Semyon Bychkov assumed a newly created position in the orchestra , the Günter Wand Conducting Chair .
= = = Function in the 21st century = = =
The BBC SO is the associate orchestra of the Barbican Centre in London , where it gives an annual season of concerts . These seasons include series of concerts devoted to individual modern composers , who have included John Cage , James MacMillan , Elliott Carter , Sofia Gubaidulina and Michael Tippett .
The orchestra remains the principal orchestra of the Proms , giving about a dozen concerts each season , including the first and last nights . Most of its concerts are broadcast on BBC Radio 3 , streamed online and available as podcasts for a month after broadcast , and a number are televised : the orchestra 's website claims that this gives the BBC " the highest broadcast profile of any UK orchestra " . The orchestra continues to make studio recordings for Radio 3 at the Maida Vale studios ; some recording sessions are free for the public to attend .
In common with other orchestras , the BBC SO engages in educational work . According to the orchestra 's website : " Among ongoing projects are the BBC SO Family Music Intro scheme , introducing families to live classical music , BBC SO Student Zone and the highly successful BBC SO Family Orchestra , alongside work in local schools . Total Immersion composer events also provide rich material for education work . "
In 2000 , the orchestra appointed its first associate composer , Mark @-@ Anthony Turnage . John Adams became the BBC Symphony Orchestra 's artist in association in June 2003 . The composer and conductor Oliver Knussen took up the post of artist @-@ in @-@ association in July 2009 . The orchestra 's commitment to new music continues . In 2013 , the music journalist Tom Service wrote , " I 've heard the BBC Symphony give concerts that I don 't think any other orchestra in the world could do as brilliantly … That supreme virtuosity in new music makes them unique among London 's big orchestras . "
= = Recordings = =
From its first years the BBC SO was active in commercial recording studios . Under Boult it recorded a wide range of music from Bach to Mozart and Beethoven , Brahms , Wagner and Elgar . In the 1950s and 1960s it recorded a range of music with Sargent , mostly British but with several Sibelius discs in addition . With Doráti the orchestra made recordings of works by Bartók , Gerhard and Messaien . Under Colin Davis it made its first opera sets : Mozart 's Idomeneo and The Marriage of Figaro , and Berlioz 's Benvenuto Cellini , as well as works by Beethoven and Tippett . Under Boulez the orchestra recorded mostly twentieth century music – works by Bartók , Berg , Schoenberg and Boulez himself – and also Berlioz . Andrew Davis has recorded extensively with the orchestra for the Teldec label and others . Under Bělohlávek the orchestra has recorded Martinů 's complete symphonies , and also his The Epic of Gilgamesh .
With guest conductors the BBC SO has recorded Elgar and Vaughan Williams under the composers , Beethoven under Toscanini , Bruno Walter and Barbirolli , and Sibelius under Beecham and Koussevitsky .
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= 1903 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1903 Atlantic hurricane season featured seven hurricanes , the most in a season since 1893 . The first tropical cyclone was initially observed in the western Atlantic Ocean near Puerto Rico on July 21 . The tenth and final system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone well northwest of the Azores on November 25 . These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic . Six of the ten tropical cyclones existed simultaneously .
Of the season 's ten tropical storms , seven of those strengthened into a hurricane . One of the seven hurricanes deepened further into a major hurricane , which are tropical cyclones that reach at least Category 3 on the modern day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The second , third , and fourth systems left the most significant impacts during this season . The second storm , which struck Jamaica in August , devastated Martinique , Jamaica , and the Cayman Islands . At least 149 deaths were attributed to this storm , while it also caused $ 10 million ( 1903 USD ) in damage in Jamaica alone . The third cyclone made landfall in Florida twice in mid @-@ August , leaving 14 fatalities and about $ 500 @,@ 000 in damage . Only a few days later , the fourth cyclone struck New Jersey . The storm impacted many areas in the Mid @-@ Atlantic region of the United States and caused 57 deaths and about $ 8 million in damage . Additionally , the remnants of the eighth tropical cyclone caused severe flooding in the Mid @-@ Atlantic .
The Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project also indicated but could not confirm the presence of four additional tropical depressions throughout the season . However , the reanalysis added a previously undetected tropical storm in late October to the Atlantic hurricane database ( HURDAT ) . Reanalysis also resulted in the eighth cyclone being downgraded from a hurricane to a tropical storm .
= = Season summary = =
Tropical cyclogenesis began with the development of the first system on July 21 in the western Atlantic near Puerto Rico . This was the only storm in the month of July . Likewise , August also featured one storm . The second system was the most intense tropical cyclone of the season , peaking as a Category 3 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 958 mbar ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) . This was also the first major hurricane in the Atlantic basin since the second storm of 1900 and the first in the Caribbean Sea since the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane . September was the most active month of the season , with four systems developing , three of which intensified into a hurricane . In October , there were three tropical storms , with one intensifying into a hurricane . The only November tropical cyclone , as well as the final system of the season , developed on November 17 and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while northwest of the Azores on November 25 .
The season had a total of 10 tropical storms , 7 of which intensified into a hurricane . This marked the most hurricanes in a season since the total of eight in 1893 . There may have been an additional four tropical depressions throughout the season , but the data obtained by the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project was inconclusive . The reanalysis added a previously undetected tropical storm in late October to the Atlantic hurricane database ( HURDAT ) . Reanalysis also resulted in the eighth cyclone being downgraded from a Category 2 hurricane to a tropical storm . Nearly all of the season 's 10 tropical cyclones impacted land . Collectively , the storms caused over $ 18 @.@ 5 million in damage and at least 222 fatalities .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 102 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
According to historical weather maps , an area of disturbed weather developed a closed circulation early on July 21 while located about 100 mi ( 160 km ) northeast of the Samaná Peninsula of Dominican Republic , becoming the first tropical cyclone of the season . The storm moved northwestward until about 12 : 00 UTC on July 22 , at which time it curved northward , before turning northeastward about 24 hours later . Early on July 24 , it intensified into a Category 1 hurricane . The hurricane strengthened slightly further , peaking with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) six hours later . The system began weakening early on July 24 , falling to tropical storm intensity around 12 : 00 UTC . Accelerating to the east @-@ northeast , the storm also began to lose tropical characteristics and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at 06 : 00 UTC on July 26 , while situated about 430 mi ( 690 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . Shortly before , a ship recorded a barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) , the lowest in relation to the storm . The extratropical remnants continued east @-@ northeastward and dissipated late on July 26 .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
A tropical storm was first observed about 1 @,@ 160 mi ( 1 @,@ 870 km ) east @-@ southeast of Barbados , early on August 6 . The system moved generally west @-@ northwestward and strengthened into a hurricane about 24 hours later . Early on August 9 , it struck Martinique as either a strong Category 1 or a weak Category 2 hurricane . The storm entered the Caribbean Sea shortly thereafter . Around 12 : 00 UTC , the cyclone intensified into a Category 3 hurricane . Between 06 : 00 UTC and 12 : 00 UTC on August 11 , it struck Jamaica near Morant Point with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . At 06 : 00 UTC on August 12 , while brushing Grand Cayman , the hurricane peaked with maximum sustained winds of the same intensity and a minimum barometric pressure of 958 mbar ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) , observed by the Governor Blake . The system weakened to a Category 2 around the time of landfall near Playa del Carmen , Quintana Roo , early on August 13 , with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . By 12 : 00 UTC , the storm further weakened to a Category 1 . After crossing the Yucatán Peninsula and emerging into the Gulf of Mexico early on August 14 , the hurricane failed to re @-@ strengthen . Around 00 : 00 UTC on August 16 , it made landfall north of Tampico , Tamaulipas , with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The hurricane soon weakened to a tropical storm and dissipated over San Luis Potosí late on August 16 .
In Martinique , hundreds of homes were deroofed in Fort @-@ de @-@ France , while about 5 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in the villages of Fond , Fourniols , La Haye , Recluce , and Tivoli , all of which were established after the eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902 . The hurricane also left extensive damage to crops and eight fatalities . In Jamaica , several communities were completely or nearly destroyed , including Manchioneal , Port Antonio , and Port Maria . Thousands of homes also suffered damage in the capital city of Kingston . Banana crops were devastated so severely that many growers were forced into bankruptcy . Numerous ships were wrecked , particularly on the north coast of the island . There were at least 65 deaths and about $ 10 million in damage . At the Cayman Islands , more than 200 houses and seven of eight churches on Grand Cayman were destroyed or heavily damaged . Of the 23 ships in the harbor , only the Governor Blake survived . Most of the crews on board those ships were reported killed , but loss of life on shore was minimal . The storm also caused heavy damage on the Yucatán Peninsula . Many ships were wrecked and communications were cutoff in several places . In the Tampico area , there was considerable damage to the port and many ships being sunk or driven ashore . Much of the land between Tampico and Cárdenas in San Luis Potosí was submerged due to flooding . In all , the storm is believed to have killed at least 149 people .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
Reanalysis indicates that a 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) tropical storm originated near Mayaguana in the Bahamas around 06 : 00 UTC on September 9 , though lack of data suggests that this system likely developed earlier . Moving northwestward , the cyclone became a Category 1 hurricane around 12 : 00 UTC on the following day . Late on September 10 and early on September 11 , the storm passed near Nassau . The hurricane then turned to the west @-@ northwest on September 11 and moved just north of the Bimini Islands . As it crossed the Bahamas , the system produced hurricane @-@ force winds on some islands , with an estimated wind speed as high as 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) in Nassau . Damage to crops and buildings occurred , but no deaths were reported over the island chain .
Late on September 11 , the storm made landfall near Fort Lauderdale , Florida , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . The Inchulva capsized near Delray Beach , drowning nine of her crew members . The cyclone caused severe wind damage in present @-@ day Broward and Palm Beach counties , although most of the losses were to crops such as sugarcane . The hurricane weakened to a tropical storm while crossing Florida , but re @-@ intensified into a hurricane over the Gulf of Mexico on September 12 . Peaking with maximum sustained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) , the storm made landfall near Panama City around 23 : 00 UTC on September 13 . In Northwest Florida , Alabama , and Georgia , the cyclone produced widespread rainfall , causing some crop damage . Additionally , a storm surge caused boats to be blown ashore in the Florida Panhandle . In all , the storm killed 14 people in Florida and produced $ 500 @,@ 000 in damage . After falling to tropical storm intensity early on September 14 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression on September 16 , several hours before dissipating over South Carolina .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
A 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) tropical storm was first observed about 550 mi ( 885 km ) northeast of Antigua early on September 12 . The storm moved relatively quickly to the northwest . Late on September 14 , it strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane . On the following day , the storm began curving to the north @-@ northwest . Intensifying further , the cyclone became a Category 2 hurricane late on September 15 , peaking with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . At the time , it was situated about 110 mi ( 190 km ) southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The storm weakened back to a Category 1 hurricane at 00 : 00 UTC on September 16 . About 11 hours later , the hurricane made landfall near Avalon , New Jersey , with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . In 1992 , Jerry Jarrell , later director of the National Hurricane Center , estimated a barometric pressure of 990 mbar ( 29 inHg ) at landfall , which would be the lowest in association with the hurricane . After moving inland , the system quickly weakened to a tropical storm late on September 16 . The storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over New York near Lake Ontario at 12 : 00 UTC on September 17 . The extratropical remnants soon dissipated over Ontario .
In North Carolina and Virginia , the storm brought near @-@ hurricane force winds and rough surf . Some boats were beached along the coast of Virginia . Near Chincoteague , the schooner Beatrice capsized , drowning 28 people . Hundreds of birds were killed and fell to the ground near Old Point Comfort , many stripped of their feathers . The outer rainbands of the storm produced heavy rainfall near Washington , D.C. , canceling a Major League Baseball game between the Detroit Tigers and the Washington Senators after the field was flooded . Along the Delaware coast , the schooner Hattie A. Marsh was smashed against the rocks , killing five people . The hurricane caused severe damage in New Jersey , especially in Atlantic City . Throughout the coastal regions , strong winds downed all telephone and telegraph wires . Additionally , the winds destroyed the roofs of an estimated 50 to 60 cottages . Several streets were flooded , with severe transportation delays reported . One indirect death occurred in Cape May when a man , unable to see owing to the hurricane , drove into a train . Damage in New Jersey was approximately $ 8 million . In New York City , high winds swayed buildings , spires , and bridges , overturning wagons on the Brooklyn Bridge . At least a few buildings were deroofed and many homes were flooded or damaged , especially in Brooklyn . One death occurred in the city . On Long Island , President Theodore Roosevelt directly experienced the effects of the hurricane while on a yacht . The life of the president was briefly threatened due to the rough conditions , though none on board of the yacht suffered any problems from the hurricane . Overall , the storm caused 57 fatalities .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
Historical weather maps indicated that a tropical depression developed just south of the Turks and Caicos Islands early on September 19 . The depression trekked generally northward and remained weak for the next few days . By September 22 , the system intensified into a tropical storm . Turning east @-@ northeastward on September 24 , the storm peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 003 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) , which was observed by a ship . Thereafter , it accelerated and slowly weakened , falling to tropical depression intensity early on September 26 . The system dissipated by 18 : 00 UTC while situated about 450 mi ( 720 km ) southeast of Sable Island .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
Historical weather maps note that a tropical storm was first observed about 415 mi ( 670 km ) northeast of Anguilla early on September 26 . Initially , the storm moved west @-@ northwestward , but curved northwestward late the following day . At 00 : 00 UTC on September 28 , the cyclone intensified into a Category 1 hurricane and then a Category 2 hurricane 12 hours later while curving to the northeast . While passing near Bermuda late on September 28 , the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 988 mbar ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) , which was observed in Hamilton . The system then began to accelerate and weaken , falling to Category 1 intensity at 00 : 00 UTC on September 30 . Six hours later , the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while located about 495 mi ( 700 km ) southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . The remnants moved continued rapidly northeastward and dissipated later that day .
In Bermuda , the strongest observed wind speed was 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) . The winds uprooted a number of cedar trees and broke off large palmettos off palm trees . Several buildings and homes were damaged . A newly constructed extension on the Princess Hotel " collapsed like a pack of cards " . In St. George 's , a wall that collapsed near the Royal Engineers quarters killed a former soldier . Heavy rainfall on the island washed out many roads . A landslide occurred , shearing off a portion of the cliff at Deep Bay . The resulting earth trembling and noise created from the slide resembled an earthquake . Along the coast , rough seas wrecked a number of boats , while several stone docks and seawalls were severely damaged or destroyed . Another death occurred after an engineer on Ireland Island was swept out to sea and drowned .
= = = Hurricane Seven = = =
A strong tropical storm was first observed about 300 mi ( 480 km ) east of Barbuda early on October 1 , according to historical weather maps and ship data . Moving northwestward , it intensified into a Category 1 hurricane about 24 hours later . The storm then curved north @-@ northeastward late on October 2 . Strengthening into a Category 2 hurricane around 12 : 00 UTC on October 4 , the cyclone peaked with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . It then briefly turned east @-@ northeastward , before recurving east @-@ southeastward . Late on October 5 , the hurricane weakened back to the Category 1 . The storm began to decelerate and execute a cyclonic loop late on October 6 . After about 24 hours , it began moving east @-@ northeastward to northeastward . Early on October 9 , the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm . Late that day , it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while situated 680 mi ( 1 @,@ 090 km ) south @-@ southwest of Flores Island in the Azores .
= = = Tropical Storm Eight = = =
A tropical storm was first observed by ships early on October 5 , while situated about 160 mi ( 260 km ) northeast of San Salvador Island in the Bahamas . The storm nearly drifted northeastward while strengthening slowly over the next few days . Early on October 8 , the cyclone curved north @-@ northeastward . The storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 997 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) on October 9 while passing west of Bermuda ; both were based observations from a ship . Reanalysis also resulted in the eighth cyclone being downgraded from a Category 2 hurricane to a tropical storm Thereafter , the system began weakening and transitioned into extratropical cyclone around 12 : 00 UTC on October 10 , while located about 255 mi ( 410 km ) north of Bermuda .
Although the remnant system became indistinguishable by late on October 10 , the remnants contributed to severe flooding along the East Coast of the United States . In North Carolina , poor weather conditions in Kitty Hawk prevented the Wright brothers from flying their glider or assembling the untested airplane . In Virginia , strong winds toppled trees and knocked out communications in cities such as Richmond and Norfolk , where a tree brought from Napoleon Bonaparte 's grave in Paris , France , was uprooted . Wires were downed , completely disrupting communication . One death occurred inland when a man in Leesburg drowned while walk across a log on the Little River . Rough seas capsized nine vessels offshore Virginia , resulting in three deaths . Waves lashing the Back River Light caused the stones on its structure to move out of place .
The storm caused severe flooding states such as New Jersey , New York , and Pennsylvania . In New Jersey , some areas experienced rainfall totals of about 14 in ( 360 mm ) over the course of four days . In Paterson , seven bridges were destroyed and two others were severely damaged . Approximately 10 @.@ 3 mi ( 16 @.@ 6 km ) of streets in the city were inundated . About 1 @,@ 200 people fled their homes and took refuge at Paterson Armory . About 20 % and 20 % of the land in Passaic and Wallington were inundated , respectively . Damage in New Jersey reached about $ 7 million . Twenty deaths occurred , with two from drowning incidents , one from a heart attack , and seventeen others from a flood @-@ related train crash near Trenton . Along the Delaware River , nine bridges connecting New Jersey and Pennsylvania were destroyed . In Pennsylvania , houses in Easton were swept into the river and destroyed after colliding with bridges . The Lehigh River overflowed into West Easton , damaging all businesses in the city . In New York , about 10 in ( 250 mm ) fell in New York City over a 48 @-@ hour period . A number of businesses and homes were flooded , while some areas of the city were inundated with 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water . Transportation by ferry , trolley , and railroad were also disrupted . A flooded conduit damaged 70 telegraph lines . In Poughkeepsie , two deaths occurred due to a landslide .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
A westward moving disturbance was first noted between Barbados and Grenada on October 19 and later Hispaniola . By early October 21 , the system developed into a tropical depression near Turks and Caicos Islands . The depression initially moved north @-@ northwestward across the eastern Bahamas , remaining weak during its passage . After reaching the open Atlantic , the cyclone intensified into a tropical storm by 12 : 00 UTC on October 23 . Strengthening continued , and by early on October 24 , the storm peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 008 mbar ( 29 @.@ 8 inHg ) , both of which were observed by ships . However , the system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone by 18 : 00 UTC while situated about 190 mi ( 310 km ) southeast of Cape Lookout in North Carolina . The remnants accelerated ahead of a cold front and later struck Newfoundland , before dissipating over the Labrador Sea on October 27 .
= = = Hurricane Ten = = =
Historical weather maps indicated the final storm on the season beginning early on November 17 , while located about 780 mi ( 1 @,@ 260 km ) west @-@ northwest of Santo Antão island in Cape Verde . The storm strengthened slowly and moved northwestward for the next few days , until curving northeastward late on November 19 . At 06 : 00 UTC on the following day , the cyclone intensified into a Category 1 hurricane . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane turned eastward and then north @-@ northeastward by November 22 . On the following day , it peaked with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) , which was observed by a ship . The hurricane continued moving north @-@ northeastward for a few days , until transitioning into an extratropical cyclone while located about 480 mi ( 770 km ) northwest of Corvo Island in the Azores late on November 25 .
= = = Printed Media = = =
Terry Tucker . Beware the Hurricane ! Hamilton Press : Bermuda , 1966 .
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= Guillain – Barré syndrome =
Guillain – Barré syndrome ( GBS ) is a rapid @-@ onset muscle weakness caused by the immune system damaging the peripheral nervous system . Many experience changes in sensation or develop pain , followed by muscle weakness beginning in the feet and hands . The symptoms develop over half a day to two weeks . During the acute phase , the disorder can be life @-@ threatening with about a quarter developing weakness of the breathing muscles and requiring mechanical ventilation . Some are affected by changes in the function of the autonomic nervous system , which can lead to dangerous abnormalities in heart rate and blood pressure .
This autoimmune disease is caused by the body 's immune system mistakenly attacking the peripheral nerves and damaging their myelin insulation . Sometimes this immune dysfunction is triggered by an infection . The diagnosis is usually made based on the signs and symptoms , through the exclusion of alternative causes , and supported by tests such as nerve conduction studies and examination of the cerebrospinal fluid . Various classifications exist , depending on the areas of weakness , results of nerve conduction studies , and the presence of antiganglioside antibodies . It is classified as an acute polyneuropathy .
In those with severe weakness , prompt treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins or plasmapheresis , together with supportive care , will lead to good recovery in the majority . Some may experience ongoing difficulty with walking , painful symptoms , and some require long @-@ term breathing support . Guillain – Barré syndrome is rare , at one or two cases per 100 @,@ 000 people every year . The syndrome is named after the French neurologists Georges Guillain and Jean Alexandre Barré , who described it with André Strohl in 1916 .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The first symptoms of Guillain – Barré syndrome are numbness , tingling , and pain , alone or in combination . This is followed by weakness of the legs and arms that affects both sides equally and worsens over time . The weakness can take half a day to over two weeks to reach maximum severity , and then becomes steady . In one in five people , the weakness continues to progress for as long as four weeks . The muscles of the neck may also be affected , and about half experience involvement of the cranial nerves which supply the head and face ; this may lead to weakness of the muscles of the face , swallowing difficulties and sometimes weakness of the eye muscles . In 8 % , the weakness affects only the legs ( paraplegia or paraparesis ) . Involvement of the muscles that control the bladder and anus is unusual . In total , about a third of people with Guillain – Barré syndrome continue to be able to walk . Once the weakness has stopped progressing , it persists at a stable level ( " plateau phase " ) before improvement occurs . The plateau phase can take between two days and six months , but the most common duration is a week . Pain @-@ related symptoms affect more than half , and include back pain , painful tingling , muscle pain and pain in the head and neck relating to irritation of the lining of the brain .
Many people with Guillain – Barré syndrome have experienced the signs and symptoms of an infection in the 3 – 6 weeks prior to the onset of the neurological symptoms . This may consist of upper respiratory tract infection ( rhinitis , sore throat ) or diarrhea .
In children , particularly those younger than six years old , the diagnosis can be difficult and the condition is often initially mistaken ( sometimes for up to two weeks ) for other causes of pains and difficulty walking , such as viral infections , or bone and joint problems .
On neurological examination , characteristic features are the reduced power and reduced or absent tendon reflexes ( hypo- or areflexia , respectively ) . However , a small proportion has normal reflexes in affected limbs before developing areflexia , and some may have exaggerated reflexes . In the " Miller Fisher variant " subtype of Guillain – Barré syndrome ( see below ) , weakness of the eye muscles ( ophthalmoplegia ) is more pronounced and may occur together with abnormalities in coordination ( ataxia ) . The level of consciousness is normally unaffected in Guillain – Barré syndrome , but the Bickerstaff brainstem encephalitis subtype may feature drowsiness , sleepiness , or coma .
= = = Respiratory failure = = =
A quarter of all people with Guillain – Barré syndrome develop weakness of the breathing muscles leading to respiratory failure , the inability to breathe adequately to maintain healthy levels of oxygen and / or carbon dioxide in the blood . This life @-@ threatening scenario is complicated by other medical problems such as pneumonia , severe infections , blood clots in the lungs and bleeding in the digestive tract in 60 % of those who require artificial ventilation .
= = = Autonomic dysfunction = = =
The autonomic or involuntary nervous system , which is involved in the control of body functions such as heart rate and blood pressure , is affected in two thirds of people with Guillain – Barré syndrome , but the impact is variable . Twenty percent may experience severe blood @-@ pressure fluctuations and irregularities in the heart beat , sometimes to the point that the heart beat stops and requiring pacemaker @-@ based treatment . Other associated problems are abnormalities in perspiration and changes in the reactivity of the pupils . Autonomic nervous system involvement can affect even those who do not have severe muscle weakness .
= = Causes = =
Two thirds of people with Guillain – Barré syndrome have experienced an infection before the onset of the condition . Most commonly these are episodes of gastroenteritis or a respiratory tract infection . In many cases , the exact nature of the infection can be confirmed . Approximately 30 % of cases are provoked by Campylobacter jejuni bacteria , which cause diarrhea . A further 10 % are attributable to cytomegalovirus ( CMV , HHV @-@ 5 ) . Despite this , only very few people with Campylobacter or CMV infections develop Guillain – Barré syndrome ( 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 65 per 1000 and 0 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 2 per 1000 episodes , respectively ) . The strain of Campylobacter involved may determine the risk of GBS ; different forms of the bacteria have different lipopolysaccharides on their surface , and some may induce illness ( see below ) while others will not .
Links between other infections and GBS are less certain . Two other herpesviruses ( Epstein – Barr virus / HHV @-@ 4 and varicella zoster virus / HHV @-@ 3 ) and the bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae have been associated with GBS . The tropical viral infection dengue fever and Zika virus have also been associated with episodes of GBS . Previous hepatitis E virus infection has been found to be more common in people with Guillain – Barré syndrome .
Some cases may be triggered by the influenza virus and potentially influenza vaccine . An increased incidence of Guillain – Barré syndrome followed influenza immunization that followed the 1976 swine flu outbreak ( H1N1 A / NJ / 76 ) ; 8 @.@ 8 cases per million recipients developed the complication . Since then , close monitoring of cases attributable to vaccination has demonstrated that influenza itself can induce GBS . Small increases in incidence have been observed in subsequent vaccination campaigns , but not to the same extent . The 2009 flu pandemic vaccine ( against pandemic swine flu virus H1N1 / PDM09 ) did not cause a significant increase in cases . It is considered that the benefits of vaccination in preventing influenza outweigh the small risks of GBS after vaccination . Even those who have previously experienced Guillain – Barré syndrome are considered safe to receive the vaccine in the future . Other vaccines , such as those against poliomyelitis , tetanus or measles , have not been associated with a risk of GBS .
= = Mechanism = =
The nerve dysfunction in Guillain – Barré syndrome is caused by an immune attack on the nerve cells of the peripheral nervous system and their support structures . The nerve cells have their body ( the soma ) in the spinal cord and a long projection ( the axon ) that carries electrical nerve impulses to the neuromuscular junction where the impulse is transferred to the muscle . Axons are wrapped in a sheath of Schwann cells that contain myelin . Between Schwann cells are gaps ( nodes of Ranvier ) where the axon is exposed . Different types of Guillain – Barré syndrome feature different types of immune attack . The demyelinating variant ( AIDP , see below ) features damage to the myelin sheath by white blood cells ( T lymphocytes and macrophages ) ; this process is preceded by activation of a group of blood proteins known as complement . In contrast , the axonal variant is mediated by IgG antibodies and complement against the cell membrane covering the axon without direct lymphocyte involvement .
Various antibodies directed at nerve cells have been reported in Guillain – Barré syndrome . In the axonal subtype , these antibodies have been shown to bind to gangliosides , a group of substances found in peripheral nerves . A ganglioside is a molecule consisting of ceramide bound to a small group of hexose @-@ type sugars and containing various numbers of N @-@ acetylneuraminic acid groups . The key four gangliosides against which antibodies have been described are GM1 , GD1a , GT1a , and GQ1b , with different anti @-@ ganglioside antibodies being associated with particular features ; for instance , GQ1b antibodies have been linked with Miller Fisher variant GBS and related forms including Bickerstaff encephalitis . The production of these antibodies after an infection is probably the result of molecular mimicry , where the immune system is reacting to microbial substances but the resultant antibodies also react with substances occurring naturally in the body . After a Campylobacter infection , the body produces antibodies of the IgA class ; only a small proportion of people also produce IgG antibodies against bacterial substance cell wall substances ( e.g. lipooligosaccharides ) that crossreact with human nerve cell gangliosides . It is not currently known how this process escapes central tolerance to gangliosides , which is meant to suppress the production of antibodies against the body 's own substances . Not all antiganglioside antibodies cause disease , and it has recently been suggested that some antibodies bind to more than one type of epitope simultaneously ( heterodimeric binding ) and that this determines the response . Furthermore , the development of pathogenic antibodies may depend on the presence of other strains of bacteria in the bowel .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis of Guillain – Barré syndrome depends on findings such as rapid development of muscle paralysis , absent reflexes , absence of fever , and a likely cause . Cerebrospinal fluid analysis ( through a lumbar spinal puncture ) and nerve conduction studies are supportive investigations commonly performed in the diagnosis of GBS . Testing for antiganglioside antibodies is often performed , but their contribution to diagnosis is usually limited . Blood tests are generally performed to exclude the possibility of another cause for weakness , such as a low level of potassium in the blood . An abnormally low level of sodium in the blood is often encountered in Guillain – Barré syndrome . This has been attributed to the inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone , leading to relative retention of water .
In many cases , magnetic resonance imaging of the spinal cord is performed to distinguish between Guillain – Barré syndrome and other conditions causing limb weakness , such as spinal cord compression . If an MRI scan shows enhancement of the nerve roots , this may be indicative of GBS . In children , this feature is present in 95 % of scans , but it is not specific to Guillain – Barré syndrome , so other confirmation is also needed .
= = = Spinal fluid = = =
Cerebrospinal fluid envelops the brain and the spine , and lumbar puncture or spinal tap is the removal of a small amount of fluid using a needle inserted between the lumbar vertebrae . Characteristic findings in Guillain – Barré syndrome are an elevated protein level , usually greater than 0 @.@ 55 g / L , and fewer than 10 white blood cells per cubic millimeter of fluid ( " albuminocytological dissociation " ) . This combination distinguishes Guillain – Barré syndrome from other conditions ( such as lymphoma and poliomyelitis ) in which both the protein and the cell count are elevated . Elevated CSF protein levels are found in approximately 50 % of patients in the first 3 days after onset of weakness , which increases to 80 % after the first week .
Repeating the lumbar puncture during the disease course is not recommended . The protein levels may rise after treatment has been administered .
= = = Neurophysiology = = =
Directly assessing nerve conduction of electrical impulses can exclude other causes of acute muscle weakness , as well as distinguish the different types of Guillain – Barré syndrome . Needle electromyography ( EMG ) and nerve conduction studies may be performed . In the first two weeks , these investigations may not show any abnormality . Neurophysiology studies are not required for the diagnosis .
Formal criteria exist for each of the main subtypes of Guillain – Barré syndrome ( AIDP and AMAN / AMSAN , see below ) , but these may misclassify some cases ( particularly where there is reversible conduction failure ) and therefore changes to these criteria have been proposed . Sometimes , repeated testing may be helpful .
= = = Clinical subtypes = = =
A number of subtypes of Guillain – Barré syndrome are recognized . Despite this , many people have overlapping symptoms that can make the classification difficult in individual cases . All types have partial forms . For instance , some people experience only isolated eye @-@ movement or coordination problems ; these are thought to be a subtype of Miller Fisher syndrome and have similar antiganglioside antibody patterns .
Other diagnostic entities are often included in the spectrum of Guillain – Barré syndrome . Bickerstaff 's brainstem encephalitis , for instance , is part of the group of conditions now regarded as forms of Miller Fisher syndrome ( anti @-@ GQ1b antibody syndrome ) , as well as a related condition labelled " acute ataxic hypersomnolence " where coordination problems and drowsiness are present but no muscle weakness can be detected . BBE is characterized by the rapid onset of ophthalmoplegia , ataxia , and disturbance of consciousness , and may be associated with absent or decreased tendon reflexes and as well as Babinski 's sign . The course of the disease is usually monophasic , but recurrent episodes have been reported . MRI abnormalities in the brainstem have been reported in 11 % .
Whether isolated acute sensory loss can be regarded as a form of Guillain – Barré syndrome is a matter of dispute ; this is a rare occurrence compared to GBS with muscle weakness but no sensory symptoms .
= = Treatment = =
= = = Immunotherapy = = =
Plasmapheresis and intravenous immunoglobulins ( IVIg ) are the two main immunotherapy treatments for GBS . Plasmapheresis attempts to reduce the body 's attack on the nervous system by filtering antibodies out of the bloodstream . Similarly , administration of IVIg neutralizes harmful antibodies and inflammation . These two treatments are equally effective and a combination of the two is not significantly better than either alone . Plasmapheresis speeds recovery when used within four weeks of the onset of symptoms . IVIg works as well as plasmapheresis when started within two weeks of the onset of symptoms , and has fewer complications . IVIg is usually used first because of its ease of administration and safety . Its use is not without risk ; occasionally it causes liver inflammation , or in rare cases , kidney failure . Glucocorticoids alone have not been found to be effective in speeding recovery and could potentially delay recovery .
= = = Respiratory failure = = =
Respiratory failure may require intubation of the windpipe and breathing support through mechanical ventilation , generally on an intensive care unit . The need for ventilatory support can be anticipated by measurement of two spirometry @-@ based breathing tests : the forced vital capacity ( FVC ) and the negative inspiratory force ( NIF ) . An FVC of less than 15 ml per kilogram body weight or an NIF of less than 60 cmH2O are considered markers of severe respiratory failure .
= = = Pain = = =
While pain is common in people with Guillain – Barré syndrome , studies comparing different types of pain medication are insufficient to make a recommendation as to which should be used .
= = = Rehabilitation = = =
Following the acute phase , around 40 % of people require intensive rehabilitation with the help of a multidisciplinary team to focus on improving activities of daily living ( ADLs ) . Studies into the subject have been limited , but it is likely that intensive rehabilitation improves long @-@ term symptoms . Teams may include physical therapists , occupational therapists , social workers , psychologists , other allied health professionals and nurses . The team usually works under the supervision of a neurologist or rehabilitation physician directing treatment goals .
Physiotherapy interventions include strength , endurance and gait training with graduated increases in mobility , maintenance of posture and alignment as well as joint function . Occupational therapy aims to improve everyday function with domestic and community tasks as well as driving and work . Home modifications , gait aids , orthotics and splints may be provided . Speech @-@ language pathology input may be required in those with speech and swallowing problems , as well as to support communication in those who require ongoing breathing support ( often through a tracheostomy ) . Nutritional support may be provided by the team and by dietitians . Psychologists may provide counseling and support . Psychological interventions may also be required for anxiety , fear and depression .
= = Prognosis = =
Guillain – Barré syndrome can lead to death as a result of a number of complications : severe infections , blood clots , and cardiac arrest likely due to autonomic neuropathy . Despite optimum care this occurs in about 5 % of cases .
There is a variation in the rate and extent of recovery . The prognosis of Guillain – Barré syndrome is determined mainly by age ( those over 40 may have a poorer outcome ) , and by the severity of symptoms after two weeks . Furthermore , those who experienced diarrhea before the onset of disease have a worse prognosis . On the nerve conduction study , the presence of conduction block predicts poorer outcome at 6 months . In those who have received intravenous immunoglobulins , a smaller increase in IgG in the blood two weeks after administration is associated with poorer mobility outcomes at six months than those whose IgG level increased substantially . If the disease continues to progress beyond four weeks , or there are multiple fluctuations in the severity ( more than two in eight weeks ) , the diagnosis may be chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy which is treated differently .
In research studies , the outcome from an episode of Guillain – Barré syndrome is recorded on a scale from 0 – 6 , where 0 denotes completely healthy , 1 very minor symptoms but able to run , 2 able to walk but not to run , 3 requiring a stick or other support , 4 confined to bed or chair , 5 requiring long @-@ term respiratory support , 6 death .
The health @-@ related quality of life ( HRQL ) after an attack of Guillain – Barré syndrome can be significantly impaired . About a fifth are unable to walk unaided after six months , and many experience chronic pain , fatigue and difficulty with work , education , hobbies and social activities . HRQL improves significantly in the first year .
= = Epidemiology = =
In Western countries , the number of new episodes per year has been estimated to be between 0 @.@ 89 and 1 @.@ 89 cases per 100 @,@ 000 people . Children and young adults are less likely to be affected than the elderly : the risk increases by 20 % for every decade of life . Men are more likely to develop Guillain – Barré syndrome than women ; the relative risk for men is 1 @.@ 78 compared to women .
The distribution of subtypes varies between countries . In Europe and the United States , 60 – 80 % of people with Guillain – Barré syndrome have the demyelinating subtype ( AIDP ) , and AMAN affects only a small number ( 6 – 7 % ) . In Asia and Central and South America , that proportion is significantly higher ( 30 – 65 % ) . This may be related to the exposure to different kinds of infection , but also the genetic characteristics of that population . Miller Fisher variant is thought to be more common in Southeast Asia .
= = History = =
French physician Jean @-@ Baptiste Octave Landry first described the disorder in 1859 . In 1916 , Georges Guillain , Jean Alexandre Barré , and André Strohl diagnosed two soldiers with the illness and described the key diagnostic abnormality — albuminocytological dissociation — of increased spinal fluid protein concentration but a normal cell count .
Canadian neurologist C. Miller Fisher described the variant that bears his name in 1956 . British neurologist Edwin Bickerstaff , based in Birmingham , described the brainstem encephalitis type in 1951 with Philip Cloake , and made further contributions with another paper in 1957 . Guillain had reported on some of these features prior to their full description in 1938 . Further subtypes have been described since then , such as the form featuring pure ataxia and the type causing pharyngeal @-@ cervical @-@ brachial weakness . The axonal subtype was first described in the 1990s .
Diagnostic criteria were developed in the late 1970s after the series of cases associated with swine flu vaccination . These were refined in 1990 . The case definition was revised by the Brighton Collaboration for vaccine safety in 2009 , but is mainly intended for research . Plasma exchange was first used in 1978 and its benefit confirmed in larger studies in 1985 . Intravenous immunoglobulins were introduced in 1988 , and its non @-@ inferiority compared to plasma exchange was demonstrated in studies in the early 1990s .
= = Research directions = =
The understanding of the disease mechanism of Guillain – Barré syndrome has evolved in recent years . Development of new treatments has been limited since immunotherapy was introduced in the 1980s and 1990s . Current research is aimed at demonstrating whether some people who have received IVIg might benefit from a second course if the antibody levels measured in blood after treatment have only shown a small increase . Studies of the immunosuppressive drug mycophenolate mofetil , brain @-@ derived neurotrophic factor and interferon beta ( IFN @-@ β ) have not demonstrated benefit to support their widespread use .
An animal model ( experimental autoimmune neuritis in rats ) is often used for studies , and some agents have shown promise : glatiramer acetate , quinpramine , fasudil ( an inhibitor of the Rho @-@ kinase enzyme ) , and the heart drug flecainide . An antibody targeted against the anti @-@ GD3 antiganglioside antibody has shown benefit in laboratory research . Given the role of the complement system in GBS , it has been suggested that complement inhibitors ( such as the drug eculizumab ) may be effective .
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= Penshurst Airfield =
Penshurst Airfield was an airfield in operation between 1916 – 36 and 1940 – 46 . Initially a military airfield , after the First World War it was used as an alternate destination to Croydon Airport , with some civil flying taking place . The airfield closed following the crash of a Flying Flea at an air display in 1936 , and was converted to a polo ground .
It re @-@ opened during the Second World War as an Emergency Landing Ground , RAF Penshurst . As well as serving in this role , it was mainly used by Air Observation Post ( AOP ) squadrons of the Royal Air Force . The airfield finally closed in May 1946 .
= = Location = =
The airfield was located south of Charcott , on the western edge of Leigh , and eastern edge of Chiddingstone , at 51 ° 12 ′ N 0 ° 11 ′ E ( TQ 525 468 ) . The parish boundary running through the site . It was named Penshurst as it was considered that name was more up @-@ market than Chiddingstone Causeway or Leigh . The airfield was some 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Penshurst . Nearby Penshurst railway station lies within the parish of Chiddingstone .
= = History = =
= = = 1910s = = =
An airfield was established at Penshurst in December 1916 . The airfield had a grass runway . The site measured 800 yd ( 730 m ) from north to south and 400 yd ( 370 m ) from east to west . In total it extended to 72 acres ( 29 ha ) . Facilities included two hangars of 130 ft × 60 ft ( 40 m × 18 m ) , and a 2 @,@ 000 ft ( 610 m ) long grass runway , aligned east @-@ west . A large house , Knotley Hall , which stood to the south of the airfield was requisitioned for use as the officer 's accommodation . During 1917 , Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.12 aircraft of No. 78 Squadron RFC were based at Penshurst .
On 8 November 1917 , No. 2 Wireless School was formed at Penshurst . It operated a variety of aircraft , including Airco DH.6 , Avro 504K , Avro 504N , Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2c and B.E.2e , Sopwith Camel and Sopwith Snipe . Aircrew attended the school for a one @-@ week @-@ long course in wireless telephony procedures . The school was disbanded on 23 March 1919 . Knotley Hall was offered for sale in May 1919 . In September 1919 , it was announced that Penshurst had been disposed of by the Royal Air Force , and that it could be considered as an emergency landing ground for civil aircraft .
= = = 1920s = = =
In February 1920 , a Notice to Airmen was issued advising pilots that had made emergency landings at Penshurst that they could use the War Office telephone to inform the police of their arrival and to obtain conveyances for their passengers to take them to Penshurst station . On 5 June 1920 , the first air mail flight between the Netherlands and the United Kingdom was made . Bert Hinchcliffe departed from Schiphol in a hired Airco DH.9 with 300 letters on board . Despite the bad weather , Hinchcliffe decided not to land at Lympne and pressed on towards Croydon . He was eventually forced to land at Penshurst due to a combination of the weather and running low on fuel . A taxi was hired to take Hinchcliffe and the letters on to London . A linen windsock was installed at Penshurst in November 1920 . The War Office telephone was notified as having been discontinued in January 1921 . On 24 September 1921 , a de Havilland DH.18 aircraft diverted to Penshurst as Croydon was fogbound .
From February 1922 the airfield , which was in use as an emergency landing ground , had an illuminated T as part of the illumination of the London @-@ Paris airway . Also at the airfield were coloured lamps connected to an anemometer to indicate wind strength , green for no wind , white for moderate wind and red to indicate strong wind .
On 10 June 1922 , Alan Cobham was forced to land his de Havilland DH.9 at Penshurst owing to poor weather conditions at Stag Lane Aerodrome , Edgware . He was attempting a 1 @,@ 200 mi ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) flight from Belgrade , Yugoslavia bringing photographs of the Royal Wedding between King Alexander and Princess Maria for publication by the Daily Mirror . The photographs were taken on to London by road . On 7 July 1922 , two Farman Goliaths diverted to Penshurst during a gale . One aircraft belonged to Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes and the other to Compagnie des Grands Express Aériens . Both aircraft were picketed overnight as there was no hangar large enough to accommodate them . A gust of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) was recorded .
In 1925 , runway lights were installed at Penshurst . In 1926 , a telephone was again made available to airmen at Penshurst . On 27 August 1927 , Tunbridge Wells Air Pageant was held . The site originally chosen , a field about a mile outside Tunbridge Wells was deemed unsuitable as there were obstacles surrounding it . It was decided to continue the pageant at Penshurst . Five civil de Havilland Moths and three Armstrong Whitworth Siskins from No. 56 Squadron RAF , based at nearby RAF Biggin Hill attended . The pageant was to promote the proposed Tunbridge Wells Flying Club , whose President was to be Sir Robert Gower . It was reported that part of Penshurst Airfield had been rented by the club . Sir Robert entertained Sir Sefton Brancker at Penshurst on 5 December 1927 when Brancker called in on his way to Lympne Aerodrome where he was to visit the East Kent Flying Club .
= = = 1930s = = =
In 1930 , Home Counties Aircraft Services were based at Penshurst . A de Havilland DH.60 Gipsy Moth was exhibited at a car showroom in Tunbridge Wells , causing severe traffic congestion due to the number of people visiting the town to see it . Home Counties Aircraft Service Ltd was registered later that year . By October 1930 , Mr Waters , the manager of Home Counties Aircraft Service Ltd had formed the Surrey Aero Club , based at Gatwick Racecourse Aerodrome .
The airfield served as an alternative destination for Imperial Airways when Croydon was fogbound . The runway was just long enough for this purpose . Using Penshurst as an alternate destination caused delays to the passengers as there were no Customs facilities . On 18 February 1932 , both Croydon and Penshurst were fogbound , and Handley Page H.P.45 G @-@ AAXE Hengist diverted to Heston Aerodrome . As Customs facilities existed there , passengers were on their way in 10 minutes , as opposed to the three hour or longer delay when using Penshurst . The practice of having a Customs Officer attend Penshurst on a daily basis was instigated , but it was discontinued in February 1935 . On 24 October 1932 , a German and a French airliner diverted to Penshurst due to smog over London .
By 1933 , Penshurst was being operated by Air Travel Ltd , who were agents for Brooklands Airways . In 1935 , Air Travel Ltd were employing 25 staff . On 1 March , 15 aircraft and 26 engines were being worked upon . Air Travel Ltd increased its capital from £ 500 to £ 7 @,@ 000 in January 1936 . In that year , Penshurst marked the south eastern corner of Croydon 's controlled zone which came into effect during conditions of bad visibility .
On 22 July 1936 , Charles Lindbergh departed Penshurst for Staaken Airfield , Berlin , which was a Luftwaffe airfield closed to civil aircraft . Lindbergh had been invited to Berlin by Hermann Göring . A press blackout was imposed on the orders of Adolf Hitler . Lindbergh made a speech to the Aero Club in Berlin which was reported in Der Volkische Beobachter .
As a result of the expiry of the lease on the land , Penshurst Airfield closed on 28 July 1936 . Air Travel Ltd moved to Gatwick . In 1938 , the land was converted for use as a Polo ground by the Eridge Polo Club . Civil aircraft that were based at Penshurst include the Avro Avian III , Avro Avian IVM , Avro 504K and Avro 504N , de Havilland DH.60 Moth ( various models ) , and Spartan Three @-@ Seater .
= = = From 1940 = = =
In 1940 , the airfield was occupied by the Royal Air Force , who erected Nissen huts and cleared the area of obstacles as it was intended to use the area as an Emergency Landing Ground . Three pillboxes were erected around the airfield 's perimeter . Between March and June 1940 the airfield was used by No. 15 Elementary Flying Training School at RAF Redhill as a relief landing ground . Knotley Hall was again requisitioned for use as the officers ' quarters , although the tennis courts were off @-@ limits .
During the Battle of Britain , on 27 October 1940 , a Messerschmitt Me 109E flown by Fw Lothar Schieverhofer , of 3 Gruppe , Jagdgeschwader 52 , was damaged in a dogfight with Supermarine Spitfire IIa P7494 of No. 74 Squadron RAF , flown by Plt Off Peter Chesters . The Messerschmitt made a wheels @-@ up landing at RAF Penshurst , where Chesters also landed a few minutes later as he was short of fuel . Chesters dragged the German from his aircraft . Schieverhofer spat in his face , and a fist @-@ fight developed with both contestants swearing at each other in German . The fight was broken up by the arrival of an ARP Warden , a policeman and a soldier . Chesters was forced to hand back Schieverhofer 's Iron Cross , which he had snatched as a souvenir , and instead took the first aid kit from the Messerschmitt . Schieverhofer was taken away from RAF Penshurst as a Prisoner of War .
On 4 August 1941 No. 268 Squadron RAF were deployed to RAF Penshurst from RAF Snailwell . They were based here for four days before they returned to RAF Snailwell on 8 August . At the time , 268 Squadron were operating the Curtiss Tomahawk IIA . On 7 September 1942 , No. 653 Squadron RAF was deployed to RAF Penshurst , bringing their Auster AOP.5 aircraft with them . The squadron departed on 17 August 1943 but returned again on 17 September . On 13 January 1944 , an Auster was presented to 653 Squadron in memory of Scottish aviation pioneer Bertram Dickson . Another was presented to the squadron that day by a Mrs Law in memory of her son . 653 Squadron departed Penshurst on 27 June 1944 . LB264 , one of 653 Squadron 's Austers which operated from RAF Penshurst , is preserved at the Royal Air Force Museum , Hendon . On 27 June 1944 , 653 Squadron relocated to Normandy . Another Auster squadron , No. 661 Squadron , moved into Penshurst the day 653 Squadron left , like 653 Squadron , 661 followed them to France on 7 August 1944 .
On 6 July 1944 , Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress 43 @-@ 37527 N7 @-@ X The Prowler of the 603d Bombardment Squadron , USAAF made an emergency wheels @-@ up landing at RAF Penshurst . The aircraft was returning to RAF Nuthampstead from a raid on Saint @-@ Omer , France . Eight of the eleven crew bailed out before the aircraft landed . Although a Leigh resident recalled that the aircraft was later repaired and flown out at a light load and taking advantage of favourable winds , official records show that the aircraft was written off . In December 1944 , personnel based at Penshurst numbered 26 officers and 166 other ranks . On 2 February 1945 , No. 664 Squadron RAF was deployed to Penshurst . They also flew Austers . On 23 March 1945 , 664 Squadron were transferred to the Netherlands . On 10 July 1945 Douglas C @-@ 47A Dakota 42 @-@ 108872 of the 23d Fighter Squadron USAAF crashed on landing at RAF Penshurst . The aircraft was written off . RAF Penshurst closed on 13 May 1946 . The control tower was demolished in the 1970s . The crewroom was demolished in 1990 . A hangar survived until 1991 , when it blew down in a storm .
= = Civil accidents and incidents = =
On 20 August 1922 , an aircraft flown by Thomas Baden Powell of Tunbridge Wells on a flight from Croydon crashed on landing at Penshurst . Baden Powell was subsequently convicted of flying an unregistered aircraft and flying without a valid pilot 's licence . He was fined £ 40 .
On 2 October 1926 , Blériot 155 F @-@ AICQ Clement Ader of Air Union crashed at Southwood , Leigh following an in @-@ flight fire , killing all seven people on board . The pilot was trying to make an emergency landing at Penshurst . This was the first in @-@ flight fire on a civil airliner . The Coroner recorded a verdict of " accidental death " against all seven victims .
On 2 May 1930 , Farman F.63 Goliath F @-@ ADCA of Air Union crashed in Penshurst after encountering a heavy squall during a flight from Le Bourget to Croydon .
On 4 May 1936 , Mignet HM.14 " Flying Flea " G @-@ AEEW crashed at an airshow held at Penshurst , killing the pilot . As a result of this accident , Air Commodore Chamier , secretary of the Air League , called for the Flying Flea to be grounded pending an enquiry .
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= Delaware Route 5 =
Delaware Route 5 ( DE 5 ) is a 19 @.@ 48 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 31 @.@ 35 km ) state highway in Sussex County , Delaware . The route runs north from River Road on the Indian River Bay in Oak Orchard north to DE 1 , north of Milton . Along the way , DE 5 passes through rural areas along with the communities of Long Neck , Harbeson , and Milton . The route has concurrencies with DE 23 and DE 24 in the Long Neck area . DE 5 features one alternate route , DE 5 Alternate ( DE 5 Alt . ) , which provides a bypass of Milton . DE 5 was built as a state highway in the 1920s and 1930s , receiving its designation by 1938 . DE 5 Alt. was designated by 2001 .
= = Route description = =
DE 5 heads northwest on two @-@ lane undivided Oak Orchard Road from the intersection with River Road on the shore of the Indian River Bay , passing through the residential areas of Oak Orchard . The road continues through a mix of farms and woods with some housing developments , coming to an intersection with DE 24 . At this point , DE 5 turns northeast to form a concurrency with DE 24 on John J. Williams Highway . The road heads north through residential and commercial development with some fields as it enters the Long Neck area , where it intersects DE 23 .
At the DE 23 intersection , DE 5 splits from DE 24 and turns northwest onto DE 23 , which is called Indian Mission Road . The road heads through a mix of farmland and woodland with some housing subdivisions . In Fairmount , DE 23 branches off to the northeast , and DE 5 continues to the northwest through more rural areas . At the intersection with DE 24 Alt. in Hollyville , the name changes to Harbeson Road . The route turns north and reaches Harbeson . In Harbeson , DE 5 crosses a Delaware Coast Line Railroad line and intersects US 9 / DE 404 near Beaverdam Cemetery .
Past this intersection , the road runs north through more rural land before curving northwest . The route turns north again and comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of the DE 5 Alt. bypass to the west of Milton , which heads west on Sand Hill Road . Also at this intersection , the name changes from Harbeson Road to Federal Street . DE 5 continues northeast into Milton , encountering the Milton Rail @-@ Trail and passing several homes . At the intersection with Front Street , the route turns northwest onto Union Street , running through the downtown and crossing the Broadkill River . The road continues through residential areas in the northern part of Milton . At the north end of town , DE 5 intersects DE 16 along with the northern terminus of DE 5 Alt . , which heads west on DE 16 . DE 5 continues north on Union Street Extended , passing through agricultural areas with some woods and homes . The route turns northeast and comes to its northern terminus at DE 1 .
DE 5 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 18 @,@ 803 vehicles at the intersection with DE 23 and DE 24 to a low of 2 @,@ 170 vehicles at south end of the DE 24 concurrency . None of DE 5 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 5 existed as an unimproved county road . The road was upgraded to a state highway between Harbeson and Milton by 1924 . The following year , the road was proposed as a state highway north of Milton and from Oak Orchard to the present @-@ day north end of the DE 24 concurrency . The entire length of the present DE 5 was completed as a state highway by 1931 . DE 5 was assigned to its current alignment by 1938 , running between Oak Orchard and DE 14 ( now DE 1 ) north of Milton . By 1994 , DE 23 was designated to run concurrent with a portion of DE 5 in the Long Neck area .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
= = Bannered routes = =
Delaware Route 5 Alternate ( DE 5 Alt . ) is a 3 @.@ 8 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) alternate route of DE 5 that bypasses the town of Milton . The route travels west from DE 5 south of Milton along two @-@ lane undivided Sand Hill Road through areas of farms and woods with some homes . The route turns north to join DE 30 on Gravel Hill Road , crossing an abandoned railroad line just east of the terminus of a Delaware Coast Line Railroad branch . DE 5 Alt. splits from DE 30 by turning east onto DE 16 , following that route through more rural areas on Beach Highway . The route ends at an intersection with DE 5 north of Milton . In some locations , the route is signed as " DE 5 Truck Alt " . The route was designated by 2001 .
Major intersections
The entire route is in Milton , Sussex County .
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= Pennsylvania Route 343 =
Pennsylvania Route 343 ( PA 343 ) is an 8 @.@ 16 @-@ mile ( 13 @.@ 13 km ) route between Lebanon and Fredericksburg in Lebanon County , Pennsylvania . It begins at PA 72 and ends at Exit 6 of Interstate 78 ( I @-@ 78 ) . PA 343 heads mostly through urbanized areas near Lebanon before continuing into rural areas further north . There is a concurrency with U.S. Route 22 ( US 22 ) near the northern terminus .
PA 343 has had a number of different realignments , most of them relating to the northern terminus of the highway . The highway originally terminated at an intersection with PA 443 in Lickdale , moved to end in the community of Bordnersville soon after . The highway was then extended along the local continuation to end at US 22 in Harper Tavern . In 1963 , PA 343 was moved back to Lickdale , and seven years after , moved to its northern terminus , thirteen years after the construction of I @-@ 78 .
= = Route description = =
PA 343 begins at an intersection with PA 72 , near the Northwest Elementary School , in the city of Lebanon in Lebanon County . PA 343 heads eastward along Maple Street , a two @-@ lane undivided street maintained by the city , past urbanized homes and businesses . The route turns north onto North 7th Street and passes more development . PA 343 leaves Lebanon for North Lebanon Township , where it becomes state @-@ maintained and passes through the residential community of Reindeldville . The road runs north @-@ northeast past more homes and businesses as it heads through the community of Eustontown . The route leaves the urbanized areas and heads into agricultural areas with some trees and homes . PA 343 turns northwest at the Heffelfinger Road intersection and enters Bethel Township , where it heads north as South Pine Grove Street through a patch of woods before running through more farmland . The road runs to the west of Little Swatara Creek and passes to the east of Pine Meadows Golf Course before it crosses the creek . The route continues through rural areas and passes through the residential community of Shirksville . PA 343 heads north through more farmland before it comes to an intersection with US 22 ( William Penn Highway ) south of the community of Fredericksburg .
At this point , South Pine Grove Street continues to Fredericksburg and PA 343 turns northeast to become concurrent with US 22 on four @-@ lane divided William Penn Highway . The road runs through agricultural areas with some commercial development , passing to the south of a warehouse . PA 343 splits from US 22 by heading north on two @-@ lane undivided Pine Grove Road , passing to the west of a park . The route continues near rural commercial development before it reaches its northern terminus at a partial interchange with I @-@ 78 , with access to westbound I @-@ 78 and access from eastbound I @-@ 78 . Past this interchange , Pine Grove Road continues north as SR 1007 toward the Berks County line .
= = History = =
PA 343 was assigned in the numbering of state routes in Pennsylvania during 1928 . The highway then ran from the southern terminus in Lebanon , which was at the time , an intersection with US 22 ( now US 422 ) . At Fredericksburg , the route reached an intersection with PA 43 ( now US 22 ) . At Fredericksburg , highway turned to the northwest and headed to Lickdale . There it terminated at an intersection with PA 443 . The highway stayed intact for two years , until 1930 , when the highway was extended a few miles to the community of Bordnersville , where the road then continued as a local highway .
The highway was paved from Fredericksburg to an intersection with Lancaster Street and from Lickdale to Bordnersville in 1932 . In 1936 , the Pennsylvania Department of Highways extended PA 343 past Bordnersville and Lickdale , along the local road . This changed the northern terminus to an intersection with US 22 ( formerly the alignment of PA 43 ) in Harper Tavern . This alignment remained intact for more than two decades . In 1963 , even with the construction of I @-@ 78 six years prior , PA 343 was realigned once again by the Department of Highways . This time , the northern terminus was cut back to the PA 72 intersection in Lickdale , with an extended PA 934 replacing the route between Harper Tavern and Lickdale . This change was made to provide the same route number on both sides of the I @-@ 81 interchange north of Harper Tavern . The highway remained intact for another seven years , and in 1970 , PA 343 was realigned for the final time , this time onto its current alignment . The northern terminus is now at a partial interchange with I @-@ 78 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Lebanon County .
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= Boletus pinophilus =
Boletus pinophilus , commonly known as the pine bolete or pinewood king bolete , is a basidiomycete fungus of the genus Boletus found throughout Europe . For many years , Boletus pinophilus was considered a subspecies or form of the porcini mushroom B. edulis . In 2008 , B. pinophilus in western North America were reclassified as a new species , Boletus rex @-@ veris . Boletus pinophilus is edible , and may be preserved and cooked .
The fungus grows predominantly in coniferous forests , forming symbiotic ectomycorrhizal associations with living trees by enveloping the tree 's underground roots with sheaths of fungal tissue . The fungus produces spore @-@ bearing fruit bodies above ground in summer and autumn . The large , edible fruiting bodies known as mushrooms appear under pine trees , generally in summer and autumn . It has a matte brown to maroon @-@ coloured cap and its stem is often large and swollen , and the overall colour may have an orange @-@ red tinge . As with other boletes , the size of the fruiting body is variable .
= = Taxonomy = =
Italian naturalist Carlo Vittadini was the first to recognise the pine bolete as a distinct taxon . It was raised to species status by Antonio Venturi in 1863 . For many years , Boletus pinophilus was considered a variety of Boletus edulis , and before that as Boletus pinicola . This species , while no longer treated as a variety of B. edulis , is classified in Boletus section Boletus , and hence , as a close relative of B. edulis . It gained its current name in 1973 , described by Czech mycologists Albert Pilát and Aurel Dermek . Its specific epithet is a mix of Latin pinus " pine " , and Ancient Greek philus " loving " . Boletus pinicola is a synonym subsequently found to be an invalid name . Common names include the pine bolete , and the pinewood king bolete .
In 2008 , a taxonomic revision of western North American populations of this species was published , formally establishing them as a distinct species , Boletus rex @-@ veris . Phylogenetic analysis has shown B. pinophilus as a member of a clade , or closely related group , with the North American species B. subcaerulescens , Gastroboletus subalpinus , B. regineus , B. fibrillosus , and B. rex @-@ veris . Despite the diverse appearances , these taxa are close genetically , leading Feng and colleagues to speculate on combining the first four taxa above as a single species . These four diverged from the lineage that gave rise to B. fibrillosus and B. rex @-@ veris around 5 million years ago .
= = Description = =
The fruiting body has a convex @-@ shaped cap , at first small in relation to its stipe , expanding in volume as it matures . The skin of the cap is dry , matte and can be coloured from maroon to chocolate brown with a reddish tint . These characteristics distinguish it visually from relatives such as Boletus edulis , Boletus reticulatus and Boletus aereus . The young , immature cap may have a pale pink colour and a white , powdery flush . Measuring 4 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 in ) tall by 3 – 8 ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 2 – in ) cm wide , the bulbous stipe is often large , swollen and imposing , bearing a network . The overall colour may have an orange @-@ red tinge which is more obvious in the lowest parts , although this is also common in other species . As with all boletes , the size of the fruiting body can be very variable . The cap diameter can be as much as 30 cm ( 12 in ) and stem height 15 cm ( 6 in ) .
Like other boletes , Boletus pinophilus has small pores on the underside of its cap rather than gills . These are coloured white at first , becoming yellow with age and olivaceous @-@ brown at full maturity . The spores are cylindric @-@ ellipsoid , smooth , with oil drops and dimensions 15 @.@ 5 – 20 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 µm . They produce an olive @-@ brown spore print .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
In Europe , Boletus pinophilus is found in Britain , where it is more common in Scotland , and in France , where it is more common in the south . The bolete is considered vulnerable in the Czech Republic . It is sold commercially in Finland .
Boletus pinophilus forms ectomycorrhizal relationships with pine ( Pinus ) , fir ( Abies ) and spruce ( Picea ) . It can therefore be located wherever those trees grow , particularly with Scots pine in Britain , preferring the poor , acidic , and sandy soils associated with coniferous forests . It appears to favour Pinus , while the form of the mushroom occurring in association with Abies and Picea has been labeled Boletus pinophilus var. fuscoruber . However , it is not confined to coniferous trees and may also be found fruiting in deciduous forests , such as under chestnut trees . Fruiting bodies can occur singly , or in small groups throughout the summer and autumn months , although they are known to appear as early as April in Italy .
= = Edibility = =
The Boletus pinophilus is edible , and may be used fresh , preserved , dried and cooked in a manner similar to that of other edible boletes . It is highly regarded and can be quite expensive in central Mexico , and is often sold dried there . The flesh is white , soft in mature specimens and does not change colour upon bruising . The taste and smell is pleasant . People of La Malinche have likened the flavour to pork and pork crackling . It is easily misidentified as the porcini Boletus edulis , due to the similar habitat and appearance .
Boletus pinophilus is known to be a bioaccumulator of the heavy metals mercury , cadmium and selenium . To reduce exposure , authorities recommend avoiding mushrooms from polluted areas such as those near mines , smelters , roadways , incinerators and disposal sites . Furthermore , pores should be removed as they contain the highest concentrations of pollutants .
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= Priyanka Chopra =
Priyanka Chopra ( pronounced [ prɪˈjaːŋkaː ˈtʃoːpɽaː ] ; born 18 July 1982 ) is an Indian actress , singer , philanthropist , and the winner of the Miss World pageant of 2000 . One of Bollywood 's highest @-@ paid actresses and one of the nation 's most high @-@ profile celebrities , Chopra has also gained popularity for her sense of style . She has received numerous awards , including a National Film Award , and five Filmfare Awards , and was awarded the Padma Shri , the fourth highest civilian award , by the Government of India in 2016 . That same year , Time named her as one of the 100 most influential people in the world .
Although Chopra initially aspired to study engineering or psychiatry , she accepted offers to join the Indian film industry , which came as a result of her pageant wins , making her Hindi film debut in The Hero in 2003 . She played the leading lady in the box @-@ office hits Andaaz ( 2003 ) and Mujhse Shaadi Karogi ( 2004 ) , and earned praise for her breakout role in the 2004 thriller Aitraaz . In 2006 , Chopra established herself as a leading actress of Indian cinema with starring roles in the top @-@ grossing productions Krrish and Don . Following a brief setback , she received critical acclaim for playing a troubled model in the drama Fashion ( 2008 ) , which won her the National Film Award and Filmfare Award for Best Actress . Chopra subsequently gained recognition for her versatility in portraying a range of unconventional characters in the films Kaminey ( 2009 ) , 7 Khoon Maaf ( 2011 ) , Barfi ! ( 2012 ) , Mary Kom ( 2014 ) , Dil Dhadakne Do ( 2015 ) , and Bajirao Mastani ( 2015 ) , all of which garnered her critical acclaim and several accolades . In 2015 , she began starring as Alex Parrish on the ABC drama series Quantico , becoming the first South Asian woman to headline an American network series .
In addition to her acting career , Chopra is noted for her philanthropic work , and was appointed as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador for Child Rights in 2010 . She promotes various causes such as environment , health and education , and women 's rights , and is particularly vocal about gender equality , and gender pay gap . Though she is reticent to discuss her personal life in public , her off @-@ screen life is the subject of substantial media coverage . As a singer , she has released three singles . Chopra is also the founder of the production company Purple Pebble Pictures .
= = Early life and background = =
Priyanka Chopra was born on 18 July 1982 in Jamshedpur , Bihar ( now in Jharkhand ) , to Ashok and Madhu Chopra , both physicians in the Indian Army . Her father was a Punjabi from Ambala , while her mother is from Jharkhand , the eldest daughter of Ms. Madhu Jyotsna Akhouri , a former member of Bihar Assembly , and Dr. Manohar Kishan Akhouri , a former Congress veteran . She has a brother , Siddharth , who is seven years her junior . Actresses Parineeti Chopra , Meera Chopra and Mannara are her cousins . Due to her parents ' occupations the family relocated to a number of places in India , including Delhi , Chandigarh , Ambala , Ladakh , Lucknow , Bareilly , and Pune . Among the schools she attended were La Martiniere Girls ' School in Lucknow and St. Maria Goretti College in Bareilly . In an interview published in Daily News and Analysis , Chopra said that she did not mind travelling regularly and changing schools ; she welcomed it as a new experience and a way to discover India 's multicultural society . Among the many places that she lived , Chopra has fond memories as a child of playing in the valleys of Leh , in the cold northwestern Indian desert region of Jammu and Kashmir . She has said , " I think I was in Class 4 when I was in Leh . My brother was just born . My dad was in the army and was posted there . I stayed in Leh for a year and my memories of that place are tremendous ... We were all army kids there . We weren 't living in houses , we were in bunkers in the valley and there was a stupa right on top of a hill which used to overlook our valley . We used to race up to the top of the stupa " . She now considers Bareilly her home town , and maintains strong connections there .
At the age of thirteen , Chopra moved to the United States to study , living with her aunt , and attending schools in Newton , Massachusetts , and Cedar Rapids , Iowa , after a stop in Queens , New York , as her aunt 's family also moved frequently . While in Massachusetts , she participated in several theatre productions and studied Western classical music , choral singing and Kathak dance . During her teenage years in America , Chopra sometimes faced racial issues and was bullied for being Indian . She has said , " I was a gawky kid , had low self @-@ esteem , came from a modest middle @-@ class background , had white marks on my legs ... But I was damn hard working . Today , my legs sell 12 brands . "
After three years , Chopra returned to India , finishing the senior year of her high @-@ school education at the Army Public School in Bareilly . During this period , she won the local " May Queen " beauty pageant , after which she was pursued by admirers , leading her family to equip their home with bars for her protection . Her mother then entered her in the Femina Miss India contest of 2000 ; she finished second , winning the Femina Miss India World title . Chopra then went on to the Miss World pageant , where she was crowned Miss World 2000 and Miss World Continental Queen of Beauty — Asia & Oceania at the Millennium Dome in London on 30 November 2000 . Chopra was the fifth Indian contestant to win Miss World , and the fourth to do so in seven years . She had enrolled in college , but left after winning the Miss World pageant . Chopra said that the Miss India and Miss World titles brought her recognition , and she then began receiving offers for film roles .
Chopra has maintained a strong relationship with her family , including her younger brother , Siddharth , and lives in an apartment on the same floor as her family . She was especially close to her father , who died in June 2013 ; in 2012 she got a tattoo reading " Daddy 's lil girl " , in his handwriting . Having not come from a film background , she describes herself as a self @-@ made woman . Her mother , a well @-@ established gynaecologist in Bareilly , gave up her practice to support Chopra as she embarked upon a film career .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Debut and breakthrough ( 2002 – 04 ) = = =
After winning Miss India World , Chopra was cast as the female lead in Abbas @-@ Mustan 's romantic thriller Humraaz ( 2002 ) , in which she was to make her film debut . However , this fell through for various reasons : she stated the production conflicted with her schedule , while the producers said they re @-@ cast because Chopra took on various other commitments . Her screen debut occurred in the 2002 Tamil film Thamizhan as the love interest of the protagonist , played by Vijay . A review published in The Hindu was appreciative of the film for its wit and dialogue , however it felt that Chopra 's role was limited from an acting viewpoint .
In 2003 , Chopra made her Bollywood film debut as the second female lead opposite Sunny Deol and Preity Zinta in Anil Sharma 's The Hero : Love Story of a Spy . Set against the backdrop of the Indian Army in Kashmir , the film tells the story of an agent and his fight against terrorism . The Hero was one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films that year , but received mixed reviews from critics . Derek Elley from Variety said that " mega @-@ looker Chopra makes a solid screen debut . " Later that year she appeared in Raj Kanwar 's box @-@ office success Andaaz with Akshay Kumar , again sharing the female lead ( this time with the debuting Lara Dutta ) . Chopra played a vivacious young girl who falls in love with Kumar 's character . The Hindustan Times noted the glamour that she brought to the role ; Kunal Shah of Sify praised her performance and stated she had " all the qualities to be a star . " Her performance earned her the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut ( along with Dutta ) and a nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress .
Chopra 's first three releases in 2004 — Plan , Kismat , and Asambhav — performed poorly at the box @-@ office . Chopra was typically cast during this earlier period as a " glamour quotient " , in roles that were considered " forgettable " by film critic Joginder Tuteja . Later that year she starred with Salman Khan and Akshay Kumar in David Dhawan 's romantic comedy Mujhse Shaadi Karogi , which became the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of the year in India and emerged as a major commercial success .
In late 2004 , she starred opposite Kumar and Kareena Kapoor in Abbas @-@ Mustan 's thriller Aitraaz . Chopra considers her first role as an antagonist , portraying Soniya Roy , an ambitious woman who accuses her employee of sexual harassment , as the " biggest learning experience of her career . " The film was a critical and commercial success , and Chopra 's performance received critical acclaim . Author Rini Bhattacharya credited her for bringing back the seductress to the silver screen . The Hindustan Times cited it as the film that changed her career significantly . A reviewer writing for the BBC said , " Aitraaz is Priyanka Chopra 's film . As the deliciously wicked , gold digging , scheming seductress , she chews up every scene she is in with her magnetic screen presence . " She won a Filmfare Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role , becoming the second and final actress to win the award after Kajol ( the category was discontinued in 2008 ) . Chopra also received a nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress , and the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role .
= = = Early success and setbacks ( 2005 – 08 ) = = =
In 2005 , Chopra appeared in six films . Her first two releases — Blackmail , and Karam — were commercially unsuccessful . Shilpa Bharatan @-@ Iyer of Rediff.com considered Blackmail to be a very predictable film and believed that her role as a police commissioner 's wife was very limited from an acting point of view . Her performance in Karam was better received , Subhash K. Jha wrote that Chopra " with her poised interpretation of high drama , flies high creating a character whose vulnerability and beauty are endorsed by both the inner and outer worlds created for her character . " Later that year Chopra played the wife of Akshay Kumar in Vipul Amrutlal Shah 's family drama Waqt : The Race Against Time , the story of a small businessman ( played by Amitabh Bachchan ) who , hiding his illness , wants to teach his irresponsible son some lessons before he dies . During production , Chopra revisited Leh , a favourite childhood haunt , for the shooting of the song " Subah Hogi " . She suffered an accident during the filming for the song " Do Me A Favour Let 's Play Holi " when she electrocuted herself , spending a day recovering in hospital . The film was well received by critics , and was a commercial success .
She next starred opposite Arjun Rampal in the romantic mystery thriller Yakeen , portraying the role of a possessive lover . Critical reaction towards the film was mixed , but her performance received praise . Taran Adarsh wrote that Chopra " is bound to win laurels yet again [ ... ] the actor is emerging as one of the finest talents in these fast @-@ changing times " . Her next release was Suneel Darshan 's romance Barsaat , co @-@ starring Bobby Deol and Bipasha Basu . The film was a critical and commercial failure in India but fared better in the overseas market . Chopra 's performance received mixed reviews , with Bollywood Hungama describing it as " mechanical " . However , Rediff.com considered Chopra to be an " epitome of calm intelligence , who underplayed her role to perfection " . Later that year , Rohan Sippy cast her with Abhishek Bachchan , Ritesh Deshmukh and Nana Patekar in the comedy Bluffmaster ! Chopra played independent working woman Simran Saxena , Bachchan 's love interest . The film proved to be a box @-@ office success .
After starting 2006 with special appearances in three films , Chopra starred in Rakesh Roshan 's superhero film Krrish ( a sequel to the 2003 science @-@ fiction film Koi ... Mil Gaya ) . Co @-@ starring with Hrithik Roshan , Rekha and Naseeruddin Shah , Chopra played a young television journalist who schemes to take advantage of an innocent young man with remarkable physical abilities , but eventually falls in love with him . The film was the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of the year in India and grossed over ₹ 1 @.@ 17 billion ( US $ 17 million ) worldwide attaining a blockbuster status . Her next film was Dharmesh Darshan 's romantic comedy Aap Ki Khatir , co @-@ starring Akshaye Khanna , Ameesha Patel and Dino Morea . Neither the film nor Chopra 's performance were well received . Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com stated that Chopra 's portrayal of Anu was " erratically sketched " and that her character was never consistent : " first flaky , then cool , and later , sensitive " .
Chopra 's final release of 2006 was Farhan Akhtar 's action @-@ thriller Don ( a remake of the 1978 film of the same name ) , with Shah Rukh Khan . Chopra portrayed Roma ( played by Zeenat Aman in the original film ) , who joins the underworld to avenge Don for killing her brother . Chopra received martial @-@ arts training for her role in the movie , and performed her own stunts . The film was declared a box @-@ office success in India and overseas , with revenues of ₹ 1 @.@ 05 billion ( US $ 16 million ) . Raja Sen of Rediff.com found Chopra to be film 's " big surprise " ; he believed that Chopra convincingly portrayed Roma , " looking every bit the competent woman of action " and wrote " This is an actress willing to push herself , and has definite potential for screen magic . Not to mention a great smile . "
In 2007 , Chopra had two leading roles . Her first film was Nikhil Advani 's Salaam @-@ e @-@ Ishq : A Tribute to Love , a romantic comedy in six chapters with an ensemble cast . She was featured opposite Salman Khan in the first chapter as Kamini , an item girl and aspiring actress who tries to land the lead role in a Karan Johar film with a publicity gimmick . Film critic Sukanya Verma praised her flair for comedy , especially her impressions of Meena Kumari , Nargis and Madhubala . Both Salaam @-@ e @-@ Ishq : A Tribute to Love and her next film , Big Brother , proved unsuccessful at the domestic box @-@ office .
In 2008 , Chopra starred opposite Harman Baweja in his father 's Love Story 2050 . Chopra played a double role , so she coloured her hair twice ; once red to portray the girl from the future and then black for the girl of the past . Her performance was poorly received ; Rajeev Masand was unimpressed with Chopra 's chemistry with her co @-@ star , remarking that her character " fails to inspire either affection or sympathy " . She next appeared in the comedy God Tussi Great Ho , portraying a TV anchor opposite Salman Khan , Sohail Khan and Amitabh Bachchan . The film was generally perceived to be plagiarised from the Hollywood comedy Bruce Almighty , although writer and director Rumi Jaffrey claimed it to be " a village folk tale about a Brahmin " . Chopra next starred as a kindergarten teacher in Chamku opposite Bobby Deol and Irrfan Khan , and played the role of Sonia in Goldie Behl 's fantasy superhero film Drona opposite Abhishek Bachchan and Jaya Bachchan . Drona , widely criticised for its extensive use of special effects , marked Chopra 's sixth film in succession which had failed at both the box @-@ office and critically , although Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com stated that Chopra displayed convincing action heroine skills . Critics generally perceived at this time that her career was over .
= = = Critical acclaim ( 2008 – 11 ) = = =
The string of poorly received films ended when Chopra starred in Madhur Bhandarkar 's Fashion , a drama about the Indian fashion industry which followed the lives and careers of several fashion models . She portrayed the ambitious supermodel Meghna Mathur , a role which she initially thought was out of her depth , but after six months ' consideration she accepted the role , inspired by Bhandarkar 's confidence in her . For the role , Chopra had to gain 6 kilograms ( 13 lb ) and steadily shed the weight during the production as the character progressed in the film . Both the film and her performance received critical acclaim , becoming a major turning point in her career . Rajeev Masand wrote , " Priyanka Chopra turns in a respectable performance , one that will inevitably go down as her best . " Kriti Verma from Headlines India noted " Priyanka Chopra simply rocked . Her transformation from a simple Chandigarh girl to an ambitious super model to an apologizing girl is excellent and beyond imagination . " Her performance won Chopra several awards , including the National Film Award for Best Actress , the Filmfare Award for Best Actress , the IIFA Award for Best Actress , the Screen Award for Best Actress , and the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role . With a worldwide revenue of ₹ 600 million ( US $ 9 million ) , Fashion emerged as a commercial success , and was listed by Subhash K. Jha as one of the best films of the decade with women protagonists . It was noted for being commercially successful despite being a women @-@ centric film with no male lead . She said in retrospect , " I think actually Fashion kick started ... the process of female dominated films . Today you have so many other films which have done well with female leads . "
Chopra 's final film of the year was Tarun Mansukhani 's romantic comedy Dostana , with Abhishek Bachchan and John Abraham . Set in Miami , the film tells the story of a friendship between her character and two men who pretend to be gay to share an apartment with her . Chopra played a stylish young fashion @-@ magazine editor Neha , who is trying to deal with professional pressures in her life . Produced by Dharma Productions , the film was a financial success with worldwide revenues of over ₹ 860 million ( US $ 13 million ) . Chopra 's performance and look in the film were praised .
The following year Chopra played a feisty Marathi woman named Sweety in Vishal Bhardwaj 's caper thriller Kaminey ( co @-@ starring Shahid Kapoor ) , about twin brothers and the journey in their life linked with the underworld . The film received critical acclaim and became successful at the box @-@ office with the worldwide gross earnings of ₹ 710 million ( US $ 11 million ) . Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India thought that Chopra 's role completely reinvented her , and Rajeev Masand wrote : " Springing a delightful surprise in a smaller part is [ Chopra ] , who sprinkles her lines with a smattering of fluent Marathi and emerges one of the film 's most lovable characters . " Raja Sen of Rediff.com named Chopra 's performance as the best by an actress that year . Her role earned her several awards and nominations , including a second consecutive Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role after Fashion and Best Actress nominations at the Filmfare , Screen and IIFA awards . Chopra subsequently appeared in Ashutosh Gowariker 's romantic comedy What 's Your Raashee ? , based on the novel Kimball Ravenswood by Madhu Rye . The film depicts the story of a US @-@ based Gujrati NRI in search of his soulmate among 12 girls ( all played by Chopra ) associated with the 12 zodiac signs . She received the Screen Best Actress Award nomination for her performance in the film . She was also considered for inclusion in the Guinness World Records book for being the first film actress to portray 12 distinct characters in one film . Chopra 's heavy workload — filming for several productions , travelling for endorsements and performing at live shows ( including the Miss India pageant ) — took its toll ; she fainted during filming , and was admitted to hospital .
In 2010 , Chopra starred with Uday Chopra in Jugal Hansraj 's unremarkable romantic comedy Pyaar Impossible ! as Alisha , a beautiful college girl ( and later a working mother ) who falls in love with a nerdy boy . Later that year , she co @-@ starred with Ranbir Kapoor in Siddharth Anand 's romantic comedy Anjaana Anjaani . The film , set in New York and Las Vegas , follows the story of two strangers , both trying to commit suicide , who eventually fall in love with each other . The film was a moderate commercial success , and her performance received mixed reviews from critics . Sarita Tanwar of Mid Day wrote , " Priyanka Chopra is at her casual and spontaneous best . She embraces the character completely and makes it totally believable " , while Anupama Chopra dismissed her acting as " artificial " .
She starred as a femme fatale in her first film of 2011 , Vishal Bhardwaj 's black comedy 7 Khoon Maaf . Based on the short story " Susanna 's Seven Husbands " by Ruskin Bond , 7 Khoon Maaf centres on Susanna Anna @-@ Marie Johannes , an Anglo @-@ Indian woman ( played by Chopra ) who murders her seven husbands in an unending quest for love . The film and her performance received acclaim from critics . Nikhat Kazmi remarked , " 7 Khoon Maaf would undoubtedly end up as a milestone in Priyanka Chopra 's career graph . The actor displays exquisite command over a complex character that is definitely a first in Indian cinema . " Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis wrote : " Priyanka Chopra takes on a character that most of her contemporaries would shy away from and enacts it in a way that only she possibly can . For a woman with as many shades as Susanna , Chopra gets a crack at a role of a lifetime and she sparkles like never before . " Chopra 's performance earned her the Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress and a nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress , the IIFA Award for Best Actress , the Screen Award for Best Actress , and the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role .
= = = Commercial success ( 2011 – 13 ) = = =
Chopra 's final release of the year saw her reprising her role as Roma in the second installment of the Don franchise , Don 2 . Although the film received mixed reviews , Chopra 's performance earned positive feedback from critics . According to The Express Tribune , " Chopra ... seems to be the perfect choice for an action heroine . As you watch her effortlessly beat up some thugs in the movie , you come to the realisation that she may be the first proper female action hero in Bollywood . " Don 2 was a major success in India and overseas , earning over ₹ 2 @.@ 06 billion ( US $ 31 million ) worldwide . Don 2 was showcased at the 62nd Berlin International Film Festival and ( with Don ) at the 2012 International Film Festival of Marrakech , in Morocco .
Chopra 's first film of 2012 was Karan Malhotra 's action drama Agneepath , in which she starred with Hrithik Roshan , Sanjay Dutt and Rishi Kapoor . Produced by Karan Johar , the film is a remake of his father 's 1990 production of the same name . In one of several accidents to happen during production , Chopra 's lehenga ( a traditional skirt ) caught fire while filming a sequence for an elaborate Ganpati festival song . She featured as Kaali Gawde , Roshan 's loquacious love interest in the film . Mayank Shekhar noted how much Chopra stood out in the male @-@ dominated film . Agneepath broke Bollywood 's highest opening @-@ day earnings record , and had a worldwide gross of ₹ 1 @.@ 93 billion ( US $ 29 million ) . Chopra next co @-@ starred with Shahid Kapoor in Kunal Kohli 's romance , Teri Meri Kahaani . The film relates the stories of three unconnected couples ( each played by Kapoor and Chopra ) , born in different eras . The film opened to mixed reactions from critics , but Chopra 's performance was generally well received .
Anurag Basu 's Barfi ! , with Ranbir Kapoor and Ileana D 'Cruz , was her final appearance of 2012 . Set in the 1970s , the film tells the story of three people , two of whom are physically disabled . Chopra played Jhilmil Chatterjee , an autistic woman who falls in love with a deaf , mute man ( Kapoor ) . Rituparno Ghosh , an acclaimed director , considered it a " very , very brave " role to accept given how demanding it is for an actor to convincingly portray a woman with autism . To prepare for the role , Chopra visited several mental institutions and spent time with autistic people . The film received rave reviews from film critics and was a major commercial success , earning ₹ 1 @.@ 75 billion ( US $ 26 million ) worldwide . Chopra received unanimous praise for her portrayal , which several reviewers regarded as her best performance at that time . The Indo @-@ Asian News Service review said , " Priyanka Chopra as the autistic Jhilmil steals the show from Ranbir , if that 's possible . Her inherent glamorous personality simply disappears into her character . We don 't see the actress on screen at all ! We see only Jhilmil who reminds us in a very pleasant way of Sridevi in Sadma . This is one of the most flawless interpretations of a physical @-@ psychological disability seen on celluloid . " Pratim D. Gupta of The Telegraph noted Ranbir and Priyanka turn in two of the finest performances seen on the Indian screen . Chopra received Best Actress nominations at the Filmfare , Screen , IIFA and Producers Guild Film Awards . The film was screened at the Busan and Marrakech International Film Festivals , and was chosen as India 's entry for the 85th Academy Awards . Don 2 , Agneepath and Barfi ! rank among the highest grossing Bollywood films of all time .
In 2013 , she lent her voice to the character of Ishani , the reigning Pan @-@ Asian champion from India and the love interest of the main protagonist in the Disney Animation Studios 's film Planes , a spinoff of Pixar 's Cars franchise . Chopra , a fan of Disney films , had fun voicing the character saying " The closest I could come to being a Disney princess , I think , was Ishani " . The film was a commercial success , grossing approximately US $ 240 million worldwide . She played an NRI girl in the Apoorva Lakhia 's bilingual action drama Zanjeer ( Thoofan in Telugu ) , a remake of the 1973 Hindi film of the same name , which met with poor reactions from critics and was unsuccessful at the box office . Chopra next reprised her role of Priya in Rakesh Roshan 's Krrish 3 — a sequel to the 2006 superhero film Krrish — with Hrithik Roshan , Vivek Oberoi and Kangana Ranaut . The film earned positive reviews though critics opined that Chopra 's role in the film was small . Writing for Daily News and Analysis , Sarita A Tanwar commented that " Priyanka is saddled with a role that doesn 't do her justice . She deserved a meatier role . " The feature became a box office success , earning over ₹ 3 billion ( US $ 45 million ) worldwide , to become Chopra 's biggest commercial success till date and her fourth major hit in the last two years . She also appeared in an item number titled " Ram Chahe Leela " for Sanjay Leela Bhansali 's Goliyon Ki Rasleela Ram @-@ Leela . The song , which took four days to rehearse , saw Chopra execute a contemporary mujra , that incorporated complicated dance steps .
= = = Recent work ( 2014 – present ) = = =
In 2014 , Chopra played the lead female role in Yash Raj Films 's romantic action drama Gunday directed by Ali Abbas Zafar , alongside Ranveer Singh , Arjun Kapoor and Irrfan Khan . She portrayed Nandita , a cabaret dancer in Calcutta . Set in the 1970s , the film tells the story of two best friends , who fall in love with Chopra 's character . Gunday proved to be a box @-@ office success , grossing over ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) worldwide . She next featured in Mary Kom , a biographical film of the five time world boxing champion and Olympic bronze medalist Mary Kom . To prepare for the role , she spent time with Kom and received four months of boxing training . The film premiered at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival , received positive reviews from critics , and her performance received critical acclaim . Namrata Joshi from Outlook felt that Chopra 's sincere and earnest performance brings out Kom 's " determination as well as her vulnerabilities , and insecurities " , and Indo @-@ Asian News Service wrote " Priyanka expresses every shade of her character with a pitch @-@ perfect bravado . The actress controls curbs and quantifies every component of her character 's personality without losing that basic element of spontaneity . " Mary Kom emerged as a major commercial success , with revenues of ₹ 1 @.@ 04 billion ( US $ 15 million ) at the box @-@ office . Chopra won the Screen Award for Best Actress , the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role , and received another nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress for the film .
The following year , Chopra starred in Zoya Akhtar 's Dil Dhadakne Do , an ensemble comedy @-@ drama alongside Anil Kapoor , Shefali Shah , Ranveer Singh , Anushka Sharma and Farhan Akhtar . The film tells the story of a dysfunctional Punjabi family ( the Mehras ) , who invite their family and friends on a cruise trip to celebrate the parents ' 30th wedding anniversary . She portrayed the role of Ayesha Mehra , a successful entrepreneur and the eldest child . Pratim D. Gupta from The Telegraph considered Chopra to be one of the winners of the film and wrote " From the propah body language to the measured speech [ ... ] shows the kind of depth she is able to bring to her lines and characters these days . Rajiv Vijayakar of India @-@ West wrote " Dil Dhadakne Do happily boasts stellar performances . Topping the list is the nuanced , magnificent work of Priyanka Chopra as Ayesha . Her tiny expressions and nuances , as well as her vocal inflections truly bring her character alive . " The film was a critical and commercial success , grossing ₹ 1 @.@ 47 billion ( US $ 22 million ) worldwide within seventeen days of release . Chopra won the Screen Award for Best Ensemble Cast , and was nominated for the Screen Award for Best Actress , and the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role .
Chopra signed a talent holding deal with ABC Studios and in February 2015 was cast in the television pilot Quantico , which was picked to series . The series premiered on 27 September 2015 on ABC , making Chopra the first South Asian to headline an American network drama series . Based at the FBI Academy , the season one of Quantico follows a group of young FBI recruits , each having a specific reason for joining , one of whom will be responsible for blowing the Grand Central Terminal in the future . She plays the role of an FBI recruit , Alex Parrish , who is suspected of engineering the most devastating terrorist attack on American soil since the September 11 attacks . The series received positive reviews from television critics and Chopra was praised for her performance . James Poniewozik of The New York Times described Chopra as the " strongest human asset " of the show , and added that " she is immediately charismatic and commanding . " She received the People 's Choice Award for " Favourite Actress In A New TV Series " for her role in Quantico , becoming the first South Asian actress to win a People 's Choice Award .
Chopra next starred alongside Ranveer Singh and Deepika Padukone in Sanjay Leela Bhansali 's epic historical romance drama Bajirao Mastani . She portrayed Kashibai , the first wife of the maratha general Peshwa Bajirao I. The film opened to major critical acclaim , and Chopra received praise for her portrayal which several reviewers regarded as her best performance to date . Rajeev Masand wrote " the film benefits from a nice touch of playfulness and humor in Priyanka Chopra ’ s Kashibai . Chopra brings grace to the character , and practically steals the film . " Film critic Raja Sen thought Chopra , who , while not in the title , owned the film , and wrote " Chopra 's terrific in the part , her intelligently expressive eyes speaking volumes and her no @-@ nonsense Marathi rhythm bang @-@ on . " A major commercial success , Bajirao Mastani grossed ₹ 3 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 52 million ) at the box @-@ office , becoming one of the highest @-@ grossing Indian films of all time . For her performance , she won the Screen Award for Best Supporting Actress and the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress . She also received a nomination for the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role . In 2016 , she starred as a police officer in Prakash Jha 's social drama Jai Gangaajal .
= = = = Upcoming projects = = = =
Chopra has several projects at the various stages of production . She is currently filming the second season of Quantico in the New York City . Chopra has completed her work on the action comedy Baywatch , directed by Seth Gordon , co @-@ starring Dwayne Johnson , Zac Efron , and Alexandra Daddario , in which she plays the main antagonist . In addition , she is producing two regional language films under her production company Purple Pebble Pictures — the Marathi film Ventilator , and untitled Punjabi film , both of which are scheduled to release in 2016 .
= = Music career = =
Chopra 's main vocal influence was her father , who she said was " an incredible singer " , and helped develop her interest in singing . She used her vocal talent early in her pageantry career . Her first recording , the song " Ullathai Killathe " in the Tamil film Thamizhan ( 2002 ) , was made at the urging of her director and co @-@ star , Vijay ( who had noticed her singing on the set ) . She declined to sing playback for " Tinka Tinka " in her film Karam ( 2005 ) , preferring to concentrate on her acting career , but later sang the song live on the television programme Sa Re Ga Ma Pa . Chopra recorded an unreleased song for Bluffmaster ! ( 2005 ) . In August 2011 , Universal Music Group signed Chopra to a worldwide recording agreement with DesiHits . The deal indicated that her first studio album would be released by Interscope Records in North America and by Island Records elsewhere . Her first song as a playback singer in Bollywood was " Chaoro " from Mary Kom ( 2014 ) .
In July 2012 , Chopra became the first Bollywood star signed by Creative Artists Agency , an entertainment and sports agency based in Los Angeles . Travelling to the United States to work on her album , Chopra collaborated with Sam Watters , Matthew Koma and Jay Sean . The album will be produced by RedOne . Her first single , " In My City " , debuted in the US on 13 September 2012 in a TV spot for the NFL Network 's Thursday Night Football , 12 hours after the full song debuted in India ; a shortened version of the song was used to open each show of the season . " In My City " features rapper will.i.am ; according to Chopra , a co @-@ writer , the song was inspired by her unsettled childhood and her journey from a small @-@ town girl to a celebrity . " In My City " trended at number one on Twitter several minutes after release . The song received mixed reviews from critics , and was a commercial success in India ; it sold more than 130 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , topped the Hindi pop chart and was certified triple platinum . In the United States the single was unsuccessful , with 5 @,@ 000 digital downloads in its first week according to Nielsen SoundScan , and did not receive radio play . In October 2012 , the single won her the Best International Debut award at the People 's Choice Awards India . In December 2012 , she received three nominations : Best Female Artist , Best Song and Best Video ( for " In My City " ) at the World Music Awards . She also received the Trailblazer Award from the South Asian Media , Marketing and Entertainment Association for becoming the first Bollywood actor to win a major record deal in the U.S. Chopra was also a featured artist on " Erase " , an EDM song produced by the American DJ and producer duo The Chainsmokers .
In July 2013 , Chopra released her second single " Exotic " featuring American rapper Pitbull , along with its music video . " Exotic " debuted at number 16 on the Billboard Dance / Electronic Songs and number 11 on the Dance / Electronic Digital Songs chart in the 27 July 2013 issue . The single also entered at number 74 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart . " Exotic " debuted at number 44 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart and peaked at number 12 . Her third single , a cover of Bonnie Raitt 's " I Can 't Make You Love Me " was released in April 2014 . The song 's accompanying video was released around the same time . The song peaked at number 28 on the Billboard Hot Dance / Electronic Songs chart .
= = Philanthropy = =
Chopra supports various causes related to the girl child through her foundation " The Priyanka Chopra Foundation for Health and Education " , which works towards providing support to unprivileged girls across the country in the areas Education and Health . She donates ten percent of her earnings to fund the foundation ’ s operations , and pays for educational and medical expenses for seventy children in India , fifty among whom are girls .
She often speaks out on women 's issues : against female infanticide and foeticide , and in support of education for girls . A believer in feminism , Chopra also speaks about women 's rights , gender equality , and gender pay inequality . In 2006 , a " day with Chopra " was auctioned on eBay ; the proceeds were donated to an NGO , Nanhi Kali , which helps educate girls in India . She has made appearances in support of other charities , such as the 2005 HELP ! Telethon Concert to raise funds for the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . In 2009 , she shot a documentary for the organisation Alert India to increase understanding of leprosy . She modelled for designer Manish Malhotra and Shaina NC 's charity fashion show to raise funds for the Cancer Patients Aid Association ( CPAA ) NGO . In 2010 Chopra was one of several celebrities who created promotional messages for Pearls Wave Trust , which campaigns against violence and abuse of women and girls . Chopra also launched the " Save the Girl Child " campaign , which aims to change the attitudes of Indians towards girls .
She has worked with UNICEF since 2008 , recording public @-@ service announcements and participating in media panel discussions promoting children 's rights and the education of girls , and also participated in celebrating the 20th anniversary of the Convention on the Rights of the Child . She was appointed a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador for Child Rights on 10 August 2010 . UNICEF Representative Karin Hulshof said of the appointment : " She is equally passionate about her work on behalf of children and adolescents . We are proud of the work she has done with us so far on child rights , and , we are thrilled about all what we will be doing together so that no child gets left behind . " In 2012 Chopra spoke at the launch of Awakening Youth , an anti @-@ addiction programme .
Chopra is a supporter of environmental charities and is brand ambassador for NDTV Greenathon , an initiative to support eco @-@ friendliness and provide solar power to rural villages without electricity supplies . She appeared with children in an animated video to support the cause , and removed rubbish from the banks of the Yamuna river in Agra to increase awareness of environmental issues . During the third and fourth editions of Greenathon , She adopted up to seven villages to provide with a regular supply of electricity . She adopted a tigress in 2011 and a lioness in 2012 at the Birsa biological park , paying for both animals ' upkeep for a year . To promote organ donation , Chopra pledged to donate her own organs after death and was co @-@ keynote speaker at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center 's Bollywood @-@ themed 20th @-@ anniversary celebration of its liver @-@ transplant programme in 2012 .
She donated ₹ 5 million ( US $ 74 @,@ 000 ) to Nanavati hospital to build a cancer ward . The ward , which is named after her late father , was inaugurated by her in 2013 . The same year , she provided voice @-@ over in English and Hindi for the documentary film Girl Rising for the organisation of the same name . She was invited as one of the speakers alongside Gordon Brown , Steve Wozniak , Bill Clinton , and Charlie Baker for the 50th anniversary of the World Leaders Conference at the Hynes Convention Center , Boston . She spoke about women empowerment through education , discussing inequality and the challenges of education for women , and received a standing ovation for her speech . Chopra also lent her voice to a music video of John Lennon 's " Imagine " . The video featuring her along with other singers , including Katy Perry , and The Black Eyed Peas was created as part of a global campaign by UNICEF to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the Convention on the Rights of the Child .
Indian prime minister Narendra Modi selected Chopra as one of his nine nominees called " Navratna " in 2014 for the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan , a national cleanliness campaign by the Government of India . She lent her support to the campaign by cleaning and rehabilitating a garbage @-@ laden neighbourhood in Mumbai , and urged people to maintain the cleanliness . In 2015 , she voiced People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA 's ) life @-@ size robotic elephant named " Ellie " , who visited schools across the United States and Europe to educate kids about elephants and captivity , and to urge people to boycott circuses .
= = Other works = =
= = = Television presenting and stage performances = = =
In 2007 , Chopra was on the judges ' panel of the Miss India pageant . She stated , " Miss India will always remain special . That 's where it all started for me . And maybe that 's where it would 've ended if I hadn 't won the crown . " She also served as a judge at Miss World 2009 . In 2010 , she hosted the third season of the reality show Fear Factor : Khatron Ke Khiladi on the Colors channel , taking over from previous host Akshay Kumar . According to contestants , in hosting the series , Chopra had " transformed into quite a whip @-@ wielding dictator " , relentlessly pushing the contestants to work . She performed most of her own stunts , adamant to prove that she could rival Akshay Kumar , who had hosted the previous two seasons . The opening ratings of the show topped those of the two previous seasons . The show was praised by critics , and earned her the Indian Telly Award for Most Impactful Debut on Television . She visited Jawan troops in Tenga , in eastern India , for a special episode of the NDTV show Jai Jawan celebrating the 60th anniversary of India 's independence . In February 2016 , Chopra presented the award for Best Film Editing at the 88th Academy Awards .
Chopra has participated in a number of world tours and concerts . She took part in a world concert tour , " Temptations 2004 " , and performed with other Bollywood actors ( including Shah Rukh Khan , Saif Ali Khan , Rani Mukerji , Preity Zinta and Arjun Rampal ) in 19 stage shows . In 2011 , she participated ( with Shahid Kapoor and Shah Rukh Khan ) in a concert in Durban , South Africa celebrating 150 years of India – South Africa friendship . In 2012 , she performed at M. A. Chidambaram Stadium , Chennai in the opening ceremony of the fifth season of cricket 's Indian Premier League with Amitabh Bachchan , Salman Khan , Kareena Kapoor and Katy Perry . The same year , she performed at Dubai Festival City 's Ahlan Bollywood Concert with other Bollywood stars such as Salman Khan and Sophie Choudry .
= = = Column writing = = =
Chopra began writing an opinion column , " The Priyanka Chopra Column " , for the Hindustan Times in 2009 . She wrote a total of fifty columns for the newspaper . She said after her first year of writing : " I 'm a private person and never thought that I could express my feelings . But strangely enough , whenever I sat down to write this column , my inner most thoughts came to the fore . " In March 2009 , she met several readers who had submitted feedback on her weekly column . She continued to write sporadically for newspapers . In August 2012 she wrote a column published in The Times of India titled " No woman in Mumbai feels safe any longer " , discussing the murder of 25 @-@ year @-@ old Pallavi Purkayastha , whom she met while working on Don . In the article , Chopra expressed her views about the safety of women in cities . She wrote : " The magnitude of this crime can perhaps only truly be understood by a woman . It has much larger ramifications . We can 't allow this to happen . We have to , in whichever way we can , ensure that what happened with Pallavi does not happen again . We need to remind ourselves that we women today are a vital contributor to the growth of the new India . "
In a July 2014 article published in The Guardian , she criticised female genital mutilation and child marriage . She wrote : " These practices violate the fundamental rights of girls and women , and hold back social and economic development that would benefit children , communities and countries . Child marriage and FGM destroy childhoods , disrupt schooling , leave girls at higher risk of dying from pregnancy @-@ related causes , and contribute to a cycle of poverty . " In December 2014 , Chopra wrote an op @-@ ed for The New York Times titled " What Jane Austen Knew " about the importance of education for girls . She praised and quoted Nobel Peace Prize winners Malala Yousafzai and Kailash Satyarthi , and described how her desire to help others was triggered when , at just nine years old , she joined her parents while they volunteered their spare time to offer modern health care to the rural poor . In late 2014 , Chopra began writing a monthly column , " Pret @-@ a @-@ Priyanka " , for " Elle.com " . In an article published in January 2015 , she expressed her views on diversity and being a global citizen .
= = In the media = =
Chopra has been described by the critics as one of the most talented actresses in Bollywood . Analysing Chopra 's career highlights , Bollywood Hungama noted : " Despite a career that has seen a constant flip @-@ flop [ ... ] the performer in her has seen a constant growth with every passing year . " After playing strong characters in a series of films , she gained recognition for her versatility in portraying a range of unconventional roles , leading CNN @-@ IBN to describe her " as one of the most powerful actresses in the current lot and someone who doesn 't shy away from experimenting with roles within the realms of popular cinema " . The Times of India called her a " game changer " and added that she " made the age @-@ old demarcation between a hero and heroine redundant and one can easily describe her as a Shero " . In 2012 , film critic Subhash K. Jha labelled her " the best actress in the post @-@ Sridevi generation " and listed her character in Barfi ! as being " one of the finest inwardly ravaged characters in Bollywood . " Chopra has often featured on Rediff.com 's annual listing of " Bollywood 's Best Actresses " , and was featured in their list of " Top 10 Actresses of 2000 – 2010 " .
Chopra is one of Bollywood 's highest @-@ paid actresses , and considered one of the most popular and high @-@ profile celebrities in India . She is described as a sex symbol and a style icon . Her body , figure , eye , lips and exotic looks have been cited by the media as her distinctive physical features . Designers Falguni and Shane Peacock wrote , " She is comfortable in her own skin and looks ravishing in whatever she wears , be it a bikini , short or long dress or even a sari . " She ranks high on lists of the most influential , powerful , popular and attractive Indian celebrities . In 2006 , 2012 , 2014 and 2015 , the UK magazine Eastern Eye ranked her first on their " World 's Sexiest Asian Women " list , and she was featured on Verve 's list of most powerful women in 2009 and 2010 . She was named " India 's Best @-@ Dressed Woman of the Year " by People in 2011 , and Maxim selected her twice ( 2011 and 2013 ) as " Hottest Girl of the Year " . In 2012 , she was declared the most influential Indian on the social @-@ media circuit in a survey conducted by Pinstorm . In 2015 , People featured her as one of the " Most Intriguing People of the Year " . In 2016 , Time named her one of the " 100 Most Influential People in the World " and also featured on the cover of the issue .
Chopra was declared queen of brand endorsements in India , ranking second in on the list of brand ambassadors of 2008 ( only after Shah Rukh Khan ) in a survey conducted by TAM AdEx . The following year , she was named " India 's top brand endorser " by the same agency , becoming the first woman to top the endorsement charts in India . Manish Porwal of Alchemist Talent Solutions said in 2012 that Chopra was a stable and dependable brand endorser , and many brands renewed their contract with her . Chopra has represented many brands , including TAG Heuer , Pepsi , Nokia , Garnier and Nestlé ; she was the first female representative of Hero Honda . She and three other Bollywood actors ( Shah Rukh Khan , Kajol and Hrithik Roshan ) had their likenesses made into a series of miniature dolls for Hasbro and the UK @-@ based Bollywood Legends Corporation . In 2009 , Chopra became the first Indian actress to cast a foot impression at the Salvatore Ferragamo Museum in Florence , Italy , and she received custom @-@ designed shoes from the Ferragamo house . In 2013 , she became the first Indian model to represent Guess , whose CEO Paul Marciano called her " the young Sophia Loren " . The actress became the first Indian actress to feature in a school textbook . Her life is described in a chapter of Roving Families , Shifting Homes , a book taught at Springdales School . The book also includes pictures of her family and the moment she was crowned Miss World in 2000 .
Chopra is particularly known in the Indian media and film industry for her professionalism and is often referred to as " Piggy Chops " , a nickname given her by co @-@ stars on the set of Bluffmaster ! in 2005 . She is popularly referred to by the media and the film industry as " PeeCee " or simply " PC " . Although she is known for her media @-@ friendly attitude , Chopra is reticent to discuss details of her personal life in public . She has had a Twitter account since January 2009 , and has the greatest number of followers of any Indian actress . In 2015 , Chopra appeared in The Huffington Post 's " 100 Most Influential Women on Twitter " list , where she was named the most influential Indian woman on Twitter .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = Selected filmography = = =
= = = Television = = =
Quantico ( 2015 – present ; ABC )
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Among Chopra 's film awards are a National Film Award for Best Actress for Fashion ( 2008 ) and five Filmfare Awards : Best Female Debut for Andaaz ( 2003 ) , Best Performance in a Negative Role for Aitraaz ( 2004 ) , Best Actress for Fashion ( 2008 ) , Critics Award for Best Actress for 7 Khoon Maaf ( 2011 ) , and Best Supporting Actress for Bajirao Mastani ( 2015 ) . In 2016 , she received the People 's Choice Award for " Favourite Actress In A New TV Series " for Quantico , making her the first South Asian actress to win a People 's Choice Award . The same year , she was awarded the Padma Shri , the fourth highest civilian award , by the Government of India .
= = Discography = =
As lead artist
As featured artist
Other appearances
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= Destruction of Syria 's chemical weapons =
The destruction of Syria 's chemical weapons began with several international agreements that were arrived at with Syria , with an initial destruction deadline of 30 June 2014 . United Nations Security Council Resolution 2118 imposed on Syria responsibilities and a timeline for the destruction of its chemical weapons and chemical weapons production facilities . The Security Council resolution incorporated and bound Syria to an implementation plan enacted in an Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons ( OPCW ) Executive Council Decision . On 23 June 2014 , the last declared chemical weapons were shipped out of Syria for destruction . The destruction of the most dangerous chemical weapons began at sea aboard the Maritime Administration Ready Reserve Force vessel CAPE RAY crewed with U.S. civilian merchant mariners . It took 42 days aboard ship to destroy 600 metric tons of chemical agents that would have been used to make deadly Sarin and Mustard Gas .
The chemical weapons agreements arose at a time when the U.S. and France headed a coalition of countries on the verge of carrying out air strikes on Syria in response to the 21 August 2013 Ghouta chemical @-@ weapon attacks . The impetus toward peaceful destruction of the chemical weapons began on 9 September 2013 , when U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry — asked by a reporter if there was anything Assad could do avert attack — replied , " Sure , he could turn over every single bit of his chemical weapons " in the next week . " But he isn ’ t about to do it , and it can ’ t be done " . But the suggestion received a positive response from Russia and Syria , and U.S. – Russian negotiations led to the 14 September 2013 " Framework for Elimination of Syrian Chemical Weapons , " which called for the elimination of Syria 's chemical weapon stockpiles by mid @-@ 2014 . Following the agreement , Syria acceded to the Chemical Weapons Convention and agreed to apply that convention provisionally until its entry into force on 14 October 2013 . On 21 September , Syria ostensibly provided a list of its chemical weapons to the OPCW , before the deadline set by the framework .
On 27 September , the Executive Council of the OPCW adopted a decision , " Destruction of Syrian Chemical Weapons , " a detailed implementation plan based on the U.S. / Russian agreement . Later on 27 September , the UN Security Council unanimously passed United Nations Security Council Resolution 2118 , incorporating the OPCW plan and making it binding on Syria . A joint OPCW @-@ UN mission will supervise the destruction or removal of Syria 's chemical arms , while its Director @-@ General is charged with notifying the Executive Council regarding any delay in implementation . The Executive Council would decide whether the non @-@ compliance should be reported to the Security Council , which is responsible for making certain Syria fulfills its commitments under Resolution 2118 .
OPCW began preliminary inspections of Syria 's chemical weapons arsenal on 1 October 2013 , and actual destruction began on 6 October . Under OPCW supervision Syrian military personnel began " destroying munitions such as missile warheads and aerial bombs and disabling mobile and static mixing and filling units . " The destruction of Syria 's declared chemical weapons production , mixing , and filling equipment was successfully completed by 31 October deadline . The destruction of the chemical weapons fell well behind schedule . The entire chemical weapons stockpile had been scheduled to be completely removed from the country by 6 February 2014 . Only on 23 June 2014 , had Syria finished shipping the remaining declared chemicals . On 18 August 2014 , all of the most toxic chemicals had been destroyed offshore . Western officials such as British Ambassador Mark Lyall Grant have expressed concerns about the completeness of Syria 's disclosures , and believe the OPCW mission should remain in place following the removal of chemical weapons until verification tasks can be completed .
Chlorine , a common industrial chemical , is outside the scope of the disarmament agreement ; however , its use as a poison gas would violate the Chemical Weapons Convention , which Syria joined in 2013 . Various parties , including Western governments , have accused Assad of conducting illegal chlorine attacks in 2014 and 2015 . A late disclosure in 2014 regarding Syria 's ricin program raised doubts about completeness of the government 's declaration of its chemical weapons stockpile , and in early May 2015 , OPCW announced that inspectors had found traces of sarin and VX nerve agent at a military research site in Syria that had not been declared previously by the Assad regime .
= = Background = =
Syria has been in a state of civil war since 2011 .
More than 300 people died and thousands were injured in the 21 August 2013 Ghouta attacks , in which rockets containing the chemical agent sarin struck several opposition @-@ controlled or disputed areas of the Ghouta suburbs of Damascus . The United States and other Western countries blamed the Syrian government for the attacks , while Syria blamed civil war opposition forces . In response to Ghouta , a coalition of countries led by the United States and France , which support the rebels , threatened air strikes on Syria . Russia , a key ally of Syria , along with China had earlier blocked efforts by the United States , France , and the UK to secure United Nations Security Council approval for military intervention .
During the G20 summit on 6 September , Russian President Vladimir Putin and U.S. President Barack Obama discussed the idea of putting Syria 's chemical weapons under international control . On 9 September 2013 , U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry stated in response to a question from a journalist that the air strikes could be averted if Syria turned over " every single bit " of its chemical weapons stockpiles within a week , but Syria " isn 't about to do it and it can 't be done . " State Department officials stressed that Kerry 's statement and its one @-@ week deadline were rhetorical in light of the unlikelihood of Syria turning over its chemical weapons . Hours after Kerry 's statement , Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov announced that Russia had suggested to Syria that it relinquish its chemical weapons , and Syrian foreign minister Walid al @-@ Moallem immediately welcomed the proposal .
= = Framework for elimination of Syrian chemical weapons = =
= = = Negotiations and agreement = = =
From 12 to 14 September , details of the Framework were negotiated at the InterContinental Hotel in Geneva , Switzerland . High @-@ level negotiations were held between Kerry and Lavrov , with large teams of experts simultaneously working on technical details . A key breakthrough was reported to occur when the U.S. and Russia agreed on their approximations of the Syrian chemical weapon stockpile ( estimated at 1 @,@ 000 tons of sarin , mustard gas and VX nerve gas ) . On 14 September the Framework was agreed and signed .
On the same day , after the signing , Syria announced that it was acceding to the Chemical Weapons Convention ( provisionally applying it directly , but formally taking effect 14 October ) , and in doing so becoming a member of the OPCW . This committed Syria not to use chemical weapons , to destroy its chemical weapons within 10 years , and to convert or destroy all of its chemical weapons production facilities .
= = = Overview and enforcement = = =
In the Framework , Russia and the United States agreed to the following target dates :
Syria to provide a comprehensive listing of its weapons to the OPCW by 21 September 2013
Initial OPCW on @-@ site inspections of declared sites to be completed by November 2013
Equipment for producing , mixing , and filling chemical weapons to be destroyed by November 2013
All chemical weapons material and equipment to be eliminated in the first half of 2014
The Framework states that , in the event of noncompliance , the UN Security Council should impose measures under Chapter VII of the UN Charter . The Framework does not state how Syria 's compliance would be measured , or what the penalties would be if it did not comply . Under the UN Charter , Chapter VII measures range from " demonstrations " to sanctions or military action and could be vetoed by any of the five permanent members of the Security Council . Russia and China had previously vetoed three resolutions attempting to condemn or sanction Syria , and were considered likely to block any future Security Council sanctioned military action against Syria . The U.S. indicated it might resort to military action outside the UN if Syria failed to comply with the Security Council resolution requiring it to eliminate its chemical weapons .
Chlorine , a common industrial chemical which would later allegedly be used in poison @-@ gas attacks inside Syria in 2014 , is not on the list of prohibited chemicals covered by the disarmament agreement .
= = = Reactions to the Framework = = =
The " Framework for the Elimination of Syrian Chemical Weapons " was received positively by France , Germany , the UK , the European Union , China , and the Arab League . Israel expressed cautious optimism , but was skeptical that Syria would comply .
Ali Haidar , Syria 's Minister of National Reconciliation , praised the agreement as " a victory for Syria that was achieved thanks to our Russian friends . " He described the agreement as removing a pretext for a U.S. attack on the country . Iran also stated that the agreement had deprived the U.S. of a pretext for attacking Syria .
Leaders of the main rebel coalition , the Syrian National Coalition , were angered by the agreement . The U.S. , without consulting the coalition , had changed its mind about striking Syria . Rebels furthermore worried the agreement might be a considered a de facto admission of the Bashar al @-@ Assad government 's legitimacy .
= = OPCW Executive Council decision = =
The Executive Council of the OPCW met on 27 September and adopted a decision , " Destruction of Syrian Chemical Weapons " , that is a detailed and accelerated plan for the elimination of Syria 's chemical weapons . The Executive Council also approved Syria 's provisional application of the Chemical Weapons Convention pending entry into force on 14 October . The plan adds detail to but does not vary from the basic deadlines in the U.S. – Russian Framework . The OPCW stated that the Executive Council had agreed on " an accelerated programme for achieving the complete elimination of Syria 's chemical weapons by mid @-@ 2014 . The decision requires inspections in Syria to commence from 1 October 2013 . "
Inspectors were given unusually broad authority , because Syria was required under the plan to provide inspectors unobstructed access to any suspected chemical weapons site , even if the Syrian government had not identified the location in its list of chemical weapons sites , and without the special procedures normally required for " Challenge Inspections " under Article IX of the convention .
The decision also stipulates that if the OPCW Director @-@ General determined there had been a delay in implementation of the decision , the matter should be discussed within 24 hours , when it should be decided whether the matter should be submitted to the UN Security Council .
The Executive Council 's decision further calls , " on an urgent basis " , for funding by member states of the Syrian chemical weapons elimination process .
= = = Requirements for Syria = = =
Under the Decision , which was incorporated into Security Council Resolution 2118 , Syria is required to take the following actions :
submit to the Secretariat by 4 October further information ( to that provided on 19 September 2013 ) on its chemical weapons , in particular : " ( i ) the chemical name and military designator of each chemical in its chemical weapons stockpile , including precursors and toxins , and quantities thereof ; ( ii ) the specific type of munitions , sub @-@ munitions and devices in its chemical weapons stockpile , including specific quantities of each type that are filled and unfilled ; and ( iii ) the location of all of its chemical weapons , chemical weapons storage facilities , chemical weapons production facilities , including mixing and filling facilities , and chemical weapons research and development facilities , providing specific geographic coordinates , "
submit the declaration required by Article III of the Chemical Weapons Convention to the OPCW Secretariat no later than 27 October ,
complete elimination of all its chemical weapons material and equipment during the first half of 2014 , " subject to the detailed requirements , including intermediate destruction milestones , to be decided by the [ Executive ] Council not later than 15 November 2013 , "
complete destruction of its chemical weapons mixing / filling and production equipment by 1 November ,
cooperate fully with Decision implementation , to include providing OPCW personnel with " immediate and unfettered right to inspect any and all sites in the Syrian Arab Republic , " and
designate one official as the OPCW Secretariat 's main point of contact , and provide that person with authority to ensure that the Decision is fully implemented .
= = Security Council Resolution 2118 = =
Negotiations over the Security Council resolution were initially contentious , as the U.S. , the UK , and France submitted a draft resolution that included automatic invocation of Chapter VII , sanctioning use of military force if Syria did not fulfill its commitments under the agreement . Russia and China were opposed to any resolution that authorized enforcement under Chapter VII without a second vote of the Security Council . After further negotiations , on 26 September the five permanent members of the UN Security Council reached agreement on an implementation and enforcement draft resolution . On the following day , just hours after the OPCW Executive Council approved a detailed implementation plan for the U.S. / Russian Framework , Security Council Resolution 2118 was unanimously passed , making the OPCW plan binding on the Syrians .
The resolution requires that Syria eliminate its chemical stockpile and allow complete access to UN and OPCW chemical weapons inspectors . If it does not comply with either demand , the Security Council would need to adopt a second resolution regarding imposition of military or other actions against Syria under the UN Charter 's Chapter VII . The vote on the resolution was delayed until 27 September because the OPCW needed to vote first on its detailed implementation plan . Syria vowed to abide by the resolution .
Russian Foreign Minister Lavrov has stressed that the Western and Arab @-@ backed rebels in the Syrian civil war must also comply with the UN resolution , and must ensure that extremists do not acquire chemical weapons . " The responsibility is not only on the Syrian government , " he stated , " but also on the opposition and all the states in this sphere should of course not allow these weapons to fall into the hands of non @-@ state actors . "
= = = Reactions to Security Council Resolution 2118 = = =
= = Implementation = =
= = = Preparations and preliminary inspections = = =
On 21 September 2013 , Syria ostensibly met the Framework 's first deadline , for comprehensive chemical weapons disclosure . The OPCW stated it had received and was reviewing the " expected disclosure " concerning Syria 's chemical weapons stockpiles , 24 hours after stating it had received an " initial declaration " document from Syrian authorities . The OPCW stated that it would use on @-@ site inspections to verify the accuracy of the disclosure by Syria . It would also " assist in putting into place arrangements to keep the warfare materials and the relevant facilities secure until their destruction . "
OPCW began preliminary inspections of Syria 's chemical weapons arsenal on 1 October 2013 , and actual destruction of Syrian equipment began on 6 October 2013 , with Syrian personnel under OPCW supervision applying angle grinders and cutting torches to " a wide range of items . " Specifically , under OPCW supervision Syrian military personnel had begun " destroying munitions such as missile warheads and aerial bombs and disabling mobile and static mixing and filling units . " The U.S. and Russia announced themselves " very pleased " with the rapid pace of Syria 's chemical arms disarmament . The Economist commented that the demanding timeline may mean the OPCW will deploy ad @-@ hoc destruction methods such as sledgehammers , tanks , or concrete fills .
On Monday , 7 October , UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon stated that the UN @-@ OPCW joint mission would eventually have about 100 personnel in Syria , with a support base in Cyprus . In a letter to the Security Council , Ban set out the mission 's three phases : establish an initial presence and verify Syria 's stockpiles declaration ; oversee chemical weapons destruction ; and verify destruction of all chemical arms related materials and programs . On 13 October Ban announced that veteran UN diplomat Sigrid Kaag would head the joint UN @-@ OPCW mission .
= = = Implementation challenges = = =
UN Secretary @-@ General Ban in early October publicly recognized many of the challenges of the weapons destruction effort , in particular the dangerous nature of chemical arms destruction during a civil war , especially in urban areas such as Damascus , Aleppo , and Homs . " Heavy artillery , air strikes , mortar barrages and the indiscriminate shelling of civilian areas are commonplace and battle lines shift quickly , " he wrote . Ban added that the most challenging phase of the destruction effort would begin in November , when OPCW and UN experts begin destroying Syria 's estimated 1 @,@ 000 tons of precursor chemicals and chemical weapons . In order to do so , they will need to cross battle lines between governments and rebel forces . The Syrian government and Western @-@ backed opposition forces have pledged cooperation with chemical disarmament , but Al Qaeda @-@ linked rebel groups , including Al Nusra Front and the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria , have not .
OPCW director @-@ general Ahmet Uzumcu stated in early October that completing the destruction process by the mid @-@ 2014 deadline will depend on whether temporary cease @-@ fires can be arranged between opposition and government forces . A nine @-@ month ceasefire to allow the OPCW to carry out the entire chemical weapons destruction process was rejected by the Free Syrian Army ( FSA ) , according to a report in Asharq Al @-@ Awsat ( a Saudi @-@ linked pan @-@ Arab newspaper ) .
Also exceptionally challenging will be the movement and destruction of deadly agents such as sarin , VX nerve agents and mustard gas during the civil war . The chemical weapons convention disallows movement of such deadly agents outside the country holding them , but Security Council Resolution 2118 allows extraordinary measures to be taken in Syria . Some of the chemicals will need to be transported along the highway between Damascus and Homs , which is still contested as of December 2013 . Syria has requested the international community provide armored vehicles to assist in safe transport of the chemicals . In February 2014 , Syria stated that rebels had attempted to attack two convoys transporting chemical weapons .
OPCW director @-@ general Uzumcu called the overall timeline " doable , " though one of his field experts characterized it as " Herculean . " The Economist magazine commented in October 2013 that the timeline was " ambitious , to put it mildly , " but acknowledged it had been " worked out in consultation with American and Russians experts with full knowledge of the OPCW 's capabilities . " Li Hong , secretary @-@ general of the China Arms Control and Disarmament Association , stated that both the turbulent civil war and the financial cost of chemical weapons disposal will be a heavy burden on the Syrian government , and called it " unrealistic " to expect Syrian chemical weapons to be fully eliminated by 2014 . Expert opinions were summarized in Foreign Policy magazine as follows : " Taking control of [ Syria ] ' s enormous stores of [ chemical ] munitions would be difficult to do in the midst of a brutal civil war . Dozens of new facilities for destroying the weapons would have to be built from scratch or brought into the country from the U.S. , and completing the job would potentially take a decade or more . "
In October 2013 , Amy Smithson of the Center for Nonproliferation Studies stated that the government appears to be cooperating , but cautioned that the Syrian government has a " very sorry track record " on working with nuclear inspectors , and that it is easier to hide chemical weapons than a nuclear program . Chemical weapons expert Gwyn Winfield writes that Syria has an incentive to hold onto some of its chemical weapons , since its original incentive for developing a chemical weapons capability , as a deterrent against a suspected Israeli nuclear weapons arsenal , " isn 't going to go away . " In contrast , Ralf Trapp , a former OPCW official , has expressed optimism that satellite surveillance would deter cheating . Under the disarmament resolution , Syria is required to allow inspection of any site that raises suspicions .
A disagreement arose regarding the number of chemical weapons sites in contested areas of Syria , with the Syrian foreign minister stating that one @-@ third of sites are in such areas . FSA official Louay Miqdad stated in early October that there were no chemical weapons in areas occupied by opposition forces , " which is something that the Assad regime itself acknowledges , while these storehouses are also not located on the front , so why should we stop fighting ? " According to the OPCW chief , one abandoned site is in rebel @-@ held territory and routes to others lead through rebel @-@ held territory . Malik Ellahi of the OPCW states that few of the locations inspectors must visit will be difficult to access .
In April 2014 , disarmament experts such as Ralf Trapp characterized the pace of the operation as impressively quick . With 92 @.@ 5 % of the arsenal removed or destroyed , Trapp noted that many people hadn 't expected such speed to be achievable given the ongoing civil war .
= = = Later activity = = =
In late October 2013 , the OCPW said it expected 1 November deadline for destruction of CW production , mixing and munition @-@ filling capability to be met . It was reported on 23 October that it had visited 18 of 23 declared sites . It was reported that " ' low tech , quick and cheap ' methods were being used , such as filling equipment with concrete , smashing it , sometimes using heavy vehicles . " The OPCW " said the Syrian government had provided complete co @-@ operation with the 27 weapons inspectors in the country . "
On 31 October , the OPCW announced that it had met the deadline for destroying all declared equipment and facilities related to chemical weapons production , having visited 21 out of 23 sites , and received assurances from the Syrian government that the other two sites had been abandoned and emptied of chemicals and equipment , with these dispersed to sites visited by the OPCW . The two sites were unreachable due to being in contested areas of the ongoing civil war . On 7 November , the OPCW said that one of the two unvisited sites had been officially verified as " dismantled and abandoned " , based in part on images that the Syrian government shot using a " tamperproof " GPS @-@ enabled camera provided by the OPCW . Later , in January 2014 , U.S. Ambassador Robert Mikulak worried that the October destruction was incomplete and " reversible " and claimed that it did not , in fact , meet requirements .
On 15 November , the OPCW approved a plan to transport Syria 's chemical weapons to a location outside its territory by 5 February 2014 , where the weapons would then be destroyed . Acceptance of shipments of the 1 @,@ 000 tons of chemical agents for destruction have been refused by most countries approached by the OPCW . As of November 2013 , Belgium and France were still considering whether to agree to such shipments .
The countries of Norway and Denmark agreed to transport the chemical weapons from Syria to Italy where they were to be handed over to a United States Navy ship for destruction in international waters . The Norwegian Fridtjof Nansen @-@ class frigate Helge Ingstad will take part in the operation , as will the Norwegian marine corps unit Kystjegerkommandoen . The Norwegian government hired in the Norwegian registered RoRo cargo ship MV Taiko for the mission . Denmark will participate with the Danish frigate HDMS Esbern Snare and the Danish government has hired in the civilian cargo ship Ark Futura for the mission .
The United States will destroy the highest @-@ priority chemicals , which were scheduled for removal from Syria by 31 December , on board the MV Cape Ray in international waters of the Mediterranean , using an U.S. Army Field Deployable Hydrolysis System . The United Kingdom will give the United States specialist equipment and training to enable the highest @-@ priority chemicals to be processed more quickly . In addition around 150 tonnes of priority two chemicals , toxic material similar to industrial chemical agents , will be transported to the UK with the help of the British Royal Navy and destroyed there . The remaining stock of priority two chemicals not going to Britain will be destroyed by commercial companies .
The first shipment of components for chemical weapons were removed from Syria by a Norwegian / Danish flotilla on 7 January 2014 . The 31 December deadline for complete removal of priority chemicals had been missed ; on 7 January , the New York Times assessed the delay was due to the difficulty of overland transport of chemical weapons in the middle of a civil war . A second shipment was removed around 27 January ; that same day , the U.N. Secretary General , Ban Ki @-@ moon , expressed concern over the worsening delays and assessed that Syria already has the resources required to transport the weapons promptly despite the ongoing civil war .
On 2 July , the Danish ship Ark Futura arrived in the Italian port of Gioia Tauro , carrying the chemical weapons , which were then loaded onto the U.S. ship Cape Ray . The Cape Ray was equipped with two Field Deployable Hydrolysis Systems capable of neutralizing the poisonous substances and converting them into industrial waste . On 19 July 2014 , around 250 protesters gathered at the Souda base to protest the elimination of the chemical weapons in the nearby region of the Mediterranean Sea .
= = = = Delays = = = =
By 30 January 2014 , only about four percent of the priority chemicals had been removed . Syria continued to blame security issues ; U.S. officials disagreed and accused the government of deliberately causing or prolonging the delay . On 31 January , Russian diplomat Mikhail Ulyanov responded that " the Syrians are approaching the fulfilment of their obligations seriously and in good faith . " The U.S. blamed Syria 's Assad government for intentionally delaying efforts to remove chemical arms from the country for destruction , suggesting that the goal of liquidating the arsenal by midyear is in jeopardy . Stating that Assad is , in effect , slow @-@ walking the chemicals in order to obtain more security equipment , U.S. Ambassador Robert P. Mikulak said that " Syria has demanded armored jackets for shipping containers , electronic countermeasures , and detectors for improvised explosive devices . " He said the demands are " without merit " and " display a ' bargaining mentality ' rather than a security mentality . "
Around 21 February , Syria proposed a hundred @-@ day plan for removal of the chemicals . British official Philip Hall criticized the plan as " not adequate " . At the time , the US had stated destruction of the chemicals , once off @-@ site , would take 90 days ; given that timeframe , Syria 's proposed May removal deadline would not leave enough time for all munitions to be destroyed to meet the end @-@ of @-@ June deadline for complete destruction of Syria 's chemical weapons . Around 4 March , Syria agreed to a 60 @-@ day timetable for removal of the stockpile . By 4 March 2014 , almost a third of the stockpile had been removed or destroyed .
Syria missed a 15 March deadline for destroying its 12 chemical weapons production facilities . Syria has proposed to instead render the facilities inoperable by sealing their entrances ; the U.S. and its allies oppose this proposal and insist on destruction .
By 21 March , Syria 's entire supply of mustard gas had been removed . On 27 April , Syria missed its revised 60 @-@ day deadline for complete removal of its full chemical weapons arsenal . As at 23 May , Syria had removed or destroyed 92 @.@ 5 % of its declared chemical stockpile .
On 23 June , the head of OPCW , Ahmet Üzümcü , announced in The Hague that the last of Syria 's declared chemical weapons had been shipped out of the country for destruction . The last 8 % of the chemical stockpile was loaded on to ships at Latakia . The most toxic chemicals , including sarin precursors and sulphur mustard , were destroyed by 18 August aboard the US naval vessel MV Cape Ray . The remaining were destroyed in the US , Great Britain and Finland . On 4 January 2015 , the OPCW confirmed that the destruction was completed .
Despite American criticisms of the delays , the OPCW has described Syria 's cooperation as " satisfactory " .
= = Problems with cargo = =
In a news article published in Norway 's biggest newspaper Verdens Gang in December 2015 , it was revealed that the operation had been far more dramatic than what was expected and reported . There were rocket attacks against Latakia while " Taiko " was docked . There were explosions and strikes around the docks and there were incidents were possible suicide boats would come to close to the ships and had to be warned off . The commander of the Norwegian frigate commanded that the moorings on the freighter " Taiko " was rigged with explosives every time she went to land in Syria . The goal : To get from the country as soon as possible if anything happened . From the get go , the shipments of containers that was transported to the cargo ships was in bad shape and they leaked lethal material and gases . The containers were characterized by having been filled up hastily in a war zone before they were transported to the pier and handed on to the Norwegian forces . When almost half of the cargo gave signal of leakage of lethal material , an emergency meeting was held onboard Taiko with representatives from OPCW , UN , USA , Norway , Denmark , Syria and Finland . The Norwegian soldiers were ordered to deal with the situation . However no country would accept a docking of the ship with the material leaking on board , and Norwegian personnel and ships had to sail back to Syria and deal with and open the sealed containers and move the material to different containers .
= = Alleged violations = =
Chlorine , a common industrial chemical , was allegedly used in poison @-@ gas attacks by the Assad government in 2014 . Chlorine is not on the list of prohibited chemicals covered by the disarmament agreement ; however , its use as a weapon violates the Chemical Weapons Convention .
In July 2014 , Assad disclosed to the OPCW " a facility for the production of ricin " but stated that " the entire quantity of ricin produced was disposed of prior to the entry into force " of the Chemical Weapons Convention . The lateness of this disclosure raised doubts about the completeness of the government 's declaration of its chemical weapons stockpile . The Israeli intelligence community believes the Assad government retains several tons of chemical weapons .
= = Declared sites and chemical weapons = =
Syria declared 23 sites to OPCW , the location of which are not disclosed for confidentiality reasons . On these sites a combined 41 facilities were present containing " 1 @,@ 300 tons of chemical precursors and agents and 1 @,@ 230 unfilled munitions " .
According to U.S. chemical weapons nonproliferation expert Amy Smithson , declared sites are believed to include :
four production facilities near Safira , Khan Abu Shamat , Homs , and Hama
six storage facilities near Safira , Homs , Hama , Furqlus , Latakia , and Palmyra
a research and development site in Damascus
In October 2013 , the OPCW directly inspected 21 of the 23 sites . The OPCW was able to indirectly confirm that the other two , unreachable , sites had been abandoned .
= = = Allegations of undisclosed sites = = =
The Economist reported in early October that Syria had disclosed 19 chemical weapons @-@ related sites , whilst unnamed Western intelligence sources believed 45 sites to exist in total . One U.S. official said it was not clear if the discrepancy is " a deception " or merely a " difference of definition " regarding what constitutes a chemical weapons site . In Science Insider , experts stated that there was a possibility of incomplete record @-@ keeping , citing an incident in 2002 wherein Albania discovered , in a cluster of mountain bunkers , 16 tons of primitive , undocumented chemical weapon agents that Albania had forgotten about . Chemical weapons expert Winfield has commented that the success of the destruction plan depends on Syria revealing all of its chemical arms stockpile , much of which is moveable and may be spread across dozens of sites .
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= Nuckelavee =
The nuckelavee ( pronunciation : / nʌklɑːˈviː / ) or nuckalavee is a horse @-@ like demon from Orcadian mythology that combines equine and human elements . It has its origins in Norse mythology , and is the most horrible of all the demons of the Scottish islands . The nuck component of its name may be cognate with Nick in Old Nick , a name for the Christian Devil . The nuckelavee 's breath was thought to wilt crops and sicken livestock , and the creature was held responsible for droughts and epidemics on land despite its being predominantly a sea @-@ dweller .
A graphic description of the nuckelavee as it appears on land was given by an islander who claimed to have had a confrontation with it , but accounts describing the details of the creature 's appearance are inconsistent . In common with many other sea monsters it is unable to tolerate fresh water , therefore those it is pursuing have only to cross a river or stream to be rid of it . The nuckelavee is kept in confinement during the summer months by the Mither o ' the Sea , an ancient Orcadian spirit , and the only one able to control it .
Orcadian folklore had a strong Scandinavian influence , and it may be that the nuckelavee is a composite of a water horse from Celtic mythology and a creature imported by the Norsemen . As with similar malevolent entities such as the kelpie , it possibly offered an explanation for incidents that islanders in ancient times could not otherwise understand .
= = Etymology = =
The late 19th century saw an upsurge of interest in transcribing folklore , but the recorders used inconsistent spelling and frequently anglicised words , thus the same entity could be given different names . The term nuckelavee derives from Orcadian knoggelvi , and according to Orkney resident and 19th @-@ century folklorist Walter Traill Dennison means " Devil of the Sea " . The same demon is called a mukkelevi in Shetland , where it was considered a nasty sea trow or sea devil . Samuel Hibbert , an antiquarian of the early nineteenth century , considered the component nuck of the nuckelavee 's name to be cognate with both the Nick in Old Nick , a name sometimes given to the Devil of Christian belief , and with the Latin necare , to kill .
= = Folk beliefs = =
= = = Description and common attributes = = =
Stories of mythical Orcadian demons are recorded in the 16th @-@ century Latin manuscripts of Jo Ben , who may have been referring to the nuckelavee in his description of the Orkney island of Stronsay . Dennison transcribed much of the information available about traditional tales told on Orkney , but to an extent romanticised and systematically altered certain elements of the stories in the process of transforming them into prose .
The nuckelavee is a mythical sea creature that appears as a horse @-@ like demon when it ventures onto land . Writer and folklorist Ernest Marwick considered it very similar to the Norwegian nøkk , the nuggle of the Shetlands and the kelpie . A unique and solitary creature possessing extensive evil powers , its malevolent behaviour can influence events throughout the islands . Islanders were terrified of the creature and would not speak its name without immediately saying a prayer . It was often found in the vicinity of a beach , but would never come ashore if it was raining .
No tales describe what form the nuckelavee takes when in the sea , but its appearance on land has been recounted in graphic detail . An islander , Tammas , claimed to have survived a confrontation with the beast and , after much cajoling from Dennison , reluctantly gave his description of the monster , the only known first @-@ hand account . According to Tammas , the nuckelavee has a man 's torso attached to a horse 's back as if it were a rider . The male torso has no legs , but its arms can reach the ground from its position on top of the equine body , the legs of which have fin like appendages . The torso has a large head – possibly as much as 3 feet ( 90 centimetres ) in diameter – that rolls back and forth . The monster described by Tammas has two heads ; the equine head has an enormous gaping mouth that exudes a smelly toxic vapour , and a single giant eye like a burning red flame . A particularly gruesome detail is that the nuckelavee has no skin ; black blood courses through yellow veins , and the pale sinews and powerful muscles are visible as a pulsating mass . Other reports state that the creature resembles a centaur ; narratives are inconsistent in the finer details of the demon 's description however . Traill Dennison only describes a man 's head with a " mouth projected like that of a pig " . Marwick also only mentions one head with a single red eye , and he borrows some of Tammas 's characterisation by recording the creature 's mouth as " like a whale 's " .
The nuckelavee 's breath was thought to wilt crops and sicken livestock , and it was considered responsible for epidemics and drought . Seaweed burning to create what was known at the time as kelp began on Stronsay in 1722 . The product – soda ash – was an alkali mainly used to treat acidic soil , although as time went on its commercial importance in soap and glass manufacture increased . The pungent smoke emitted during the process was believed to enrage the nuckelavee , resulting in a wild rampage of plague , the deaths of cattle and the destruction of crops . The nuckelavee was said to have infected horses on Stronsay with the deadly disease known as mortasheen , to demonstrate its fury and exact its revenge against the islanders for burning seaweed ; the infection subsequently spread to all the other islands involved in the industry . The creature was also blamed for prolonged periods of abnormally low rainfall , leading to water shortages and poor harvests .
= = Confinement = =
The nuckelavee is the most malevolent of the demons in and around the Scottish islands , without any redeeming characteristics . The only entity able to control it is the Mither o ' the Sea , an ancient spirit in Orcadian mythology who keeps the nuckelavee confined during the summer months . In common with other mythical sea monsters , with the possible exception of kelpies and the nuggle of Shetland , it is unable to wade through fresh flowing water , therefore those it is chasing have only to cross a stream to be rid of it . Tammas managed to escape from the nuckelavee after he inadvertently splashed it with water from the loch he was alongside ; this briefly distracted the monster , allowing Tammas to run over to a nearby channel of fresh water and jump to safety on the opposite bank .
= = Origins = =
Malevolent creatures possibly served to provide explanations for incidents that islanders from bygone times were otherwise unable to account for ; many ancient myths were based upon the natural elements of the turbulent and ever changing sea around Orkney . Established Orcadian tales were strongly influenced by Scandinavian mythology with a blending of traditional Celtic stories , so the nuckelavee may have its roots in a mythical creature imported by the Norsemen fused with a traditional Celtic water horse .
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= Lassie ( 1954 TV series ) =
Lassie is an American television series that follows the adventures of a female Rough Collie dog named Lassie and her companions , both human and animal . The show was the creation of producer Robert Maxwell and animal trainer Rudd Weatherwax and was televised from September 12 , 1954 , to March 25 , 1973 . The fourth longest @-@ running U.S. primetime television series after The Simpsons , Gunsmoke , and Law & Order , the show chalked up 17 seasons on CBS before entering first @-@ run syndication for its final two seasons . Initially filmed in black and white , the show transitioned to color in 1965 .
The show 's first 10 seasons follow Lassie 's adventures in a small farming community . Fictional eleven @-@ year @-@ old Jeff Miller , his mother , and his grandfather are Lassie 's first human companions until seven @-@ year @-@ old Timmy Martin and his adoptive parents take over in the fourth season . When Lassie 's exploits on the farm end in the eleventh season , she finds new adventures in the wilderness alongside United States Forest Service Rangers . After traveling on her own for a year , Lassie finally settles at a children 's home for her final two syndicated seasons .
Lassie received critical favor at its debut and won two Emmy Awards in its first years . Stars Jan Clayton and June Lockhart were nominated for Emmys . Merchandise produced during the show 's run included books , a Halloween costume , clothing , toys , and other items . Campbell 's Soup , the show 's lifelong sponsor , offered two premiums ( a ring and a wallet ) , and distributed thousands to fans . A multi @-@ part episode was edited into the feature film Lassie 's Great Adventure and released in August 1963 . Selected episodes have been released to DVD .
= = Production = =
= = = Concept and development = = =
Between 1943 and 1951 , the fictional collie , Lassie , was the inspiration for seven MGM feature films . With completion of the seventh film in 1951 , the studio planned no further films for the Lassie character or Pal , the dog actor who portrayed the fictional canine . In lieu of $ 40 @,@ 000 back pay owed him by MGM , Pal 's owner and trainer Rudd Weatherwax took all rights to the Lassie trademark and name , and hit the road with Pal to perform at fairs , rodeos , and other venues .
Needing material for the relatively new medium of television , producer Robert Maxwell sold Weatherwax on the concept of a Lassie television series with a boy and his dog theme . The two men developed a scenario about a struggling war widow , her young son , and her father @-@ in @-@ law set on a weather @-@ beaten , modern day American farm . Two pilots were filmed in Calgary , Alberta , Canada with the first telling the story of the bond forged between boy and dog , and the second filmed to give potential sponsors and network buyers an idea of a typical episode . After viewing the pilots , CBS put the show on its fall 1954 schedule . Campbell 's Soup Company signed on early as the show 's sole sponsor and remained so for the show 's entire run . Filming for the series began in the summer of 1954 , and Lassie made its début Sunday , September 12 , 1954 , at 7 : 00 p.m. EST , a time slot the show would call home on CBS for the next seventeen years .
In 1957 , Jack Wrather , owner of the hit television series The Lone Ranger and Sergeant Preston of the Yukon purchased all rights to the Lassie television show for $ 3 @.@ 25 million , and guided the show through its next several seasons . As 1964 and the show 's eleventh season approached , the decision was made to completely rework the show ; the boy and his dog theme was dropped and Lassie was teamed with a succession of United States Forest Service workers . The show focused on conservation and environmentalism , but its relevance in a time of social change was questioned . The show began a steady decline in ratings . In 1971 , new rulings regarding network prime time scheduling were handed down from the Federal Communications Commission , and CBS canceled the show . Lassie then entered first @-@ run syndication for two seasons before televising its last new episode on Sunday March 25 , 1973 .
= = = Casting = = =
The show 's title character is portrayed in the two pilots by Pal , the MGM film Lassie . Thereafter , five of his male descendants played the role . His son Lassie Junior performed through the Jeff years and first two Timmy years before retiring in 1959 to battle cancer . Though he recovered , Lassie Junior never worked the show again . His son Spook was rushed into the series while his brother Baby was in training for the role . Spook was inadequately prepared and never became comfortable on the set after an overhead light crashed to the floor on his first day . Weatherwax , however , coaxed a natural and seemingly confident performance from the frightened dog , and , for some , Spook 's portrayal represents Weatherwax 's finest work . Spook played the role in the spring and fall of 1960 . Baby , son of Lassie Junior and brother to Spook , worked the show for six years . He appeared in the last Timmy years , and two of the Forest Service seasons . Baby died at eight years of age , the only Lassie not to live at least seventeen years . He was followed in the role by Mire who played Lassie for five years . Hey Hey portrayed the fictional collie in the syndicated seasons .
Broadway star and quiz show panelist Jan Clayton was hired to play farm widow Ellen Miller with septuagenarian George Cleveland playing her father @-@ in @-@ law , George " Gramps " Miller . Child actor Tommy Rettig was hired to portray Ellen ’ s eleven @-@ year @-@ old son Jeff Miller , and Donald Keeler ( the professional name used at the time by Joey D. Vieira ) was cast as Jeff 's friend , Sylvester " Porky " Brockway . Porky 's basset hound Pokey became a recurring animal character through the first several seasons .
In 1957 , Clayton and Rettig wanted to leave the show . Producers decided to find a new boy and ease the Miller family out of the show . Two hundred boys were interviewed , and six @-@ year @-@ old film veteran Jon Provost was hired and made his début as Timmy in the fourth season opener , " The Runaway . " In July 1957 , George Cleveland died unexpectedly , and producers were forced to overhaul the show . The plot was extensively reworked and Clayton and Rettig were dropped . Cloris Leachman and Jon Shepodd were quickly hired as Timmy ’ s adoptive parents Ruth and Paul Martin . In the fourth season , George Chandler was hired to play Petrie Martin , Paul 's uncle , but was later dropped . As fourth season shooting progressed , Leachman grew unhappy playing a tired farm woman , feuded on @-@ set with co @-@ workers , and proved unpopular with viewers . Ratings dropped . When filming was completed for the 1957 – 58 season in February 1958 , Wrather severed ties with producer Maxwell and dropped Leachman and Shepodd . Film veteran June Lockhart and Broadway stage star Hugh Reilly replaced the two at the top of the fifth season . Todd Ferrell played Timmy 's friend Ralph " Boomer " Bates with his dog Mike a recurring character but both were dropped in 1959 .
Former Keystone Kop Andy Clyde , also a co @-@ star of The Real McCoys , became a regular in 1959 as neighbor Cully Wilson .
Guest stars during the Timmy years included " The Lone Ranger " , Roy Campanella , Olympian Rafer Johnson , Stacy Keach , Marie Windsor , Dick Foran , Tod Griffin , Jane Darwell , Denver Pyle , Fuzzy Knight , Harry Carey , Jr . , William Schallert , and Karl Swenson .
During its first four years , Lassie received very decent ratings . However , at the end of the 1958 @-@ 1959 season , the ratings had fallen out of the top 30 due to the constant turnover in the cast . Once viewers began to warm to Lockhart and Reilly as Timmy 's parents , the Martin family was accepted and embraced by the public . As a result , between 1960 and 1964 , Lassie 's ratings greatly improved and by the spring of 1964 , it received its highest rating ever , ranking at # 13 .
In 1964 , Provost declined to renew his contract . Producers decided to broaden the show 's demographics to appeal to older viewers , and , to that end , dropped the boy and his dog theme for a plot featuring a Forest Service Ranger . Robert Bray , a former Marine and Gary Cooper look @-@ alike was cast as Corey Stuart . During Bray 's first year , the show transitioned to color filming and spectacular scenic locations across America were exploited as settings for the show . Eventually , Bray 's alcoholism forced him from the show , and Jack De Mave and Jed Allan were hired to replace him .
Guest stars during the Ranger years included Ken Osmond , Paul Petersen , Suzanne Somers , Victor French , and Morgan Brittany . When the Forest Service years came to an end , Lassie wandered on her own for a season then settled at the Holden ranch for her final two syndicated seasons with costars Ron Hayes , Larry Pennell , Skip Burton , Larry Wilcox , Sherry Boucher , and Pamelyn Ferdin .
= = = = Narration = = = =
Wrather 's wife , and series associate producer Bonita Granville Wrather narrated numerous episodes throughout the run of the series , usually the beginning and / or ending of multi @-@ part episodes .
= = = Writers = = =
Novelist Inez Asher was among those who wrote for the series , while other scripts were produced by writers blacklisted during the heyday of McCarthyism and the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee . These writers included Robert Lees ( credited as J. E. Selby ) and Adrian Scott , one of the Hollywood Ten who went to prison for contempt of the United States Congress . His wife , Joan Scott writing as Joanne Court , attended story conferences and gave her husband notes so he could do rewrites .
= = = Filming = = =
The show 's first studio was Stage One of KTTV in Los Angeles , California , with the production moving to Desilu in 1957 . Franklin Canyon Reservoir and Vasquez Rocks saw location shootings . During the Timmy seasons , episodes were filmed at the Grand Canyon and in the High Sierra , and , during the Forest Service seasons , the Forest Service and the Department of the Interior offered Alaska , Puerto Rico , the Washington Monument and other sites for location shoots .
Fifteen pages were filmed per day , six days a week , with three shows completed per week . Shooting in order was not possible . Several barn segments might be filmed at a particular time with the crew then moving on to film an equal number of kitchen scenes . The shots may have then been used in four or five different episodes . Rettig was allowed to bond with the dog and often groomed the dog at the studio or spent weekends at Weatherwax 's home playing with the animal . The bond translated to film , making the boy and dog scenes more believable , but , eventually the dog developed divided loyalties ( looking to Rettig for direction rather than Weatherwax ) and the trainer was forced to curtail the amount of time boy and dog spent together .
Typically , there were two dog trainers on the set , each teetering on a stepladder only Lassie could see and waving a chunk of meat at the dog . " It would look as though Lassie was looking at Jon ( Provost ) , but he was really looking past Jon at the piece of beef " , Lockhart recalled in 2004 . When Provost delivered his line , the trainer behind Lockhart would whisper " Lassie ! " and wave another piece of meat . Lassie 's head would turn to Lockhart who would deliver her line . Then the trainer behind Provost would get Lassie 's attention again , and Provost would deliver his next line . " The sound editor would cut out all that , " Lockhart said , " You finally got to where you never heard the trainers . Often , if the scene had gone well , and maybe we hadn 't gotten the dialogue quite right , if the dog was right , they 'd print it . " In addition to the main Lassie , three other Lassies might be involved in an episode shoot : a stand @-@ in for rehearsals , a stunt double , and a " fighter " for scenes involving battles with other animals .
= = = Theme music = = =
Lassie used several pieces of theme music during its long broadcast history . For the first season , " Secret of the Silent Hills ( Theme from the Lassie TV series ) " , is used for both the opening and ending theme . Composed by William Lava , the orchestral theme was originally created for the 1940 radio show The Courageous Dr. Christian .
For the second and third season a variation of this theme , titled simply " Lassie Main & End Title " , was used for the opening and ending theme . Raoul Kraushaar , the music director for the series , is the listed composer for the theme ; however the changes he made to the original are so slight that only a trained ear can tell the difference . The third theme used for the series is an orchestral rendition of the aria , " Dio Possente " ( Even Bravest Hearts May Swell ) from Charles Gounod 's opera , Faust . The exact time this theme started being used is uncertain due to conflicting records ; however it is agreed that it was the third series , and was used for at least part of season four for the change of ownership of Lassie .
The most famous of the Lassie theme songs appeared at the start of the fifth season . Copyrighted as " Lassie Main & End Title " , the song was created by Les Baxter , with the whistling itself performed by Muzzy Marcellino . Nicknamed " The Whistler , " it remained the series theme for the rest of the " Martin years " . With the coming of the " Ranger years " , the opening and ending theme was changed to Nathan Scott 's arrangement of the traditional folk tune Greensleeves . An orchestral " Whistler " returned for the series theme during the thirteenth season for the seven @-@ part " Voyager " episode , and would remain the series theme for the rest of its run . Television composer Nathan Scott scored the music to nearly every episode between 1963 and 1973 , except for four episodes .
= = = Sponsor = = =
Campbell 's Soup Company sponsored the entire nineteen @-@ year run off Lassie . In one of the first instances of product placement , the company asked that their products be visible on the set and so , in episode after episode , Campbell 's products are seen in background shots . Campbell 's also contractually required the show 's stars to avoid appearing in any film or theatrical production that undermined their All @-@ American images .
In 1956 , the company held a " Name Lassie 's Puppies " contest with the grand prizes being Lassie 's pups and $ 2 @,@ 000 . Company executives hand @-@ delivered puppies to the winner 's homes . In 1958 , for twenty @-@ five cents and a label from a Swanson 's frozen dinner , viewers could receive a Lassie portrait friendship ring based on one Uncle Petrie fashions for Timmy . The company mailed 77 @,@ 715 rings to viewers . In 1959 , the company offered a wallet " made of rich brown plastic " emblazoned with a picture of Lassie ; 1 @,@ 343 @,@ 509 wallets were mailed to viewers who sent in five different labels from Campbell products . The labels represented 6 @.@ 5 million cans of Campbell 's products sold . Campbell 's paid the Wrather Company $ 7 million a year to air its commercials . The soup company 's profits rose seventy percent over its pre @-@ Lassie days .
Lassie was spokesdog for Recipe Dog Food , a Campbell 's product introduced in 1969 , which was reportedly based on the homemade stew mixture Weatherwax prepared for Lassie . Printed advertisements for the product announced , " Now all dogs can come home to the dinner Lassie comes home to . " In its first year , Recipe earned $ 10 million for Campbell 's , and , in its third year , $ 40 million . To help boost sales , Campbell 's paid Weatherwax to write a dog @-@ training manual called The Lassie Method which the company used as a premium offer .
= = Plot and themes = =
Plots during the first ten " boy and his dog " seasons were similar : the boy ( Jeff or Timmy ) got into some sort of trouble . Lassie then dashed off to get help or rushed in to save her master 's life herself . After being reunited with family and breathing a sigh of relief , the boy received a light lecture on why he should not have done what he had done . In 2004 , June Lockhart described the show as " ... a fairy tale about people on a farm in which the dog solves all the problems in 22 minutes , in time for the last commercial . "
Two Timmy and Lassie episodes launched Campbell 's Soup premiums , while two others promoted a UNICEF Halloween project and the Peace Patrol , a children 's savings bond program spearheaded by Lassie and The Lone Ranger . The same seasons saw several Christmas episodes , while conservation and environmentalism were brought center stage . Some scripts dealt with race and ethnicity with both Jeff and Timmy championing Hispanics , Native Americans , and Asian Americans . Aging Americans were presented in a positive light during the years when Andy Clyde was featured as Martin family friend / neighbor Cully Wilson .
Seasons 11 @-@ 16 were the " Ranger years " of the series , as Lassie ( due to not being able to travel to Australia with the Martins after Paul had gotten a job offer to teach agriculture there ) was taken in by U.S. Forest Ranger Corey Stuart ( who appeared in a few episodes of season 10 ) and began to work with the U.S. Forest Service . Color filming was exploited during the Ranger years with Lassie and her friends sent to exotic locations such as Sequoia National Forest and Monument Valley , creating miniature travelogues for viewers . Other rangers would be featured during the latter part of this era when Robert Bray ( who played Stuart ) left the series .
For season 17 , the program shifted gears again and became somewhat of an anthology series , with Lassie traveling on her own , getting into to different adventures each week ( similar in format to The Littlest Hobo ) . No explanation was given as to why Lassie was no longer with the Forest Service . Some episodes during this final CBS season were animals @-@ only .
During seasons 18 and 19 ( with the series having moved to first run syndication ) , Lassie was taken in by Garth Holden ( played by Ron Hayes ) who was in charge of the Holden Ranch – a home for orphaned boys – which he ran with his college @-@ age son and his friend . This became Lassie 's home for the final two years of the series .
Lassie themes explored the relationship between boys and their dogs with the show helping to shape the viewer 's understanding of mid @-@ twentieth century American boyhood . Lassie was associated with the wholesome family values of its period but some parents ' groups monitoring television content found cliffhanger plots showing children in danger too intense for very young viewers and objected to some of Timmy 's actions which were believed to encourage children to disobey parents . However , Lassie was consistently depicted as caring , nurturing , and responsible with a commitment to family and community , often rescuing those in peril and righting wrongs . She was the perfect ' mother ' within the American ideology of the 1950s and 1960s .
= = Characters and cast = =
= = = Human leads = = =
= = = = 1954 – 1957 : Miller Family ( Jeff 's Collie ) = = = =
Ellen Miller - war @-@ widowed farm woman ( Jan Clayton )
Jeff Miller - Ellen 's eleven @-@ year @-@ old son ( Tommy Rettig )
George " Gramps " Miller - Ellen 's father @-@ in @-@ law and Jeff 's paternal grandfather ( George Cleveland )
Sylvester " Porky " Brockway - a farm boy and Jeff 's friend ( Joey D. Vieira - using the stage name " Donald Keeler " )
= = = = 1957 – 1964 : Martin Family ( Timmy & Lassie ) = = = =
Timmy Martin - a foster boy on the Miller farm ( Jon Provost )
Paul Martin - a young farmer , Ruth 's husband and Timmy 's adoptive father ( Jon Shepodd 1957 – 1958 ; Hugh Reilly 1958 – 1964 )
Ruth Martin - Paul 's wife and Timmy 's adoptive mother ( Cloris Leachman 1957 – 1958 ; June Lockhart 1958 – 1964 )
Petrie J. Martin - Paul 's uncle ( George Chandler ) ( 1957 – 1959 )
Cully Wilson - a neighbor of the Martins , who was a farmer and nature lover ( Andy Clyde ) ( 1959 – 1964 )
Ralph " Boomer " Bates - a neighbor of the Martins who owned a dog named Mike and was Timmy 's best friend ( Todd Ferrell ) ( 1958 – 1959 )
= = = = 1964 – 1970 : U.S. Forest Service = = = =
Forest Ranger Corey Stuart ( Robert Bray ) ( 1964 @-@ 1968 )
Forest Ranger Bob Erickson ( Jack De Mave ) ( 1968 @-@ 1970 )
Forest Ranger Scott Turner ( Jed Allan ) ( 1968 @-@ 1970 )
= = = = 1970 – 1971 : Traveling on her own = = = =
No human leads
= = = = 1971 – 1973 : Holden Ranch = = = =
Garth Holden - director of the Holden Ranch ( Ron Hayes )
Ron Holden - Garth 's son ( Skip Burton )
Dale Mitchell - Ron 's friend ( Larry Wilcox )
Keith Holden - Garth 's brother ( Larry Pennell )
Lucy Baker - a deaf child living near the Holden Ranch ( Pamelyn Ferdin )
= = = Dog actors as Lassie = = =
Pal ( Pilot episodes )
Lassie Junior ( 1954 – 59 )
Spook ( 1960 )
Baby ( 1960 – 66 )
Mire ( 1966 – 1971 )
Hey Hey ( 1971 – 73 )
= = Media information = =
= = = Broadcast history = = =
First @-@ run Lassie was televised September 12 , 1954 to March 24 , 1973 with its first 17 seasons airing on CBS Sundays at 7 : 00 p.m. EST . In 1971 , in order to promote community @-@ related programming among local affiliates , the Federal Communications Commission moved primetime Sundays to 8 : 00 P.M. EST with the institution of the Prime Time Access Rule . CBS executives felt Lassie would not be well received in a time slot other than its traditional 7 : 00 p.m. slot , and , with the network 's other family programs set , the show was canceled . ( Lassie was among several shows that CBS canceled during this time period as part of a change in its target demographics . ) Lassie then entered first @-@ run syndication with Jack Wrather and Campbell 's Soup still on board , and remained on the air for another two years with its final episode airing in March 1973 . All totaled , 591 episodes were produced .
The Miller years were sold into syndication in 1958 under the title of Jeff 's Collie . In rerun syndication , the Martin family episodes aired under the title of Timmy & Lassie . Re @-@ runs of the series aired on Nickelodeon from 1984 until 1996 .
= = = Current airings = = =
Classic Media currently owns the rights to the entire Lassie television series , as well as the Lassie trademark .
Timmy & Lassie episodes air Saturdays at noon on Trinity Broadcasting Network ( TBN ) , and throughout the week on its children 's channel Smile of a Child . The NBC owned classic TV network Cozi TV airs Miller / Martin farm era episodes daily , while the action / adventure / western oriented GRIT classic TV / movie network airs Forest Service era episodes weekday mornings .
FETV ( Family Entertainment Television ) airs the show weeknights during the overnight hours .
= = = Later series = = =
While the original series had no direct spinoffs , a few subsequent productions would use the Lassie character .
In 1973 , ABC created an animated Saturday @-@ morning animated program called Lassie 's Rescue Rangers produced by Filmation .
In 1989 , what was essentially a sequel series , The New Lassie - featuring Jon Provost as Steve McCullough - aired in first @-@ run syndication . In its seventh episode ( " Roots " ) , June Lockhart reprised her Ruth Martin role when Steve McCullough is revealed to be the adult Timmy Martin . It is revealed that Timmy was never properly adopted by the Martins and consequently was forced to remain in the U.S. when Ruth and Paul emigrated to Australia . Timmy was then subsequently adopted by the McCullough family and began going by his middle name Steven . In 1991 , Tommy Rettig made a guest appearance in the episode " The Amazing Lassie " . This would be his final television appearance prior to his death in 1996 .
In 1997 , a modified remake - also called Lassie - debuted , airing in the U.S. on the then new Animal Planet cable network . This show ( which was filmed in Canada and set in Vermont ) also revolved around a boy named Timmy and his dog , though differences in setting and character circumstances precluded it from being an exact remake of the original series .
= = = Feature film = = =
During Thanksgiving week 1962 , a five @-@ part color episode called " The Journey " . was filmed in the High Sierra . First telecast in February and March 1963 , the episode follows Timmy and Lassie , as the two are swept away in a carnival hot air balloon that eventually comes to rest in the Canadian wilderness . The voyagers face many perils before being rescued by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police . Richard Simmons , star of another Jack Wrather property , Sergeant Preston of the Yukon , made an appearance , while Lassie star Jon Provost performed whitewater stunts . Lassie sponsor Campbell 's Soup objected to multi @-@ part episodes , believing viewers would not want to tune in week after week to find out what happened from one segment to the next , but three of the five segments of " The Journey " hit the Nielsen top ten for the weeks in which they aired . The five segments were later edited into a feature @-@ length film and released in August 1963 through 20th Century Fox as Lassie 's Great Adventure .
= = = DVD releases = = =
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Every year of its 17 @-@ year run on CBS , Lassie placed first in its time slot , Sunday 7 : 00 P.M. EST , and often ranked among the top 25 shows on television . The show 's highest ranking years in the Nielsen ratings were the Martin years when the show placed # 24 in 1957 , # 22 in 1958 , # 15 in 1959 , # 15 in 1961 , # 21 in 1962 , # 13 in 1963 , and # 17 in 1964 . The only Martin year Lassie did not climb into the top twenty @-@ five was 1960 , when it ran opposite Walt Disney Presents on ABC and Shirley Temple Theater on NBC . However , Lassie still ran opposite Disney when the Disney anthology television series moved to NBC in 1961 , and still managed to climb into the Top 25 . With the advent of the Forest Service seasons , the show began a steady decline in ratings .
From 1959 through 1967 ( with the exception of 1963 ) , the show was regularly pre @-@ empted by CBS 's annual two @-@ hour fall telecast of The Wizard of Oz , which was always shown on a Sunday from 6 : 00 to 8 : 00 P.M. E.S.T. Because the 1939 film always drew such a huge TV audience , CBS 's Nielsen ratings in the 7 : 00 P.M. time slot remained high .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
( All awards listed given during the time of , or specifically related to the TV series )
Two @-@ time Emmy Award winner for Best Children 's Program ( 1955 , 1956 )
1956 Peabody Award
Three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame ( Lassie - 1960 , June Lockhart - 1960 for television , Jon Provost - 1994 )
1967 U.S. Department of Agriculture Conservation Award ( awarded to Lassie for promoting conservation during the series ' Forest Service era )
Timmy Martin 's shirt , jeans , and Keds displayed at the Smithsonian Institution
= = = Cultural impact = = =
In 1960 , the Lassie character became one of only three live canine characters to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . Jon Provost 's Keds sneakers are in the collections of the Smithsonian Institution . Lassie and the show 's stars have appeared on the covers of Parade , Life , Look , and TV Guide .
Ancillary merchandise produced during the show 's first @-@ run includes Halloween costumes , Viewmaster reels , comic books , and other items . In 2005 , Karen Pfeiffer released The Legacy of Lassie : An Unauthorized Information and Price Guide on Lassie Collectibles ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0975887066 ) .
In 1967 , in conjunction with Lassie 's association with the United States Forest Service and environmentalism , Lassie was welcomed to the White House by Lady Bird Johnson . In January 1968 , President Lyndon Johnson signed into a law a bill targeting soil and water pollution that many called " the Lassie program " . Lassie and her sponsors were honored with a luncheon in the Senate Dining Room on March 19 , 1968 , and presented with a plaque by senators Edmund Muskie and George Murphy , recognizing their commitment to the environment .
Jon Provost called his autobiography Timmy 's in the Well ! because a well was the one place Timmy never fell into — abandoned mine shafts , off cliffs , into rivers , lakes , and quicksand , but never a well .
Mad parodied the show as " Lizzy " .
In an episode of The Flintstones ( " Dino Goes Hollyrock " ) , the character Dino wins an appearance on the smash hit TV show " Sassie " starring a heavily made @-@ up and snobby girl dinosaur and her Lassie @-@ like adventures .
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= Colonel Sun =
Colonel Sun is a novel by Kingsley Amis published by Jonathan Cape on 28 March 1968 under the pseudonym " Robert Markham " . Colonel Sun is the first James Bond continuation novel published after Ian Fleming 's 1964 death . Before writing the novel , Amis wrote two other Bond related works , the literary study The James Bond Dossier and the humorous The Book of Bond . Colonel Sun centres on the fictional British Secret Service operative James Bond and his mission to track down the kidnappers of M , his superior at the Secret Service . During the mission he discovers a communist Chinese plot to cause an international incident . Bond , assisted by a Greek spy working for the Russians , finds M on a small Aegean island , rescues him and kills the two main plotters : Colonel Sun Liang @-@ tan and a former Nazi commander , Von Richter .
Amis drew upon a holiday he had taken in the Greek islands to create a realistic Greek setting and characters . He emphasised political intrigue in the plot more than Fleming had done in the canonical Bond novels , also adding revenge to Bond 's motivations by including M 's kidnapping . Despite keeping a format and structure similar to Fleming 's Bond novels , Colonel Sun was given mixed reviews .
Colonel Sun was serialised in the Daily Express newspaper in 1968 and adapted as a comic strip in the same newspaper in 1969 – 1970 . Elements from the story have been used in the Eon Productions Bond series : The 1999 instalment The World Is Not Enough used M 's kidnapping , whilst the villain of 2002 film Die Another Day , Colonel Tan @-@ Sun Moon , owes his name to Colonel Sun Liang @-@ tan . Chapter 19 ( ' The Theory and Practice of Torture ' ) was adapted for the torture scene in Spectre ( 2015 ) . Though Blofeld replaced Sun as Bond 's tormentor , much of Blofeld 's dialogue in the scene was written by Amis for Sun , resulting in an acknowledgement to Amis ' estate in the end title credits , though no mention of the book itself .
= = Plot = =
Kidnappers violently take the Secret Service chief M from his house and almost capture James Bond , who is visiting . Intent on rescuing M , Bond follows the clues to Vrakonisi , one of the Aegean Islands . In the process , Bond discovers the complex military @-@ political plans of Colonel Sun of the Chinese People 's Liberation Army . Sun had been sent to sabotage a Middle East détente conference which the Soviet Union is hosting . He intends to attack the conference venue and use M and Bond 's bodies to blame Great Britain for the disaster , leading to a world war . Bond meets Soviet agents in Athens and they realise that not only is a third country behind the kidnap , but that there is a traitor in the organisation . An attack on the Soviet headquarters kills all the agents except Ariadne Alexandrou , a Greek Communist . As he is dying , the Soviet leader encourages Bond and Ariadne to work together to prevent an international incident .
Ariadne persuades Litsas , a former Second World War resistance fighter and friend of her late father to help them by telling him about the involvement in the plot of former Nazi , Von Richter . Trying to find M and Colonel Sun , Bond is nearly captured by the Russians , but is saved by Litsas . Finally , Bond finds Sun 's headquarters , but is knocked out by one of Sun 's men ; Bond learns that Von Richter will use a mortar to destroy the conference venue and that Bond will be tortured by Sun , before his inevitable demise . Sun tortures him brutally , until one of the girls at the house is ordered by Sun to caress Bond fondly . In the process she cuts one of Bond 's hands free and provides him with a knife . She tells Sun that Bond is dead : when examined Bond stabs Sun . He then frees other captives who help Bond stop Von Richter . However Sun survives the stab wound and kills several of the other escapees . Bond tracks down Sun and kills him in the confrontation . The Soviets thank Bond for saving their conference , offering him a medal for his work , which he politely turns down .
= = Characters and themes = =
The main character of the novel is James Bond . Continuation Bond author Raymond Benson described Amis 's Bond as a humourless interpretation of the character that Fleming used in his earlier novels . Benson describes this personality as a natural continuation of the Bond developed in the final three Fleming novels . In all three novels , the events take a toll on Bond : he loses his wife in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ; he loses his memory in Japan in You Only Live Twice ; and he is brainwashed in Russia , is de @-@ programmed by MI6 and almost dies from Francisco Scaramanga 's poisoned bullet in The Man with the Golden Gun . Benson identifies Bond 's desire for revenge as a central theme to the novel . The plot centres on Bond 's need to avenge the death of the Hammonds and M 's kidnapping . Benson describes this as particularly striking : " Bond is particularly brutal in achieving his goal ... The revenge is very satisfying . This is Bond at his toughest . "
Benson considered that M 's character evokes an emotional response from the reader because of the change from his usual , business like @-@ manner to a semi @-@ catatonic state upon being kidnapped . However , Amis envisaged something different for the character : he did not like M and , as one reviewer pointed out that in The James Bond Dossier , he had " spent a chapter running him down . " The main villain of the novel is Colonel Sun Liang @-@ tan . Sun is a member of the Special Activities Committee of the Chinese People 's Liberation Army as well as a sadist and skilled torturer . Raymond Benson called him " very worthy of inclusion in the Bond saga " .
Raymond Benson notes increased political intrigue in the novel compared to earlier Bond novels . In Colonel Sun , Bond acts in concert with the Russians against the Chinese , which demonstrates one of the main themes of the book : a peacekeeping between nations . Military historian Jeremy Black describes the novel reflecting a shift in the balance of world power away from two party Cold War politics . To accentuate this idea of Oriental threat , the novel demonstrates a disregard by the Chinese for human life , a position similar to the treatment of the East in Fleming 's Dr. No . Black also notes an emotional and social sadness throughout Colonel Sun . The social sadness is a reaction to the culture of modernity and mourning what was being lost in its place . This treatment by Amis is similar to Fleming 's nostalgia in describing Paris in " From a View to a Kill " .
= = Background = =
The original creator of James Bond , Ian Fleming , died in the early morning of 12 August 1964 , eight months before the posthumous publication of The Man with the Golden Gun . After his death , Glidrose Productions ( now Ian Fleming Publications ) held the rights to Fleming 's works . The company decided to publish two short stories , " Octopussy " and " The Living Daylights " , on 23 June 1966 .
As the Bond character could not be copyrighted , and to retain rights in the Bond product , Glidrose decided to commission a sequel . Initially the company approached author James Leasor to write a continuation novel , but he declined . Glidrose then commissioned Amis , who wrote Colonel Sun . Critic and future novelist Sally Beauman noted that it was " unusual , not to say unprecedented , for an established author to pick up the torch in this way , " though she admits that " Bond [ is ] too big , and too profitable , a property to be placed in the hands of an unknown . "
Fleming 's wife , Ann , did not endorse any further Bond works and disliked Amis , saying that he would create " a petit bourgeois red brick Bond " .
In 1965 , Amis produced The James Bond Dossier — a critical analysis of the Bond books under his own name — and The Book of Bond , a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek manual for prospective agents , using the pseudonym Lt.-Col. William ( " Bill " ) Tanner . Amis followed these books with the 1966 novel , The Anti @-@ Death League which had a plot filled with popular fiction elements and helped Amis prepare for Colonel Sun .
Amis and his wife Jane spent September 1965 holidaying on the Greek island of Spetses and Amis used his experiences as the background to the novel . Amis followed a tradition set by Fleming of using the names of people he knew or had met during the researches for his book and Amis drew on the names of people he met in Greece for Colonel Sun . The boat Bond uses — The Altair — was the name of the boat Amis and his wife used on holiday , whilst the Bond girl 's fictitious colleagues , " Legakis " and " Papadogonas " were friends who helped Amis in Greece , whilst the doctor who treats Bond in Chapter two was named after Amis and Jane 's own doctor .
In a 21 May 1967 letter to Philip Larkin , Amis mentioned that he had already finished writing the Bond novel .
= = Release and reception = =
Jonathan Cape published Colonel Sun on 28 March 1968 ; the book was 255 pages long and priced at a guinea . The novel sold well – journalist and author Eric Hiscock claims that by 1980 it had sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies worldwide – and was listed second best seller in the " Books in demand " list of the Financial Times for March and April 1968 . Harper & Row published the novel in the US on 1 May 1968 ; the United States edition ran to 244 pages .
= = = Reviews = = =
Colonel Sun was broadly welcomed by the critics , although a number noted that despite Amis 's abilities as a writer , Fleming 's own persona was missing from the novel . Roger Baker , writing in The Times noted that from one angle Colonel Sun is a " neat , not over @-@ inventive thriller , low on sex , high on violence and more than usually improbable " ; however , he noted that once the elements of the re @-@ incarnation of Bond and the writing of Kingsley Amis were taken into account , things were different . Baker thought that with Amis writing the story , " one might , justifiably , have expected a joyous rejuvenation or at least a devastating detour from the Fleming pattern . We get neither . It is a pale copy . " D. J. Enright , writing in The Listener , considered that , in literary terms , Fleming 's " inheritance has been well and aptly bestowed . " He said that " Colonel Sun offers apt literary pabulum for Bond 's fish @-@ and @-@ chip culture , for his neurotics , alcoholics and suicides . Good dirty fun , once read and soon forgotten " .
Writing in The Times Literary Supplement , Simon Gray , unimpressed with the novel , called the Bond in Colonel Sun " a chuckle @-@ headed imposter whose arthritic thought processes would be a liability in a ' physical tussle ' down at the pub . " He went on to comment that the novel only " offers the frustrated Bond addict ... a small academic problem , of swiftly passing interest . " The Daily Mirror 's reviewer , Alexander Muir considered the book to be " an exciting , violent , sadistic and sexy piece of reading matter " , although , partly because of Amis ' abilities as a writer , Colonel Sun " is altogether too meticulous and well written – Fleming was a hypnotic but slapdash writer . And , at times , I sensed parody . This could be fatal . "
Writing in The Guardian , Malcolm Bradbury called the novel " a reasonable read but no more : neither vintage Fleming nor vintage Amis . " Bradbury also noted that " it lacks a convincing rhetoric ... and the traditional Fleming frissons emerge only in muted form . " Maurice Richardson , reviewing Colonel Sun for The Observer , wrote that when being judged as a thriller , the novel " is vigorous , quite exciting , rather disorderly , a bit laboured " . He went on to say that " Some of the action is quite well done and little more preposterous than in the later Flemings . The real trouble is the absence of spontaneous élan .
The reviewer for the Los Angeles Times , Charles Champlin , noted that the novel " lacks the garish , outrageous , ridiculous , symbol @-@ witted touch of the original article " ; despite that , he still enjoyed the novel , commenting that it left " intact the reputations of both Messrs. Amis and Fleming . " Donald Stanley , writing in Life magazine praised the villain Sun , saying he " is the kind of villain to make a Bondophile salivate . " In general Stanley praised Amis for emulating " the celebrated Fleming Effect " . Stanley is less convinced with Bond , observing that his " essential swinishness is being replaced by some kind of dilute humanism " .
The reviewer for The New York Times noted the reduced numbers of gadgets employed in the book , when compared with the films , that they felt had " overshadowed the personality of the secret agent " ; overall the reviewer felt that " Mr. Amis has now given Bond back to the readers . " Oberbeck commented that Bond " has become a sensitive man @-@ of @-@ ethics who suffers pangs of doubt and remorse over the ' senseless ' violence of his profession " . Oberbeck went on to say that Amis " never quite captures the bizzare beat of a Fleming pace " ; most telling , according to Oberbeck , was that " the greatest flaw in Amis ' conception of Bond is that he has attempted to transform the consummate spy @-@ hero into something he was never meant to have been : a man with a job " .
Sally Beauman writing for New York believed that " Amis has all the obvious ingredients for success " including " an exotic troubled international setting , a beautiful girl , frequent imbibings , and even more frequent killings ; and , most imperative , a villain . Yet the book drags and becomes a bore . " Beauman complains that the story lacks suspense and that Bond is far too gloomy : he 's more like Ingmar Bergman 's creations than Ian Fleming 's hero . Beauman attributes the novel 's failure to the " differing characters of the authors . "
= = Adaptations = =
Serialisation ( 1968 )
Colonel Sun was serialised on a daily basis in the Daily Express newspaper from 18 March 1968 to 30 March 1968 .
Comic strip ( 1969 – 1970 )
Colonel Sun is the only non @-@ Fleming Bond novel adapted as a comic strip by the Daily Express newspaper . It was adapted by Jim Lawrence and drawn by Yaroslav Horak and published in the Daily Express from 1 December 1969 to 20 August 1970 and was subsequently syndicated worldwide . In December 2005 , Titan Books reprinted Colonel Sun and included River of Death , another original James Bond comic strip story published before the Colonel Sun strip in 1969 .
The World Is Not Enough ( 1999 )
The kidnap of M was borrowed from Colonel Sun and used as a plot device in the 1999 Bond film The World Is Not Enough .
Die Another Day ( 2002 )
For the 2002 film Die Another Day , Eon Productions wanted to use the name Colonel Sun Liang @-@ tan for the main villain , but when the Fleming estate insisted on royalties for the use of the name , they changed the name to Colonel Tan @-@ Sun Moon .
Spectre ( 2015 )
The 2015 film Spectre features a torture scene which was lifted from Colonel Sun .
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= Parallels ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" Parallels " is the 11th episode of the seventh season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , the 163rd overall . It was originally released on November 29 , 1993 , in broadcast syndication . The episode was written by Brannon Braga , and directed by Robert Wiemer . Executive producer Jeri Taylor wrote the final scene of the episode , but was uncredited .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Federation starship Enterprise . In this episode , Lt. Worf ( Michael Dorn ) returns from a bat 'leth tournament and slowly discovers that he is being moved across parallel universes . The crew of an alternative Enterprise realise what is happening and seek to return him to his own reality , but , after an attack by a Bajoran ship , a space @-@ time fissure explodes , causing hundreds of thousands of alternative versions of the Enterprise to enter the same universe . After Worf reverses the course through the fissure , he and all the versions of the Enterprise are returned to their respective universes .
Braga intended to focus the " Parallels " on Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) , but this was changed to Worf . The change was made in order to make the differences more obvious across the timelines , as Braga worried that Picard 's relationships could not significantly differ across near @-@ universes . The producers were concerned with the confusing nature of the initial proposal , but felt that further changes greatly improved it . Wil Wheaton appeared as Wesley Crusher , replacing the initial plan to include Tasha Yar , after Braga was concerned about copying " Yesterday 's Enterprise " . " Parallels " received Nielsen ratings of 12 @.@ 8 percent , one of the highest for the season , but some fans were upset at a Worf / Deanna Troi romance . Critics responded favorably to the episode , with praise directed at both Dorn and Marina Sirtis .
= = Plot = =
After competing in a bat 'leth tournament on the planet Forcas III , Lieutenant Worf returns to the Enterprise and is treated to a surprise birthday party , much to his annoyance . As he attends the party , he starts to notice subtle changes , such as the flavor of the cake changing , and a painting given to him by Data appearing on a different wall . The changes start to become more pronounced ; as a Cardassian vessel attacks the Enterprise , unfamiliar controls result in Worf failing to raise the shields , leading to the death of Geordi La Forge . Despite retaining his initial memories , Worf has no evidence that reality has changed , and his own personal logs support the stories given by the other crew members . Other major changes occur : Riker is Captain of the Enterprise in a reality wherein Picard was killed by the Borg , the Bajorans became the oppressors of the Cardassians and enemies of the Federation , Wesley Crusher is a lieutenant on the Enterprise , Alyssa Ogawa is the Chief Medical Officer , and Worf finds himself married to Deanna Troi .
Upon investigation , the crew find that Worf 's RNA has an unusual quantum signature and confirm that he is from a different universe . The crew theorizes that Worf , on his original return from the bat 'leth tournament , passed through a time @-@ space fissure , with the shuttlecraft 's engines causing Worf to quantum flux between several parallel universes . Data determines that Worf 's proximity to La Forge 's VISOR caused Worf to shift between universes , and that each universe covers a different possibility . In effect , anything that could possibly happen has done so in a parallel universe , hence the believable changes in the reality that Worf is experiencing . The Enterprise returns to the location of the fissure , attempting to return Worf to his original universe . The Enterprise is then attacked by a Bajoran ship , which causes the fissure to destabilize and the various realities to merge , resulting in over 285 @,@ 000 versions of the Enterprise appearing in the same area of space .
Data determines that the only way to restore the realities is to send Worf via shuttlecraft to the Enterprise of his universe , passing through the fissure and using the shuttlecraft 's engines to reseal it . After locating the correct ship , Worf begins to travel back but is attacked by another Enterprise that has come from a Borg @-@ overrun universe , its crew refusing to return . The Enterprise that he left fires upon the hostile ship and destroys it . Worf safely passes through the fissure , finding himself back in normality with a single Enterprise in front of him . After boarding , Worf finds that no time has passed since he initially entered the fissure . When he returns to his room expecting a surprise party , he finds only Troi waiting to give him a single present and , knowing that the two are married in many alternate universes , he invites her to share dinner with him .
= = Production = =
Writer Brannon Braga initially conceived of the episode as centered on Captain Picard , rather than Worf . It was only when planning out the story that he realised that there would not be a great deal of personal differences across realities with Picard . As such , he decided to include Worf as the main character , and chose to place him in a romance with Troi as he felt that most people would not have expected it . Braga considered writing Tasha Yar into the episode , but he felt that this would have copied " Yesterday 's Enterprise " , so he replaced her with Wesley Crusher , played by Wil Wheaton . Further changes were made to the script as Braga had intended for Worf to be sung " Happy Birthday to You " in the Klingon language , but the cost for the rights to the song would have been prohibitive and so the idea was dropped .
Executive producer Jeri Taylor approved the initial outline but was concerned that it might be potentially confusing . She was happy with the outcome and described it as having " worked like gangbusters " . She felt that the Worf / Troi romance had been subtly played by the writers on the show since the fifth season episode " Ethics " and had been an ambition on the show since " A Fistful of Datas " in the sixth season . After being included in " Parallels " , the relation was featured several times during the final season of The Next Generation . Michael Piller was not enthused with the initial idea , but Taylor felt that the means by which it evolved saved it .
Braga thought in hindsight that Crusher 's appearance could have been explained more but at the time he felt it was most intriguing if he was " just there " . He also wanted to avoid suggesting that Worf was going insane , since that theme had been covered in the previous season in the episode " Frame of Mind " . Director Robert Wiemer sought to have a conclusive ending to the episode to state Worf 's future intentions . Worf 's suggestion of champagne to Troi was written by Taylor to accommodate this .
" Parallels " re @-@ used a number of previously seen props and costumes , including Troi 's entire uniform wardrobe with the exception of the first season outfits . Other elements such as the Argus Array ( a space station model ) had appeared in other episodes , and alternative comm badges used in the episode had been seen in the " Future Imperfect " . The space station Deep Space 5 was a re @-@ dress of Regula One from Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan . Modifications were made to the bridge set in one reality ; these would later be re @-@ used for the future Enterprise in the series finale " All Good Things ... " . The effect shot with multiple Enterprise 's was achieved by photographing the same model from multiple angles , resulting more than 100 appearing on screen , while the scene with multiple Worfs was produced through the use of split screens and stand @-@ ins .
This simultaneous portrayal of numerous different universes was cited by Roberto Orci , one of the screenwriters for the 2009 film Star Trek , as proof that , despite the movie 's creation of a secondary timeline , the " regular " Trek universe was unaffected and everything from The Original Series onward still went on as it had before . He said that " Parallels " was using the many @-@ worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics in which a new timeline does not overwrite a previous one , unlike previous episodes in the franchise such as " The City on the Edge of Forever " and " Yesterday 's Enterprise " .
= = Themes = =
The multiverse idea featured in " Parallels " has been discussed by commentators . Theoretical physicist Lawrence M. Krauss praised the episode for the inclusion of the idea in his book The Physics of Star Trek , although added that it incorrectly explained measurement in quantum mechanics . This quantum mechanics theory explained during the episode was called " a little sketchy " by Michelle and Duncan Barrett in their book Star Trek : The Human Factor . They based this on mathematical physicist Roger Penrose 's theory that there is no identified physics for bridging the gap between physics and quantum physics . The Barretts noted the use that the Star Trek franchise has had out of the idea of the multiverse , and different timelines .
= = Reception and home media release = =
The episode aired during the week commencing November 27 , 1993 , in broadcast syndication . According to Nielsen Media Research , it received ratings of 12 @.@ 8 percent . This means that it was watched by 12 @.@ 8 percent of all households watching television during its timeslot . This placed it as the second most watched syndicated show for that week , and it was the fourth most viewed episode of the season behind part two of " Descent " , " Eye of the Beholder " and " All Good Things ... " . Some fans were upset at the introduction of a romance between Worf and Troi , as they felt that Riker and Troi was the correct paring . Taylor said that some of the fans felt that the Riker / Troi relationship was so inevitable that the show simply should have " got it over with " and not introduced a new romance for Troi instead .
Zack Handlen , in his review for the A.V. Club , gave the episode a grade of A- . He said that it was a " nicely balanced " episode , and that Sirtis and Dorn had good chemistry . Handlen further praised Dorn 's comic timing . He enjoyed the image of the other versions of the Enterprise appearing in the same universe , but criticised the level of technobabble during the second half of the episode . IGN writer Scott Colura released a podcast asking whether " Parallels " was the most underrated episode of the series .
Keith DeCandido gave the episode a rating of 10 out of 10 in his review for Tor.com. He expressed his love for the episode , praising the centering of " Parallels " on Worf " partly because no one does frustrated befuddlement better than Michael Dorn " . He enjoyed the increasing changes to each universe , but his highlight of the episode was the Enterprise from the Borg invasion timeline which fired on the shuttle at the end . DeCandido said that this kept the episode memorable after 19 years , and " cemented this as one of TNG 's top episodes " . In a list of the top 100 episodes of the Star Trek franchise , " Parallels " was placed in 89th place by Charlie Jane Anders at io9 .
The first release on home media for " Parallels " within the United States was on VHS cassette as part of a single episode release , which took place on January 1 , 2000 . " Parallels " was released on DVD in 2002 as part of the season box set . It was later released as part of the season set on Blu Ray within the United States on December 2 , 2014 . This included an audio commentary from Braga .
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= Hurricane Nora ( 1997 ) =
Hurricane Nora was only the third tropical cyclone on record to reach Arizona as a tropical storm . Nora was the fourteenth named tropical cyclone and seventh hurricane of the 1997 Pacific hurricane season . The September storm formed off the Pacific coast of Mexico , and aided by waters warmed by El Niño , eventually peaked at Category 4 intensity on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale .
Nora intensified and weakened quickly before taking an unusual path , which led it to make landfall twice as a hurricane in Baja California . After landfall , its remnants affected the Southwestern United States with tropical storm @-@ force winds , torrential rain and flooding . Nora is blamed for two direct casualties in Mexico , as well as substantial beach erosion on the Mexican coast , flash flooding in Baja California , and record precipitation in Arizona . Nora persisted far inland and eventually dissipated near the Arizona – Nevada border .
= = Meteorological history = =
Nora formed early on September 16 , 1997 , while located 290 miles ( 460 km ) southwest of the Mexican port of Acapulco , Guerrero , from the same tropical wave that had earlier created Hurricane Erika . Due to favorable conditions associated with El Niño , the tropical disturbance quickly achieved deep convection and became well @-@ organized . By 6 a.m. UTC , the U.S. National Hurricane Center had designated the disturbance as Tropical Depression Sixteen @-@ E. Half a day later , it had gained enough strength to be named Tropical Storm Nora .
A high pressure area over northern Mexico forced the storm to move west @-@ northwest for the first few days . During that time , Nora kept intensifying , becoming a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale by noon UTC on September 18 . Nora slowed and became stationary for two days from September 18 . The eye vanished , and convection began to decrease . This was presumed to have happened because of a drop in sea @-@ surface temperatures . The cool waters temporarily weakened Nora 's winds to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) down from a maximum of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . After leaving the area of cool waters , the storm began moving nearly parallel to Mexico 's western coast . There was a period of rapid intensification and the eye reappeared . Cloud tops cooled and at midday UTC on September 21 , Nora reached its peak intensity of 950 mbar ( 28 inHg ) and 135 mph ( 210 km / h ) winds , a Category 4 hurricane . The peak was brief as the cyclone encountered cool waters in the wake of Hurricane Linda , weakening the storm 's winds to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) by September 23 and broke its eyewall .
Nora crossed an area of abnormally warm water near the west coast of the Baja California Peninsula . It restrengthened slightly before making its first landfall near Bahía Tortugas , Baja California Sur on September 25 . When Nora was inland , the area of the storm located in the Gulf of California began to reintensify . Hurricane Nora then made a second landfall about 60 miles ( 95 km ) south @-@ southeast of San Fernando , Baja California . Nora was one of the few hurricanes to make landfall in Northern Baja .
At landfall , a trough was accelerating Nora northwards , causing it to reach a forward speed of 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) . Late on September 25 ( UTC ) , still a tropical storm , it entered the continental United States at the California @-@ Arizona state line . Nora began to weaken rapidly , and was downgraded to a tropical depression three hours later , while located between Blythe and Needles , California . Nora reached Arizona while still tropical , becoming the third known system to do so . Nora degenerated over land , and the low @-@ level center moved towards the north @-@ northeast . A remnant circulation aloft persisted , however , and was likely responsible for a period of near hurricane @-@ force winds observed at the NWS Cedar City , Utah Doppler weather radar . The remnants gradually became more diffuse over the following two days while moving generally northeastward , through portions of Utah , Colorado , Idaho and Wyoming .
= = Preparations = =
While Nora stayed off the Pacific coast of Mexico , the Servicio Meteorológico Nacional ( National Meteorological Service ) issued a hurricane watch for the coast between Lázaro Cárdenas , Michoacán , and Puerto Vallarta , Jalisco , and several major ports in the shoreline closed to navigation . As the storm moved away from the mainland coast and towards the Baja California Peninsula , about 500 people were evacuated from their homes near Cabo San Lucas , Baja California Sur , and placed in shelters to prepare for the storm 's impact . At the same time , in Sonora , another 50 were evacuated from a fishing camp in Guaymas . Meanwhile , the SMN issued tropical storm warnings along the Baja California coast , as well as hurricane watches and warnings around the entire Gulf of California between Santa Rosalía , Baja California Sur , and Bahía Kino , Sonora .
On September 24 , Arizona Governor Jane Dee Hull activated an emergency response center to prepare the state 's response to the flash flooding the storm would cause on the dry desert floor , and Yuma residents began to fill approximately 55 @,@ 000 sandbags to contain the possible flooding . Hull also activated the state 's National Guard , and sent drinking water and electric generators to Yuma . Further inland , the National Weather Service issued flash flood watches for western Arizona , southeastern California , southwestern Colorado , southern Nevada and southern Utah on September 26 .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Nora caused two direct deaths in Mexico and three or four indirect fatalities in the United States . Although the total cost of damage is not known , Nora caused up to several hundred millions of dollars of damage . The system also dropped heavy rain in the United States and Mexico , which caused flooding and power outages .
= = = Mexico = = =
Nora killed two in Mexico : an electrocution by a downed power line in Mexicali , Baja California , and a diver caught in strong underwater currents created by Nora off the coast of the San Quintin Valley .
Although Nora 's center of circulation remained well offshore from southwestern mainland Mexico , the Associated Press reported that waves up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) hit that coastline , destroying dozens of homes . Nora 's winds also produced rough seas and high waves , which caused substantial beach erosion , particularly around Acapulco , where the Pie de la Cuesta beaches were washed away . In the states of Guerrero and Jalisco , Nora brought down trees and washed away the foundations of homes , although no injuries were reported there .
Heavy rains also fell along the storm 's northeast periphery , with the highest amounts of 20 @.@ 94 inches ( 532 mm ) falling at La Cruz / Elota and 16 @.@ 79 inches ( 426 mm ) being measured at Ligui / Loreto . About 350 – 400 people were left homeless by floodwaters in the town of Arroyo de Santa Catarina in northern Baja California . Heavy damage and flooding was reported in San Felipe , on the northwestern shore of the Gulf of California , as well as extensive beach erosion . Local roads and highways were destroyed and the town 's dock was severely damaged . On the northeastern shore , at Puerto Peñasco , Nora blew down trees , billboards , electric wires , taco stands , and ripped sheet @-@ metal from homes . Waves of 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) were reported there .
= = = United States = = =
In the United States , there were no direct deaths blamed on the hurricane . However , the California Highway Patrol attributed three or four traffic fatalities in southern California to the weather .
Damage totals in the United States are not fully known , although media summaries of Nora included a loss to agriculture preliminarily estimated at several hundred million dollars , and at least one study places the figure at $ 150 – 200 million ( 1997 USD ) . It is estimated that $ 30 – 40 million ( 1997 USD ) in damage to lemon trees occurred . Although Nora was significantly weakened , near hurricane @-@ force winds were observed at the Dixie National Forest in southwestern Utah , where strong gusts sheared off the tops of large trees .
The Yuma radar indicated a small area of 10 inches ( 250 mm ) rainfall totals along the northern Gulf of California coast of Baja California . In the United States , the largest total rainfall was recorded at the Harquahala Mountains in Arizona , where 11 @.@ 97 inches ( 304 mm ) of rainfall were recorded as a result of Nora , causing flash floods in western Arizona .
Near Phoenix , rainfall from the storm caused the Narrows Dam , a small earthen dam , to fail . In other locations in Arizona , California , Nevada , and Utah , more than 3 inches ( 76 mm ) occurred in a few localized areas , sometimes with precipitation comparable to the entire local yearly average rainfall . Flooding was also reported in Somerton , San Diego , El Centro , Palm Springs and Indio , while 12 @,@ 000 people lost power in Yuma , as well as Los Angeles and southwestern Utah .
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= Corporate Crush =
" Corporate Crush " is the nineteenth episode of the first season of the American television series 30 Rock . It was written by co @-@ executive producer John Riggi and directed by Don Scardino . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on April 12 , 2007 . Guest stars in this episode include Kevin Brown , Grizz Chapman , John Lutz , Emily Mortimer , Maulik Pancholy , Jason Sudeikis , Rip Torn and Akira Yamaguchi .
In this episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) , who is now in a happy relationship with Floyd DeBarber ( Sudeikis ) , becomes annoyed when Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) seemingly becomes obsessed with Floyd . Jack begins a relationship with Phoebe ( Mortimer ) , after being demoted . Meanwhile , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) pitches his movie , Jefferson , to General Electric CEO Don Geiss ( Torn ) .
" Corporate Crush " received generally positive reviews from television critics , with Robert Canning of IGN describing it as " solid " . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 1 million households during its original broadcast . Griffin Richardson , the episode 's sound mixer , received a Creative Arts Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation .
= = Plot = =
Liz ( Tina Fey ) has become very happy since dating Floyd ( Jason Sudeikis ) , and their relationship together is going strong . Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) , the CEO of General Electric , speaks to Jack ( Alec Baldwin ) about his career , and points out that Jack is the only executive at his level to be unmarried . Geiss takes away Jack 's role as the head of the Microwave Oven division , which makes Jack become extremely depressed . Liz decides that she wants Jack to meet Floyd at dinner , although Jack becomes obsessed with Floyd and becomes a third wheel in Liz and Floyd 's relationship . Liz , extremely bothered by Jack 's obsession , tells Jack to leave Floyd alone . Jack agrees , and he tells Liz that he has begun a relationship with Phoebe ( Emily Mortimer ) , a Christie 's auction house art dealer who has Avian Bone Syndrome and on their third meeting still greets Liz with " Hi , I 'm Phoebe , I don 't know if you remember me ... " Jack asks Liz 's approval in his relationship with Phoebe , and when Liz grants it , he immediately proposes to Phoebe .
Meanwhile , Tracy ( Tracy Morgan ) tries to get Don Geiss to finance his film , Jefferson , which is based on Thomas Jefferson 's life . However , Geiss is not interested in Tracy 's $ 35 million project , even after Tracy uses NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) , Grizz Griswold ( Grizz Chapman ) and " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) to put together a trailer for the film . After failing to convince Geiss , who would rather see him do a sequel to one of Tracy 's previous films , Fat Bitch , Tracy decides that he will make Jefferson on his own .
= = Production = =
" Corporate Crush " was written by co @-@ executive producer John Riggi and directed by Don Scardino . This was Riggi 's third writing credit , having written the episodes " Blind Date " and " The Head and the Hair " , and was Scardino 's fifth directed episode . " Corporate Crush " originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 12 , 2007 as the nineteenth episode of the show 's first season and overall of the series .
Comedian actor Jason Sudeikis , who played Floyd DeBarber in this episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 . This episode was Sudeikis ' fifth appearance on 30 Rock . This was actress Emily Mortimer 's first appearance as the character Phoebe . She would later guest star in the episodes " Cleveland " and " Hiatus " , the latter being her final guest spot . In regards to her appearance on the show , Mortimer told The Philadelphia Inquirer , " It was amazing doing telly . I 'd never done a sitcom before and it was so fast . You 're given dialogue as you 're walking onto the set and it 's kind of hairy . There are 10 people standing around watching the monitor and if they don 't laugh – then instead of having another chance to do it – someone writes another line . " Actor Rip Torn made his second appearance as GE CEO Don Geiss in " Corporate Crush " . Torn previously appeared in the February 15 , 2007 , episode " The C Word " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Corporate Crush " was watched by an average of 5 @.@ 1 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " Fireworks " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 4 million American viewers . " Corporate Crush " achieved a 2 @.@ 6 / 7 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The 2 @.@ 6 refers to 2 @.@ 6 % of all people of ages 18 – 49 years old in the United States , and the 7 refers to 7 % of all people of ages 18 – 49 years old watching television at the time of the broadcast in the United States . Since airing , the episode has received generally positive reviews .
IGN contributor Robert Canning wrote that " Corporate Crush " was a " solid episode " , and that 30 Rock seemed " to have hit its storytelling stride " . He added that " as we near the season finale , we 're happy to see that 30 Rock has begun their drive towards a big finish . " Canning rated this episode an 8 out of 10 . TV Guide 's Matt Webb Mitovich opined that " though the ' My guy friend is dating my boyfriend ' gag has been done to death on TV sitcoms , 30 Rock is to be forgiven if only because the same episode gave us a preview of , no , not The Real Wedding Crashers [ Groan ] , but Jefferson , starring ... Tracy Jordan . " Julia Ward of TV Squad awarded this episode with 5 out of 7 , and said that Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) absence was upside to the episode , explaining , " I actually like Jane Krakowski , but I can 't say that I 've missed her " . Regarding Jack and Liz 's relationship in the episode , Ward thought it was an " uneasy mutual respect thing " , which she thought let " Alec Baldwin exercise his thespian prowess " . However , Ward said that she did not watch 30 Rock for the continuing storylines , rather , she watched the series for the " wacky " .
Griffin Richardson , the series ' sound mixer , was nominated for a Creative Arts Primetime Emmy in the category for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( half @-@ hour ) and Animation . Richardson , however , lost to Steve Morantz of Entourage , and Joe Foglia of Scrubs .
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= Spongiforma squarepantsii =
Spongiforma squarepantsii is a species of fungus in the Boletaceae family , genus Spongiforma . Found in Malaysia , it was described as new to science in 2011 . It produces sponge @-@ like , rubbery orange fruit bodies that have a fruity or musky odour . The fruit bodies reach dimensions of 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide by 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) tall . Like a sponge , they will resume their original shape if water is squeezed out . The spores , produced on the surfaces of the hollows of the sponge , are almond @-@ shaped with rough surfaces , and measure 10 – 12 @.@ 5 by 6 – 7 micrometers . The name of the fungus is derived from the cartoon character SpongeBob SquarePants . S. squarepantsii is one of two species in Spongiforma ; it differs from S. thailandica in its colour , odour , and spore structure .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
The species was first described scientifically online in May 2011 in the journal Mycologia , authored by American mycologists Dennis E. Desjardin , Kabir Peay , and Thomas Bruns . The description was based on two specimens collected by Bruns in 2010 in Lambir Hills National Park , in Sarawak , Malaysia . The species had first appeared in the literature in 2010 in a study of the ectomycorrhizal mushrooms in a tropical dipterocarp rainforest in Lambir Hills , although it was not formally described in this publication . Because of its unusual form , Desjardin and colleagues were initially uncertain whether the new species was a member of the Basidiomycota or the Ascomycota . Further analysis showed that the species was aligned with Spongiforma , a genus that was newly described from dipterocarp forests of Thailand in 2009 . The similarity between the species collected in Borneo and Spongiforma thailandica was confirmed with molecular analysis , which showed a 98 % match between ribosomal DNA sequences of the two .
The genus name Spongiforma refers to the sponge @-@ like nature of the fruit body , while the specific epithet squarepantsii is a Latinisation of the well @-@ known cartoon character SpongeBob SquarePants , whose shape shares a resemblance to the fungus . Additionally , the authors note that the spore @-@ bearing surface ( the hymenium ) , when viewed with scanning electron microscopy , somewhat resembles a " seafloor covered with tube sponges , reminiscent of the fictitious home of SpongeBob " . Although the epithet was originally rejected by the editors of Mycologia as " frivolous " , Desjardin and colleagues insisted that " we could name it whatever we liked " .
= = Description = =
The fruit body of Spongiforma squarepantsii is bright orange coloured , roughly spherical to oval , and measures 3 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide by 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) tall . Although it lacks a stipe , it has a rudimentary columella — a small cord of sterile tissue that extends to the center of the fruit body . The surface of the fruit body has deep ridges and folds somewhat resembling a brain . It is sponge @-@ like and rubbery — if water is squeezed out , it will resume its original shape . The surface has irregular , relatively large cavities ( locules ) , lined with fertile ( spore @-@ producing ) tissue . The locules are between 2 and 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 and 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter . The ridges of the locules are pale orange or lighter and ciliate ( having hairlike projections ) . Fruit bodies have a strong odour described as " vaguely fruity or strongly musty " . The mushroom tissue turns purple when a drop of 3 % potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) is applied . In mass , the spores are a reddish @-@ brown or deep mahogany colour . The edibility of the fruit body is unknown .
The almond @-@ shaped spores are typically 10 – 12 @.@ 5 by 6 – 7 μm with thick walls measuring between 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 2 μm . They have a small central apiculus ( a depressed area when the spore was once attached to the basidium via the sterigma ) . When mounted in distilled water , they have a coarsely warty surface and appear rusty brown in colour . When mounted in a 3 % KOH solution , the spores are pale lilac grey , and the surface ornamentation forms swollen pustules that loosen and dissolve . Spores are dextrinoid ( meaning they turn reddish @-@ brown when stained with Melzer 's reagent ) and cyanophilic ( red in acetocarmine ) . The basidia are club @-@ shaped , and four @-@ spored with sterigmata up to 9 @.@ 5 μm long . The ridges of the locules comprise erect cystidia mixed with chains of erect cylindrical hyphae measuring 4 – 6 μm in diameter . The cystidia are roughly cylindrical , and have dimensions of 20 – 60 by 4 – 9 μm . There are no clamp connections present in the hyphae of the fungus .
= = = Similar species = = =
The related species Spongiforma thailandica , newly described in 2009 , differs from S. squarepantsii in several ways : it has larger fruit bodies , 5 – 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide by 4 – 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) tall ; its gleba is initially pale greyish @-@ orange to brownish @-@ grey before darkening to reddish @-@ brown or dark brown ; and it smells of coal tar . Microscopically , S. thailandica has spores with less prominent surface warts .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Spongiforma squarepantsii was found growing on the ground in Lambir Hills National Park ( Sarawak State , Malaysia ) , northern Borneo ( 4 ° 20 ′ N 113 ° 50 ′ E ) . This tropical rainforest receives about 3 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 120 in ) of rain yearly , with average temperatures ranging from 24 to 32 ° C ( 75 to 90 ° F ) . The structure of the fruit body allows it to quickly revive when dry by absorbing moisture from the air . The distinctive odour of the species may indicate that spore dispersal is mediated by animals .
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= Deckham =
Deckham is a residential suburb in the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead in Tyne and Wear , England . It is bordered by Gateshead to the north , Sheriff Hill to the south , Felling and Carr Hill to the east and Shipcote to the west . It lies on the B1296 , the route of the old Great North Road , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of Gateshead town centre , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) south of Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne and 13 miles ( 21 km ) north of the city of Durham . In 2011 , Deckham had a population of 9 @,@ 938 .
Deckham 's history is sparsely documented but suggests that the settlement was established at the junction of Carr Hill Road and the Old Durham Road in the early 19th century alongside the estate of Deckham Hall , built several centuries earlier and inhabited at one time by Thomas Deckham . The village grew , and at the turn of the 20th century was enveloped by urban spawl when neighbouring Gateshead absorbed its outlying villages and settlements . Deckham is largely distinguished from other areas by a commercial area on Old Durham Road which is the principal route through the suburb . Historically , Deckham was a village in County Durham and was incorporated into the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead by the Local Government Act 1972 .
Deckham has steep topography which has shaped the character of the suburb . Residents can enjoy striking views towards Newcastle upon Tyne and across the Team Valley . The settlement is governed locally by a Parliamentary Labour council and elects a Labour MP .
Deckham is an area of social and economic deprivation , in the top ten per cent of such areas according to the Index of Multiple Deprivation . Housing stock is predominantly council housing and is , in many places , outdated and in need of modernisation . Whilst once the site of a coal mine , there is today no major employer in Deckham , which is considered a residential suburb of Gateshead . The main economic activity is in a commercial development on Old Durham Road . Deckham has a number of public houses , one of which , the Plough Inn , is more than 150 years old . The only education provision is at South Street Primary School , which is a good school according to OFSTED . There are two churches , one of which , the Church of St George , is a Grade II listed building , and community facilities are provided by Deckham Community Centre and the Elgin Centre in Carr Hill .
= = History = =
Unlike Sheriff Hill , Carr Hill and Low Fell , Deckham 's history is sparsely recorded . It indicates that , by the middle of the 19th century , there was a small settlement which was part of Gateshead Fell ; a wild and treacherous area of common land notable for the criminality of the tinkers and hawkers who lived there . Ordnance survey mapping illustrates the sparsity of buildings in 1860 ; the area contained little except Deckham Hall , a few other dwellings and two public houses at the point where the old turnpike road branched off towards Carr 's Hill . The two public houses were the ' Speed the Plough ' and ' The Ship ' .
The Deckham Hall estate was on the east side of Old Durham Road , 1 @.@ 25 miles from the Tyne Bridge . It is evidenced in 1614 and belonged to Thomas Deckham , who died the same year and bequeathed it to his granddaughter with " three pounds for the bringing home of water " to the poor people of the area . It changed hands regularly between the families Wooler , James and Bowker , in the centuries after Deckham 's death and varied in size whilst doing so . Alderman Benjamin Biggar , Mayor of Gateshead 1861 – 2 , is thought to have lived at Deckham Hall .
By the turn of the 20th century Deckham 's rural aspect had changed . Whilst there remained large areas of grass and woodland between Deckham and Gateshead , there was a period of extensive building ; several dozen dwellings were erected by 1895 in the Mount Pleasant area as Gateshead expanded southwards . A public house was built at the junction of Taylor Terrace and Split Crow Road . Two years later , a tract of Tyneside flats was built on the west side of the Old Durham Road and many streets in the area , such as Chandos Street , Shipcote Terrace , Raby Street and Northborne Street , are evidenced , along with an unnamed school . By 1919 , some rural scenes could still be enjoyed but the fields were " rapidly encroached upon " in the 1920s and 1930s and replaced with more terraced housing at Caris Street , Fullerton Place and Methuen Street and large tracts of council houses . By this time , Deckham Hall was in a state of disrepair and was notable to residents for its resemblance to a haunted house " because of its air of gloom and the strange echoes to be heard on windy nights " . The hall was demolished in 1930 and more council houses were erected on the site .
Since the intensive period of house building , little has changed . At the west end of the suburb , the Tyneside flats at Northborne Street and surrounding streets remain in situ and here there is " housing and little else " . Much of this housing is in poor condition , some is in " crumbling disrepair " and requires substantial investment . Old Durham Road has developed into the focal point of the neighbourhood and is the sole commercial area , with small , independent shops running along the western end of the road backing onto the streets from Inskip Terrace and Shipcote Terrace . Whilst many retail units are in a state of deterioration , and despite a report describing recent housing development on the east side of Old Durham Road as " poorly handled and unsightly " , the area remains " interesting and lively " . By contrast , the central and eastern areas of Deckham are affected by a more marked decline . At the western edge there are stone remnants of an old , rural settlement , but the remainder , grouped around Edgeware and Kingston Roads , consists of bland , repetitive social housing arranged on long , curved streets which combine to create an environment which is anonymous , claustrophobic and disorientating . One source describes the environment as one where " eyesores become landmarks ( lock – up workshops on Kingston Road ) , any slight change in materials becomes significant ( system – built housing on Kingston Road ) , and any attempt to do something different becomes a relief ( a corner garden on Mayfair Gardens ) " .
The net result is that , in Deckham today :
There is something of a sense of isolation in parts of Deckham , especially further up the hill as development densities drop , commercial and social facilities disappear and activity levels on the street fall away . Around the Old Durham Road the surviving mix of small shops and meeting places generate some impression of communal spirit , but the poor condition of many properties and the dominance of the public realm by traffic serve to stunt it .
= = Economy = =
Unlike Sheriff Hill , Deckham was not founded on heavy industry . It developed primarily for its ease of access to the turnpike road , the principle route between Durham and Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne which ran through it . There is evidence of coal mining ; the Durham Mining Museum has a record for ' Deckham Hall Colliery ' . Few records of the colliery survive , and it is difficult to ascertain when it opened , but the colliery was located 1 @.@ 5 miles south from Newcastle and was in the hands of Hopper , Hughes and Company in 1886 . By December 1893 the colliery had been abandoned as being " not workable to a profit " .
In common with most suburbs of the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead , its economy is dominated by the economies of Newcastle – upon – Tyne and Gateshead town centre . This is reflected in terms of independent commercial space ; retail floor space in the suburb totals 1 % of that available in the whole metropolitan borough . There are 33 retail units concentrated on Old Durham Road , which provide some employment , though these are at the lower end of the spectrum and provide little choice . There is a good provision of hardware stores , fast – food outlets and hairdressers , a butcher 's shop , a greengrocer and a supermarket , but there is no bakery , bank nor building society and the Post Office has closed . The retail units were domestic properties , so many are too small for retail purposes and around 20 % are vacant .
Deckham suffers from high levels of unemployment ; in 2011 the mean percentage of the population claiming Jobseekers Allowance was 7 % . This compares to Gateshead 's 5 % average over the same period . Youth unemployment is 10 % , compared to Gateshead 's 9 % .
= = Geography and topography = =
Deckham , at latitude 54 @.@ 95 ° N and longitude 1 @.@ 59 ° W , lies less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south and east of Gateshead town centre between two main transport corridors ; Sunderland Road to the east and Old Durham Road to the west . The distance from Deckham to London is 255 miles ( 410 km ) . Deckham occupies an elevated position , especially at its north end which sits on a ridge , and some parts are steeply sloped – notably those which border Sheriff Hill to the south .
In the urban expansion of Gateshead , Deckham was enveloped so that its exact boundaries are difficult to define . The estate had boundaries at Split Crow Road , Old Durham Road , Hendon Road and Carr Hill Road but documents indicate that Deckham stretches to Durham Road in the west and the streets adjoining Hendon Road as far north as the Bankies open space at Mount Pleasant . In 1974 Deckham was incorporated into the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead by the Local Government Act 1972 . Until its implementation , Deckham was part of County Durham . It is now bordered by settlements which are part of the metropolitan borough . These are Sheriff Hill to the south , Low Fell and Shipcote to the west , Gateshead to the north and Felling and Carr Hill to the east .
Deckham has distinctive , steep topography which " shapes the character " of the suburb . Though the urbanisation of Gateshead has detracted from panoramic views that were once enjoyed by residents , the topography ensures that residents continue to have excellent views towards Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne and the Team Valley .
= = Governance = =
Deckham is a council ward in the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead . It is approximately 1 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 58 sq mi ) in area and has a population of 9 @,@ 228 . It is represented by three councillors . In June 2012 , they were Brian Coates , Martin Gannon and Bernadette Oliphant .
Deckham is part of the Westminster parliamentary constituency of Gateshead . It was previously in the Gateshead East and Washington West constituency which was abolished by boundary changes before the 2010 UK General Election . For many years the MP was Joyce Quin , who retired on 11 April 2005 and was awarded a life peerage into the House of Lords on 13 June 2006 and is now Baroness Quin .
The present MP Ian Mearns , is a member of the Labour party and his office is in Gateshead . He replaced Sharon Hodgson who successfully campaigned in the newly formed constituency of Washington and Sunderland West . In the 2010 UK General Election , Mearns was elected with a majority of 12 @,@ 549 over Frank Hindle . The swing from Labour to the Liberal Democrats was 3 @.@ 9 % .
Deckham is in a safe Labour seat . Mearns ' success in 2010 followed of Sharon Hodgson , who in the 2005 UK General Election polled over 60 % of the votes cast whilst in 2001 , Joyce Quin was returned with a majority of 53 @.@ 3 % .
= = Demography = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Deckham has a population of 9 @,@ 228 – 51 @.@ 5 % of the population are female , slightly above the national average , whilst 48 @.@ 5 % are male . Only 2 % of the population are from a black or other minority ethnic group ( BME ) , as opposed to 9 @.@ 1 % of the national population . Of the BME group , 35 % are from the Asian or Asian – British ethnic group . Deckham has a high proportion of lone parent households at some 15 % of all households . This is the third highest figure in Gateshead and compares with a borough average of 11 @.@ 5 % . Some 31 % of households have dependent children , as opposed to 29 @.@ 5 % nationally and 28 @.@ 4 % in Gateshead . The Index of Multiple Deprivation , which divides England into 32 @,@ 482 areas and measures quality of life to indicate deprivation , splits Deckham into halves and lists the western half , along with Carr Hill and Sheriff Hill , in the top 10 % of all deprived areas in England in 2012 . The eastern half is in the top 5 % of deprived areas .
In 2011 however , the ethnic minority population increased rapidly . In 2001 , 96 @.@ 8 % of Deckham 's population were white British , this figure reduced to 92 @.@ 3 % white British in 2011 . Also , the population increased massively too , from 7 @,@ 886 in 2001 to 9 @,@ 938 in 2011 . 88 @.@ 8 % of adults in lone parent households with independent children were women .
In 2011 , 7 @.@ 7 % of Deckham 's population were non white British . This is above average for the Metropolitan borough of Gateshead , but below average for the town of Gateshead which Deckham forms a part of .
Deckham is situated to the east of Gateshead town centre . It is also split into three sub districts , Central Deckham , Mount Pleasant and Carr Hill .
= = Culture = =
= = = Notable buildings = = =
Deckham has three buildings listed by English Heritage . They are 33 and 35 Fife Street and the Church of St George .
The flats at 33 and 35 Fife Street , in Mount Pleasant , are Grade II Listed buildings . Described by English Heritage as " perhaps the last surviving example of an unspoilt , 2 – flat dwelling of high quality but modest size " , they were built in the latter part of the 19th century from sandstone ashlar and slate . The Church of St George is an Anglican church at the corner of Inskip Terrace and Durham Road built in 1896 by Stephen Piper of Newcastle . This " bold and remarkably simple " church consists of a nave , vestry , bell tower and porch , is built in sandstone and remains in very good condition . Access to the bell tower is by spiral staircase and the staircase and bells are in good order . Of particular note is the church organ ; a Father Willis built organ which has been described as " an utter gem " and " exceptional " .
Deckham 's other church is the Emmanuel Pentecostal Church , a plain , stone building located in a prominent position on the corner of Caris Street and Old Durham Road . Little is documented regarding this church , and the date of building is difficult to ascertain , though the Pentecostal movement in Britain dates to 1907 and the church was certified for the solomnising of marriages as recently as 21 October 1959 . The Church is a member of the Assembly of God denomination of Pentecostalism and hold weekly Sunday worship , a prayer service on Mondays and a children 's group on Wednesdays .
Two more buildings were locally listed as places of special interest by Gateshead Council . These are Carr Hill Clinic at Carr Hill Road / Ilford Place and St Mark 's Methodist Church at Shipcote Terrace .
= = = Venues = = =
Deckham has several public houses . The Plough Inn on Old Durham Road and is evidenced on the ordnance survey map in 1862 where it is shown as ' Speed the Plough ' . The Shakespeare Inn is on Split Crow Road and Mount Pleasant Working Mans Club is described by one official document as " intrusive " though it hosts several local housing discussion groups . The Deckham Inn at the junction of Split Crow Road and Old Durham Road , was closed in the early 21st century and an application to demolish it to make way for residential flats was approved in 2004 . After objections were raised planning approval was rescinded but it was demolished in 2011 .
= = Community facilities = =
There are no libraries in Deckham , though Gateshead Central Library , the largest library in the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead , is nearby . Gateshead Leisure Centre in Shipcote and Saltwell Park are close by .
= = = Deckham Community Centre = = =
The Deckham Community Association was formed in 1979 as a focal point for resident representation within the community . In 1983 , the association moved into its permanent home , the Deckham Community Centre , on Split Crow Road . The centre was gutted by fire in 2002 in an arson attack and was closed for a year for repairs . An open day was held to mark the reopening in May 2003 .
Residents have access to activities such as youth clubs , music tuition and pilates . The association is a registered charity and though fundraising has been a problem the centre is the sole beneficiary of the ' Lee Adamson Memorial Fund ' ; a fundraising trust set up when Adamson , a Deckham resident and volunteer at the centre , died of meningitis in 1998 . By 2011 , the fund had raised around £ 15 @,@ 000 and a plaque was installed in his honour at the centre . It works collaboratively with Route 26 Community Project at the Elgin Centre in Carr Hill , as part of the ' Deckham Cluster ' arrangement .
= = = The Elgin Centre = = =
The Elgin Centre is on Elgin Road at the south – east boundary between Deckham and Carr Hill . Whilst geographically outside Deckham , the centre provides " the key cluster " of community provisions for its residents . These facilities contribute to the regeneration of the suburb .
The facilities are utilized by the Route 26 Community Project ; a registered charity based at the centre which aims to work towards the betterment of lives in Deckham and neighbouring wards . The project works with Gateshead Council and the Gateshead Housing Company to provide a community cafe promoting healthy eating ( the ' T – Junction ' ) , a gymnasium , indoor sports hall , outdoor Five @-@ a @-@ side football pitches and a meeting place for resident groups . The project has education provision for young children as a registered day – care provider and it also offers adult education and training . The project hosts the ' Carnival on the Hill / Deckham Festival ' ; a collaborative enterprise between Route 26 , Gateshead Council and Home Group which offers free activities , such as go @-@ karting and children 's soft play , against the backdrop of a steel band . The second Deckham Festival was held on 3 September 2011 and attracted over one thousand visitors , including Mayor of Gateshead and BBC local weatherman Paul Mooney .
= = Transport = =
The suburb is crossed by the B1296 Old Durham Road , a commuter road and route of the Great North Road before it was diverted through Low Fell on the route of the A167 . Journey time by car or bus to Gateshead town centre is approximately 5 minutes , and 10 – 12 minutes into the centre of Newcastle upon Tyne .
Deckham is in a " metro corridor " so that it is broadly equidistant from Gateshead Metro station and Gateshead Stadium Metro station .
Deckham is on a major bus route into Gateshead ; and Old Durham Road is a " bus priority route " . The suburb is served by several bus services , such as the Fab 56 which continues into Sunderland , the Citylink 57 which terminates at Wardley and the CityLink 58 . It is also part of the Qualyink Q1 / Q2 network . Services to intu MetroCentre and Chester @-@ le @-@ Street also run through and stop in the area . All buses serving Deckham are operated by Go North East under the administration of Nexus .
= = Education = =
South Street Community Primary School at the northern end of Deckham in Cramer Street and caters for pupils in the 3 – 11 age range . The number of pupils eligible for free school meals is well above the national average . In the most recent OFSTED inspection , the nursery provision was praised for enabling children who enter the school with skills below that expected of similarly – aged children nationwide to achieve well through a stimulating and engaging curriculum and the nursery provision was good overall . The primary provision was praised for providing a safe and engaging learning environment in which children are able to progress to a level broadly comparable with children nationally and where pupils are extremely well behaved . In all inspection categories , the primary provision was judged good .
South Street Primary is the only school in Deckham . Some children of primary – school age , particularly those living in the east of Deckham , attend nearby Carr Hill Primary School instead and the majority of children aged 11 – 16 will attend Thomas Hepburn Community Academy in Felling .
Deckham compares unfavourably with the wider Gateshead area in respect of adults with educational qualifications . 43 % of adults have no educational qualifications , compared to 38 @.@ 4 % across the whole of Gateshead and the England average of 28 @.@ 9 % . Only 17 % of adults have five or more GCSE 's or equivalent at A * – C ( compared to 36 @.@ 9 % across Gateshead and 47 @.@ 6 % nationally ) whilst 6 % of adults in the suburb have two or more A @-@ Level 's ( or equivalent ) .
= = = Academic texts = = =
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